Upload 631 files to data/part_6

data/part_6/0056333083.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a752054e9fa5d9b21cec3c35fe7606ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f822aafc-d013-42f9-81fa-50a9c57f5600/retrieve","id":"1759592236"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b2124891-86fc-4f6c-87f9-9a62592a1ec6","pagecount":"68","content":"Esta publicación no hubiera sido posible sin la participación de las familias que facilitaron la información de sus experiencias y recetas con el proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\" del Ecuador.Agradecemos también el apoyo de las organizaciones de productores Guangaló Tierra Mía, Santa Teresita, La Florida, Agropapa, Chiquicahua, Tambaló, La Dolorosa, UODIC, Fuente de Vida Rumipamba, Ajospamba, Asopropangor y Conpapa. Finalmente, queremos reconocer la contribución de Elena de Jesús Quinga Toasa, que fue clave para el trabajo de investigación en campo.La presente publicación ha sido elaborada con el apoyo financiero de la Unión Europea. Su contenido es responsabilidad exclusiva del Proyecto Regional \"Papa, Familia y Clima. Biodiversidad y buenas prácticas de agricultura climáticamente inteligente para mejorar la resiliencia y productividad de la agricultura familiar en sistemas alimentarios andinos basados en papa\" y no necesariamente refleja los puntos de vista de la Unión Europea.El CIP agradece a los donantes y organizaciones que apoyan globalmente su trabajo, a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR: www.cgiar.org/fundersLos Andes son la región donde la agricultura se practica a la mayor altitud en nuestro planeta. Por ello, los eventos climáticos extremos afectan con una intensidad más pronunciada a la agricultura familiar, campesina e indígena altoandina en comparación con otras agroecologías.Como estrategia de supervivencia, muchos productores de papa han trasladado su producción a las partes más elevadas de las montañas para evitar el impacto de altas temperaturas en el rendimiento y calidad de sus cultivos. En promedio, la papa se cultiva hoy 350 metros más arriba con respecto a 1970. Esto ha generado más emisiones de carbono a la atmósfera, el cual había sido almacenado en los suelos altoandinos intactos por milenios. Así, en una especie de círculo vicioso, la agricultura andina se ubica como uno de los sectores más amenazantes y amenazados por el cambio climático.Para afrontar esta situación, entre junio de 2019 y septiembre de 2021, el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) y el Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura (IICA) desarrollaron, aplicaron y difundieron prácticas de agricultura climáticamente inteligente (ACI) y articulación a mercados diferenciados para mejorar la capacidad adaptativa de agricultores y actores públicos y privados de los sistemas agroalimentarios andinos basados en papa en Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú.Con una inversión de más de 1.2 millones de euros aportados por CIP, IICA y la Unión Europea, a través del Programa Euroclima+, Componente Producción Resiliente de Alimentos, ejecutado por GIZ y Expertise France, se implementó el proyecto regional \"Papa, Familia y Clima\", que impulsa la biodiversidad y buenas prácticas ACI para mejorar la resiliencia y productividad de la agricultura familiar en sistemas alimentarios andinos basados en papa, en las provincias ecuatorianas de Tungurahua y Chimborazo, en alianza con el Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), el Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería (MAG), 12 organizaciones de productores y otros aliados.Esta publicación busca difundir, como síntesis de logros y lecciones del proyecto, las historias de vida de algunas familias que participaron, así como motivar el consumo de alimentos producidos de forma amigable con el medio ambiente, reconociendo el esfuerzo que implica para las familias campesinas cambiar sus prácticas para aumentar su resiliencia climática. Se llama Euclides por afición de su madre y Asdrúbal por gusto de su padre. Es un hombre de hablar agradable y fluido, apasionado por la agricultura; tiene en su alma ese carisma de aprender con facilidad todo lo que tiene que ver con la tierra. El día que conoció cómo atrapar al gusano blan-Euclides Ocaña, el terror de los gusanos La familia que le ganó la batalla a la plaga co (Premnotrypes vorax) que daña la papa todo cambió para él y su familia.Euclides Asdrúbal Ocaña nació hace 61 años, vive en la parroquia Rumipamba del cantón Quero y pertenece a la Asociación Tierra Mía. En su terreno nacen papas de colores, de PRÁCTICA ACI: Trampas para gusano blanco Euclides Ocaña comparte una tarde con su familia (esposa, hija y hermana), luego de una jornada en el campo.texturas y de sabores únicos. Su afición por este cultivo lo ha llevado, no solo a sembrar la conocida papa chola, sino otras variedades nativas que le han sorprendido por su sabor y su resistencia a la sequía. Él es socio del programa \"Papa, Familia y Clima\", que busca mejorar la resiliencia y productividad de la agricultura familiar.Un grupo de técnicos del CIP, MAG e INIAP, que forma parte de esta iniciativa, le enseñó que hay formas alternativas de atraer al gusano blanco hasta un lugar donde no pueda dañar al tubérculo. El día que se enteró de esto, no solo salvó a sus papas y todo el cultivo, sino que aprendió el comportamiento natural de esta plaga, lo que le permitió planificar sus siembras y usar menos agroquímicos.Sentado en su casa junto a una chimenea, cuenta que antes de aprender sobre la colocación de las trampas, solo conoció al gusano cuando era larva, porque lo veía al final del camino que había hecho, mientras se alimentaba de la papa. Hoy, sabe más de este insecto. Sus ojos se iluminan y relata: \"no solo conozco a la larva que se mete en la papa, sino también a la mamá y al papá, que es más chiquito. Los técnicos me enseñaron que al mes ponen hasta 300 huevos\".Ahora que sabe cómo es el ciclo de vida completo del gusano destructor, se ha dado el trabajo de tomar el tiempo en el que se alimenta de las hojas de papa. Sabe que lo visita a las seis de la tarde, con mucha hambre y sin ninguna contemplación, pero para ese momento Euclides ya tiene listas las herramientas de manejo integrado de plagas para atraparlo.En esa tarea también le ayuda su hija Azucena. Ella toma una botella plástica reciclable, hace dos orificios en la parte alta y adentro coloca una rama de la planta de papa humedecida en un compuesto orgánico, cuyo olor atrae al gusano; luego mete el recipiente en el suelo. La sustancia que usa para atraer al gusano es una mezcla de microorganismos y hierbas que ha sido fermentada previamente en un recipiente.Este no es el único truco que conoce; también tiene otras trampas que le permiten capturar vivo al enemigo para estimar cuándo podría convertirse en un problema grave y de esa forma aplicar insecticidas solo cuando sea absolutamente necesario. Él aprovecha para mostrar su trabajo a los vecinos y que ellos también cultiven sus papas sin molestos inquilinos. Así podrán hacer como Euclides, que cada miércoles vende sus papas en el mercado, confiado en que ningún gusano afectará los ingresos de su familia.Este es un plato típico muy consumido en el lugar. Es habitual en las ferias de los lunes y martes en Ambato, donde lo comercializan de 07:00 a 14:00. Incluso en el cantón Mocha existen carros repartidores que anuncian su venta a través de altoparlantes. La gente del lugar aprovecha para comprarlo durante el almuerzo o llaman por teléfono a los comerciantes para que les entreguen en sus hogares. Generalmente lo venden acompañado de un porción de tostado y un fresco. Cuando se enfríe, pele el grano y lave para retirar cualquier impureza. 4. Licúe el maní hasta el punto de lograr una consistencia granulada. 5. Licúe la cebolla paiteña pelada, lavada y partida en cuatro con media taza de agua. 6. Coloque al fuego la cebolla licuada con la manteca vegetal. Revuelva constantemente hasta que tenga una consistencia pastosa. Añada el maní y mezcle. 7. Coloque dos panes en la licuadora con un cuarto de taza de agua y añada a la mezcla principal. Ponga perejil y sal al gusto. 8. Una vez que esté listo el cuero, retire los excesos de grasa y corte en cuadritos. 9. Para servir: coloque las papas cocinadas, la salsa de maní y el cuero encima. Puede servir con queso alrededor. También se acostumbra acompañar con tostado. 10. Complemente este delicioso plato con ají y adorne con huevo cocinado. Agosto era el mes en el que las heladas llegaban normalmente a la parroquia San Fernando, en el cantón Ambato. De la intensidad del temporal y de los días de duración dependía la magnitud de los daños que podía ocasionar a los cultivos, que se transformaban de un verde intenso a negro. Hasta allí llegaba el deseo de una buena cosecha.Ese día la temperatura caía bajo cero. Y si alguien dejaba una tina de agua a la intemperie se podía apreciar claramente una capa de hielo, como un vidrio fino, que aparecía en la superficie.Ahora, por el cambio climático, no saben cuándo llegarán las heladas. La naturaleza ya no es predecible. Se volvió variable y eso les alerta e intriga.PRÁCTICA ACI: Barreras vivas para proteger los cultivos Alrededor de los cultivos de Raúl Bombón aparecen unas plantas diferentes, no son de papa. Son más altas y están colocadas en los alrededores, como si fueran una cerca. Son hileras de malva, que sirven como barreras vivas para proteger a los sembradíos del viento.Por encima de los 3.000 metros de altura, el aire sopla fuerte y la malva tiene la función de proteger a los cultivos, de evitar que la ventisca vuelva moradas las hojas de la papa y afecte al producto.Este tipo de acciones son parte de lo que se conoce como las buenas prácticas de agricultura climáticamente inteligente (ACI), promovidas por el proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\".En San Isidro de Tambaló, sector donde vive Raúl con su esposa y sus seis hijos, miran a la agricultura de una manera diferente. Comprobaron que fertilizar con abono orgánico fortalece las plantas y mejora el sabor de las papas. \"La comida es más agradable, más arenosa y medio dulce, al momento de servir\", dice este hombre de 47 años, quien combina esta práctica con las barreras vivas de malva como una forma de enfrentar la variabilidad climática.Hace más de tres meses, los Bombón sembraron papa chaucha en su terreno. Desde su casa, Raúl observa que la planta está amarilla y eso significa que la papa está lista para dejar la tierra. Entonces, todos toman sus herramientas: azadones, palas, rastrillos y un balde rojo. Unos cavan, otros sacuden y desde el suelo salen unas papas rojas que contrastan con el negruzco de la tierra. Hoy fue un buen día para esta familia…En la comunidad de Tambaló, en el cantón Ambato, la familia Bombón cosecha la papa chaucha roja.La papa roja a la que no le dio el viento Llegó un poco después de la cosecha de papa. Caminaba sin nombre, su dueña no sabía si era macho o hembra y, cuando descifró este misterio gracias a una vecina, decidió llamarla Josefina. Lleva el nombre de una variedad de papa que se ha vuelto famosa en el lugar, porque es más resistente a los impactos del cambio climático. Algunos creen que la felina salió de la tierra, igual que la papa.Esta gatita ha sido una testigo silenciosa de cómo los abonos verdes incrementaron la productividad de la papa en la familia de Gloria Tibán.Para alimentar a su ganado, Gloria sembró avena y vicia, la primera una gramínea como el maíz, pero sin choclo, y la segunda una leguminosa de gran calidad forrajera. Pero, además de nutrir a los animales, son excelentes abonos verdes que mejoran la calidad de los suelos y permiten a productores como Gloria utilizar menos fertilizantes químicos. Los técnicos agrícolas del programa \"Papa, Familia y Clima\", le recomendaron a Gloria no quemar ni deshacerse de los residuos de la cosecha de avena y vicia, sino incorporarlos al suelo para aumentar el contenido de materia orgánica y mejorar la fertilidad de su terreno de forma natural y más amigable con el medio ambiente. Después de mezclar el suelo con los restos de vicia y avena, lo dejó reposar tres semanas antes de sembrar las semillas de papa.Junto a 11 compañeras de la Asociación de Mujeres Santa Teresita, sembró 5 quintales de papa de la variedad Josefina que le rindieron 44 quintales en la cosecha. Tenía temor de que la producción no fuera buena, pues en mayo y en junio les afectaron las heladas. Sin embargo, gracias a que las plantas crecieron más fuertes y vigorosas por el uso de abonos verdes, el intenso frío solamente dejó unas cuantas hojas quemadas, pero el tallo siguió recto e intacto.Esa es Josefina, la variedad de papa que cuando se combina con prácticas de agricultura climáticamente inteligente resiste mejor a los cambios climáticos, mientras que Josefina, la gata, recorre las plantaciones de papa y sale corriendo cuando llega la helada.PRÁCTICA ACI: Abonos verdes de avena más viciacontra el viento de manera natural.Autora: Gloria Tibán El Runaucho es un plato tradicional del cantón Tisaleo. Los habitantes del lugar refieren que su preparación es común para las grandes fiestas y celebraciones familiares, sobre todo bodas. Tradicionalmente se acostumbra que los priostes de las 40 horas, fiesta en honor al Santísimo Sacramento, ofrezcan este plato a sus más de 200 invitados en el día principal de la fiesta. Esta festividad se celebra antes de la Semana Santa y es un acontecimiento religioso de especial importancia, que convoca a una gran cantidad de personas que participan del arreglo de la iglesia, de oraciones y de la misa central.Ingredientes 1 libra de harina de arveja 2 pepas de ajo macho 3 libras de papa Josefina 1 cuy 1 zanahoria grande 2 ramas de orégano 2 ramas de cebolla blanca 1 cebolla paiteña 1 cucharada de manteca de chancho 1 hoja de apioSal al gusto 1. Hierva dos litros de agua, mientras tanto en una sartén coloque la cebolla blanca, el ajo y el orégano picados con la cucharada de manteca de chancho, sofría y añada al caldo, junto con la zanahoria picada finamente y las papas. 2. En un recipiente con agua fría disuelva la harina de arveja, hasta lograr una mezcla homogénea y ponga en el agua hirviendo. 3. Agregue sal al gusto y remueva constantemente para que no se pegue. 4. Preparación del cuy: Licúe 1 ajo, 1 cebolla paiteña, 1 cebolla blanca, orégano, apio, pimiento y sal al gusto. Condimente el cuy con este preparado, deje macerar por una hora y lleve al carbón para asarlo. 5. Sirva la sopa y coloque una presa de cuy encima. En la casa de Nelly Sánchez hay cinco piedras de moler antiguas. Calculan que la más desgastada puede tener más de 300 años. Nadie las usa, pero no se mueven del patio, son el recuerdo de sus antepasados y de la habilidad que tenían para convertir la cebada, el morocho o el maíz en harina.Esta familia se resiste a olvidar los saberes ancestrales de los Andes. Por eso el día en que Luis Ernesto Sánchez, esposo de Nelly, encontró por casualidad a un vecino que resguardaba la papa cacho, una variedad nativa de color negro que tiene la forma de cornamentas de toro, no dudó en recuperar esta semilla. En su familia la habían dejado de ver hace mucho tiempo, pero les traía recuerdos de su niñez y siempre añoraban su sabor. Igual nombran con nostalgia las papas tabaquera, jardinera, lima, que forman parte de las 350 variedades de papas nativas registradas en el Ecuador.Así, con las pocas semillas de papa cacho que su vecino, custodio de la agrobiodiversidad, les regaló, sembraron tres guachos, pero al principio cultivaron unos tubérculos muy pequeños. Porfiado en que no se podía perder el patrimonio natural y cultural del país, Luis Ernesto las sembró en otro lugar y allí crecieron grandes, relucientes, con una curva que hasta parecía sonrisa. Ese día empezaron a recuperar la semilla ancestral. De eso, hace dos años.Se dieron cuenta que tuvieron mejores resultados porque el segundo terreno estaba fertilizado orgánicamente con productos naturales.Este hogar también forma parte del programa \"Papa, Familia y Clima\". Y, además de revalorar a las papas nativas, también están aplicando otra práctica de agricultura climáticamente inteligente (ACI) que reaprendieron en las capacitaciones del CIP, MAG e INIAP: el uso de plantas repelentes para ahuyentar a las plagas de forma natural, sin la necesidad de aplicar tantos insecticidas químicos. \"Cuando íbamos a cosechar la planta, no había papas. Hoy, no nos ha ganado la plaga y estamos cuidando nuestro bolsillo y al medio ambiente\", cuenta Nelly Sánchez.Ella recorre sus cultivos y observa que están verdes y sanos. Alrededor de ellos, como si fuera una hilera, se observan tallos de cebolla blanca a cincuenta centímetros de distancia. Más allá aparece una barrera de apio, que también ahuyenta a mosquitos que tienen bien identificados los Sánchez-Sánchez.El día que perdieron sus cosechas tomaron una lupa y vieron a los insectos de cerca. Querían conocer a detalle a esta plaga para estar mejor preparados. Ahora, ya no les cogerá de sorpresa porque están armados con \"barreras vivas\" y bien capacitados.Plantas repelentes, las mejores amigas de la papa PRÁCTICA ACI: Siembra de plantas repelentes Autora: Nelly Sánchez Este es un potaje de autoría de la familia Sánchez, que buscó una forma novedosa de presentar la papa cacho. La madre de este hogar decidió armar una combinación que resalte el sabor de esta papa andina y consideró que la salsa de maní y la pata de res serían una buena opción. También recomienda que se acompañe el platillo con un delicioso jugo de mora, que es otro de los cultivos populares de la zona.Papa cacho en salsa de maní con pata de res PRÁCTICA ACI: Asociación de cultivosIntegrantes de la Asociación Carihuairazo de Chiquicahua posan en una hacienda antigua, que ahora es su sede.pero que acompaña siempre a los paisajes altoandinos.Los 20 quintales de papa se sembraron con prácticas de Agricultura Climáticamente Inteligente (ACI) promovidas por el proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\". Antes de depositar las semillas en la tierra, llegó un camión lleno de abono orgánico que dejó el suelo como una cobija suave y esponjosa enriquecida con nutrientes naturales.Ese día, José Manuel Pilamunga se sintió muy complacido pues esta práctica pone en valor los saberes ancestrales de la agricultura andina y los fortalece con la ciencia del CIP y el INIAP. Lleva un poncho rojo que le llega más allá de la cintura. Casi no habla, solo asiente, pero cuando pronuncia una frase es precisa y reveladora.Al escuchar a los compañeros de la comunidad comentar sobre el cultivo con abonos orgánicos, alza un tanto la voz para recordar: \"Así mismo hacíamos antes y las papas nos duraban hasta un año, guardábamos en el soberado (bodega ubicada en la parte alta de la casa, antes del tejado). Con tanto químico la tierra se cansa, hay que volver a lo orgánico. Mi mamita, sin químico, vive hasta ahora y tiene casi 100 años\".Esta comunidad no solo volvió a utilizar fertilizantes orgánicos, sino a la práctica agroecológica de asociación de cultivos. En los terrenos de la comunidad se puede ver papa en una hilera y haba en la otra. Aprendieron la importancia de esta combinación para mejorar los suelos y obtener rendimientos estables en las capacitaciones de EURO-CLIMA+, que conjugaron los saberes locales con las últimas innovaciones basadas en la ciencia.Damián Punina, uno de los más jóvenes de la comunidad, entusiasta por implementar estas prácticas, quiere mirar a la tierra con los ojos de sus abuelos. Y dice que hay que entender que los cultivos se ayudan entre sí. \"Si se siembra papa y chocho no se perderá el lote de la siembra, porque el chocho es una planta agria que evita que lleguen las plagas, los moscos y protege a la papa de las heladas al ser una plata alta\".Los 123 socios de esta asociación esperan ansiosos la cosecha. Están contentos con el esfuerzo que hacen en la producción cada vez más amigable con el ambiente y con papas más saludables y nutritivas para la mesa de las familias.Cuando las mujeres del lugar dan a luz es habitual que se prepare este platillo, con el propósito que recuperen fuerzas durante los primeros 15 días. La receta inicialmente incluye solo cuy y cebolla; solo después de transcurrido este tiempo se puede añadir papas y otros elementos al preparado. El cuy es parte de la dieta central luego del parto pues existe la creencia que ayuda a producir leche, al igual que la papa que proporciona nutrientes. El sábado llegó con viento y baja temperatura a Mulanleo, en la parroquia Pilahuín, en Ambato. Allí el clima hace temblar de frío a los extraños. En ese lugar, las papas nativas tienen un espacio especial desde que los miembros de la Asociación Agropapa decidieron recuperar la agrobiodiversidad andina.Son papas deliciosas y adaptables a cualquier preparación. Se pueden cocinar, hacer puré o freír. Mientras más oscuro es su color de piel o pulpa, mayor es el contenido de antioxidantes.Por los alrededores se pueden ver plantaciones de Yana Shungo, que significa corazón negro. Son más largas que anchas, tienen ojos profundos y el color de la corteza es de un marrón intenso. Cuando se la corta, la pulpa es morada con un anillo de color crema.También está la Puca Shungo. Si se traduce del quichua al español significa corazón rojo, por el color predominante de la pulpa. El trío de estas papas nativas lo completa la Chumbi, de color rojizo.El día que salieron al mercado con estas papas y no hubo interés en los compradores, la creatividad de losagricultores se puso a prueba y buscaron la forma de volverlas atractivas. Así, nació \"Yapu Chips\", una golosina que combina estas variedades nativas en hojuelas altamente nutritivas. Ahora, ya tienen su planta de industrialización propia, que se levantó con el apoyo del CIP y el MAG. Luego, con el apoyo del IICA dentro del proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\", se innovó la comercialización de la organización al diseñar la marca AGROPAPA, su logotipo y una mejor estrategia para la venta de las Yapu y de otros productos que tienenPRÁCTICA ACI: Innovaciones comerciales tritis, por las cualidades especiales que tienen las papas nativas.Paulina López, ingeniera agrónoma de profesión, vio la potencialidad de este producto en el tema culinario y decidió estudiar un curso de cocina andina para crear sus propias recetas, inspiradas en las papas de colores. Su familia, que forma parte de la Asociación Agropapa, es una apasionada de estas variedades únicas del Ecuador. Las comen de día, de noche, en sopa, en puré, fritas y hasta en llapingachos de colores.las familias de Agropapa. Ahora se los encuentran en varios mercados locales y regionales, y pronto esperan estar en las grandes ciudades del país.El ingenio no paró allí. También se creó el cóctel de papas nativas, una bebida hecha con una pequeña cantidad de licor y pulpa de guanábana y desde luego las deliciosas papas que le dan un atractivo color a estas bebidas. Es una mezcla que logra un sabor único y exótico. Aseguran que sirve no solo para amenizar los encuentros sociales, sino para curar la gas-La familia Montesdeoca-López exhibe todos los productos que fueron inspirados con las papas nativas.El llapingacho, palabra quichua que quiere decir papa aplastada, es un plato que aparece luego del terremoto de 1949, en Ambato. Generalmente, se prepara con papa chola y se añade achiote y queso. Sin embargo, en Mulanleo han propuesto una variación, la cual consiste en mantener los ingredientes habituales, pero usar papas nativas para su preparación, con lo que dan más vistosidad al plato, ya que cada tortilla tiene un color diferente que va desde el morado hasta el amarillo pálido. Además, aprovechan los cultivos de la zona y dan valor a las papas nativas. Las tres variedades de papa se cocinan por separado, con sal y cebolla según el tiempo de cocción de cada una. 2. Una vez cocidas, aplaste cada papa por separado con un poco de mantequilla. Haga tortillas y fría. 3. Cocine la remolacha y corte en cuadritos. Añada sal, aceite y limón. 