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Arizona Diamondbacks	Catcher	Catcher Gabriel Moreno – 2023
Arizona Diamondbacks	First baseman	First baseman Paul Goldschmidt – 2013, 2015, 2017 Christian Walker – 2022, 2023, 2024
Arizona Diamondbacks	Second baseman	Second baseman Orlando Hudson – 2006, 2007
Arizona Diamondbacks	Shortstop	Shortstop Nick Ahmed – 2018, 2019
Arizona Diamondbacks	Outfielder	Outfielder Steve Finley – 1999, 2000 Gerardo Parra – 2011, 2013 A. J. Pollock – 2015 David Peralta – 2019
Arizona Diamondbacks	[[Silver Slugger Award]]	Silver Slugger Award
Arizona Diamondbacks	Pitcher	Pitcher Micah Owings – 2007 Daniel Hudson – 2011 Zack Greinke – 2019
Arizona Diamondbacks	First baseman	First baseman Paul Goldschmidt – 2013, 2015, 2017, 2018
Arizona Diamondbacks	Second baseman	Second baseman Aaron Hill – 2012 Ketel Marte - 2024
Arizona Diamondbacks	Outfielder	Outfielder Luis Gonzalez – 2001 Justin Upton – 2011 David Peralta – 2018
Arizona Diamondbacks	All-time leaders	All-time leaders thumb\|upright=0.95\|All-Star Paul Goldschmidt (2011–2018) had an on-base percentage of .398, during his tenure in Phoenix Hitting Games played: Luis Gonzalez (1999–2006) – 1,194 At bats: Luis Gonzalez – 4,488 Hits: Luis Gonzalez – 1,337 Batting average: Luis Gonzalez – .289 Runs: Luis Gonzalez – 780 Doubles: Luis Gonzalez – 310 Triples: Stephen Drew – 52 Home runs: Luis Gonzalez – 224 Runs batted in: Luis Gonzalez – 774 On-base percentage: Paul Goldschmidt* – .398 Walks: Paul Goldschmidt* – 655 Strikeouts: Paul Goldschmidt* – 1,059 Slugging percentage: Paul Goldschmidt* – .532 Stolen bases: Tony Womack – 182 Pitching ERA: Randy Johnson (1999–2004, 2007–08) – 2.83 Wins: Randy Johnson – 118 Losses: Randy Johnson/Brandon Webb (2003–10) – 62 Games: Andrew Chafin* – 380 Saves: José Valverde – 98 Innings: Randy Johnson – 1630.1 Starts: Randy Johnson – 232 Strikeouts: Randy Johnson – 2,077 Complete games: Randy Johnson – 38 Shutouts: Randy Johnson – 14 WHIP: Curt Schilling – 1.04 all stats are as of February 8, 2025, from the Arizona Diamondbacks website. * signifies active Major League player
Arizona Diamondbacks	Championships	Championships
Arizona Diamondbacks	Retired numbers	Retired numbers No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball in 1997 to honor Jackie Robinson.
Arizona Diamondbacks	Season record	Season record
Arizona Diamondbacks	Roster	Roster
Arizona Diamondbacks	Rivalry with the Los Angeles Dodgers	Rivalry with the Los Angeles Dodgers The rivalry between the Diamondbacks and the Los Angeles Dodgers has been one of the fiercest divisional matchups for several years. Animosity between the two teams began to escalate during the 2010s in multiple incidents involving either team throwing pitches at one another or instigating into large-scale brawls between both benches. After eliminating the Diamondbacks and clinching the division on September 19, 2013, multiple Dodgers players celebrated the win by jumping into the pool at Chase Field. The two sides met during the 2017 National League Division Series as the Diamondbacks were swept 3–0 by the Dodgers en route to their appearance in the World Series that season. The Dodgers led the series 257–191 with a 3–0 lead in the postseason. After clinching the 2023 NL Wild Card berth and defeating the Milwaukee Brewers in the National League Wild Card Series, the Diamondbacks played the Dodgers again in the 2023 NLDS. There, the Diamondbacks emphatically swept the Dodgers to even the all-time postseason record between the two clubs at 3–3.
Arizona Diamondbacks	Minor league affiliations	Minor league affiliations The Arizona Diamondbacks farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates. ClassTeamLeagueLocationBallparkAffiliated Triple-A Reno Aces Pacific Coast League Reno, Nevada Greater Nevada Field 2009 Double-A Amarillo Sod Poodles Texas League Amarillo, Texas Hodgetown 2021 High-A Hillsboro Hops Northwest League Hillsboro, Oregon Ron Tonkin Field 2013 Single-A Visalia Rawhide California League Visalia, California Valley Strong Ballpark 2007 Rookie ACL D-backs Arizona Complex League Scottsdale, Arizona Salt River Fields at Talking Stick 2024 DSL Arizona BlackDominican Summer LeagueBoca Chica, Santo DomingoBaseball City Complex 2016 DSL Arizona Red
Arizona Diamondbacks	See also	See also List of Arizona Diamondbacks team records List of Arizona Diamondbacks broadcasters List of managers and ownership of the Arizona Diamondbacks
Arizona Diamondbacks	References	References
Arizona Diamondbacks	External links	External links Category:Major League Baseball teams Category:Baseball teams established in 1998 Category:Cactus League Category:Sports in Phoenix, Arizona Category:Professional baseball teams in Arizona Category:1998 establishments in Arizona
Arizona Diamondbacks	Table of Content	Short description, History, Logos and uniforms, 1998–2006, 2007–2015, 2016–2023, Since 2024, Regular season home attendance, Radio and television, Spanish broadcasts, Achievements, Baseball Hall of Famers, Ford C. Frick Award recipients, Arizona Sports Hall of Fame, Arizona Diamondbacks Hall of Fame, Award Winners, [[Cy Young Award]], [[Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award, [[Major League Baseball Manager of the Year Award, [[Hank Aaron Award]], [[Roberto Clemente Award]], [[Gold Glove Award]], Pitcher, Catcher, First baseman, Second baseman, Shortstop, Outfielder, [[Silver Slugger Award]], Pitcher, First baseman, Second baseman, Outfielder, All-time leaders, Championships, Retired numbers, Season record, Roster, Rivalry with the Los Angeles Dodgers, Minor league affiliations, See also, References, External links
Aesthetics	Short description	Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and taste, which in a broad sense incorporates the philosophy of art.Slater, B. H., Aesthetics, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, , accessed on 15 September 2024. Aesthetics examines values about, and critical judgments of, artistic taste and preference.Zangwill, Nick. "Aesthetic Judgment ", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 02-28-2003/10-22-2007. Retrieved 07-24-2008. It thus studies how artists imagine, create, and perform works of art, as well as how people use, enjoy, and criticize art. Aesthetics considers why people consider certain things beautiful and not others, as well as how objects of beauty and art can affect our moods and our beliefs.Thomas Munro, "Aesthetics", The World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, ed. A. Richard Harmet, et al., (Chicago, Illinois: Merchandise Mart Plaza, 1986), p. 80. Aesthetics tries to find answers to what exactly is art and what makes good art. It considers what happens in our minds when we view visual art, listen to music, read poetry, enjoy delicious food, and engage in large artistic projects like creating and experiencing plays, fashion shows, films, and television programs. It can also focus on how humans regard various forms of beauty in the natural world. Its function is the "critical reflection on art, culture and nature".Kelly (1998), p. ix.
Aesthetics	Etymology	Etymology The word aesthetic is derived from the Ancient Greek (, "perceptive, sensitive, pertaining to sensory perception"), which in turn comes from (, "I perceive, sense, learn") and is related to (, "perception, sensation"). Aesthetics in this central sense has been said to start with the series of articles on "The Pleasures of the Imagination", which the journalist Joseph Addison wrote in the early issues of the magazine The Spectator in 1712. The term aesthetics was appropriated and coined with new meaning by the German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in his dissertation Meditationes philosophicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus () in 1735; Baumgarten chose "aesthetics" because he wished to emphasize the experience of art as a means of knowing. Baumgarten's definition of aesthetics in the fragment Aesthetica (1750) is occasionally considered the first definition of modern aesthetics. The term was introduced into the English language by Thomas Carlyle in his Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825).
Aesthetics	History of aesthetics	History of aesthetics The history of the philosophy of art as aesthetics covering the visual arts, the literary arts, the musical arts and other artists forms of expression can be dated back at least to Aristotle and the ancient Greeks. Aristotle writing of the literary arts in his Poetics stated that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. Aristotle applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
Aesthetics	Aesthetics and the philosophy of art	Aesthetics and the philosophy of art upright=1.4\|thumb\|alt=A man admiring a painting\|A man enjoying a painting of a landscape. The nature of such experience is studied by aesthetics. Some writers distinguish aesthetics from the philosophy of art, claiming that the former is the study of beauty and taste while the latter is the study of works of art. Slater holds that the "full field" of aesthetics is broad, but in a narrow sense it can be limited to the theory of beauty, excluding the philosophy of art. Aesthetics typically considers questions of beauty as well as of art. It examines topics such as art works, aesthetic experience, and aesthetic judgment.. Aesthetic experience refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily a work of art), while artistic judgment refers to the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art in general or a specific work of art. In the words of one philosopher, "Philosophy of art is about art. Aesthetics is about many things—including art. But it is also about our experience of breathtaking landscapes or the pattern of shadows on the wall opposite your office.Nanay, Bence. (2019) Aesthetics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 4. Philosophers of art weigh a culturally contingent conception of art versus one that is purely theoretical. They study the varieties of art in relation to their physical, social, and cultural environments. Aesthetic philosophers sometimes also refer to psychological studies to help understand how people see, hear, imagine, think, learn, and act in relation to the materials and problems of art. Aesthetic psychology studies the creative process and the aesthetic experience.Thomas Munro, "aesthetics", The World Book Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, ed. A. Richard Harmet, et al., (Chicago: Merchandise Mart Plaza, 1986), p. 81.
