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Geography of Antarctica | Territorial landclaims | Territorial landclaims
Seven nations have made official Territorial claims in Antarctica. |
Geography of Antarctica | Dependences and territories | Dependences and territories
Bouvet Island
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
Heard and McDonald Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Peter I Island |
Geography of Antarctica | See also | See also
Bibliography of Antarctica
List of Antarctic and Subantarctic islands
Geology of Antarctica |
Geography of Antarctica | Notes | Notes |
Geography of Antarctica | References | References |
Geography of Antarctica | General references | General references
Ivanov, L. General Geography and History of Livingston Island. In: Bulgarian Antarctic Research: A Synthesis. Eds. C. Pimpirev and N. Chipev. Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2015. pp. 17–28. |
Geography of Antarctica | External links | External links
High resolution map (2018) – Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica (REMA)
Political Claims Map
USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica (archived 1 March 2005)
United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC)
BEDMAP (archived 25 January 2005)
Antarctic Digital Database (Topographic data for Antarctica, including web map browser)
Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; USGS web pages)
Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; NASA web pages) (archived 14 February 2015)
Geography of the land under the ice of Antarctica:
http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/nasa-map-shows-what-antarctica-would-look-like-without-ice-1.1304997
https://www.bas.ac.uk/project/bedmap-2/
https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/maps/thematic-maps/bedmap2/
https://www.the-cryosphere.net/7/375/2013/tc-7-375-2013.pdf article in The Cryosphere, 7, 375–393, 2013
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Geography of Antarctica | Table of Content | Short description, Regions, Volcanoes, Marie Byrd Land, Activity, Conditions of formation, Hazards, Hazardous ash, Melting ice, Canyons, West Antarctica, Areas, Seas, Ice shelves, Islands, East Antarctica, Areas, Seas, Ice shelves, Islands, Research stations, Territorial landclaims, Dependences and territories, See also, Notes, References, General references, External links |
Transport in Antarctica | Short description | thumb|300px|Part of a traverse, which was bringing fuel, food, and other supplies from Dumont d'Urville Station to Dome C (Concordia Station). January 2005
Transport in Antarctica has transformed from explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica by foot to a more open era due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport, predominantly by air and water, but also by land as well.
Transportation technologies on a remote area like Antarctica need to be able to deal with extremely low temperatures and continuous winds to ensure the travelers' safety. Due to the fragility of the Antarctic environment, only a limited amount of transport movements can take place and sustainable transportation technologies have to be used to reduce the ecological footprint.
The infrastructure of land, water and air transport needs to be safe and sustainable.
Currently thousands of tourists and hundreds of scientists a year depend on the Antarctic transportation system.
Important parts of Antarctic transport include ships, but unlike warmer areas access may also require an icebreaker ship. Aircraft and airports are important but have some unique aspects; airstrips may be built on ice or compacted snow and aircraft with ski may be used. On the ground, transport includes traditionally wheeled vehicles adapted to the cold, but also vehicles with skis, such as snowmobiles are important as are towed sleds. |
Transport in Antarctica | Land transport | Land transport |
Transport in Antarctica | Roads and traverses | Roads and traverses
thumb|Cargo caravan on the ice highway in early 2006
thumb|A Tucker Sno-Cat at Rothera on Adelaide Island off Antarctica
Winds continuously blow snow on roads in Antarctica.
The South Pole Traverse (McMurdo–South Pole highway) is approximately long and links the United States McMurdo Station on the coast to the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. It was constructed by leveling snow and in crevasses, but is not paved. There are flags to mark the road.
Also, the United States Antarctic Program maintains two ice roads during the austral summer. One provides access to Pegasus Field on the Ross Ice Shelf. The ice road between Pegasus Field and McMurdo Station is about . The other road provides access to the Ice Runway, which is on sea ice. The road between the Ice Runway and McMurdo Station varies in length from year to year depending on many factors, including ice stability. These roads are critical for resupplying McMurdo Station, Scott Base, and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. |
Transport in Antarctica | Vehicles | Vehicles
thumb|left|Tucker Sno-cat at McMurdo Station, Ross Island. 2010
The scarcity and poor quality of road infrastructure limits land transportation by conventional vehicles.
A normal car on tires has very limited capability in Antarctic conditions. Scientific bases are often built on snow-free areas (oases) close to the
ocean. Around these stations and on a hard packed snow or ice, tire based vehicles can drive but on deeper and softer snow, a normal tire-based vehicle cannot travel. Due to these limitations, vehicles on belts have been the preferred option in Antarctica. In 1997, two specialized cars with very large tires running tire pressure as low as travelled onto the high Antarctica Plateau, giving strong indication that tire based vehicles could be an option for efficient travelling in Antarctica.
thumb|Antarctica 1 towing a sleigh in 1963
Mawson Station used classic Volkswagen Beetles, the first production cars to be utilized in Antarctica, from 1963-1970. The first of these was named the Antarctica 1.
In December 1997 into February 1998 two AT44, 4x4 cars (built in Iceland by Arctic Trucks with tire size of 44-inch tall) joined an expedition by the Swedish Polar Institution (SWEA). The cars got used to transport people and supplies from the Ice shelf to WASA station, to perform scanning of the snow and support a drilling expedition to on the Antarctica Plateau 76°S 8°03'W. This is the first time tire based vehicles successfully travel on the Antarctica high plateau.
thumb|Ice Challenger vehicle at Patriot Hills, 2005
In 2005, a team of six people took part in the Ice Challenger Expedition. Travelling in a specially designed six wheel drive vehicle, the team completed the journey from the Antarctic coast at Patriot Hills to the geographic South Pole in 69 hours. In doing so they easily beat the previous record of 24 days. They arrived at the South Pole on December 12, 2005.Ice Challenger 2005 Retrieved on 2008-10-14
thumb|Foremost Nodwell 240 in Antarctica
The team members on that expedition were Andrew Regan, Jason De Carteret, Andrew Moon, Richard Griffiths, Gunnar Egilsson and Andrew Miles. The expedition successfully showed that wheeled transport on the continent is not only possible but also often more practical. The expedition also hoped to raise awareness about global warming and climate change.
From start of December 2008 into February 2009, four AT44, 4x4 cars were used to support a ski race by Amundsen Omega 3, from S82° 41' E17° 43' to South Pole. A film was made of this race by BBC called "On Thin Ice" with Ben Fogle and James Cracknell. The cars started from Novo airbase at S70° 49' E11° 38', establish a route onto the plateau through the crevasse areas in the Shcherbakov Mountain Range driving nearly to the start line of the ski race. For the return journey each car covered between with one fuel depot on the way.
From 2008 to date (Dec 2015) tire based cars, AT44 4x4 and AT44 6x6 have been used every season to support various NGO and scientific expedition/projects, supporting flights, fuel drops, filming, skiers, biker, a tractor, collecting snow samples and more. The combined distance covered on the Antarctica Plateau is over and even though towing capacity is much lower than for most belt based vehicles, the tire based cars multiply the travel speed and use only a fraction of the fuel making this an option for some expeditions/projects.
A second expedition led by Andrew Regan and Andrew Moon departed in November 2010. The Moon-Regan Trans Antarctic Expedition this time traversed the entire continent twice, using two six-wheel-drive vehicles and a Concept Ice Vehicle designed by Lotus.Trans Antarctic Expedition Retrieved on 2011-02-20 This time the team used the expedition to raise awareness about the global environmental importance of the Antarctic region and to show that biofuel can be a viable and environmentally friendly option. |
Transport in Antarctica | Water transport | Water transport
thumb|A tour boat in fast ice near the coast
Antarctica's only harbour is at McMurdo Station. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty. Offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent, but poses no problem to sailboats designed for the ice, typically with lifting keels and long shorelines.
McMurdo Station (), Palmer Station (); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"). A number of tour boats, ranging from large motorized vessels to small sailing yachts, visit the Antarctic Peninsula during the summer months (January–March). Most are based in Ushuaia, Argentina. |
Transport in Antarctica | Air transport | Air transport
thumb|A US Air Force C-141 Starlifter participating in Operation Deep Freeze with penguins, 1997
thumb|C-17 lands in Antarctica for WinFly 2003
Transport in Antarctica takes place by air, using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters.
Runways and helicopter pads have to be kept snow-free to ensure safe take off and landing conditions.
Antarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. Thirty stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have landing facilities for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities.
thumb|A319 lands in 2010
thumb|Twin Otter at the WAIS Divide field camp,2012
thumb|Ski-equipped Hercules taxis on snow runway, 2023
Helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, one is greater than in length, six are between in length, three are between in length, three are less than in length, and two are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, four are greater than 3 km in length, three are between 2 km and 3 km in length, two are between 1 km and 2 km in length, two are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining four.
Antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet ICAO standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.) Flights to the continent in the permanent darkness of the winter are normally only undertaken in an emergency, with burning barrels of fuel to outline a runway. On September 11, 2008, a United States Air Force C-17 Globemaster III successfully completed the first landing in Antarctica using night-vision goggles at Pegasus Field.