4. Cocine el chorizo por unos tres minutos en agua hirviendo y luego proceda a freírlo. 5. Fría los huevos 6. Sirva las tortillas con el chorizo, el huevo y la ensalada de remolacha sobre una sábana de lechuga. Añada el tomate cortado en cuadros y el aguacate en tajadas y la cebolla colorada curtida. 7. Opcional: si desea puede acompañar el plato de alguna salsa. Para ello, pique cebolla blanca y haga un refrito con achiote, dos dientes de ajo y sal. Aparte, licúe un pan con una taza de leche y agregue al refrito. Hierva hasta que espese y añada al plato principal.La lucha contra el mosco que produce la enfermedad de la punta morada punta morada de la papa, que puede causar la pérdida total del cultivo en poco tiempo. Por si esto fuera poco, este insecto también puede transmitir otras enfermedades como \"cebra chip\" o \"papa rayada\".A esta plaga no le atraen solo las papas, tiene una fascinación por el color amarillo. Cuando lo ve, vuela hipnotizada hacia él. Es su perdición.Le conocen como Bactericera cockerelli. Tiene alas transparentes y el color de su cuerpo varía entre amarillo, café oscuro o negro. Vuela por el campo buscando cultivos de papa y otras solanáceas, como el tomate y los ajíes. Es un ser sediento que, cuando llega a la planta, extrae la savia provocando que una parte de sus hojas se torne violeta, como si tuviera una hemorragia. Es la temible PRÁCTICA ACI: Trampas para bactericera Hasta hace un tiempo era un enemigo invencible, cuya llegada producía que la planta de la papa no crezca y que los tubérculos nazcan en los tallos, en lugar de la tierra. Es decir, crecían papas aéreas, que no se desarrollaban.Afortunadamente, esa es una historia que ya no se repetirá en las plantaciones de las mujeres de la Asociación La Dolorosa. Interesadas en garantizar su cosecha, formaron parte de las capacitaciones del proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\", que les mostró prácticas de manejo integrado de plagas, como el uso de trampas amarillas para Bactericera y el software ILCYM del CIP, que les permite identificar qué zonas son más propensas a los daños de esta plaga a medida que el clima va cambiando.Una de las más entusiastas es Yamari Flores. Ella viene de un sitio donde se consume más yuca o plátano. Oriunda de Shushufindi, en la Amazonía, llegó al cantón Tisaleo, parroquia La Matriz, hace un año y medio. Poco a poco la papa la sedujo. En su casa reservó un espacio de terreno para su primer sembrío, pero antes quiere aprender todo y saber cómo cuidar y defender a su cultivo.Casi son las seis de la tarde y un grupo de 7 mujeres extiende sobre los sembríos de papa un plástico amarillo untado con aceite. El trabajo da buenos resultados pues atrapan a muchos insectos. Luego los cuentan para estimar la cantidad de bichos por temporadas y de esa forma saber el momento preciso en que vale la pena implementar medidas de control de plagas, cuidando su bolsillo, el medio ambiente y, lo más importante, la salud de ellas, sus familias y de quienes consuman las papas que cosechen. Yamari se siente más preparada para sembrar y para sorprender a sus compañeras con una papa tan grande como una yuca.Un grupo de mujeres unta con aceite vegetal un plástico amarillo para atrapar al insecto que enferma a la papa.Esta es una combinación de granos, cuyo ingrediente principal son las papas nativas que se siembran en el cantón Tisaleo. Es común que los habitantes de este lugar lleven este plato al campo cuando realizan trabajos en conjunto, lo que popularmente se conoce como la minga. Se sirve de manera comunitaria, es decir se coloca un mantel en el suelo y se riega toda la comida que se va a compartir. A esta práctica se llama Pambamesa. Manuel Pucha, uno de los pobladores más antiguos de La Pradera en el cantón Colta, Chimborazo, estuvo presente el día en que la luz eléctrica llegó a la comunidad, hace casi 30 años.También fue testigo del momento en que niñas y niños dejaron de ir al pozo a cargar agua porque llegó el agua potable. De la misma manera, Manuel acompañó al proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\" desde que inició actividades en La Pradera, participando activamente en las capacitaciones del CIP, MAG e INIAP para elaborar un abono orgánico con el cual las matas producen más y mejores papas.Cada vez que la comunidad se reúne para preparar este compuesto, conocido como compost, él llega con cuaderno y esfero en mano para anotar la receta exacta de la mezcla perfecta: melaza, ortiga, marco, chilca y estiércol. Observa con detalle la cantidad que se debe añadir de roca fosfórica, un elemento natural que nutre las plantas al aportarles calcio y fósforo.Con sus ojos expresivos, mira atento cuando Manuel Parco, líder de la comunidad, dirige la elaboración del fertilizante orgánico. Tiene muchas historias por escribir sobre el cultivo de papa, pero su cuaderno lo utiliza exclusivamente para registrar el trabajo que vienen realizando en cuanto a la agricultura climáticamente inteligente (ACI), que ayuda al manejo integral de El abono orgánico se hace en minga los sistemas agroalimentarios altoandinos para responder de forma eficaz al cambio climático. Su impresión es que los resultados de EUROCLIMA+ en su comunidad son buenos porque en la última cosecha obtuvieron 50 sacos de papas. Antes, solo conseguían 30.Allí todo se hace en comunidad. Las personas que integran la Asociación Comuna La Pradera siembran juntas, construyen caminos juntas y cosechan juntas los frutos de su trabajo. Se consideran como una gran familia y comparten historias en común, como la preparación de compost y biol.En un espacio de a p ro x i m a d a m e n t e veinte metros cuadrados se van mezclando uno a uno los ingredientes, que deberán reposar por dos meses antes que el abono esté listo para usarse en los terrenos de las 30 familias que viven en el lugar. El cultivo actual de papa ha soportado ya tres heladas, pero sigue en pie. La comunidad atribuye esta mejora en su resiliencia, a que ahora las plantas están más fuertes por el uso de biol y otras prácticas ACI, como el uso de semillas más resistentes a estos fenómenos.Si los efectos del cambio climático son impredecibles, la comunidad es ingeniosa… PRÁCTICA ACI: Elaboración de abonos orgánicos (compost y biol) La sopa de quinua con cuy es un platillo muy consumido en la comunidad La Pradera. Es una tradición heredada de generación en generación y se prepara con productos cosechados por los habitantes del lugar. Los pobladores refieren que el secreto del sabor es la cocción en leña y el correcto lavado del grano para quitar el sabor amargo. Esta sopa puede hacerse también con carne de cerdo, pero es más común el uso del cuy.Ingredientes 1 1 / 2 libra de quinua 2 libras de papa 1 cuy 1 rama de cebolla blanca 1 cebolla paiteña 1 zanahoria 2 ajos 1 rama de apio 2 ramas de cilantro 1 rama de perejil 1 taza de leche Sal y achiote al gusto 1. Lave bien la quinua hasta que el grano quede completamente limpio. 2. Coloque cinco litros de agua en una olla y cuando hierva ponga la quinua. 3. Cocine por media hora o hasta que el grano esté suave. Luego, añada las papas peladas, el cuy en presas y la zanahoria picada. 4. Agregue la cebolla blanca, la paiteña y el ajo, finamente picados. 5. Coloque el cilantro y el perejil picados. 6. Como paso final, ponga achiote y una taza de leche antes de servir.En la comunidad Lig-Lig hay una vistosa laguna a la que llegaban unas aves pequeñas de color café oscuro con pecho blanco. A su paso hacían un sonido como lig, lig, lig, lig... Ahora llegan pocas, de vez en cuando, pero dejaron el recuerdo de su nombre. Esta es la historia que narran en este lugar del cantón Colta en la provincia de Chimborazo.Allí se cuentan relatos que no se pueden creer, por lo impresionantes. Uno de ellos es el de una variedad de papa que parece chola, pero que se cosecha tres meses antes de lo acostumbrado.El personaje principal tiene el nombre de una mujer resiliente: la papa Josefina, que requiere menos agua para crecer, tolera algunas enfermedades como el tizón tardío o lancha, que al PRÁCTICA ACI: Uso de variedades adecuadas de papa consumirla nos aporta cantidades importantes de vitamina C, hierro y caroteno. De esto hay evidencias científicas en el INIAP y el CIP.Josefina es una variedad de papa que no le teme a las alturas, que entre los 2.700 y los 3.500 metros sobre el nivel del mar está lista para cosechar en 4 o 5 meses, aproximadamente. En la región andina del Ecuador soporta sequías, enfermedades y hasta las temibles heladas.Alicia Naula quedó impresionada cuando vio que de cada planta de la variedad Josefina salían entre 25 y 30 papas. En las mejores cosechas de otra variedad cultivaban solamente 15 tubérculos por mata, si es que los efectos del cambio climático y las plagas no acababan antes con el cultivo.La correcta elección de semillas, adaptadas al entorno, es lo que se conoce como uso adecuado de variedades de papa y que forma parte de las prácticas de Agricultura Climáticamente Inteligente (ACI) promovidas por el proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\". Aplicar esta medida permitió que la comunidad, en su última cosecha, obtenga 150 sacos del producto, cuando antes sólo obtenían 60 sacos.Desde ese día, Josefina es una de las principales aliadas de las 33 familias de esta comunidad.Día especial en la comunidad Lig Lig. Los cultivos de papa Josefina están listos para la cosecha.Este platillo, cuyo ingrediente principal es el achiote, surge del ingenio de los abuelos y abuelas del lugar para lograr una combinación que potencie el sabor de la papa. Esto en vista de que eran escasos otros ingredientes para hacer salsas que acompañen al tubérculo, que se cultiva permanentemente en la zona y que es un elemento central en la dieta de las familias. El secreto para lograr un sabor diferente y un toque ahumado es la cocción en leña, así como la colocación de tallos de quinua y haba en el fuego. Esto otorga un sabor diferente, tanto a las papas como al cuy asado.Ingredientes 5 libras de papa 3 cucharaditas de achiote 2 ramas de cebolla 3 pepas de ajo 2 cuyes Sal al gusto 1. Ponga a cocinar la papa cuando hierva el agua. 2. Ase el ajo y la cebolla en el fogón y triture en la piedra de moler junto con el achiote, hasta que la mezcla se vuelva homogénea. 3. Añada tres cucharadas del caldo donde se cocinó la papa. 4. Coloque la mezcla en las papas cocinadas, recién sacadas del fuego. Es importante que se mantenga el calor de las papas para que el achiote se cocine ligeramente y se obtenga el sabor característico de este plato. 5. Para preparar el cuy: sazónelo con ajo y sal. En la barriga y en la boca del animal coloque ajo y cebolla. Ase en el carbón hasta el punto deseado. 6. Para servir: ponga las papas y encima el cuy. Puede acompañar con un vaso de chicha y con ají. Igual que un ejército, cada uno tiene habilidades especiales, que van desde la destreza para disolver los micronutrientes del suelo, para que la papa pueda asimilarlos fácilmente, hasta la gracia para encontrar a los insectos que causan daño a la planta y parasitarlos.En el teléfono celular de César Asaquibay, ingeniero agrónomo del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP), hay evidencia de esto. Él tomó una foto a una de las contrincantes más feroces de la papa: la mamá del gusano blanco. La encontró cuando caminaba cerca de las papas, cubierta de microorganismos benéficos que simulaban ser bolas de algodón y que la destruyeron.En otra parcela del señor Sadva, los microorganismos benéficos perdieron la batalla, no por falta de fuerza ni de talento. Un terreno desfavorable produjo que la planta empiece a podrirse. Se tomaron varias muestras de este suelo para un análisis específico en laboratorio y ver cuál es la causa exacta. Mientras tanto, un nuevo batallón de microorganismos benéficos espera para entrar a combatir y recuperar el terreno.Seres microscópicos que mejoran el terreno PRÁCTICA ACI: Utilización de microorganismos para el suelo Es el plato preferido para servirse en grandes compromisos sociales. Los pobladores de Chimborazo refieren que su consumo se ha incrementado debido a la creencia de que su carne es beneficiosa para combatir el coronavirus. Es usual que se sirva en mercados y restaurantes.Ingredientes 1 cuy pelado 4 dientes de ajo machacados 1 cucharada de comino ½ cucharadita de achiote 2 kilos de papas peladas 2 cucharadas de aceite 2 ramitas de cebolla finamente cortadas 2 cebollas coloradas finamente picadas 1 pizca de orégano 1 pizca de pimienta molida 1 cucharada de cilantro ½ litro de leche ½ libra de maní 1 lechuga pequeña Sal al gusto 1. Cocine las papas 2. Muela en la piedra 2 ajos, 2 cebollas coloradas y 1 rama de cebolla blanca. Añada comino, achiote, pimienta molida y sal. Aliñe el cuy con este preparado y deje reposar por una hora. Ase en el fuego, o al horno si lo desea. 3. Tueste el maní, pele y retire las impurezas, licúe con media taza de leche y reserve. 4. Haga un refrito con 2 ajos, 1 cebolla colorada, 1 rama de cebolla blanca y cilantro finamente picados. Añada la mezcla de maní y hierva hasta que espese, coloque sal al gusto. Adicione una pizca de orégano al final. 5. Para servir, ponga la lechuga debajo de las papas y riegue la salsa de maní alrededor del tubérculo. Coloque el cuy encima de este preparado.En la vía Panamericana, en el sector Rumipamba del cantón Colta, el cruce de vehículos es muy cotidiano. En ese lugar se ubica una tienda comunal y una construcción rústica hecha de madera y paja, que se activa en tiempo de cosecha para vender las papas frescas. Así, la arenosa papa chaucha amarilla llega a varios destinos en los autos de los compradores: Guayaquil, Milagro, Machala y otros sitios.Cerca de ahí, bajando por caminos inclinados se llega a un gran terreno, cuya siembra pertenece a 12 familias de la Asociación Fuente de Vida Rumipamba. Bajo tierra, están creciendo dos variedades de papa: Josefina y Fripapa, con las cuales los agricultores están aprendiendo a usar un juego de ruedas diseñado por el CIP, que les ayuda a tomar decisiones informadas sobre si es necesario fumigar y cuándo hacerlo. De esta forma evitan el uso excesivo de agroquímicos, protegen el suelo y cuidan a sus plantas de la lancha, una enfermedad que afecta al follaje y destruye a la papa. Se presenta cuando el tiempo es húmedo, hay niebla, frío y luego temperaturas altas.El juego de ruedas es una herramienta circular que los miembros de la Asociación Fuente de Vida Rumipamba recibieron en el marco del programa \"Papa, Familia y Clima\", que llevan adelante el CIP y el IICA en alianza con el MAG y el INIAP y el apoyo de la Unión Europea.Elena Quinga, agrónoma del CIP, llega a sus visitas de acompañamiento técnico en campo -alegre y preparada, como siempre. En su mochila tiene todas estas herramientas. Son tan vistosas que parece que va a una celebración del Inti Raymi.Con su mano derecha sostiene una pila de tarrinas pequeñas transparentes, con bordes de colores: amarillo, rojo y verde, los mismos del semáforo. Las entregan a los agricultores para que las coloquen en la tierra y puedan medir la lluvia que cae, dato indispensable para mover las ruedas.De acuerdo con la variedad de papa, la cantidad de lluvia y la última fecha de fumigación, se obtienen datos que, al sumarlos, revelan cuándo se debe fumigar y qué tipo de producto usar, cuidando siempre la alternabilidad para que la tierra no se acostumbre y pierda efecto.De esta forma, las familias campesinas protegen con esmero la nueva papa que ofertarán al filo de la carretera, con la historia de que fue cosechada usando técnicas de la Agricultura Climáticamente Inteligente (ACI) y que, por lo tanto, son más saludables y amigables con el medio ambiente. Esta es una historia que apenas comienza…Nuevas herramientas para proteger los cultivos de papa PRÁCTICA ACI: Sistema de Apoyo a la Decision (SAD) para el control de lancha La última vez que José Guamán levantó su mirada para ver volar a un cóndor tenía 15 años, de eso ya hace seis décadas. Sentado frente al fuego, junto con su esposa Doralitza Fernández, se abriga con el calor que produce la leña y recuerda que en la parroquia Juan de Velasco Pangor, en el cantón Colta en Chimborazo, los veranos ya no son como antes. \"Parecen inviernos, ya casi ni las cobijas de lana de borrego nos abrigan en las noches\".El lugar donde nació ya no es el mismo de cuando era joven o niño. Con María Guamán, su hermana, recorría los caminos y al paso se encontraba sapos que se atravesaban en el trayecto, eran tantos que unos estaban sobre otros. Los habíaPRÁCTICA ACI: Aplicación de materia orgánica Materia orgánica para alimentar a la tierra de colores variados, verdes con blanco, tomates, negros, grises. El que más recuerdan es el de barriga verde.La variedad de sapos ha decaído. María Guamán, a sus 68 años, dice que ahora ya no los encuentra, que solo quedan en los pozos o en los bosques. A julio y agosto los conocían como los meses del viento y los esperaban preparados. Hoy esos meses sorprenden con cualquier fenómeno climático, a veces muy extremo.Por el lugar se siembran papas, ocas, habas, melloco, mashua, cebada y últimamente maíz. La gente de los alrededores pertenece a la Asociación Asopropangor y cuando se enteraron que el proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima\" promovía la Agricultura Climáticamente Inteligente (ACI) buscaron ser parte de él. Averiguaron, llamaron, buscaron y encontraron. Conocen de primera mano todas las prácticas ACI que les permiten mejorar la resiliencia y productividad de la agricultura familiar.La nostalgia por el clima que les permitía programar sus siembras y cosechas, el deseo de ahorrar en insumos y mejorar su economía familiar les inspira a practicar las enseñanzas de los técnicos del INIAP y del CIP. Por eso, para empezar su nuevo cultivo utilizando esquemas de fertilización inteligente, recogieron bastante estiércol de sus animales.José y Doralitza llevan esta materia orgánica a su terreno para enriquecer la tierra y empezar la siembra. Lo hacen seguros de obtener mejores resultados en sus cultivos, menores costos de producción y mayores ingresos para sus familias, al tiempo de conservar y mejorar el recurso más valioso para la producción de alimentos: el suelo. Doralitza Fernández coloca estiércol de animales en el suelo, para favorecer el crecimiento de la papa.Este plato tradicional de la parroquia se prepara con gallina de campo y es el banquete ideal cuando hay fiestas o llegan visitas especiales. Se acostumbra prepararlo también cuando los pobladores hacen mingas para sembrar papas u otro producto. Se lo considera un plato fuerte y suculento que puede preparse de manera individual o con la ayuda de la gente de la comunidad. Para dar vistosidad y sabor al plato, se lo acompaña con un picadillo de cebolla blanca, cilantro o perejil. Las papas que sorprendieron a Baltazara PRÁCTICA ACI: Labranza de conservación Gracias a su participación en el proyecto \"Papa, Familia y Clima, en la cosecha pasada, 12 familias de su comunidad lograron producir papas usando abonos orgánicos y otras técnicas de Agricultura Climáticamente Inteligente (ACI). Sembraron 10 quintales de semilla y obtuvieron 60 quintales de tubérculos. Ahora, van por la segunda siembra María Baltazara sostiene un canasto con papa chaucha amarilla, el producto de cultivo más común en Ajospamba.implementando y mejorando las prácticas ACI y ahorrando parte del dinero que gastaban en la compra de agroquímicos.María Baltazara Llongo recuerda lo que le enseñaron sus abuelos, a cultivar de manera natural. Así la papa es \"más rica y dura más\"; adicionalmente, no contamina el agua y los suelos.Sus amigos de la comunidad conversan con ella y le cuentan sobre la recuperación de esta forma ancestral de sembrar. Ella los mira, sonríe levemente con un gesto de satisfacción, mientras dice que \"sin papa no hay comida\".Esta comunidad cultiva en las laderas de las montañas de los Andes. Nelson Caizaghuano Shagñay está listo para la segunda siembra, utilizando el esquema conocido como labranza de conservación. Este tipo de agricultura consiste en mover lo menos posible los suelos para que no pierdan sus propiedades ni se erosionen, incorpora los residuos de la cosecha anterior u otros abonos verdes para aumentar su contenido de nutrientes y capacidad de absorber agua, y maneja la rotación de cultivos para aumentar la agrobiodiversidad: dejar \"descansar al suelo\" del mismo cultivo y minimizar la incidencia de plagas y enfermedades.Convencido de los beneficios de la agricultura de conservación, Nelson toma su azadón y empieza a preparar delicadamente el suelo, que se ve de un color negro intenso.Los platos elaborados con papa chaucha amarilla, o más conocida como limeña, son parte del consumo diario de la comunidad. Usan este producto para todo tipo de preparados como sopas, papas hervidas, fritas, tortillas y la conocida papa dormida, que consiste en cortar las papas y freírlas.Es usual que acompañen los platos con una bebida caliente dulce, que bien puede ser un morocho, arroz de cebada o colada de machica. Cocine la papa en leña por cinco minutos. Si lo hace en una cocina a gas, recuerde que esta papa es de rápida cocción y debe poner atención para que no se pase. 2. Corte la cebolla, el pimiento verde en pedazos largos y el cilantro. Sofría junto con la manteca de chancho por dos minutos. 3. Agregue la papa cocinada y revuelva para que se mezcle de manera uniforme. Añada sal al gusto. 4. Prepare la fritada de acuerdo a su costumbre. Una receta tradicional es cocinar la carne de cerdo en agua hirviendo con condimentos varios como ajo y comino. Luego fría con la grasa del cerdo en una paila o sartén 5. Al momento de servir, puede acompañar con quesillo y arroz de cebada de dulce con leche. ","tokenCount":"7679"}