Aesthetics	Aesthetic judgment, universals, and ethics	Aesthetic judgment, universals, and ethics
Aesthetics	Aesthetic judgment	Aesthetic judgment thumb\|upright=.8\|alt=Oil painting of Immanuel Kant\|Immanuel Kant believed that aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment. Aesthetics examines affective domain response to an object or phenomenon. Judgements of aesthetic value rely on the ability to discriminate at a sensory level. However, aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination. For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely "the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition", but also the sensitivity "to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind."David Hume, Essays Moral, Political, Literary, Indianapolis: Literary Fund, 1987. Thus, sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure. For Immanuel Kant (Critique of Judgment, 1790), "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to pleasure by engaging reflective contemplation. Judgements of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once. Kant observed of a man "if he says that 'Canary wine is pleasant,' he is quite content if someone else corrects his expression and remind him that he ought to say instead: 'It is pleasant to me,'" because "every one has his own [sense of] taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere "pleasantness" because "if he gives out anything as beautiful, he supposes in others the same satisfaction—he judges not merely for himself, but for every one, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of things." Viewer interpretations of beauty may on occasion be observed to possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of an education process and awareness of elite cultural values learned through exposure to mass culture. Bourdieu examined how the elite in society define the aesthetic values like taste and how varying levels of exposure to these values can result in variations by class, cultural background, and education.Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction. Routledge. According to Kant, beauty is subjective and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone. In the opinion of Władysław Tatarkiewicz, there are six conditions for the presentation of art: beauty, form, representation, reproduction of reality, artistic expression and innovation. However, one may not be able to pin down these qualities in a work of art. The question of whether there are facts about aesthetic judgments belongs to the branch of metaphilosophy known as meta-aesthetics.
Aesthetics	Factors involved in aesthetic judgment	Factors involved in aesthetic judgment thumb\|upright=1.2\|Rainbows often have aesthetic appeal Aesthetic judgment is closely tied to disgust. Responses like disgust show that sensory detection is linked in instinctual ways to facial expressions including physiological responses like the gag reflex. Disgust is triggered largely by dissonance; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in a man's beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in physical reactions. For example, the awe inspired by a sublime landscape might physically manifest with an increased heart-rate or pupil dilation. As seen, emotions are conformed to 'cultural' reactions, therefore aesthetics is always characterized by 'regional responses', as Francis Grose was the first to affirm in his Rules for Drawing Caricaturas: With an Essay on Comic Painting (1788), published in W. Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, Bagster, London s.d. (1791? [1753]), pp. 1–24. Francis Grose can therefore be claimed to be the first critical 'aesthetic regionalist' in proclaiming the anti-universality of aesthetics in contrast to the perilous and always resurgent dictatorship of beauty. 'Aesthetic Regionalism' can thus be seen as a political statement and stance which vies against any universal notion of beauty to safeguard the counter-tradition of aesthetics related to what has been considered and dubbed un-beautiful just because one's culture does not contemplate it, e.g. Edmund Burke's sublime, what is usually defined as 'primitive' art, or un-harmonious, non-cathartic art, camp art, which 'beauty' posits and creates, dichotomously, as its opposite, without even the need of formal statements, but which will be 'perceived' as ugly. Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as beautiful. Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus, judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value.Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. . In a current context, a Lamborghini might be judged to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or it may be judged to be repulsive partly because it signifies over-consumption and offends political or moral values. The context of its presentation also affects the perception of artwork; artworks presented in a classical museum context are liked more and rated more interesting than when presented in a sterile laboratory context. While specific results depend heavily on the style of the presented artwork, overall, the effect of context proved to be more important for the perception of artwork than the effect of genuineness (whether the artwork was being presented as original or as a facsimile/copy). Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative. What a thing means or symbolizes is often what is being judged. Modern aestheticians have asserted that will and desire were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed important aesthetics to some 20th-century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, "Beauty and the Critic's Judgment", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconscious behaviour, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these, depending on exactly which theory is employed. A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. For instance, the source of a painting's beauty has a different character to that of beautiful music, suggesting their aesthetics differ in kind.Consider Clement Greenberg's arguments in "On Modernist Painting" (1961), reprinted in Aesthetics: A Reader in Philosophy of Arts. The distinct inability of language to express aesthetic judgment and the role of social construction further cloud this issue.
Aesthetics	Aesthetic universals	Aesthetic universals The philosopher Denis Dutton identified six universal signatures in human aesthetics:Denis Dutton, Aesthetic Universals, summarized by Steven Pinker in The Blank Slate. Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recognize, and admire technical artistic skills. Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and do not demand that it keep them warm or put food on the table. Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style. Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art. Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of the world. Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience. Artists such as Thomas Hirschhorn have indicated that there are too many exceptions to Dutton's categories. For example, Hirschhorn's installations deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specific devotional functions. "Rules of composition" that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's 4′33″ do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the works' realization). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that Dutton's categories seek to universalize traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as André Malraux and others have pointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas (including the idea "art" itself) were non-existent.Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure: André Malraux's Theory of Art. (Amsterdam, Netherlands: Rodopi. 2009).
Aesthetics	Aesthetic ethics	Aesthetic ethics Aesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautiful and attractive. John Dewey has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reflected in our understanding of behaviour being "fair"—the word having a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable. More recently, James Page has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical rationale for peace education.
Aesthetics	Beauty	Beauty Beauty is one of the main subjects of aesthetics, together with art and taste. Many of its definitions include the idea that an object is beautiful if perceiving it is accompanied by aesthetic pleasure. Among the examples of beautiful objects are landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art. Beauty is a positive aesthetic value that contrasts with ugliness as its negative counterpart. Different intuitions commonly associated with beauty and its nature are in conflict with each other, which poses certain difficulties for understanding it. On the one hand, beauty is ascribed to things as an objective, public feature. On the other hand, it seems to depend on the subjective, emotional response of the observer. It is said, for example, that "beauty is in the eye of the beholder". It may be possible to reconcile these intuitions by affirming that it depends both on the objective features of the beautiful thing and the subjective response of the observer. One way to achieve this is to hold that an object is beautiful if it has the power to bring about certain aesthetic experiences in the perceiving subject. This is often combined with the view that the subject needs to have the ability to correctly perceive and judge beauty, sometimes referred to as "sense of taste". Various conceptions of how to define and understand beauty have been suggested. Classical conceptions emphasize the objective side of beauty by defining it in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts: the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole. Hedonist conceptions, on the other hand, focus more on the subjective side by drawing a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause disinterested pleasure. Other conceptions include defining beautiful objects in terms of their value, of a loving attitude towards them or of their function.
Aesthetics	New Criticism and "The Intentional Fallacy"	New Criticism and "The Intentional Fallacy" During the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist. In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting. In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy," which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy", Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. One of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).Leitch, Vincent B., et al., eds. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. As summarized by Berys Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic." These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work."Gaut and Livingston, p. 6. Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself."
Aesthetics	Derivative forms of aesthetics	Derivative forms of aesthetics A large number of derivative forms of aesthetics have developed as contemporary and transitory forms of inquiry associated with the field of aesthetics which include the post-modern, psychoanalytic, scientific, and mathematical among others.
Aesthetics	Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis	Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis Early-twentieth-century artists, poets and composers challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the scope of art and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism, the philosophy that reality itself is aesthetic, and that "The world, art, and self explain each other: each is the aesthetic oneness of opposites." Various attempts have been made to define Post-Modern Aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify "beauty" into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types, where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to comedy and the Rococo. Croce suggested that "expression" is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickie suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities. Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a "counter-environment" designed to make visible what is usually invisible about a society. Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the role of the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Arthur Danto has described this reaction as "kalliphobia" (after the Greek word for beauty, κάλλος kallos). André Malraux explains that the notion of beauty was connected to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance and was still dominant in the eighteenth century (but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics, which originated in the eighteenth century, mistook this transient state of affairs for a revelation of the permanent nature of art.Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, André Malraux's Theory of Art (Amsterdam: Netherlands Rodopi, 2009). Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze and Guattari.Massumi, Brian (ed.), A Shock to Thought. Expression after Deleuze and Guattari. London, England & New York, New York: Routeledge, 2002. . Walter Benjamin echoed Malraux in believing aesthetics was a comparatively recent invention, a view proven wrong in the late 1970s, when Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake analyzed links between beauty, information processing, and information theory. Denis Dutton in "The Art Instinct" also proposed that an aesthetic sense was a vital evolutionary factor. Jean-François Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlike kitsch realism, "... will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing pain."Lyotard, Jean-Françoise, What is Postmodernism?, in The Postmodern Condition, Minnesota and Manchester, 1984.Lyotard, Jean-Françoise, "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces", in Theory, Culture and Society, Volume 21, Number 1, 2004. Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the "Uncanny" as aesthetical affect.Freud, Sigmund, "The Uncanny" (1919). Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Work of Sigmund Freud, 17: 234–236. London, England: The Hogarth Press. Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty,Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1964), The Visible and the Invisible. Northwestern University Press. . Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of sublimation and the Thing.Lacan, Jacques, "The Ethics of Psychoanalysis" (The Seminar of Jacques Lacan Book VII), New York, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1992. The relation of Marxist aesthetics to post-modern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate.