In April 2001 an emergency evacuation of Dr. Ronald Shemenski was needed from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station when he contracted pancreatitis. Three C-130 Hercules were called back before their final leg because of weather. Organizers then called on Kenn Borek Air based in Calgary, Alberta. Two de Havilland Twin Otters were dispatched out of Calgary with one being back-up. Twin Otters are specifically designed for the Canadian north and Kenn Borek Air's motto is "Anywhere, Anytime, World-Wide". The mission was a success but not without difficulties and drawbacks. Ground crews needed to create a runway with tracked equipment not designed to operate in the low temperatures at that time of year, the aircraft controls had to be "jerry-rigged" when the flaps were frozen in position after landing, and instruments were not reliable because of the cold. When they saw a "faint pink line on the horizon" they knew they were going in the right direction. This was the first rescue from the South Pole during winter. Canada honoured the Otter crew for bravery.
In 2021, an Airbus A340 aeroplane operated by Portuguese charter airline Hi Fly landed in Antarctica for the first time. |
Transport in Antarctica | See also | See also
Tourism in Antarctica
List of airports in Antarctica
Bibliography of Antarctica
WinFly |
Transport in Antarctica | References | References |
Transport in Antarctica | External links | External links
Webpage of the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat on logistics
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Transport in Antarctica | Table of Content | Short description, Land transport, Roads and traverses, Vehicles, Water transport, Air transport, See also, References, External links |
Geography of Alabama | Short description |
right|frame|Physiographic regions in Alabama
right|thumb|260px|Political Regions of Alabama
The geography of Alabama describes a state in the Southeastern United States in North America. It extends from high mountains to low valleys and sandy beaches.
Alabama is 30th in size and borders four U.S. states: Mississippi, Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida. It also borders the Gulf of Mexico. |
Geography of Alabama | Physical features | Physical features
Extending entirely across the state of Alabama for about northern boundary, and in the middle stretching farther north, is the Cumberland Plateau, or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad tablelands by the dissection of rivers. In the northern part of this plateau, west of Jackson county, there are about of level highlands from above sea level. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee River, is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from . To the northeast of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from . In the remainder of this region, the southern portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, extending about from east to west between two valleys, and rising precipitously on the north side above them or above the sea.
Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the southeast is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountains, and occupies an area within the state of about . This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges, and valleys is northeast and southwest, irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics. In the northeast are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than and gradually decreasing in height toward the southwest, where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep northwest sides, sharp crests and gently sloping southeast sides.
Southeast of the Appalachian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together with the northern part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about above sea level. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau.
The remainder of the state is occupied by the Coastal Plain. This is crossed by foothills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about , becomes lower and more level toward the southwest, and in the extreme south is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea.
The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the west-northwest by the Tennessee River and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the southwest. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa River is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa River. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee River in the west, the Alabama River (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the western central, and in the east the Chattahoochee River, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The Tombigbee and Alabama rivers unite near the southwest corner of the state, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior River is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the east.
The valleys in the north and northeast are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. |
Geography of Alabama | Flora and fauna | Flora and fauna
The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. However, the Mobile River system has a high incidence of endemism among freshwater mollusks and biodiversity is high.
In Alabama, vast forests of pine constitute the largest proportion of the state's forest growth. There is also an abundance of cypress, hickory, oak, populus, and eastern redcedar trees. In other areas, hemlock growths in the north and southern white cedar in the southwest. Other native trees include ash, hackberry, and holly. In the Gulf region of the state grow various species of palmetto and palm. In Alabama there are more than 150 shrubs, including mountain laurel and rhododendron. Among cultivated plants are wisteria and camellia.
While in the past the state enjoyed a variety of mammals such as plains bison, eastern elk, North American cougar, bear, and deer, only the white-tailed deer remains abundant. Still fairly common are the bobcat, American beaver, muskrat, raccoon, Virginia opossum, rabbit, squirrel, red and gray foxes, and long-tailed weasel. Coypu and nine-banded armadillo have been introduced to the state and now also common.
Alabama's birds include golden and bald eagles, osprey and other hawks, yellow-shafted flickers, and black-and-white warblers. Game birds include bobwhite quail, duck, wild turkey, and goose. Freshwater fish such as bream, shad, bass, and sucker are common. Along the Gulf Coast there are seasonal runs of tarpon, pompano, red drum, and bonito.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists as endangered 99 animals, fish, and birds, and 18 plant species. The endangered animals include the Alabama beach mouse, gray bat, Alabama red-bellied turtle, fin and humpback whales, bald eagle, and wood stork.
American black bear, racking horse, yellow-shafted flicker, wild turkey, Atlantic tarpon, largemouth bass, southern longleaf pine, eastern tiger swallowtail, monarch butterfly, Alabama red-bellied turtle, Red Hills salamander, camellia, oak-leaf hydrangea, peach, pecan, and blackberry are Alabama's state symbols. |
Geography of Alabama | Climate and soil | Climate and soil
The climate of Alabama is humid subtropical.
The heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast, and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is , the mean for the summer , and for the winter ; and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is , the mean for the summer , and for the winter . At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is , with a winter average of , and a summer average of . The average winter minimum for the entire state is , and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18 °C), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13 February 1899, when an absolute minimum of was registered at Valley Head. The highest temperature ever recorded was in Talladega county in 1902.
The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. Heavy snowfall can occur, such as during the New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. Hailstorms occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year - they are most common in the summer, but most severe in the spring and fall, when destructive winds and tornadoes occasionally occur. The prevailing winds are from the news. Hurricanes are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive.
As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for about is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the Timber Belt, whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the Black Prairie, which includes some and seventeen counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the Cotton Belt. Between the Cotton Belt and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the Old Land area—a region of resistant rocks—whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region is the Cereal Belt, embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations. |
Geography of Alabama | Wetumpka Meteor Crater | Wetumpka Meteor Crater
Wetumpka is the home of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster.""Wetumpka Impact Crater" Wetumpka Public Library, accessed Aug. 21, 2007. A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown showcase the eroded remains of the wide impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") for the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock can be found beneath the surface."The Wetumpka Astrobleme" by John C. Hall, Alabama Heritage, Fall 1996, Number 42. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as an internationally recognized impact crater. |
Geography of Alabama | Public lands | Public lands
Alabama includes several types of public use lands. These include four national forests and one national preserve within state borders that provide over 25% of the state's public recreation land.
land regions
Alabama State Parks
Alabama Public Fishing Lakes
Alabama Wildlife Management Areas
Little River Canyon National Preserve
Russell Cave National Monument
National Forests
Conecuh National Forest
Talladega National Forest
Tuskegee National Forest
William B. Bankhead National Forest
Wilderness Areas
Cheaha Wilderness
Dugger Mountain Wilderness
Sipsey Wilderness
National Recreation Trail
Pinhoti National Recreation Trail
National Wildlife Refuge
Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge
Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge
Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge
Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge
Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge
Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge
Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge
Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge
Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge
Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge |
Geography of Alabama | See also | See also
Alabama
Geography of the United States |
Geography of Alabama | References | References |
Geography of Alabama | External links | External links
State of Alabama Geological Survey
USGS - Tapestry of Time - Alabama
Summary of Alabama Park & Recreation Sites
Interactive Map of Park & Recreation Sites
Encyclopedia of Alabama: Cultural Geography
Encyclopedia of Alabama: Black Belt Region in Alabama
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Geography of Alabama | Table of Content | Short description, Physical features, Flora and fauna, Climate and soil, Wetumpka Meteor Crater, Public lands, See also, References, External links |
List of governors of Alabama | Short description | The governor of Alabama is the head of government of the U.S. state of Alabama. The governor is the head of the executive branch of Alabama's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws.
There have officially been 54 governors of the state of Alabama; this official numbering skips acting and military governors. The first governor, William Wyatt Bibb, served as the only governor of the Alabama Territory. Five people have served as acting governor, bringing the total number of people serving as governor to 59, spread over 63 distinct terms. Four governors have served multiple non-consecutive terms: Bibb Graves, Jim Folsom, and Fob James each served two, and George Wallace served three non-consecutive periods. Officially, these non-consecutive terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. William D. Jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity.
The longest-serving governor was George Wallace, who served 16 years over four terms. The shortest term for a non-acting governor was that of Hugh McVay, who served four and a half months after replacing the resigning Clement Comer Clay. Lurleen Wallace, the first wife of George Wallace, was the first woman to serve as governor of Alabama, and the third woman to serve as governor of any state. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey, who took office on April 10, 2017 following Robert J. Bentley's resignation amidst a corruption scandal. She is the second female governor of Alabama. |
List of governors of Alabama | List of governors | List of governors |
List of governors of Alabama | Territory of Alabama | Territory of Alabama
Alabama Territory was formed on March 3, 1817, from Mississippi Territory. It had only one governor appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state; he became the first state governor.
