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Achaeans (Homer)
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Genealogy of the Argives
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Genealogy of the Argives
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Achaeans (Homer)
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See also
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See also
Achaea (modern province)
Achaea (Roman province)
Achaean League
Aegean civilization
Denyen
Historicity of the Iliad
Homer
Mycenaean Greece
Mycenaean language
Military of Mycenaean Greece
Troy
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Achaeans (Homer)
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References
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References
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Achaeans (Homer)
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Citations
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Citations
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Achaeans (Homer)
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Sources
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Sources
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Achaeans (Homer)
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External links
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External links
Category:Mycenaean Greece
Category:Ancient tribes in Greece
Category:Sea Peoples
Category:Ancient tribes in Crete
*
Category:Denyen
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Achaeans (Homer)
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Table of Content
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Short description, Etymology, Homeric versus later use, Hittite documents, Egyptian sources, Greek mythology, Genealogy of the Argives, See also, References, Citations, Sources, External links
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Atle Selberg
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Short description
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Atle Selberg (14 June 1917 – 6 August 2007) was a Norwegian mathematician known for his work in analytic number theory and the theory of automorphic forms, and in particular for bringing them into relation with spectral theory. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1950 and an honorary Abel Prize in 2002.
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Atle Selberg
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Early years
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Early years
Selberg was born in Langesund, Norway, the son of teacher Anna Kristina Selberg and mathematician Ole Michael Ludvigsen Selberg. Two of his three brothers, Sigmund and Henrik, were also mathematicians. His other brother, Arne, was a professor of engineering.
While he was still at school he was influenced by the work of Srinivasa Ramanujan and he found an exact analytical formula for the partition function as suggested by the works of Ramanujan; however, this result was first published by Hans Rademacher.
He studied at the University of Oslo and completed his doctorate in 1943.
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Atle Selberg
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World War II
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World War II
During World War II, Selberg worked in isolation due to the German occupation of Norway. After the war, his accomplishments became known, including a proof that a positive proportion of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function lie on the line .
During the war, he fought against the German invasion of Norway, and was imprisoned several times.
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Atle Selberg
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Post-war in Norway
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Post-war in Norway
After the war, he turned to sieve theory, a previously neglected topic which Selberg's work brought into prominence. In a 1947 paper he introduced the Selberg sieve, a method well adapted in particular to providing auxiliary upper bounds, and which contributed to Chen's theorem, among other important results.
In 1948 Selberg submitted two papers in Annals of Mathematics in which he proved by elementary means the theorems for primes in arithmetic progression and the density of primes. This challenged the widely held view of his time that certain theorems are only obtainable with the advanced methods of complex analysis. Both results were based on his work on the asymptotic formula
where
for primes . He established this result by elementary means in March 1948, and by July of that year, Selberg and Paul Erdős each obtained elementary proofs of the prime number theorem, both using the asymptotic formula above as a starting point. Circumstances leading up to the proofs, as well as publication disagreements, led to a bitter dispute between the two mathematicians.
For his fundamental accomplishments during the 1940s, Selberg received the 1950 Fields Medal.
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Atle Selberg
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Institute for Advanced Study
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Institute for Advanced Study
Selberg moved to the United States and worked as an associate professor at Syracuse University and later settled at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in the 1950s, where he remained until his death. During the 1950s he worked on introducing spectral theory into number theory, culminating in his development of the Selberg trace formula, the most famous and influential of his results. In its simplest form, this establishes a duality between the lengths of closed geodesics on a compact Riemann surface and the eigenvalues of the Laplacian, which is analogous to the duality between the prime numbers and the zeros of the zeta function.
He generally worked alone. His only coauthor was Sarvadaman Chowla. (See 58:30 of 1:18:02 in video.)
Selberg was awarded the 1986 Wolf Prize in Mathematics. He was also awarded an honorary Abel Prize in 2002, its founding year, before the awarding of the regular prizes began.
Selberg received many distinctions for his work, in addition to the Fields Medal, the Wolf Prize and the Gunnerus Medal. He was elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
In 1972, he was awarded an honorary degree, doctor philos. honoris causa, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology.
His first wife, Hedvig, died in 1995. With her, Selberg had two children: Ingrid Selberg (married to playwright Mustapha Matura) and Lars Selberg. In 2003 Atle Selberg married Betty Frances ("Mickey") Compton (born in 1929).
He died at home in Princeton, New Jersey on 6 August 2007 of heart failure. Upon his death he was survived by his widow, daughter, son, and four grandchildren.
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Atle Selberg
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Selected publications
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Selected publications
Selberg's collected works were published in two volumes. The first volume contains 41 articles, and the second volume contains three additional articles, in addition to Selberg's lectures on sieves.
Description at M.I.T. Press Bookstore
Description at M.I.T. Press Bookstore
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Atle Selberg
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References
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References
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Atle Selberg
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Further reading
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Further reading
Albers, Donald J. and Alexanderson, Gerald L. (2011), Fascinating Mathematical People: interviews and memoirs, "Atle Selberg", pp 254–73, Princeton University Press, .
Interview with Selberg
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Atle Selberg
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External links
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External links
Atle Selberg archive webpage
Obituary at Institute for Advanced Study
Obituary in The Times
Atle Selbergs private archive exists at NTNU University Library
Category:1917 births
Category:2007 deaths
Category:20th-century American mathematicians
Category:21st-century American mathematicians
Category:Fields Medalists
Category:Institute for Advanced Study faculty
Category:Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters
Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Category:Norwegian emigrants to the United States
Category:Norwegian mathematicians
Category:Number theorists
Category:People from Bamble
Category:University of Oslo alumni
Category:Wolf Prize in Mathematics laureates
Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
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Atle Selberg
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Table of Content
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Short description, Early years, World War II, Post-war in Norway, Institute for Advanced Study, Selected publications, References, Further reading, External links
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Aeschylus
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Short description
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Aeschylus (,Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ;"Aeschylus". Webster's New World College Dictionary. ; /524 – /455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work,R. Lattimore, Aeschylus I: Oresteia, 4 and understanding of earlier Greek tragedy is largely based on inferences made from reading his surviving plays.Martin Cropp, 'Lost Tragedies: A Survey'; A Companion to Greek Tragedy, p. 273 According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed conflict among them. Formerly, characters interacted only with the chorus.The remnant of a commemorative inscription, dated to the 3rd century BC, lists four, possibly eight, dramatic poets (probably including Choerilus, Phrynichus, and Pratinas) who had won tragic victories at the Dionysia before Aeschylus had. Thespis was traditionally regarded the inventor of tragedy. According to another tradition, tragedy was established in Athens in the late 530s BC, but that may simply reflect an absence of records. Major innovations in dramatic form, credited to Aeschylus by Aristotle and the anonymous source The Life of Aeschylus, may be exaggerations and should be viewed with caution (Martin Cropp (2006), "Lost Tragedies: A Survey" in A Companion to Greek Tragedy, pp. 272–74)
Only seven of Aeschylus's estimated 70 to 90 plays have survived in complete form. There is a long-standing debate regarding the authorship of one of them, Prometheus Bound, with some scholars arguing that it may be the work of his son Euphorion. Fragments from other plays have survived in quotations, and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyri. These fragments often give further insights into Aeschylus' work.P. Levi, Greek Drama, 159 He was likely the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy. His Oresteia is the only extant ancient example.S. Saïd, Aeschylean Tragedy, 215 At least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians' second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). This work, The Persians, is one of very few classical Greek tragedies concerned with contemporary events, and the only one extant.S. Saïd, Aeschylean Tragedy, 221 The significance of the war with Persia was so great to Aeschylus and the Greeks that his epitaph commemorates his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon while making no mention of his success as a playwright.
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Aeschylus
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Life
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Life
thumb|275x275px|Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore of Eleusis, Aeschylus' hometown
Aeschylus was born around 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about northwest of Athens, in the fertile valleys of western Attica. Some scholars argue that the date of Aeschylus's birth may be based on counting back 40 years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia.Grene, David, and Richmond Lattimore, eds. The Complete Greek Tragedies: Vol. 1, Aeschylus. University of Chicago Press, 1959. His family was wealthy and well established. His father, Euphorion, was said to be a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica, but this might be a fiction invented by the ancients to account for the grandeur of Aeschylus' plays.S. Saïd, Eschylean tragedy, 217
As a youth, Aeschylus worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he woke, he began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was 26 years old. He won his first victory at the Dionysia in 484 BC.
In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes' reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis.Kopff 1997 pp. 1–472
The Persian Wars played a large role in Aeschylus' life and career. In 490 BC, he and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the invading army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians emerged triumphant, and the victory was celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus was killed while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero.
In 480 BC, Aeschylus was called into military service again, together with his younger brother Ameinias, against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of Salamis. Aeschylus also fought at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. (emphasis in original) Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus' war record and his contribution in Salamis. Salamis holds a prominent place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia.
Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient cult of Demeter based in his home town of Eleusis. According to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of asebeia (impiety) for revealing some of the cult's secrets on stage.Nicomachean Ethics 1111a8–10.Filonik, J. (2013). Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal. Dike-Rivista di Storia del Diritto Greco ed Ellenistico, 16, page 23.
Other sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. Aeschylus took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Dionysus. He pleaded ignorance at his trial. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the military service of him and his brothers during the Persian Wars. According to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus' younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing the jury the stump of the hand he had lost at Salamis, where he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus' brother but to Ameinias of Pallene.
Aeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, having been invited by Hiero I, tyrant of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island. He produced The Women of Aetna during one of these trips (in honor of the city founded by Hieron), and restaged his Persians. By 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 472 BC, Aeschylus staged the production that included the Persians, with Pericles serving as choregos.