Aesthetics	Aesthetics and science	Aesthetics and science The field of experimental aesthetics was founded by Gustav Theodor Fechner in the 19th century. Experimental aesthetics in these times had been characterized by a subject-based, inductive approach. The analysis of individual experience and behaviour based on experimental methods is a central part of experimental aesthetics. In particular, the perception of works of art,Kobbert, M. (1986), Kunstpsychologie ("Psychology of art"), Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, Germany. music, sound, or modern items such as websitesThielsch, M. T. (2008), Ästhetik von Websites. Wahrnehmung von Ästhetik und deren Beziehung zu Inhalt, Usability und Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen. ("The aesthetics of websites. Perception of aesthetics and its relation to content, usability, and personality traits."), MV Wissenschaft, Münster, Germany. or other IT productsHassenzahl, M. (2008), Aesthetics in interactive products: Correlates and consequences of beauty. In H.N.J. Schifferstein & P. Hekkert (Eds.): Product Experience. (pp. 287–302). Elsevier, Amsterdam is studied. Experimental aesthetics is strongly oriented towards the natural sciences. Modern approaches mostly come from the fields of cognitive psychology (aesthetic cognitivism) or neuroscience (neuroaesthetics).
Aesthetics	Truth in beauty and mathematics	Truth in beauty and mathematics Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous,Ian Stewart. Why Beauty Is Truth: The History of Symmetry, 2008. as reflected in the statement "Beauty is truth, truth beauty" in the poem "Ode on a Grecian Urn" by John Keats, or by the Hindu motto "Satyam Shivam Sundaram" (Satya (Truth) is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced by processing fluency, which is the ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes equated with truth. Recent research found that people use beauty as an indication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks. However, scientists including the mathematician David Orrell and physicist Marcelo Gleiser have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scientists astray.
Aesthetics	Computational approaches	Computational approaches thumb\|The Mandelbrot set with continuously colored environment Computational approaches to aesthetics emerged amid efforts to use computer science methods "to predict, convey, and evoke emotional response to a piece of art. In this field, aesthetics is not considered to be dependent on taste but is a matter of cognition, and, consequently, learning. In 1928, the mathematician George David Birkhoff created an aesthetic measure as the ratio of order to complexity. In the 1960s and 1970s, Max Bense, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first to analyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and information theory.A. Moles: Théorie de l'information et perception esthétique, Paris, Denoël, 1973 (Information Theory and aesthetical perception).F. Nake (1974). Ästhetik als Informationsverarbeitung. (Aesthetics as information processing). Grundlagen und Anwendungen der Informatik im Bereich ästhetischer Produktion und Kritik. Springer, 1974, . Max Bense, for example, built on Birkhoff's aesthetic measure and proposed a similar information theoretic measure , where is the redundancy and the entropy, which assigns higher value to simpler artworks. In the 1990s, Jürgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beauty. This theory takes the subjectivity of the observer into account and postulates that among several observations classified as comparable by a given subjective observer, the most aesthetically pleasing is the one that is encoded by the shortest description, following the direction of previous approaches. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishes between that which is beautiful and that which is interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative of subjectively perceived beauty. He supposes that every observer continually tries to improve the predictability and compressibility of their observations by identifying regularities like repetition, symmetry, and fractal self-similarity.Jürgen Schmidhuber. Papers on artificial curiosity since 1990: http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/interest.html, . Since about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality of images. Typically, these approaches follow a machine learning approach, where large numbers of manually rated photographs are used to "teach" a computer about what visual properties are of relevance to aesthetic quality. A study by Y. Li and C. J. Hu employed Birkhoff's measurement in their statistical learning approach where order and complexity of an image determined aesthetic value. The image complexity was computed using information theory while the order was determined using fractal compression. There is also the case of the Acquine engine, developed at Penn State University, that rates natural photographs uploaded by users. There have also been relatively successful attempts with regard to chess and music.Manaris, B., Roos, P., Penousal, M., Krehbiel, D., Pellicoro, L. and Romero, J.; A Corpus-Based Hybrid Approach to Music Analysis and Composition; Proceedings of 22nd Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-07); Vancouver, British Columbia; pp. 839–845. 2007. Computational approaches have also been attempted in film making as demonstrated by a software model developed by Chitra Dorai and a group of researchers at the IBM T. J. Watson Research Center. The tool predicted aesthetics based on the values of narrative elements. A relation between Max Bense's mathematical formulation of aesthetics in terms of "redundancy" and "complexity" and theories of musical anticipation was offered using the notion of Information Rate.Dubnov, S.; Musical Information Dynamics as Models of Auditory Anticipation; in Machine Audition: Principles, Algorithms and Systems, Ed. W. Weng, IGI Global publication, 2010.
Aesthetics	Evolutionary aesthetics	Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in which the basic aesthetic preferences of Homo sapiens are argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success. One example being that humans are argued to find beautiful and prefer landscapes which were good habitats in the ancestral environment. Another example is that body symmetry and proportion are important aspects of physical attractiveness which may be due to this indicating good health during body growth. Evolutionary explanations for aesthetical preferences are important parts of evolutionary musicology, Darwinian literary studies, and the study of the evolution of emotion.
Aesthetics	Applied aesthetics	Applied aesthetics As well as being applied to art, aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects, such as crosses or tools. For example, aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency. Art slides were linked to slides of pharmacological data, which improved attention and retention by simultaneous activation of intuitive right brain with rational left. It can also be used in topics as diverse as cartography, mathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website design.
Aesthetics	Other approaches	Other approaches Guy Sircello has pioneered efforts in analytic philosophy to develop a rigorous theory of aesthetics, focusing on the concepts of beauty,Guy Sircello, A New Theory of Beauty. Princeton Essays on the Arts, 1. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1975. loveGuy Sircello, Love and Beauty. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989. and sublimity.Guy Sircello, "How Is a Theory of the Sublime Possible?" The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 541–550. In contrast to romantic theorists, Sircello argued for the objectivity of beauty and formulated a theory of love on that basis. British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art aesthetics, Peter Osborne, makes the point that "'post-conceptual art' aesthetic does not concern a particular type of contemporary art so much as the historical-ontological condition for the production of contemporary art in general ...".Peter Osborne, Anywhere Or Not at All: Philosophy of Contemporary Art, Verso Books, London, England, 2013. pp. 3 & 51. Osborne noted that contemporary art is 'post-conceptual' in a public lecture delivered in 2010. Gary Tedman has put forward a theory of a subjectless aesthetics derived from Karl Marx's concept of alienation, and Louis Althusser's antihumanism, using elements of Freud's group psychology, defining a concept of the 'aesthetic level of practice'.Tedman, G. (2012), Aesthetics & Alienation, Zero Books. Gregory Loewen has suggested that the subject is key in the interaction with the aesthetic object. The work of art serves as a vehicle for the projection of the individual's identity into the world of objects, as well as being the irruptive source of much of what is uncanny in modern life. As well, art is used to memorialize individuated biographies in a manner that allows persons to imagine that they are part of something greater than themselves.Gregory Loewen, Aesthetic Subjectivity, 2011, pp. 36–37, 157, 238.
Aesthetics	Criticism	Criticism The philosophy of aesthetics as a practice has been criticized by some sociologists and writers of art and society. Raymond Williams, for example, argues that there is no unique and or individual aesthetic object which can be extrapolated from the art world, but rather that there is a continuum of cultural forms and experience of which ordinary speech and experiences may signal as art. By "art" we may frame several artistic "works" or "creations" as so though this reference remains within the institution or special event which creates it and this leaves some works or other possible "art" outside of the frame work, or other interpretations such as other phenomenon which may not be considered as "art".Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 155. . Pierre Bourdieu disagrees with Kant's idea of the "aesthetic". He argues that Kant's "aesthetic" merely represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to other possible and equally valid "aesthetic" experiences which lay outside Kant's narrow definition.Pierre Bourdieu, "Postscript", in Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (London, England: Routledge, 1984), pp. 485–500. ; and David Harris, "Leisure and Higher Education", in Tony Blackshaw, ed., Routledge Handbook of Leisure Studies (London, England: Routledge, 2013), p. 403. and books.google.com/books?id=gc2_zubEovgC&pg=PT403. Timothy Laurie argues that theories of musical aesthetics "framed entirely in terms of appreciation, contemplation or reflection risk idealizing an implausibly unmotivated listener defined solely through musical objects, rather than seeing them as a person for whom complex intentions and motivations produce variable attractions to cultural objects and practices".