data/part_6/0089031415.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"32614ffa39e3ec1e0532c9d99af55e8b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f65ba52b-9c07-4ec3-bc34-14043bb4602a/retrieve","id":"-1094884193"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bd50c16e-a643-4709-bfbf-edbdadf9f054","pagecount":"13","content":"Over the last decades, sheep population in Tunisia has been increasing reaching over 6.5 million heads in 2016 (Ministry of agriculture, 2016) with the Barbarine sheep as the dominant breed. This fat tail breed has an adaptive capacity that allows animals to cope under harsh environmental and sub-optimal husbandry conditions (Ben Salem et al. 2011).In Tunisia, sheep population face many health challenges including parasitic infections such as toxoplasmosis (Gharbi et al. 2013), fasciolosis (Akkari et al., 2011), lungworms and gastrointestinal helminths (Akkari et al., 2012). Gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections affect the welfare and productivity of small ruminants and are responsible for huge economic losses (Waller, 1997a). These losses are consequent to decreases in weight, reduction in milk yield as well as wool and mortalities can occur (Soulsby, 1983). GIN infections are increased in regions where extensive grazing is practiced (Waller, 1997b). Haemonchus spp. is one of the major and the most prevalent abomasal nematodes of small ruminants (O'Connor et al., 2006) and its prevalence increases in countries of temperate regions (Van Dijk et al., 2008). Akkari et al. (2012) showed that, in North Tunisia, 45.5% of the parasite population were found in the abomasum, with the prevalence of Haemonchus contortus exceeding 35%. This parasite represents a major problem in most flocks as it has developed resistance against most available anthelmintic drugs.The existence of genetic variation amongst sheep and goats in resistance to GINs has been studied by many authors and it has been demonstrated in several situations that genetic improvement could offer a solution to control haemonchosis. Bishop (2011) describesresistance to infection as the host's ability to interact with parasite and control its lifecycle. In the case of nematode infections, probabilities of ingested larvae, parasite development within the host, parasite mortality, parasite fecundity and faecal egg count (FEC) are included in resistance.The study of nematode resistance is first based on phenotypic measurements. The main indicator used for resistance to GINs is FEC. Nematode resistance assessed by using FEC has a low to high heritability in small ruminants, ranging from 0.01 to 0.65 (Zvinorova et al., 2016).In addition to FEC, several indicator traits could be considered in resistance to nematodes. In fact, measurement of anemia can be used as indicator for resistance in animals infected with H. contortus. Anemia can be measured using packed cell volume (PCV) or Famacha score which are heritable in sheep (Baker et al., 2003;Mandonnet et al., 2006;Riley and Van Wyk, 2009).Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping can also be used to understand the resistance to parasites. This technique allows identification of candidate genomic regions. Microsatellite markers (Marshall et al., 2009), microarray and genome-wide association studies (Brown et al., 2013) were used in small ruminant breeds to identify genes implicated in the control of resistance. Some of the genes commonly implicated in immune response such as interferon gamma (Dervishi et al., 2011) and major histocompatibility complex loci (Hassan et al., 2011) were also shown to be involved in the genetic resistance to GIN. In addition, several QTL on different regions and chromosomes (OARs) have been reported by many authors (OAR1, 3, 6, 14, 20) (Beh et al., 2002;Dominik, 2005;Crawford et al., 2006;Davies et al., 2006;Matika et al., 2011;Salle et al., 2012). In few studies, some potential candidate genes were identified on OAR8 (Crawford et al., 2006), OAR13 (Beraldi et al., 2007), and OAR22 (Silva et al., 2012).In Africa, the resistance of the Red Massai breed has been demonstrated (Baker and Gray, 2004). In Tunisia, where GIN represent a huge problem, the genetic resistance to haemonchus contortus has never been studied. The aim of this work is to study the genetic resistance of the Barbarine sheep to Hemonchus contortus infestation. Phenotypic measurements (age, breed, origin, anthelmintic use, diarrhea, anemia, management type, hematological parameters, biochemical parameters, FEC and abundance of infestation) will be performed and will be compiled in a single phenotype database. Genome analysis will be carried out using the 600K SNP Chip which will provide a better resolution of the sheep genomic profiles.This study will be carried out in four districts (Tunis, Bizerte, Beja and Jendouba) in the North of Tunisia (Figure 1). The choice of the geographic area was based on a previous study (Akkari et al. 2012) targeting regions where gastrointestinal parasites, and particularly nematode infestation, represent one of the main constraints in small ruminants' production. Previous studies have shown that smallholder sheep farmers do not deworm their animals using anthelmintic-based products and because exposure is very high and sheep still manage to survive and produce in these environments. Therefore, the likelihood of finding individuals with some kind of resistance is relatively high.During August, September and October 2017, abomasa will be collected from 300 to 400 sheep, aged more than 6 months, from slaughterhouses located in the North of the country (Figure 1).Before slaughter, animals will be identified and blood samples collected in EDTA, heparin and dry tubes via jugular venipuncture. Fecal samples will also be collected from each animal.Information concerning age, sex and breed. The presence of diarrhea, anemia or other symptoms will be noted in the data sheet (Annex 1).Abomasa will be ligated at both ends then transported to the Laboratory of Parasitology at the National Veterinary School of Sidi Thabet (Tunisia) in cooler boxes. Larvae (L3) (both Haemonchus and other parasite species: Ostertargia and Trichostrongylus) will be collected from the abomasum. Parasites will be preserved in 70% ethanol until examination.The identification of gastrointestinal parasites will be made using a microscope equipped with eyepiece micrometer. Prevalence, intensity and abundance of infestation will be estimated as follows:Prevalence of infestation = 100 x number of infested sheep/number of examined sheep Infestation intensity = number of collected larvae/number of infested sheep Abundance of infestation = number of collected larvae/number of examined sheepThe following hematological parameters will be estimated for each animal: White blood cells (10 9 l -1 ), hematocrit (PCV) (%), red blood cell count (×10 12 m -1 ), hemoglobin (g d -1 ), Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) (fl), Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH) (pg), Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) (g dl -1 ), Red Blood Cell Distribution Width (RDW), Index of Red Blood Cells Distribution (IDR) (%), Platelets (10 9 l -1 ), Average Platelet Volume (VPM) (fl), Index of Platelets Distribution (IDP) and Plaquettocrite (Pct) (%) will be estimated using an Auto Hematology analyser BC-2800Vet® (ShenzenMindray Bio-Medical Electronics Co., Ltd, Hamburg, Germany).The presence and type of anemia will be recorded (Blood & Radostitis, 1989).Plasma will be recovered from the heparin tubes and used to estimate biochemical indicators: albumin (g/L) and total proteins (g/L) with a Random Access Clinical Autolyzer® (Dialab, Vienna, Austria).Fecal samples will be processed by flotation (McMaster Egg Counting Technique). Fecal Egg Count (FEC) will be performed on 5 g of feces using saturated solution and each egg counted representing 50 eggs. In order to identify eggs, coprocultures from each animal will be prepared and incubated at 22-25 •C for 7-10 days to provide third stage larvae (L3) which will be harvested by the Baermann technique. The composition of each coproculture will be examined by microscopically. The identification of fasciola and other gastro-intestinal parasites will be performed.Animal's DNA extraction DNA will be extracted from 300 µL of the blood of each sheep using the Wizard ® Genomic DNA purification kit (Promega, Madison, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions and stored at -20°C for genome analysis.DNA will be extracted from the collected H. contortus and other worms. After washing in PBS, worms will be ground with a pestle in liquid nitrogen in 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube. Proteinase K will be added and the mix will be incubated overnight at 56°C. DNA will then be extracted using Wizard ® Genomic DNA purification kit (Promega, Madison, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions then stored at -20°C until used.In order to verify the presence of piroplasms (Babesia and Theileria) and if anemia is only caused by gastrointestinal parasitism, Giemsa-stained blood smears will be examined under a microscope with immersion oil at 1000 magnification. For each slide, 50 microscopic fields will be examined.In addition, Catch-all primers (RLB-F and RLB-R) which detect Theileria spp. Babesia spp.and Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. pathogens will be used. Reactions were performed in 25 µl volume containing 1 x PCR buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 200 µM of each deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate, 0.125 µg of Taq hot start Ab, 0.1 U of Uracil DNA glycosylase, 25 pmol of each primer and 1.25 U of Super Taq DNA polymerase (Vivantis, Chino, CA, USA). Forty PCR cycles will be performed with a thermocycler (ESCO Swift MaxPro). Each cycle consist of a denaturing step of 1 min at 94°C, an annealing step of 1 min at 50°C, and an extension step of 1.5 min at 72°C. A final extension step of 10 min at 72°C will complete the program.This molecular technique will detect the presence of tick-borne pathogens in sampled animals.Blood, Feces and abomasa were collected from 304 animals belonging to mainly four breeds: Barbarine breed, the main sheep breed in the country which is at-tailed breed characterized by metabolic and digestive adaptations to the contrasting environmental conditions in Tunisia (Ben Salem et al. 2011), Queue fine de l'Ouest breed, Cross bred individuals between the two previous breeds and finally Noire de Thibar, mostly present in the North of the country. Age, sex and breed were recorded for each animal.All abomasa were opened along the greater curvature and the contents were washed into a bucket and then they were carefully examined for the presence of Haemonchus and other gastro intestinal worms. The counting of the parasites of each abomasum was realized, males were separated from females and will be used for morphological identification. All worms from each animal were preserved in 70% ethanol in order to be used for DNA extraction.The number of parasites in each abomasum of each animal was recorded in the database.Haemonchus parasites are already identified and the number of this species in each abomasum was recorded. For other gastrointestinal nematodes males are used for identification and the work is in progress.All hematological parameters (haematocrit (PCV), red blood cell count, haemoglobin, Mean Corpuscular Volume, Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin, Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration, Red Blood Cell Distribution Width, Index of Red Blood Cells Distribution, Platelets, Average Platelet Volume, Index of Platelets Distribution and Plaquettocrite (Pct) were estimated for each animal using an Auto Haematology analyser BC-2800Vet® (ShenzenMindray Bio-Medical Electronics Co., Ltd, Hamburg, Germany) and were recorded in the database.Albumin (g/L) and total proteins (g/L) were estimated with a Random Access Clinical Autolyzer® (Dialab, Vienna, Austria) and recorded in the database.The coproscopic survey was realized for each feces sample and qualitative coprology allowed identification of gastro intestinal eggs and other eggs which are Trichures, Cocidies, Nematodirus, Moneizia and pulmonary larvae. Quantitative corology examination allowed the counting of these eggs and this information is uploaded in the database.After dissection of the abomasa, 240 samples were collected from normal and affected tissues. Tissue samples were fixed in 10% formalin and processed for a routine histological examination. Samples will be stained with hematoxylin Eosine and examined under microscope for the presence of specific lesions. A correlation will be established between the infestation pattern and the microscopic lesions.Animal's DNA extraction DNA from the blood of each animal was extracted using the Wizard ® Genomic DNA purification kit (Promega, Madison, USA) according to the manufacturer's instructions and the concentration was measured using a Spectrophotometer. DNA concentration was recorded in the database. DNA was stored at -20°C for genome analysis.Parasite's DNA extraction will be done at the end of the step of the morphological identification.Catch-all PCR using RLB-F and RLB-R primers which detect Theileria spp. Babesia spp are yet to be carried out.The database on phenotyping indigenous sheep breeds for gastro-intestinal parasites concerned 304 sheep from 4 different breeds and several locations, all in the North of Tunisia. Compilation of the database has now well progressed and should be finalized soon. In summary, phenotyping includes information related to each individual animal which are age, breed, origin, anthelmintic use, slaughter reason, feeding scheme, diarrhea, anemia, management type (grazing, grazing and supplementation, intensive), hematological parameters, biochemical parameters, fecal egg count, abundance of infestation and existence of parasite-induced lesions in the abomasa. DNA, for genome analysis using the 600K SNP Chip, was extracted from the blood of each sheep and first data on genotyping should be made available in 2018. ","tokenCount":"2051"}

data/part_6/0090347379.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d609e8298b2e3ecd1652ceb9572ef439","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/77413884-d12d-4e4e-a84b-73abc7479949/retrieve","id":"1060874602"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"022c42ad-efc7-42e7-82a7-d83e2caf1b5c","pagecount":"26","content":"• Carbon Dioxide (CO2): CO2 is the most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted by human activities.-It is primarily released through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas for energy production, transportation, and industrial processes. • Methane (CH4): Methane is a potent greenhouse gas with a higher warming potential than CO2 over a shorter time frame.-It is emitted from various sources, including livestock digestion, agricultural practices, natural gas production and distribution, and the decay of organic waste in landfills. • Nitrous Oxide (N2O): N2O is released from agricultural and industrial activities, as well as the burning of fossil fuels and solid waste. • The IPCC assesses GHG emission, atmospheric CO2 conc., develops emissions scenarios to explore different trajectories of future GHG emissions and their potential impacts on climate change.-Help policymakers and researchers understand the range of possible futures based on different socioeconomic and technological pathways.• Energy Sector: 35% to 75% of global CO2-equivalent emissions, includes Electricity and Heat Production, fossil Fuel Combustion (coal mining, oil and gas extraction)• Industry: Contributes to around 20% to 30% of global emissions. This sector encompasses emissions from manufacturing processes, cement production, and chemical industries.• Transportation: Road Vehicles: Contribute to around 14 to 24 % of global CO2-equivalent emissions.• Livestock Sector: Contributes to roughly 14% to 18% of global emissions. This includes emissions from enteric fermentation (digestive processes) in ruminant animals (such as cows and sheep), manure management, and other livestock-related activities.• Agriculture (Non-Livestock): Contributes to about 7% to 14% of global emissions. This sector includes emissions from rice cultivation, synthetic fertilizer use, crop residue burning, and other agricultural practices excluding livestock• Residential and Commercial Buildings: Contributes to approximately 6% to 17% of global emissions. Emissions arise from energy use for heating, cooling, lighting, and appliances in residential and commercial buildings.• Waste Management: Contributes to around 2% to 5% of global emissions. Emissions mainly come from the decomposition of organic waste in landfills and the release of methane gas.• Productivity:-Improved livestock breeds that are more productive and resilient to climate stresses -Implementing sustainable intensification practices • Adaptation:-Climate change is already impacting agricultural systems worldwide, and adaptation measures are necessary to build resilience and minimize the negative impacts -Developing climate-resilient livestock breeds that are better adapted to changing climatic conditions. -Enhancing early warning systems and climate information services to support farmers • Mitigation:-Improving livestock breeding/management practices to reduce enteric fermentation and manure-related methane emissions -Genetic selection for lower emission, feed efficiency and lower methane production per feed intake -Improved feeding practices to reduce methane emission   ration of maternal permanent environmental effects to the total phenotypic variance; h 2 t total heritability; r am genetic correlation between direct and maternal additive heritability; σ am .covariance between direct and maternal additive genetic effect; CV A additive coefficient of variance; Log (L) log Likelihood. BW: birth weight, WW: weaning weight, 6MW: six months weight, YWT: yearling weight ADG1: average daily gain from birth to weaning, ADG2: average daily gain from weaning to six months, ADG3: daily gain from six months to yearling.  ","tokenCount":"506"}

data/part_6/0091453669.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a164e456313cc66ae3bc5533c21f6bcd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b493ec0-642e-4752-91aa-ed67640e5b34/retrieve","id":"311764753"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0ecec02-446c-49c2-a1ad-1fb9af28178d","pagecount":"2","content":"The hubs are demand driven units and provide intelligence and technical backstopping to farming communities, national and international research programs, development actors, seed companies and policy decision-makers, on resilient seed systems tools, methods, information sources, data management, policy design and compliance with applicable regulations and agreements. Functions include: facilitating establishment of new links among interested seed system actors; support research and training; develop and maintain a digital seed knowledge portal; develop harmonized principles/agreements and policies.• Guidance on enhancing institutional capacities and enabling conditions for scaling food and nutrition security under climate change is disseminated and policy dialogues held in selected countries","tokenCount":"101"}

data/part_6/0100820480.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"bbb3e1d6833ad0a202d337e74a1a228e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/336d402e-a6aa-4911-8dee-cec8be6923db/retrieve","id":"-59294014"},"keywords":["Livestock production","silvopastoral systems","soil macrofauna","soil quality indicators"],"sieverID":"5e2943bf-6009-4fa1-bebf-e1ea3e3e4c4a","pagecount":"2","content":"Silvopastoral systems (SPS) are an environmentally and economically beneficial alternative to single grass systems for livestock production. The incorporation of trees, especially legumes, in pastures has been shown to have several positive effects on soil properties and nutrient cycling, while creating a favourable microclimate for the animals and increasing the productivity (i.e. milk and meat). The inclusion of legumes or legume-trees in the pastures systems leads to improved nutrient cycling and increased biological activity creating fertility islands within the SPS. Soil macrofauna has been considered as bioindicator of soil quality because of the direct effect on soil properties and on soil organic matter fragmentation and nutrient dynamics. The present study was performed in an experimental block designed (n=3) (silvo)pastoral trial located at CIAT (Colombia) and aimed to evaluate the effect of the inclusion of the herbaceous legume (Canavalia brasiliensis) and both herbaceous and shrub legume (Leucaena leucocephala) respect to the Brachiaria cv. Cayman monoculture on a set of biological and physical parameters. We measured the abundance and diversity of soil macrofauna, macroaggregate morphology and soil aggregation, as well as their spatial heterogeneity in relation to the trees in the SPS. Soil samples were collected at three different distances from the Leucaena doble-row as follows: i) between the rows, ii) at 1.5 m and iii) 5.5 m from the trees. Results obtained showed that the inclusion of legumes has a positive effect on soil macrofauna with the highest abundance found at 1.5 m distance from Leucaena. On the contrary, reduction of total abundance was found around the trees corresponding to higher soil compaction areas probably due to the animal grazing preference and search for shade. This phenomenon was reflected in higher proportion of physicogenic aggregates and lower amount of large water-stable macroaggregates. In addition to increased productivity of legume-based pastures and the potential to sustain higher densities of animals, our results highlight the importance of an integrated evaluation of spatial heterogeneity within SPS and discuss possible consequences for the management of trade-offs. Multivariate statistics of forthcoming data will reveal possible role of soil macrofauna as a reliable soil quality indicator.","tokenCount":"349"}