+ Governor of the Territory of AlabamaGovernorTerm in officeAppointed by175pxWilliam Wyatt BibbSeptember 25, 1817–November 9, 1819James Monroe |
List of governors of Alabama | State of Alabama | State of Alabama
thumb|right|150px|Seal for use by the governor-elect
thumb|right|150px|Governor's flag before 1939
Alabama was admitted to the Union on December 14, 1819., It seceded from the Union on January 11, 1861, and was a founding member of the Confederate States of America on February 4, 1861.Constitution for the Provisional Government of the Confederate States of America , accessed July 8, 2015 Following the end of the American Civil War, Alabama during Reconstruction was part of the Third Military District, which exerted some control over governor appointments and elections. Alabama was readmitted to the Union on July 14, 1868.Act authorizing readmission on ratification of 14th amendment: . Proclamation of Alabama's ratification: .
The first Alabama Constitution, ratified in 1819, provided that a governor be elected every two years, limited to serve no more than 4 out of every 6 years. This limit remained in place until the constitution of 1868, which simply allowed governors to serve terms of two years. The current constitution of 1901 increased terms to four years, but prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. An amendment in 1968 allowed governors to succeed themselves once; a governor serving two consecutive terms can run again after waiting out the next term. The constitution had no set date for the commencement of a governor's term until 1901, when it was set at the first Monday after the second Tuesday in the January following an election. However, the Alabama Supreme Court ruled in 1911 that a governor's term ends at midnight at the end of Monday, and the next governor's term begins the next day, regardless of if they were sworn in on Monday.
The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1868, abolished in 1875, and recreated in 1901. According to the current constitution, should the governor be out of the state for more than 20 days, the lieutenant governor becomes acting governor, and if the office of governor becomes vacant the lieutenant governor ascends to the governorship. The governor and the lieutenant governor are elected at the same time but not on the same ticket.
Alabama was a strongly Democratic state before the Civil War, electing only candidates from the Democratic-Republican and Democratic parties. It had two Republican governors following Reconstruction, but after the Democratic Party re-established control, 112 years passed before voters chose another Republican.
+ Governors of the State of AlabamaGovernorTerm in officePartyElectionLt. Governor175px William Wyatt BibbAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1st sess., 59, accessed September 25, 2023–July 10, 1820Democratic-Republican1819Office did not exist275pxThomas Bibb–November 9, 1821Democratic-Republican375pxIsrael PickensAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 3rd sess., 29, accessed July 27, 2023–November 25, 1825Democratic-Republican18211823475pxJohn MurphyAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 7th sess., 24, accessed July 27, 2023–November 21, 1829JacksonDemocrat18251827575pxGabriel MooreAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 11th sess., 33, accessed July 27, 2023–March 3, 1831JacksonDemocrat1829675pxSamuel B. Moore–November 26, 1831JacksonDemocrat775pxJohn GayleAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 13th sess., 38, accessed July 27, 2023–November 21, 1835JacksonDemocrat1831Democratic1833875pxClement Comer ClayAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 17th sess., 30, accessed July 27, 2023–July 17, 1837Democratic1835975pxHugh McVay–November 21, 1837Democratic1075pxArthur P. BagbyAla. General Assembly. Journal of the Senate. 1837 sess., 36, accessed July 28, 2023–November 22, 1841Democratic183718391175pxBenjamin FitzpatrickAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1841 sess., 101, accessed July 28, 2023–December 9, 1845Democratic184118431275pxJoshua L. MartinAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1845 sess., 57, accessed July 28, 2023–December 16, 1847Independent18451375pxReuben ChapmanAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1847–1848 sess., 69, accessed July 28, 2023–December 17, 1849Democratic18471475pxHenry W. CollierAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1849–1850 sess., 196, accessed July 28, 2023–December 20, 1853Democratic184918511575pxJohn A. WinstonAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1853–1854 sess., 220, accessed July 28, 2023–December 1, 1857Democratic185318551675pxAndrew B. MooreAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1857–1858 sess., 153, accessed July 28, 2023–December 2, 1861Democratic185718591775pxJohn Gill ShorterAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1861 sess., 207, accessed July 28, 2023–December 1, 1863Democratic18611875pxThomas H. WattsAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1863 sess., 199, accessed July 28, 2023–May 3, 1865Whig1863—Vacant–June 21, 18651975pxLewis E. Parsons"President Johnson appoints Lewis E. Parsons, Sr. as provisional governor of Alabama," House Divided: The Civil War Research Engine at Dickinson College, accessed July 28, 2023–December 13, 18652075pxRobert M. PattonAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1865–1866 sess., 151, accessed July 28, 2023–July 13, 1868Nonpartisan 1865—75pxWager Swayne–January 11, 18682175pxWilliam Hugh Smith–November 26, 1870Republican1868 Vacant2275pxRobert B. LindsayAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1870–1871 sess., 31, accessed July 28, 2023–November 25, 1872Democratic18702375pxDavid P. Lewis–November 24, 1874Republican18722475pxGeorge S. HoustonAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1874–1875 sess., 56, accessed July 28, 2023–November 27, 1878Democratic18741876Office did not exist2575pxRufus W. CobbAla. General Assembly. Journal of the House of Representatives. 1878–1879 sess., 151, accessed July 28, 2023–December 1, 1882Democratic187818802675pxEdward A. 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Comer–January 16, 1911Democratic19063475pxEmmet O'Neal–January 18, 1915Democratic19103575pxCharles Henderson–January 20, 1919Democratic19143675pxThomas Kilby–January 15, 1923Democratic19183775pxWilliam W. Brandon–January 17, 1927Democratic19223875pxBibb Graves–January 19, 1931Democratic19263975pxBenjamin M. Miller–January 14, 1935Democratic19303889x89pxBibb Graves–January 16, 1939Democratic1934Vacant4099x99pxFrank M. Dixon–January 18, 1943Democratic19384175pxChauncey Sparks–January 20, 1947Democratic194242107x107pxJim Folsom–January 15, 1951Democratic19464375pxGordon Persons–January 17, 1955Democratic195042107x107pxJim Folsom–January 19, 1959Democratic19544475pxJohn M. Patterson–January 14, 1963Democratic19584575pxGeorge Wallace–January 16, 1967Democratic19624695x95pxLurleen Wallace–May 7, 1968Democratic19664794x94pxAlbert Brewer–January 18, 1971DemocraticVacant4575pxGeorge Wallace–January 15, 1979Democratic197019744875pxFob James–January 17, 1983Democratic19784575pxGeorge Wallace–January 19, 1987Democratic198249 75pxH. Guy Hunt–April 22, 1993Republican198619905075pxJim Folsom Jr.–January 16, 1995DemocraticVacant4875pxFob James–January 18, 1999Republican19945175pxDon Siegelman–January 20, 2003Democratic19985275pxBob Riley–January 17, 2011Republican200220065375pxRobert J. Bentley–April 10, 2017Republican2010201454102x102pxKay Ivey–IncumbentRepublicanVacant20182022 |
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List of governors of Alabama | See also | See also
List of Alabama state legislatures |
List of governors of Alabama | Notes | Notes |
List of governors of Alabama | References | References
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Office of the Governor of Alabama
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Apocrypha | short description | thumb|right|upright=1.4|The apocryphal letter of Sultan Mehmed II to the Pope (), published by Nicolae Iorga. Series 4: 1453–1476, Paris; Bucarest, 1915, pages 126–127
Apocrypha () are biblical or related writings not forming part of the accepted canon of scripture, some of which might be of doubtful authorship or authenticity. In Christianity, the word apocryphal (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to writings that were to be read privately rather than in the public context of church services. Apocrypha were edifying Christian works that were not always initially included as canonical scripture.
The adjective "apocryphal", meaning of doubtful authenticity, mythical, fictional, is recorded from the late 16th century, then taking on the popular meaning of "false," "spurious," "bad," or "heretical." It may be used for any book which might have scriptural claims but which does not appear in the canon accepted by the author. A related term for non-canonical apocryphal texts whose authorship seems incorrect is pseudepigrapha, a term that means "false attribution".
In Christianity, the name "the Apocrypha" is applied to a particular set of books which, when they appear in a Bible, are sometimes placed between the Old and New Testaments in a section called "Apocrypha." The canonicity of such books took longer to determine. Various of these books are accepted by the Catholic Church, Orthodox Churches and the Church of the East, as deuterocanonical. Some Protestant traditions reject them outright; others regard the Apocrypha as non-canonical books that are useful for instruction. |
Apocrypha | Etymology | Etymology
The word's origin is the Medieval Latin adjective (secret, or non-canonical) from the Greek adjective , , (private) from the verb , (to hide away).
It comes from Greek and is formed from the combination of (away) and (hide or conceal).
The word apocrypha has undergone a major change in meaning throughout the centuries. The word apocrypha in its ancient Christian usage originally meant a text read in private, rather than in public church settings. In English, it later came to have a sense of the esoteric, suspicious, or heretical, largely because of the Protestant interpretation of the usefulness of non-canonical texts. |
Apocrypha | Esoteric writings and objects | Esoteric writings and objects
The word apocryphal () was first applied to writings that were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered too profound or too sacred to be disclosed to anyone other than the initiated. For example, the disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted that they possessed the secret () books of Zoroaster. The term in general enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (see Acts of Thomas, pp. 10, 27, 44).
