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Analgesic
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Adjuvants
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Adjuvants
Certain drugs that have been introduced for uses other than analgesics are also used in pain management. Both first-generation (such as amitriptyline) and newer antidepressants (such as duloxetine) are used alongside NSAIDs and opioids for pain involving nerve damage and similar problems. Other agents directly potentiate the effects of analgesics, such as using hydroxyzine, promethazine, carisoprodol, or tripelennamine to increase the pain-killing ability of a given dose of opioid analgesic.
Adjuvant analgesics, also called atypical analgesics, include orphenadrine, mexiletine, pregabalin, gabapentin, cyclobenzaprine, hyoscine (scopolamine), and other drugs possessing anticonvulsant, anticholinergic, and/or antispasmodic properties, as well as many other drugs with CNS actions. These drugs are used along with analgesics to modulate and/or modify the action of opioids when used against pain, especially of neuropathic origin.
Dextromethorphan has been noted to slow the development of and reverse tolerance to opioids, as well as to exert additional analgesia by acting upon NMDA receptors, as does ketamine. Some analgesics such as methadone and ketobemidone and perhaps piritramide have intrinsic NMDA action.
The anticonvulsant carbamazepine is used to treat neuropathic pain. Similarly, the gabapentinoids gabapentin and pregabalin are prescribed for neuropathic pain, and phenibut is available without prescription. Gabapentinoids work as α2δ-subunit blockers of voltage-gated calcium channels, and tend to have other mechanisms of action as well. Gabapentinoids are all anticonvulsants, which are most commonly used for neuropathic pain, as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation originating from the nervous system.
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Analgesic
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Other uses
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Other uses
Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen- or diclofenac-containing gel (The labeling for topical diclofenac has been updated to warn about drug-induced hepatotoxicity.Voltaren Gel (diclofenac sodium topical gel) 1% – Hepatic Effects Labeling Changes ); capsaicin also is used topically. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. In February 2007 the FDA notified consumers and healthcare professionals of the potential hazards of topical anesthetics entering the bloodstream when applied in large doses to the skin without medical supervision. These topical anesthetics contain anesthetic drugs such as lidocaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, and prilocaine in a cream, ointment, or gel.
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Analgesic
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Uses
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Uses
Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provide pain relief in common conditions such as muscle sprains and overuse injuries. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions.
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Analgesic
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List of drugs with comparison
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List of drugs with comparison
+ Comparison of different analgesics Generic name (INN) Physicochemistry Mechanism of action Routes of administration Pharmacokinetics Indications Major safety concerns Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Unselective agents Aceclofenac Comes in betadex salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in many organic solvents; degrades on contact with light; phenylacetic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. Oral (PO.) Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 4 hours; metabolised to diclofenac (minor); excretion = urine (67%). As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Acemetacin Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in certain organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. Chemically related to indometacin As per diclofenac. PO. Slightly metabolised to indometacin. Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and lower back pain. As per diclofenac. Amfenac No available data. As per diclofenac. PO. No data. Pain and inflammation. As diclofenac. Aminophenazone Related to phenylbutazone. As per diclofenac. PO. Not available. Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. Agranulocytosis and cancer. Ampiroxicam Related to piroxicam. As per diclofenac. PO. No data. Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Photosensitivity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs. Amtolmetin guacil Prodrug to tolmetin. As per diclofenac. PO. No data. As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Aspirin Comes in free form, aluminium and lysine salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 300); highly soluble (1 in 5) in alcohol; degrades on contact with air. Salicylate. Irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and COX-2; hence inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. PO, IM, IV, rectal Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding = 25–95% (inversely dependent on plasma concentration); half life = 2–3 hours, 15–30 hours (higher doses); excretion = 80–100%. Blood thinning; mild-to-moderate pain; fever; rheumatic fever; migraine; rheumatoid arthritis; Kawasaki's disease GI bleeds; ulcers; Reye syndrome; nephrotoxicity; blood dyscrasias (rarely); Stevens–Johnson syndrome (uncommon/rare) Azapropazone Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform, soluble in ethanol; phenylbutazone. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal. No data available. Rheumatoid arthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis. As per diclofenac. Bendazac Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. Chemically related to indometacin. As per acetametacin. Topical, ophthalmologic. N/A Skin conditions (such as contact dermatitis) and cataracts. Hepatotoxicity reported. Benorilate Aspirin-paracetamol ester. Practically insoluble in water, sparingly soluble in ethanol and methanol, soluble in acetone and chloroform. As per aspirin and paracetamol. PO. Unavailable. Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft-tissue rheumatism; mild-moderate pain and fever. As per aspirin and paracetamol. Benzydamine Comes in free acid form; freely soluble in water. As per diclofenac. Topical, PO, rectal, spray and vaginal. No data available. Musculoskeletal disorders; soft-tissue disorders; sore throat. As per diclofenac. Bromfenac Comes in free acid form; phenylacetic acid derivative. Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor. Ophthalmologic. N/A Postoperative pain and inflammation. Corneal ulceration. Bufexamac Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in a few organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition. Topical. No data. Skin disorders. Skin conditions, such as contact dermatitis. Carbasalate Comes in calcium salt form; fairly soluble in water. Is metabolised to aspirin and urea. As per aspirin. Oral. No data. Used for thromboembolic disorders. As per diclofenac. Clonixin Comes in free acid and lysine salt forms. Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibition. PO, IM, IV, rectal. No data. Pain. As per diclofenac. Dexibuprofen D-isomer of ibuprofen. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Bioavailability = ?; protein binding = 99%; metabolism = hepatic via carboxylation and hydroxylation; half-life = 1.8–3.5 hours; excretion = Urine (90%). Osteoarthritis; mild-moderate pain and menstrual pain. As per diclofenac. Diclofenac Comes in sodium, potassium and diethylamine (topically used as a gel) salt forms; sparingly soluble in water but soluble in ethanol. Unstable in the presence of light and air. Indole acetic acid derivative. Reversible COX-1/COX-2 inhibitor. PO and topical. Bioavailability = 50–60%; protein binding = 99–99.8%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1.2–2 hours; excretion = urine (50–70%), faeces (30–35%) Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; inflammatory pain (e.g. period pain); local pain/inflammation (as a gel); actinic keratoses; heavy menstrual bleeding As per aspirin, except without Reye syndrome and with the following additions: myocardial infarctions, strokes and hypertension. More prone to causing these AEs compared to the other non-selective NSAIDs. Diethylamine salicylate Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with light and iron. As per diclofenac. Topical. N/A. Rheumatic and musculoskeletal pain. As per bufexamac. Diflunisal Comes in free acid and arginine salt forms; practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with light. As per diclofenac. PO, IM, IV. Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.11 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 8–12 hours; excretion = urine (90%), faeces (<5%). Pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Epirizole Comes in free form. As per diclofenac. PO. Not available. Rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Ethenzamide Comes in free form; salicylate. As per diclofenac. PO. Not available. Musculoskeletal pain; fever. As per diclofenac. Etofenamate Liquid; practically insoluble in water, miscible with ethyl acetate and methanol. As per diclofenac. Topical. Not available. Musculoskeletal, joint and soft-tissue disorders. As per bufexamac. Felbinac Comes in free and diisopropanolamine salt forms; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in methanol. As per diclofenac. Topical. N/A Musculoskeletal pain and soft tissue injuries. As per bufexamac. Fenbufen Comes as free acid; fairly insoluble in most solvents (including water); propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 10–17 hours. As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Fenoprofen Comes in calcium salt; fairly insoluble in water and chloroform and fairly soluble in alcohol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Bioavailability = ?; protein binding = 99%; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine, faeces. Pain; rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. As per diclofenac. Fentiazac Comes in free form and calcium salt; acetic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. No data. As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Fepradinol Comes in free acid and hydrochloride salt forms. As per diclofenac. Topical. N/A Local inflammatory response. As per bufexamac. Feprazone Comes in free acid and piperazine salt forms. Phenylbutazone. As per diclofenac. PO, Rectal, topical. Not available. As per diclofenac. As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal). Floctafenine Comes in free acid form; anthranilic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. Oral. Extensively metabolised by the liver; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urinary and biliary. Short-term relief from pain. As per diclofenac. Flufenamic acid Comes in free acid form and aluminium salt form; anthranilic acid. As per diclofenac. Topical. N/A Soft tissue inflammation and pain. As per bufexamac. Flurbiprofen Comes in sodium salt and free acid forms; fairly insoluble in water but soluble in ethanol; sensitive to degradation by air. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, IM, IV, ophthalmologic. Bioavailability = 96% (oral); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.12 L/kg; excretion = urine (70%). Ophthalmologic: Vernal keratoconjunctivitis; postoperative ocular swelling; herpetic stromal keratitis, excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy; ocular gingivitis. Systemic use: rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. As per bromfenac (ophthalmologic) and diclofenac (PO/IM/IV). Glucametacin Indometacin derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Not available. Musculoskeletal, joint, peri-articular and soft-tissue disorders. As per diclofenac. Ibuprofen Comes in lysine salt, potassium salt and free acid forms; practically insoluble in water, but soluble in ethanol, acetone, methanol, dichloromethane and chloroform. Degrades in the presence of air. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, IV, topical Bioavailability = 80–100%; protein binding = 90–99%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9 and CYP2C19-mediated oxidation; excretion = Urine (50–60%), faeces. Pain; fever; inflammatory illness; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; heavy menstrual bleeding; patent ductus arteriosus. As per diclofenac, except with lower risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and hypertension. Imidazole salicylate Comes in free form. Salicylate. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal, topical. Not available. Muscular and rheumatic pain. As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal). Indometacin Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and most solvents; sensitive to degradation by light. Acetic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, IV, rectal Bioavailability = 100% (oral); protein binding = 90%; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (60%), faeces (33%). Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; period pain; patent ductus arteriosus. As per diclofenac. Isonixin Comes in free form. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal and topical. Not available. Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. As per bufexamac (topical use) and diclofenac (PO/rectal). Kebuzone Comes in free and sodium salt form; phenylbutazone derivative. As per diclofenac. IM, PO. Not available. As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Ketoprofen Comes in free acid, lysine salt, sodium salt and hydrochloride salt forms; the dex-enantiomer comes in trometamol salt form. Practically insoluble in water; freely soluble in most other solvents. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal, topical, transdermal, intravenous, intramuscular. Bioavailability > 92% (oral), 70–90% (rectal); protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1.5–2 hours (oral), 2.2 hours (rectal), 2 hours (intravenous). Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and superficial sporting injuries (topical use). As per diclofenac. Ketorolac Comes in the trometamol salt form; highly soluble in water. Degrades in the presence of light. Acetic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, IM, IV, intranasal, tromethamine and ophthalmologic. Bioavailability of IM formulation = 100%; protein binding = 99%; hepatic metabolism mostly via glucoronic acid conjugation and p-hydroxylation; half-life = 5–6 hours; excretion = urine (91.4%), faeces (6.1%). Mild-moderate postoperative pain; acute migraine; inflammation of the eye due to cataract surgery or allergic seasonal conjunctivitis; prevention of acute pseudophakic cystoid macular oedema. As per diclofenac. Lornoxicam Hydrochloride salt form used; oxicam derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding = 99%; volume of distribution = 0.2 L/kg; half-life = 3–5 hours; excretion = faeces (51%), urine (42%). Acute and chronic pain. As per diclofenac. Loxoprofen Comes in sodium salt form. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. Topical. N/A Local inflammation and pain. As per diclofenac. Magnesium salicylate Comes in free form; soluble in water and ethanol; salicylate. As per diclofenac. PO. Not available. As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Meclofenamic acid Comes in free acid and sodium salt form, sodium salt is the form used in human medicine; practically insoluble in water (free acid) and freely soluble in water (sodium salt); sensitive to degradation by air and light. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding > 99%; half-life = 2–4 hours; hepatically metabolised via oxidation, hydroxylation, dehalogenation and conjugation with glucuronic acid; excretion = urine, faeces (20–30%). Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; mild-moderate pain; dysmenorrhoea; menorrhagia. As per diclofenac. Mefenamic acid Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades on contact with air and light. Anthranilic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding extensive; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine (66%), faeces (20–25%). Inflammatory pain and heavy menstrual bleeding. As per diclofenac. Mofezolac Comes in free form. As per diclofenac. PO. Not available. Musculoskeletal and joint pain. As per diclofenac. Morniflumate Comes in free acid form; niflumic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal. Not available. Inflammatory conditions. As per diclofenac. Nabumetone Comes in free acid form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone; degrades on contact with air and light. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding = 99%; hepatically metabolised; half-life = 24 hours; excretion = urine (80%), faeces (9%). Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Naproxen Comes in free acid and sodium form; practically insoluble in water in free form, freely soluble in water (sodium salt), fairly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades on contact with air and light. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99.5%; volume of distribution = 10% of bodyweight; half-life = 12–15 hours; excretion = urine (95%), faeces (<3%). Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; juvenile idiopathic arthritis; inflammatory pain; heavy menstrual bleeding. As per diclofenac. less prone to causing thrombotic events compared to other non-selective NSAIDs. Nepafenac Comes in free form; related to amfenac. As per diclofenac. Ophthalmologic. Unavailable. Inflammation and pain following cataract surgery. As per bromfenac. Niflumic acid Comes in free acid form, glycinamide and ethyl ester form; practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, acetone and methanol. Nicotinic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal (ethyl ester, morniflumate). Unavailable. Musculoskeletal, joint and mouth inflammatory disorders. As per diclofenac. Oxaprozin Comes in potassium and free acid forms; degrades upon contact with light. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99.5%; volume of distribution = 0.15–0.25 L/kg; half-life = 50–60 hours; excretion = urine (65), faeces (35%). Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Oxyphenbutazone Comes in free form. Phenylbutazone. As per diclofenac. PO, Ophthalmologic. Unavailable. Ophthalmologic: Episcleritis. Systemic (now seldom used due to adverse effects): ankylosing spondylitis; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. As per bromfenac. For systemic use haematological side effects such as aplastic anaemia; agranulocytosis; leucopenia; neutropenia; etc. Phenazone No data. As per diclofenac. PO, otolaryngologic. Protein binding < 10%; half-life = 12 hours; hepatic metabolised; excretion = urine (primary), faeces. Acute otitis media. Nephrotoxicity and haematologic toxicity and other AEs typical of NSAIDs. Phenylbutazone Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light and air. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal, topical. No data available. Ankylosing spondylitis; acute gout; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. Haematologic toxicity (including agranulocytosis, aplastic anaemia) and AEs typical of NSAIDs. Piketoprofen Comes in free form. As per diclofenac. Topical. N/A. Musculoskeletal, joint, peri-articular and soft-tissue disorders. As per other topical NSAIDs. Piroxicam Comes in free acid and betadex salt forms; practically insoluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol; degrades on contact with air and light. Enolic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, topical. Protein binding = 99%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life = 36–45 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and sports injuries (topical use). As per diclofenac. Proglumetacin Comes in maleate salt form; indometacin derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal, topical. Not available. Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. As per diclofenac. Proquazone Comes in free form. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal. Not available. As per diclofenac. As per diclofenac. Pranoprofen No data. As per diclofenac. PO, ophthalmologic. Not available. Pain, inflammation and fever. As per diclofenac. Salamidacetic acid Comes in sodium and diethylamine salt forms; salicylate. As per diclofenac. PO. Unavailable. Musculoskeletal disorders. As per diclofenac. Salicylamide Fairly insoluble in water and chloroform; soluble in most other organic solvents; salicylate. As per diclofenac. PO, topical. No data. Muscular and rheumatic diseases. As per diclofenac. Salol No data. As per diclofenac. PO, topical. No data. Lower urinary tract infections. As per diclofenac. Salsalate Degrades upon contact with air; salicylate derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Hepatic metabolism; half-life = 7–8 hours; excretion = urine. Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis. As per diclofenac. Sodium salicylate Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with air and light; salicylate. As per diclofenac. PO, IV, topical. No data. Pain, fever and rheumatic conditions. Cardiac problems; otherwise As per diclofenac. Sulindac Comes in free acid and sodium salt forms; practically insoluble in water and hexane, very slightly soluble in most organic solvents. Degrades upon contact with light. Acetic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal. Bioavailability = 90%; protein binding = 93% (sulindac), 98% (active metabolite); hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (50%), faeces (25%). Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; gout; ankylosing spondylitis; inflammatory pain. As per diclofenac. Suxibuzone Practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol and acetone; phenylbutazone. As per diclofenac. PO, topical. No data. Musculoskeletal and joint disorders. As per phenylbutazone. Tenoxicam Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light. As per diclofenac. PO, rectal. Bioavailability = 100% (oral), 80% (rectal); protein binding = 99%; volume of distribution = 0.15 L/kg; half-life = 60–75 hours; excretion = urine (67%), faeces (33%). Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; soft tissue injury. As per diclofenac. Tetridamine No data. As per diclofenac. Vaginal. No data. Vaginitis. As per diclofenac. Tiaprofenic acid Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water but freely soluble in most organic solvents; propionic acid derivative; degrades upon contact with light. Propionic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2–4 hours. Ankylosing spondylitis; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; fibrosis; capsulitis; soft-tissue disorders. As per diclofenac. Tiaramide No data. As per diclofenac. PO. No data. Pain; inflammation. As per diclofenac. Tinoridine No data. As per diclofenac. No data. No data. Pain; inflammation. As per diclofenac. Tolfenamic acid Comes as free acid; practically insoluble in water; degrades upon contact with light; anthranilic acid. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding = 99%; half-life = 2 hours; hepatically metabolised; excretion = urine (90%), faeces. Migraine; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis; dysmenorrhoea. As per diclofenac. Tolmetin Comes in sodium salt form; freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in ethanol, freely soluble in methanol. Acetic acid derivative. As per diclofenac. PO. Protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 7–10 L; half-life = 1 hour; excretion = urine (90%). Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Ufenamate No data. No data. Topical. No data. Inflammatory skin disorders. As per other topical NSAIDs. COX-2 selective inhibitors Celecoxib Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, fairly soluble in organic solvents. Degrades on contact with light and moisture. Sulfonamide. Selective COX-2 inhibitor. PO. Protein binding = 97%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; faeces (57%), urine (27%). Rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis; ankylosing spondylitis; pain due to dysmenorrhoea or injury. As per non-selective NSAIDs. More prone to causing thrombotic events than most of them, however, except diclofenac. Etodolac Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in acetone and dehydrated alcohol. Acetic acid derivative. As per celecoxib. PO. Bioavailability = ?; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.41 L/kg; half-life = 6–7 hours; excretion = urine (73%). Rheumatoid arthritis, including juvenile idiopathic arthritis; osteoarthritis; acute pain. As per diclofenac. Etoricoxib Comes in free form; sulfonamide. As per celecoxib. PO. Bioavailability = 100%; protein binding = 91.4%; volume of distribution = 120 L; half-life = 22 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (70%), faeces (20%). Acute pain; gout; osteoarthritis. As per diclofenac. Lumiracoxib† Comes in free form; acetic acid derivative. As per celecoxib. PO. Bioavailability = 74%; protein binding > 98%; extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9; half-life = 3–6 hours; excretion = Urine (50%), faeces (50%). Osteoarthritis. As above, plus hepatotoxicity. Meloxicam Comes in free form; fairly insoluble in water and in most organic solvents; oxicam derivative. As per celecoxib. PO, rectal. Bioavailability = 89%; protein binding > 99%; volume of distribution = 0.1–0.2 L/kg; half-life = 22–24 hours; extensive hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (45%), faeces (47%). Osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Nimesulide Comes in free and betadex form; practically insoluble in water and ethanol, soluble in acetone. As per celecoxib. PO, rectal, topical. Unavailable. Acute pain; dysmenorrhoea; sprains (topical); tendinitis. As per diclofenac. Parecoxib Comes in sodium salt form; sulfonamide. As per celecoxib. IM, IV. Plasma binding = 98%; volume of distribution = 55 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP3A4; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urine (70%). Postoperative pain. As per diclofenac. Rofecoxib† Comes in free form; sulfonamide. As per celecoxib. PO. Bioavailability = 93%; protein binding = 87%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 17 hours. Acute pain; osteoarthritis; rheumatoid arthritis. As per diclofenac. Valdecoxib† Comes in free form; sulfonamide. As per celecoxib. PO. Bioavailability = 83%; protein binding = 98%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4 and CYP2C9; half-life = 8.11 hours; excretion = urine (90%). Pain from dysmenorrhoea; rheumatoid arthritis; osteoarthritis. As above and also potentially fatal skin reactions (e.g. toxic epidermal necrolysis). Opioids Those with a morphine skeleton Buprenorphine Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, methanol and acetone; degrades upon contact with light. Partial agonist at the mu opioid receptor; agonist at delta opioid receptor; antagonist at kappa opioid receptor. Sublingual, transdermal, IM, IV, intranasal, epidural, SC. Bioavailability = 79% (sublingual); protein binding = 96%: volume of distribution = 97–187 L/kg; half-life = 20–36 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. Opioid dependence, moderate-severe pain. As per codeine, respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect. Codeine Comes in free form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and phosphate salts; soluble in boiling water (free form), freely soluble in ethanol (free form), soluble/freely soluble in water (salt forms); sensitive to degradation by light. Methoxy analogue of morphine. Metabolised to morphine, which activates the opioid receptors. PO, IM, IV. Extensive hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2D6, to morphine; half-life = 3–4 hours; excretion = urine (86%). Mild-moderate pain, often in combination with paracetamol or ibuprofen. Constipation, dependence, sedation, itching, nausea, vomiting and respiratory depression. Diamorphine Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. Diacetyl derivative of morphine. Rapidly hydrolysed to 6-acetylmorphine and then to morphine after crossing the blood-brain barrier which in turn activates the opioid receptors in the CNS. IM, intrathecal, intranasal, PO, IV, SC. Extensively metabolised to morphine with 6-acetylmorphine as a possible intermediate. Mostly excreted in urine. Severe pain (including labour pain); cough due to terminal lung cancer; angina; left ventricular failure. As per codeine. Higher potential for abuse compared to other opioids due to its rapid penetration of the blood-brain barrier. Dihydrocodeine Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, phosphate, polistirex, thiocyanate, tartrate, bitartrate and hydrogen tartrate salt forms; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in organic solvents (hydrogen tartrate salt); degrades upon contact with air and light. Opioid receptor agonist. IM, IV, PO, SC. Bioavailability = 20%; extensive hepatic metabolism, partly via CYP2D6 to dihydromorphine and CYP3A4 to nordihydrocodeine; half-life = 3.5 –5 hours; excretion = urine. Moderate-severe pain; usually in combination with paracetamol and/or aspirin. As per codeine. Ethylmorphine Comes in freebase, hydrochloride, camphorate and camsilate salt forms; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. Opioid receptor ligand. PO. No data. Cough suppressant. As per codeine. Hydrocodone Comes in hydrochloride/tartrate salt form; freely soluble in water, practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light/air. Opioid receptor ligand. PO. Protein binding = 19%; extensively hepatically metabolised, mostly via CYP3A4, but via CYP2D6 to a lesser extent to hydromorphone; half-life = 8 hours; excretion = urine. Chronic pain. As per codeine. Hydromorphone Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, fairly insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with light or temperatures outside 15 °C and 35 °C. Opioid receptor agonist. IM, IV, PO, SC. Bioavailability = 50–62% (oral); protein binding = 8–19%; extensively hepatically metabolised; half-life = 2–3 hours; excretion = urine. Moderate-severe pain; cough. As per codeine. Morphine Comes in freebase form, hydrochloride salt, sulfate salt and tartrate salt forms; soluble in water; degrades in the presence of light. Opioid receptor agonist (μ, δ, κ). IM, intrathecal, PO, IV, SC, rectal. Protein binding = 35%; extensive hepatic metabolism, with some metabolism occur in the gut after oral administration; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine (90%). Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Nicomorphine Dinicotinic acid ester derivative of morphine. As per morphine. IM, IV, PO, rectal, SC. No available data. Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Oxycodone Comes in freebase, hydrochloride and terephthalate salt forms; freely soluble in water and practically insoluble in organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air. Opioid receptor agonist. PO. Bioavailability = 60–87%; protein binding = 45%; volume of distribution = 2.6 L/kg; extensively metabolised in the liver via CYP3A4 and to a lesser extent via CYP2D6 to oxymorphone; half-life = 2–4 hours; excretion = urine (83%). Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Oxymorphone Comes in hydrochloride salt form; fairly soluble in water (1 in 4), practically insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air, light and temperatures outside 15 °C to 30 °C. As per morphine. PO, IM, SC. Bioavailability = 10% (oral); protein binding = 10–12%; volume of distribution = 1.94–4.22 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 7–9 hours, 9–11 hours (XR); excretion = urine, faeces. Postoperative analgesia/anaesthesia; moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Morphinans Butorphanol Comes in tartrate salt form; sparingly soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents; degrades upon contact with air and at temperatures outside the range of 15 °C and 30 °C. Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor partial agonist. IM, IV, intranasal. Bioavailability = 60–70% (intranasal); protein binding = 80%; volume of distribution = 487 L; hepatic metabolism, mostly via hydroxylation; excretion = urine (mostly); half-life = 4.6 hours. Moderate-severe pain, including labour pain. As above, but with a higher propensity for causing hallucinations and delusions. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect. Levorphanol Comes in tartrate salt form; fairly insoluble in water (1 in 50) and fairly insoluble in ethanol, chloroform and ether; unstable outside of 15 °C and 30 °C; phenanthrene derivative. Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist; SNRI. PO, IM, IV, SC. Protein binding = 40%; extensive first-pass metabolism; half-life = 12–16 hours, 30 hours (repeated dosing). Acute/chronic pain. As per codeine. Nalbuphine Comes primarily as its hydrochloride salt. Full agonist at kappa opioid receptors, partial agonist/antagonist at the mu opioid receptors. IM, IV, SC. Protein binding = not significant; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 5 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. Pain; anaesthesia supplement; opioid-induced pruritus. As per codeine. Respiratory depression is subject to ceiling effect. Benzomorphans Dezocine No data available. Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist. IM, IV. Volume of distribution = 9–12 L/kg; half-life = 2.2–2.7 hours. Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Eptazocine Comes as hydrobromide salt. As per morphine. IM, SC. No data. Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Pentazocine Comes in free, hydrochloride and lactate salt forms; fairly insoluble in water (1:30 or less), more soluble in ethanol and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light. Kappa opioid receptor agonist; mu opioid receptor antagonist/partial agonist. IM, IV, SC. Bioavailability = 60–70%; protein binding = 60%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2–3 hours; excretion = urine (primary), faeces. Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Respiratory effects are subject to a ceiling effect. Phenylpiperidines Anileridine Comes in free, hydrochloride and phosphate forms; fairly insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, ether and chloroform; degrades upon contact with air and light. Mu opioid receptor agonist. IM, IV. No data. Moderate-severe pain. As per codeine. Ketobemidone Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water, soluble in ethanol and fairly insoluble in dichloromethane. Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. PO, IM, IV, rectal. Bioavailability = 34% (oral), 44% (rectal); half-life = 2–3.5 hours. Moderate-severe pain. As per other opioids. Pethidine Comes in hydrochloride form; very soluble in water, sparingly soluble in ether, soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light. Mu opioid receptor agonist with some serotonergic effects. IM, IV, PO, SC. Bioavailability = 50–60%; protein binding = 65–75%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 2.5–4 hours; excretion = urine (primarily). Moderate-severe pain. As per other opioids; and seizures, anxiety, mood changes and serotonin syndrome. Open-chain opioids Dextromoramide Comes in tartrate salt and free forms; soluble in water (tartrate salt). Mu opioid. IM, IV, PO, rectal. No data available. Severe pain. As per other opioids. Dextropropoxyphene Comes in free form, hydrochloride and napsilate salt forms; very soluble in water (HCl), practically insoluble in water (napsilate); degrades upon contact with light and air. Mu opioid. PO. Protein binding = 80%; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6–12 hours, 30–36 hours (active metabolite). Mild-moderate pain. As per other opioids, plus ECG changes. Dipipanone Comes in hydrochloride salt form; practically insoluble in water and ether, soluble in acetone and ethanol. Mu opioid. PO, often in combination with cyclizine. Half-life = 20 hours. Moderate-severe pain. Less sedating than morphine, otherwise as per morphine. Levacetylmethadol† Comes in hydrochloride salt form. As above plus nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist. PO. Protein binding = 80%; half-life = 2.6 days. Opioid dependence. As per other opioids, plus ventricular rhythm disorders. Levomethadone Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and alcohol; degrades upon contact with light. Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. PO. No data. As per methadone. As per methadone. Meptazinol Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol, fairly insoluble in acetone; unstable at temperatures greater than 25 °C. Mixed opioid agonist-antagonist, partial agonist at mu-1 receptor; cholinergic actions exist. IM, IV, PO. Bioavailability = 8.69% (oral); protein binding = 27.1%; half-life = 2 hours; excretion = urine. Moderate-severe pain; perioperative analgesia; renal colic. As per pentazocine. Methadone Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water and ethanol; degrades upon contact with air and light and outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C. Mu opioid; NMDA antagonist. IM, IV, PO, SC. Bioavailability = 36–100% (mean: 70–80%); protein binding = 81–97% (mean: 87%); volume of distribution = 1.9-8 L/kg (mean: 4 L/kg); hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4, CYP2B6 and to a lesser extent: CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 & CYP2C8; half-life = 5–130 hours (mean: 20–35 hours); excretion = urine (20–50%), faeces. Opioid addiction; chronic pain. As per other opioids, plus QT interval prolongation. Piritramide Comes in free or tartrate salt forms. Mu opioid. IM, IV, SC. No data available. Severe pain. As per other opioids. Tapentadol Comes in free and hydrochloride salt forms. Mu opioid and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. PO. Bioavailability = 32%; protein binding = 20%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6; excretion = urine (70%), faeces; half-life = 4 hours. Moderate-severe pain. As per other opioids; less likely to cause nausea, vomiting and constipation. Tilidine Comes in hydrochloride salt form; soluble in water, ethanol and dichloromethane; degrades upon contact with light. Mu opioid metabolite, nortilidine. PO. No data. Moderate-severe pain. As per other opioids. Tramadol Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in water and methanol, insoluble in acetone; degrades at temperatures less than 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light. Mu opioid (mostly via its active metabolite, O-desmethyltramadol) and SNRI. IM, IV, PO, rectal. Bioavailability = 70–75% (oral), 100% (IM); protein binding = 20%; hepatic metabolism, via CYP3A4 and CYP2D6; half-life = 6 hours; excretion = urine, faeces. Moderate-severe pain. As per other opioids but with less respiratory depression and constipation. Psychiatric AEs reported. Serotonin syndrome possible if used in conjunction with other serotonergics. Anilidopiperidines Alfentanil Comes in hydrochloride salt form; freely soluble in ethanol, water, methanol; degrades upon contact with air and light. Mu opioid. Epidural, IM, IV, intrathecally. Protein binding = 90%; volume of distribution = small; half-life = 1–2 hours; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; excretion = urine. Procedural anaesthesia. As per other opioids. Very sedating. Fentanyl Comes in free, hydrochloride salt, citrate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (free form), soluble in water (citrate salt form), freely soluble in ethanol and methanol; degrades outside the temperature range of 15 °C and 30 °C and upon contact with light. Mu opioid. Buccal, epidermal, IM, IV, intrathecal, intranasal, SC, sublingual. Bioavailability = 50% (buccal), 89% (intranasal); protein binding = 80%; hepatic metabolism, mostly via CYP3A4; half-life = 219 min; excretion = urine (primary), faeces. Moderate-severe pain (including labour pain); adjunct to anaesthesia. As with other opioids, with less nausea, vomiting, constipation and itching and more sedation. Remifentanil Comes in hydrochloride salt. Mu opioid. IV. Protein binding = 70%; hydrolysed by blood and tissue esterases; half-life = 20 min; excretion = urine (95%). Anaesthesia maintenance. As with fentanyl. Sufentanil Comes in free and citrate salt forms; soluble in water, ethanol and methanol; degrades upon contact with light and temperatures outside 15 °C and 30 °C. Mu opioid. Epidural, IV, intrathecal, transdermal. Protein binding = 90%; half-life = 2.5 hours; excretion = urine (80%). Adjunct to anaesthesia and moderate-severe pain. As with fentanyl. Other analgesics Acetanilide No data. Paracetamol prodrug. PO. No data. Pain; fever. Cancer; AEs of paracetamol. Amitriptyline Comes in free form and in hydrochloride and embonate salt forms; practically insoluble in water (embonate salt), freely soluble in water (HCl); degrades upon contact with light. SNRI. PO. Hepatic metabolism, via CYP2C19, CYP3A4; active metabolite, nortriptyline; half-life = 9–27 hours; excretion = urine (18%), faeces. Neuropathic pain; nocturnal enuresis; major depression; migraine prophylaxis; urinary urge incontinence. Sedation, anticholinergic effects, weight gain, orthostatic hypotension, sinus tachycardia, sexual dysfunction, tremor, dizziness, sweating, agitation, insomnia, anxiety, confusion. Dronabinol Comes in free form; degrades upon contact with light. Cannabinoid receptor partial agonist. PO. Bioavailability = 10–20%; protein binding = 90–99%; volume of distribution = 10 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 25–36 hours, 44–59 hours (metabolites); excretion = faeces (50%), urine (15%). Refractory chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting; anorexia; neuropathic pain. Dizziness, euphoria, paranoia, somnolence, abnormal thinking, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, depression, hallucinations, hypotension, special difficulties, emotional lability, tremors, flushing, etc. Duloxetine Comes in hydrochloride salt form; slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in methanol; degrades upon contact with light. SNRI. PO. Protein binding > 90%; volume of distribution = 3.4 L/kg; hepatic metabolism, via CYP2D6, CYP1A2; half-life = 12 hours; excretion = urine (70%), faeces (20%). Major depression; generalised anxiety disorder; neuropathic pain. Anticholinergic effects, GI effects, yawning, sweating, dizziness, weakness, sexual dysfunction, somnolence, insomnia, headache, tremor, decreased appetite. Flupirtine Comes as maleate salt. Chemically related to retigabine. Potassium channel (Kv7) opener. PO, rectal. Bioavailability = 90% (oral), 72.5% (rectal); protein binding = 80%; volume of distribution = 154 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6.5 hours; excretion = urine (72%). Pain; fibromyalgia; Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Drowsiness, dizziness, heartburn, dry mouth, fatigue and nausea. Gabapentin Comes in free and enacarbil salt forms; fairly insoluble in ethanol, dichoromethane, fairly soluble in water. Binds to the α2δ-1 subunit of voltage gated calcium ion channels in the spinal cord. May also modulate NMDA receptors and protein kinase C. PO. Half-life = 5–7 hours. Neuropathic pain; epilepsy. Fatigue, sedation, dizziness, ataxia, tremor, diplopia, nystagmus, amblyopia, amnesia, abnormal thinking, hypertension, vasodilation, peripheral oedema, dry mouth, weight gain and rash. Milnacipran No data. SNRI. PO. Bioavailability = 85–90%; protein binding = 13%: volume of distribution = 400 L; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 6–8 hours (L-isomer), 8–10 hours (D-isomer); excretion = urine (55%). Fibromyalgia. As per duloxetine, plus hypertension. Nabiximols Contains cannabidiol and dronabinol in roughly equal concentrations. As per dronabinol. Buccal spray. Not available. Neuropathic pain and spasticity as part of MS. As per dronabinol. Nefopam Comes in a hydrochloride salt form. Chemically related to orphenadrine. Unknown; serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. PO, IM. Protein binding = 73%; half-life = 4 hours; excretion = urine, faeces (8%). Analgesia, especially postoperative; hiccups. Has antimuscarinic and sympathomimetic effects. Paracetamol Comes in free form; practically insoluble in water, freely soluble in ethanol; degrades upon contact with moisture, air and light. Multiple; inhibits prostaglandin synthesis in the CNS, an active metabolite, AM404, is an anandamide reuptake inhibitor. PO, IV, IM, rectal. Protein binding = 10–25%; volume of distribution = 1 L/kg; hepatic metabolism; half-life = 1–3 hours; excretion = urine. Analgesia and fever reduction. Hepatotoxicity; hypersensitivity reactions (rare), including Stevens–Johnson syndrome; hypotension (rare; IV). Phenacetin No data. Prodrug to paracetamol. PO. No data. Analgesia and fever reduction. Haematologic, nephrotoxicity, cancer and paracetamol AEs. Pregabalin Comes in free form. As per gabapentin. PO. Bioavailability = 90%; half-life = 6.3 hours; hepatic metabolism; excretion = urine (90%). Neuropathic pain; anxiety; epilepsy. As per gabapentin. Propacetamol Freely soluble in water; degrades upon contact with moisture. Prodrug to paracetamol. IM, IV. No data available. Analgesia and fever reduction. As per paracetamol. Ziconotide Peptide. N-type calcium-channel blocker. Intrathecal. Protein binding = 50%; half-life = 2.9–6.5 hours; excretion = urine (<1%). Chronic pain. CNS toxicity (abnormal gait, abnormal vision, memory problems, etc.); GI effects. Where † indicates products that are no longer marketed.
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Analgesic
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Research
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Research
Some novel and investigational analgesics include subtype-selective voltage-gated sodium channel blockers such as funapide and raxatrigine, as well as multimodal agents such as ralfinamide.