data/part_6/0101920677.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6764f64e55c4d13d8fa4595d39dbf301","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/410a8b8a-01fd-4845-9f37-5456072e2ce4/retrieve","id":"1376636143"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a759616-8acc-498f-9d55-73ef786377e2","pagecount":"4","content":"CEA) is the production of plants, fish, insects or animals inside structures, such as greenhouses and buildings, in controlled conditions. In a rapidly urbanizing world, CEA can contribute to sustainable development, e.g. through reduced use of land, water and inputs. There is a need for innovation in policy, technology and business practices to scale up CEA in the Global South sustainably and equitably.n Economic agencies should invest in development of supply chains to support CEA, including growing media, equipment and seeds, and postharvest infrastructure such as cold storage, throughfor example -business support and mentoring, business incubators and tax breaks.n Regional and national governments should form public-private partnerships (PPPs) for the development of regional CEA clusters or tech hubs, enabling growers to share experiences, innovations and information, leverage economies of scale, and market collectively.n National and local governments should acknowledge CEA as a viable form of agriculture and design policy innovations to promote the sector, including in agriculture development policy; land use and planning policy; economic development and employment plans; and import regulations.n Technology developers should dedicate R&D spend to trialing their inventions with growers in low and lower-middle income countries, to ensure they are optimized for these contexts and to provide access to new, environmentally safe, developments as early as possible.The challenge: CEA needs to be a force for sustainable and equitable development For CEA to be a viable option for people from less affluent backgrounds, financial institutions including banks, micro-finance institutions and parastatal agricultural finance agencies should invest in people as well as equipment by designing innovative debt financing models for entry-level, small-scale CEA practitioners. These may include:n Provision of equipment to set up operations, as well as provision of welfare and living costs over an initial period, so that new starters can cover everyday expenses n A payback period that is customized to CEA growing cycles with repayments beginning after the activity starts to be profitable n In cases of contract farming, three-party agreements between lenders, borrowers and buyers, with the latter guaranteeing a market for the borrowers' produce.Grant-making bodies, NGOs and commercial financial institutions that work in Africa and Asia should promote research and innovation through dedicated CEA agribusiness/agripreneur programs and incubators under their agricultural development programs. These may include preferential grant or loan schemes that are tailored to the needs of women, young people and applicants from disadvantaged social groups.Opening CEA to people from a range of backgrounds and socio-economic groups will promote poverty reduction and provision of viable livelihoods for people who currently lack economic opportunities.In addition, locally appropriate CEA techniques should be included in educational programs at all levels, from elementary school to agricultural universities. The installation of demonstration gardens could provide produce for the local community, as well as enable students to develop valuable STEM (science, technology, engineering and math) skills, and increase the pool of potential employees for CEA businesses as they scale up, expand or replicate in new locations.The self-organization of CEA practitioners into associations or cooperatives (local, regional or national), if necessary with help from development organizations and NGOs, can enable peer-to-peer support, facilitate valuechain development (ensuring availability of inputs and equipment), and allow practitioners to collectively identify their needs and lobby their governments to address them.It can also optimize their access to investors who are unable to deal with individuals.Organization may also be formal, through PPPs for the development of regional CEA clusters or tech hubs where growers can work collectively or in close proximity, sharing experiences and information (e.g. on optimal technologies or disease management), leveraging economies of scale on equipment and inputs, and marketing collectively.Clusters require significant investment in infrastructure (structures, water, etc.), innovative mechanisms to make public or private land available, and incentives for growers to move to the area (tax reduction for initial periods, business support, etc.).Another formal support mechanism is the provision of CEA training by agriculture departments, tailored to specific local needs, regularly updated to include emerging technologies so that the latest knowledge reaches people in low and lower-middle income countries.Agricultural extension services should ensure agents are knowledgeable in CEA techniques so they can identify problems post-setup and know how to help. New, innovative extension models may also be developed to facilitate knowledge exchange between early adopters and extension officers, as well as formalize direct peer-topeer exchange between early adopters and new starters.Collectivity and dedicated support mechanisms will benefit individual CEA practitioners by helping them to overcome operational hurdles and reducing the risk of failure. These mechanisms will stimulate development of the sector as a whole, from vertical farms in slums to hightech container or rooftop farming.At the local level, zoning ordinances and urban agriculture regulations should include specifications on CEA so that there is clarity on what is permitted and where. CEA may also be integrated into spatial design and building codes.At the national and regional levels, governments can create an enabling environment for CEA adoption and mainstreaming through policy innovations in several areas. For example:n Agricultural policy can advance mainstreaming of CEA, through funding provision and extension capacity n Food security and nutrition strategies can recognize the contribution of CEA, especially for ensuring local supply that is less vulnerable to disruptions and promoting year-round stable prices n Employment strategies may recognize and promote employment opportunities in CEA, including the need to develop suitable skillsets for all supply chain roles n Land use policy can acknowledge CEA as a legitimate activity, removing any barriers to land access accordingly.In addition, national governments should develop evidence-based industry standards and regulations, through cooperation between relevant government departments, the private sector and NGOs to ensure they are conducive, relevant and appropriate. These will enable farmers to plan their activities and support a good reputation for the sector. Early development of standards and regulations will pre-emptively discourage harmful or fraudulent practices and help to avoid excessive or punitive regulations in the future.Regulatory standards on the nutrients required in hydroponic growing should be used as a reference for customs inspections to avoid unwarranted import bans or tariff inconsistency. The removal of several regulatory barriers to CEA in a concerted, integrated way will create an enabling environment for practitioners to operate close to urban markets and access inputs, training, extension support and human resources.There is a need for ongoing research into CEA techniques to minimize energy consumption and costs, and reduce use of synthetic or environmentally unfriendly inputs, while optimizing efficiency. As optimal techniques will vary depending on local context, such research should be carried out by local and/or international universities and agricultural research centers in partnership with local CEA growers, and funded by public institutions.The inclusion of CEA in the official overseas trade and development programs of (high income) countries with strong CEA sectors is an innovation that would encourage private CEA companies and technology developers to invest in new (low and lower-middle income) markets, where their solutions can be adapted and adopted to suit the local contexts. This may include dedication of R&D spend to trials of new inventions by African and Asian practitioners to ensure they meet their needs and environmental regulations, and to provide access to new developments as early as possible (especially equipment to monitor or survey crops, and equipment for post-harvest processing and cold storage to reduce food waste and environmental footprint).Where equipment costs cannot be reduced to be immediately affordable by small-scale producers in Africa and Asia, technology companies could help by devising hire-purchase schemes that would enable operators of limited means to access equipment immediately.CEA is not a silver bullet for food security or agrifood system sustainability or equity. It is unlikely to replace open field agriculture, nor render urban areas self-sufficient in fresh produce, but as a form of urban farming it has potential to complement rural systems' ability to deliver fresh produce and niche commodities, for both low-end and high-end customers. With increased awareness, innovative forms of targeted investment, and supportive policies, the application of optimal, appropriate CEA techniques in each context can transform livelihoods and environmental outcomes and contribute to urban diets.Huge technological advances on how to grow food close to consumers, where land is in short supply and conditions are inhospitable, must be made available to communities that stand most to benefit from them.A small but growing number of entrepreneurs are taking up CEA in urban and peri-urban areas across Africa and Asia. These pioneers often learn techniques by watching YouTube videos and apply them using a trial-and-error approach. They are generous with their knowledge, running free or affordable training courses and building their own communities of practitioners from the ground up. These pioneers, their protégés, and the sector as a whole would benefit from the concerted efforts of multiple actors to remove entry barriers and ensure operational viability of CEA, and to promote CEA cultivation of local crops that are accessible and affordable to all. For more information, see the full report at: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/117234Supported by:","tokenCount":"1479"}

data/part_6/0108471149.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a3776bae3f7368d7c37f0e59a6352197","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a2d454e7-ce96-47dd-8ed3-26b2238d0a91/retrieve","id":"2104252635"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6eec970b-e242-4bbc-9f67-40d1dc811f80","pagecount":"14","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture, and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.Egerton University, a member university of the Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM), held an engagement meeting with Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions on 6 th May 2022. The meeting was held under the auspices of the University-TVET forum. This forum sought to enhance the collaboration and working partnership between universities and TVET institutions to strengthen the education value chain. The University-TVET forum is part of an arrangement championed under the RUFORUM's Transforming African Agricultural Universities to meaningfully contribute to Africa's growth and development (TAGDev) programme.The Forum was convened with four objectives;To identify areas of comparative advantage for each ATVET institutionTo identify areas of complementation between Egerton University and TVET institutions •To strategize the modalities for capacity building and co-creation o • f curricula in climate-smart agriculture and entrepreneurship.To explore the participation of universities in the curriculum review and accreditation process to be undertaken by TVET institutions.The Forum was introduced to the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project (https://aiccra.cgiar.org/), a CGIAR initiative currently coordinated by the Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT (https://alliancebioversityciat.org/). The AICCRA project seeks to build up the technical, institutional, and human capacity of targeted regional countries to strengthen resilience to climate change impacts by increasing the dissemination and uptake of CGIAR and partners' research. Through this initiative, the CGIAR will focus its interventions in Kenya, Ethiopia, Zambia, Senegal, Ghana, and Mali with a regional benefit through the RUFORUM for higher education institutions.RUFORUM is one of the implementing partners to the AICCRA project with a focus on higher education institutions for implementing climate-smart agriculture, including; designing and reviewing courses to integrate climate-smart agriculture and information services. RUFORUM, in collaboration with Egerton University, has strategically focused on engaging the ATVETs because of their central role in training the middle cadre agricultural workers that are central to the delivery of agricultural extension services. Secondly, ATVETs are critical players in influencing the adoption of various agricultural technologies, innovations, and management practices among farming communities.The four institutions that responded were Baraka Agricultural College started in 1974 as a farmers training place. It responded to the lack of skills as the white farmers were going back. The St. Franciscan Brothers were given complete authority. The Franciscan brothers were originally from Ireland, Piggery.The purpose of the training was to sell seeds to different farmers; this enabled the institution to be known by other farmers. During the recruitment, it provided the opportunity to get farmers from Baringo and Nakuru. Baringo is a bit dry, but some areas receive rain. They took the approach of engaging other agencies to help with recruitment. They focused on communities/persons that are marginalized. Identified the activities that the youth were involved in and looked out for the people with the motive.Six weeks of training worked on the expectations of the farmers. This enabled the focus of the first two weeks on the foundations of sustainable agriculture. The skills included: Understanding the resources and their sources, understanding the changing circumstances/conditions, handling the soils, including identifying good soils through soil sampling and management of soils. Another skill was terracing because of the hilly locations. Through this, they are able to help the communities.Knowledge of crops, with a focus on requirements for vegetable production; they were taught how to make compost for cropping so that they could begin to appreciate and use it. Other skills imparted were fruit identification against climatic conditions, seeds identification, sowing, potting, nursery management, managing fruits and diseases, harvesting, and post-harvest handling, especially processing farm produce in plenty. Milk and the production of yogurt are aimed at job creation. Fruit juice making to cater to the plenty of fruit harvest. Beekeeping skills include; siting of the apiary and the type of bee hives used.Selected enterprises based on time are dairy, poultry, and beekeeping. Further, it extended to feed formulation that applies to dairy, poultry and fish farming. Skills gained include Slaughtering. Feed conversation; silage making and haymaking, developing a formula, their own formula, and feeding regimes. Selection of different livestock enterprises based on market demand. Further, how to identify each animal based on need. Disease control and basics on treatment. Constructing houses for different livestock. Establishing different pastures and management. They were trained in the inspection of the meat. Land preparation for pastures, e.g., Brachiaria, etc. Breeding/reproduction skills were taught to get the trainees to appreciate basic issues such as; timely breeding records keeping, value addition, including how to produce cheese, value addition of carcass, fodder trees and intensification of fodder production. Heifer inspection, entrepreneurship, processing of honey and how to market. Entrepreneurship in terms of how to start their businesses, managing the business, cost-benefit advisory and then marketing.Income generating unit (generate income for the college's sustainability, units are resource units for trainees, brand the college through the products that the college produces). The farm is the main resource centre; upgrading of facilities used on the farm. Earlier, there was a curriculum developed through RUFORUM support focusing on piggery. For the curriculum to be offered, the facilities needed to be upgraded to a level acceptable to enable quality training; this has not yet been done. Similarly, the dairy unit needed an upgrade, e.g., silage slab, cow handling structure with slurry pit. Development of basic seed production facility because potato seed has a high demand that team is currently unable to meet the demand. The team further seeks to work on the tissue culture facility to multiply the basic seed. This will enable them to expand their production capacity from this year's 5 acres level. In addition, there was a need to enhance irrigation capacity within the college because the irrigation system was lacking. Accordingly, with support from the EU, the college has constructed a rainwater-harvesting pond, from which the water for irrigation will be obtained. The college has also moved towards operationalizing its green energy; this was deemed necessary by adopting solar for lighting and bio-digesters for biogas.The college undertakes an outreach program to contribute to increased food security, income, and environmental sustainability of rural communities. The college worked in three sub-counties. Activities focused on; water provision through the drilling and rehabilitation of boreholes and distributing water in a radius of 10 km and trained water community management committees. Capacity building in diversified food options among 650 households such that; 30% of these households have realized a reduction in household expenditure and 30% increase in household income. Further, the college has been involved in capacity building on nutrition and value addition. The outreach programme also trained smallholder farmers in entrepreneurship and savings. Capacity building on climate resilience within beekeeping as a flagship intervention around the Lakes and wildlife conservation areas (Lake Nakuru National Park), and the provision of energysaving devices such as the local cook stoves (jikos). Beyond agriculture and income, the outreach programme also involved public health education, sanitation and hygiene in parts of Kisii Ndogo, focusing on ending open free defecation. Other cross-cutting issues; in post-election leadership, conflict resolution, and peacebuilding.Avenues available for supporting Baraka college moving forward include; upgrading facilities, capacity building of staff from diploma to degree and degree to master, and capacity building in pedagogy to enhance teaching skills. Further support for curriculum development for levels 3, 4, and 6 and upgrading of science laboratory, including soil testing. They are establishing online learning systems since they are lacking and upgrading the online system and library.Baraka college has been engaged in CSA activities. The courses and activities that are CSA enabled include:• Organic farming; promoting practices such as controlled compositing, bio-fertilizers, biogas production • Tree planting; promoting action for carbon sequestration, and multipurpose trees for income enhancement • Apiculture-bee keeping; promoting environmental conversation/carbon sequestration, zero emissions production, and enhanced ecosystem services • Circular Organic waste management • Integrated pest management • Irrigation and water harvesting • Fish farming • Weather station for climate data collection • Value addition Some CSA-enabled courses include; Sustainable Agriculture for Rural Development (SARD), Apiculture, and modular training. Approach-short courses and outreach on apiculture, SARD, and Soil conservation. Baraka college further seeks to develop level 3, 4, and 6 courses.Baraka college team identified a number of gaps within its institution, including; limited digital competency for forecasting and early detection systems for weather/climate information and limited exploitation of CSA methods in animal production, e.g., vermiculture. Further, it was noted that CSA methods were not as effective as the conventional production approaches and were not competitive economically and practically. There were low adoption rates of CSAs because they are labor intensive and have low automation. There was a lack of premium pricing for products produced using CSA approaches and a limited innovation ecosystem around CSA.However, there were possible areas universities could work with TVETs/Baraka to address the gaps; they include;• Research and innovation • Capacity development in areas of weather and climate information • Funding for capacity development of staff and infrastructureThe Dairy Training Institute (DTI) has been engaged in CSA/I with several activities that included tree planting, circular economy through using fertilizers from animals, putting up solar panels, and engaging in value addition of produce.DTI has had several curricula that were CSA-enabled. These included:• Dairy production and processing (Diploma)• Dairy production and management (certificate) The meeting with ATVETs concluded with identifying a number of gaps that affected the pace at which CSA in their institutions is implemented as well as its adoption. These include:• Limited digital competency in forecasting and early detection systems for weather and climate information, lack of skills for accurately collecting, analyzing and interpreting climate data, and making use of an advanced source of climate information and services • Limited use of modern climate-smart agriculture practices such as vermiculture • Low adoption rates for CSA practices largely because they tend to be labor intensive and limited automation and have low returns on investment in large areas compared to the conventional approaches when deployed • A lack of a premium price on the market for products produced using CSA approachesThe ATVETs recommended that there were several areas of convergence for collaboration with universities in the field of climate-smart agriculture, including:• Capacity building of staff through the training of trainers in various aspects, including climate information services access, modern CSA practices, long and short-term specialized trainings for increasing the skills of staff, and skills in competitive proposals development for resource mobilization • Support for infrastructure improvement for advancing a circular economy. ","tokenCount":"1753"}