Sinologist Anna Seidel refers to texts and even items produced by ancient Chinese sages as apocryphal and studied their uses during Six Dynasties China (AD 220–589). These artifacts were used as symbols legitimizing and guaranteeing the Emperor's Heavenly Mandate. Examples of these include talismans, charts, writs, tallies, and registers. The first examples were stones, jade pieces, bronze vessels and weapons, but came to include talismans and magic diagrams.
From their roots in Zhou era China (1066–256 BC), these items came to be surpassed in value by texts by the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220). Most of these texts have been destroyed as Emperors, particularly during the Han dynasty, collected these legitimizing objects and proscribed, forbade and burnt nearly all of them to prevent them from falling into the hands of political rivals. |
Apocrypha | Writings of questionable value | Writings of questionable value
Apocrypha was also applied to writings that were hidden not because of their divinity but because of their questionable value to the church. The early Christian theologian Origen, in his Commentaries on Matthew, distinguishes between writings that were read by the churches and apocryphal writings: (writing not found in the common and published books on one hand [and] actually found in the secret ones on the other).Commentaries on Matthew, X. 18, XIII. 57 The meaning of is here practically equivalent to "excluded from the public use of the church" and prepares the way for an even less favourable use of the word. |
Apocrypha | Spurious writings | Spurious writings
In general use, the word apocrypha came to mean "of doubtful authenticity". This meaning also appears in Origen's prologue to his commentary on the Song of Songs, of which only the Latin translation survives: |
Apocrypha | Other | Other
The Gelasian Decree (generally held now as being the work of an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553) refers to religious works by church fathers Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria as apocrypha. Augustine defined the word as meaning simply "obscurity of origin", implying that any book of unknown authorship or questionable authenticity would be considered apocryphal. Jerome in Prologus Galeatus declared that all books outside the Hebrew canon were apocryphal. In practice, Jerome treated some books outside the Hebrew canon as if they were canonical, and the Western Church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, instead retaining the word's prior meaning. As a result, various church authorities labeled different books as apocrypha, treating them with varying levels of regard.
Origen stated that "the canonical books, as the Hebrews have handed them down, are twenty-two". Clement and others cited some apocryphal books as "scripture", "divine scripture", "inspired", and the like. Teachers connected with Palestine and familiar with the Hebrew canon (the protocanon) excluded from the canon all of the Old Testament not found there. This view is reflected in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. A third view was that the books were not as valuable as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, but were of value for moral uses, as introductory texts for new converts from paganism, and to be read in congregations. They were referred to as "ecclesiastical" works by Rufinus.
In 1546, the Catholic Council of Trent reconfirmed the canon of Augustine, dating to the second and third centuries, declaring "He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical." The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, were declared canonical at Trent.
The Protestants, in comparison, were diverse in their opinion of the deuterocanon early on. Some considered them divinely inspired, others rejected them. Lutherans and Anglicans retained the books as Christian intertestamental readings and a part of the Bible (in a section called "Apocrypha"), but no doctrine should be based on them. John Wycliffe, a 14th-century Christian Humanist, had declared in his biblical translation that "whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief." Nevertheless, his translation of the Bible included the apocrypha and the Epistle of the Laodiceans.
Martin Luther did not class apocryphal books as being scripture, but in the German Luther Bible (1534) the apocrypha are published in a separate section from the other books, although the Lutheran and Anglican lists are different. Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the intertestamental books; Amish wedding ceremonies include "the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha". The fathers of Anabaptism, such as Menno Simons, quoted "them [the Apocrypha] with the same authority and nearly the same frequency as books of the Hebrew Bible" and the texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees are held in high esteem by the Anabaptists, who faced persecution in their history.
In Reformed editions (like the Westminster), readers were warned that these books were not "to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings". A milder distinction was expressed elsewhere, such as in the "argument" introducing them in the Geneva Bible, and in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that "the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners," though not to establish doctrine. Among some Nonconformists, the term apocryphal began to take on extra or altered connotations: not just of dubious authenticity, but having spurious or false content, Protestants, being diverse in theological views, were not unanimous in adopting those meanings.
Generally, Anabaptists and magisterial Protestants recognize the fourteen books of the Apocrypha as being non-canonical, but useful for reading "for example of life and instruction of manners": a view that continues today throughout the Lutheran Church, the worldwide Anglican Communion, among many other denominations, such as the Methodist Churches and Quaker Yearly Meetings. Liturgically, the Catholic, Methodist and Anglican churches have a scripture reading from the Book of Tobit in services of Holy Matrimony.
According to the Orthodox Anglican Church:
Though Protestant Bibles historically include 80 books, 66 of these form the Protestant canon (such as listed in the Westminster Confession of 1646), which has been well established for centuries, with many today supporting the use of the Apocrypha and others contending against the Apocrypha using various arguments. |
Apocrypha | Metaphorical usage | Metaphorical usage
The adjective apocryphal is commonly used in modern English to refer to any text or story considered to be of dubious veracity or authority, although it may contain some moral truth. In this broader metaphorical sense, the word suggests a claim that is in the nature of folklore, factoid or urban legend. |
Apocrypha | Buddhism | Buddhism
Apocryphal Jatakas of the Pāli Canon, such as those belonging to the Paññāsajātaka collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain Southeast Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals.Sengpan Pannyawamsa (2007). "The Tham Vessantara-jAtaka: A Critical Study of the Tham Vessantara-jAtaka and its Influence on Kengtung Buddhism, Eastern Shan State, Burma." PhD Thesis.
Within the Pali tradition, the apocryphal Jatakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) are treated as a separate category of literature from the "official" Jataka stories that have been more-or-less formally canonized from at least the 5th century—as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls. |
Apocrypha | Judaism | Judaism
The Jewish apocrypha, known in Hebrew as הספרים החיצונים (Sefarim Hachizonim: "the external books"), are books written in large part by Jews, especially during the Second Temple period, not accepted as sacred manuscripts when the Hebrew Bible was canonized. Some of these books are considered sacred by some Christians, and are included in their versions of the Old Testament. The Jewish apocrypha is distinctive from the New Testament apocrypha and biblical apocrypha as it is the only one of these collections that works within a Jewish theological framework.
Although Orthodox Jews believe in the exclusive canonization of the current 24 books in the Hebrew Bible, they also consider the Oral Torah, which they believe was handed down from Moses, to be authoritative. Some argue that the Sadducees, unlike the Pharisees but like the Samaritans, seem to have maintained an earlier and smaller number of texts as canonical, preferring to hold to only what was written in the Law of Moses (the Torah), making most of the presently accepted canon, both Jewish and Christian, apocryphal in their eyes. Others believe that it is often mistakenly asserted that the Sadducees only accepted the Pentateuch (Torah). The Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt were said to have a secret literature (see Dead Sea scrolls).
Other traditions maintained different customs regarding canonicity.The Old Testament Canon The Ethiopian Jews, for instance, seem to have retained a spread of canonical texts similar to the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians.Ethiopian Orthodox Old Testament Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol 6, p 1147. |
Apocrypha | Christianity | Christianity |
Apocrypha | Intertestamental books | Intertestamental books
thumb|350px|Copies of the Luther Bible include the deuterocanonical books as an intertestamental section between the Old Testament and New Testament; they are termed the "Apocrypha" in many Protestant Churches.
page=21|thumb|The contents page in a complete 80 book King James Bible, listing "The Books of the Old Testament", "The Books called Apocrypha", and "The Books of the New Testament".
During the Apostolic Age many Jewish texts of Hellenistic origin existed within Judaism and were frequently used by Christians. Patristic authorities frequently recognized these books as important to the emergence of Christianity, but the inspired authority and value of the apocrypha remained widely disputed. Christians included several of these books in the canons of the Christian Bibles, calling them the "apocrypha" or the "hidden books".
In the sixteenth century, during the Protestant Reformation, the canonical validity of the intertestamental books was challenged and fourteen books were classed in 80 book Protestant Bibles as an intertestamental section called the Apocrypha, which straddles the Old Testament and New Testament. Prior to 1629, all English-language Protestant Bibles included the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament; examples include the "Matthew's Bible (1537), the Great Bible (1539), the Geneva Bible (1560), the Bishop's Bible (1568), and the King James Bible (1611)".
Fourteen out of eighty biblical books comprise the Protestant Apocrypha, first published as such in Luther's Bible (1534). Many of these texts are considered canonical Old Testament books by the Catholic Church, affirmed by the Council of Rome (AD 382) and later reaffirmed by the Council of Trent (1545–63); all of the books of the Protestant Apocrypha are considered canonical by the Eastern Orthodox Church and are referred to as anagignoskomena per the Synod of Jerusalem (1672). To this date, scripture readings from the Apocrypha are included in the lectionaries of the Lutheran Churches and the Anglican Churches.
Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the intertestamental books; Amish wedding ceremonies include "the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha". The Anglican Communion accepts the Protestant Apocrypha "for instruction in life and manners, but not for the establishment of doctrine (Article VI in the Thirty-Nine Articles)", and many "lectionary readings in The Book of Common Prayer are taken from the Apocrypha", with these lessons being "read in the same ways as those from the Old Testament".
The first Methodist liturgical book, The Sunday Service of the Methodists, employs verses from the Apocrypha, such as in the Eucharistic liturgy. The Protestant Apocrypha contains three books (1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh) that are accepted by many Eastern Orthodox Churches and Oriental Orthodox Churches as canonical, but are regarded as non-canonical by the Catholic Church and are therefore not included in modern Catholic Bibles.
In the 1800s, the British and Foreign Bible Society did not regularly publish the intertestamental section in its Bibles, citing the cost of printing the Apocrypha in addition to the Old Testament and New Testament as a major factor; this legacy came to characterize English-language Bibles in Great Britain and the Americas, unlike in Europe where Protestant Bibles are printed with 80 books in three sections: the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament.
In the present-day, "English Bibles with the Apocrypha are becoming more popular again", usually being printed as intertestamental books. The Revised Common Lectionary, in use by most mainline Protestants including Methodists and Moravians, lists readings from the Apocrypha in the liturgical calendar, although alternate Old Testament scripture lessons are provided.
The status of the deuterocanonicals remains unchanged in Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, though there is a difference in number of these books between these two branches of Christianity.. Some authorities began using term deuterocanonical to refer to this traditional intertestamental collection as books of "the second canon".The Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature recommends the use of the term deuterocanonical literature instead of apocrypha in academic writing, although not all apocryphal books are properly deuterocanonical. These books are often seen as helping to explain the theological and cultural transitions that took place between the Old and New Testaments. They are also sometimes called "intertestamental" by religious groups who do not recognize Hellenistic Judaism as belonging with either Jewish or Christian testaments.
Slightly varying collections of apocryphal, deuterocanonical or intertestamental books of the Bible form part of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox canons. The deuterocanonical or intertestamental books of the Catholic Church include Tobit, Judith, Baruch, Sirach, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Wisdom and additions to Esther, Daniel, and Baruch.
The Book of Enoch is included in the biblical canon of the Oriental Orthodox churches of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Epistle of Jude alludes to a story in the book of Enoch, and some believe the use of this book also appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. While Jesus and his disciples sometimes used phrases also featured in some of the Apocryphal books, the Book of Enoch was never referenced by Jesus. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Epistle of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria and many others of the early church. The Epistles of Paul and the Gospels also show influences from the Book of Jubilees, which is part of the Ethiopian canon, as well as the Assumption of Moses and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which are included in no biblical canon. |
Apocrypha | Canonicity | Canonicity
The establishment of a largely settled uniform canon was a process of centuries, and what the term canon (as well as apocrypha) precisely meant also saw development. The canonical process took place with believers recognizing writings as being inspired by God from known or accepted origins, subsequently being followed by official affirmation of what had become largely established through the study and debate of the writings.
The first ecclesiastical decree on the Catholic Church's canonical books of the Sacred Scriptures is attributed to the Council of Rome (382), and is correspondent to that of Trent. Martin Luther, like Jerome, favored the Masoretic canon for the Old Testament, excluding apocryphal books in the Luther Bible as unworthy to be properly called scripture, but included most of them in a separate section. Luther did not include the deuterocanonical books in his Old Testament, terming them "Apocrypha, that are books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read."
The Eastern Orthodox Church accepts four other books into its canon than what are contained in the Catholic canon: Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees, and 1 Esdras.S. T. Kimbrough (2005). Orthodox And Wesleyan Scriptural Understanding And Practice. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0881413014. |
Apocrypha | Disputes | Disputes
The status of the books that the Catholic Church terms Deuterocanonicals (second canon) and Protestantism refers to as Apocrypha has been an issue of disagreement that preceded the Reformation. Many believe that the pre-Christian-era Jewish translation (into Greek) of holy scriptures known as the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures originally compiled around 280 BC, originally included the apocryphal writings in dispute, with little distinction made between them and the rest of the Old Testament. Others argue that the Septuagint of the first century did not contain these books but they were added later by Christians.
The earliest extant manuscripts of the Septuagint are from the fourth century, and suffer greatly from a lack of uniformity as regards containing apocryphal books, and some also contain books classed as pseudepigrapha, from which texts were cited by some early writers in the second and later centuries as being scripture.
While a few scholars conclude that the Jewish canon was the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty, it is generally considered not to have been finalized until about 100 AD or somewhat later, at which time considerations of Greek language and beginnings of Christian acceptance of the Septuagint weighed against some of the texts. Some were not accepted by the Jews as part of the Hebrew Bible canon and the Apocrypha is not part of the historical Jewish canon.
Early church fathers such as Athanasius, Melito, Origen, and Cyril of Jerusalem, spoke against the canonicity of much or all of the apocrypha, but the most weighty opposition was the fourth century Catholic scholar Jerome who preferred the Hebrew canon, whereas Augustine and others preferred the wider (Greek) canon, with both having followers in the generations that followed. The Catholic Encyclopedia states as regards the Middle Ages,
The prevailing attitude of Western medieval authors is substantially that of the Greek Fathers.
The wider Christian canon accepted by Augustine became the more established canon in the western Church after being promulgated for use in the Easter Letter of Athanasius (circa 372 A.D.), the Synod of Rome (382 A.D., but its Decretum Gelasianum is generally considered to be a much later addition) and the local councils of Carthage and Hippo in north Africa (391 and 393 A.D). Athanasius called canonical all books of the Hebrew Bible including Baruch, while excluding Esther. He adds that "there are certain books which the Fathers had appointed to be read to catechumens for edification and instruction; these are the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), Esther, Judith, Tobias, the Didache, or Doctrine of the Apostles, and the Shepherd of Hermas. All others are apocrypha and the inventions of heretics (Festal Epistle for 367)".
Nevertheless, none of these constituted indisputable definitions, and significant scholarly doubts and disagreements about the nature of the Apocrypha continued for centuries and even into Trent, which provided the first infallible definition of the Catholic canon in 1546.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers challenged the canonicity of the books and partial-books found in the surviving Septuagint but not in the Masoretic Text. In response to this challenge, after the death of Martin Luther (February 8, 1546) the ecumenical Council of Trent officially ("infallibly") declared these books (called "deuterocanonical" by Catholics) to be part of the canon in April, 1546 A.D. While the Protestant Reformers rejected the parts of the canon that were not part of the Hebrew Bible, they included the four New Testament books Luther considered of doubtful canonicity along with the Apocrypha in his non-binding Luther's canon (although most were separately included in his Bible, as they were in some editions of the KJV bible until 1947).
Protestantism therefore established a 66 book canon with the 39 books based on the ancient Hebrew canon, along with the traditional 27 books of the New Testament. Protestants also rejected the Catholic term "deuterocanonical" for these writings, preferring to apply the term "apocryphal", which was already in use for other early and disputed writings. As today (but along with other reasons), various reformers argued that those books contained doctrinal or other errors and thus should not have been added to the canon for that reason. The differences between canons can be seen under Biblical canon and Development of the Christian biblical canon.
Explaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Those differences (in matters of jurisdictional authority) were contributing factors in the separation of the Roman Catholics and Orthodox around 1054, but the formation of the canon that Trent would later officially definitively settle was largely complete by the fifth century, if not settled, six centuries before the separation. In the eastern part of the church, it took much of the fifth century also to come to agreement, but in the end it was accomplished. The canonical books thus established by the undivided church became the predominant canon for what was later to become Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox alike.
The East already differed from the West in not considering every question of canon yet settled, and it subsequently adopted a few more books into its Old Testament. It also allowed consideration of yet a few more to continue not fully decided, which led in some cases to adoption in one or more jurisdictions, but not all. Thus, there are today a few remaining differences of canon among Orthodox, and all Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon. The Psalms of Solomon, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Book of Odes, the Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 are included in some copies of the Septuagint, some of which are accepted as canonical by Eastern Orthodox and some other churches. Protestants accept none of these additional books as canon, but see them having roughly the same status as the other Apocrypha.
Eastern Orthodoxy uses a different definition than the Roman Catholic Church does for the books of its canon that it calls deuterocanonical, referring to them as a class of books with less authority than other books of the Old Testament.Orthodox Answer To a Question About Apocrypha, Canon, Deuterocanonical – Answer #39 In contrast, the Catholic Church uses this term to refer to a class of books that were added to its canon later than the other books in its Old Testament canon, considering them all of equal authority. |
Apocrypha | New Testament apocrypha | New Testament apocrypha
New Testament apocrypha—books similar to those in the New Testament but almost universally rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants—include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some were written by early Jewish Christians (see the Gospel according to the Hebrews). Others of these were produced by Gnostic authors or members of other groups later defined as heterodox. Many texts believed lost for centuries were unearthed in the 19th and 20th centuries, producing lively speculation about their importance in early Christianity among religious scholars, while many others survive only in the form of quotations from them in other writings; for some, no more than the title is known. Artists and theologians have drawn upon the New Testament apocrypha for such matters as the names of Dismas and Gestas and details about the Three Wise Men. The first explicit mention of the perpetual virginity of Mary is found in the pseudepigraphical Infancy Gospel of James.