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Aeschylus
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Personal life
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Personal life
Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Euaeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 BC in competition against both Sophocles and Euripides. A nephew of Aeschylus, Philocles (his sister's son), was also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' Oedipus Rex. Aeschylus had at least two brothers, Cynegeirus and Ameinias.
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Aeschylus
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Death
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Death
thumb|The death of Aeschylus illustrated in the 15th century Florentine Picture Chronicle by Maso Finiguerra
In 458 BC, Aeschylus returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela, where he died in 456 or 455 BC. Valerius Maximus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise dropped by an eagle which had mistaken his head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell, and killed him. Pliny, in his Naturalis Historiæ, adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object, but this story may be a legend and due to a misunderstanding of the iconography on Aeschylus' tomb.Critchley 2009 Aeschylus' work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death his tragedies were the only ones allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also became playwrights.
The inscription on Aeschylus' gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements:
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Aeschylus
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Works
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Works
thumb|250px|Modern picture of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, where many of Aeschylus's plays were performed
thumb|Tragoediae septem (1552)
The seeds of Greek drama were sown in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus' lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia, held in spring. The festival opened with a procession which was followed by a competition of boys singing dithyrambs, and all culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions. The first competition Aeschylus would have participated in involved three playwrights each presenting three tragedies and one satyr play. A second competition involving five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges.
Aeschylus entered many of these competitions, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven tragedies attributed to him have survived intact: The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants, the trilogy known as The Oresteia (the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides), and Prometheus Bound (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play – the success of which is uncertain – all of Aeschylus's extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia.
The Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays.
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Aeschylus
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Trilogies
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Trilogies
One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative. The Oresteia is the only extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The satyr plays that followed his tragic trilogies also drew from myth.
The satyr play Proteus, which followed the Oresteia, treated the story of Menelaus' detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. It is assumed, based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, that three other extant plays of his were components of connected trilogies: Seven Against Thebes was the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound were each the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively. Scholars have also suggested several completely lost trilogies, based on known play titles. A number of these treated myths about the Trojan War. One, collectively called the Achilleis, comprised Myrmidons, Nereids and Phrygians (alternately, The Ransoming of Hector).
Another trilogy apparently recounted the entrance of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (Memnon and The Weighing of Souls being two components of the trilogy). The Award of the Arms, The Phrygian Women, and The Salaminian Women suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax. Aeschylus seems to have written about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) in a trilogy consisting of The Soul-raisers, Penelope, and The Bone-gatherers. Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (Argô, Lemnian Women, Hypsipylê), the life of Perseus (The Net-draggers, Polydektês, Phorkides), the birth and exploits of Dionysus (Semele, Bacchae, Pentheus), and the aftermath of the war portrayed in Seven Against Thebes (Eleusinians, Argives (or Argive Women), Sons of the Seven).
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Aeschylus
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Surviving plays
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Surviving plays
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Aeschylus
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''The Persians'' (472 BC)
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The Persians (472 BC)
thumb|right|The Ghost of Darius Appearing to Atossa, drawing by George Romney.
The Persians (Persai) is the earliest of Aeschylus' extant plays. It was performed in 472 BC. It was based on Aeschylus' own experiences, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes a recent historical event. The Persians focuses on the popular Greek theme of hubris and blames Persia's loss on the pride of its king.
It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis, to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears, to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus.Vellacott: 7–19
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Aeschylus
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''Seven Against Thebes'' (467 BC)
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Seven Against Thebes (467 BC)
Seven against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas) was performed in 467 BC. It has the contrasting theme of the interference of the gods in human affairs. Another theme, with which Aeschylus' would continually involve himself, makes its first known appearance in this play, namely that the polis was a key development of human civilization.
The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed king of Thebes, Oedipus. Eteocles and Polynices agree to share and alternate the throne of the city. After the first year, Eteocles refuses to step down. Polynices therefore undertakes war. The pair kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers.Aeschylus. "Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven Against Thebes, The Persians." Philip Vellacott's Introduction, pp. 7–19. Penguin Classics. But a new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices, and Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict. The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy. The first two plays were Laius and Oedipus. The concluding satyr play was The Sphinx.Sommerstein 2002, 23.
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Aeschylus
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''The Suppliants'' (463 BC)
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The Suppliants (463 BC)
thumb|left|Miniature by Robinet Testard showing the Danaids murdering their husbands
Aeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with The Suppliants (Hiketides) in 463 BC. The play gives tribute to the democratic undercurrents which were running through Athens and preceding the establishment of a democratic government in 461. The Danaids (50 daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos) flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision (a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king). The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection and are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests.
A Danaid trilogy had long been assumed because of The Suppliants''' cliffhanger ending. This was confirmed by the 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3. The constituent plays are generally agreed to be The Suppliants, The Egyptians and The Danaids. A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus:See (e.g.) Sommerstein 1996, 141–51; Turner 2001, 36–39. In The Egyptians, the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. King Pelasgus was killed during the war, and Danaus rules Argos. Danaus negotiates a settlement with Aegyptus, a condition of which requires his 50 daughters to marry the 50 sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle which predicts that one of his sons-in-law would kill him. He orders the Danaids to murder their husbands therefore on their wedding night. His daughters agree. The Danaids would open the day after the wedding.Sommerstein 2002, 89.
It is revealed that 49 of the 50 Danaids killed their husbands. Hypermnestra did not kill her husband, Lynceus, and helped him escape. Danaus is angered by his daughter's disobedience and orders her imprisonment and possibly execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus and kills him, thus fulfilling the oracle. He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other 49 Danaids are absolved of their murders, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled Amymone, after one of the Danaids.
The Oresteia (458 BC)
Besides a few missing lines, the Oresteia of 458 BC is the only complete trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant (of Proteus, the satyr play which followed, only fragments are known). Agamemnon and The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi) and The Eumenides together tell the violent story of the family of Agamemnon, king of Argos.
Agamemnon
thumb|upright=1.3|The Murder of Agamemnon by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin (1817)
Aeschylus begins in Greece, describing the return of King Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the perspective of the townspeople (the Chorus) and his wife, Clytemnestra. Dark foreshadowings build to the death of the king at the hands of his wife, who was angry that their daughter Iphigenia was killed so that the gods would restore the winds and allow the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. Clytemnestra was also unhappy that Agamemnon kept the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as his concubine. Cassandra foretells the murder of Agamemnon and of herself to the assembled townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.
The Libation BearersThe Libation Bearers opens with Orestes' arrival at Agamemnon's tomb, from exile in Phocis. Electra meets Orestes there. They plan revenge against Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus. Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus. This leads her to order her daughter, Electra, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters the palace pretending to bear news of his own death. Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to learn the news. Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.
The Eumenides
The third play addresses the question of Orestes' guilt. The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs Apollo to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, so he bears some of the guilt for the murder. Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena with Hermes as a guide.
The Furies track him down, and Athena steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case, and after the judges (including Athena) deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies The Eumenides (The Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws. As in The Suppliants, the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.
Prometheus Bound (date disputed)
thumb|upright=1.3|Prometheus Being Chained by Vulcan by Dirck van Baburen (1623)Prometheus Bound is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s.
The play consists mostly of static dialogue. The Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock throughout, which is his punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. The god Hephaestus and the Titan Oceanus and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus is met by Io, a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty. He prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her descendants will free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus will not tell him of a potential marriage which could prove Zeus' downfall.Prometheus Bound seems to have been the first play in a trilogy, the Prometheia. In the second play, Prometheus Unbound, Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver, then believed the source of feeling.For example: Agamemnon 432 "Many things pierce the liver"; 791–2 "No sting of true sorrow reaches the liver"; Eumenides 135 "Sting your liver with merited reproaches". We learn that Zeus has released the other Titans which he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy, perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus.For a discussion of the trilogy's reconstruction, see (e.g.) Conacher 1980, 100–02.
In the trilogy's conclusion, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, it seems that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to beget a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus. The product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens.
Lost plays
Of Aeschylus' other plays, only titles and assorted fragments are known. There are enough fragments (along with comments made by later authors and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses for some plays.
Myrmidons
This play was based on books 9 and 16 of the Iliad. Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon's hands for most of the play. Envoys from the Greek army attempt to reconcile Achilles to Agamemnon, but he yields only to Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles' armour. The bravery and death of Patroclus are reported in a messenger's speech, which is followed by mourning.
Nereids
This play was based on books 18 and 19 and 22 of the Iliad. It follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament Patroclus' death. A messenger tells how Achilles (perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks) slew Hector.
Phrygians, or Hector's Ransom
After a brief discussion with Hermes, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son's body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector's body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.
Niobe
The children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the Republic, Plato quotes the line "God plants a fault in mortals when he wills to destroy a house utterly."
These are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus which are known:AlcmeneAmymoneThe Archer-WomenThe Argivian WomenThe Argo, also titled The RowersAtalantaAthamasAttendants of the Bridal ChamberAward of the ArmsThe BacchaeThe BassaraeThe Bone-GatherersThe CabeiroiCallistoThe Carians, also titled EuropaCercyonChildren of HerculesCirceThe Cretan WomenCycnusThe DanaidsDaughters of HeliosDaughters of PhorcysThe DescendantsThe EdoniansThe EgyptiansThe EscortsGlaucus of PontusGlaucus of PotniaeHypsipyleIphigeniaIxionLaiusThe Lemnian WomenThe LionLycurgusMemnonThe Men of EleusisThe MessengersThe MyrmidonsThe MysiansNemeaThe Net-DraggersThe Nurses of DionysusOrethyiaPalamedesPenelopePentheusPerrhaibidesPhiloctetesPhineusThe Phrygian WomenPolydectesThe PriestessesPrometheus the Fire-BearerPrometheus the Fire-KindlerPrometheus UnboundProteusSemele, also titled The Water-BearersSisyphus the RunawaySisyphus the Stone-RollerThe Spectators, also titled Athletes of the Isthmian GamesThe SphinxThe Spirit-RaisersTelephusThe Thracian WomenWeighing of SoulsWomen of Aetna (two versions)Women of SalamisXantriaeThe YouthsInfluence
Influence on Greek drama and culture
thumb|250px|Mosaic of Orestes, main character in Aeschylus's only surviving trilogy The Oresteia
The theatre was just beginning to evolve when Aeschylus started writing for it. Earlier playwrights such as Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role. He is sometimes credited with introducing skenographia, or scene-decoration,According to Vitruvius. See Summers 2007, 23. though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles. Aeschylus is also said to have made the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and made his actors wear platform boots (cothurni) to make them more visible to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschylus' life, the chorus of Furies in the first performance of the Eumenides were so frightening when they entered that children fainted, patriarchs urinated, pregnant women went into labour.Life of Aeschylus.