data/part_6/0139733124.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dc941c40c0c119abe224fa6acb8d0dc6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5e99784-f806-4f79-be0f-e7df275a1de8/retrieve","id":"1187391601"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"56381c5b-d422-43e0-baab-31e248c34c55","pagecount":"5","content":"Food Systems Actors engaged in the cocreation of agroecological innovations -Results of Year 2 engagement Simone Staiger-Rivas, Guillermo Orjuela Alliance Bioversity -CIATThe CGIAR initiative on Agroecology is actively engaging with food system actors (FSA) in eight countries (Burkina Faso, India, Kenya, Lao PDR, Peru, Senegal, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe), particularly to codesign, test, and adapt agroecological innovations, both technological and institutional, from food production to consumption. At the core is the necessity to generate scientific evidence that shows how agroecological principles applied in different socio-ecological systems are better able to provide equity, productivity, economic and environmental benefits than alternatives, including the status quo.The engagement takes place in Agroecological Living Landscapes (ALLs) that are formed in selected territories of each country with diverse stakeholders, including farmer associations or communities, researchers from multiple disciplines, extensionists, private companies, international and national nongovernmental organizations as well as local, regional, and national policymakers. The establishment of ALLs does not follow a standard methodology: Each country's context leads to a different agroecological transition pathway(s) and multi stakeholder approaches.The engagement of food system actors is addressed in the monitoring, evaluation, learning and impact assessment (MELIA) component of the initiative. Country teams collect and report data quarterly based on the following definitions: FSA are defined as private sector agents, policymakers, and female and male smallscale farmers, researchers, communities, investors. They engage with the initiative when they participate in meetings and activities that aim at assessing, co-designing and testing agroecological innovations at farm, market and policy levels. The co-creation process consists in FSA working together and having an equal voice in the activities that aim at developing culturally relevant innovations. Agroecological innovations in turn are of technological and institutional nature and concern the broad range of Agroecological principles (HLPE, 2019). This summary analyzes the data from 2022, and data collected from January to October 2023. It includes seven countries, the data from Senegal missing as it is the latest country to join the Initiative. A report covering all eight countries and the entire two-year span will be published early 2024.Technical ReportTo date, a total of 4,398 FSA has been engaged.Most Initiative outcome targets are already achieved or close to be achieved. The proposed target statement intends 225 national and international researchers to collaborate with FSAs -at least 5,500 farmers, 54 policymakers, 25 private-sector companies-in the co-design and testing of context-specific agroecological innovations (Figure 1). The initiative is effectively engaging the private sector and policymakers and will most probably surpass its targets. The gender balance is almost equal with 49.7% female versus 50.27% male FSA engaged, although with variability between countries. Zimbabwe has engaged the highest number of FSA, followed by Tunisia, India, and Kenya. With respect to gender, India, Kenya and Zimbabwe have engaged more female FSA than male.In total, 42% of the FSA engaged are female, 58% are male (Figure 2). Engaging men and women in the development of innovations enables to address the limitations of the adoption of innovations according to gender, as well as to adapt technologies to different users. Farmers have been engaged in all work packages: To no surprise farmers have been massively engaged in the formation of the ALLs and the decision on the agroecological innovations to be tested (WP1), but they have also been part not only on technical solutions but also on the socio-political dimensions beyond the farm level that are needed to positively affect food systems. of agroecological assessments (WP2), the analysis of value chains (WP3), the discussions on suitable policy and institutional arrangements for AE transitions (WP4) and they participated in exercises to understand the behavioral change contexts.Further analysis of FSA typology with WP and country leads will inform strategies to achieve WP outcomes.A closer look at the country data will help to analyze which FSA are or could be critical to make AE transitions a reality. While the Initiative has targets related to the number of FSA engaged, the intensity of engagement (in several WPs, and in several stages of co-creation) will be further analyzed. Key Takeaways Engagement of food system actors has a key element in the effective pursuit of results and the success of the Agroecology initiative. FSA engaged have been a constant pursuit that reflects the motivational environment during the implementation phase and has been manifested through various affective and social processes through the different work packages of the initiative. The initiative has successfully improved engagement among stakeholders at the farmer, producer organization, and policy levels. This aligns with the recommendations from agroecology research, which underscores the importance of fostering links between actors at various levels for the success of agroecology as a science and a practice.The varied contexts of this initiative's implementation demonstrate that agroecology does not have a singular point of entry. In some countries, the focus has been primarily on collaborating with policymakers, whereas in others, it has been on working with producer organizations. Identifying key players within a community also enables the leveraging of its social capital for the expansion of agroecology. ","tokenCount":"830"}

data/part_6/0141596176.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"09882e3f6769773a059a7ed7ab8a389f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/28cf4cf8-de70-4f08-acdd-e201e71d9682/retrieve","id":"938632941"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0b97dd12-6f40-4568-851d-df61063cd5fb","pagecount":"1","content":"• Selection of the field with careful study on cropping / disease history. • Avoid maize planting, where neighbor field is with older maize crop with suspected MLN symptomatic plants. 2 Preparation of Field 3 Use of Certified -MLN disease free seeds 4 Use of Clean / disinfected farm tools and equipments 5 Scouting, rouging, and clean crop cultivation 6 Managing insect vectors 7 Rouging and incinerating infected plant parts 8 Crop rotation and Host free period• Use only certified seeds produced in MLN free areas for each growing season • Avoid using grain as seeds, and seeds from previous infected maize plants or fields.• Clean farm equipment/tools using disinfectants before and after use to eliminate MLN virus contamination.• Monitor the field every week for presence of insect vector population. A high insect vector population increases chances of MLN infection. • Maintain a clean farm by removing grasses, weeds and other alternative hosts from fields.• Scout weekly for MLN viral symptoms for early detection and control of insect vectors. Uproot MLN symptomatic plants and destroy them through burning. • Do not feed MLN-infected plants to livestock, such as cattle.• Control of insect vectors can be done using recommended insecticides (once every 1-2 weeks). • Spray insecticides either in the morning or evening but not in hot and windy period. Before roguing plants, spray systemic insecticides.• Practice crop rotation for at least one season by growing noncereal crops preferably legumes (beans, soybean and peas). The CGIAR Plant Health Initiative will continue to focus on mitigating the threat of MLN in sub-Saharan Africa through partnerships with national and regional partners on:1. Monitoring and surveillance of MLN by the NPPOs. 2. Implementing an integrated disease management strategy, including MLN-free commercial seed production and deployment, and promoting awareness of farming communities on MLN and its management. ","tokenCount":"302"}

data/part_6/0148347666.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"900d23b4aec712c95b6f0d9210334eb1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a8a2d9d-95c7-45a7-bc1e-0a1bc34f323b/retrieve","id":"1231618023"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4b465fa0-8a1a-4fb8-9219-0cf9dcdde4fc","pagecount":"36","content":"Climatic changes linked to global warming are already having a devastating impact on the lives and livelihoods of farmers and rural communities across the ACP regions. Current climate projections suggest this impact will worsen. Reducing agriculture's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, while also increasing productivity in a sustainable way is the challenge that lies ahead.World religious and political leaders -from Pope Francis to President Barack Obama -are calling for action against climate change to avoid catastrophic consequences, particularly for the poor. How these calls will result in a comprehensive climate deal in December 2015 in Paris remains to be seen. Smallholder farmers in developing countries are likely to be hardest hit by climate change due to agriculture's vulnerability to extreme weather patterns and the low level of resilience of farming to climate variability and change.The good news is that innovative approaches are being developed to meet this challenge. One of these approaches, climatesmart agriculture (CSA), aims to increase farm productivity and incomes in a sustainable manner, enable farmers to adapt and build resilience to climate change and, where possible, reduce greenhouse gas emissions.To make CSA work, farmers and government decision-makers need support. First, they need reliable information to identify proven solutions to climate change and make informed decisions. Secondly, cooperation among institutions is essential to develop and disseminate best practices and promote conducive policies for CSA.CTA has been playing an active role in a number of partnerships and alliances to support farmers and policymakers. It is an active member of the Global Alliance for CSA, which seeks to enable 500 million farmers to practise CSA by 2030. CTA also facilitates the identification of solutions and sharing of knowledge among farmers and other key players by helping them to document proven practices, tools or policies that promote resilience to climate change. For example, through the use of participatory 3-D mapping, CTA and its partners have assisted local communities to identify their vulnerabilities to climate change and develop solutions to address them.As the climate changes, agriculture needs to transform so that it becomes more profitable, sustainable and resilient. The smallholder farmers and producers who face the hard realities of the impacts of climate change on their livelihoods want practical solutions that work for them and their families. The agriculture and climate communities should not fail them.hilst the climate has changed over the millennia mankind has been on the earth, there is increasing evidence that the world is experiencing climate change on a scale never previously known in human history. Whilst not all climate change impacts are projected to be negative and there will be some regions where beneficial impacts are projected -for many regions, global warming will bring about a decrease in annual and seasonal rainfall, more erratic weather patterns and more intense and frequent extreme weather events, including heatwaves, droughts, storms and floods. Lower relative humidity due to decreased rainfall will favour increased insect vectors and viruses, whilst higher relative humidity due to increased rainfall will favour increased bacterial and fungal infection. Human migration due to environmental pressures is also likely to accelerate.In the oceans, increasing temperatures, acidification and changing currents will impact on fisheries (see p 8, Changing the climate of fisheries in the Pacific); rising sea levels are already leading to salt water intrusion and loss of available land in small islands (see p 23, Responding to climate change), and many other coastal areas. Climate change will also impact on livestock production through heat-induced stress and reduced water availability, as well as changes in availability, quality and prices of fodder (see p 10, Building resilience in Caribbean livestock farming).To meet the needs of the world's expanding population, which is projected to be 9 billion by 2050, farmers will have to produce more; this task will be made all the more difficult by climate change. Even a 2°C rise -which is the median projection (see p 7 -Table 1) will lead to dramatic changes in agricultural productivity and water availability. The added challenge is to produce more but in ways that will protect the environment, especially soil and water, whilst minimising agriculture's contribution to climate change. Indeed, whilst many still regard agriculture as a 'victim' of climate change, the impact of agriculture itself on global warming cannot be overlooked.Around 14% of human-generated greenhouse gases are estimated to come directly from agriculture; for example, almost half of all methane and nearly 60% of nitrous oxide emissions are generated by agricultural activities, including livestock production, and fertiliser and pesticide applications. A further 18% of greenhouse gases come from land use changes (e.g. clearance of forests for crops and pasture), soil erosion or machineintensive farming methods, which also contribute to increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Reducing agriculture's carbon footprint is therefore an important consideration to limiting climate change. And to help ensure food security, farmers across the globe will probably need to switch to more climate-hardy crop varieties or even change the crops they grow, as well as their farming practices.Action that helps offset the effects of climate change. For example, the construction of barriers to protect against rising sea levels, or conversion to crops or crop varieties capable of surviving high temperatures and drought.Climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions resulting from human activity as opposed to natural processes.Scenario used for projections of future emissions assuming no action, or no new action, is taken to mitigate the problem.Occurs naturally and is also a by-product of human activities such as burning fossil fuels. It is the principal greenhouse gas produced by human activity.The process of converting CO 2 gas into a solid form, for example when trees convert CO 2 into biomass (wood, leaves, roots etc.).The steady rise in global average surface atmospheric temperatures, which experts believe is linked to greenhouse gas emissions resulting from human activity.Natural and industrial gases that trap heat from the Earth, warming the surface. The Kyoto Protocol restricts emissions of six GHGs: natural (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane) and industrial (perfluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, and sulphur hexafluoride).The insulating effect of certain gases in the atmosphere, which allow solar radiation to warm the Earth and then prevent some of the heat from escaping. The second most important GHG. Sources include the natural world (wetlands, termites, wildfires) and human activity (crop production, livestock rearing, waste dumps, leaks from coal mining).Action that will reduce human contributions to climate change, including action to reduce GHG emissions and levels of GHGs in the atmosphere.An important GHG. About 80% of the global emissions of nitrous oxide come from the agricultural sector, largely from soils which have been ameliorated with organic and inorganic nitrogen fertiliser.When CO 2 dissolves in seawater, carbonic acid is formed. Carbon emissions in the industrial era have already lowered the pH of seawater by 0.1. Ocean acidification decreases the ability of marine organisms to build their shells and skeletal structures and kills off coral reefs.Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation, a concept that provides developing countries with a financial incentive to preserve forests.Is a threshold for change, which, when reached, results in a process that is difficult to reverse. Scientists say it is urgent that policymakers halve global CO 2 emissions over the next 50 years or risk triggering climatic changes that could be irreversible.The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change aims to prevent \"dangerous\" human interference with the climate system. It entered into force on 21 March 1994 and has been ratified by 192 countries.OCTOBER 2015 | SPORE SPECIAL ISSUE |However, climate change does not occur in the same way and with the same impact across ACP regions and the adaptation and mitigation responses required will also be different. For example, about 90% of the sub-Saharan African population depends on rainfed agriculture for food production and, according to the latest IPCC report, could result in decreased crop yields of 18% for southern Africa to 22% across sub-Saharan Africa. At the same time, Africa's population continues to grow; annual growth is estimated at 2.4% and the population is predicted to double to 1.8 billion by 2050. According to the FAO, to feed the projected population, crop production will need to increase by 260% by 2050, yet crop models, used by the International Food Policy Research Institute indicate that by 2050, if current low input crop management practices were maintained, average rice, wheat, and maize yields in sub-Saharan Africa will decline by up to 14%, 22%, and 5%, respectively, as a result of climate change (see p 9, Cocoa trees love the shade).In the Pacific, a region where half the population of 10 million people live within 1.5 km of the sea, few will be untouched by the consequences of climate change, including ocean warming, sea level rise, more frequent tropical storms, flash floods and droughts. Despite contributing a negligible 0.03% to global greenhouse gas emissions, the 5th assessment report of the IPCC identifies the 22 Pacific small island developing states as being the most vulnerable countries in the world to the adverse impacts of climate change. For example, Kiribati, comprising 33 low-lying atolls with a population of just over 108,000, could witness a maximum sea level rise of 0.6 m and an increase in surface air temperature of 2.9°C by 2090, according to the Pacific Climate Change Science Program. The country is experiencing higher tides every year, but can ill afford shoreline erosion, with a population density of 15,000 people per km 2 in some areas.Across the region, the Asian Development Bank estimates that the impacts of climate change could cost up to 12.7% of annual GDP by the end of the 21st century and are already causing dramatic revenue loss in agriculture, water resources, forestry, tourism and other related sectors. In 2012, Cyclone Evan was estimated to have caused damage equal to approximately 30% of Samoa's GDP; Cyclone Pam, in March 2015, is estimated to have displaced around 70% of Vanuatu's population, and is expected to have caused even greater economic damage.Higher temperatures, rises in sea level, and increased hurricane intensity also threaten the lives, property and livelihoods of 40 million people throughout the Caribbean region as a result of global warming. For example, rainfall records averaged across the Caribbean region for 100 years  show a consistent reduction in rainfall according to the latest IPCC report, a trend that is projected to continue, signalling a significant threat to agriculture and water availability. In addition, the abundance of coral species is in rapid decline and has decreased by over 80% on many Caribbean reefs. Studies show that the projected costs to the region due to increased hurricane damage, loss of revenue to the tourism sector and damage to infrastructure as a result of climate change could be €7.96 billion by 2025, and €17.5 billion by 2050, according to the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre. Such losses could cause an irreversible economic recession in each of the Caribbean Community member states. So where do we go from here? How are ACP countries doing business in a time of a changing climate and how will they continue to react and adapt in the decades to come as the impacts of global warming increase? In particular, how do small Pacific and Caribbean islands cope with the phenomena that threaten, in some cases, their very survival? And beyond the threats, are there also opportunities related to climate change for smallholder farmers and fishers? Some responses are provided in the case studies in Chapter 2, Fighting back: case studies from ACP regions.Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) -defined as 'agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and development goals -represents a significant approach to achieving short-and-long-term agricultural development priorities in the face of climate change and serves as a bridge to meeting other development priorities. Launched in 2015, the Global Alliance for CSA will help support countries and other actors in securing the necessary policy, technical and financial conditions to enable the triple win (food security, adaptation and mitigation) that can be achieved through CSA approaches. Examples of making agriculture climate-smart are presented in Chapter 3, Making agriculture climate-smart.In 2015, governments will aim to agree on a new sustainable development framework that includes a set of longer-term Sustainable Development Goals, a future climate change agreement under the UNFCCC, and a post-2015 framework to address disaster risks. Collectively, these processes will provide a unique opportunity to fundamentally shift course towards global and national climate-resilient development pathways. However, whether these actions promote food and nutrition security in the face of climate change will be one of the key benchmarks in assessing success; six issues will be critical to this. These including mobilising financial support needed to scale up proven action and practice; ensuring equitable outcomes for women; giving decision-making power to farmers; enhancing nutrition security, not just food security; making mitigation an opportunity for, rather than a threat to food security; and supporting markets and value chains for low income producers and consumers. One of the greatest challenges, for example, will be how to ensure increased investment in sustainable, productive, equitable and resilient agriculture, through climate and agriculture finance. Further steps for the future are outlined in Chapter 4, What's next?Uncertainty in climate projections occurs from three principal sources:• Natural internal variability of the climate system -These are the natural internal and ongoing processes within the climate system and are largely independent of climate change processes.• Model uncertainty -IPCC uses a range of different General Circulation Models (GCM's) to project plausible future climate scenarios. However, there are still limitations in our knowledge of the process that govern the climate system coupled with limited computing resources. As a result, the models are imperfect and climate change projections vary, depending on which model is used.• Emission scenario uncertainty -climate projections derived from GCM's are based on greenhouse gas emission scenarios called Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP). These are created based on assumptions on how future GHG emissions will evolve. As there is considerable uncertainty associated with these assumptions, there is also uncertainty over which RCP is most likely to correctly representthefuture. As a result of these factors, there is associated uncertainty in projected temperature and rainfall changes (see Table I). Nevertheless, warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, sea level has risen, and the concentrations of greenhouse gases have increased (see IPCC 2013: summary for policymakers http://tinyurl.com/l8w5g5l).How important are fisheries in terms of livelihoods and economic security in the Pacific?Fisheries are not just important for families who rely on the reef; they also provide vital foreign exchange from tuna fishing in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), where islands have jurisdiction over their resources. Kiribati and Tuvalu are the most fishery-dependent nations in the region, with fisheries contributing the majority of their government revenue and livelihoods. Fisheries also provide resilience against natural disasters and climatic events. Provided they remain productive, they are a reliable source of food when crops are wiped out. After a cyclone, island people go fishing.The greatest challenges are from coastal overfishing and the impact of urbanisation and agriculture on coastal habitats, which are very significant in some places. In terms of climate change, we have not yet experienced economic impacts from latitudinal shifts in species, but the main concern is about habitat decline caused by coral death. Reef fish populations do not migrate easily from island to island. Each island is effectively a mountain-top so reef fish cannot move to higher latitudes like continental shelf or pelagic (ocean surface) fish can.In oceanic tuna fisheries, we do not yet see notable challenges as a direct result of climate change because pelagic fisheries are already greatly affected by natural climatic cycles. People are accustomed to skipjack tuna becoming more available in the east of the region during El Niño years, for example.If the centre of abundance of skipjack tuna stock moves with the western tropical Pacific \"warm pool\" to the east over the course of the century, as the models suggest, there will be obvious winners in the east and losers in the west. However, if there are catastrophic reversals in major oceanic currents, rather than incremental change, then all bets will be off. Imagine what would happen to north-western Europe if the Gulf Stream suddenly shut down.My view is that unless Pacific Islanders are able to effectively deal with threats from coastal overfishing and land-based impacts, for example by promoting community controls with strong government backup, there probably won't be any reef fishing businesses left for climate change to affect. Diversification to small-pond aquaculture and to pelagic fisheries beyond the reef can help maintain fish-based livelihoods if reef fisheries decline. But, as they decline, the market price of reef fish will increase. So, for many reef fishers, there will be no economic reason to shift their business activities towards lower-priced aquaculture or oceanic fish until the reef fishery completely collapses. This presents a dilemma for policymakers.So what policy approaches are having an impact to help reduce the threat of climate change on this vital sector?For highly migratory stocks, one approach is for Pacific Island administrations to establish collaborative, rights-based management systems over the tuna fisheries in their own combined EEZs -systems that allow them to trade fishing opportunities among themselves, and so buffer the economic impacts of climatic changes. For example, under the Vessel Days Scheme, Kiribati can sell fishing days to Pacific Island states further west during La Niña events to maintain a more stable economy. This scheme has also enabled Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to properly value their tuna fisheries and obtain a much better return from the same level of fishing effort. Flag States (where vessels are registered) have traditionally held the balance of power in tuna fisheries, and establishing the rights of Pacific SIDS to govern tuna fishing in their own EEZs has taken many years. Even now, some distant-water fishing nations question these collaborative, zone-based management systems.Fishing is the mainstay of life on smaller, low-lying atolls of the Pacific, which are more dependent on fisheries than the larger, higher islands, where agriculture is possible. So what impacts will climate change have on this vital resource and the livelihoods that depend on it? Tim Adams has spent all his working life in Pacific Island fisheries and is currently director of fisheries management at the Pacific Islands Forum Fisheries Agency. His goal in life is to see Pacific Islanders obtaining maximum benefit from the control of well-managed sustainable fisheries in their own waters, whether at the national level in tuna fisheries or at the village level in reef fisheries.\"We sense the onset of climate change, especially in terms of rainfall, not the winds. We can't talk about drought per se, but rainfall is now irregular and, especially, it's unpredictable,\" said a woman cocoa farmer at the last Agriculture and Animal Resources Fair held in mid-April in Abidjan. \"We used to be able to predict volumes of inputs we would require and draw up a timetable for applying them because we knew the rains would begin in June and last until August or September. But this is no longer the case and now we can't make forecasts.\"This woman, member of a cocoa growers' group, cultivates cocoa trees around Soubré, capital of Nawa region in southwestern Côte d'Ivoire. As the world's leading cocoa producer, this country alone supplies 40% of the cocoa beans marketed worldwide. Côte d'Ivoire therefore has a key role in this sector, especially since the global demand for chocolate is steadily growing and there are fears that cocoa supplies will not be sufficient to meet this demand.The research findings are indeed alarming. According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the area devoted to cocoa production worldwide could shrink by 20% by 2050. In Côte d'Ivoire, a temperature increase of 2.3°C in key cocoa growing regions such as Moyen-Comé, Sud-Comoé and Agneby would have a major impact on productivity, according to a study by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture. Cocoa trees are more susceptible to the climatic drying trend than to the rise in temperature because dryness leads to increased evapotranspiration due to the rising temperatures, but this moisture loss is not offset by higher annual rainfall, which is actually decreasing slightly, reports the French agricultural research centre CIRAD.One solution lies in agroforestry. Cocoa trees grown in an agroforestry environment can, according to CIRAD, produce up to 1,100 kg/ha of cocoa beans, with the cocoa tree longevity sometimes exceeding 50 years, as compared to 300-400 kg/ha and 20-30 years for monocropped cocoa trees in West Africa.\"We're working with different partners, such as the Coffee and Cocoa Council (CCC), to overcome this problem via forest tree replanting. This initiative provides shade in the plantations and helps generate rainfall. The CCC advises us to plant these trees because cocoa requires water and shade,\" explains the woman coffee grower. This is a major shift in strategy since cocoa and coffee cropping are known to be responsible for the loss of some 30 million ha of primary and secondary forests worldwide, while also generating greenhouse gas emissions. But this negative trend could be reversed by planting trees on the 20 million ha currently cropped with cocoa and coffee.There has also been a major turnaround in individual grower's practices -farmers have been clearing land to plant cocoa trees for decades in Côte d'Ivoire, so the positive relationship between forest trees and cocoa trees has not always been evident to them. But now these farmers are increasingly aware of the positive benefits of shading their cocoa trees during drought periods, which also improves soil fertility. The Forest Development Corporation in Côte d'Ivoire offers growers access to forest tree seedlings. Cocoa growers are also often eager to grow fruit trees (orange, bush plum, avocado and cola) as cover and as a source of food and income.Implementing this agroforestry plan is often complicated and the results could be better. According to François Ruf at CIRAD, \"one environmental recommendation is to keep 12 native forest species per hectare of cocoa, while ensuring that on this area 18-25 trees are providing sufficient cover above the cocoa tree canopy so that 30-40% of the plantation is under shade. But nobody really complies with this recommendation even though some growers do claim that climate change has prompted them to maintain at least partial shading in their plantations. In fact these growers generally only have around two forest trees per hectare that provide cover above the cocoa tree canopy.\"Nothing is perfect, but it is now certain that cocoa is a shade-loving tree.Cocoa growers in Côte d'Ivoire are aware of the highly positive impact of growing cocoa under shade to cope with climate change. Trees are consequently being replanted where at one time farmers cleared the land to plant precious beans.In Côte d'Ivoire, a temperature increase of 2.3°C in key cocoa growing regions will have a major impact on productivityThe most significant consequences are happening as a result of rising temperatures, with the greatest effects seen in the poultry, dairy and pig industries and to a lesser extent with small ruminants. In relation to the poultry sector, adverse effects include higher mortality and reduced productivity. In the dairy sector, effects include poorer feed conversion and reduced milk production.A number of short-term measures are being employed by farmers. Tunnel house ventilation, which assists in managing heat stress, is becoming mandatory in order for broiler enterprises to be successful. Similarly, dairy farmers have been managing heat stress by keeping animals under shade at all times during the day. As a result, cut and carry methods of bringing feed to the animal, or even allowing them to feed at night, are now common practice.Meanwhile, scientists are examining breeds that are adaptable to the changing climate, particularly with ruminant livestock. The aim is to exploit local indigenous breeds such as the Blackbelly sheep, given the fact that we, as a region, have a history of importing exotic breeds that are not adaptable. Currently, imported breeds such as Dorper and Katahdin sheep have shown significant signs of heat stress. How are regional organisations getting involved to help livestock businesses cope with the impacts of climate change?The Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute is at the forefront of efforts in relation to climate and agriculture. With livestock feed, the Institute is researching cultivars and forages that farmers can use to combat the problem. It also has a limited involvement in poultry and pig research, although generally these industries are supported by industry stakeholders, such as the Caribbean Poultry Association. Livestock scientists at The University of the West Indies are undertaking research, especially in relation to poultry production and small ruminants. This is particularly focused on what measures and best practices can be used to manage heat stress.What still needs to be done with research or support for farmers to help livestock businesses?Long-term solutions are important and the best bet is to improve resilience in livestock breeds. We should definitely not be importing exotic breeds to upgrade our animals. Prioritisation of genetics to develop breeds that are more resilient to climate change is paramount. According to our prediction models, the Caribbean region will have longer droughts and more intense storms and we must therefore ensure that local animals are able to withstand these types of stress. There is also a need for improved housing to protect livestock from heavy trade winds and solar radiation, as well as to ensure adequate space for each animal. Lastly, we must continuously assess and ensure that we have sufficient feed resources for our livestock during times of further climatic change.How do you feel about the future of livestock businesses in the Caribbean and other small island developing states in the years to come?While some areas are much more vulnerable than others, a major cyclone like the recent one in the Pacific can completely devastate a livestock industry. Some livestock businesses, such as poultry, can be restarted fairly quickly; others, such as the Caribbean's indigenous sheep and goats, will be quite difficult to restart if lost. For the future of the livestock industry, yes, there are risks that we need to manage.Rising temperatures and more intense storms pose a significant threat to livestock health and productivity. Using genetics to improve indigenous livestock breeds, adopting practical strategies to manage heat stress, and developing climate resistant forages are some of the strategies that will be needed to build climate resilience in the sector.Norman Gibson is a livestock scientist and commodity leader for small ruminants at the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute in Trinidad and Tobago.Whilst farmers across ACP regions are undoubtedly being impacted by global warming and climatic changes, there are a notable number of positive initiatives where individuals and groups are working hard to overcome the challenges they face.Climate change has had an impact near Kumbo in northwestern Cameroon for several years. Although in many cases the communities affected are only aware of climate change because of media coverage.\"The rains didn't start when expected. This year we got heavy rain for a week and then not a drop for the next 3 weeks. Traditional annual crops like beans, maize and Irish potatoes are feeling the strain as they are very susceptible to excessive rain and sunshine,\" says Gilbert Njodzeka, coordinator of the NGO, Green Care.The responsibilities of fetching water, tilling the ground and sowing crops mostly fall to women, who are often the most affected by changing climate conditions. Women produce up to 80% of the food used for household consumption and sold in local markets in sub-Saharan Africa, according to the World Bank. Over the last 10 years, Njodzeka has therefore looked to women to initiate new projects and grow different crops near Kumbo. \"It is women who make the difference,\" he says. Since 2004, women in the region have been planting trees rather than cutting them down, in particular the adapted native species such as acacia, calliandra, croton, and Polyscias fulva. Plants are provided free of charge from nurseries set up by Green Care. Tree planting is a festive occasion where women can prepare meals, sing and dance, which \"is a way to get them engaged,\" says Njodzeka.Once the trees start growing, women are quickly aware of the benefits of agroforestry and request more plants. \"Our part of the work is then complete,\" Njodzeka says. This has also prompted the growing of trees for hedges. \"The shade from trees allows for green pastures during dry spells, while the branches can be broken and fed to poultry and small livestock, such as rabbits. The trees nourish the soil, livestock and provide shade.