Before the fifth century, the Christian writings that were then under discussion for inclusion in the canon but had not yet been accepted were classified in a group known as the ancient antilegomenae. These were all candidates for the New Testament and included several books that were eventually accepted, such as: The Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, 3 John and the Revelation of John (Apocalypse). None of those accepted books can be considered Apocryphal now, since all Christendom accepts them as canonical. Of the uncanonized ones, the Early Church considered some heretical but viewed others quite positively.
Some Christians, in an extension of the meaning, might also consider the non-heretical books to be "apocryphal" along the manner of Martin Luther: not canon, but useful to read. This category includes books such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and The Shepherd of Hermas, which are sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Gnostic tradition was a prolific source of apocryphal gospels.
While these writings borrowed the characteristic poetic features of apocalyptic literature from Judaism, Gnostic sects largely insisted on allegorical interpretations based on a secret apostolic tradition. With them, these apocryphal books were highly esteemed. A well-known Gnostic apocryphal book is the Gospel of Thomas, the only complete text of which was found in the Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. The Gospel of Judas, a Gnostic gospel, also received much media attention when it was reconstructed in 2006.
Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants all agree on the canon of the New Testament.See Development of the New Testament canon The Ethiopian Orthodox have in the past also included I & II Clement and Shepherd of Hermas in their New Testament canon. |
Apocrypha | List of Sixty | List of Sixty
The List of Sixty, dating to around the 7th century, lists sixty books that the author claimed were the complete canonical scriptures. The unknown author also lists many apocryphal books that are not included amongst the sixty. These books are:
Adam
Enoch
Lamech
Twelve Patriarchs
Prayer of Joseph
Eldad and Modad
Testament of Moses
Assumption of Moses
Psalms of Solomon
Apocalypse of Elijah
Ascension of Isaiah
Apocalypse of Zephaniah
Apocalypse of Zechariah
Apocalyptic Ezra
History of James
Apocalypse of Peter
Itinerary and Teaching of the Apostles
Epistle of Barnabas
Acts of Paul
Apocalypse of Paul
Didascalia of Clement
Didascalia of Ignatius
Didascalia of Polycarp
Gospel of Barnabas
Gospel According to Matthew |
Apocrypha | Islam | Islam
Hadith, the supposed reports of the words, actions, and silent approval of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, are accused by some Muslims of being fabrications (pseudepigrapha) created in the 8th and 9th centuries AD, and falsely attributed to Muhammad.Aisha Y. Musa, The Qur’anists, Florida International University, accessed May 22, 2013.Neal Robinson (2013), Islam: A Concise Introduction, Routledge, , Chapter 7, pp. 85-89 Historically, some sects of the Kharijites also rejected the hadiths, while Mu'tazilites rejected the hadiths as the basis for Islamic law, while at the same time accepting the Sunnah and Ijma. The main points of internal Islamic criticism of hadith literature are based on questions regarding its authenticity. However, Muslim criticism of hadith is also based on arguments and criticisms of Islamic theology and philosophy.
Traditionally, some sects of the Kharijites have rejected Hadith. There are some who even oppose the writing of Hadith for fear that it will compete with or even replace the Quran. Mu'tazilite followers also reject hadith as the basis for Islamic law, while simultaneously accepting the Sunnah and ijma. For Mu'tazilites, the basic argument for rejecting hadith is that "because of its nature as the transmission of individuals, [it] cannot be a sure path to our understanding of the Prophet's teachings, unlike the Quran whose transmission has a general consensus among Muslims". Some Muslim critics of hadith have even gone so far as to completely reject them as fundamental texts of Islamic beliefs and instead adhere solely to Quran. This movement is also known as Quranism. |
Apocrypha | Taoism | Taoism
Prophetic texts called the Ch'an-wei were written by Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) Taoist priests to legitimize as well as curb imperial power. They deal with treasure objects that were part of the Zhou (1066–256 BC) royal treasures. Emerging from the instability of the Warring States period (476–221 BC), ancient Chinese scholars saw the centralized rule of the Zhou as an ideal model for the new Han empire to emulate.
The Ch'an-wei are texts written by Han scholars about the Zhou royal treasures, only they were not written to record history for its own sake, but for legitimizing the current imperial reign. These texts took the form of stories about texts and objects being conferred upon the Emperors by Heaven and comprising these ancient sage-king's (this is how the Zhou emperors were referred to by this time, about 500 years after their peak) royal regalia. The desired effect was to confirm the Han emperor's Heavenly Mandate through the continuity offered by his possession of these same sacred talismans.
It is because of this politicized recording of their history that it is difficult to retrace the exact origins of these objects. What is known is that these texts were most likely produced by a class of literati called the fangshi. These were a class of nobles who were not part of the state administration; they were considered specialists or occultists, for example diviners, astrologers, alchemists or healers. It is from this class of nobles that the first Taoist priests are believed to have emerged. Seidel points out, however, that the scarcity of sources relating to the formation of early Taoism make the exact link between the apocryphal texts and the Taoist beliefs unclear. |
Apocrypha | See also | See also
List of Gospels
Lost work
Occult
Shakespeare apocrypha
Fan fiction |
Apocrypha | Notes | Notes |
Apocrypha | References | References |
Apocrypha | Citations | Citations |
Apocrypha | Sources | Sources
|
Apocrypha | External links | External links
Alin Suciu's blog on various Coptic apocrypha
The Apocrypha is in the religion section at the e.Lib.
Noncanonical Literature
Complete NT Apocrypha Claims to be the largest collection of New Testament apocrypha online
Deuterocanonical books - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also presents the full text in Arabic)
LDS Bible Dictionary - Apocrypha – Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions.
Aldenicum The Trilogy, an apocryphal view on life and reality around us.
Christian Cyclopedia article on Apocrypha
New Testament Allusions to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha
Canon Comparison Chart
EarlyChristianWritings.com A chronological list of early Christian books and letters, both complete and incomplete works; canonical, apocryphal and Gnostic. Many with links to English translations.
Category:Christian terminology
Category:Esotericism |
Apocrypha | Table of Content | short description, Etymology, Esoteric writings and objects, Writings of questionable value, Spurious writings, Other, Metaphorical usage, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Intertestamental books, Canonicity, Disputes, New Testament apocrypha, List of Sixty, Islam, Taoism, See also, Notes, References, Citations, Sources, External links |
Antarctic Treaty System | Short description | thumb|right|A 2006 satellite composite image of Antarctica
The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War, designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, which implements the treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. , the treaty has 58 parties. |
Antarctic Treaty System | History | History
thumb|left|256px|Map of research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2015) |
Antarctic Treaty System | 1940s | 1940s
After World War II, the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until the beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump, the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for a hypothetical war in the Antarctic.
On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which the United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression.
In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of the United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting a plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating a final solution, but this did not find acceptance.
In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making a territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none. |
Antarctic Treaty System | International conflicts | International conflicts
Various international conflicts motivated the creation of an agreement for the Antarctic.
Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War, and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed a Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south, which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948.
On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island, leaving a sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On 15 February, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and a nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near South Georgia. A British detachment remained three months on the island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April.
On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare the invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August, the Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims were closed.
In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly. |
Antarctic Treaty System | International Geophysical Year | International Geophysical Year
thumb|1957 poster of Antarctica IGY projects
In 1950, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year. At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization, the idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At the ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate the committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica.
Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on the continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at the end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until the studies being carried out had been completed. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Negotiation of the treaty | Negotiation of the treaty
Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused the President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed.
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in the mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of the continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years.
The positions of the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused a crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition.
The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in the framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty.
Starting from the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a three-quarters majority of consultative parties needed for the adoption of any changes. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Other agreements | Other agreements
right|300px|thumb|Disposal of waste by simply dumping it at the shoreline, as at the Russian Bellingshausen Station on King George Island, is no longer permitted by the Protocol on Environmental Protection.
Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include:
Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964) (entered into force in 1982)
The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)
The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1982)
The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (1988) (signed in 1988, not in force)
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991, and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific. A sixth annex on liability arising from environmental emergencies was adopted in 2005, but is yet to enter into force. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Bilateral treaties | Bilateral treaties
Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October 1938)"Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of the Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October 1938). ATS 13 of 1938." Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaty Series. Retrieved 15 April 2017
Treaty Between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on Cooperation in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November 2003)"Treaty between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on cooperation in the maritime areas adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November 2003) – ATS 6 of 2005”. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January 2007)"Agreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January 2007) – ATS 1 of 2011”. Australasian Legal Information Institute, Australian Treaties Library. Retrieved 18 April 2017. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Meetings | Meetings
The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 58 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 29 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM), which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Parties | Parties
As of 2024, there are 58 states party to the treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 51 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty".