Aeschylus wrote his plays in verse. No violence is performed onstage. The plays have a remoteness from daily life in Athens, relating stories about the gods, or being set, like The Persians, far away. Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The Oresteia trilogy concentrated on humans' position in the cosmos relative to the gods and divine law and divine punishment.
Aeschylus' popularity is evident in the praise that the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in The Frogs, produced some 50 years after Aeschylus' death. Aeschylus appears as a character in the play and claims, at line 1022, that his Seven against Thebes "made everyone watching it to love being warlike". He claims, at lines 1026–7, that with The Persians he "taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies." Aeschylus goes on to say, at lines 1039ff., that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous.
Influence outside Greek culture
Aeschylus' works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones draws attention to Richard Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his Wagner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct character by character comparison between Wagner's Ring and Aeschylus's Oresteia. But a critic of that book, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described the arguments as unreasonable and forced.
J.T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence that Aeschylus and Sophocles have played a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics.
Eugene O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), a trilogy of three plays set in America after the Civil War, is modeled after the Oresteia. Before writing his acclaimed trilogy, O'Neill had been developing a play about Aeschylus, and he noted that Aeschylus "so changed the system of the tragic stage that he has more claim than anyone else to be regarded as the founder (Father) of Tragedy."Floyd, Virginia, ed. Eugene O'Neill at Work. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1981, p. 213.
During his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Kennedy was notified of King's murder before a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana, and was warned not to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King's death. Acknowledging the audience's emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of Martin Luther King and, quoting a passage from the play Agamemnon (in translation), said: "My favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black ... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world."
The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination.
Editions
Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Aeschyli Tragoediae. Editio maior, Berlin 1914.
Gilbert Murray, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae. Editio Altera, Oxford 1955.
Denys Page, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae, Oxford 1972.
Martin L. West, Aeschyli Tragoediae cum incerti poetae Prometheo, 2nd ed., Stuttgart/Leipzig 1998.
The first translation of the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted by most translators for the next century.
Anna Swanwick produced a verse translation in English of all seven surviving plays as The Dramas of Aeschylus in 1886 full text
Stefan Radt (ed.), Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. III: Aeschylus (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009) (Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 3).
Alan H. Sommerstein (ed.), Aeschylus, Volume II, Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-bearers. Eumenides. 146 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2009); Volume III, Fragments. 505 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2008).
See also
2876 Aeschylus, an asteroid named for him
Ancient Greek literature
Ancient Greek mythology
Ancient Greek religion
Battle of Marathon
Classical Greece
Dionysia
Music of ancient Greece
Theatre of ancient Greece
"Live by the sword, die by the sword"
Notes
Citations
References
Bierl, A. Die Orestie des Aischylos auf der modernen Bühne: Theoretische Konzeptionen und ihre szenische Realizierung (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1997)
Cairns, D., V. Liapis, Dionysalexandros: Essays on Aeschylus and His Fellow Tragedians in Honour of Alexander F. Garvie (Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2006)
Deforge, B. Une vie avec Eschyle. Vérité des mythes (Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2010)
Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). The Lives of the Greek Poets. University of North Carolina Press
— (2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: Routledge Press.
Summers, David (2007). Vision, Reflection, and Desire in Western Painting. University of North Carolina Press
Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition)
Vellacott, Philip, (1961). Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians. New York: Penguin Classics.
Zeitlin, Froma (1982). Under the sign of the shield: semiotics and Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2nd ed. 2009 (Greek studies: interdisciplinary approaches)
Zetlin, Froma (1996). "The dynamics of misogyny: myth and mythmaking in Aeschylus's Oresteia", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 87–119.
Zeitlin, Froma (1996). "The politics of Eros in the Danaid trilogy of Aeschylus", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 123–171.
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Aeschylus
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External links
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External links
Selected Poems of Aeschylus
Aeschylus-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library
Complete syntax diagrams at Alpheios
Online English Translations of Aeschylus
Photo of a fragment of The Net-pullers
"Aeschylus, I: Persians" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press
"Aeschylus, II: The Oresteia" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press
"Aeschylus, III: Fragments" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press
Category:5th-century BC Greek poets
Category:520s BC births
Category:450s BC deaths
Category:Year of birth uncertain
Category:Year of death uncertain
Category:Ancient Greek tragic poets
Category:Ancient Greeks accused of sacrilege
Category:Greek people of the Greco-Persian Wars
Category:Battle of Marathon
Category:Accidental deaths in Italy
Category:Deaths due to animal attacks
Category:Bird attacks
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Aeschylus
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Table of Content
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Short description, Life, Personal life, Death, Works, Trilogies, Surviving plays, ''The Persians'' (472 BC), ''Seven Against Thebes'' (467 BC), ''The Suppliants'' (463 BC), External links
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Amber Road
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Short description
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thumb|250px|The Amber Road (east route), as hypothesized by Polish historian Jerzy Wielowiejski, (), 1980
thumb|The route from the Baltic Sea
The Amber Road was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber from coastal areas of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Prehistoric trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe were defined by the amber trade.
As an important commodity, sometimes dubbed "the gold of the north", amber was transported from the North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts overland by way of the Vistula and Dnieper rivers to Italy, Greece, the Black Sea, Syria and Egypt over a period of thousands of years.
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Amber Road
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Antiquity
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Antiquity
The oldest trade in amber started from Sicily. The Sicilian amber trade was directed to Greece, North Africa and Spain. Sicilian amber was also discovered in Mycenae by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, and it appeared in sites in southern Spain and Portugal. Its distribution is similar to that of ivory, so it is possible that amber from Sicily reached the Iberian Peninsula through contacts with North Africa. After a decline in the consumption and trade of amber at the beginning of the Bronze Age, around 2000 BC, the influence of Baltic amber gradually took the place of Sicilian amber throughout the Iberian Peninsula from around 1000 BC. The new evidence comes from various archaeological and geological locations on the Iberian Peninsula.
From at least the 16th century BC, amber was moved from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean area. The breast ornament of the Egyptian Pharaoh Tutankhamen ( BC) contains large Baltic amber beads. as cited by Gestoso Singer Schliemann found Baltic amber beads at Mycenae, as shown by spectroscopic investigation. The quantity of amber in the Royal Hypogeum of Qatna, in Syria, is unparalleled among known second millennium BC sites in the Levant and the Ancient Near East. Amber was sent from the North Sea to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as an offering. From the Black Sea, trade could continue to Asia along the Silk Road, another ancient trade route.
In Roman times, a main route ran south from the Baltic coast (modern Lithuania), the entire north–south length of modern-day Poland (likely through the Iron Age settlement of Biskupin), through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic and Slovakia) to the head of the Adriatic Sea (Aquileia by the modern Gulf of Venice). Other commodities were exported to the Romans along with amber, such as animal fur and skin, honey, and wax, in exchange for Roman glass, brass, gold, and non-ferrous metals such as tin and copper imported into the early Baltic region. As this road was a lucrative trade route connecting the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, Roman military fortifications were constructed along the route to protect merchants and traders from Germanic raids.
The Old Prussian towns of Kaup and Truso on the Baltic were the starting points of the route to the south. In Scandinavia the amber road probably gave rise to the thriving Nordic Bronze Age culture, bringing influences from the Mediterranean Sea to the northernmost countries of Europe. Kaliningrad Oblast is occasionally referred to in Russian as 'the amber region' ().
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Amber Road
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Known roads by country
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Known roads by country
thumb|Amber deposits in Europe
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Amber Road
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Estonia
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Estonia
Old coastal Amber road route goes along E67 highway from Reiu in Häädemeeste Parish of Pärnumaa South, where it continues as 331 local road between Rannametsa and Ikla villages.
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Amber Road
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Poland
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Poland
The shortest (and possibly oldest) road avoids alpine areas and led from the Baltic coastline (nowadays Lithuania and Poland), through Biskupin, Milicz, Wrocław, the Kłodzko Valley (less often through the Moravian Gate), crossed the Danube near Carnuntum in the Noricum province, headed southwest past Poetovio, Celeia, Emona, Nauportus, and reached Patavium and Aquileia at the Adriatic coast. One of the oldest directions of the last stage of the Amber Road to the south of the Danube, noted in the myth about the Argonauts, used the rivers Sava and Kupa, ending with a short continental road from Nauportus to Tarsatica in Rijeka on the coast of the Adriatic.
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Amber Road
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Germany
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Germany
thumb|Amber Roads in Germany
Several roads connected the North Sea and Baltic Sea, especially the city of Hamburg to the Brenner Pass, proceeding southwards to Brindisi (nowadays Italy) and Ambracia (nowadays Greece).
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Amber Road
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Switzerland
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Switzerland
The Swiss region indicates a number of alpine roads, concentrating around the capital city Bern and probably originating from the banks of the Rhône and Rhine.
