fourth stage in the development of 'peculiar institutions', following (sequentially) slavery, Jim Crow, and the early ghettos. According to him, the ghetto and the prison are for all practical purposes indistinguishable, reinforcing each other to ensure the exclusion of African-Americans from general society, with governmental encouragement. As Wacquant vividly characterizes it, the prison should be viewed as a "judicial ghetto" and the ghetto as an "extrajudicial prison". Taken together, these constitute part of a "carceral continuum". To understand this concept, Wacquant argues for a single analytical frame unifying expansive "prisonfare" and attenuating workfare, resulting in a deepening marginalisation and social and political subordination of stigmatized and defamed "surplus" populations. Inspired by Bourdieu, Wacquant analyzes the structural constraints and consequences, and, like Bourdieu, endeavours to provide a more nuanced analysis than, for example, a reductionist Marxian economic analysis (cf. Rusche and Kirchheimer's Punishment and Social Structure, referenced by Wacquant in his Punishing the Poor (2009)). The ghetto and the prison are now locked in a whirlpool, when it is no longer clear which is the egg and which is the chicken: the two look the same and have the same function (p. 115). The life in the ghetto almost necessarily leads to more criminal behavior, yet Wacquant presents statistics that show that the distribution of crime between black and white has not changed. Instead he shows that a black, young, man is now "equated with 'probable cause' justifying the arrest" (p. 117). And in the prisons, a black culture is being reinforced by "professional" inmates, a culture which later affects the street. In his book Body and Soul: Notebooks of an Apprentice Boxer, Wacquant denounces popular mainstream conceptions of the underclass and argues that the boxing gym is one of the many institutions that is contained within, and opposed to, the ghetto. He also explores, through an account of his own experiences as an apprentice boxer in a black ghetto of Chicago, the elaborate process by which the "body capital" of these athletes is formed and managed, and in doing so, building upon the work of his mentor Pierre Bourdieu, he argues for the development of a 'carnal sociology'. Publications Bourdieu, Pierre, and Wacquant, Loïc (1992). An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Wacquant, Loïc (1999). Penal 'common sense' comes to Europe – US exports zero tolerance April 1999 Le Monde Diplomatique. (original french version, ita version)