Aesthetics	See also	See also
Aesthetics	References	References
Aesthetics	Sources	Sources
Aesthetics	External links	External links Aesthetics in Continental Philosophy article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Medieval Theories of Aesthetics article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The Concept of the Aesthetic Aesthetics entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Category:Aesthetics Category:1730s neologisms Category:Humanities
Aesthetics	Table of Content	Short description, Etymology, History of aesthetics, Aesthetics and the philosophy of art, Aesthetic judgment, universals, and ethics, Aesthetic judgment, Factors involved in aesthetic judgment, Aesthetic universals, Aesthetic ethics, Beauty, New Criticism and "The Intentional Fallacy", Derivative forms of aesthetics, Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis, Aesthetics and science, Truth in beauty and mathematics, Computational approaches, Evolutionary aesthetics, Applied aesthetics, Other approaches, Criticism, See also, References, Sources, External links
Ark of the Covenant	Short description	thumb\|upright=1.25\| Moses and Joshua bowing before the Ark () by James Tissot upright=1.25\|thumb\|Ark of the Covenant on the Anikova dish, The Ark of the Covenant, also known as the Ark of the Testimony or the Ark of God, was a religious storage chest and relic held to be the most sacred object by the Israelites. Religious tradition describes it as a wooden storage chest decorated in solid gold accompanied by an ornamental lid known as the Seat of Mercy. According to the Book of Exodus. and First Book of Kings. in the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament, the Ark contained the Tablets of the Law, by which God delivered the Ten Commandments to Moses at Mount Sinai. According to the Book of Exodus,. the Book of Numbers,. and the Epistle to the Hebrews. in the New Testament, it also contained Aaron's rod and a pot of manna. The biblical account relates that approximately one year after the Israelites' exodus from Egypt, the Ark was created according to the pattern that God gave to Moses when the Israelites were encamped at the foot of Mount Sinai. Thereafter, the gold-plated acacia chest's staves were lifted and carried by the Levites approximately 2,000 cubits () in advance of the people while they marched.. God spoke with Moses "from between the two cherubim" on the Ark's cover.. There are ongoing academic discussions among biblical scholars and archeologists regarding the history of the Ark's movements around the Ancient Near East as well as the history and dating of the Ark narratives in the Hebrew Bible. There is additional scholarly debate over possible historical influences that led to the creation of the Ark, including Bedouin or Egyptian influences.
Ark of the Covenant	Biblical account	Biblical account
Ark of the Covenant	Construction and description	Construction and description thumb\|left\|Ark of the chapelle de l'Adoration (Église Saint-Roch, Paris). According to the Book of Exodus, God instructed Moses to build the Ark during his 40-day stay upon Mount Sinai... He was shown the pattern for the tabernacle and furnishings of the Ark, and told that it would be made of shittim wood (also known as acacia wood). to house the Tablets of Stone. Moses instructed Bezalel and Oholiab to construct the Ark..Sigurd Grindheim, Introducing Biblical Theology, Bloomsbury Publishing, United Kingdom, 2013, p. 59.Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt, Moses and The Torah: Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, pp. 85–86 (Emmaus Road Publishing, 2007). . The Book of Exodus gives detailed instructions on how the Ark is to be constructed.. It is to be cubits in length, cubits breadth, and cubits height (approximately ) of acacia wood. Then it is to be gilded entirely with gold, and a crown or molding of gold is to be put around it. Four rings of gold are to be attached to its four corners, two on each side—and through these rings staves of shittim wood overlaid with gold for carrying the Ark are to be inserted; and these are not to be removed.
Ark of the Covenant	Mobile vanguard	Mobile vanguard The biblical account continues that, after its creation by Moses, the Ark was carried by the Israelites during their 40 years of wandering in the desert. Whenever the Israelites camped, the Ark was placed in the tent of meeting, inside the Tabernacle. When the Israelites, led by Joshua toward the Promised Land, arrived at the banks of the River Jordan, the Ark was carried in the lead, preceding the people, and was the signal for their advance... During the crossing, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters, and remained so until the priests—with the Ark—left the river after the people had passed over..... As memorials, twelve stones were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood.. During the Battle of Jericho, the Ark was carried around the city once a day for six days, preceded by the armed men and seven priests sounding seven trumpets of rams' horns.. On the seventh day, the seven priests sounding the seven trumpets of rams' horns before the Ark compassed the city seven times, and, with a great shout, Jericho's wall fell down flat and the people took the city.. After the defeat at Ai, Joshua lamented before the Ark.. When Joshua read the Law to the people between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal, they stood on each side of the Ark. The Ark was then kept at Shiloh after the Israelites finished their conquest of Canaan. We next hear of the Ark in Bethel, where it was being cared for by the priest Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron.. According to this verse, it was consulted by the people of Israel when they were planning to attack the Benjaminites at the Battle of Gibeah. Later the Ark was kept at Shiloh again,. where it was cared for by Hophni and Phinehas, two sons of Eli..
Ark of the Covenant	Capture by the Philistines	Capture by the Philistines thumb\|1728 illustration of the Ark at the erection of the Tabernacle and the sacred vessels, as in Exodus 40:17–19 According to the biblical narrative, a few years later the elders of Israel decided to take the Ark onto the battlefield to assist them against the Philistines, having recently been defeated at the battle of Eben-Ezer.. They were again heavily defeated, with the loss of 30,000 men. The Ark was captured by the Philistines, and Hophni and Phinehas were killed. The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger "with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head". The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it, and his daughter-in-law, bearing a son at the time the news of the Ark's capture was received, named him Ichabod—explained as "The glory has departed Israel" in reference to the loss of the Ark.. Ichabod's mother died at his birth.. The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune befell them.. At Ashdod it was placed in the temple of Dagon. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with tumors; a plague of rodents was sent over the land. This may have been the bubonic plague.. The affliction of tumours was also visited upon the people of Gath and of Ekron, whither the Ark was successively removed..
Ark of the Covenant	Return of the Ark to the Israelites	Return of the Ark to the Israelites thumb\|upright=1.7\|Joshua passing the River Jordan with the Ark of the Covenant by Benjamin West, 1800 After the Ark had been among them for seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the tumors and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set up in the field of Joshua of Beit Shemesh, and the people of Beit Shemesh offered sacrifices and burnt offerings according to the first five verses of 1 Samuel 6. Verse 19, 1 Samuel 6 states that out of curiosity, the people of Beit Shemesh gazed at the Ark, and as a punishment, God struck down seventy of them (fifty thousand and seventy in some translations). The men of Beit Shemesh sent to Qiryath Ye'arim to have the Ark removed in verse 21, and it was taken to the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was sanctified to keep it. Qiryath Ye'arim remained the abode of the Ark for twenty years, according to 1 Samuel 7. Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In 1 Chronicles 13:3, it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consulting the Ark in the days of Saul.
Ark of the Covenant	During the reign of King David	During the reign of King David thumb\|right\|upright=1.3\|Illustration from the 13th-century Morgan Bible of David bringing the Ark into Jerusalem (2 Samuel 6) In the biblical narrative, at the beginning of his reign over the United Monarchy, King David removed the Ark from Kirjath-jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to Zion, Uzzah, one of the drivers of the cart that carried the Ark, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was struck dead by God for touching it. The place was subsequently named "Perez-Uzzah", literally ,. as a result. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite, instead of carrying it on to Zion, and it stayed there for three months... On hearing that God had blessed Obed-edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, "girded with a linen ephod[...] danced before the Lord with all his might" and in the sight of all the public gathered in Jerusalem, a performance which caused him to be scornfully rebuked by his first wife, Saul's daughter Michal.... In Zion, David put the Ark in the tent he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household.... David used the tent as a personal place of prayer..Barnes, W. E. (1899), Cambridge Bible for Schools on 1 Chronicles 17, accessed 22 February 2020. The Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark.. David's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped on the advice of the prophet Nathan..... The Ark was with the army during the siege of Rabbah;. and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of Absalom's conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered Zadok the priest to return it to Jerusalem..
Ark of the Covenant	The Temple of King Solomon	The Temple of King Solomon right\|thumb\|upright=1.6\|Model of the First Temple, included in a Bible manual for teachers (1922) According to the Biblical narrative, when Abiathar was dismissed from the priesthood by King Solomon for having taken part in Adonijah's conspiracy against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark.. Solomon worshipped before the Ark after his dream in which God promised him wisdom.. During the construction of Solomon's Temple, a special inner room, named ('Holy of Holies'), was prepared to receive and house the Ark;. and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark—containing the original tablets of the Ten Commandments—was placed therein.. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, "for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord".... When Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because it contained the Ark.. King Josiah also had the Ark returned to the Temple,. from which it appears to have been removed by one of his predecessors (cf. 2 Chronicles 33–34 and 2 Kings 21–23).