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Amber Road
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Netherlands
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Netherlands
A small section, including Baarn, Barneveld, Amersfoort and Amerongen, connected the North Sea with the Lower Rhine.
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Amber Road
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Belgium
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Belgium
A small section led southwards from Antwerp and Bruges to the towns Braine-l'Alleud and Braine-le-Comte, both originally named "Brennia-Brenna". The route continued by following the Meuse towards Bern in Switzerland.
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Amber Road
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Southern France and Spain
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Southern France and Spain
Routes connected amber finding locations at Ambares (near Bordeaux), leading to Béarn and the Pyrenees. Routes connecting the amber finding locations in northern Spain and in the Pyrenees were a trading route to the Mediterranean Sea.
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Amber Road
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Mongolia
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Mongolia
Sources of archaeological finds suggest that routes may also have connected Mongolia to eastern Europe during the Kitan/Liao Period.
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Amber Road
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Modern usage
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Modern usage
There is a tourist route stretching along the Baltic coast from Kaliningrad to Latvia called "Amber Road".
"Amber Road" sites are:
Mizgiris Amber Gallery-Museum in Nida;
Amber Bay in Juodkrantė;
Lithuania Minor History Museum;
Amber collection place in Karklė, Lithuania;
Palanga Amber Museum in Palanga;
Open amber workshop in Palanga;
Amber museum in Gdańsk; and
Samogitian Alka in Šventoji.
Amber deposit from Partynice - Dating from the 1st century BC amber deposit found in Wrocław. It is the world's largest archaeological find of amber, estimated at . Currently it is in the Archaeological Museum in Wrocław.
In Poland, the north–south motorway A1 is officially named Amber Highway.
EV9 The Amber Route is a long-distance cycling route between Gdańsk, Poland and Pula, Croatia which follows the course of the Amber Road.
The modern Baltic–Adriatic Corridor connects the two seas along routes that roughly follow the Amber Road.
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Amber Road
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References
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References
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Amber Road
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External links
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External links
OWTRAD-scientific description of the amber road in Poland
Old World Traditional Trade Routes (OWTRAD) Project
Joannes Richter – "Die Bernsteinroute bei Backnang" (pdf file)
Category:Amber
Category:History of Europe
Category:Transport in Prussia
Category:Prehistoric Lithuania
Category:Prehistoric Poland
Category:Trade routes
Category:Southern France
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Amber Road
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Table of Content
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Short description, Antiquity, Known roads by country, Estonia, Poland, Germany, Switzerland, Netherlands, Belgium, Southern France and Spain, Mongolia, Modern usage, References, External links
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Crandall University
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Short description
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Crandall University is a Baptist Christian liberal arts university located in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. It is affiliated with the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada (Canadian Baptist Ministries).
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Crandall University
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History
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History
thumb|right|Stultz Hall
Crandall University was founded in 1949 under the name United Baptist Bible Training School (UBBTS), and served as both a secondary school and a Bible school by the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada.Randall Herbert Balmer, Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 42 Over two decades, the focus of the school gradually shifted toward post-secondary programs. In 1968, UBBTS became a Bible and junior Christian liberal arts college, and in 1970 the name was changed to Atlantic Baptist College (ABC). A sustained campaign to expand the school's faculty and improve the level of education resulted in ABC being able to grant full Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1983. Its campus at this time was located along the Salisbury Road, west of Moncton's central business district.
The institution moved to a new campus built on the Gorge Road, north of the central business district, in 1996. The name was changed to Atlantic Baptist University (ABU), a reflection of expanded student enrolment and academic accreditation. In 2003, the ABU sports teams adopted the name The Blue Tide. The institution was the first, and thus far only, English-language university in Moncton. The Atlantic Baptist University Act was passed by the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick in 2008.
On August 21, 2009, it was announced that the institution had changed its name to Crandall University in honour of Rev. Joseph Crandall, a pioneering Baptist minister in the maritime region. In conjunction with the university name change, Crandall Athletics took on a new identity as "The Crandall Chargers."
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Crandall University
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Academics
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Academics
, Crandall offers 16 undergraduate programs, 3 graduate programs, and a variety of certificate programs. Through its partnership with Acadia Divinity College, students can also enrol in the Bachelor of Theology program concurrent with a Crandall degree. Crandall has a 13:1 student-to-faculty ratio.
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Crandall University
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Controversy
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Controversy
In 2012, Crandall University came under public scrutiny for receiving municipal funds while refusing to hire non-celibate LGBTQ people. That policy, although regarded as scriptural and consistent with its denominational tradition, was characterized by the press as anti-gay. That same year, the Crandall Student Association publicly broke with the university's administration over the policy, with the student president at the time telling the CBC, "The Christian faith does say do not judge others. And the Christian faith is all about love. So I feel that this policy – to me – doesn't seem like it's following those specific guidelines." In 2013, a year after the controversy erupted, the university opted to not apply for $150,000 in public funding that it had received annually. The university president also issued an apology, stating: "We wish to apologize for anything that Crandall University might possibly have communicated in the past that may have seemed unloving or disrespectful in any way toward any individual or groups."
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Crandall University
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Affiliations
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Affiliations
Crandall is an affiliate member of the Association of the Registrars of the Universities and Colleges of Canada (ARUCC); a full member of the ARUCC regional association, the Atlantic Association of Registrars and Admissions Officers (AARAO); an active member of Christian Higher Education Canada (CHEC); and an active member of the New Brunswick Association of Private Colleges and Universities. However, Crandall faculty are not members of the Canadian Association of University Teachers (CAUT). In their report, the CAUT found that "while the university has a statement on academic freedom, it is significantly inconsistent with that of the CAUT and the majority of universities across the western world, and assurances that free enquiry is still possible within its constraints are unconvincing." They therefore recommended that Crandall University "be placed on the list of institutions 'found to have imposed a requirement of a commitment to a particular ideology or statement of faith as a condition of employment.'"
The university is affiliated with the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada (Canadian Baptist Ministries).Crandall University, Recognition & Affiliations, crandallu.ca, Canada, retrieved September 19, 2022 It is a member of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities.Council for Christian Colleges & Universities, Members, cccu.org, USA, retrieved September 19, 2022
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Crandall University
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Library and archives
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Library and archives
Crandall University houses the Baptist Heritage Center whose 300 artifacts preserve the material history of Atlantic Baptists, the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches, and its predecessor organizations. The collection and archives includes objects used in worship services, furniture, musical instruments, church building architecture pictures and printed material.
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Crandall University
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Athletics
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Athletics
Crandall University is represented in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association (ACAA) by 8 varsity teams. The Chargers teams include men's and women's soccer, basketball, volleyball, and cross country. The Chargers also offer a boxing club program that competes internationally.
The Chargers have won seven ACAA championship banners:
Women's soccer in 2003–04
Women's cross country in 2022–23 and 2023–24
Men's cross country in 2021–22, 2022–23, 2023–24, and 2024-25
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Crandall University
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Notable alumni
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Notable alumni
David Alward – former Premier of New Brunswick
Ken LeBlanc – entrepreneur
Ralph Richardson – first chancellor of the university
Cathy Rogers – politician
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Crandall University
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See also
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See also
List of schools in Moncton
Higher education in New Brunswick
List of universities and colleges in New Brunswick
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Crandall University
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References
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References
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Crandall University
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External links
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External links
Crandall University homepage
Crandall Athletics homepage
Category:Education in Moncton
Category:Universities in New Brunswick
Category:1949 establishments in New Brunswick
Category:Universities and colleges established in 1949
Category:Baptist universities and colleges
Category:Baptist Christianity in Canada
Category:Council for Christian Colleges and Universities
Category:Christian universities and colleges in Canada
Category:Private universities and colleges in New Brunswick
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Crandall University
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Table of Content
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Short description, History, Academics, Controversy, Affiliations, Library and archives, Athletics, Notable alumni, See also, References, External links
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Andrew Wiles
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short description
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Sir Andrew John Wiles (born 11 April 1953) is an English mathematician and a Royal Society Research Professor at the University of Oxford, specialising in number theory. He is best known for proving Fermat's Last Theorem, for which he was awarded the 2016 Abel Prize and the 2017 Copley Medal and for which he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2000. In 2018, Wiles was appointed the first Regius Professor of Mathematics at Oxford. Wiles is also a 1997 MacArthur Fellow.
Wiles was born in Cambridge to theologian Maurice Frank Wiles and Patricia Wiles. While spending much of his childhood in Nigeria, Wiles developed an interest in mathematics and in Fermat's Last Theorem in particular. After moving to Oxford and graduating from there in 1974, he worked on unifying Galois representations, elliptic curves and modular forms, starting with Barry Mazur's generalizations of Iwasawa theory. In the early 1980s, Wiles spent a few years at the University of Cambridge before moving to Princeton University, where he worked on expanding out and applying Hilbert modular forms. In 1986, upon reading Ken Ribet's seminal work on Fermat's Last Theorem, Wiles set out to prove the modularity theorem for semistable elliptic curves, which implied Fermat's Last Theorem. By 1993, he had been able to convince a knowledgeable colleague that he had a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, though a flaw was subsequently discovered. After an insight on 19 September 1994, Wiles and his student Richard Taylor were able to circumvent the flaw, and published the results in 1995, to widespread acclaim.
In proving Fermat's Last Theorem, Wiles developed new tools for mathematicians to begin unifying disparate ideas and theorems. His former student Taylor along with three other mathematicians were able to prove the full modularity theorem by 2000, using Wiles' work. Upon receiving the Abel Prize in 2016, Wiles reflected on his legacy, expressing his belief that he did not just prove Fermat's Last Theorem, but pushed the whole of mathematics as a field towards the Langlands program of unifying number theory.