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Analgesic
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See also
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See also
Audioanalgesia
Electroanalgesia
Pain management
Patient-controlled analgesia
Pain in babies
Congenital analgesia (insensitivity to pain)
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Analgesic
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References
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References
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Analgesic
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Citations
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Citations
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Analgesic
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Sources
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Sources
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Category:Pain
Category:Opioids
Category:Agnosia
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Analgesic
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Table of Content
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Short description, Etymology, Classification, Paracetamol (acetaminophen), NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors, Opioids, Alcohol, Cannabis, Combinations, Alternative medicine, Other drugs, Adjuvants, Other uses, Uses, List of drugs with comparison, Research, See also, References, Citations, Sources
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Abiotic stress
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short description
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Abiotic stress is the negative impact of non-living factors on the living organisms in a specific environment. The non-living variable must influence the environment beyond its normal range of variation to adversely affect the population performance or individual physiology of the organism in a significant way.
Whereas a biotic stress would include living disturbances such as fungi or harmful insects, abiotic stress factors, or stressors, are naturally occurring, often intangible and inanimate factors such as intense sunlight, temperature or wind that may cause harm to the plants and animals in the area affected. Abiotic stress is essentially unavoidable. Abiotic stress affects animals, but plants are especially dependent, if not solely dependent, on environmental factors, so it is particularly constraining. Abiotic stress is the most harmful factor concerning the growth and productivity of crops worldwide. Research has also shown that abiotic stressors are at their most harmful when they occur together, in combinations of abiotic stress factors.
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Abiotic stress
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Examples
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Examples
Abiotic stress comes in many forms. The most common of the stressors are the easiest for people to identify, but there are many other, less recognizable abiotic stress factors which affect environments constantly.Palta, Jiwan P. and Farag, Karim. "Methohasds for enhancing plant health, protecting plants from biotic and abiotic stress related injuries and enhancing the recovery of plants injured as a result of such stresses." United States Patent 7101828, September 2006.
The most basic stressors include:
High winds
Extreme temperatures
Drought
Flood
Other natural disasters, such as tornadoes and wildfires.
Cold
Heat
Nutrient deficiency
Lesser-known stressors generally occur on a smaller scale. They include: poor edaphic conditions like rock content and pH levels, high radiation, compaction, contamination, and other, highly specific conditions like rapid rehydration during seed germination.
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Abiotic stress
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Effects
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Effects
Abiotic stress, as a natural part of every ecosystem, will affect organisms in a variety of ways. Although these effects may be either beneficial or detrimental, the location of the area is crucial in determining the extent of the impact that abiotic stress will have. The higher the latitude of the area affected, the greater the impact of abiotic stress will be on that area. So, a taiga or boreal forest is at the mercy of whatever abiotic stress factors may come along, while tropical zones are much less susceptible to such stressors.Wolfe, A. “Patterns of biodiversity.” Ohio State University, 2007.
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Abiotic stress
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Benefits
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Benefits
While abiotic stress may have negative impacts on individual organisms, there are cases where abiotic stress plays an important role in maintaining a healthy ecosystem. Important ecosystem mechanisms and improved overall stress tolerance may rely on occasional low levels of abiotic stress.
One example of a situation where abiotic stress plays a constructive role in an ecosystem is in natural wildfires. Smaller fires are useful in reducing the overall fuel load of an area of forest or prairie. By clearing out dead brush and other organic matter, the risk of catastrophic and widespread fire decreases, and the residual ash of smaller fires helps add nutrients back into the soil. The observed benefits of these smaller and more controlled fires on land usability and species populations have led to the use of prescribed burning by humans for centuries.Johnson, A. Sydney; Hale, Philip E. 2002. The historical foundations of prescribed burning for wildlife: a southeastern perspective. In: Ford, W. Mark; Russell, Kevin R.; Moorman, Christopher E., eds. Proceedings: the role of fire for nongame wildlife management and community restoration: traditional uses and new directions. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-288. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 11-23. Varying perspectives on the benefits and risks of fire to ecosystems have influenced official policy through history. The U.S. Forest Service, initially focused on fire control, changed its policy to one of fire management in 1974, recognizing these fires as a natural part of an ecosystem. There is also evidence that a diverse fire history between patches of land within an area has been shown to benefit transitional landscapes between savanna and forest. Even though it is healthy for an ecosystem, a wildfire can still be considered an abiotic stressor, because it puts stress on individual organisms within the area. On the larger scale, though, natural wildfires are positive manifestations of abiotic stress.
What also needs to be taken into account when looking for benefits of abiotic stress, is that one phenomenon may not affect an entire ecosystem in the same way. While a flood will kill most plants living low on the ground in a certain area, if there is rice there, it will thrive in the wet conditions. Another example of this is in phytoplankton and zooplankton. The same types of conditions are usually considered stressful for these two types of organisms. They act very similarly when exposed to ultraviolet light and most toxins, but at elevated temperatures the phytoplankton reacts negatively, while the thermophilic zooplankton reacts positively to the increase in temperature. The two may be living in the same environment, but an increase in temperature of the area would prove stressful only for one of the organisms.
Lastly, abiotic stress has enabled species to grow, develop, and evolve, through the process of natural selection. Heritable traits that improve an organism's resiliency under stressed conditions increase the likelihood that the organism will survive and reproduce, enabling it to pass these traits to the next generation. Both plants and animals have evolved mechanisms allowing them to survive extremes.
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Abiotic stress
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Detriments
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Detriments
One of the detriments concerning abiotic stress involves farming. It has been claimed by one study that abiotic stress causes the most crop loss of any other factor and that most major crops are reduced in their yield by more than 50% from their potential yield.
Because abiotic stress is widely considered a detrimental effect, the research on this branch of the issue is extensive. For more information on the harmful effects of abiotic stress, see the sections below on plants and animals.
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Abiotic stress
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In plants
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In plants
A plant's first line of defense against abiotic stress is in its roots. If the soil holding the plant is healthy and biologically diverse, the plant will have a higher chance of surviving stressful conditions.
The plant responses to stress are dependent on the tissue or organ affected by the stress. For example, transcriptional responses to stress are tissue or cell specific in roots and are quite different depending on the stress involved.
One of the primary responses to abiotic stress such as high salinity is the disruption of the Na+/K+ ratio in the cytoplasm of the plant cell. High concentrations of Na+, for example, can decrease the capacity for the plant to take up water and also alter enzyme and transporter functions. Evolved adaptations to efficiently restore cellular ion homeostasis have led to a wide variety of stress tolerant plants.
Facilitation, or the positive interactions between different species of plants, is an intricate web of association in a natural environment. It is how plants work together. In areas of high stress, the level of facilitation is especially high as well. This could possibly be because the plants need a stronger network to survive in a harsher environment, so their interactions between species, such as cross-pollination or mutualistic actions, become more common to cope with the severity of their habitat.
Plants also adapt very differently from one another, even from a plant living in the same area. When a group of different plant species was prompted by a variety of different stress signals, such as drought or cold, each plant responded uniquely. Hardly any of the responses were similar, even though the plants had become accustomed to exactly the same home environment.
thumb|Sunflowers are hyperaccumulator plants that can absorb large amount of metal.
Serpentine soils (media with low concentrations of nutrients and high concentrations of heavy metals) can be a source of abiotic stress. Initially, the absorption of toxic metal ions is limited by cell membrane exclusion. Ions that are absorbed into tissues are sequestered in cell vacuoles. This sequestration mechanism is facilitated by proteins on the vacuole membrane. An example of plants that adapt to serpentine soil are Metallophytes, or hyperaccumulators, as they are known for their ability to absorbed heavy metals using the root-to-shoot translocation (which it will absorb into shoots rather than the plant itself). They're also extinguished for their ability to absorb toxic substances from heavy metals.
Chemical priming has been proposed to increase tolerance to abiotic stresses in crop plants. In this method, which is analogous to vaccination, stress-inducing chemical agents are introduced to the plant in brief doses so that the plant begins preparing defense mechanisms. Thus, when the abiotic stress occurs, the plant has already prepared defense mechanisms that can be activated faster and increase tolerance. Prior exposure to tolerable doses of biotic stresses such as phloem-feeding insect infestation have also been shown to increase tolerance to abiotic stresses in plant
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Abiotic stress
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Impact on food production
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Impact on food production
Abiotic stress mostly affects plants used in agriculture. Some examples of adverse conditions (which may be caused by climate change) are high or low temperatures, drought, salinity, and toxins.
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a classic example. Rice is a staple food throughout the world, especially in China and India. Rice plants can undergo different types of abiotic stresses, like drought and high salinity. These stress conditions adversely affect rice production. Genetic diversity has been studied among several rice varieties with different genotypes, using molecular markers.
Chickpea production is affected by drought. Chickpeas are one of the most important foods in the world.
Wheat is another major crop that is affected by drought: lack of water affects the plant development, and can wither the leaves.
Maize crops can be affected by high temperature and drought, leading to the loss of maize crops due to poor plant development.
Soybean is a major source of protein, and its production is also affected by drought.
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Abiotic stress
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Salt stress in plants
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Salt stress in plants
Soil salinization, the accumulation of water-soluble salts to levels that negatively impact plant production, is a global phenomenon affecting approximately 831 million hectares of land.Martinez-Beltran J, Manzur CL. (2005). Overview of salinity problems in the world and FAO strategies to address the problem. Proceedings of the international salinity forum, Riverside, California, April 2005, 311–313. More specifically, the phenomenon threatens 19.5% of the world's irrigated agricultural land and 2.1% of the world's non-irrigated (dry-land) agricultural lands. High soil salinity content can be harmful to plants because water-soluble salts can alter osmotic potential gradients and consequently inhibit many cellular functions.Zhu, J.-K. (2001). Plant Salt Stress. eLS. For example, high soil salinity content can inhibit the process of photosynthesis by limiting a plant's water uptake; high levels of water-soluble salts in the soil can decrease the osmotic potential of the soil and consequently decrease the difference in water potential between the soil and the plant's roots, thereby limiting electron flow from H2O to P680 in Photosystem II's reaction center.Lu. Congming, A. Vonshak. (2002). Effects of salinity stress on photosystem II function in cyanobacterial Spirulina platensis cells. Physiol. Plant 114 405-413.
Over generations, many plants have mutated and built different mechanisms to counter salinity effects. A good combatant of salinity in plants is the hormone ethylene. Ethylene is known for regulating plant growth and development and dealing with stress conditions. Many central membrane proteins in plants, such as ETO2, ERS1 and EIN2, are used for ethylene signaling in many plant growth processes. Mutations in these proteins can lead to heightened salt sensitivity and can limit plant growth. The effects of salinity has been studied on Arabidopsis plants that have mutated ERS1, ERS2, ETR1, ETR2 and EIN4 proteins. These proteins are used for ethylene signaling against certain stress conditions, such as salt and the ethylene precursor ACC is used to suppress any sensitivity to the salt stress.
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Abiotic stress
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Phosphate starvation in plants
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Phosphate starvation in plants
Phosphorus (P) is an essential macronutrient required for plant growth and development, but it is present only in limited quantities in most of the world's soil. Plants use P mainly in the form of soluble inorganic phosphates (PO4−−−) but are subject to abiotic stress when there is not enough soluble PO4−−− in the soil. Phosphorus forms insoluble complexes with Ca and Mg in alkaline soils and with Al and Fe in acidic soils that make the phosphorus unavailable for plant roots. When there is limited bioavailable P in the soil, plants show extensive symptoms of abiotic stress, such as short primary roots and more lateral roots and root hairs to make more surface available for phosphate absorption, exudation of organic acids and phosphatase to release phosphates from complex P–containing molecules and make it available for growing plants' organs. It has been shown that PHR1, a MYB-related transcription factor, is a master regulator of P-starvation response in plants. PHR1 also has been shown to regulate extensive remodeling of lipids and metabolites during phosphorus limitation stress
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Abiotic stress
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Drought stress
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Drought stress
Drought stress, defined as naturally occurring water deficit, is a main cause of crop losses in agriculture. This is because water is essential for many fundamental processes in plant growth. It has become especially important in recent years to find a way to combat drought stress. A decrease in precipitation and consequent increase in drought are extremely likely in the future due to an increase in global warming. Plants have come up with many mechanisms and adaptations to try and deal with drought stress. One of the leading ways that plants combat drought stress is by closing their stomata. A key hormone regulating stomatal opening and closing is abscisic acid (ABA). Synthesis of ABA causes the ABA to bind to receptors. This binding then affects the opening of ion channels, thereby decreasing turgor pressure in the stomata and causing them to close. Recent studies by Gonzalez-Villagra, et al., have shown how ABA levels increased in drought-stressed plants (2018). They showed that when plants were placed in a stressful situation, they produced more ABA to try to conserve any water they had in their leaves. Another extremely important factor in dealing with drought stress and regulating the uptake and export of water is aquaporins (AQPs). AQPs are integral membrane proteins that make up channels. These channels' main job is the transport of water and other essential solutes. AQPs are both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally regulated by many different factors such as ABA, GA3, pH and Ca2+; and the specific levels of AQPs in certain parts of the plant, such as roots or leaves, helps to draw as much water into the plant as possible. By understanding the mechanisms of both AQPs and the hormone ABA, scientists will be better able to produce drought-resistant plants in the future.
A study by Tombesi et al., found that plants which had previously been exposed to drought were able to minimize water loss and decrease water use. They found that plants which were exposed to drought conditions actually changed the way they regulated their stomata and what they called "hydraulic safety margin" so as to decrease the vulnerability of the plant. By changing the regulation of stomata and subsequently the transpiration, plants were able to function better when less water was available.
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Abiotic stress
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In animals
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In animals
For animals, the most stressful of all the abiotic stressors is heat. This is because many species are unable to regulate their internal body temperature. Even in the species that are able to regulate their own temperature, it is not always a completely accurate system. Temperature determines metabolic rates, heart rates, and other very important factors within the bodies of animals, so an extreme temperature change can easily distress the animal's body. Animals can respond to extreme heat, for example, through natural heat acclimation or by burrowing into the ground to find a cooler space.
It is also possible to see in animals that a high genetic diversity is beneficial in providing resiliency against harsh abiotic stressors. This acts as a sort of stock room when a species is plagued by the perils of natural selection. A variety of galling insects are among the most specialized and diverse herbivores on the planet, and their extensive protections against abiotic stress factors have helped the insect in gaining that position of honor.
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Abiotic stress
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In endangered species
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In endangered species
Biodiversity is determined by many things, and one of them is abiotic stress. If an environment is highly stressful, biodiversity tends to be low. If abiotic stress does not have a strong presence in an area, the biodiversity will be much higher.
This idea leads into the understanding of how abiotic stress and endangered species are related. It has been observed through a variety of environments that as the level of abiotic stress increases, the number of species decreases. This means that species are more likely to become population threatened, endangered, and even extinct, when and where abiotic stress is especially harsh.
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Abiotic stress
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Effects of anthropogenic climate change on abiotic stress
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Effects of anthropogenic climate change on abiotic stress
Data suggests that anthropogenic activity has increased the global temperature, and likely increased the odds of extreme climate events such as drought, fire conditions and flooding. Threats to organisms and ecosystem biodiversity due to increased abiotic stress are one major impact of this change. The effects of climate change on biomes vary due to the location, patterns of precipitation, and the organisms which inhabit them. On the species level, the increased abiotic stress due to climate change can lead to adaptations which increase a species' reproductive success under these conditions. However, such highly specialized adaptations may leave species vulnerable to other stresses.
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Abiotic stress
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See also
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See also
Ecophysiology
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Abiotic stress
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References
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References
Category:Stress (biological and psychological)
Category:Biodiversity
Category:Habitat
Category:Agriculture
Category:Botany
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Abiotic stress
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Table of Content
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short description, Examples, Effects, Benefits, Detriments, In plants, Impact on food production, Salt stress in plants, Phosphate starvation in plants, Drought stress, In animals, In endangered species, Effects of anthropogenic climate change on abiotic stress, See also, References
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Accusative case
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Short description
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In grammar, the accusative case (abbreviated ) of a noun is the grammatical case used to receive the direct object of a transitive verb.
In the English language, the only words that occur in the accusative case are pronouns: "me", "him", "her", "us", "whom", and "them". For example, the pronoun she, as the subject of a clause, is in the nominative case ("She wrote a book"); but if the pronoun is instead the object of the verb, it is in the accusative case and she becomes her ("Fred greeted her").Huddleston, Rodney. Pullum, Geoffrey. A Student's Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge University Press. 2015. P. 106. For compound direct objects, it would be, e.g., "Fred invited her and me to the party".
The accusative case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) prepositions. It is usually combined with the nominative case (for example in Latin).
The English term, "accusative", derives from the Latin , which, in turn, is a translation of the Greek . The word can also mean "causative", and that might have derived from the Greeks, but the sense of the Roman translation has endured and is used in some other modern languages as the grammatical term for this case, for example in Russian ().
The accusative case is typical of early Indo-European languages and still exists in some of them (including Albanian, Armenian, Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, German, Nepali, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian), in the Finno-Ugric languages (such as Finnish and Hungarian), in all Turkic languages, in Dravidian languages like Malayalam and Tamil, and in Semitic languages (such as Arabic). Some Balto-Finnic languages, such as Finnish, have two cases for objects, the accusative and the partitive case. In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both do the accusative function, but the accusative object is telic, while the partitive is not.
Modern English almost entirely lacks declension in its nouns; pronouns, however, have an understood case usage, as in them, her, him and whom, which merges the accusative and dative functions, and originates in old Germanic dative forms (see Declension in English).
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Accusative case
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Example
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Example
In the sentence The man sees the dog, the dog is the direct object of the verb "to see". In English, which has mostly lost grammatical cases, the definite article and noun – "the dog" – remain the same noun form without number agreement in the noun either as subject or object, though an artifact of it is in the verb and has number agreement, which changes to "sees". One can also correctly use "the dog" as the subject of a sentence: "The dog sees the cat."
In a declined language, the morphology of the article or noun changes with gender agreement. For example, in German, "the dog" is . This is the form in the nominative case, used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German – (The man sees the dog). In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from to in the accusative case.
In Nepali, "Rama sees Shyama" would be translated as The same sentence in Sanskrit would be .
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Accusative case
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Latin
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Latin
The accusative case in Latin has minor differences from the accusative case in Proto-Indo-European.
Nouns in the accusative case () can be used:
as a direct object;
to qualify duration of time, e.g., , "for many years"; , "for 200 years"; this is known as the accusative of duration of time,
to qualify direction towards which e.g., , "homewards"; , "to Rome" with no preposition needed; this is known as the accusative of place to which, and is equivalent to the lative case found in some other languages.
as the subject of an indirect statement with the verb as an infinitive, (e.g. , "He said that I had been cruel"; in later Latin works, such as the Vulgate, such a phrasing is replaced by and a regularly ordered sentence, having the subject in the nominative and the verb in the indicative mood, e.g., ).
with case-specific prepositions such as (through), (to/toward), and (across);
in exclamations, such as , "wretched me" (spoken by Circe to Ulysses in Ovid's );
to qualify purpose, e.g., , "for the purpose of departing"; , "for the purpose of weakening [or, effeminating] the spirit".