\"Beekeeping was once an overlooked traditional activity, in particular due to the lack of special protective clothing required. However, in recent years beekeeping has been revived among women in northwestern Cameroon.Green Care has provided equipment and training for women to plant trees that attract bees, which has increased productivity, the quality of honey produced, and as a result their incomes. This is a win-win solution from both an environmental and economic standpoint. Bees are essential in the pollination process -a prerequisite for flower, fruit and vegetable cultivation. A share of the honey produced is currently sold on regional markets and women have been asking Green Care to help expand to other remunerative markets.In an ongoing effort to find crops that are less susceptible and more resistant to climate change, while generating income, Green Care, with the support of the US Peace Corps, has identified soybean's potential. \"Soybean is not a traditional crop in our region, but it has been introduced and is thriving. Women are aware that this crop requires little water and has proven qualities as a source of protein. Soybean also adds value because it can be processed into flour, oil or oil cake for livestock feed. Farmers can rely on this crop, where other less resistant crops often suffer,\" specifies Njodzeka.Mushrooms are also a climate changeresilient option. Water-efficient as they are easy to harvest, prepare and offer substantial additional income for women, who dry the mushrooms before selling them on the market.Women in northern Cameroon are growing new crops using innovative cultivation practices to manage changing climate conditions. This pilot project was designed to cover the entire value chain to effectively address the issues from all angles. Three 'dialogue theatres' on climate risk were conducted at the production, processing and marketing levels, which involved role playing games to raise everyone's awareness on the functions of the other participants and their climate change coping strategies.Most stakeholders are already taking action, i.e. intercropping, agroforestry, irrigation and debt rescheduling; but almost all of these initiatives are uncoordinated. So everyone passes the buck when coffee prices drop -the farmer blames the input supplier, who then underlines the grower's inability to properly negotiate with the intermediary, who in turn contends that the grower is trading coffee of degraded quality, while the exporter claims that the low prices are due to the lack of rigour along the value chain.This absence of communication and confidence undermines collective attempts to adapt to adverse environmental conditions. However, coffee growers are more vulnerable than any other stakeholder since they have few alternatives to growing coffee and limited organisational capacities, they are therefore hard hit by sliding coffee prices. The pilot project revealed that it is essential to reduce the number of intermediaries (exporters purchase 70% of their coffee from traders) in order to enhance communication between stakeholders, develop contract farming and strengthen growers' associations so that members will have more bargaining power when climate hazards occur.Improved networking between stakeholders and the development of interpersonal dynamics have raised the awareness of public authorities. \"Under the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) programme, the government distributed drought-resistant coffee plants and funded simple irrigation schemes especially. These initiatives are ongoing under the government's Wealth Creation Programme -a follow up to NAADS,\" says Norman Ojamuge, a ministry representative.Money is the lifeblood that is lacking. Investment is necessary throughout the value chain, which implies incorporating climate risk in funding mechanisms, while developing warehouse receipts and climate-indexed insurance. The Centenary Rural Development Bank manages a credit project based on warehouse receipts and offers credit in the form of inputs rather than money, with growers in 10 coffee producing regions already benefitting.Following this project, improvements in transport, irrigation and warehouse infrastructures were identified as a priority in the Uganda Coffee Sector National Export Strategy 2012-2017 Update.Climate change has a broad range of impacts on different stakeholders throughout the value chain; everyone must find a suitable coping strategy. The extent of resilience to climate change is dependent on responses to these impacts, from the production stage to the final product.Dialogue theatres help to raise awareness on the roles of other stakeholders and their climate change coping strategies © IISD In Ghana, extreme weather events are becoming increasingly frequent, leading to loss of crops and falling income levels for many households. This is placing farmers, especially small-scale farmers, in a precarious position, with those living in the three northern regions particularly vulnerable. In this challenging context, the use of interactive radio has been helping to create links between farmers and markets, and is providing farmers with much needed information about climate and local weather, and ways of strengthening their farming systems to cope with the effects of climate change.A small number of organisations are using ICTs in Ghana to provide climate or marketing advisory services to farmers. These include Esoko, the International Institute for Communication and Development and Grameen. Farm Radio International (FRI), for example, in collaboration with two of its radio broadcasting partners (Akeaa FM and Obouba FM), supported production of an 8 month interactive radio series. This was aimed at helping small-scale farmers in the Ashanti Region to produce sufficient quality and quantity of maize and cowpea for home consumption and sale to potential buyers, including premium markets like the World Food Programme's (WFP) Purchase 4 Progress (P4P) initiative. The radio series reinforced training workshops delivered by WFP on good agronomic and postharvest practices and quality standards. Programming on climate change has also been delivered in recent years by the Dr. Adaptation radio shows, where farmers are given advice on how to avoid damage to their farms from severe weather. Both radio series have introduced a number of ICT tools in order to facilitate farmers' participation and engagement, both with the radio broadcasters and each other.One key participatory technology is an interactive voice response system. This system allows farmers to access important messages and alerts, to listen again to radio programme segments, and to record and share messages with radio stations, such as lessons they have learned in the field from implementing new methods. FRI provides training and mobile phones to selected farmers' organisations, enabling their members to access spoken information, including market prices, weather information and agricultural tips. The content is provided by the Ghana Meteorological Agency, a market information agency and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture; it is then recorded by FRI and sent to the radio stations. Other ICTs introduced by FRI include a 'Beep2Vote' system, which allows listeners to vote either yes or no on a chosen issue, using a text number. Answers are tallied through a 'Telerivet' system, presenting the results to the broadcaster in graphic form and allowing him or her to comment on them within the programme. SMS updates are used to inform listener group leaders about the time and topics of weekly programmes.Mr Abdul Raman Yangah, a member of the Nkwariedee Farmers' Association, emphasises the value of the radio programmes to his business: \"The radio programme teaches us the best way to harvest and store our produce. One thing that we are happy about... is receiving weather updates -this has helped us to know when to spray our farms so we don't run at a loss.\" Information delivered by radio and mobile phone services has helped farmers to understand and prepare for climate change on their farms. The P4P initiative is also providing valuable food reserves for distribution in times of need, a support system which will become increasingly important as some regions experience severe or prolonged drought due to changing climatic conditions. Hundreds of thousands of farmers in Ghana are now improving their resilience to climate change, through listening to the radio and using their mobile phones to access the information they need, when they need it. Whilst the death toll was mercifully low, for the young people of Vanuatu the cyclone's impact will not be easily forgotten, with most homes and infrastructure also destroyed.The impacts of a changing climate in the Pacific will not always be as severe as witnessed in Vanuatu. However, for many islanders, soil erosion of foreshore areas, regular flooding, and saltwater intrusion are evidence of a significant threat. For the Pacific youth who are growing up experiencing these changes and their impact on food security, understanding the challenges related to global warming is an increasingly important priority. At the 3rd International Conference of Small Island Developing States in September 2014, 29 young people representing Pacific youth from 11 island nations stated: \"We would like to see environmental issues brought to the fore in the school system to increase awareness of their effects and the role young people can play. We are committed to taking a more active role in the provision of community outreach programmes.\" To provide platforms for children and young people's voices to be heard in environmental decisionmaking processes, Project Survival Pacific -Fiji's youth climate movement -has been working with young people from across the Pacific since its launch in 2008. The Youth Climate Ambassador Program is a key activity, training young people aged 18-30 to become Fiji's youth climate change representatives to international forums, where they work alongside Fiji's national leaders in steering the direction for international policies. For example, environmental sciences graduate Devika Raj was the Youth Climate Change Ambassador to the COP18 climate change negotiations in Doha in 2012. \"I believe climate change is about more than environmental effects; it is a threat to human rights, particularly for us in the Pacific who contribute little to global emissions, yet are feeling its consequences first and hardest,\" states Raj. She continues to be an active spokesperson, writing in local newspapers, talking to young people, and getting involved in climate policy work.Executive director of Project Survival Pacific, Krishneil Narayan, is committed to passing on skills to young people so that, \"they are better equipped to innovate and adapt to the changes they are seeing.\" During 2015, climate change will be integrated into Fiji's school curriculum for primary and secondary levels. As part of his organisation's efforts to support this, he has been visiting rural high schools in Fiji to conduct 'Climate change: Fitting the pieces together' introduction sessions. \"No-one is too young to voice their concerns on what is happening to our environment,\" says the project's community outreach coordinator, Sula Muletanavanua. \"Fijian youths should stand up and take action on climate change because what we do today will be our future.\"However, the effective inclusion of climate change in the curriculum is not possible unless teachers are also trained and have the available resources. In Samoa, climate change materials have been recently introduced by GIZ, the German development organisation, in collaboration with regional partners, to support teachers in integrating climate change into social studies and science curricula for 12-13 year olds. Training workshops for teachers, held in late 2014/ early 2015, revealed that there was a basic lack of climate science knowledge amongst many of the teaching staff. Since the training, Ruta Seumanutafa of Falealili College has been teaching her Year 9 social studies students about conserving water: \"The training resources will help my students learn to save water at school and at home. And, as a pastor's wife, I'll be able to pass this information on to my church.\"Enabling youth in the Pacific to be influential, motivated and engaged in solutions to climate change is the mission of Fiji's youth climate movement, Project Survival Pacific. This aims to ensure that young Pacific islanders can have an active voice in decisions that will impact on their future survival.Project Survival Pacific -Fiji's youth climate movement -works with school children and young people from across the Pacific More than 90% of Guyana's population lives and works today on the low-lying coastal zone, making their daily life vulnerable to rising sea level due to global warming. The sea level is projected to rise by 1 cm per year or 40 to 60 cm by the end of the century, according to the Ministry of Agriculture. People still recall 2005, when most of Georgetown and several outlying areas were flooded due to unusually high rainfall: 132cm of rain fell in 2 days, the highest level since 1888! Guyana is confronting these climate change challenges with massive programmes aimed at strengthening its sea defense, creating a reliable internal drainage system and relocating its food production to higher lands. Permanent secretary in the agriculture ministry George Jervis says the country has an ambitious plan: \"We estimate about €135 million is required to provide better infrastructure on the coast.It includes keeping those drainage channels (to the Atlantic Ocean) clean, adding pumping capacity, pumps and pump stations, shoring up the dams of the East Demerara Water Conservancy, maintaining and cleaning its holding capacity as well as putting another outlet to discharge excess water from the conservancy.\"In In 2014, €1.7 billion of Guyana's national budget was allocated to ensure the further strengthening of the sea and river defense infrastructure. The EU is the only external agency that directly helped Guyana with €14.8 million from the 10th European Development Fund allocated towards sea and river defense rehabilitative works and capacity building in Guyana. These funds, amongst other projects, allowed the Mangrove Restoration Project which aimed to use a natural sea barrier to protect the country's coast. In 2014, more than 50,000 seedlings were planted.The country is affected by floods but also by droughts. In the Rupununi in the south of Guyana, one small ranch is experimenting with water harvesting. \"The Rupununi is usually affected by extreme floods or extreme droughts but J and R Ranch is experimenting with a system to trap water over a six month period for agricultural purposes\", Jervis said. He explained that the government wants to promote this model and is seeking funding to do so.Guyana is also experimenting with the relocation of its agricultural production away from the flood prone coastal zone. The targeted areas are located in the Intermediate Savannahs, 95km from the Berbice River, the country's second largest river, the Soesdyke/Linden Highway and the Rupununi Savannahs, close to its border with Brazil.Several companies are assessing the suitability of the soil in the Intermediate Savannahs for growing soya, corn and sugar cane. But George Jervis explains that currently, poor infrastructure, such as access to inputs and markets may be discouraging local farmers from securing land in that location.Root vegetables and fruits are being grown by private farms located on the Soesdyke/Linden Highway. It is where, following the 2005 floods, some farmers wanted to move; they could have secured land through leases. However, as Jervis explains, while not many farmers have relocated, many new farmers are now occupying land on the Soesdyke/Linden Highway.\"The highway has become a central area for root vegetables, especially the highly nutritious eddoes. In the past such root vegetables came from riverain communities but those communities have become prone to flooding because of climate change.\"In rice producing areas close to the sea, experts are developing salt tolerant varieties.\"Because we expect sea level rise, the plant breeders are developing varieties that are able to tolerate salt water and survive for longer periods when flooded, so we are working on that\", George Jervis said.Guyana's dramatic floods in 2005 highlighted changing climatic conditions and increased the pressure on the government to take steps, with the help of donors, to protect its coastal zone and agricultural areas.The Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA) -open to a broad range of stakeholders -was launched in September 2014 at the UN Climate Summit in New York to strengthen food and nutritional security during climate change. The first meeting was held on 17-18 December 2014 in Rome. GACSA governance includes a top level annual forum, a strategic committee overseen by two co-chairs (currently the New Partnership for Africa's Development and Norway), a facilitation unit hosted by FAO, and action groups (knowledge sharing, access to funding, creation of a conducive environment). In early 2015, GACSA had 75 members from various backgrounds (including CGIAR, Danone, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, the Niger Government and the World Bank). Civil society has levelled three main criticisms against this alliance, challenging its governance mechanisms, transparency and accountability. Coordination SUD's Agriculture and Food Committee expressed its concerns via Patrice Burger of the French NGO, CARI, who fears that in the currently uncertain setting (\"a yet to be formed global coalition under a yet to be defined concept\"), some parties may try to turn the situation to their advantage, particularly by promoting biotechnology. Meanwhile Patrick Caron of the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD), a GACSA member, believes in this tool. To those fearing a shift towards promotion of industrial production systems that are detrimental to family farming and the environment, he responds, \"CSA does not intend to work on promoting a model, but instead offers a forum for debate that was previously lacking. It is a mainstay in the preparation of the agreement to be signed at the Paris climate conference in 2015.\"H ighly vulnerable farmers in ACP countries are currently frontline victims of the climate change process. This is sadly illustrated by the recent human and natural devastation wrought in the wake of Cyclone Pam, which tracked through Vanuatu on 18 March 2015. Farmers have to deal with major challenges in their livelihoods, producing more for an ever growing number of people, adapting to climate change and reducing their climate footprint by curbing their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.Agriculture is responsible for 24% of global emissions. CSA shoulders the expectations of many farmers wishing to change their practices to address these challenges. The concept has taken tangible shape over the last 5 years but there are still many unknowns. Major changes will be necessary in production systems, as well as in consumption habits in both developed and developing countries. Some stakeholders still question the motives and practices that have raised CSA hopes; a few consider it as just a way to rehash old methods, while for others it is a genuine revolution. But despite the CSA successes noted here and there, the change of scale remains a major challenge. Political authorities, researchers, funding agencies and farmers are addressing the issue.CSA advocates changes in agricultural practices as well as the adoption of radically innovative technologies. This includes soil conservation techniques and land management strategies to enhance productivity, resilience and the carbon balance of agricultural systems in both developing and developed countries. CSA is devoted to updating, requalifying and promoting practices that have been used for generations, especially by family farmers, but which were pilloried during the Green Revolution. Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) was introduced in Niger in the 1980s and has become a typical example of the potential offered by CSA. In the last 30 years, over 5 million ha of land has been restored, with more than 200 million trees rejuvenated or planted. This has improved food security for around 2.5 million people, while strengthening the resilience of agricultural systems to extreme climatic events, diversifying farmers' sources of food and income and protecting land and water resources. ANR has also contributed to climate change mitigation through the sequestration of large quantities of carbon in soil, tree branches and roots.In the Solomon Islands, the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme promotes the use of environment-friendly agricultural production practices, such as improved pesticide and input use and the adoption of ecosystem protection and restoration practices and techniques. Soil protection can boost the organic matter content of soils and thus their carbon sequestration capacity and fertility. Ecosystem-based adaptation should be a key element of future climate change approaches in the Pacific region.Besides these representative examples, agroecology is now considered as a key element of CSA, as clearly outlined in the final declaration of the CSA 2015 conference held in Montpellier, France. Ecological concepts and principles are thus applied to design sustainable agroecosystems. In practice, agroecologyfriendly farmers strive to imitate nature in their fields, taking advantage of complementarities between different plants and animals. For instance, a Kenyan smallholder increased his milk production threefold, to l/day, by feeding his seven goats Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and tick clover (Desmodium sp.). Moreover, it was found that intercropping maize with tick clover, which fixes nitrogen and repels stemborers, boosted maize yields from 1 to 3.5 t/ha.Research is being mobilised to develop new plant varieties that will help farmers maintain their crop yields despite climate change.Production of maize, a staple food for over 300 million Africans, could drop by 30% as a result of security, mitigation and adaptation). He feels that this new 'cornerstone' could reposition agriculturean important dimension that was overlooked by the UNFCCC -at the centre of negotiations on climate change, while providing access to specific funding.Specific policies accompanied by targeted funding are essential to uplift CSA from a few scattered projects to a fully-fledged global movement. In addition to the Green Climate Fund (€9 billion earmarked for addressing climate change, as announced by Ban Ki-Moon at the climate change conference in Lima (COP 20) in Lima, out of the annual budget of €91 billion promised at the Copenhagen Conference in 2009 to be allocated as of 2020), other funding arrangements are available; including payments for environmental services and carbon credits. Among these, the World Bank BioCarbon Fund is focused on land use and promoting landscape transformation to benefit poor farmers. This tool is used in the Kenya Agricultural Carbon Project supported by the Swedish NGO Vi Agroforestry, which helps farmers adopt sustainable agriculture management practices. So far some 15,000 farmers have adopted these practices, which are being applied on around 12,000 ha of degraded land. It is estimated that this will ensure an annual reduction in GHG emissions of 60,000 t of carbon dioxide equivalents, while restoring degraded land, enhancing yields and reducing farmers' vulnerability to climate change.Index-based insurance can also help farmers mitigate climate-related risks. In 2011-2012, through the adoption of such insurance systems, 29 million farmers in India were compensated for crop losses due to bad weather. This undeniable success story from India is often showcased, but keep in mind that it was set up with substantial political support (two-thirds of the project funding was provided by the government).Finally Jacob Owuor Onyango, a 30-year-old farmer from Lower Kamula CSV, has seen the impact of climate change. His farm is located by the Asao River, which once flowed continuously but now flows only during the long rains. Owuor used to grow irrigated tomatoes, but as rainfall and river levels became less certain his yields became increasingly unpredictable. Now, Owuor has developed a 'smart farm' on 0.1 ha of land, where a greenhouse, drip irrigation system and two water pans have been constructed. Owuor also chairs a youth group, teaching climate-smart practices with his farm as a village field school. Beginning with tomatoes, the group diversified into leafy vegetables, which they sell locally. Then, with the increased profits, they further diversified to rear rabbits and improved indigenous chickens. They have also changed their beekeeping practices, introducing Langstroth hives and doubling their honey harvest to 10 kg a year.Climate change has also affected livestock rearing in Nyando. Karen Onyango has, in recent years, found her goats and sheep performed poorly in drought periods and had low disease resilience. In 2012, the Nairobi-based International Livestock Research Institute introduced Galla goats and red Maasai sheep, both adapted to arid conditions, for cross-breeding with local animals. The female Galla has a long productive life and can breed for up to 10 years. Galla goats also mature 6 months earlier than local breeds and fetch €50 to €60 more in local markets.Besides livestock income, Onyango has also diversified to growing fast maturing indigenous vegetables, which earn her around €10 (Ksh 1000) per week during the rainy seasons. At planting time, Onyango relies on climate data sent to her cell phone by Maseno University and the Kenya Meteorological Service.