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Andrew Wiles
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Education and early life
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Education and early life
Wiles was born on 11 April 1953 in Cambridge, England, the son of Maurice Frank Wiles (1923–2005) and Patricia Wiles (née Mowll). From 1952 to 1955, his father worked as the chaplain at Ridley Hall, Cambridge, and later became the Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford.
Wiles began his formal schooling in Nigeria, while living there as a very young boy with his parents. However, according to letters written by his parents, for at least the first several months after he was supposed to be attending classes, he refused to go. From that fact, Wiles himself concluded that in his earliest years, he was not enthusiastic about spending time in academic institutions. In an interview with Nadia Hasnaoui in 2021, he said he trusted the letters, yet he could not remember a time when he did not enjoy solving mathematical problems.
Wiles attended King's College School, Cambridge, and The Leys School, Cambridge. Wiles told WGBH-TV in 1999 that he came across Fermat's Last Theorem on his way home from school when he was 10 years old. He stopped at his local library where he found a book The Last Problem, by Eric Temple Bell, about the theorem. Fascinated by the existence of a theorem that was so easy to state that he, a ten-year-old, could understand it, but that no one had proven, he decided to be the first person to prove it. However, he soon realised that his knowledge was too limited, so he abandoned his childhood dream until it was brought back to his attention at the age of 33 by Ken Ribet's 1986 proof of the epsilon conjecture, which Gerhard Frey had previously linked to Fermat's equation.
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Andrew Wiles
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Early career
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Early career
In 1974, Wiles earned his bachelor's degree in mathematics at Merton College, Oxford. Wiles's graduate research was guided by John Coates, beginning in the summer of 1975. Together they worked on the arithmetic of elliptic curves with complex multiplication by the methods of Iwasawa theory. He further worked with Barry Mazur on the main conjecture of Iwasawa theory over the rational numbers, and soon afterward, he generalised this result to totally real fields.
In 1980, Wiles earned a PhD while at Clare College, Cambridge. After a stay at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1981, Wiles became a Professor of Mathematics at Princeton University.
In 1985–86, Wiles was a Guggenheim Fellow at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques near Paris and at the .
In 1989, Wiles was elected to the Royal Society. At that point according to his election certificate, he had been working "on the construction of ℓ-adic representations attached to Hilbert modular forms, and has applied these to prove the 'main conjecture' for cyclotomic extensions of totally real fields".
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Andrew Wiles
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Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem
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Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem
From 1988 to 1990, Wiles was a Royal Society Research Professor at the University of Oxford, and then he returned to Princeton.
From 1994 to 2009, Wiles was a Eugene Higgins Professor at Princeton.
Starting in mid-1986, based on successive progress of the previous few years of Gerhard Frey, Jean-Pierre Serre and Ken Ribet, it became clear that Fermat's Last Theorem (the statement that no three positive integers , , and satisfy the equation for any integer value of greater than ) could be proven as a corollary of a limited form of the modularity theorem (unproven at the time and then known as the "Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture"). The modularity theorem involved elliptic curves, which was also Wiles's own specialist area, and stated that all such curves have a modular form associated with them. These curves can be thought of as mathematical objects resembling solutions for a torus' surface, and if Fermat's Last Theorem were false and solutions existed, "a peculiar curve would result". A proof of the theorem therefore would involve showing that such a curve would not exist.
The conjecture was seen by contemporary mathematicians as important, but extraordinarily difficult or perhaps impossible to prove.Simon Singh (1997). Fermat’s Last Theorem. For example, Wiles's ex-supervisor John Coates stated that it seemed "impossible to actually prove", and Ken Ribet considered himself "one of the vast majority of people who believed [it] was completely inaccessible", adding that "Andrew Wiles was probably one of the few people on earth who had the audacity to dream that you can actually go and prove [it]."
Despite this, Wiles, with his from-childhood fascination with Fermat's Last Theorem, decided to undertake the challenge of proving the conjecture, at least to the extent needed for Frey's curve. He dedicated all of his research time to this problem for over six years in near-total secrecy, covering up his efforts by releasing prior work in small segments as separate papers and confiding only in his wife.
Wiles' research involved creating a proof by contradiction of Fermat's Last Theorem, which Ribet in his 1986 work had found to have an elliptic curve and thus an associated modular form if true. Starting by assuming that the theorem was incorrect, Wiles then contradicted the Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture as formulated under that assumption, with Ribet's theorem (which stated that if were a prime number, no such elliptic curve could have a modular form, so no odd prime counterexample to Fermat's equation could exist). Wiles also proved that the conjecture applied to the special case known as the semistable elliptic curves to which Fermat's equation was tied. In other words, Wiles had found that the Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture was true in the case of Fermat's equation, and Ribet's finding (that the conjecture holding for semistable elliptic curves could mean Fermat's Last Theorem is true) prevailed, thus proving Fermat's Last Theorem.
In June 1993, he presented his proof to the public for the first time at a conference in Cambridge. Gina Kolata of The New York Times summed up the presentation as follows:
In August 1993, it was discovered that the proof contained a flaw in several areas, related to properties of the Selmer group and use of a tool called an Euler system. Wiles tried and failed for over a year to repair his proof. According to Wiles, the crucial idea for circumventing—rather than closing—this area came to him on 19 September 1994, when he was on the verge of giving up. The circumvention used Galois representations to replace elliptic curves, reduced the problem to a class number formula and solved it, among other matters, all using Victor Kolyvagin's ideas as a basis for fixing Matthias Flach's approach with Iwasawa theory. Together with his former student Richard Taylor, Wiles published a second paper which contained the circumvention and thus completed the proof. Both papers were published in May 1995 in a dedicated issue of the Annals of Mathematics.
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Andrew Wiles
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Later career
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Later career
In 2011, Wiles rejoined the University of Oxford as Royal Society Research Professor.
In May 2018, Wiles was appointed Regius Professor of Mathematics at Oxford, the first in the university's history.
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Andrew Wiles
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Legacy
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Legacy
thumb|Czech stamp from 2000, celebrating Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem
Wiles' work has been used in many fields of mathematics. Notably, in 1999, three of his former students, Richard Taylor, Brian Conrad, and Fred Diamond, working with Christophe Breuil, built upon Wiles' proof to prove the full modularity theorem. Wiles's doctoral students have also included Manjul Bhargava (2014 winner of the Fields Medal), Ehud de Shalit, Ritabrata Munshi (winner of the SSB Prize and ICTP Ramanujan Prize), Karl Rubin (son of Vera Rubin), Christopher Skinner, and Vinayak Vatsal (2007 winner of the Coxeter–James Prize).
In 2016, upon receiving the Abel Prize, Wiles said about his proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, "The methods that solved it opened up a new way of attacking one of the big webs of conjectures of contemporary mathematics called the Langlands Program, which as a grand vision tries to unify different branches of mathematics. It’s given us a new way to look at that".
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Andrew Wiles
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Awards and honours
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Awards and honours
thumb|Andrew Wiles in front of the statue of Pierre de Fermat in Beaumont-de-Lomagne in 1995, Fermat's birthplace in southern France
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem has stood up to the scrutiny of the world's other mathematical experts. Wiles was interviewed for an episode of the BBC documentary series Horizon about Fermat's Last Theorem. This was broadcast as an episode of the PBS science television series Nova with the title "The Proof". His work and life are also described in great detail in Simon Singh's popular book Fermat's Last Theorem.
In 1988, Wiles was awarded the Junior Whitehead Prize of the London Mathematical Society (1988). In 1989, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)
In 1994, Wiles was elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Upon completing his proof of Fermat's Last Theorem in 1995, he was awarded the Schock Prize, Fermat Prize, and Wolf Prize in Mathematics that year. Wiles was elected a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences and won an NAS Award in Mathematics from the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Medal, and the Ostrowski Prize in 1996.Wiles Receives Ostrowski Prize. American Mathematical Society. Retrieved 16 March 2016. He won the American Mathematical Society's Cole Prize, a MacArthur Fellowship, and the Wolfskehl Prize in 1997,Paul Wolfskehl and the Wolfskehl Prize. American Mathematical Society. Retrieved 16 March 2016. and was elected member of the American Philosophical Society that year.
In 1998, Wiles was awarded a silver plaque from the International Mathematical Union recognising his achievements, in place of the Fields Medal, which is restricted to those under the age of 40 (Wiles was 41 when he proved the theorem in 1994). That same year, he was awarded the King Faisal Prize along with the Clay Research Award in 1999, the year the asteroid 9999 Wiles was named after him.
In 2000, he was awarded Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (2000) In 2004 Wiles won the Premio Pitagora. In 2005, he won the Shaw Prize.Wiles Receives 2005 Shaw Prize. American Mathematical Society. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
The building at the University of Oxford housing the Mathematical Institute was named after Wiles in 2013. Later that year he won the Abel Prize. In 2017, Wiles won the Copley Medal. In 2019, he won the De Morgan Medal.