For the accusative endings, see Latin declensions.
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Accusative case
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German
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German
The accusative case is used for the direct object in a sentence. The masculine forms for German articles, e.g., "the", "a/an", "my", etc., change in the accusative case: they always end in -en. The feminine, neutral and plural forms do not change.
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Definite article (the) Indefinite article (a/an)
For example, (dog) is a masculine () word, so the article changes when used in the accusative case:
. (lit., I have a dog.) In the sentence, "a dog" is in the accusative case as it is the second idea (the object) of the sentence.
Some German pronouns also change in the accusative case.
The accusative case is also used after particular German prepositions. These include , , , , , , after which the accusative case is always used, and , , , , , , , , which can govern either the accusative or the dative. The latter prepositions take the accusative when motion or action is specified (being done into/onto the space), but take the dative when location is specified (being done in/on that space). These prepositions are also used in conjunction with certain verbs, in which case it is the verb in question which governs whether the accusative or dative should be used.
Adjective endings also change in the accusative case. Another factor that determines the endings of adjectives is whether the adjective is being used after a definite article (the), after an indefinite article (a/an) or without any article before the adjective (many green apples).
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Definite article Indefinite article No article
In German, the accusative case is also used for some adverbial expressions, mostly temporal ones, as in (This evening I'm staying at home), where is marked as accusative, although not a direct object.
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Accusative case
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Russian
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Russian
In Russian, accusative is used not only to display the direct object of an action, but also to indicate the destination or goal of motion. It is also used with some prepositions. The prepositions and can both take accusative in situations where they are indicating the goal of a motion.
In the masculine, Russian also distinguishes between animate and inanimate nouns with regard to the accusative; only the animates carry a marker in this case.
The PIE accusative case has nearly eroded in Russian, merging with the genitive or the nominative in most declensions. Only singular first-declension nouns (ending in '', '', or '') have a distinct accusative ('', '', or '').
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Accusative case
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Finnish
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Finnish
According to the traditional Finnish grammar, the accusative case is used for a total object, while the partitive case is used for a partial object. The accusative is identical to either the nominative case or the genitive case, except for personal pronouns and the personal interrogative pronoun /, which have a special accusative form ending in .
The major new Finnish grammar, , deviates from the traditional classification to limit the accusative case to the special case of personal pronouns and /. This grammar considers other total objects as being in the nominative or genitive case.
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Accusative case
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Hungarian
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Hungarian
The accusative case is assigned to the direct object in a sentence in Hungarian. The accusative marker is always , often preceded by a linking vowel to facilitate pronunciation.
Every personal pronoun has an accusative form.
+EnglishHungarianNominativeAccusativeNominativeAccusative1st person singularIme2nd person singularyou3rd person singularPersonhe/she/theyhim/her/themObjectit1st person pluralweus2nd person pluralyou3rd person pluralPersontheythemObject
For the Hungarian 1st and 2nd person singular accusative forms, the pronoun can often be dropped if it is clear from the context who the speaker is referring to.
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Accusative case
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Semitic languages
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Semitic languages
Accusative case marking existed in Proto-Semitic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic. It is preserved today in many Semitic languages as Modern Standard Arabic, Hebrew and Ge'ez.
Accusative in Akkadian
Nominative: (a/the man)
Accusative: (I trust a/the man)
Accusative in Arabic
The accusative case is called in Arabic () and it has many other uses in addition to marking the object of a verb.
Accusative in Hebrew
In Hebrew, if the object of the sentence is a pronoun (e.g., I, you, s/he) and the transitive verb requires a direct object, the word is combined with the pronoun into an object pronoun.
The combined words are:
me:
you (singular): (M); (F)
him:
her:
we:
you (plural): (M); (F)
them: (M); (F)
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Accusative case
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Japanese
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Japanese
In Japanese, cases are marked by placing particles after nouns. The accusative case is marked with (, pronounced ).
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Accusative case
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Korean
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Korean
In Korean, the accusative case is marked with or . The postpositions depend on a word's last syllable. For example:
나는 게임을 했다.
나는 숙제를 했다.
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Accusative case
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Turkish
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Turkish
In Turkish, cases are marked with suffixes. The accusative case is marked with the suffixes , depending on vowel harmony. If a word ends in a vowel, is added before the suffix as a buffer consonant.
The accusative is only used if the direct object of a sentence is definite. If it is indefinite, the nominative case is used. For example:
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Accusative case
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Malayalam
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Malayalam
In Malayalam, the accusative inflection is achieved using the suffix /-e/. Example: /raman/ → /ramane/. The sandhi also play a role here depending on the ending of the noun. Example: /maram/ → /maratte/ where /tt/ replaces /m/ when /e/ is suffixed.
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Accusative case
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See also
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See also
Morphosyntactic alignment
Nota accusativi
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Accusative case
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References
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References
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Accusative case
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Further reading
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Further reading
Category:Grammatical cases
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Accusative case
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Table of Content
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Short description, Example, Latin, German, Russian, Finnish, Hungarian, Semitic languages, Japanese, Korean, Turkish, Malayalam, See also, References, Further reading
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Apostolic succession
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Short description
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thumb|The Episcopal consecration of Deodatus; (1580–1630)
Apostolic succession is the method whereby the ministry of the Christian Church is considered by some Christian denominations to be derived from the apostles by a continuous succession, which has usually been associated with a claim that the succession is through a series of bishops. Those of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Scandinavian Lutheran, Anglican, Moravian, Hussite, and Old Catholic traditions maintain that a bishop's orders are neither regular nor valid without consecration through apostolic succession. These traditions do not always consider the episcopal consecrations of all of the other traditions as valid.
This series was seen originally as that of the bishops of a particular see founded by one or more of the apostles. According to historian Justo L. González, apostolic succession is generally understood today as meaning a series of bishops, regardless of see, each consecrated by other bishops, themselves consecrated similarly in a succession going back to the apostles. According to the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, "apostolic succession" means more than a mere transmission of powers. It is succession in a church which witnesses to the apostolic faith, in communion with the other churches, witnesses of the same apostolic faith. The "see (cathedra) plays an important role in inserting the bishop into the heart of ecclesial apostolicity", but once ordained, the bishop becomes in his church the guarantor of apostolicity and becomes a successor of the apostles.
Those who hold for the importance of apostolic succession via episcopal laying on of hands appeal to the New Testament which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession, from Paul to Timothy and Titus, for example. They appeal as well to other documents of the early Church, especially the Epistle of Clement.Adam, Karl. The Spirit of Catholicism. Doubleday, 1957 p. 20 In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles appointed bishops as successors and directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the Great Church and state church of the Roman Empire, up to AD 431, before it was divided into the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church.
Some Christians, including many Protestants, deny the need for this type of continuity and severely question the historical claims involved; Anglican academic Eric G. Jay comments that the account given of the emergence of the episcopate in Chapter III of the dogmatic constitution Lumen gentium (1964) "is very sketchy, and many ambiguities in the early history of the Christian ministry are passed over".Jay, Eric G. The Church: its changing image through twenty centuries. John Knox Press: 1980, p.316f
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Apostolic succession
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Definitions
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Definitions
Michael Ramsey, an English Anglican bishop and the Archbishop of Canterbury (1961–1974), described three meanings of "apostolic succession":
One bishop succeeding another in the same see meant that there was a continuity of teaching: "while the Church as a whole is the vessel into which the truth is poured, the Bishops are an important organ in carrying out this task".
The bishops were also successors of the apostles in that "the they performed of preaching, governing and ordaining were the same as the Apostles had performed".
It is also used to signify that "grace is transmitted from the Apostles by each generation of bishops through the imposition of hands".
He adds that this last has been controversial in that it has been claimed that this aspect of the doctrine is not found before the time of Augustine of Hippo, while others allege that it is implicit in the Church of the second and third centuries.Ramsey, Arthur Michael. The Gospel and the Catholic Church (translated from the Spanish edition published in the Dominican Republic: 1964, pp.134ff)
In its 1982 statement on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, the Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches stated that "the primary manifestation of apostolic succession is to be found in the apostolic tradition of the Church as a whole. ... Under the particular historical circumstances of the growing Church in the early centuries, the succession of bishops became one of the ways, together with the transmission of the Gospel and the life of the community, in which the apostolic tradition of the Church was expressed." It spoke of episcopal succession as something that churches that do not have bishops can see "as a sign, though not a guarantee, of the continuity and unity of the Church" and that all churches can see "as a sign of the apostolicity of the life of the whole church".Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, 38
The Porvoo Common Statement (1996), agreed to by the Anglican churches of the British Isles and most of the Lutheran churches of Scandinavia and the Baltic, echoed the Munich (1982) and Finland (1988) statements of the Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church by stating that "the continuity signified in the consecration of a bishop to episcopal ministry cannot be divorced from the continuity of life and witness of the diocese to which he is called"., sec. 49
Some Anglicans, in addition to other Protestants, held that apostolic succession "may also be understood as a continuity in doctrinal teaching from the time of the apostles to the present".Donald S. Armentrout, Robert Boak Slocum (1999). An Episcopal Dictionary of the Church. Church Publishing. . p. 25 For example, the British Methodist Conference locates the "true continuity" with the Church of past ages in "the continuity of Christian experience, the fellowship in the gift of the one Spirit; in the continuity in the allegiance to one Lord, the continued proclamation of the message; the continued acceptance of the mission".Jay, Eric G. The Church: its changing image through twenty centuries. John Knox Press: 1980, p.228f
The teaching of the Second Vatican Council on apostolic successionessentially Lumen gentium, 19–21 has been summed up as follows:
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Apostolic succession
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In the early Fathers
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In the early Fathers
According to International Theological Commission (ITC), conflicts could not always be avoided between individuals among the New Testament communities; Paul appealed to his apostolic authority when there was a disagreement about the Gospel or principles of Christian life. How the development of apostolic government proceeded is difficult to say accurately because of the paucity of relevant documents. ITC says that the apostles or their closest assistants or their successors directed the local colleges of episkopoi and presbyteroi by the end of the first century; while by the beginning of the second century the figure of a single bishop, as the head of the communities, appears explicitly in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch ( 35-107). In the Epistle to the Smyrnaeans, Ignatius wrote about three degrees ministry:
Ramsey says that the doctrine was formulated in the second century in the first of the three senses given by him, originally as a response to Gnostic claims of having received secret teaching from Christ or the apostles; it emphasised the public manner in which the apostles had passed on authentic teaching to those whom they entrusted with the care of the churches they founded and that these in turn had passed it on to their successors. Ramsey argues that only later was it given a different meaning, a process in which Augustine (Bishop of Hippo Regis, 395–430) played a part by emphasising the idea of "the link from consecrator to consecrated whereby the grace of order was handed on".Ramsey, Arthur Michael. From Gore to Temple. Longmans (1959)
Writing in about AD 94, Clement of Rome states that the apostles appointed successors to continue their work where they had planted churches and for these in their turn to do the same because they foresaw the risk of discord: "Our Apostles, too, by the instruction of our Lord Jesus Christ, knew that strife would arise concerning the dignity of a bishop; and on this account, having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the above-mentioned as bishops and deacons: and then gave a rule of succession, in order that, when they had fallen asleep, other men, who had been approved, might succeed to their ministry." According to Anglican Eric G. Jay, the interpretation of his writing is disputed, but it is clear that he supports some sort of approved continuation of the ministry exercised by the apostles which in its turn was derived from Christ.Jay, Eric G. The Church, John Knox Press (1978). p.31ff citing Ad Cor. xliiff
Hegesippus (180?) and Irenaeus (180) introduce explicitly the idea of the bishop's succession in office as a guarantee of the truth of what he preached in that it could be traced back to the apostles,Woollcombe, K.J. "The Ministry and the Order of the Church in the Works of the Fathers" in The Historic Episcopate. Kenneth M. Carey(ed) Dacre Press (1954) p.31f and they produced succession lists to back this up. That this succession depended on the fact of ordination to a vacant see and the status of those who administered the ordination is seldom commented on. Woollcombe also states that no one questioned the apostolicity of the See of Alexandria despite the fact that its popes were consecrated by the college of presbyters up till the time of the Council of Nicaea in 325. On the contrary, other sources clearly state that Mark the Evangelist is the first bishop of Alexandria (Pope of Alexandria); then he ordained Annianus as his successor bishop (2nd Pope) as told by Eusebius.Historia Ecclesiastica 2.24.1
James F. Puglisi, director of Centro Pro Unione, made a conclusion about Irenaeus' writings: "the terms episkopos and presbyteros are interchangeable, but the term episkopos [bishop] is applied to the person who is established in every Church by the apostles and their successors". According to Eric G. Jay, Irenaeus also refers to a succession of presbyters who preserve the tradition "which originates from the apostles"Jay, Eric G. The Church, John Knox Press (1978). p.47f citing Adv. Haer. III.ii.2 and IV.xxvi.2 respectively and later goes on to speak of their having "an infallible gift of truth" [charisma veritatis certum]. Jay comments that this is sometimes seen as an early reference to the idea of the transmission of grace through the apostolic succession which in later centuries was understood as being specifically transmitted through the laying on of hands by a bishop within the apostolic succession (the "pipeline theory"). He warns that this is open to the grave objection that it makes grace a (quasi)material commodity and represents an almost mechanical method of imparting what is by definition a free gift. He adds that the idea cannot be squeezed out of Irenaeus' words.
Writing a little later, Tertullian makes the same main point but adds expressly that recently founded churches (such as his own in Carthage) could be considered apostolic if they had "derived the tradition of faith and the seeds of doctrine" from an apostolic church.Jay, Eric G. The Church, John Knox Press (1978). p.51 citing De Praescr. xx,xxi His disciple, Cyprian (Bishop of Carthage 248–58) appeals to the same fundamental principle of election to a vacant see in the aftermath of the Decian Persecution when denying the legitimacy of his rigorist rival in Carthage and that of the anti-pope Novatian in Rome.Jay, Eric G. The Church, John Knox Press (1978). p.67f
The emphasis is now on legitimating Cyprian's episcopal ministry as a whole and specifically his exclusive right to administer discipline to the lapsed rather than on the content of what is taught. Cyprian also laid great emphasis on the fact that any minister who broke with the Church lost ipso facto the gift of the Spirit which had validated his orders. This meant that the minister would have no power or authority to celebrate an efficacious sacrament.Woollcombe, K.J. "The Ministry and the Order of the Church in the Works of the Fathers" in The Historic Episcopate Kenneth M. Carey(ed) Dacre Press (1954) pp. 56–7
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Apostolic succession
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As transmission of grace
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As transmission of grace
For the adherents of this understanding of apostolic succession, grace is transmitted during episcopal consecrations (the ordination of bishops) by the laying on of hands of bishops previously consecrated within the apostolic succession. They hold that this lineage of ordination derives from the Twelve Apostles, thus making the Church the continuation of the early Apostolic Christian community. They see it as one of four elements that define the true Church of Jesus Christ,Oskar Sommel, Rudolf Stählin Christliche Religion, Frankfurt 1960, p.19 and legitimize the ministry of its clergy, since only a bishop within the succession can perform valid ordinations and only bishops and presbyters (priests) ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession can validly celebrate (or "confect") several of the other sacraments, including the Eucharist, reconciliation of penitents, confirmation and anointing of the sick. Everett Ferguson argued that Hippolytus, in Apostolic Tradition 9, is the first known source to state that only bishops have the authority to ordain; and normally at least three bishops were required to ordain another bishop.First Council of Nicaea, can. 4 Cyprian also asserts that "if any one is not with the bishop, he is not in the church".Ep. 66.9
This position was stated by John Henry Newman, before his conversion from Anglicanism to Roman Catholicism, in Tracts for the Times:
We [priests of the Church of England] have been born, not of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but of God. The Lord Jesus Christ gave His Spirit to His Apostles; they in turn laid their hands on those who should succeed them; and these again on others; and so the sacred gift has been handed down to our present bishops, who have appointed us as their assistants, and in some sense representatives. ... we must necessarily consider none to be ordained who have not been ordained.
Ferguson, in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, says that example of James and the elders (presbyters) of the Jerusalem Church (Acts 21:18) may have provided a model for the development of 'monepiscopacy', in which James' position has figured conspicuously in modern theories about the rise of the monepiscopacy. Raymond E. Brown says that in the earlier stage (before the third century and perhaps earlier) there were plural bishops or overseers ("presbyter-bishops") in an individual community; in the later stage changed to only one bishop per community. Little is known about how the early bishops were formally chosen or appointed; afterwards the Church developed a regularized pattern of selection and ordination of bishops, and from the third century on that was universally applied. Brown asserts that the ministry was not ordained by the Church to act on its own authority, but as an important part to continue the ministry of Jesus Christ and helps to make the Church what it is.
Raymond E. Brown also states that by the early second century, as written in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch, in the threefold structure of the single bishop, plural presbyters, and plural deacons, the celebration of the Eucharist is assigned to the bishop alone; the bishop may delegate others when he goes away. At the Last Supper, Jesus says to those present, who were or included the Twelve Apostles, "Do this in remembrance of me," Brown presumes that the Twelve were remembered as presiding at the Eucharist. But they could scarcely have been present at all the Eucharists of the first century, and no information in New Testament whether a person was regularly assigned to do this task and, if so, who that person was. After all the Church regulated and regularized the celebration of the Eucharist, as that was an inevitable establishment if communities were to be provided regularly with the 'bread of life', since it could not rely on gratuitous provision.