Ark of the Covenant	During the reign of King Hezekiah	During the reign of King Hezekiah thumb\|The Ark carried into the Temple from the early 15th century Prior to king Josiah who is the last biblical figure mentioned as having seen the Ark, king Hezekiah had seen the Ark... Hezekiah is also known for protecting Jerusalem against the Assyrian Empire by improving the city walls and diverting the waters of the Gihon Spring through a tunnel known today as Hezekiah's Tunnel, which channeled the water inside the city walls to the Pool of Siloam.. In a noncanonical text known as the Treatise of the Vessels, Hezekiah is identified as one of the kings who had the Ark and the other treasures of Solomon's Temple hidden during a time of crisis. This text lists the following hiding places, which it says were recorded on a bronze tablet: (1) a spring named Kohel or Kahal with pure water in a valley with a stopped-up gate; (2) a spring named Kotel (or "wall" in Hebrew); (3) a spring named Zedekiah; (4) an unidentified cistern; (5) Mount Carmel; and (6) locations in Babylon.Davila, J., The Treatise of the Vessels (Massekhet Kelim): A New Translation and Introduction, p. 626 (2013). To many scholars, Hezekiah is also credited as having written all or some of the Book of Kohelet (Ecclesiastes in the Christian tradition), in particular the famously enigmatic epilogue.Quackenbos, D., Recovering an Ancient Tradition: Toward an Understanding of Hezekiah as the Author of Ecclesiastes, pp. 238–253 (2019). Notably, the epilogue appears to refer to the Ark story with references to almond blossoms (i.e., Aaron's rod), locusts, silver, and gold. The epilogue then cryptically refers to a pitcher broken at a fountain and a wheel broken at a cistern.. Although scholars disagree on whether the Pool of Siloam's pure spring waters were used by pilgrims for ritual purification, many scholars agree that a stepped pilgrimage road between the pool and the Temple had been built in the first century CE. This roadway has been partially excavated, but the west side of the Pool of Siloam remains unexcavated.Szanton, N.; Uziel, J. (2016), "Jerusalem, City of David [stepped street dig, July 2013 – end 2014], Preliminary Report (21/08/2016)". Hadashot Arkheologiyot. Israel Antiquities Authority, http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=25046&mag_id=124.
Ark of the Covenant	The invasion of the Kingdom of Babylon	The invasion of the Kingdom of Babylon In 587 BC, when the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem, an ancient Greek version of the biblical third Book of Ezra, 1 Esdras, suggests that Babylonians took away the vessels of the ark of God, but does not mention taking away the Ark: In Rabbinic literature, the final disposition of the Ark is disputed. Some rabbis hold that it must have been carried off to Babylon, while others hold that it must have been hidden lest it be carried off into Babylon and never brought back. A late 2nd-century rabbinic work known as the states the opinions of these rabbis that Josiah, the king of Judah, stored away the Ark, along with the jar of manna, and a jar containing the holy anointing oil, the rod of Aaron which budded and a chest given to Israel by the Philistines.Tosefta (Sotah 13:1); cf. Babylonian Talmud (Kereithot 5b).
Ark of the Covenant	Service of the Kohathites	Service of the Kohathites The Kohathites were one of the Levite houses from the Book of Numbers. Theirs was the responsibility to care for "the most holy things" in the tabernacle. When the camp, then wandering the Wilderness, set out the Kohathites would enter the tabernacle with Aaron and cover the ark with the screening curtain and "then they shall put on it a covering of fine leather, and spread over that a cloth all of blue, and shall put its poles in place." The ark was one of the items of the tent of meeting that the Kohathites were responsible for carrying..
Ark of the Covenant	Jewish tradition on location today	Jewish tradition on location today The Talmud in Yoma suggests that the Ark was removed from the Temple towards the end of the era of the First Temple and the Second Temple never housed it. According to one view, it was taken to Babylon when Nebuchadnezzar conquered Jerusalem in 587 BCE, exiling King Jeconiah along with the upper classes. Another perspective proposes that Josiah, king of Judah, hid the Ark in anticipation of the Temple's destruction. Where it was hidden remains uncertain. One account in the TalmudCiting Mishnah Shekalim 6.2 mentions a priest's suspicion of a tampered stone in a chamber designated for wood storage, hinting at the Ark's concealment. Alternatively, it's suggested that the Ark remained underground in the Holy of Holies. Some of the Chazal, including the Radak and Maimonides, propose that Solomon designed tunnels beneath the Temple to safeguard the Ark that Josiah later used. Attempts to excavate this area have yielded little due to political sensitivities.Citing Yoma 52b.11 An opinion found in the II Maccabees 2:4-10, asserts that Jeremiah hid the Ark and other sacred items in a cave on Mount Nebo (now in Jordan), anticipating the Neo-Babylonian invasion.
Ark of the Covenant	Archaeology and historical context	Archaeology and historical context Archaeological evidence shows strong cultic activity at Kiriath-Jearim in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, well after the ark was supposedly removed from there to Jerusalem. In particular, archaeologists found a large elevated podium, associated with the Northern Kingdom and not the Southern Kingdom, which may have been a shrine. Thomas Römer suggests that this may indicate that the ark was not moved to Jerusalem until much later, possibly during the reign of King Josiah (reigned ). He notes that this might explain why the ark featured prominently in the history before Solomon, but not after. Additionally, 2 Chronicles 35:3 indicates that it was moved during King Josiah's reign. However, Yigal Levin argues that there is no evidence that Kiriath-Jearim was a cultic center in the monarchical era or that it ever housed any "temple of the Ark". K. L. Sparks believes the story of the Ark was written independently around the 8th century BC in a text referred to as the "Ark Narrative" and then incorporated into the main biblical narrative just before the Babylonian exile.K. L. Sparks, "Ark of the Covenant" in Bill T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson (eds.), Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books (InterVarsity Press, 2005), p. 91. Römer also suggests that the ark may have carried sacred stones "of the kind found in the chests of pre-Islamic Bedouins" and speculates that these may have been either a statue of Yahweh or a pair of statues depicting both Yahweh and his companion goddess Asherah.Thomas Römer, The Invention of God (Harvard University Press, 2015), p. 92. In contrast, Scott Noegel has argued that the parallels between the ark and these practices remain "unconvincing" in part because the Bedouin objects lack the ark's distinctive structure, function, and mode of transportation. Unlike the ark, the Bedouin chests "contained no box, no lid, and no poles," they did not serve as the throne or footstool of a god, they were not overlaid with gold, did not have kerubim figures upon them, there were no restrictions on who could touch them, and they were transported on horses or camels. Noegel suggests that the ancient Egyptian Solar barque is a more plausible model for the Israelite ark, since Egyptian barques had all the features just mentioned. He adds that the Egyptians also were known to place written covenants beneath the feet of statues, proving a further parallel to the placement of the covenantal tablets inside the ark.Scott Noegel, "The Egyptian Origin of the Ark of the Covenant" in Thomas E. Levy, Thomas Schneider, and William H. C. Propp (eds.), Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective (Springer, 2015), pp. 223–242. Levin holds that some biblical texts suggest that the Ark of the Covenant was only one among many other different arks at regional shrines prior to the centralization of worship in Jerusalem,Yigal Levin, “One Ark, Two Arks, Three Arks, More? The Many Arks of Ancient Israel,” in Epigraphy, Iconography and the Bible, ed., Meir and Edith Lubetski (Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2021). although Raanan Eichler disagrees. While Clifford Mark McCormick has questioned whether the Ark ever existed,Clifford Mark McCormick. Palace and Temple: A Study of Architectural and Verbal Icons (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 313). pp. 169-190. De Gruyter. 2002. other scholars such as Eichler, David A. Falk, Roger D. Isaacs, and Adam R. Hemmings have defended its historicity and antiquity based on linguistic evidence and significant parallels with similar artifacts from New Kingdom Egypt.
Ark of the Covenant	References in Abrahamic religions	References in Abrahamic religions
Ark of the Covenant	Tanakh	Tanakh thumb\|upright=1\|Replica of the Ark of the Covenant in George Washington Masonic National Memorial The Ark is first mentioned in the Book of Exodus and then numerous times in Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, I Samuel, II Samuel, I Kings, I Chronicles, II Chronicles, Psalms, and Jeremiah. In the Book of Jeremiah, it is referenced by Jeremiah, who, speaking in the days of Josiah,. prophesied a future time, possibly the end of days, when the Ark will no longer be talked about or be made use of again: Rashi comments on this verse that "The entire people will be so imbued with the spirit of sanctity that God's Presence will rest upon them collectively, as if the congregation itself was the Ark of the Covenant."
Ark of the Covenant	Second Book of Maccabees	Second Book of Maccabees According to Second Maccabees, at the beginning of chapter 2:. The "mountain from the top of which Moses saw God's promised land" would be Mount Nebo, located in what is now Jordan.