432px|right|thumb| |
Antarctic Treaty System | Overview of parties to the Antarctic Treaty System | Overview of parties to the Antarctic Treaty System
Country Signature Ratification/Accession Consultativestatus Notes (claim)* (claim)NoNoNoNo (unofficial claim)NoNoNoNo (claim)*NoApplies to and NoNoNoNoNoNoNoSuccession from , which acceded on 14 June 1962.NoNoNoNoNoNo (claim) (historical claim)NoRatified as .
also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany.NoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNo (historical claim)NoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoApplies to all constituent countries of Kingdom of the Netherlands. Formerly applied to until its independence on 25 November 1975. (claim)NoNo (claim)NoNoNoNoSuccession from . Effective from their independence on 16 September 1975.NoNoNoNoNoNo†Ratified as the .NoNoNoNoNoNoSuccession from , which acceded on 14 June 1962.NoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNoNo (claim)*†NoNoNo
* Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants.
† Reserved the right to make a claim. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Antarctic Treaty Secretariat | Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China.
The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas:
Supporting the annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and the meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).
Facilitating the exchange of information between the Parties required in the Treaty and the Environment Protocol.
Collecting, storing, arranging and publishing the documents of the ATCM.
Providing and disseminating public information about the Antarctic Treaty system and Antarctic activities. |
Antarctic Treaty System | Legal system | Legal system
Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country.Wright, Minturn, "The Ownership of Antarctica, Its Living and Mineral Resources", Journal of Law and the Environment 4 (1987). Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to the area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole.
Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle.Jennifer Frakes, The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise? Wisconsin International Law Journal. 2003; 21:409 |
Antarctic Treaty System | Australia | Australia
right|300px|thumb|This 1959 cover commemorated the opening of the Wilkes post office in the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows the laws of the Australian Capital Territory) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981. |
Antarctic Treaty System | United States | United States
The law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence.
Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, Public Law 95-541, et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute:
the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds
the introduction into Antarctica of non-indigenous plants and animals
entry into specially protected or scientific areas
the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters
the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica
Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation. |
Antarctic Treaty System | New Zealand | New Zealand
In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000.Hotere, Andrea. "South Pole death file still open". Sunday Star Times, 17 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006.Deutsche Presse-Agentur. "Death of Australian astrophysicist an Antarctic whodunnit". Monstersandcritics.com, 14 December 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2006. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to cooperate with the investigation.Chapman, Paul. "New Zealand Probes What May Be First South Pole Murder". The Daily Telegraph, (14 December 2006), reprinted in The New York Sun (19 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006.Booker, Jarrod. "South Pole scientist may have been poisoned". The New Zealand Herald, (14 December 2006). Retrieved 19 December 2006."South Pole Death Mystery – Who killed Rodney Marks?" Sunday Star Times (21 January 2007) |
Antarctic Treaty System | South Africa | South Africa
Under the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962, South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica, and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town.Section 2 of the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, No. 55 of 1962, as amended by the Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act, No. 51 of 1997. The Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa.Antarctic Treaties Act, No. 60 of 1996. |
Antarctic Treaty System | See also | See also
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)
Antarctic Protected Areas
Antarctic Treaty issue
Arctic Council
Arctic sanctuary
Crime in Antarctica
Endurance – lost ship of Ernest Shackleton, found in 2022 and protected by the treaty
International Seabed Authority
Montreal Protocol
Moon treaty
Multilateral treaty
National Antarctic Program
Category: Outposts of Antarctica
Research stations in Antarctica
Solar radiation management
Svalbard Treaty |
Antarctic Treaty System | References | References |
Antarctic Treaty System | External links | External links
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty
Original facsimile of Antarctic Treaty
Australian Antarctic Territory
Why 60 South?
National Science Foundation – Office of Polar Programs
List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas San Diego Union-Tribune, 25 August 2005 (Both South Korea and North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty)
Emblem of the Antarctic Treaty
Category:Antarctica agreements
Category:1959 in Antarctica
Category:1959 in Washington, D.C.
Category:December 1959
Category:1961 in Antarctica
Category:1961 in the environment
Category:Arms control treaties
Category:Cold War treaties
Category:Territorial claims in Antarctica
Category:Treaties concluded in 1959
Category:Treaties entered into force in 1961
Category:Treaties establishing nuclear-weapon-free zones
Category:Treaties of Argentina
Category:Treaties of Australia
Category:Treaties of Austria
Category:Treaties of Belarus
Category:Treaties of Belgium
Category:Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil
Category:Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria
Category:Treaties of Canada
Category:Treaties of Chile
Category:Treaties of the People's Republic of China
Category:Treaties of Colombia
Category:Treaties of Cuba
Category:Treaties of Denmark
Category:Treaties of the Czech Republic
Category:Treaties of Czechoslovakia
Category:Treaties of Ecuador
Category:Treaties of Estonia
Category:Treaties of Finland
Category:Treaties of France
Category:Treaties of West Germany
Category:Treaties of East Germany
Category:Treaties of Greece
Category:Treaties of Guatemala
Category:Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic
Category:Treaties of Italy
Category:Treaties of India
Category:Treaties of Japan
Category:Treaties of Malaysia
Category:Treaties of Monaco
Category:Treaties of the Netherlands
Category:Treaties of New Zealand
Category:Treaties of North Korea
Category:Treaties of Norway
Category:Treaties of Pakistan
Category:Treaties of Papua New Guinea
Category:Treaties of Peru
Category:Treaties of the Polish People's Republic
Category:Treaties of Portugal
Category:Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania
Category:Treaties of the Soviet Union
Category:Treaties of Slovakia
Category:Treaties of South Africa
Category:Treaties of South Korea
Category:Treaties of Spain
Category:Treaties of Sweden
Category:Treaties of Switzerland
Category:Treaties of Turkey
Category:Treaties of Ukraine
Category:Treaties of the United Kingdom
Category:Treaties of the United States
Category:Treaties of Uruguay
Category:Treaties of Venezuela
Category:History of the Ross Dependency
Category:December 1959 in the United States |
Antarctic Treaty System | Table of Content | Short description, History, 1940s, International conflicts, International Geophysical Year, Negotiation of the treaty, Other agreements, Bilateral treaties, Meetings, Parties, Overview of parties to the Antarctic Treaty System, Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, Legal system, Australia, United States, New Zealand, South Africa, See also, References, External links |
Alfred Lawson | Short description | Alfred William Lawson (March 24, 1869 – November 29, 1954) was an English-born professional baseball player, aviator, and utopian philosopher. He played baseball, managed and promoted leagues from 1887 through 1916, and pioneered the U.S. aircraft industry. He also published two early aviation trade journals.
Lawson is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner and received several of the first air mail contracts, which he ultimately did not fulfill. He founded the Lawson Aircraft Company in Green Bay, Wisconsin, to build military training aircraft and later the Lawson Airplane Company in South Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to build airliners.Wisconsin Aviation Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame Inductee: Alfred W. Lawson.
The crash of his ambitious Lawson L-4 "Midnight Liner" during its trial flight takeoff on May 8, 1921, ended his best chance for commercial aviation success.
In 1904, he wrote a utopian novel, Born Again,Alfred Lawson. Born Again. Wox & Conrad: New York, 1904. (Online at Project Gutenberg) in which he developed the philosophy which later became Lawsonomy. |
Alfred Lawson | Baseball career (1888–1907) | Baseball career (1888–1907)
Lawson made one start for the Boston Beaneaters and two for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys during the 1890 season. His minor league playing career lasted through 1895. Lawson later managed in the minors from 1905 to 1907. |
Alfred Lawson | Union Professional League | Union Professional League
In 1908, Lawson started a new professional baseball league called the Union Professional League. The league took the field in April but folded one month later because of financial difficulties. |
Alfred Lawson | Aviation career (1908–1928) | Aviation career (1908–1928)
An early aviation advocate, in October 1908, Lawson started the magazine Fly to stimulate public interest and educate readers on the new aviation science fundamentals. It sold for 10 cents a copy from newsstands across the country. In 1910, moving to New York City, he renamed the magazine Aircraft and published it until 1914. The magazine chronicled the technical developments of the early aviation pioneers.
Lawson was the first advocate for commercial air travel, coining the term "airline." He also advocated for a strong American flying force, lobbying Congress in 1913 to expand its appropriations for Army aircraft.
In early 1913, Lawson learned to fly the Sloan-Deperdussin and the Moisant-Bleriot monoplanes, becoming an accomplished pilot. Later that year, he bought a Thomas flying boat and became the first air commuter to regularly fly from his country house in Seidler's Beach, New Jersey, to the foot of 75th Street in New York City (about 35 miles).