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Apostolic succession
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Objections to the transmission of grace theory
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Objections to the transmission of grace theory
According to William Griffith Thomas, some Protestants have objected that this theory is not explicitly found in Scripture, and the New Testament uses 'bishop' and 'presbyter' as alternative names for the same office.Thomas, Griffith. The Principles of Theology. Church Book Room Press:1963, p.357 Michael Ramsey argued it is not clearly found in the writings of the Fathers before Augustine in the fourth century and there were attempts to read it back as implicit in earlier writers.Ramsey, Arthur Michael. The Gospel and the Catholic Church (translated from the Spanish edition published in the Dominican Republic: 1964, p.136)
For example, C. K. Barrett points out that the Pastoral Epistles are concerned that ministers of the generation of Timothy and Titus should pass on the doctrine they had received to the third generation. According to Barrett, teaching and preaching are "the main, almost the only, activities of ministry". He argues that in Clement of Rome ministerial activity is liturgical: the undifferentiated 'presbyter-bishops' are to "make offerings to the Lord at the right time and in the right places" something which is simply not defined by the evangelists. He mentions the change in the use of sacrificial language as a more significant still: for Paul the Eucharist is a receiving of gifts from God, the Christian sacrifice is the offering of one's body.Romans 12:1Barrett, C.K. Church, Ministry and Sacraments in the New Testament Paternoster Press: 1993
Moving on to Ignatius of Antioch, Barrett states that a sharp distinction is found between 'presbyter' and 'bishop': the latter now stands out as "an isolated figure" who is to be obeyed and without whom it is not lawful to baptise or hold a love-feast. He points out that when Ignatius writes to the Romans, there is no mention of a bishop of the Roman Church, "which we may suppose had not yet adopted the monarchical episcopate". Jalland comes to a similar conclusion and locates the change from the "polyepiscopacy" of the house church model in Rome, to monepiscopacy as occurring before the middle of the second century.Jalland, Trevor Gervaise. The Church and the Papacy. SPCK: 1944, pp.80ff
Similar objections are voiced by Harvey A.E. who comments that there is a "strong and ancient tradition" that the presence of an ordained man is necessary for the celebration of the Eucharist. But, according to him, there is "certainly no evidence for this view in the New Testament" and in the case of Clement of Rome and Ignatius of Antioch the implication is not that it be celebrated by anyone else, but that it not. Harvey says in the third century this "concern for propriety" begins to be displaced by the concept of 'power' to do so which means that in the absence of such a man it is "literally impossible" for a Eucharist to be celebrated.Harvey, A.E. Priest or President?. SPCK:1975, pp.45f
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Apostolic succession
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Apostolicity as doctrinal and related continuity
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Apostolicity as doctrinal and related continuity
Some Protestant denominations, not including Scandinavian Lutherans, Anglicans and Moravians, deny the need of maintaining episcopal continuity with the early Church, holding that the role of the apostles was that, having been chosen directly by Jesus as witnesses of his resurrection, they were to be the "special instruments of the Holy Spirit in founding and building up the Church".Litton, E.A. Introduction to Dogmatic Theology. James Clarke & Co: 1960, p.388-389 Anglican theologian E. A. Litton argues that the Church is "built upon 'the foundation of the Prophets and Apostles',Ephes. ii. 20 but a foundation does not repeat itself"; therefore he says that when the apostles died, they were replaced by their writings. To share with the apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is to many Protestants the only meaningful "continuity". The most meaningful apostolic succession for them, then, is a "faithful succession" of apostolic teaching.
Max Thurian, before his conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1988, described the classic Reformed/Presbyterian concept of apostolic succession in the following terms. "The Christian ministry is not derived from the people but from the pastors; a scriptural ordinance provides for this ministry being renewed by the ordination of a presbyter by presbyters; this ordinance originates with the apostles, who were themselves presbyters, and through them it goes back to Christ as its source.".quoted by Thurian from a report to the 1911 General Assembly of the Church of Scotland Then he continued:
"it does not guarantee the continuity and faithfulness of the Church. A purely historical or mechanical succession of ministers, bishops or pastors would not mean ipso facto true apostolic succession in the church, Reformed tradition, following authentic Catholic tradition, distinguishes four realities which make up the true apostolic succession, symbolized, but not absolutely guaranteed, by ministerial succession."Thurian, Max. Priesthood & Ministry. Paula Clifford (tr) Mowbrays: 1983, pp.167f At the same time Thurian argued that the realities form a "composite faithfulness" and are (i) "perseverance in the apostolic doctrine"; (ii) "the will to proclaim God's word"; (iii) "communion in the fundamental continuity of the Church, the Body of Christ, the faithful celebration of Baptism and the Eucharist"; (iv) "succession in the laying on of hands, the sign of ministerial continuity".
According to Walter Kasper, the Reformed-Catholic dialogue came to belief that there is an apostolic succession which is important to the life of the Church, though both sides distinguish the meaning of that succession. Besides, the dialogue states that apostolic succession "consists at least in continuity of apostolic doctrine, but this is not in opposition to succession through continuity of ordained ministry".Ref I, 100 While the Lutheran-Catholic dialogue distinguished between apostolic succession in faith (in substantive meaning) and apostolic succession as ministerial succession of bishops, it agreed that "succession in the sense of the succession of ministers must be seen within the succession of the whole church in the apostolic faith".Ministry, 61; cf. Malta, 48
The Joint International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church asserts that apostolic succession means something more than just a transmission of authorities; it witnesses to the apostolic faith from the same apostolic faith, and in communion with other churches (attached to the apostolic communion). Apostolic tradition deals with the community, not only an ordained bishop as an isolated person. Since the bishop, once ordained, becomes the guarantor of apostolicity and successor of the apostles; he joins all the bishops, thus maintaining episkope of the local churches derived from the college of the apostles.
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Apostolic succession
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Churches claiming apostolic succession
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Churches claiming apostolic succession
Churches that claim some form of episcopal apostolic succession, dating back to the apostles or to leaders from the apostolic era,Apostolicity Catholic Encyclopedia article include:
the Roman Catholic Church
the Eastern Orthodox Church
the Oriental Orthodox Churches
the Church of the East
the Moravian Church
the Anglican Communion
many Lutheran churches
Old Catholics and other Independent Catholics (those incorporating the term "Catholic")
some churches in the Convergence Movement
Those Lutheran churches, as well as the Anglican Communion and other Anglican denominations , that claim apostolic succession exclusively practice episcopal ordination. While some Anglicans claim it for their communion, their views are often nuanced and there is widespread reluctance to 'unchurch' Christian bodies which lack it.Ramsey, Arthur Michael. From Gore to Temple Longmans: 1960, pp. 119–24 After the English Reformation, Anglicanism "followed the major continental Reformers in their doctrine of the true church, identifiable by the authentic ministry of word and sacrament, in their rejection of the jurisdiction of the pope, and in their alliance with the civil authority ('the magistrate')". The Church of England historically recognized as true churches the Continental Reformed Churches, participating in the Synod of Dort in 1618–1619.
Roman Catholics recognize the validity of the apostolic successions of the bishops, and therefore the rest of the clergy, of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Church of the East, Old Catholics (except the ordination of women), and Polish National Catholic Church. The Orthodox generally recognize Roman Catholic clerical orders as being of apostolic lineage, but have a different concept of the apostolic succession as it exists outside the canonical borders of the Eastern Orthodox Church, extending the term only to bishops who have maintained communion, received ordination from a line of apostolic bishops, and preserved the catholic faith once delivered through the apostles and handed down as holy tradition. The lack of apostolic succession through bishops is the primary basis on which Protestant denominations (barring some like Lutherans and Anglicans) are not called churches, in the proper sense, by the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, the latter referring to them as "ecclesial communities" in the official documents of the Second Vatican Council."Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church", published 10 July 2007.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also claims apostolic succession. According to Latter-day Saint tradition, in 1829, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery received the priesthood from a visit from heaven of John the Baptist, conferring the Aaronic priesthood, followed by Jesus' Apostles, Peter, James, and John, conferring the Melchizedek priesthood. > After its establishment, each subsequent prophet and leader of the church have received the authority passed down by the laying on of hands, or through apostolic succession.
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Apostolic succession
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Apostolic founders
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Apostolic founders
thumb|180px|Saint Peter portrayed as a Pope in the Nuremberg Chronicle
An early understanding of apostolic succession is represented by the traditional beliefs of various churches, as organised around important episcopal sees, to have been founded by specific apostles. On the basis of these traditions, the churches hold they have inherited specific authority, doctrines or practices on the authority of their founding apostle(s), which is understood to be continued by the bishops of the apostolic throne of the church that each founded and whose original leader he was. Thus:
The See of Rome, the head see of the Catholic Church, states that it was founded by Simon Peter (traditionally called "Prince of the Apostles" and "Chief of the Apostles") and Paul the Apostle. Although Peter also founded the See of Antioch, the See of Rome claims the full authority of Peter (who, according to Catholic doctrine, was the visible head of the church and the sole chief of the Apostles) exclusively for itself, because Peter died as the Bishop of Rome, and not of another see.
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the primary patriarchate of the Eastern Orthodox Church, states that Apostle Andrew (elder brother of Simon Peter) was its founder.
Each Patriarchate of Alexandria (the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Coptic Catholic Church, and the Coptic Orthodox Church) states that it was founded by Mark the Evangelist.
Each Patriarchate of Antioch (the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Maronite Church, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, and the Syriac Catholic Church) states that it was founded by Simon Peter.
The Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem states that it was founded by James the Just.
Each Armenian Church (the Armenian Apostolic Church, based at Etchmiadzin, and the Armenian Catholic Church, whose patriarchal see is Cilicia but is based at Beirut) states that it was founded by the Apostles Bartholomew and Jude Thaddeus.
The following bodies state they were founded by the Apostle Thomas: the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church, originating in or around Mesopotamia, and churches based in Kerala, India having Syriac roots and generically known as the Saint Thomas Christians: the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church.
The Orthodox Tewahedo churches (the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) state that they were founded by Philip the Evangelist and Mark the Evangelist.
The Orthodox Church of Georgia states that the Apostles Andrew and Simon the Zealot were its founders.
The Orthodox Church of Cyprus, based at Nova Justiniana (Erdek), states that it was founded by the Apostles Paul and Barnabas.
The Bulgarian Orthodox Church states that it has a connection with Andrew the Apostle.
The Russian Orthodox Church states that it has a connection with the Apostle Andrew, who is said to have visited the area where the city of Kyiv later arose.
+ Apostolic founders Church Andrew Simon Peter Paul Barnabas Philip Mark Simon Thomas James Jude Thaddeus Bartholomew Notes Latin Church x x Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople x Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria x via Alexandria Coptic Catholic Church x via Alexandria Coptic Orthodox Church x via Alexandria Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch x via Antioch Syriac Orthodox Church x via Antioch Maronite Church x via Antioch Melkite Greek Catholic Church x via Antioch Syriac Catholic Church x via Antioch Armenian Apostolic Church x x Armenian Catholic Church x x Syro-Malabar Catholic Church x Syro-Malankara Catholic Church x Jacobite Syrian Christian Church x Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church x Assyrian Church of the East x Ancient Church of the East x Chaldean Catholic Church x Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem x Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church x x Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church x x Orthodox Church of Georgia x x Orthodox Church of Cyprus x x Bulgarian Orthodox Church x Russian Orthodox Church x via Kyiv Orthodox Church of Ukraine x
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Apostolic succession
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Teachings
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Teachings
Teachings on the nature of apostolic succession vary depending on the ecclesiastic body, especially within various Protestant denominations. Christians of the Catholic Church, Church of the East, Oriental Orthodox, and the Eastern Orthodox Church teach apostolic succession. Among the previously mentioned churches opinions vary as to the validity of succession within Old Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Moravian communities.
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Apostolic succession
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Catholic Church
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Catholic Church
In Catholic theology, the doctrine of apostolic succession is that the apostolic tradition – including apostolic teaching, preaching, and authority – is handed down from the college of apostles to the college of bishops through the laying on of hands, as a permanent office in the Church. Historically, this has been understood as a succession in office, a succession of valid ordinations, or a succession of the entire college. It is understood as a sign and guarantee that the Church, both local and universal, is in diachronic continuity with the apostles; a necessary but insufficient guarantor thereof.
thumb|Catholic ordination ceremony
Papal primacy is different though related to apostolic succession as described here. The Catholic Church has traditionally claimed a unique leadership role for the Apostle Peter, believed to have been named by Jesus as head of the Apostles and as a focus of their unity, who became the first Bishop of Rome, and whose successors inherited the role and accordingly became the leaders of the worldwide Church as well. Even so, Catholicism acknowledges the papacy is built on apostolic succession, not the other way around. As such, apostolic succession is a foundational doctrine of authority in the Catholic Church. Peter was succeeded by Linus, Linus by Clement, Clement by Anacletus, Anacletus by Evaristus..."St. Augustine; Letters 53:1:2 [A.D. 412] The Catholic position is summarised this way: "The Lord says to Peter: 'I say to you,' he says, 'that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell will not overcome it ....' On him [Peter] he builds the Church, and to him he gives the command to feed the sheep, and although he assigns a like power to all the apostles, yet he founded a single chair [cathedra], and he established by his own authority a source and an intrinsic reason for that unity.... If someone [today] does not hold fast to this unity of Peter, can he imagine that he still holds the faith? If he [should] desert the chair of Peter upon whom the Church was built, can he still be confident that he is in the Church?"(Cyprian of Carthage; The Unity of the Catholic Church 4; first edition [A.D. 251]). Peter's Successors . Catholic Answers.
Catholicism holds that Christ entrusted the Apostles with the leadership of the community of believers, and the obligation to transmit and preserve the "deposit of faith". The experience of Christ and his teachings contained in the doctrinal tradition handed down from the time of the apostles and the written portion, which is Scripture. The apostles then passed on this office and authority by ordaining bishops to follow after them.
Catholic theology holds that the apostolic succession affects the power and authority to administer the sacraments except for baptism and matrimony. Baptism may be administered by anyone and matrimony by the couple to each other. Authority to so administer such sacraments is passed on only through the sacrament of Holy Orders, a rite by which a priest is ordained. Ordination can be conferred only by bishop. The bishop must be from an unbroken line of bishops stemming from the original apostles selected by Jesus Christ. Thus, apostolic succession is necessary for the valid celebration of the sacraments.
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Apostolic succession
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Views concerning other churches
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Views concerning other churches
In the Catholic Church, Pope Leo XIII stated in his 1896 bull Apostolicae curae that the Catholic Church believes specifically that Anglican orders were to be considered "absolutely null and utterly void".
His argument was as follows. First, the ordination rite of Edward VI had removed the language of a sacrificial priesthood. Ordinations using this new rite occurred for over a century and, because the restoration of the language of "priesthood" a century later in the ordination rite "was introduced too late, as a century had already elapsed since the adoption of the Edwardine Ordinal ... the Hierarchy had become extinct, there remained no power of ordaining." With this extinction of validly ordained bishops in England, "the true Sacrament of Order as instituted by Christ lapsed, and with it the hierarchical succession." As a result, the pope's final judgment was that Anglican ordinations going forward were to be considered "absolutely null and utterly void". Anglican clergy were from then on to be ordained as Catholic priests upon entry into the Catholic Church.
A reply from the Archbishops of Canterbury and York (1896) was issued to counter Pope Leo's arguments: Saepius officio: Answer of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to the Bull Apostolicae Curae of H. H. Leo XIII. They argued that if the Anglican orders were invalid, then the Roman orders were as well since the Pope based his case on the fact that the Anglican ordinals used did not contain certain essential elements but these were not found in the early Roman rites either. Catholics argue, this argument does not consider the sacramental intention involved in validating Holy Orders. In other words, Catholics believe that the ordination rites were reworded so as to invalidate the ordinations because the intention behind the alterations in the rite was a fundamental change in Anglican understanding of the priesthood.Franklin, R. William. "Introduction: The Opening of the Vatican Archives and the ARCIC Process" in Franklin, R. William (ed)Anglican orders Mowbray:1996
thumb|upright|Pope Leo XIII rejected Anglican arguments for apostolic succession in his bull Apostolicae curae.
It is Catholic doctrine that the teaching of Apostolicae curae is a truth to be "held definitively, but are not able to be declared as divinely revealed", as stated in a commentary by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Cardinal Basil Hume explained the conditional character of his ordination of Graham Leonard, former Anglican bishop of the Diocese of London, to the priesthood in the following way: "While firmly restating the judgement of Apostolicae Curae that Anglican ordination is invalid, the Catholic Church takes account of the involvement, in some Anglican episcopal ordinations, of bishops of the Old Catholic Church of the Union of Utrecht who are validly ordained. In particular and probably rare cases the authorities in Rome may judge that there is a 'prudent doubt' concerning the invalidity of priestly ordination received by an individual Anglican minister ordained in this line of succession."
At the same time, he stated: "Since the church must be in no doubt of the validity of the sacraments celebrated for the Roman Catholic community, it must ask all who are chosen to exercise the priesthood in the Catholic Church to accept sacramental ordination in order to fulfill their ministry and be integrated into the apostolic succession." Since Apostolicae curae was issued many Anglican jurisdictions have revised their ordinals, bringing them more in line with ordinals of the early Church.
Timothy Dufort, writing in The Tablet in 1982, attempted to present an ecumenical solution to the problem of how the Catholic Church might accept Anglican orders without needing to formally repudiate Apostolicae curae at all. Dufort argued that by 1969 all Anglican bishops had acquired apostolic succession fully recognized by Rome,Timothy Dufort, The Tablet, 29 May 1982, pp. 536–538. since from the 1930s Old Catholic bishops (the validity of whose orders the Vatican has never questioned) have acted as co-consecrators in the ordination of Anglican bishops. This view has not yet been considered formally by the Holy See, but after Anglican Bishop Graham Leonard converted to Catholicism, he was only reordained in 1994 because of the presence of Old Catholic bishops at his ordination.
The question of the validity of Anglican orders has been further complicated by the Anglican ordination of women.R. William Franklin(ed). Anglican Orders. Mowbray 1996 pp.72,73(note 11), 104 In a document it published in July 1998, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated that the Catholic Church's declaration on the invalidity of Anglican ordinations is a teaching that the church has definitively propounded and that therefore every Catholic is required to give "firm and definitive assent" to this matter. This being said, in May 2017, Cardinal Francesco Coccopalmerio, President of the Pontifical Council for Legislative Texts, has asked whether the current Catholic position on invalidity could be revised in the future.
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Apostolic succession
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Eastern Orthodox
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Eastern Orthodox
thumb|Ordination of an Orthodox priest by laying on of hands. Orthodox Christians view apostolic succession as an important, God-ordained mechanism by which the structure and teaching of the Church are perpetuated.
While Eastern Orthodox sources often refer to the bishops as "successors of the apostles" under the influence of Scholastic theology, strict Orthodox ecclesiology and theology hold that all legitimate bishops are properly successors of Peter.See Meyendorff J., Byzantine Theology This also means that presbyters (or "priests") are successors of the apostles. As a result, Eastern Orthodox theology makes a distinction between a geographical or historical succession and proper ontological or ecclesiological succession. Hence, the bishops of Rome and Antioch can be considered successors of Peter in a historical sense on account of Peter's presence in the early community. This does not imply that these bishops are more successors of Peter than all others in an ontological sense.Cleenewerck, Laurent. His Broken Body. Washington, D.C.: EUC Press, 2007
The Eastern Orthodox have often permitted non-Eastern Orthodox clergy to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy as a matter of pastoral necessity and economia. Priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy from Oriental Orthodoxy and Catholicism have usually been received by "vesting" and have been allowed to function immediately within Eastern Orthodoxy as priests. Recognition of Catholic orders by the Russian Orthodox Church was stipulated in 1667 by the Synod of Moscow, but this position is not universal within the Eastern Orthodox communion.