Ark of the Covenant	Samaritan tradition	Samaritan tradition Samaritan tradition claims that the Ark of the Covenant had been kept at a sanctuary on Mt. Gerizim.
Ark of the Covenant	New Testament	New Testament
Ark of the Covenant	The physical ark of the Old Testament	The physical ark of the Old Testament thumb\|right\|Carrying the Ark of the Covenant: gilded bas-relief at Auch Cathedral, France In the New Testament, the Ark is mentioned in the Letter to the Hebrews and the Revelation to St. John. Hebrews 9:4 states that the Ark contained "the golden pot that had manna, and Aaron's rod that budded, and the tablets of the covenant.". says the prophet saw God's temple in heaven opened, "and the ark of his covenant was seen within his temple."
Ark of the Covenant	The Blessed Virgin Mary as the “New Ark”	The Blessed Virgin Mary as the “New Ark” In the Gospel of Luke, the author's accounts of the Annunciation and Visitation are constructed using eight points of literary parallelism to compare Mary to the Ark. The contents of the ark were seen by Church Fathers including Thomas Aquinas as symbolic of the attributes of Jesus Christ: the manna as the Holy Eucharist; Aaron's rod as Jesus' eternal priestly authority; and the tablets of the Law, as the Lawgiver himself. Thomas Aquinas compared the two types of materials of the ark to the two natures of Christ in the hypostatic union (Jesus having human and divine natures). He wrote, "The Ark, wherein were the Law and the manna, signified Christ, who is 'the living bread that came down from Heaven' and 'the fulfillment of the Law'. Moreover, the wood overlaid with gold signifies that Christ was true man and true God." Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Part: III (Tertia Pars), Question 25, Article 3 Catholic scholars connect the pregnant, birthing Woman of the Apocalypse from Revelation 12:1-2, with the Blessed Virgin Mary, whom they identify as the "Ark of the New Covenant."David Michael Lindsey, The Woman and The Dragon: Apparitions of Mary, p. 21 (Pelican Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2000). . Carrying the saviour of mankind within her, she herself became the Holy of Holies. This is the interpretation given in the third century by Gregory Thaumaturgus, and in the fourth century by Saint Ambrose, Saint Ephraem of Syria and Saint Augustine.Dwight Longenecker, David Gustafson, Mary: A Catholic Evangelical Debate, p. 32 (Gracewing, 2003). . The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches that Mary is a metaphorical version of the ark: "Mary, in whom the Lord himself has just made his dwelling, is the daughter of Zion in person, the ark of the covenant, the place where the glory of the Lord dwells. She is 'the dwelling of God[...] with men." Saint Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, is credited with writing about the connections between the Ark and the Virgin Mary: "O noble Virgin, truly you are greater than any other greatness. For who is your equal in greatness, O dwelling place of God the Word? To whom among all creatures shall I compare you, O Virgin? You are greater than them all O (Ark of the) Covenant, clothed with purity instead of gold! You are the Ark in which is found the golden vessel containing the true manna, that is, the flesh in which Divinity resides" (Homily of the Papyrus of Turin).
Ark of the Covenant	Quran	Quran The Ark is referred to in the Quran (Surah Al-Baqara: 248):
Ark of the Covenant	The Ark in other faiths	The Ark in other faiths According to Uri Rubin, the Ark of the Covenant has a religious basis in Islam (and the Baháʼí Faith), which gives it special significance.
Ark of the Covenant	Claims of current status	Claims of current status
Ark of the Covenant	According to the Book of Maccabees	According to the Book of Maccabees The Book of 2 Maccabees 2:4–10, written around 100 B.C. claims that the prophet Jeremiah, following “being warned by God" before the Babylonian invasion, took the Ark, the Tabernacle, and the Altar of Incense, and buried them in a cave, informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown "until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy."Cf. Deuteronomy 34:1–3 and 2 Maccabees 2:4–8.
Ark of the Covenant	Ethiopia	Ethiopia thumb\|The Chapel of the Tablet at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Axum allegedly houses the original Ark of the Covenant The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant in Axum. The Ark is kept under guard in a treasury near the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion. Replicas of the tablets within the Ark, or tabots, are kept in every Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Each tabot is kept in its own holy of holies, each with its own dedication to a particular saint; the most popular of these include Saint Mary, Saint George and Saint Michael.Stuart Munro-Hay, 2005, The Quest for the Ark of the Covenant, Tauris (reviewed in Times Literary Supplement 19 August 2005 p. 36). The Kebra Nagast is often said to have been composed to legitimise the Solomonic dynasty, which ruled the Ethiopian Empire following its establishment in 1270, but this is not the case. It was originally composed in some other language (Coptic or Greek), then translated into Arabic, and translated into Geʽez in 1321.Bezold, Carl. 1905. Kebra Nagast, die Kerrlichkeit der Könige: Nach den Handschriften in Berlin, London, Oxford und Paris. München: K.B. Akademie der Wissenschaften. It narrates how the Ark of the Covenant was brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I with divine assistance, while a forgery was left in the Temple in Jerusalem. Although the Kebra Nagast is the best-known account of this belief, the belief predates the document. Abu al-Makarim, writing in the last quarter of the twelfth century, makes one early reference to this belief that they possessed the Ark. "The Abyssinians possess also the Ark of the Covenant", he wrote, and, after a description of the object, describes how the liturgy is celebrated upon the Ark four times a year, "on the feast of the great nativity, on the feast of the glorious Baptism, on the feast of the holy Resurrection, and on the feast of the illuminating Cross."B. T. A. Evetts (translator), The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and Some Neighboring Countries attributed to Abu Salih, the Armenian, with added notes by Alfred J. Butler (Oxford, 1895), p. 287f. In his controversial 1992 book The Sign and the Seal, British writer Graham Hancock reports on the Ethiopian belief that the ark spent several years in Egypt before it came to Ethiopia via the Nile River, where it was kept on the islands of Lake Tana for about four hundred years and finally taken to Axum. Archaeologist John Holladay of the University of Toronto called Hancock's theory "garbage and hogwash"; Edward Ullendorff, a former professor of Ethiopian Studies at the University of London, said he "wasted a lot of time reading it." In a 1992 interview, Ullendorff says that he examined the ark held in the church in Axum in 1941. Describing the ark there, he says, "They have a wooden box, but it's empty. Middle- to late-medieval construction, when these were fabricated ad hoc." On 25 June 2009, the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, Abune Paulos, said he would announce to the world the next day the unveiling of the Ark of the Covenant, which he said had been kept safe and secure in a church in Axum.Fendel, Hillel (2009-06-25). "Holy Ark Announcement Due on Friday", Aruta Sheva (Israel International News). Retrieved on 2009-06-25 The following day, he announced that he would not unveil the Ark after all, but that instead he could attest to its current status.
Ark of the Covenant	Southern Africa	Southern Africa The Lemba people of South Africa and Zimbabwe have claimed that their ancestors carried the Ark south, calling it the ngoma lungundu "voice of God", eventually hiding it in a deep cave in the Dumghe mountains, their spiritual home. On 14 April 2008, in a UK Channel 4 documentary, Tudor Parfitt, taking a literalist approach to the Biblical story, described his research into this claim. He says that the object described by the Lemba has attributes similar to the Ark. It was of similar size, was carried on poles by priests, was not allowed to touch the ground, was revered as a voice of their God, and was used as a weapon of great power, sweeping enemies aside. In his book The Lost Ark of the Covenant (2008), Parfitt also suggests that the Ark was taken to Arabia following the events depicted in the Second Book of Maccabees, and cites Arabic sources which maintain it was brought in distant times to Yemen. Genetic Y-DNA analyses in the 2000s have established a partially Middle-Eastern origin for a portion of the male Lemba population but no specific Jewish connection.. Lemba tradition maintains that the Ark spent some time in a place called Sena, which might be Sena, Yemen. Later, it was taken across the sea to East Africa and may have been taken inland at the time of Great Zimbabwe. According to their oral traditions, it self-destructed sometime after the Lemba's arrival with the Ark. Using a core from the original, the Lemba priests constructed a new one. This replica was discovered in a cave by a Swedish-German missionary named Harald Philip Hans von Sicard in the 1940s and eventually found its way to the Museum of Human Science in Harare.
Ark of the Covenant	Europe	Europe
Ark of the Covenant	Rome	Rome The 2nd century Rabbi Eliezer ben José claimed that he saw somewhere in Rome the mercy-seat lid of the ark. According to his account, a bloodstain was present and was told that it was a stain from the blood which the Jewish high priest sprinkled thereon on the Day of Atonement.". Accordingly, another tale claims that the Ark was kept within the Basilica of Saint John Lateran, surviving the pillages of Rome by King of the Visigoths Alaric I and King of the Vandals Gaiseric but was eventually lost when the basilica burned in the fifth century.Debra J. Birch, Pilgrimage To Rome In The Middle Ages: Continuity and Change, p. 111 (The Boydell Press, 1998). .
