will often take additional years to complete their PhD. A PhD may also be obtained by physicians during the residency training period. This combined research and graduate-level medical education are offered by a minority of residency programs. This additional education typically extends the residency period by three to four years. Training structure Pre-doctoral Upon matriculating in an MD–PhD program, students will often follow a 2-PhD-2 plan. In this system, students will complete the pre-clinical curriculum of their medical school (2 years), transition into PhD graduate training (3–5 years), and then finally complete clinical rotations (2 years). Post-doctoral Upon receiving the MD–PhD dual degree, physician-scientists may choose a variety of career paths. The most common continues to be residency training with additional laboratory training. However, a physician–scientist may also elect to refuse residency training, thereby having a career essentially akin to a conventional PhD scientist. A physician–scientist may also elect to work in the private sector with no further formal academic clinical nor research training. Benefits of the dual degree program Financial compensation Some MD–PhD programs (all MSTPs) cover all medical school tuition, provide a stipend, and cover health insurance expenses. Residency programs Candidates with MD–PhD dual degrees are favorably looked upon in most residency programs. Career flexibility Graduates with an MD–PhD degree are generally qualified for a variety of careers in medicine and medical research. MD students, just as MD–PhD students, are also qualified for a career in medical research given enough post-graduate research experience. The issue is that careers in medicine as an MD, most commonly being a physician, pay significantly more than careers in medical research. Those who graduate MD most often accrue significant financial debt and are incentivize to seek employment as a high-paying physician to pay off debt from undergraduate and MD schooling. MD–PhD graduates nearly always graduate debt free. Thus, MD–PhD students do not have the same economic pressures to seek employment as a physician compared to their MD counterparts, and instead have the economic flexibility to seek out a career in research or any career path that can utilize the unique skills an MD–PhD had acquired over their years of education. Career paths The vast majority (over 80%) of MD–PhD graduates eventually choose to enter academia, government, or industry where medical research is a central component of their duties. According to a FASEB study conducted in 2000, graduates of NIH-funded MSTPs make up just