In 1917, utilizing the knowledge gained from ten years of advocating aviation, he built his first airplane, the Lawson Military Tractor 1 (MT-1) trainer, and founded the Lawson Aircraft Corporation. The company's plant was in Green Bay, Wisconsin. There, Lawson secured a contract and built the Lawson MT-2. He also designed the steel fuselage Lawson Armored Battler, which never got beyond the drafting board, given doubts within the Army aviation community and the signing of the armistice.
left|thumb|Lawson C.2 or T-2
After the war, in 1919, Lawson started a project to build America's first airline. He secured financial backing, and in five months, he had built and demonstrated in flight his biplane airliner, the 18-passenger Lawson L-2. He demonstrated its capabilities in a 2000-mile multi-city tour from Milwaukee to Chicago-Toledo-Cleveland-Buffalo-Syracuse-New York City-Washington, D.C.-Collinsville-Dayton-Chicago and back to Milwaukee, creating a buzz of positive press.
The publicity allowed Lawson to secure an additional $1 million to build the 26-passenger Midnight Liner. The aircraft crashed on takeoff on its maiden flight.
In late 1920, he secured government contracts for three airmail routes and to deliver ten warplanes. However, because of the fall 1920 recession, he could not secure the necessary $100,000 in cash reserves and had to decline the contracts.
In 1926, he started his last airliner, the 56-seat, two-tier Lawson super airliner.
In this phase of his life, he was considered one of the leading thinkers in the budding American commercial aviation community; however, his inability to secure financial backing for his ideas led him to turn to economics, philosophy, and organization. |
Alfred Lawson | Lawsonomy (1929–1954) | Lawsonomy (1929–1954)
In the 1920s, Lawson promoted health practices, including vegetarianism, and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as "penetrability", "suction and pressure" and "zig-zag-and-swirl" were discoveries on par with Einstein's theory of relativity. He published numerous books on these concepts, all set in a distinctive typography.
He later propounded a philosophy, Lawsonomy, and the Lawsonian religion. He also developed, during the Great Depression, the populist economic theory of "Direct Credits", according to which banks are the cause of all economic woes, the oppressors of both capital and labor. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. He predicted the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles once "everybody understands this subject". His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 1930s, mainly in the upper Midwest, but by the late 1930s the crowds had dwindled.
His claims about his greatness became increasingly hyperbolic. The Lawsonomy trilogy, which Lawson considered his intellectual masterpiece, is replete with such self-referential statements as "About every two thousand years a new teacher with advanced intellectual equipment appears upon earth to lead the people a step or two nearer the one God of everybody".
In 1943, he founded the Humanity Benefactor Foundation and University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines, on the site of Des Moines University, to spread his teachings and offer the degree of "Knowledgian", but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson's death. His financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day, and in later years, he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his far-flung acolytes. In 1952, he testified before a United States Senate investigative committee on allegations that his organization had bought war surplus machines and then sold them for a profit despite claiming non-profit status. His attempt to explain Lawsonomy to the senators ended in mutual frustration and bafflement.
A farm near Racine, Wisconsin, is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas. The large sign, formerly reading "University of Lawsonomy", was a familiar landmark for motorists in the region for many years and was visible from Interstate 94 about north of the Illinois state line, on the east side of the highway. A storm in the spring of 2009 destroyed the sign, although the supporting posts are still visible. On the northbound side of Interstate 94, a sign on the roof of the building nearest the freeway said "Study Natural Law" until being shingled over in October 2014.
In 2018, the Town of Mount Pleasant paid $933,000 to purchase the property on the northbound side of Interstate 94 for the Foxconn project. All remaining buildings were demolished and removed. Lawsonomy maintains a small following to this day. |
Alfred Lawson | See also | See also
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience |
Alfred Lawson | References | References |
Alfred Lawson | Further reading | Further reading
Henry, Lyell D. Zig-Zag-and Swirl: Alfred W. Lawson's Quest for Greatness. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991.
Kossy, Donna. Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001.
Kuntz, Jerry. Baseball Fiends and Flying Machines: The Many Lives and Outrageous Times of George and Alfred Lawson. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing, 2009.
Lawson, Alfred. Lawsonomy, vols. 1-3. Detroit: Humanity Benefactor Foundation, 1935–1939.
|
Alfred Lawson | External links | External links
Lawson Demo Flight Departed 93 Years Ago at Wisconsin Aviation Hall of Fame
What in the heck is the University of Lawsonomy? – article about Lawson in a Milwaukee-area magazine
End of flight – newspaper article about 1921 loss of first Lawson Airliner
"ASME Milwaukee – History & Heritage"
Alfred W. Lawson papers at the American Heritage Center
Category:1869 births
Category:1954 deaths
Lawsonomy
Category:Boston Beaneaters players
Category:Pittsburgh Alleghenys (NL) players
Category:Major League Baseball pitchers
Category:19th-century baseball players
Category:Bloomington Blues players
Category:Wilmington Blue Hens players
Category:Harrisburg Ponies players
Category:Oakland Colonels players
Category:Pendleton Ho Hos players
Category:Spokane Bunchgrassers players
Category:Atlanta Firecrackers players
Category:Troy Trojans (minor league) players
Category:Sandusky Sandies players
Category:Albany Senators players
Category:Pawtucket Maroons players
Category:Norfolk Clams players
Category:Norfolk Crows players
Category:Baseball players from London
Category:Minor league baseball managers
Category:Major League Baseball players from England
Category:English baseball players
Category:Fitchburg (minor league baseball) players
Category:Cobleskill Giants players
Category:English emigrants to the United States
Category:Oil City Cubs players
Category:Lowell Lowells players
Category:Founders of new religious movements |
Alfred Lawson | Table of Content | Short description, Baseball career (1888–1907), Union Professional League, Aviation career (1908–1928), Lawsonomy (1929–1954), See also, References, Further reading, External links |
Ames, Iowa | Short description | Ames () is a city in Story County, Iowa, United States, located approximately north of Des Moines in central Iowa. It is the home of Iowa State University (ISU). According to the 2020 census, Ames had a population of 66,427, making it the state's ninth-most populous city. Iowa State University was home to 30,177 students as of fall 2023, which make up approximately one half of the city's population.
A United States Department of Energy national laboratory, Ames Laboratory, is located on the ISU campus. Ames also hosts United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) sites: the largest federal animal disease center in the United States, the USDA Agricultural Research Service's National Animal Disease Center (NADC), as well as one of two national USDA sites for the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), which comprises the National Veterinary Services Laboratory and the Center for Veterinary Biologics. Ames also hosts the headquarters of the Iowa Department of Transportation. |
Ames, Iowa | History | History
The city was founded in 1864 as a station stop on the Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad and was named after 19th century U.S. Congressman Oakes Ames of Massachusetts, who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad. Ames was founded by local resident Cynthia Olive Duff (née Kellogg) and railroad magnate John Insley Blair, near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the Skunk River and Ioway Creek. William West (1821–1919) became the first mayor of Ames in 1870. With his wife Harriet, from 1869 to 1892, he ran Ames's first hotel, known as West House, on Douglas Avenue on the site of the present [2004] Octagon Center for the Arts. West was a highly respected pioneer businessman who also served on the Ames School Board in the 1880s when Central School was built on the site of the present [2004] Ames City Hall on Clark Avenue and Sixth Street. The Wests raised several daughters and sons. William West spent the last of his life living with his son in northwest Iowa. |
Ames, Iowa | Geography | Geography
Ames is located along the western edge of Story County, roughly north of the state capital, Des Moines, near the intersection of Interstate 35 and U.S. Route 30. A smaller highway, U.S. Route 69, passes through the town from north to south. Also passing through Ames is the cross country line of the Union Pacific Railroad and two small streams (the South Skunk River and Ioway Creek).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. |
Ames, Iowa | Campustown | Campustown
Campustown is the neighborhood directly south of Iowa State University Central Campus bordered by Lincoln Way on the north. Campustown is a high-density mixed-use neighborhood that is home to many student apartments, nightlife venues, restaurants, and numerous other establishments, most of which are unique to Ames. |
Ames, Iowa | Climate | Climate
Ames has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa). On average, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January. The highest recorded temperature was on July 24, 1901, and the lowest was January 25, 1894. |
Ames, Iowa | Demographics | Demographics
thumb|right|alt=The population of Ames, Iowa from US census data|The population of Ames, Iowa from US census data |
Ames, Iowa | 2020 census | 2020 census
As of the census of 2020, there were 66,427 people, 25,579 households, and 10,641 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,407.5 inhabitants per square mile (929.5/km2). There were 27,806 housing units at an average density of 1,007.8 per square mile (389.1/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 77.5% White, 4.2% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 7.9% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 3.1% from other races and 6.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race comprised 5.9% of the population.
Of the 25,579 households, 17.5% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.5% were married couples living together, 6.8% were cohabitating couples, 29.5% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 31.2% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 58.4% of all households were non-families. 35.9% of all households were made up of individuals, 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.
The median age in the city was 23.6 years. 26.3% of the residents were under the age of 20; 27.7% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 and 44; 12.8% were from 45 and 64; and 10.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 53.0% male and 47.0% female. |
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