Ark of the Covenant	Ireland	Ireland Between 1899 and 1902, the British-Israel Association of London carried out limited excavations of the Hill of Tara in Ireland looking for the Ark of the Covenant. The Irish nationalists including Maud Gonne and the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland (RSAI) campaigned successfully to have them stopped before they destroyed the hill. A non-invasive survey by archaeologist Conor Newman carried out from 1992 until 1995 found no evidence of the Ark. The British Israelites believed that the Ark was located at the grave of the Egyptian princess Tea Tephi, who according to Irish legend came to Ireland in the 6th century BC and married Irish King Érimón. Because of the historical importance of Tara, Irish nationalists like Douglas Hyde and W. B. Yeats voiced their protests in newspapers and in 1902 Maud Gonne led a protest against the excavations at the site.
Ark of the Covenant	In literature and the arts	In literature and the arts Philip Kaufman conceived of the Ark of the Covenant as the main plot device of Steven Spielberg's 1981 adventure film Raiders of the Lost Ark, where it is found by Indiana Jones in the Egyptian city of Tanis in 1936. In early 2020, a prop version made for the film (which does not actually appear onscreen) was featured on television series Antiques Roadshow. In the Danish family film The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar from 2006, the main part of the treasure found in the end is the Ark of the Covenant. The power of the Ark comes from static electricity stored in separated metal plates like a giant Leyden jar. In Harry Turtledove's novel Alpha and Omega (2019) the ark is found by archeologists, and the characters have to deal with the proven existence of God. The Ark has been depicted many times in art for two thousand years, some examples are in the article above, a few more are here.
Ark of the Covenant	Yom HaAliyah	Yom HaAliyah Yom HaAliyah (Aliyah Day) () is an Israeli national holiday celebrated annually on the tenth of the Hebrew month of Nisan to commemorate the Israelites crossing the Jordan River into the Land of Israel while carrying the Ark of the Covenant.
Ark of the Covenant	See also	See also Ngoma Lungundu Copper Scroll List of artifacts in biblical archaeology The Exodus Decoded (2006 television documentary) History of ancient Israel and Judah Jewish symbolism Mikoshi, a portable Shinto shrine Gihon Spring Josephus Mount Gerizim Temple menorah Pool of Siloam Samaritans Siloam Tunnel Solomon's Temple
Ark of the Covenant	Footnotes	Footnotes
Ark of the Covenant	References	References
Ark of the Covenant	Further reading	Further reading Carew, Mairead, Tara and the Ark of the Covenant: A Search for the Ark of the Covenant by British Israelites on the Hill of Tara, 1899–1902. Royal Irish Academy, 2003. Cline, Eric H. (2007), From Eden to Exile: Unravelling Mysteries of the Bible, National Geographic Society, Falk, David A. (2020), The Ark of the Covenant in Its Egyptian Context: An Illustrated Journey, Hendrickson Publishers, Foster, Charles, Tracking the Ark of the Covenant. Monarch, 2007. Grierson, Roderick & Munro-Hay, Stuart, The Ark of the Covenant. Orion Books Ltd, 2000. Hancock, Graham, The Sign and the Seal: The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant. Touchstone Books, 1993. Haran, M., The Disappearance of the Ark, IEJ 13 (1963), pp. 46–58 Hertz, J. H., The Pentateuch and Haftoras. Deuteronomy. Oxford University Press, 1936. Hubbard, David (1956) The Literary Sources of the Kebra Nagast Ph.D. dissertation, St. Andrews University, Scotland Munro-Hay, Stuart, The Quest For The Ark of The Covenant: The True History of The Tablets of Moses. L. B. Tauris & Co Ltd., 2006. Ritmeyer, L., The Ark of the Covenant: Where It Stood in Solomon's Temple. Biblical Archaeology Review 22/1: 46–55, 70–73, 1996 Stolz, Fritz. "Ark of the Covenant." In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 125. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999.
Ark of the Covenant	External links	External links Portions of this article have been taken from the Jewish Encyclopedia of 1906. Ark of the Covenant The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I. Ark of the Covenant Smithsonian.com "Keepers of the Lost Ark?"' Shyovitz, David, The Lost Ark of the Covenant. Jewish Virtual Library Category:Hebrew Bible objects Category:Hebrew Bible words and phrases Category:Tabernacle and Temples in Jerusalem Category:Book of Exodus Category:Containers Category:Relics Category:Chests (furniture) Category:Individual wooden objects Category:Gold objects Category:Epistle to the Hebrews Category:Lost works of art
Ark of the Covenant	Table of Content	Short description, Biblical account, Construction and description, Mobile vanguard, Capture by the Philistines, Return of the Ark to the Israelites, During the reign of King David, The Temple of King Solomon, During the reign of King Hezekiah, The invasion of the Kingdom of Babylon, Service of the Kohathites, Jewish tradition on location today, Archaeology and historical context, References in Abrahamic religions, Tanakh, Second Book of Maccabees, Samaritan tradition, New Testament, The physical ark of the Old Testament, The Blessed Virgin Mary as the “New Ark”, Quran, The Ark in other faiths, Claims of current status, According to the Book of Maccabees, Ethiopia, Southern Africa, Europe, Rome, Ireland, In literature and the arts, Yom HaAliyah, See also, Footnotes, References, Further reading, External links
Angles (tribe)	Short description	thumb\|upright=1.4\|The approximate positions of some Germanic peoples reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 1st century. Suevian peoples in red, and other Irminones in purple The Angles (, ) were one of the main Germanic peoples who settled in Great Britain in the post-Roman period. They founded several kingdoms of the Heptarchy in Anglo-Saxon England. Their name, which probably derives from the Angeln peninsula, is the root of the name England ("Engla land", "Land of the Angles"), and English, in reference to both for its people and language. According to Tacitus, writing around 100 AD, a people known as Angles (Anglii) lived beyond (apparently northeast of) the Lombards and Semnones, who lived near the River Elbe.
Angles (tribe)	Etymology	Etymology The name of the Angles may have been first recorded in Latinised form, as Anglii, in the Germania of Tacitus. It is thought to derive from the name of the area they originally inhabited, the Angeln peninsula, which is on the Baltic Sea coast of Schleswig-Holstein. Two related theories have been advanced, which attempt to give the name a Germanic etymology: It originated from the Germanic root for "narrow" (compare German and Dutch eng = "narrow"), meaning "the Narrow [Water]", i.e., the Schlei estuary; the root would be h₂enǵʰ, "tight". The name derives from "hook" (as in angling for fish), in reference to the shape of the peninsula where they lived; Indo-European linguist Julius Pokorny derives it from Proto-Indo-European h₂enk-, "bend" (see ankle).Pyles, Thomas and John Algeo 1993. Origins and Development of the English Language. 4th edition. (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich). Alternatively, the Angles may have been called such because they were a fishing people or were originally descended from such.Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable 1993 A History of the English Language. 4th edition. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall). In Old English, the same term refers the Angles before and after the migration to Britain. As most Germanic settlers in Britain during this time were Angles, the settled area became referred to as England ("Engla land", "the land or country of the Angles"). While Latin and Celtic-speaking populations referred to the Germanic speakers in Britain in general by terms related to "Saxons", they came to refer to themselves as ("Angles", "English people"). "Angle" and related terms therefore have some ambiguity in their scope. From is also derived "English" (). According to , the brothers Dan and Angul were made rulers by the consent of their people because of their bravery and the Danes and Angles are respectively named from them.
Angles (tribe)	Greco-Roman historiography	Greco-Roman historiography
Angles (tribe)	Tacitus	Tacitus thumb\|right\|upright=0.9\|Angeln in northern Schleswig-Holstein. thumb\|right\|upright=0.9\|Possible locations of the Angles and Jutes before their migration to Britain The earliest surviving mention of the Angles is in chapter 40 of Tacitus's Germania written around AD 98. Tacitus describes the "Anglii" as one of the more remote Suebic tribes living beyond the Semnones and Langobardi, who lived near the lower Elbe, and were better known to the Romans. He grouped the Angles with several other tribes in that region, the Reudigni, Aviones, Varini, Eudoses, Suarines, and Nuithones. According to Tacitus, they were all living behind ramparts of rivers and woods, and therefore inaccessible to attack. He gives no precise indication of their geographical situation but states that, together with the six other tribes, they worshipped Nerthus, or Mother Earth, whose sanctuary was located on "an island in the Ocean". The Eudoses are generally considered to be the Jutes and these names have been associated with localities in Jutland or on the Baltic coast. The coast contains sufficient estuaries, inlets, rivers, islands, swamps, and marshes to have been inaccessible to those not familiar with the terrain, such as the Romans, who considered it unknown and inaccessible. The majority of scholars believe that the Anglii lived on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, probably in the southern part of the Jutland peninsula. This view is based partly on Old English and Danish traditions regarding persons and events of the fourth century, and partly because striking affinities to the cult of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in pre-Christian Scandinavian religion.