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Andrew Wiles
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See also
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See also
André Weil
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Andrew Wiles
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References
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References
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Andrew Wiles
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External links
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External links
Profile from Oxford
Profile from Princeton
Category:1953 births
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century English mathematicians
Category:21st-century English mathematicians
Category:Abel Prize laureates
Category:Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Category:Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Category:Clay Research Award recipients
Category:Fellows of Merton College, Oxford
Category:Fellows of the Royal Society
Category:Fermat's Last Theorem
Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Category:Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars
Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Category:MacArthur Fellows
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Category:British number theorists
Category:People educated at The Leys School
Category:People from Cambridge
Category:Princeton University faculty
Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal
Category:Regius Professors of Mathematics (University of Oxford)
Category:Rolf Schock Prize laureates
Category:Royal Medal winners
Category:Trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study
Category:Whitehead Prize winners
Category:Wolf Prize in Mathematics laureates
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Andrew Wiles
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Table of Content
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short description, Education and early life, Early career, Proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, Later career, Legacy, Awards and honours, See also, References, External links
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Ambient
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Wiktionary
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Ambient or ambiance or ambience may refer to:
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Ambient
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Arts and entertainment
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Arts and entertainment
Ambiancé, an unreleased experimental film
Ambient (novel), a novel by Jack Womack
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Ambient
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Music and sound
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Music and sound
Ambience (sound recording), also known as atmospheres or backgrounds
Ambient music, a genre of music that puts an emphasis on tone and atmosphere
Ambient (album), by Moby
Ambience (album), by the Lambrettas
Virgin Ambient series, a series of 24 albums released on the UK Virgin Records label between 1993 and 1997
Ambient 1–4, a set of four albums by Brian Eno, released by Obscure Records between 1978 and 1982
Stingray Ambiance, the channel "Ambiance" on the Singray music service
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Ambient
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Other
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Other
Ambient (computation), a process calculus
Ambient (desktop environment), a MUI-based desktop environment for MorphOS
Mark Ambient (1860–1937), pen name of Harold Harley, English dramatist
, a cruise ship
Ambient Technologies, semiconductor company specialising in modem ICs, spun off from Cirrus Logic in 1999 and purchased by Intel in 2000
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Ambient
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See also
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See also
Ambient lighting (disambiguation)
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Ambient
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Table of Content
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Wiktionary, Arts and entertainment, Music and sound, Other, See also
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Anne Brontë
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short description
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Anne Brontë (, commonly ;As given by Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of Literature (Merriam-Webster, incorporated, Publishers: Springfield, Massachusetts, 1995), p viii: "When our research shows that an author's pronunciation of his or her name differs from common usage, the author's pronunciation is listed first, and the descriptor commonly precedes the more familiar pronunciation." See also entries on Anne, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, pp 175–176. 17 January 1820 – 28 May 1849) was an English novelist and poet, the youngest member of the Brontë literary family.
Anne Brontë was the daughter of Maria ( Branwell) and Patrick Brontë, a poor Irish clergyman in the Church of England. Anne lived most of her life with her family at the parish of Haworth on the Yorkshire Dales. Otherwise, she attended a boarding school in Mirfield between 1836 and 1837, and between 1839 and 1845 lived elsewhere working as a governess. In 1846, she published a book of poems with her sisters and later two novels, initially under the pen name Acton Bell. Her first novel, Agnes Grey, was published in 1847 at the same time as Wuthering Heights by her sister Emily Brontë. Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was published in 1848. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is often considered one of the first feminist novels.
Anne died at 29, most likely of pulmonary tuberculosis. After her death, her sister Charlotte edited Agnes Grey to fix issues with its first edition, but prevented republication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. As a result, Anne is not as well known as her sisters. Nonetheless, both of her novels are considered classics of English literature.
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Anne Brontë
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Family background
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Family background
thumb|left|upright|Anne, from a group portrait by her brother Branwell
Anne's father was Patrick Brontë. Patrick Brontë was born in a two-room cottage in Emdale, Loughbrickland, County Down, Ireland.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 4Barker, The Brontës, p. 3 He was the oldest of ten children born to Hugh Brunty and Eleanor McCrory, poor Irish peasant farmers.Barker, The Brontës, p. 2 The family surname, mac Aedh Ó Proinntigh, was Anglicised as Prunty or Brunty. Struggling against poverty, Patrick learned to read and write, and from 1798 taught others. In 1802, at 25, he won a place to study theology at St. John's College, Cambridge. Here he changed his name, Brunty, to the more distinguished sounding Brontë. In 1807, he was ordained in the priesthood in the Church of England.Barker, The Brontës, p. 14 He served as a curate in Essex and then in Wellington, Shropshire. In 1810, he published his first poem, Winter Evening Thoughts, in a local newspaper.Barker, The Brontës, p. 41 In 1811, he published a collection of moral verse, Cottage Poems.Barker, The Brontës, p. 43 Also in 1811, he became vicar of St. Peter's Church in Hartshead, Yorkshire.Barker, The Brontës, p. 36 In 1812, he was appointed an examiner in Classics at Woodhouse Grove School, near Bradford. This was a Wesleyan academy where, at 35, he met his future wife, the headmaster's niece, Maria Branwell.
Maria Branwell, Anne's mother, was the daughter of Anne Carne, the daughter of a silversmith, and Thomas Branwell, a successful and property-owning grocer and tea merchant in Penzance.Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 12–13 Maria was the eleventh of twelve children and enjoyed the benefits of a prosperous family in a small town. After the death of her parents, Maria went to help her aunt with housekeeping functions at the school. Maria was intelligent and well read,Fraser, The Brontës, p. 15 and her strong Methodist faith attracted Patrick Brontë, whose own leanings were similar.Barker, The Brontës, p. 48
Within three months, on 29 December 1812, though from considerably different backgrounds, Patrick Brontë and Maria Branwell were married.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 16 Their first child, Maria (1814–1825), was born after they moved to Hartshead. In 1815, Patrick was appointed curate of the chapel in Market Street Thornton, near Bradford. A second daughter, Elizabeth (1815–1825), was born shortly after.Barker, The Brontës, p. 61 Four more children followed: Charlotte (1816–1855), Patrick Branwell (1817–1848), Emily (1818–1848), and Anne (1820–1849).
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Anne Brontë
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Early life
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Early life
Anne was the youngest of the Brontë children. She was born on 17 January 1820 at the parsonage in Market Street, Thornton (now known as the Brontë Birthplace), on the outskirts of Bradford.Barker, The Brontës, p. 86 Her father, Patrick, was curate there. Anne was baptised there on 25 March 1820. Later Patrick was appointed to the perpetual curacy in Haworth, a small town away. In April 1820 the family moved into the five-roomed Haworth Parsonage.
When Anne was barely a year old her mother, Maria, became ill, probably with uterine cancer.Barker, The Brontës, pp. 102–104 Maria Branwell died on 15 September 1821.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 28 Patrick tried to remarry, without success.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 30 Maria's sister, Elizabeth Branwell, had moved to the parsonage initially for Maria, but spent the rest of her life there raising Maria's children from a sense of duty. She was stern and expected respect, not love.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 29 There was little affection between her and the older children. According to tradition Anne was her favourite.
In Elizabeth Gaskell's biography of Charlotte, Patrick remembered Anne as precocious. Patrick said that when Anne was four years old he had asked her what a child most wanted and that she had said: "age and experience".Fraser, The Brontës, p. 31
In summer 1824 Patrick sent daughters Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, and Emily to Crofton Hall in Crofton, West Yorkshire, and subsequently to the Clergy Daughter's School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 35 Maria and Elizabeth Brontë died of tuberculosis on 6 May and 15 June 1825 respectively, and Charlotte and Emily were brought home. The unexpected deaths distressed the family so much that Patrick could not face sending them away again. They were educated at home for the next five years, largely by Elizabeth Branwell and Patrick.Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 44–45 The children made little attempt to mix with others outside the parsonage and relied on each other for company. The bleak moors surrounding Haworth became their playground. Anne shared a room with her aunt, Elizabeth. They were close, and she may have influenced Anne's personality and religious beliefs.Gérin, Anne Brontë, p. 35
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Anne Brontë
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Education
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Education
thumb|Anne Brontë, by Charlotte Brontë, 1834
Anne's studies at home included music and drawing. The Keighley church organist gave piano lessons to Anne and Emily and Branwell, and John Bradley of Keighley gave them art lessons. Each drew with some skill.Barker, The Brontës, p. 150 Their aunt tried to teach the girls how to run a household, but they inclined more to literature.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 45 They read much from their father's well-stocked library. Their reading included the Bible, Homer, Virgil, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Scott, articles from Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine and Fraser's Magazine and The Edinburgh Review, and books of history and geography and biography.Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 45–48
Their reading fed their imaginations, and their creativity soared after their father gave Branwell a set of toy soldiers in June 1826. They gave names to the soldiers, or the "Twelves",The soldiers appear in The Twelve and the Genii, a 1962 children's fantasy novel by Pauline Clarke. and developed their characters. This led to the creation of an imaginary world: the African kingdom of "Angria", which was illustrated with maps and watercolour renderings. The children devised plots about the inhabitants of Angria and its capital city, "Glass Town", later called Verreopolis or Verdopolis.Barker, The Brontës, pp. 154–155
Their fantastical worlds and kingdoms gradually acquired characteristics from their historical world, drawing from its sovereigns, armies, heroes, outlaws, fugitives, inns, schools, and publishers. The characters and lands created by the children were given newspapers and magazines and chronicles written in tiny books with writing so small that it was difficult to read without a magnifying glass. These creations and writings were an apprenticeship for their later literary talents.Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 48–58
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Anne Brontë
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Juvenilia
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Juvenilia
Around 1831, when Anne was eleven, she and Emily broke away from Charlotte and Branwell to create and develop their own fantasy world, "Gondal". Anne and Emily were particularly close, especially after Charlotte left for Roe Head School in January 1831.Fraser, The Brontës, pp. 52–53 Charlotte's friend Ellen Nussey visited Haworth in 1833 and reported that Emily and Anne were "like twins" and "inseparable companions". She described Anne so:
Anne took lessons from Charlotte after Charlotte had returned from Roe Head. Charlotte returned to Roe Head as a teacher on 29 July 1835, accompanied by Emily as a pupil. Emily's tuition was largely financed by Charlotte's teaching. Emily was unable to adapt to life at school and was physically ill from homesickness within a few months. She was withdrawn from school by October and replaced by Anne.
