alternate between and in Homeric Greek. This can be of metrical use. For example, and are equivalent; and ; and . A relic of the Proto-Greek instrumental case, the ending (ν) ((ν)) can be used for the dative singular and plural of nouns and adjectives (occasionally for the genitive singular and plural, as well). For example, (...by force), (...with tears), and (...in the mountains). Pronouns Third-person singular pronoun ("he, she, it") (the relative) or rarely singular article ("the"): Third-person plural pronoun ("they") (the relative) or rarely plural article ("the"): nominative , dative . Verbs Person endings appears rather than . For example, for in the third-person plural active. The third plural middle/passive often ends in or ; for example, is equivalent to . Tenses Future: Generally remains uncontracted. For example, appears instead of or instead of τελῶ. Present or imperfect: These tenses sometimes take iterative form with the suffix before the ending. For example, : 'they kept on running away' Aorist or imperfect: Both tenses can occasionally drop their augments. For example, may appear instead of , and may appear instead of . Homeric Greek does not have a historical present tense, but rather uses injunctives. Injunctives are replaced by the historical present in the post-Homeric writings of Thucydides and Herodotus. Subjunctive The subjunctive appears with a short vowel. Thus, the form , rather than . The second singular middle subjunctive ending appears as both and . The third singular active subjunctive ends in (ν). Thus, we see the form , instead of . Occasionally, the subjunctive is used in place of the future and in general remarks. Infinitive The infinitive appears with the endings , , and , in place of and . For example, for ; instead of ; , , or for ; and in place of . Contracted verbs In contracted verbs, where Attic employs an , Homeric Greek will use or in place of . For example, Attic becomes . Similarly, in places where contracts to or contracts to , Homeric Greek will show either or . Adverbs Adverbial suffixes conveys a sense of 'to where'; 'to the war' conveys a sense of 'how'; 'with cries' conveys a sense of 'from where'; 'from above' conveys a sense of 'where'; 'on high' Particles 'so' or 'next' (transition) 'and' (a general remark or a connective) Emphatics 'indeed' 'surely' 'just' or 'even' 'I tell you ...' (assertion) Other