Angles (tribe)	Ptolemy	Ptolemy Surviving versions of the work of Ptolemy, who wrote around AD 150, in his Geography (2.10), describe the Angles in a confusing manner. In one passage, the Sueboi Angeilloi (or Suevi Angili), are described as living inland between the northern Rhine and central Elbe, but apparently not touching either river, with the Suebic Langobardi on the Rhine to their west, and the Suebic Semnones on the Elbe stretching to their east, forming a band of Suebic peoples. This positioning of the Langobardi and Angli is unexpected, as are the positions of many of the peoples in this passage. The text is believed to result from the combining of different types of older texts. As pointed out by Gudmund Schütte, the neighbouring Langobards appear in two places, and the ones near the Rhine appears to be there by mistake.Ptolemy, Geography, 2.10. Schütte, in his analysis, believes that the Angles are placed correctly relative to the Langobardi to their west, but that these have been positioned in the wrong place. The Langobardi also appear in the expected position on the lower Elbe, and the Angles would be expected to their northeast, based upon Tacitus. Another theory is that all or part of the Angles dwelt or moved among other coastal people, perhaps confederated up to the basin of the Saale (in the neighbourhood of the ancient canton of Engilin) on the Unstrut valleys below the Kyffhäuserkreis, from which region the Lex Anglorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed by many to have come. The ethnic names of Frisians and Warines are also attested in these Saxon districts.
Angles (tribe)	Procopius	Procopius An especially early reference to the Angli in Britain is by the 6th-century Byzantine historian Procopius (who however expressed doubts about the stories he had heard—apparently from Frankish diplomats—about events in the west). He does not mention the Saxons, but he states that an island called Brittia (which he says is separate and distinct from Britain itself) was settled by three nations, each ruled by its own king: the Angili, Frissones, and Brittones. Each nation was so prolific that it sent large numbers of individuals every year to the Franks, who allow them to settle in the part of their land which appears to be more deserted, and by this means they say [the Franks] are winning over the island. Thus it actually happened that not long ago the king of the Franks, in sending some of his intimates on an embassy to the Emperor Justinian in Byzantium, sent with them some of the Angili, thus seeking to establish his claim that this island was ruled by him.Procopius book VIII, xx. Procopius says that the Angles had recently sailed a large army of 400 ships from Brittia to Europe, to the Rhine, to enforce a marriage agreement with the Warini who he said were living north of the Franks at that time.
Angles (tribe)	Medieval historiography	Medieval historiography thumb\|The Saint Petersburg Bede, 8th century Bede (died 735) stated that the Anglii, before coming to Great Britain, dwelt in a land called Angulus, "which lies between the province of the Jutes and the Saxons, and remains unpopulated to this day." A similar account, possibly based on Bede's, is given by the 9th-century Historia Brittonum. King Alfred the Great and the chronicler Æthelweard identified this place with Angeln, in the province of Schleswig (though it may then have been of greater extent), and this identification agrees with the indications given by Bede. In the Norwegian seafarer Ohthere of Hålogaland's account of a two-day voyage from the Oslo fjord to Schleswig, he reported the lands on his starboard bow, and Alfred appended the note "on these islands dwelt the Engle before they came hither". Confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named Wermund and Offa of Angel, from whom the Mercian royal family claimed descent and whose exploits are connected with Angeln, Schleswig, and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig), from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the fifth century, the Anglii invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the legal code issued to the Thuringians: Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum. The Angles are the subject of a legend about Pope Gregory I, who happened to see a group of Angle children from Deira for sale as slaves in the Roman market. As the story was told by Bede, Gregory was struck by the unusual appearance of the slaves and asked about their background. When told they were called Anglii (Angles), he replied with a Latin pun that translates well into English: "Bene, nam et angelicam habent faciem, et tales angelorum in caelis decet esse coheredes" (It is well, for they have an angelic face, and such people ought to be co-heirs of the angels in heaven). Supposedly, this encounter inspired the pope to launch a mission to bring Christianity to their countrymen.
Angles (tribe)	Archaeology	Archaeology The province of Schleswig has proved rich in prehistoric antiquities that date apparently from the fourth and fifth centuries. A large cremation cemetery has been found at Borgstedt, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, and it has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in pagan graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsberg moor (in Angeln) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, etc., and in Nydam, even ships. By the help of these discoveries, Angle culture in the age preceding the invasion of Britannia can be pieced together.
Angles (tribe)	Anglian kingdoms in England	Anglian kingdoms in England thumb\|right\|Angles, Saxons, and Jutes throughout England According to sources such as the History of Bede, after the invasion of Britannia, the Angles split up and founded the kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. H. R. Loyn has observed in this context that "a sea voyage is perilous to tribal institutions", and the apparently tribe-based kingdoms were formed in England. Early times had two northern kingdoms (Bernicia and Deira) and two midland ones (Middle Anglia and Mercia), which had by the seventh century resolved themselves into two Angle kingdoms, viz., Northumbria and Mercia. Northumbria held suzerainty amidst the Germanic presence in the British Isles in the 7th century, but was eclipsed by the rise of Mercia in the 8th century. Both kingdoms fell in the great assaults of the Danish Viking armies in the 9th century. Their royal houses were effectively destroyed in the fighting, and their Angle populations came under the Danelaw. Further south, the Saxon kings of Wessex withstood the Danish assaults. Then in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, the kings of Wessex defeated the Danes and took control of areas inhabited by Angles that were formerly in the Danelaw. They united their house in marriage with the surviving Angle royalty and were accepted by the Angles as their kings, ultimately resulting in the Kingdom of England. The regions of East Anglia and Northumbria are still known by their original titles. Northumbria once stretched as far north as what is now southeast Scotland, including Edinburgh, and as far south as the Humber estuary and even the river Witham. The rest of that people stayed at the centre of the Angle homeland in the northeastern portion of the modern German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Jutland Peninsula. There, a small peninsular area is still called Angeln today and is formed as a triangle drawn roughly from modern Flensburg on the Flensburger Fjord to the City of Schleswig and then to Maasholm, on the Schlei inlet.
Angles (tribe)	Notes	Notes
Angles (tribe)	References	References
Angles (tribe)	Bibliography	Bibliography Category:Early Germanic peoples Category:History of Northumberland Category:Ingaevones Category:Migration Period Category:Peoples of Anglo-Saxon England
Angles (tribe)	Table of Content	Short description, Etymology, Greco-Roman historiography, Tacitus, Ptolemy, Procopius, Medieval historiography, Archaeology, Anglian kingdoms in England, Notes, References, Bibliography
Aster CT-80	Short description	The Aster CT-80 is a 1982 personal computer developed by the small Dutch company MCP (later renamed to Aster Computers), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several Eurocard PCB's with DIN 41612 connectors, and a backplane all based on a 19-inch rack configuration. It was the first commercially available Dutch personal/home computer.Except perhaps for the Holborn 9100 computer which was a few months earlier, but which was designed and sold as a minicomputer at ten times the price of the Aster. The Aster computer could use the software written for the popular Tandy TRS-80 computer while fixing many of the problems of that computer, but it could also run CP/M software, with a large amount of free memory Transient Program Area, (TPA) and a full 80×25 display, and it could be used as a Videotext terminal. Although the Aster was a clone of the TRS-80 Model I it was in fact more compatible with the TRS-80 Model III and ran all the software of these systems including games. It also had a built-in speaker which was compatible with such games software.
Aster CT-80	Models	Models Three models were sold. The first model (launched June 1982) looked like the IBM PC, a rectangular base unit with two floppy drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate detachable keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5" floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened Apple with a built-in keyboard. All units ran much faster than the original TRS-80, at 4 MHz, (with a software selectable throttle to the original speed for compatibility purposes) and the display supported upper and lower case, hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic), and an improved character font set. The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 KB, more than four times the capacity of the original TRS-80. A special version of NewDos/80, (an improved TRS-DOS compatible Disk operating system) was used to support these disk capacities when using the TRS-80 compatibility mode. For the educational market a version of the first model was produced with a new plastic enclosure (the First Asters had an all-metal enclosure) that also had an opening on the top in which a cassette recorder could be placed. This model was used in a cluster with one Aster (with disk drives) for the teacher, and eight disk less versions for the pupils. The pupils could download software from the teachers computer through a network based on a fast serial connection, as well as sending back their work to the teachers computer. There was also hardware in place through which the teacher could see the display of each pupils screen on his own monitor.
Aster CT-80	Working modes	Working modes The Aster used 64 KB of RAM and had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy or with a TRS-DOS floppy, the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible, with 48 KB of RAM. When the boot loader detected a CP/M floppy, the Aster would reconfigure its internal memory architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free RAM for programs (TPA) and an 80 x 25 display. This dual-architecture capability only existed on one other TRS-80 clone, the LOBO Max-80. With a special configuration tool, the CT-80 could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems. A third mode was entered with a special boot floppy which turned the Aster into a Videotex terminal with a 40x25 display and a Videotex character set, The software used the built in RS-232 interface of the Aster to control a modem through which it could contact a Prestel service provider.
Aster CT-80	Sales	Sales Most Aster CT-80's (about 10 thousand of them) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the "honderd scholen project" (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the technical and other demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Another important demand was that the computers could be used in a network (Aster developed special software and hardware for that). Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to Philips and their P2000 homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the technical demands, was made in Austria and did not have network hardware nor software.

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