For example, Fr. John Morris of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America, states that "Apostolic Succession is not merely a historical pedigree, but also requires Apostolic Faith. This is because Apostolic Succession is not the private possession of a bishop, but is the attribute of a local Church. A bishop who goes in schism or is cast out of office due to heresy does not take his Apostolic Succession with him as a private possession." The validity of a priest's ordination is decided by each autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church.
In 1922 the Eastern Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople recognised Anglican orders as valid, holding that they carry "the same validity as the Roman, Old Catholic and Armenian churches possess". In the encyclical "From the Oecumenical Patriarch to the Presidents of the Particular Eastern Orthodox churches", Meletius IV of Constantinople, the Ecumenical Patriarch, wrote: "That the Orthodox theologians who have scientifically examined the question have almost unanimously come to the same conclusions and have declared themselves as accepting the validity of Anglican Orders." Following this declaration, in 1923, the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, as well as the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus agreed by "provisionally acceding that Anglican priests should not be re-ordained if they became Orthodox"; in 1936, the Romanian Orthodox Church "endorsed Anglican Orders".
Succeeding judgements have been more conflicting. The Eastern Orthodox churches require a totality of common teaching to recognise orders and in this broader view find ambiguities in Anglican teaching and practice problematic. Accordingly, in some parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican clergy who convert to Orthodoxy are reordained, rather than vested.
There are also historic instances of canonically disputed or unrecognized clergy being recognized and/or received into the Eastern Orthodox churches without need for conditional ordination (e.g., Joseph Zuk of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA, Alexander Turner of the Antiochian Western Rite Vicariate, and Christopher Contogeorge of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, and Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria).
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Apostolic succession
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Oriental Orthodox Churches
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Oriental Orthodox Churches
The Armenian Apostolic Church, which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognises Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification.
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Apostolic succession
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Lutheran churches
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Lutheran churches
Lutherans universally believe that "no one should publicly teach in the Church or administer the Sacraments unless he be regularly called".Augsburg Confession, Ecclesiastical Order The Lutheran churches in Scandinavia, and those established in other parts of the world as a result of Scandinavian Lutheran missionary activity (such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya), practice episcopal succession in which the bishop whose holy orders can be traced back for centuries performs ordinations. On the other hand, certain Lutheran theologians, such as Arthur Carl Piepkorn, have held to the conception of a succession of presbyters in contradistinction to a succession of bishops. German Lutheran churches and their subsequent offspring in the United States practice succession of presbyters in which another priest is the one who confers the priesthood onto another. This low view results from the Prussian state-ordered union with Reformed (Calvinist) churches in 1817.Christliche Religion, Oskar Simmel, Rudolf Stählin (Frankfurt 1960), at 164.
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Apostolic succession
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Lutheran claims to apostolic succession
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Lutheran claims to apostolic succession
thumb|Nathan Söderblom is ordained as archbishop of the Church of Sweden, 1914.
In Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Lutheran churches participating in the Porvoo Communion (those of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania), as well as non-Porvoo membership Lutheran churches in the region (including those of Latvia, and Russia), and the confessional Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses, believe that they ordain their bishops in apostolic succession in lines stemming from the original apostles. The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History states that "In Sweden the apostolic succession was preserved because the Catholic bishops were allowed to stay in office, but they had to approve changes in the ceremonies."
The Lutheran Church of Finland was at that time one with the Church of Sweden and so holds the same view regarding the see of Åbo/Turku.
In 2001, Francis Aloysius Sullivan wrote: "To my knowledge, the Catholic Church has never officially expressed its judgement on the validity of orders as they have been handed down by episcopal succession in these two national Lutheran churches." In 2007, the Holy See declared: "Christian Communities born out of the Reformation of the sixteenth century [...] do not enjoy apostolic succession in the sacrament of Orders, and are, therefore, deprived of a constitutive element of the Church." This statement speaks of the Protestant movement as a whole, not specifically of the Lutheran churches in Sweden and Finland. The 2010 report from the Roman Catholic – Lutheran Dialogue Group for Sweden and Finland, Justification in the Life of the Church, states: "The Evangelical-Lutheran churches in Sweden and Finland [...] believe that they are part of an unbroken apostolic chain of succession. The Catholic Church does however question how the ecclesiastical break in the 16th century has affected the apostolicity of the churches of the Reformation and thus the apostolicity of their ministry." Emil Anton interprets this report as saying that the Catholic Church does not deny or approve the apostolic succession directly, but will continue with further inquiries about the matter.
Negotiated at Järvenpää, Finland, and inaugurated with a celebration of the Eucharist at Porvoo Cathedral in 1992, the Porvoo Communion agreement of unity includes the mutual recognition of the traditional apostolic succession among the following churches:
Lutheran churches: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland, Church of Norway, Church of Sweden, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania, Church of Denmark, The Lutheran Church in Great Britain observer: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia.
Anglican Communion: Church of Ireland, Scottish Episcopal Church, Church of England, the Church in Wales, the Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church, and the Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church.
At least one of the Scandinavian Lutheran churches in the Porvoo Communion of churches, the Church of Denmark has bishops, but strictly speaking they were not in the historic apostolic succession prior to their entry into the Porvoo Communion, since their episcopate and holy orders derived from Johannes Bugenhagen, who was a pastor, not a bishop. In 2010, the Church of Denmark joined the Porvoo Communion of churches, after a process of mutual consecrations of bishops had led to the introduction of historic apostolic succession. The Lutheran Church in Great Britain also joined the Porvoo Agreement, in 2014.
In Scandinavia, where High Church Lutheranism and Pietist Lutheranism has been highly influential, the Evangelical Lutheran Mission Diocese of Finland, Mission Province of the Church of Sweden, and the Evangelical Lutheran Diocese of Norway entered into schism with their national churches due to "the secularization of the national/state churches in their respective countries involving matters of both Christian doctrine and ethics"; these have altar and pulpit fellowship through the Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses and are members of the confessional International Lutheran Council with their bishops having lines of apostolic succession from other traditional Lutheran Churches, such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya.
Similarly, in the High Church Lutheranism of Germany, some religious brotherhoods such as Hochkirchliche St. Johannes-Bruderschaft and Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar have managed to arrange for their own bishop to be re-ordained in apostolic succession. The members of these brotherhoods do not form into separate ecclesia.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, North America's largest Lutheran body, gained apostolic succession through Lutheran bishops in the historic episcopate; this allowed for full communion with the Episcopal Church in 2000, upon the signing of Called to Common Mission. By this document the full communion between the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Episcopal Church was established. As such, "all episcopal installations in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America take place with the participation of bishops in the apostolic succession." The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America is headed by a presiding bishop who is elected by the churchwide assembly for a six-year term.
The Evangelical Catholic Church, a Lutheran denomination of Evangelical Catholic churchmanship based in North America, taught:
A number of Lutheran churches of the Evangelical Catholic and High Church Lutheran churchmanship based in the United States of America possess apostolic succession, with lineage generally being from the Independent Catholic churches. These include:
The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church (LEPC) were some of the earliest Lutherans in America. They have autonomous and congregationally oriented ministries and consecrate male and female deacons, priests and bishops in apostolic succession with the laying on of hands during celebration of Word and Sacrament.
The Lutheran Church - International is another North American Lutheran church that possesses and teaches the doctrine of apostolic succession.
The Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church recovered the apostolic succession from Old Catholic and Independent Catholic churches, and adopted a strict episcopal polity. All of its clergy have been ordained (or re-ordained) into the historic apostolic succession. This Church was formed in 1997, with its headquarters in Kansas City, Missouri.
The Lutheran Orthodox Church, founded in 2004 traces its historic lineage of apostolic succession through Lutheran, Anglican, and Old Catholic lines.The lineages include the Church of Sweden (Lutheran), Anglican/Episcopal, and Old Catholic.
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Apostolic succession
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Indifference to the issue
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Indifference to the issue
Many German Lutherans appear to demur on this issue, which may be sourced in the church governance views of Martin Luther.Martin Luther, An Appeal to the Ruling Class of German Nationality as to the Amelioration of the State of Christendom (1520), reprinted in Lewis W. Spitz, editor, The Protestant Reformation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall 1966) at 51–59. E.g., "When a bishop consecrates, he simply acts on behalf of the entire congregation, all of whom have the same authority." ... "[T]he status of priest among Christians is merely that of an office-bearer; while he holds the office he exercises it; if he be deposed he resumes his status in the community and becomes like the rest. ... All these are human inventions and regulations." Ibid. at 54, 55. Luther's reform movement usually did not abrogate the ecclesiastic office of bishop.Cf., Roland H. Bainton, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century (Boston: The Beadon Press 1952) at 67–68. An important historical context to explicate the difference regarding apostolic succession among between the Scandinavian Lutheran churches and the German Lutheran churches is the Prussian Union of 1817, whereby the civil government directed the Lutheran churches in Prussia to merge with non-Lutheran Reformed Churches in Prussia. The Reformed (Calvinist) churches generally oppose on principle the traditional doctrine of ecclesiastic Apostolic Succession, e.g., not usually even recognising the church office of bishop.Cf., Jean Calvin, Ecclesiastical ordinances (Genève 1541, 1561), reprinted in Lewis W. Spitz, editor, The Protestant Reformation (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice–Hall 1966) at 122–129, 122.
Later in the 19th century, other Lutheran and Reformed congregations merged to form united church bodies in some of the other 39 states of the German Confederation, e.g., in Anhalt, Baden, Bremen, Hesse and Nassau, Hesse-Kassel and Waldeck, and the Palatinate.The Evangelical Church of Anhalt, Evangelical Church in Baden, Bremian Evangelical Church (union of Lutheran and Reformed in 1873), Evangelical Church in Hesse and Nassau, Evangelical Church of Hesse-Kassel and Waldeck, and the Evangelical Church of the Palatinate.In 1866 the German Confederation dissolved; in 1871 most of its former member states joined the German Empire led by Prussia. Hajo Holborn, A History of Modern Germany 1840–1945 [volume 3] (New York: Alfred A. Knoft 1969) at 187–188, 194–199 [1866]; at 223–227 [1871]. Yet the partial nature of this list also serves to show that in Germany there remained many Lutherans who never united with the Reformed.E.g., the current umbrella federation of German Protestant churches known as the EKD has as members 22 Church bodies: 9 regional Lutheran, 11 united Lutheran and Reformed, and 2 Reformed.
Other Lutheran churches are indifferent as a matter of doctrine regarding this particular issue of ecclesiastical governance. In America, the conservative Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) places its church authority in the congregation rather than in the bishop, and ordinations are typically performed by another pastor, although its founder, C. F. W. Walther, while establishing congregational polity for the LCMS, considered polity (a church's form of government) to be a matter of adiaphora (something indifferent).
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Apostolic succession
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Anglican Communion
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Anglican Communion
thumb|right|Tablet dedicated to the consecration of Samuel Seabury as the first Anglican bishop in the Americas
The Anglican Communion "has never officially endorsed any one particular theory of the origin of the historic episcopate, its exact relation to the apostolate, and the sense in which it should be thought of as God given, and in fact tolerates a wide variety of views on these points".Jay, Eric G. The Church John Knox Press(1980), p.291 quoting the Anglican-Methodist Unity Commission Report 1968 p.37 Its claim to apostolic succession is rooted in the Church of England's evolution as part of the Western Church. Apostolic succession is viewed not so much as conveyed mechanically through an unbroken chain of the laying-on of hands, but as expressing continuity with the unbroken chain of commitment, beliefs and mission starting with the first apostles; and as hence emphasising the enduring yet evolving nature of the Church.
When Henry VIII broke away from the jurisdiction of Rome in 1533/4, the English Church () claimed the episcopal polity and apostolic succession inherent in its Catholic past. Reformed theology gained a certain foothold,Neill, Stephen. Anglicanism Pelican (1960) and under his successor, Edward VI what had been an administrative schism – as the Church under Henry was separated from Rome but remained essentially Catholic in its theology and practice – became a reformation under the guiding hand of Thomas Cranmer.
Although care was taken to maintain the unbroken sequence of episcopal consecrations – particularly in the case of Matthew Parker, who was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury in 1559 by two bishops who had been ordained in the 1530s with the Roman Pontifical and two ordained with the Edwardine Ordinal of 1550 – apostolic succession was not seen as a major concern that a true ministry could not exist without episcopal consecrations: English Reformers such as Richard Hooker rejected the Roman position that Apostolic Succession is divinely commanded or necessary for true Christian ministry. American Episcopal theologian Richard A. Norris argues that the "foreign Reformed [Presbyterian] churches" were genuine ones despite the lack of apostolic succession because they had been abandoned by their bishops at the Reformation.Norris, Richard A. "Episcopacy" in The Study of Anglicanism Sykes, Stephen & Booty, John (eds) SPCK(1988)
In very different ways both James II and William III of England made it plain that the Church of England could no longer count on the 'godly prince' to maintain its identity and traditions and the 'High Church' clergy of the time began to look to the idea of apostolic succession as a basis for the church's life. For William Beveridge (Bishop of St Asaph, 1704–8) the importance of this lay in the fact that Christ himself is "continually present at such imposition of hands; thereby transferring the same Spirit, which He had first breathed into His Apostles, upon others successively after them", but the doctrine did not really come to the fore until the time of the Tractarians.Webster, John B. "Ministry and Priesthood" in The Study of Anglicanism Sykes, Stephen & Booty, John (eds) SPCK(1988), p.305
In 1833, before his conversion to Catholicism, Newman wrote about the apostolic succession: "We must necessarily consider none to be ordained who has not been ordained". After quoting this,Ramsey, Arthur Michael (1960). From Gore to Temple, Longmans. Michael Ramsey continues: "With romantic enthusiasm, the Tractarians propagated this doctrine. In doing so they involved themselves in some misunderstandings of history and in some confusion of theology". He explained that they ascribed to early Anglican authors a far more exclusive version of the doctrine than was the case. They blurred the distinction between succession in office (Irenaeus) and succession in consecration (Augustine). They spoke of apostolic succession as the channel of grace in a way that failed to do justice to His gracious activity within all the dispensations of the New Covenant.
J. B. Lightfoot argued that monarchial episcopacy evolved upwards from a college of presbyters by the elevation of one of their number to be the episcopal president. A.C. Headlam laid great stress on Irenaeus' understanding of succession which had been lost from sight behind the Augustinian 'pipe-line theory'.
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Apostolic succession
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Methodist churches
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Methodist churches
thumb|upright=0.9|John Wesley came to believe that ancient church and New Testament evidence did not leave the power of ordination to the priesthood in the hands of bishops but that other priests could ordain.
In the beginnings of the Methodist movement, adherents were instructed to receive the sacraments within the Anglican Church since the Methodists were still a movement and not as yet a separate church in England until 1805. The American Methodists soon petitioned to receive the sacraments from the local preachers who conducted worship services and revivals. The Bishop of London refused to ordain Methodist priests and deacons in the British American colonies. John Wesley, the founder of the movement, was reluctant to allow unordained preachers to administer the sacraments:
Some scholars argue that in 1763, Greek Orthodox bishop Erasmus of the Diocese of Arcadia, who was visiting London at the time, consecrated John Wesley a bishop, and ordained several Methodist lay preachers as priests, including John Jones. According to these arguments, Wesley could not openly announce his episcopal consecration without incurring the penalty of the Præmunire Act. In light of Wesley's alleged episcopal consecration, the Methodist Church could lay claim on apostolic succession, as understood in the traditional sense. Since John Wesley "ordained and sent forth every Methodist preacher in his day, who preached and baptized and ordained, and since every Methodist preacher who has ever been ordained as a Methodist was ordained in this direct 'succession' from Wesley, then the Methodist Church teaches that it has all the direct merits coming from apostolic succession, if any such there be."
Most Methodists view apostolic succession outside its high church sense. This is because Wesley believed that the offices of bishop and presbyter constituted one order, citing an ancient opinion from the Church of Alexandria; Jerome, a Church Father, wrote: "For even at Alexandria from the time of Mark the Evangelist until the episcopates of Heraclas and Dionysius the presbyters always named as bishop one of their own number chosen by themselves and set in a more exalted position, just as an army elects a general, or as deacons appoint one of themselves whom they know to be diligent and call him archdeacon. For what function, excepting ordination, belongs to a bishop that does not also belong to a presbyter?" (Letter CXLVI). John Wesley thus argued that for two centuries the succession of bishops in the Church of Alexandria, which was founded by Mark the Evangelist, was preserved through ordination by presbyters alone and was considered valid by that ancient Church.
Since the Bishop of London refused to ordain ministers in the British American colonies, this constituted an emergency and as a result, on 2 September 1784, Wesley, along with a priest from the Anglican Church and two other elders, operating under the ancient Alexandrian habitude, ordained Thomas Coke a superintendent, although Coke embraced the title bishop.
Today, the United Methodist Church follows this ancient Alexandrian practice as bishops are elected from the presbyterate: the Discipline of the Methodist Church, in ¶303, affirms that "ordination to this ministry is a gift from God to the Church. In ordination, the Church affirms and continues the apostolic ministry through persons empowered by the Holy Spirit." It also uses sacred scripture in support of this practice, namely, 1 Timothy 4:14, which states:
The Methodist Church also buttresses this argument with the leg of sacred tradition of the Wesleyan Quadrilateral by citing the Church Fathers, many of whom concur with this view.
In addition to the aforementioned arguments – or perhaps instead of them – in 1937 the annual Conference of the British Methodist Church located the "true continuity" with the Church of past ages in "the continuity of Christian experience, the fellowship in the gift of the one Spirit; in the continuity in the allegiance to one Lord, the continued proclamation of the message; the continued acceptance of the mission;..." [through a long chain which goes back to] "the first disciples in the company of the Lord Himself ... This is our doctrine of apostolic succession" [which neither depends on, nor is secured by,] "an official succession of ministers, whether bishops or presbyters, from apostolic times, but rather by fidelity to apostolic truth".
The Church of North India, Church of Pakistan and Church of South India are members of the World Methodist Council and the clergy of these three united Protestant churches possess lines of apostolic succession, according to the Anglican understanding of this doctrine, through the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC), which finished merging with these three in the 1970s.
In June 2014, the Church of Ireland, a province of the Anglican Communion, extended its lines of apostolic succession into the Methodist Church in Ireland, as "the Archbishop of Dublin and Bishop of Down and Dromore took part in the installation of the new President of the Methodist Church of Ireland, the Rev. Peter Murray." In May 2014, the "Church of Ireland's General Synod approved an agreement signed with the Methodist Church that provided for the interchangeability of clergy, allowing an ordained minister of either church to come under the discipline and oversight of the other."