Anne was 15 and it was her first time away from home. She made few friends at Roe Head. She was quiet and hardworking and determined to stay to acquire the education which she would need to support herself.Barker, The Brontës, pp. 237–238Fraser, The Brontës, p. 84 She stayed for two years and returned home only during Christmas and summer holidays. She won a good-conduct medal in December 1836. Charlotte's letters almost never mention Anne while Anne was at Roe Head, which might imply that they were not close, but Charlotte was at least concerned about Anne's health. By December 1837 Anne had become seriously ill with gastritis and embroiled in religious crisis.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 113 A Moravian minister was called to see her several times during her illness, suggesting her distress was caused, in part, by conflict with the local Anglican clergy. Charlotte wrote to their father and he brought Anne home.
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Anne Brontë
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Employment at Blake Hall
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Employment at Blake Hall
thumb|Blake Hall, illustration, reproduced from photographs taken at the end of 19th century. It was demolished in 1954.
A year after leaving the school, and aged 19, Anne was seeking a teaching position. She was the daughter of a poor clergyman and needed to earn money. Her father had no private income and the parsonage would revert to the church on his death. Teaching or working as a governess were among few options for a poor and educated woman. In April 1839 Anne started work as a governess for the Ingham family at Blake Hall, near Mirfield.Barker, The Brontës, p. 307
The children in her charge were spoiled and disobedient.Barker, The Brontës, p. 308 Anne had great difficulty controlling them and little success in educating them. She was not allowed to punish them, and when she complained about their behaviour she received no support and was criticised for being incapable. The Inghams were dissatisfied with their children's progress and dismissed Anne.Barker, The Brontës, p. 318 She returned home in 1839 at Christmas. At home also were Charlotte and Emily, who had left their positions, and Branwell. Anne's time at Blake Hall was so traumatic that she reproduced it in almost perfect detail in her novel Agnes Grey.
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Anne Brontë
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William Weightman
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William Weightman
Anne returned to Haworth and met William Weightman, her father's new curate who had started work in the parish in August 1839.Alexander & Smith, The Oxford Companion to the Brontës, p. 531 Weightman was 25 and had obtained a two-year licentiate in theology from the University of Durham. He was welcome at the parsonage. Anne's acquaintance with him parallels her writing a number of poems, which may suggest she fell in love with himBarker, The Brontës, p. 341Barker, The Brontës, p. 407 although there is disagreement over this possibility.Barker, The Brontës, p. 344 Little evidence exists beyond a small anecdote of Charlotte's to Ellen Nussey in January 1842.
In Agnes Grey, Agnes' interest in the curate refreshes her interest in poetry. Outside fiction, William Weightman aroused much curiosity. It seems that he was good-looking and engaging, and that his easy humour and kindness towards the sisters made an impression. It is such a character that she portrays in Edward Weston, and that her heroine Agnes Grey finds deeply appealing.Gérin, Anne Brontë, p. 138
Weightman died of cholera in the same year.Barker, The Brontës, p. 403 Anne expressed her grief for his death in her poem I will not mourn thee, lovely one, in which she called him "our darling".
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Anne Brontë
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Governess
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Governess
thumb|Disputed portrait made by Branwell Brontë about 1833. Sources disagree whether this image is of Emily or Anne.
From 1840 to 1845 Anne worked at Thorp Green Hall, a comfortable country house near York. Here she was governess to the children of the Reverend Edmund Robinson and his wife, Lydia.Barker, The Brontës, p. 329 The house appeared as Horton Lodge in Agnes Grey. Anne had four pupils: Lydia (15), Elizabeth (13), Mary (12), and Edmund (8).Barker, The Brontës, p. 330 She initially had problems similar to those at Blake Hall. Anne missed her home and family. In a diary paper in 1841, she wrote that she did not like her situation and wished to leave it. Her quiet and gentle disposition did not help.Gérin, Anne Brontë, p. 135 But Anne was determined and made a success of her position, becoming well-liked by her employers. Her charges, the Robinson girls, became lifelong friends.
Anne spent only five or six weeks a year with her family, during holidays at Christmas and in June. The rest of her time was spent with the Robinsons. She accompanied the Robinsons on annual holidays to Scarborough. Between 1840 and 1844 Anne spent around five weeks each summer at the coastal town and loved it.Barker, The Brontës, pp. 358–359 A number of locations in Scarborough were used for her novels. She had opportunities to collect semi-precious stones, considering an interest in geology, at least in her novels, or from personal experience, as something suitable for men and women to be considered as equals.
Anne and her sisters considered setting up a school while she was still working for the Robinsons. Various locations were considered, including the parsonage, but the project never materialised. Anne came home on the death of her aunt in early November 1842 while her sisters were in Brussels.Barker, The Brontës, p. 404 Elizabeth Branwell left a £350 legacy (equivalent to £ in ) for each of her nieces.Barker, The Brontës, p. 409
It was at the Long Plantation at Thorp Green in 1842 that Anne wrote her three-verse poem Lines Composed in a Wood on a Windy Day, which was published in 1846 under the name Acton Bell.
In January 1843 Anne returned to Thorp Green and secured a position for Branwell. He was to tutor Edmund, who was growing too old to be in Anne's care. Branwell did not live in the house as Anne did. Anne's vaunted calm appears to have been the result of hard-fought battles, balancing deeply felt emotions with careful thought, a sense of responsibility and resolute determination.Gérin, Anne Brontë, p. 134 All three Brontë sisters worked as governesses or teachers, and all experienced problems controlling their charges, gaining support from their employers, and coping with homesickness, but Anne was the only one who persevered and made a success of her work.
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Anne Brontë
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Back at the parsonage
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Back at the parsonage
thumb|Brontë Parsonage Museum
Anne and Branwell taught at Thorp Green for the next three years. Branwell entered into a secret relationship with his employer's wife, Lydia Robinson. When Anne and Branwell returned home for the holidays in June 1845 Anne resigned.Barker, The Brontës, p. 450 Anne gave no reason, but the reason may have been the relationship between her brother and Mrs Robinson. Branwell was dismissed when his employer found out about the relationship. Anne continued to exchange letters with Elizabeth and Mary Robinson. They came to visit Anne in December 1848.Barker, The Brontës, p. 574
Anne took Emily to visit some of the places which Anne had become fond of. A plan to visit Scarborough fell through, but they went to York and saw York Minster.Barker, The Brontës, p. 451
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Anne Brontë
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A book of poems
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A book of poems
thumb|left|170px|Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell. First edition
The Brontës were at home with their father during the summer of 1845. None had any immediate prospect of employment. Charlotte found Emily's poems, which had been shared only with Anne. Charlotte said that they should be published. Anne showed her own poems to Charlotte, and Charlotte "thought that these verses too had a sweet sincere pathos of their own". The sisters eventually reached an agreement. They told nobody what they were doing. With the money from Elizabeth Branwell they paid for publication of a collection of poems, 21 from Anne and 21 from Emily and 19 from Charlotte.
The book was published under pen names which retained their initials but concealed their sex.Barker, The Brontës, p. 480 Anne's pseudonym was Acton Bell. Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell was available for sale in May 1846. The cost of publication was 31 pounds and 10 shillings, about three-quarters of Anne's salary at Thorp Green. On 7 May 1846 the first three copies were delivered to Haworth Parsonage.Barker, The Brontës, p. 491 The book achieved three somewhat favourable reviews, but was a commercial failure, with only two copies sold in the first year. Anne nonetheless found a market for her later poetry. The Leeds Intelligencer and Fraser's Magazine published her poem The Narrow Way under her pseudonym in December 1848. Four months earlier, Fraser's Magazine had published her poem The Three Guides.
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Anne Brontë
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Novels
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Novels
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Anne Brontë
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''Agnes Grey''
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Agnes Grey
By July 1846 a package containing the manuscripts of each sister's first novel was making the rounds of London publishers. Charlotte had written The Professor, Emily had written Wuthering Heights, and Anne had written Agnes Grey.
After some rejections Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey were accepted by the publisher Thomas Cautley Newby. The Professor was rejected.Barker, The Brontës, p. 525 It was not long before Charlotte had completed her second novel, Jane Eyre. Jane Eyre was accepted immediately by Smith, Elder & Co. It was the first published of the sisters' novels, and an immediate and resounding success. Meanwhile, Anne and Emily's novels "lingered in the press". Anne and Emily were obliged to pay fifty pounds to help meet their publishing costs. Their publisher was galvanised by the success of Jane Eyre and published Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey together in December 1847.Barker, The Brontës, p. 539 They sold well, but Agnes Grey was outshone by Emily's more dramatic Wuthering Heights.Barker, The Brontës, p. 540
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Anne Brontë
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''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall''
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The Tenant of Wildfell Hall
Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was published in the last week of June 1848.Barker, The Brontës, p. 557
The novel challenged contemporary social and legal structures. In 1913, May Sinclair said that the slamming of Helen Huntingdon's bedroom door against her husband reverberated throughout Victorian England.Brontё, Anne. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. 1848. Introduction. Winifred Gerin. New York: Penguin. 1979.
In the book Helen has left her husband to protect their son from his influence. She supports herself and her son in hiding by painting. She has violated social conventions and English law. Until the Married Women's Property Act 1870 was passed, a married woman had no legal existence independent from her husband and could not own property nor sue for divorce nor control the custody of her children. Helen's husband had a right to reclaim her and charge her with kidnapping. By subsisting on her own income she was stealing her husband's property since this income was legally his.
Anne stated her intentions in the second edition, published in August 1848. She presented a forceful rebuttal to critics (among them Charlotte) who considered her portrayal of Huntingdon overly graphic and disturbing. Anne "wished to tell the truth". She explained: "When we have to do with vice and vicious characters, I maintain it is better to depict them as they really are than as they would wish to appear."Barker, The Brontës, p. 532 Anne also castigated reviewers who speculated on the sex of authors and the perceived appropriateness of their writing. She was
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Anne Brontë
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London visit
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London visit
thumb|upright|The offices of Smith, Elder & Co. at No. 65 Cornhill
In July 1848 Anne and Charlotte went to Charlotte's publisher George Smith in London to dispel the rumour that the "Bell brothers" were one person. Emily refused to go. Anne and Charlotte spent several days with Smith. Many years after Anne's death, he wrote in The Cornhill Magazine his impressions of her:
The increasing popularity of the Bells' works led to renewed interest in Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, originally published by Aylott and Jones. The remaining print run was bought by Smith and Elder, and reissued under new covers in November 1848. It still sold poorly.