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Apostolic succession
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Hussite Church and Moravian Church
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Hussite Church and Moravian Church
The Moravian Church, as with the Hussite Church, teaches the doctrine of apostolic succession. The Moravian Church claims apostolic succession as a legacy of the old Unity of the Brethren. In order to preserve the succession, three Bohemian Brethren were consecrated bishops by Bishop Stephen of Austria, a Waldensian bishop who had been ordained by a Catholic bishop in 1434. These three consecrated bishops returned to Litice in Bohemia and then ordained other brothers, thereby preserving the historic episcopate.
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Apostolic succession
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Presbyterian/Reformed churches
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Presbyterian/Reformed churches
Jus Divinum Regiminis Ecclesiastici (English translation: The Divine Right of Church Government), which was promulgated by Presbyterian clergy in 1646, holds that historic ministerial succession is necessary for legitimate ministerial authority. It states that ministerial succession is conferred by elders through the laying on of hands, in accordance with Timothy 4:14. The Westminster Assembly held that "There is one general church visible" and that "every minister of the word is to be ordained by imposition of hands, and prayer, with fasting, by those preaching presbyters to whom it doth belong".
The Church of North India, Church of Pakistan and Church of South India are members of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches and the clergy of these three united Protestant churches possess lines of apostolic succession, according to the Anglican understanding of this doctrine, through the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (CIBC), which finished merging with these three in the 1970s.
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Apostolic succession
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Pentecostal churches
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Pentecostal churches
On 6 February 2003, K. J. Samuel, the moderator bishop of the Church of South India (a United Protestant denomination that holds membership worldwide Anglican Communion in addition to the World Communion of Reformed Churches), along with P.M. Dhotekar, bishop of Nagpur of the Church of North India, and Bancha Nidhi Nayak, bishop of Phulbani of the Church of North India, consecrated Pentecostal minister K. P. Yohannan as a bishop in Anglican lines of apostolic succession; K.P. Yohannan thereafter became the first metropolitan of the Believers Eastern Church, a Pentecostal denomination which acquired an episcopal polity of ecclesiastical governance.
Many other Pentecostal Christians teach that "the sole guarantor of apostolic faith, which includes apostolic life, is the Holy Spirit." In addressing the Church of God General Assembly, Ambrose Jessup Tomlinson stated that "Although we do not claim a line of succession from the holy apostles, we do believe we are following in their example."
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Apostolic succession
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Latter Day Saint movement
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Latter Day Saint movement
Denominations within the Latter Day Saint movement preach the necessity of apostolic succession and claim it through the process of restoration. According to their teaching, a period of universal apostasy followed the death of the Twelve Apostles. Without apostles or prophets left on the earth with the legitimate Priesthood Authority, many of the true teachings and practices of Christianity were lost. Eventually these were restored to the prophet Joseph Smith and various others in a series of divine conferrals and ordinations by angelic men who had held this authority during their lifetimes (see this partial list of restoration events). As it relates to apostolic succession, Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery said that the apostles Peter, James, and John appeared to them in 1829 and conferred upon them the Melchizedek PriesthoodJoseph Smith–History 1:72 and with it "the keys of the kingdom, and of the dispensation of the fullness of times".Doctrine and Covenants 128:20
For the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the largest denomination in the Latter-day Saint movement, Apostolic Succession involves the leadership of the church being established through the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. Each time the President of the Church dies, the most senior apostle, who is designated as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, is set apart as the new church president.
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Apostolic succession
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Criticism
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Criticism
Some Protestants, particularly those in the Calvinist tradition, deny the doctrine of apostolic succession, believing that it is neither taught in Scripture nor necessary for Christian teaching, life, and practice. Accordingly, these Protestants strip the notion of apostolic succession from the definition of "apostolic" or "apostolicity". For them, to be apostolic is simply to be in submission to the teachings of the original twelve apostles as recorded in Scripture.Martin E. Marty, A Short History of Christianity (New York: Meridian Books 1959) at 75–77 (traditional doctrine). This doctrinal stance reflects the Protestant view of authority, embodied in the doctrine known as Sola Scriptura.
Among the first who rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession was John Calvin.Cf., John Calvin, Institutio Christianae Religionis 1536, 5th ed. 1559; translated by John Allen as Institutes of the Christian Religion (London 1813; reprinted Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publications, 6th ed. 1921), 2 volumes. He said that the episcopacy was inadequate to address corruption, doctrinal or otherwise, and that this inadequacy justified the intervention of the church of lay people.
Some Protestants feel that such claims of apostolic succession are proven false by the differences in traditions and doctrines between these churches: Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox consider both the Church of the East and the Oriental Orthodox churches to be heretical, having been anathematized in the early ecumenical councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451) respectively. Churches that claim apostolic succession in ministry distinguish this from doctrinal orthodoxy, holding that "it is possible to have valid orders coming down from the apostles, and yet not to have a continuous spiritual history coming down from the apostles".
All Christians who have a genuine relationship with God through and in Christ are part of the "true Church", according to evangelical Protestant theology, notwithstanding condemnation of the Catholic Church by some Protestants.But cf., Mark A. Noll and Carolyn Nystrom, Is the Reformation Over? An evangelical assessment of contemporary Roman Catholicism (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic 2005). The propriety of the Church as a temporal institution deriving its legitimacy from apostolic succession is greatly diminished under this theological view.
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Apostolic succession
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Certain parts of Confessional Lutheranism
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Certain parts of Confessional Lutheranism
Parts of Confessional Lutheranism have retained apostolic succession, such as the Mission Province (Missionsprovinsen), Evangelical Lutheran Church of Ingria and Evangelical Lutheran Church in Kenya, for example (see Lutheran churches); these are members of the International Lutheran Council.
Certain other Confessional Lutheran churches including Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) and Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod (LCMS) reject Apostolic Succession as a biblical doctrine.Apostolic Succession, Christian Cyclopedia, Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod These churches teach that the Bible contains no evidence showing that the office must be conveyed by laying-on of hands and no Biblical command that it must be by a special class of bishops. The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod teaches that there is no evidence the Popes have historic succession from Peter other than their own claim that it is so.WELS Topical Q&A: Responses the Previous Questions, "There is no biblical or historical evidence for the claims of the Roman Catholic church that Peter was the first pope. In fact there is no evidence that there even was a pope in the first century. Even Catholic historians recognize this as a historical fact...We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church of believers in Matthew 18."
The Wisconsin Synod acknowledges:
However, the Synod states that there are a number of major problems with this Roman Catholic view on apostolic succession:
There is no evidence the popes have historic succession to Peter other than their own claim that it is so.
The bishops claiming succession have not preserved apostolic doctrine, therefore they have no meaningful apostolic succession.
There is no evidence that the apostles were ordained by laying on of hands when they entered their office.
There is no evidence in Scripture that the office must be conveyed by laying on of hands and no command that it must be by a special class of bishops.
Acts 1 actually proves the opposite of what the Catholic Church claims; it proves there cannot be "apostolic successors" today because Judas' replacement had to be an eyewitness of Jesus' ministry.
WELS holds that it's their custom that ordination of pastors is by other pastors, and that neither the Bible nor the Lutheran confessions make this the only divinely mandated way of entering the pastoral ministry: "It is the call of the church that is the essential element, more specifically, the call of Christ through the church."
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Apostolic succession
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See also
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See also
Baptist successionism
Episcopi vagantes
Lineage (Buddhism), A similar practice in Buddhist tradition
List of bishops
New Apostolic Church
Pope Linus
Valid but illicit
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Apostolic succession
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References
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References
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Apostolic succession
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Further reading
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Further reading
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Apostolic succession
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External links
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External links
Against Heresies, Online-text, Irenaeus, Against Heresies
Apostolicity in the Catholic Encyclopedia
by Scott Hahn
"Was Wesley Ordained By Bishop Erasmus?" The Methodist Quarterly Review (1878)
Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession by The Reverend Dr. Gregory S. Neal
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Ecclesiology
Category:Episcopacy in Anglicanism
Category:Episcopacy in the Catholic Church
Category:Episcopacy in Eastern Orthodoxy
Category:Succession
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Apostolic succession
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Table of Content
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Short description, Definitions, In the early Fathers, As transmission of grace, Objections to the transmission of grace theory, Apostolicity as doctrinal and related continuity, Churches claiming apostolic succession, Apostolic founders, Teachings, Catholic Church, Views concerning other churches, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, Lutheran churches, Lutheran claims to apostolic succession, Indifference to the issue, Anglican Communion, Methodist churches, Hussite Church and Moravian Church, Presbyterian/Reformed churches, Pentecostal churches, Latter Day Saint movement, Criticism, Certain parts of Confessional Lutheranism, See also, References, Further reading, External links
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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About
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Ascorbic acid is an organic compound with formula , originally called hexuronic acid. It is a white solid, but impure samples can appear yellowish. It dissolves freely in water to give mildly acidic solutions. It is a mild reducing agent.
Ascorbic acid exists as two enantiomers (mirror-image isomers), commonly denoted "" (for "levo") and "" (for "dextro"). The isomer is the one most often encountered: it occurs naturally in many foods, and is one form ("vitamer") of vitamin C, an essential nutrient for humans and many animals. Deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, formerly a major disease of sailors in long sea voyages. It is used as a food additive and a dietary supplement for its antioxidant properties. The "" form (erythorbic acid) can be made by chemical synthesis, but has no significant biological role.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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History
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History
The antiscorbutic properties of certain foods were demonstrated in the 18th century by James Lind. In 1907, Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich discovered that the antiscorbutic factor was a water-soluble chemical substance, distinct from the one that prevented beriberi. Between 1928 and 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated a candidate for this substance, which he called "hexuronic acid", first from plants and later from animal adrenal glands. In 1932 Charles Glen King confirmed that it was indeed the antiscorbutic factor.
In 1933, sugar chemist Walter Norman Haworth, working with samples of "hexuronic acid" that Szent-Györgyi had isolated from paprika and sent him in the previous year, deduced the correct structure and optical-isomeric nature of the compound, and in 1934 reported its first synthesis.Story of Vitamin C's chemical discovery. Profiles.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved on 2012-12-04. In reference to the compound's antiscorbutic properties, Haworth and Szent-Györgyi proposed to rename it "a-scorbic acid" for the compound, and later specifically -ascorbic acid.. Part of the National Library of Medicine collection. Accessed January 2007 Because of their work, in 1937 two Nobel Prizes: in Chemistry and in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Haworth and Szent-Györgyi, respectively.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Chemical properties
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Chemical properties
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Acidity
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Acidity
Ascorbic acid is a furan-based lactone of 2-ketogluconic acid. It contains an adjacent enediol adjacent to the carbonyl. This −C(OH)=C(OH)−C(=O)− structural pattern is characteristic of reductones, and increases the acidity of one of the enol hydroxyl groups. The deprotonated conjugate base is the ascorbate anion, which is stabilized by electron delocalization that results from resonance between two forms:
400px|class=skin-invert-image
For this reason, ascorbic acid is much more acidic than would be expected if the compound contained only isolated hydroxyl groups.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Salts
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Salts
The ascorbate anion forms salts, such as sodium ascorbate, calcium ascorbate, and potassium ascorbate.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Esters
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Esters
Ascorbic acid can also react with organic acids as an alcohol forming esters such as ascorbyl palmitate and ascorbyl stearate.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Nucleophilic attack
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Nucleophilic attack
Nucleophilic attack of ascorbic acid on a proton results in a 1,3-diketone:
class=skin-invert-image
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Oxidation
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Oxidation
right|thumb|220px|class=skin-invert-image|Semidehydroascorbate acid radical
right|thumb|220px|class=skin-invert-image|Pseudodehydroascorbate
The ascorbate ion is the predominant species at typical biological pH values. It is a mild reducing agent and antioxidant, typically reacting with oxidants of the reactive oxygen species, such as the hydroxyl radical.
Reactive oxygen species are damaging to animals and plants at the molecular level due to their possible interaction with nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Sometimes these radicals initiate chain reactions. Ascorbate can terminate these chain radical reactions by electron transfer. The oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively unreactive and do not cause cellular damage.
Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are commonly used as antioxidant food additives. These compounds are water-soluble and, thus, cannot protect fats from oxidation: For this purpose, the fat-soluble esters of ascorbic acid with long-chain fatty acids (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as antioxidant food additives. Sodium-dependent active transport process enables absorption of Ascorbic acid from the intestine.
Ascorbate readily donates a hydrogen atom to free radicals, forming the radical anion semidehydroascorbate (also known as monodehydroascorbate), a resonance-stabilized semitrione:
Loss of an electron from semidehydroascorbate to produce the 1,2,3-tricarbonyl pseudodehydroascorbate is thermodynamically disfavored, which helps prevent propagation of free radical chain reactions such as autoxidation:
However, being a good electron donor, excess ascorbate in the presence of free metal ions can not only promote but also initiate free radical reactions, thus making it a potentially dangerous pro-oxidative compound in certain metabolic contexts.
Semidehydroascorbate oxidation instead occurs in conjunction with hydration, yielding the bicyclic hemiketal dehydroascorbate. In particular, semidehydroascorbate undergoes disproportionation to ascorbate and dehydroascorbate:
Aqueous solutions of dehydroascorbate are unstable, undergoing hydrolysis with a half-life of 5–15 minutes at . Decomposition products include diketogulonic acid, xylonic acid, threonic acid and oxalic acid.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Other reactions
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Other reactions
It creates volatile compounds when mixed with glucose and amino acids at 90 °C.
It is a cofactor in tyrosine oxidation, though because a crude extract of animal liver is used, it is unclear which reaction catalyzed by which enzyme is being helped here. For known roles in enzymatic reactions, see .
Because it reduces iron(III) and chelates iron ions, it enhances the oral absorption of non-heme iron. This property also applies to its enantiomer.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Conversion to oxalate
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Conversion to oxalate
In 1958, it was discovered that ascorbic acid can be converted to oxalate, a key component of calcium oxalate kidney stones. The process begins with the formation of dehydroascorbic acid (DHA) from the ascorbyl radical. While DHA can be recycled back to ascorbic acid, a portion irreversibly degrades to 2,3-diketogulonic acid (DKG), which then breaks down to both oxalate and the sugars L-erythrulose and threosone. Research conducted in the 1960s suggested ascorbic acid could substantially contribute to urinary oxalate content (possibly over 40%), but these estimates have been questioned due to methodological limitations. Subsequent large cohort studies have yielded conflicting results regarding the link between vitamin C intake and kidney stone formation. The overall clinical significance of ascorbic acid consumption to kidney stone risk, however, remains inconclusive, although several studies have suggested a potential association, especially with high-dose supplementation in men.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Uses
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Uses
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Food additive
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Food additive
The main use of -ascorbic acid and its salts is as food additives, mostly to combat oxidation and prevent discoloration of the product during storage. It is approved for this purpose in the EU with E number E300,UK Food Standards Agency: the US,US Food and Drug Administration: Australia, and New Zealand.Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code
The "" enantiomer (erythorbic acid) shares all of the non-biological chemical properties with the more common enantiomer. As a result, it is an equally effective food antioxidant, and is also approved in processed foods.Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers, Food Standards Agency
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Dietary supplement
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Dietary supplement
Another major use of -ascorbic acid is as a dietary supplement. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Its deficiency over a prolonged period of time could cause scurvy, which is characterized by fatigue, widespread weakness in connective tissues and capillary fragility. It affects multiple organ systems due to its role in the biochemical reactions of connective tissue synthesis.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Niche, non-food uses
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Niche, non-food uses
Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a preservative.
In fluorescence microscopy and related fluorescence-based techniques, ascorbic acid can be used as an antioxidant to increase fluorescent signal and chemically retard dye photobleaching.
It is also commonly used to remove dissolved metal stains, such as iron, from fiberglass swimming pool surfaces.
In plastic manufacturing, ascorbic acid can be used to assemble molecular chains more quickly and with less waste than traditional synthesis methods.
Heroin users are known to use ascorbic acid as a means to convert heroin base to a water-soluble salt so that it can be injected.
As justified by its reaction with iodine, it is used to negate the effects of iodine tablets in water purification. It reacts with the sterilized water, removing the taste, color, and smell of the iodine. This is why it is often sold as a second set of tablets in most sporting goods stores as Potable Aqua-Neutralizing Tablets, along with the potassium iodide tablets.
Intravenous high-dose ascorbate is being used as a chemotherapeutic and biological response modifying agent. It is undergoing clinical trials.
It is sometimes used as a urinary acidifier to enhance the antiseptic effect of methenamine.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Synthesis
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Synthesis
Natural biosynthesis of vitamin C occurs through various processes in many plants and animals.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Industrial preparation
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Industrial preparation
thumb|500px|class=skin-invert-image|The outdated but historically significant industrial synthesis of ascorbic acid from glucose via the Reichstein process
Seventy percent of the world's supply of ascorbic acid is produced in China. Ascorbic acid is prepared in industry from glucose in a method based on the historical Reichstein process. In the first of a five-step process, glucose is catalytically hydrogenated to sorbitol, which is then oxidized by the microorganism Acetobacter suboxydans to sorbose. Only one of the six hydroxy groups is oxidized by this enzymatic reaction. From this point, two routes are available. Treatment of the product with acetone in the presence of an acid catalyst converts four of the remaining hydroxyl groups to acetals. The unprotected hydroxyl group is oxidized to the carboxylic acid by reaction with the catalytic oxidant TEMPO (regenerated by sodium hypochlorite bleaching solution). Historically, industrial preparation via the Reichstein process used potassium permanganate as the bleaching solution. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of this product performs the dual function of removing the two acetal groups and ring-closing lactonization. This step yields ascorbic acid. Each of the five steps has a yield larger than 90%.
A biotechnological process, first developed in China in the 1960s but further developed in the 1990s, bypasses acetone-protecting groups. A second genetically modified microbe species, such as mutant Erwinia, among others, oxidises sorbose into 2-ketogluconic acid (2-KGA), which can then undergo ring-closing lactonization via dehydration. This method is used in the predominant process used by the ascorbic acid industry in China, which supplies 70% of the world's ascorbic acid. Researchers are exploring means for one-step fermentation.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Determination
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Determination
The traditional way to analyze the ascorbic acid content is by titration with an oxidizing agent, and several procedures have been developed.
The popular iodometry approach uses iodine in the presence of a starch indicator. Iodine is reduced by ascorbic acid, and when all the ascorbic acid has reacted, the iodine is in excess, forming a blue-black complex with the starch indicator. This indicates the end-point of the titration.
As an alternative, ascorbic acid can be treated with iodine in excess, followed by back titration with sodium thiosulfate using starch as an indicator.
This iodometric method has been revised to exploit the reaction of ascorbic acid with iodate and iodide in acid solution. Electrolyzing the potassium iodide solution produces iodine, which reacts with ascorbic acid. The end of the process is determined by potentiometric titration like Karl Fischer titration. The amount of ascorbic acid can be calculated by Faraday's law.
Another alternative uses N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) as the oxidizing agent in the presence of potassium iodide and starch. The NBS first oxidizes the ascorbic acid; when the latter is exhausted, the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide, which then forms the blue-black complex with starch.