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Anne Brontë
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Family tragedies
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Family tragedies
Branwell's persistent drunkenness disguised the decline of his health and he died on 24 September 1848.Barker, The Brontës, p. 568 His sudden death shocked the family. He was 31. The cause was recorded as chronic bronchitismarasmus, but was probably tuberculosis.
The family suffered from coughs and colds during the winter of 1848, and Emily became very ill. She worsened over two months and rejected medical aid until the morning of 19 December. She was very weak and said that "if you will send for a doctor, I will see him now".Barker, The Brontës, p. 576 But Emily died at about two o'clock that afternoon, aged 30.
Emily's death deeply affected Anne. Her grief undermined her physical health.Gaskell EC. The Life of Charlotte Brontë: author of 'Jane Eyre,' 'Shirley,' 'Villette,' 'The Professor,' etc., Elder Smith, 1896, p. 287 read online or download Over Christmas Anne had influenza. Her symptoms intensified and in early January her father sent for a Leeds physician. The doctor diagnosed advanced consumption with little hope of recovery. Anne met the news with characteristic determination and self-control. However, in her letter to Ellen Nussey she expressed her frustrated ambitions:
Unlike Emily, Anne took all the recommended medicines and followed the advice she was given.Alexander & Smith, The Oxford Companion to the Brontës, p. 72 She also wrote her last poem, A dreadful darkness closes in, in which she deals with being terminally ill.Alexander & Smith, The Oxford Companion to the Brontës, p. 170 Her health fluctuated for months, but she grew thinner and weaker.
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Anne Brontë
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Death
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Death
thumb|Anne Brontë's grave at Scarborough. The flowering plants have now been replaced by a slab.
Anne seemed somewhat better in February.Barker, The Brontës, p. 588 She decided to visit Scarborough to see if the change of location and the fresh sea air might benefit her.Barker, The Brontës, p. 587 Charlotte was initially against the journey, fearing that it would be too stressful, but changed her mind after the doctor's approval and Anne's assurance that it was her last hope.
On 24 May 1849, Anne set off for Scarborough with Charlotte and Ellen Nussey. They spent a day and night in York en route. Here they escorted Anne in a wheelchair and did some shopping and visited York Minster. It was clear that Anne had little strength left.
left|thumb|Memorial slab lying on the grave of Anne Brontë
On Sunday 27 May, Anne asked Charlotte whether it would be easier to return home and die instead of remaining in Scarborough. A doctor was consulted the next day and said that death was close. Anne received the news quietly. She expressed her love and concern for Ellen and Charlotte, and whispered for Charlotte to "take courage".Barker, The Brontës, p. 594 Anne died at about two o'clock in the afternoon on 28 May 1849, aged 29.
Charlotte decided to "lay the flower where it had fallen". So Anne was buried in Scarborough. The funeral was held on 30 May. Patrick Brontë could not have made the journey if he had wished to. The former schoolmistress at Roe Head, Miss Wooler, was in Scarborough, and she was the only other mourner at Anne's funeral.Barker, The Brontës, p. 595 Anne was buried in St Mary's churchyard, beneath the castle walls and overlooking the bay. Charlotte commissioned a stone to be placed over her grave with the inscription, When Charlotte visited the grave three years later she discovered multiple errors on the headstone and had it refaced, but it was still not free of error, for Anne was 29 when she died, not 28 as written.
In 2011 the Brontë Society installed a new plaque at Anne Brontë's grave. The original gravestone had become illegible at places and could not be restored. It was left undisturbed while the new plaque was laid horizontally, interpreting the fading words of the original and correcting its error. In April 2013 the Brontë Society held a dedication and blessing service at the gravesite to mark the installation of the new plaque.
thumb|Anne Brontë's grave at Scarborough in 2024
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Anne Brontë
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Reputation
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Reputation
After Anne's death, Charlotte addressed issues with the first edition of Agnes Grey for its republication, but she prevented republication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall.Fraser, The Brontës, p. 387 In 1850, Charlotte wrote that Subsequent critics paid less attention to Anne's work and some dismissed her as "a Brontë without genius".
But since the mid-20th century her life and works have been given better attention. Biographies by Winifred Gérin (1959), Elizabeth Langland (1989) and Edward Chitham (1991), as well as Juliet Barker's group biography, The Brontës (1994; revised edition 2000), and work by critics such as Inga-Stina Ewbank, Marianne Thormählen, Laura C Berry, Jan B Gordon, Mary Summers, and Juliet McMaster has led to acceptance of Anne Brontë as a major literary figure.Harrison and Stanford, Anne Brontë — Her Life and Work, стр. 243—245 Sally McDonald of the Brontë Society said in 2013 that in some ways Anne "is now viewed as the most radical of the sisters, writing about tough subjects such as women's need to maintain independence and how alcoholism can tear a family apart." In 2016 Lucy Mangan championed Anne Brontë in the BBC's Being the Brontës.
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Anne Brontë
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Works
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Works
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Anne Brontë
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See also
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See also
List of feminist literature – 1840s
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Anne Brontë
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Notes
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Notes
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Anne Brontë
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References
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References
Alexander, Christine & Smith, Margaret, The Oxford Companion to the Brontës, Oxford University Press, 2006,
Barker, Juliet, The Brontës, St. Martin's Pr.,
Chitham, Edward, A Life of Anne Brontë, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1991,
Fraser, Rebeca, The Brontës: Charlotte Brontë and her family, Crown Publishers, 1988,
Gérin, Winifred, Anne Brontë, Allen Lane, 1976,
Harrison, Ada and Stanford, Derek, Anne Brontë – Her Life and Work, Archon Books, 1970 (first published 1959).
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Anne Brontë
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Further reading
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Further reading
Allott, Miriam, The Brontës: The Critical Heritage, 1984
Barker, Juliet, The Brontës, 2000 (revised edition)
Chadwick, Ellis, In the Footsteps of the Brontës, 1982
Chitham, Edward, A Brontë Family Chronology, 2003
Chitham, Edward, A Life of Anne Brontë, 1991
Eagleton, Terry, Myths of Power, 1975
Ellis, Samantha, Take Courage: Anne Brontë and the Art of Life, 2016
Gérin, Winifred, Anne Brontë: A Biography, 1959
Langland, Elizabeth, Anne Brontë: The Other One, 1989
Miller, Lucasta, The Brontë Myth, 2001
Scott, P. J. M., Anne Brontë: A New Critical Assessment, 1983
Summers, Mary, Anne Brontë Educating Parents, 2003
Wise, T. J. and Symington, J. A. (eds.), The Brontës: Their Lives, Friendships and Correspondences, 1932
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Anne Brontë
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External links
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External links
Anne Brontë's grave in Scarborough
Anne Brontë – The Scarborough Connection , biographical materials and complete poems of Anne Brontë
Anne Brontë – Writer Of Genius, biographical materials on Anne and her family
Anne Bronte at Northwestern University, information about Anne and Victorian society, critical reception of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall
Anne Brontë's biography and works at A Celebration of Women Writers
Website of the Brontë Society and Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth
Anne Brontë papers, circa 1840s–1895, held by the Henry W. and Albert A. Berg Collection of English and American Literature, New York Public Library.
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Anne Brontë
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Electronic editions
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Electronic editions
Anne Brontë eText Archive
Works by Anne Brontë in the online library ARHEVE.org and in the free ARHEVE app
Music On Christmas Morning – Audio Poem
Category:1820 births
Category:1849 deaths
Category:19th-century Christian universalists
Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Category:19th-century English novelists
Category:19th-century English women writers
Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers
Category:Anglican universalists
Category:Anglican writers
Anne
Category:Burials in North Yorkshire
Category:English Anglicans
Category:English Christian universalists
Category:English governesses
Category:English people of Cornish descent
Category:English people of Irish descent
Category:English women novelists
Category:English women poets
Category:Tuberculosis deaths in England
Category:People from Thornton and Allerton
Category:Writers from Bradford
Category:Pseudonymous women writers
Category:Victorian novelists
Category:Victorian women writers
Category:Victorian writers
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Anne Brontë
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Table of Content
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short description, Family background, Early life, Education, Juvenilia, Employment at Blake Hall, William Weightman, Governess, Back at the parsonage, A book of poems, Novels, ''Agnes Grey'', ''The Tenant of Wildfell Hall'', London visit, Family tragedies, Death, Reputation, Works, See also, Notes, References, Further reading, External links, Electronic editions
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Augustine of Hippo
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Short description
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Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosophy and Western Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions.
According to his contemporary, Jerome of Stridon, Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith". In his youth he was drawn to the Manichaean faith, and later to the Hellenistic philosophy of Neoplatonism. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made significant contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustine's On the Trinity.
Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran churches, and the Anglican Communion. He is also a preeminent Catholic Doctor of the Church and the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses.Know Your Patron Saint. catholicapologetics.info His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace. Protestant Reformers generally, and Martin Luther in particular, held Augustine in preeminence among early Church Fathers. From 1505 to 1521, Luther was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites.
In the East, his teachings are more disputed and were notably attacked by John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque,Papademetriou, George C. "Saint Augustine in the Greek Orthodox Tradition". goarch.org was rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church. Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint and has influenced some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably Gregory Palamas. In the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches, his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.
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Augustine of Hippo
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Life
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Life
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