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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See also
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See also
Colour retention agent
Erythorbic acid: a diastereomer of ascorbic acid.
Mineral ascorbates: salts of ascorbic acid
Acids in wine
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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References
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References
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Further reading
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Further reading
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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External links
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External links
IPCS Poisons Information Monograph (PIM) 046
Interactive 3D-structure of vitamin C with details on the x-ray structure
Category:Organic acids
Category:Antioxidants
Category:Dietary antioxidants
Category:Coenzymes
Category:Corrosion inhibitors
Category:Furanones
Category:Vitamers
Category:Vitamin C
Category:Biomolecules
Category:3-Hydroxypropenals
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Chemistry of ascorbic acid
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Table of Content
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About, History, Chemical properties, Acidity, Salts, Esters, Nucleophilic attack, Oxidation, Other reactions, Conversion to oxalate, Uses, Food additive, Dietary supplement, Niche, non-food uses, Synthesis, Industrial preparation, Determination, See also, References, Further reading, External links
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AFC Ajax
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Short description
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Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax (), also known as AFC Ajax, Ajax Amsterdam, or commonly Ajax, is a Dutch professional football club based in Amsterdam, that plays in the , the top tier in Dutch football. Historically, Ajax (named after the legendary Greek hero) is the most successful club in the Netherlands, with 36 and 20 KNVB Cups. It has continuously played in the since the league's inception in 1956, and along with and , it is one of the country's "big three" clubs.
Ajax was one of the most successful clubs in the world in the 20th century. According to the International Federation of Football History & Statistics, Ajax was the seventh-most successful European club of the 20th century and The World's Club Team of the Year in 1992. According to German magazine Kicker, Ajax was the second-most successful European club of the 20th century. The club is one of five teams that have earned the right to keep the European Cup and to wear a multiple-winner badge. In 1972, they completed the continental treble by winning the , KNVB Cup, and the European Cup. They also won the first (albeit unofficial) European Super Cup against Rangers in January 1973. Ajax's most recent international trophies are the 1995 Intercontinental Cup, 1995 UEFA Super Cup and the 1995 Champions League, where they defeated Milan in the final; they lost the 1996 Champions League final on penalties to Juventus. In 1995, Ajax was crowned as World Team of the Year by World Soccer magazine.
Ajax is also one of four teams to win the continental treble and the Intercontinental Cup or Club World Cup in the same season/calendar year;with Manchester United in 1999, Bayern Munich in 2013 and Barcelona twice, in 2009 and in 2015. this was achieved in the 1971–72 season.UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Supercup for the first time in 1973. In 1972 was an unofficial edition and the I Centenary of Rangers (see History of the UEFA Supercup in uefa.com). Ajax is one of five clubs to have won all three major UEFA club competitions.(European Cup, Cup Winners' Cup and UEFA Cup) They have also won the Intercontinental Cup twice, the 1991–92 UEFA Cup, as well as the Karl Rappan Cup, a predecessor of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1962.UEFA sanctioned the UEFA Intertoto Cup for the first time in 1995. In the 1960s, it was unofficial. See History of UEFA Intertoto Cup in uefa.com. Ajax plays at the Johan Cruyff Arena, which opened as the Amsterdam ArenA in 1996 and was renamed in 2018. They previously played at and the Amsterdam Olympic Stadium (for international matches). Throughout their history, Ajax have cultivated a reputation for scouting, spotting and developing young talent, and have remained focused on developing a youth system.
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AFC Ajax
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History
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History
thumb|213x213px|Ajax's former squad in 1900
Ajax was founded in Amsterdam on 18 March 1900. The club achieved promotion to the highest level of Dutch football in 1911 and had its first major success in 1917, winning the KNVB Beker, the Netherlands' national cup. The following season, Ajax became national champion for the first time. The club defended its title in 1918–19, becoming the only team to achieve an unbeaten season in the Netherlands Football League Championship.
Throughout the 1920s, Ajax was a strong regional power, winning the Eerste Klasse West division in 1921, 1927 and 1928, but could not maintain its success at the national level. This changed in the 1930s, with the club winning five national championships (1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939), making it the most successful Dutch team of the decade. Ajax won its second KNVB Cup in 1942–43, and an eighth Dutch title in 1946–47, the last season the club was managed by Englishman Jack Reynolds, who, up to this point, had overseen all of its national championship successes as well as its 1917 KNVB Cup win.
In 1956, the first season of the Netherlands' new professional league, the , was played with Ajax participating as a founding member. The Amsterdam club became the first national champions under the new format and made its debut in the European Champion Clubs' Cup the following year, losing to Hungarian champions 6–2 on aggregate at the quarter-final stage. The team was again champions in 1960 and won a third KNVB Cup in 1961.
thumb|left|upright|Johan Cruyff played at Ajax from 1959 to 1973, and from 1981 to 1983, winning 3 European Cups; his No. 14 is the only squad number Ajax has ever retired. Cruyff came back to manage the club from 1985 to 1988.
thumb|Against in the 1971 European Cup Final
In 1965, Rinus Michels, who had played for the club between 1946 and 1958, was appointed manager of Ajax, implementing his philosophy of Total Football which was to become synonymous with both Ajax and the Netherlands national team. A year earlier, Johan Cruyff, who would go on to become widely regarded as the greatest Dutch footballer of all time, made his debut. Between them, Michels and Cruyff led Ajax through the most successful period in its history, winning seven titles, four KNVB Cups and three European Cups.
Ajax won the Dutch championship in 1966, 1967 and 1968, and reached the 1969 European Cup final, losing to Milan. During the 1966–67 season, Ajax scored a record 122 goals in an season and also won the KNVB Cup to achieve its first league and cup double. In 1969–70, Ajax won a fourth Dutch league championship and second league and cup double in five seasons, winning 27 out of 34 league matches and scoring 100 goals.
The 1970–71 season saw Ajax retain the KNVB Cup and reach the 1971 European Cup final, where they defeated 2–0 with goals from Dick van Dijk and Arie Haan to become continental champions for the first time, with Cruyff being named European Footballer of the Year. After this success, Michels departed to become manager of Barcelona and was replaced by the Romanian Ștefan Kovács. In Kovács' first season, Ajax completed a treble of the European Cup, the and a third consecutive KNVB Cup. The following season, the team beat Argentine to win the 1972 Intercontinental Cup and retained their and European Cup titles, becoming the first club to win three consecutive European Cups since Real Madrid in the 1950s.
In 1973, Michels' Barcelona broke the world transfer record to bring Cruyff to the Catalan team. Kovács also departed to become manager of the France national team, signalling the end of this period of international success.
In 1976–77, Ajax won its first domestic championship in four seasons and recorded a double of the and KNVB Cup two years later.
The early 1980s saw the return of Cruyff to the club, as well as the emergence of young players Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard. The team won back-to-back titles in 1982 and 1983, with all three playing a significant role in the latter. After Cruyff's sale to rivals in 1983, van Basten became Ajax's key player, top scoring in the for four seasons between 1983–84 and 1986–87.
thumb|Cruijff, seen here with van Basten and Rijkaard, returned as manager in 1985.
In 1985, Cruyff returned to Ajax as manager and the team ended his first season in charge with 120 goals from 34 matches. However, Ajax still finished as runner-up to PSV by eight points. The following season, Ajax again lost out on the Eredivisie title to PSV, but won the European Cup Winners' Cup, its first continental trophy in 14 years. After this, Cruyff left the club to become manager of Barcelona and Rijkaard and van Basten were sold to Sporting CP and Milan respectively. Despite these losses, Ajax reached a second consecutive Cup Winners' Cup final in 1988, where they lost to Belgian club .
The 1988–89 season saw Dennis Bergkamp, a young forward who had first appeared under Cruyff in 1986, establish himself as a regular goalscorer for Ajax. Bergkamp helped Ajax to the title and was the top scorer in the division in 1990–91, 1991–92 and 1992–93. Under the management of Louis van Gaal, Ajax won the UEFA Cup in 1992 to become the second club, after , to have won all three major European club competitions.
After the sale of Bergkamp to in 1993, van Gaal re-signed the experienced Rijkaard to complement his young Ajax team featuring academy graduates Frank and Ronald de Boer, Edwin van der Sar, Clarence Seedorf, Edgar Davids, Michael Reiziger and Winston Bogarde, as well as mercurial foreign talents Finidi George, Nwankwo Kanu and Jari Litmanen, and veteran captain Danny Blind. The team regained the Dutch championship in 1993–94, and won it again in 1994–95 and 1995–96 to become the first Ajax side to win three back-to-back championships since 1968. The height of van Gaal's success came in 1994–95, where Ajax became the first, and to date only, team to complete an entire season unbeaten. The team also won its first European Cup since its 1970s era, defeating Milan in the 1995 UEFA Champions League final 1–0, with the winning goal scored by 18-year-old Patrick Kluivert. Ajax again reached the final one year later, and was defeated on penalties by .
Ajax's return as a European force was short-lived, as van Gaal and several members of the squad soon departed to some of the continent's biggest clubs. The 2000s was a lean decade for the club, with only two championships won. However, Ajax's academy continued to produce star players such as Wesley Sneijder and Rafael van der Vaart.
In 2010, Frank de Boer was appointed manager of Ajax and led the club to its first league title in seven years, and record 30th title overall, in the 2010–11 season. This was followed by back-to-back wins in 2011–12 and 2012–13 to match his three consecutive titles as a player in the 1990s. In 2013–14, Ajax was again champions, winning four consecutive league titles for the first time in club history. After finishing as runner-up to PSV in both 2014–15 and 2015–16, de Boer resigned as Ajax head coach in May 2016.
Peter Bosz took over the club and led them to the 2017 UEFA Europa League final, their first European final in 21 years. They lost to Manchester United with a lineup that was the youngest ever in a European final, averaging an age of 22 years and 282 days. For the third consecutive season, they finished runner-up in the , this time to .
The 2018–19 season for Ajax involved a remarkable run in the UEFA Champions League. Due to their runner-up finish in the 2017–18 Eredivisie, Ajax entered the tournament in the second qualifying round. After successive victories against Sturm Graz, and , they qualified for the group stage. Ajax was drawn in a group with German champions Bayern Munich, Portuguese side Benfica and Greek champions AEK Athens. Ajax finished runner-up in this group, qualifying for the knockout stages, where it was drawn against three-time defending champions Real Madrid. After losing 1–2 in the first leg, they defeated Real Madrid 4–1 in the away match, stunning the defending champions in their own stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, with an aggregate score of 5–3. Dušan Tadić was awarded a perfect score of 10 by following the match.
thumb|Against Chelsea in UEFA Champion League 2019-2020
Thus, Ajax progressed to the quarter-finals and was drawn with Italian champions . In the first leg in the Johan Cruyff Arena, they drew 1–1. In the second leg at the Juventus Stadium, Ajax came from behind to win 2–1 and 3–2 on aggregate. Matthijs de Ligt scored the winning goal for Ajax to help the team advance to its first Champions League semi-final since 1997. There, they would face English side Tottenham Hotspur.
In the first leg of the semi-final, Ajax beat Tottenham 1–0 away from home. In the second leg, Ajax scored twice in the first half to generate a 3–0 lead on aggregate. However, in the second half, Lucas Moura scored three times, including in the 6th minute of added time, resulting in Ajax losing via the away goals rule.
Ajax was in first place on goal difference when the was declared void, preventing them being Dutch champions for the 35th time, but still qualified for the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League.
In this, it was eliminated again, but in 2021 it reached the quarter-finals of the Europa League. It was eliminated against AS Roma. That season, it again won both the national title and the KNVB Cup.
In the 2021–22 AFC Ajax season Ajax again became champion of the Netherlands. It had to give up the KNVB Cup and the Johan Cruijff Shield to competitor PSV because it came out on the losing end in both finals. In European terms, Ajax achieved first place in the Champions League group, all six matches were won, mostly by a wide margin. After the winter break, Ajax was narrowly eliminated in the eighth finals by the Portuguese Benfica Lisboa (Lisbon) (2–2 away, 0–1 at home).
As of July 1, 2022, Alfred Schreuder succeeded Erik ten Hag, who left for Manchester United, as Ajax's coach. Most of the key players from previous seasons left during the summer transfer period, but there was also a lot of reinvestment. Ajax started the 2022/23 season relatively well with six consecutive victories in the Eredivisie. But Ajax was eliminated from the Champions League quite quickly in a group with Liverpool FC, SSC Napoli and Rangers FC. At home against Napoli on October 4, 2022, they even lost by 5 goals (1–6), Ajax's biggest defeat ever in European competition. After seven consecutive matches without a win head coach Alfred Schreuder was dismissed. John Heitinga succeeded Schreuder as interim. Under Heitinga, Ajax failed to turn things around despite a good start with seven wins in a row. Ajax finished third in the Eredivisie, behind champions Feyenoord and runners-up PSV. This was the club's lowest final ranking since the 2008/09 season, in which it also finished third. After the winter break, Ajax was eliminated in the first knockout phase of the Europa League by Union Berlin (3–1). Ajax did reach the final of the KNVB Cup, but lost to PSV on penalties (3–2).
On May 19, 2023, Sven Mislintat took over as Ajax's sports director. He succeeded Marc Overmars, who left in early 2022. Mislintat appointed Maurice Steijn as head coach. Mislintat spent approximately 111 million euros on transfers. Ajax had its worst start to the season in fifty-nine years. On October 29, 2023, Ajax reached a historic low. Ajax lost 5–2 to PSV in Eindhoven. This put Ajax in last place, 18th place in the Eredivisie, for the first time since the club was founded.
The position of director Mislintat became an embarrassment after it emerged that he had arranged a transfer through a player agent who was an investor in his company. In the evening of 24 September Mislintat was fired with immediate effect, among other things a lack of broad support within the club was one of the reasons. A day after the loss against PSV it was announced that John van 't Schip would become the head coach until the end of the season. Under the leadership of Van 't Schip Ajax managed to climb to 5th place in the Eredivisie. In the Europa League Ajax finished third, which meant a sequel in the Conference League, were it eventually lost to Aston Villa in the round of 16. In the cup Ajax was eliminated 3–2 by the third division amateurs of USV Hercules.
In the summer of 2024 a rebuild began, with a new board of directors and Alex Kroes and Marijn Beuker as Technical Director and Director of Football. They hired Francesco Farioli as new head coach, the first foreign coach since 1998. Under his leadership Ajax reached the league phase of the Europa League where it finished 11th. On the 9th of February 2025 Ajax finished the weekend on the first place for the first time since November 2022.
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AFC Ajax
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UEFA ranking
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UEFA ranking
29Ajax66.250
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AFC Ajax
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Academies
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Academies
The club is also particularly famous for its renowned youth programme that has produced many Dutch talents over the years – Johan Cruyff, Edwin van der Sar, Gerald Vanenburg, Frank Rijkaard, Dennis Bergkamp, Rafael van der Vaart, Patrick Kluivert, Marco van Basten, Wesley Sneijder, Maarten Stekelenburg, Nigel de Jong, Frenkie de Jong, and Matthijs de Ligt have come through the ranks and are just some of the talents who have played for Ajax. Ajax also regularly supplies the Dutch national youth teams with local players.
Due to mutual agreements with foreign clubs, the youth academy has also signed foreign players as teenagers before making first team debuts, such as Belgian defensive trio Jan Vertonghen, Toby Alderweireld and Thomas Vermaelen along with winger Tom De Mul, all of whom are full internationals, as well as Dutch international Vurnon Anita and Javier Martina, representing Curaçao.
Ajax has also expanded its talent searching programme to South Africa with Ajax Cape Town. Ajax Cape Town was set up with the help of Rob Moore. Ajax has also had a satellite club in the United States under the name Ajax America, until it filed for bankruptcy. There are some youth players from Ajax Cape Town that have been drafted into the squad, such as South African internationals Steven Pienaar and Thulani Serero and Cameroonian international Eyong Enoh.
In 1995, the year Ajax won the UEFA Champions League, the Netherlands national team was almost entirely composed of Ajax players, with van der Sar in goal; players such as Michael Reiziger, Frank de Boer and Danny Blind in defence; Ronald de Boer, Edgar Davids and Clarence Seedorf in midfield; and Patrick Kluivert and Marc Overmars in attack.
In 2011, Ajax opened its first youth academies outside the Netherlands when the club partnered up with George Kazianis and All Star Consultancy in Greece to open the Ajax Hellas Youth Academy. The offices are based in Nea Smyrni, Attica, with the main training facility located on the island of Corfu, hosting a total of 15 football youth academies throughout Greece and Cyprus. Eddie van Schaik heads the organization as coach and consultant, introducing the Ajax football philosophy at the various Greek football training camps.
In 2016, Ajax launched the ACA (Ajax Coaching Academy) with the intention of sharing knowledge, and setting up a variety of camps and clinics for both players and coaches.
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AFC Ajax
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Stadiums
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Stadiums
Ajax's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was called Het Houten Stadion (English: The Wooden Stadium). Ajax later also played in the Olympic Stadium built for the 1928 Summer Olympics hosted in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is known in Dutch as . In 1934, Ajax moved to De Meer Stadion in east Amsterdam, close to the location of Het Houten Stadion. It was designed by architect and Ajax-member Daan Roodenburgh, who had also designed the club's first stadium. It could accommodate 29,500 spectators and Ajax continued to play there until 1996. For big European and national fixtures, the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, which could accommodate about twice the number of spectators.
In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the Amsterdam Arena, since 2018 known as the Johan Cruyff Arena. This stadium was built by the Amsterdam city authority at a cost of $134 million. The stadium is capable of holding 55,865 spectators. The Arena has a retractable roof and set a trend for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena earned a reputation for a terrible grass pitch caused by the removable roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and fresh air. During the 2008–09 season, ground staff introduced an artificial lighting system that finally reduced this problem considerably.
The much-loved De Meer Stadion was torn down and the land was sold to the city council. A residential neighbourhood now occupies the area. The only thing left of the old stadium are the letters "AJAX", which nowadays is in place on the façade of the entrance at the Johan Cruyff Arena and a replica of the letters are at De Toekomst, near the Johan Cruyff Arena.
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AFC Ajax
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Crest and colours
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Crest and colours
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AFC Ajax
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Crest
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Crest
In 1900, when the club was founded, the emblem of Ajax was just a picture of an Ajax player. The crest was slightly altered following the club's promotion to the top division in 1911 to match the club's new outfits. In 1928, the club logo was introduced with the head of the Greek hero Ajax. The logo was once again changed in 1990 into an abstract version of the previous one. The new logo still sports the portrait of Ajax, but drawn with just 11 lines, symbolizing the 11 players of a football team. On 17 November 2024, Ajax announced on its official website that the classic logo of 1928 will return for the 2025–26 season, making a comeback after 34 years.
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