\"They have trained us to make sense of weather information and know which crop varieties to grow according to the rainfall,\" she says. Onyango has also learned to intercrop her legumes and maize with agroforestry trees, which provide livestock fodder. And, since her farm is prone to soil erosion, Onyango also plants the soil-binding vetiver grass, provided by the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation.In 2011, 81% of households surveyed in Nyando experienced 1 to 2 months of hunger each year, with most surviving on one meal a day; only 1% of those surveyed were food secure throughout the year. Since the introduction of CSVs, 3% of the targeted population are now food secure for the whole year. And, with the CSVs' success, nearby farmers come to observe and learn, and are regularly gifted a plump, healthy goat or improved crop seeds so the benefits continue to spread. The Pacific island nation of Palau is witnessing the impact of climate change on a number of fronts. Increasing sea surface temperatures are causing changes in fish migration patterns, for example, leading to a fall in catch. Typhoons have also become more frequent, including typhoon Bopha in 2012 and typhoon Haiyan in 2013; changing climatic patterns have seemingly put the islands in the path of cyclones, where previously they had been spared. A third significant impact has been the saltwater inundation of Palau's taro plots, caused by sea level rise and extreme high tides.Taro is the most important crop in Palau's diet, and takes a central role in traditional events such as funerals and first birth ceremonies. The island has a wealth of taro varieties, but in recent years, saltwater intrusion has killed taro crops in nearly every state. Some farmers have been able to move their crops to higher ground, but most have nowhere else to cultivate and they have had to abandon farming this vital staple.In 2011, a pilot project was set up to evaluate tolerance and susceptibility of different taro varieties to saltwater intrusion. Sixteen local varieties of taro were tested on a small site in Ngimis, Ngatpang State, with the research finding three outstanding varieties that survived saltwater inundation and had an acceptable taste among people in the local community. The research was undertaken by a partnership between the Palau Community College Cooperative Research and Extension Department (PCC/ CRE), Palau Community Action Agency (PCAA) and representatives of a women's group and traditional leaders. According to Dr Aurora Rosario of the PCC/CRE, the saltwater resilient taros are now being tested in other states. \"We are hoping that as soon as we identify the taro varieties that are saltwater resilient, we can distribute and propagate them to farmers and make their abandoned areas productive again,\" Rosario says.Traditionally, many farmers in Palau have avoided upland cultivation, on account of the clay soils found there being unsuitable for crops. However, with the increasing danger of saltwater flooding in the lowlands, a second project has launched an upland agroforestry trial on an 11,721 m 2 area, also in Ngatpang State. In 2012, with the help of youth from Ngatpang village, fruit and timber tree species, including coconuts, mahogany, soursop, rambutan, avocado, tropical almond and banana were planted on the site, together with erosion-controlling lemongrass. Small quantities of NPK fertiliser were used to help establish the plants.The project was led by Leonardo Basilius, food production officer of the PCAA, who has been pleased to report that the lemongrass has grown vigorously. Calophyllum and mahogany trees planted in 2012 have also grown faster than expected. However, some areas of the site are showing signs of nutrient deficiency, and Basilius has recommended the planting of legumes to improve soil fertility and provide shade for some of the other species in their early stages of growth. As the pilot project came to an end early in 2015, the land has officially been handed back to Ngatpang State. However, Basilius plans to request the authorities allow him to use the site to train other farmers who are interested in going into upland cultivation.A third initiative has focused on mangrove crabs, a traditional part of the Palauan diet, which are also in high demand in hotels and restaurants. Crab populations have been falling in recent years, due to unsustainable harvesting and rising sea temperatures. In response, the Palau Community College Aquaculture Centre initiated a project in 2013 to supply small crabs to farmers and support them in rearing the crabs to a marketable size in submerged cages. In the same year, the hatchery also released nearly 400,000 crablets into the ocean at two conservation sites, in an attempt to boost mangrove crab populations.Community organisations are undertaking a number of initiatives in Palau to help local farmers and fisherfolk cope with the impacts of climate change. One project has identified saltwater-tolerant varieties of taro. A second project is experimenting with upland agroforestry, while a third is helping to boost populations of mangrove crabs hit by rising sea temperatures and overharvesting.To boost mangrove crab populations, the PCC Aquaculture Centre is supplying crablets for farmers to raise in cages in existing fishpondsWhat do you consider as the key ingredients to CSA today?CSA is broadly defined and covers a wide range of potential farming innovations spanning improved crop, soil, water, pasture, tree and livestock management initiatives. But to be termed as CSA, all must be related in one way or another to climate-induced risk or climate change. In other words, the key ingredients of CSA innovations include either one or a combination of the following: (i) climate-induced risk management and or reduction, (ii) advanced preparation for future climate and (iii) mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration into soils and vegetation. Also where possible, reduced emission of greenhouses gases such as nitrous oxide and methane. And of course, such innovations also need to contribute to achieving of national food security and development goals.For small-scale farmers, given the urgency of climate change, should the priority be given to coping or adaptation strategies? Or both?Priority needs to be given to both, but in different contexts and different timescales. There is clear evidence, on a global scale, that surface temperatures are increasing and emerging evidence that rainfall amounts and distribution patterns are beginning to change. However, as yet, the impacts of these changes are still relatively slight. In the shorter term therefore, priority must continue to be given to helping farmers improve the productivity and sustainability of their traditional coping strategies, which have evolved over generations through their experiences of natural day-to-day and season-to-season weather variability. However, by 2050 the next generation of farmers will likely be experiencing substantive temperature increases as well as important changes in rainfall characteristics. Priority should therefore also be given to the development and rigorous testing of strategies to help farmers adapt to these new climatic condition; conditions that they will not have experienced before.As you say, a huge amount of valuable research has been undertaken in ACP countries over the last four to five decades which has targeted improved agricultural production and livelihoods of farming communities. Yet widespread adoption remains stubbornly low. Current efforts to enhance the adoption of such farming practices must be radically reinforced if the world is to meet the increased food demands resulting from human population increases. It's no use just assuming that the world will always be able to feed itself; it has to be made to happen and that must therefore remain the current development priority. An added benefit is that not only will such efforts help farmers now, but in many instances will continue to provide added value to future generations, even under changing climates. But we also need research that is forward looking and targeted towards limiting the negative impact that changing climates will have on agriculture in many ACP regions. Of course, there are recognised uncertainties associated with climate change projections, especially in rainfall amounts. This adds complexity to adaptation research. However, all the used models agree that the Earth's surface will continue to warm up beyond 2050. In that respect, I believe that crop and livestock breeding for higher temperature tolerance has a vital role to play. It is also projected with a high degree of confidence that extreme weather events will increase in frequency and severity. Research that generates improved forecasting and allows better preparedness for such events is vital. So is research that identifies the most appropriate weather-based insurance schemes for crops and livestock; this will help farming families survive when extreme events and seasons occur. I would also like to see greater use of crop growth simulation models in ACP countries. Such models are becoming increasingly accurate and, when used with appropriate weather generators, can provide realistic ex ante simulations of the performance of a wide range of soil, water and crop management practices under future climates. Such research does not, of course, replace field-based research, but is invaluable in helping to refine research priorities and field testing targets.\"There is a twin urgency associated with Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)\" says Peter Cooper. \"The urgency to develop and disseminate CSA to help this generation of farmers cope better with current climate variability, but also the urgency of preparing for climate change with new CSA innovations that will allow future generations to adapt their farming practices.\" Adaptation to climate imbalances or mitigation via carbon sequestration -agriculture is currently viewed as both a solution and a problem. African governments, the scientific community, development agencies, civil society and private enterprises are rallying to the cause, but a lot more remains to be done.The Pacific Islands have prioritised the development of small-scale renewable energy production, initially to complement and eventually to replace existing sources. Tokelau is a tiny island nation with a population of 1,500, spread across three coral atolls. Before 2012, the islands' electricity was supplied by three small power stations, fuelled by 200 l of diesel per day, imported from New Zealand. This was sufficient for 15-18 hours of electricity supply each day, at a cost of €750,000 per year. However, at COP 17 in Durban, Foua Toloa, the former head of government of Tokelau, said the islands would be using 100% renewable energy by 2012 and, in October that year, Tokelau achieved its goal, becoming the first country to produce almost all its electricity from solar power; in overcast weather, the generators run on local coconut oil, providing power while recharging the battery bank.A ccording to Africa's Adaptation Gap 2, the UNEP's latest technical report published in 2015, if the global temperature rise remains below 2°C, annual adaptation costs for Africa could reach €45 billion by 2050, but this figure could double if there is a 4°C climb. Crop yields on the continent could also decline by 17% for wheat, 15% for sorghum and 10% for millet within the same timeframe, with an even more significant impact in Sahelian countries.At the 3rd Global Science Conference on Climate-Smart Agriculture held in Montpellier, France in March 2015, 700 researchers and development experts from 75 countries highlighted the need to set up earlywarning systems, develop agro-ecology research, promote family farming and local agricultural research, and to bridge gaps between disciplines.\"The physiological conditions for production that will prevail in Africa over the next decades -temperature levels, atmospheric carbon concentrations, humidity or soil minerals -are still completely unknown. Sound research will therefore be required to gain insight into how climate change will affect plants and animals. Powerful action and development mechanisms will also have to be planned and set up,\" points out Patrick Caron, chief operating officer for research and strategy at the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD). Global research -a further challenge -should also be combined with local research to take specific local context into consideration.Researchers are upgrading and adapting agricultural techniques to be able to maintain and increase production in a changing environment. Agriculture is also expected to provide ecosystem services, reduce the impact of greenhouse gases, enhance biodiversity, maintain water quality, and regenerate soil fertility. \"Agriculture, underpinned by chemistrybased techniques, has undergone a remarkable boom. Now ecological intensification is being reinvented. We depend on making effective use of ecological cycles which enable us to produce more and better while considering crops in environmental terms,\" says Caron. Biodiversity and agroforestry techniques have thus been rediscovered and implemented to take advantage of the complementarity of relatively deep root systems, reduce the impact of diseases and maximise the growth of one species via another -ancestral knowledge put to effective use through modern techniques.Half-moons, stone bunds and zai... \"Farmers have cleverly managed to save useful species and continue to cultivate them.\" Practices used to ensure flood protection and water retention in many Sahelian countries include half-moons, permeable dikes and stone bunds. The traditional zai technique is now widely used in Burkina Faso. \"Species that efficiently fix nitrogen, regenerate soils quicker and preserve soil moisture are now favoured along with crop rotations. These are practices that African farmers have used in the past. Let's continue to conduct research to address current challenges while focusing on the dissemination of practices, training and technology transfer,\" says Traoré.Private companies and NGOs are involved in projects geared towards developing so-called 'intelligent' agriculture, according to the concept outlined by FAO and backed by the founding of the Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture in 2014. Since 2013, the charitable Howard G. Buffet Foundation has been working with DuPont, the large American chemical company, and John Deere, the farming machinery manufacturer, to disseminate agricultural carbon sequestration techniques to smallholders in Ghana. DuPont has thus identified locally-adapted maize seed that can be associated with cover crops such as cowpea to increase productivity, curb erosion and enhance soil fertility. Meanwhile, John Deere is testing no-till cropping techniques in collaboration with farmers.Research is currently focused on varieties resistant to extreme climatic conditions, on those with shorter cropping cycles and on controlling adapted pest insects, using biotechnology, traditional know-how (endogenous solutions) and modern techniques. The aim is also to foster the production and management of regional and national data on the climate and harvests, or access to satellite databases, which requires data acquisition and sharing regulations. Other promoted solutions include renewable energy use and the development of irrigation techniques to cope with drought (remote and drip irrigation). Morocco thus issued a funding request in early 2015 to the Union for the Mediterranean for an agricultural solar pumping project. This project is to include about a million Moroccan farmers with smallholdings of less than 5 ha, according to Hakima El Haite, the Moroccan Environment Minister.Research is well under way, but in the field there is a pressing need to include climate issues in national agricultural policies, build new development trajectories and coordinate regional policies. Land reforms are also called for. These needs are obvious in West Africa, for example, where Fulani herders traditionally wander with their livestock herds through the region during their seasonal © CCAFS/K Trautman Planning a sustainable irrigation system to maintain and increase production in a changing environment transhumance movements. Experts are approaching this highly controversial subject with caution. \"There is an urgent need for arable land as a result of the different drought cycles and population pressure. Areas earmarked for nomadic herders are no longer sufficient, which has led to border conflicts, as seen in Burkina Faso, Niger, and Togo. African states no longer have a choice; they are forced to draw up land legislation, which will challenge transhumance and the transboundary livestock herding concept. More herders will have to settle, but this represents a huge cultural change. Fulani life combines pastoralism, a traditional livelihood, culture and knowledge transfer. We must tread carefully with regard to this issue, starting from the ground and moving towards drawing up a policy,\" says Traoré.2015 is a busy year, and a turning point, with a meeting of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice in Bonn in June, and the United Nations COP21 in Paris in December.Advances have already been achieved as the negotiating text makes several references to agriculture; and ACP countries can take advantage of this, which will avoid them having to bring the issues to the forefront on their own. But ACP countries are on tenterhooks as these major international conferences approach.In the Lifou Declaration, following the Oceania 21 Summit meeting held on 1 May 2015, Pacific Island countries underlined it is crucial that, \"our worries, sufferings, hopes and concrete proposals are heard by the negotiators.\" We are the living victims of the negative impacts of climate change. We are small, so we must speak with one voice,\" declared Fonotoe Pierre Lauofo, Deputy Prime Minister of Samoa.The Moroccan minister El Haite is worried about the post-2015 period.\"It is fine to design sound 'smart' carbon models, but we must have the capacity to set up and implement them and ensure their sustainability.\" This is a broad-ranging programme and hopes will be high in the months leading up to CoP21, but especially regarding the future.A Sahelian farmer using the traditional zai technique which is now widely used in Burkina FasoIn regions worldwide, millions of people depend on the media for its role in communicating information. This is true in the Pacific where island states are increasingly at risk from extreme weather events. With populations dispersed across scattered atolls, making contact with the rest of the world is challenging, especially during times of emergency. However, despite being classified as one of the most vulnerable global regions to climate change, Pacific countries are successfully building their resilience.Most Pacific island countries are developing Joint National Action Plans bridging climate change and disaster risk management, which includes approaches to support communities adapt to and reduce the impacts of climate change, while also addressing disaster risk reduction. A key element of disaster risk reduction is to ensure that information is continually available during times of emergencies and disasters. As a leading climate change adaptation organisation, the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), in collaboration with the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, has been focusing on strengthening national broadcasters' capacity to provide accurate and consistent information to island communities.One such initiative is the National Broadcast and Climate Disaster Resilience Plans (BCDRPs) involving broadcasters from eight Pacific countries (the Cook Islands, Palau and the Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu), selected and funded by the Pacific Media Assistance Scheme. Launched in 2012, the project's aim has been to support development of the BCDRPs as well as train broadcasters, help develop standard operating procedures, and provide capacity building to news teams for enhanced reporting on natural disasters and climate change.The most recent BCDRP training was held with the Tonga Broadcast Commission (TBC) in August 2015; as the government broadcaster, TBC -via Radio Tonga -is the only radio station which reaches all Tonga's islands. To help better understand terminology used in weather warnings and bulletins, TBC staff worked with the National Emergency Management Office and the Tongan Meteorological Service. As a result of the training, TBC was able to complete their BCDR plan, identify the resources needed in order to better respond to disasters, and keep the community informed. \"This is a very detailed plan, a first for TBC, which will help keep our people better educated during emergencies to ultimately save lives and properties,\" said Nanise Fiftia, TBC manager. Following completion of Samoa's national BCDRP in November 2014, a mock 'disaster' was simulated to test the plan's effectiveness and the roles of national media during an emergency. The event -an earthquake leading to a tsunami in Samoa -allowed broadcasters to practise who would give directions, what actions should be taken and how these would be done, as well as determine how vital broadcast equipment would be maintained during a disaster to keep information flowing to Samoan communities. Similar training and mock events have been held across the eight project countries and national BCDRPs are all in place. \"We are really pleased with the project outcomes on many levels,\" says Nanette Woonton, SPREP media and public relations officer. \"As of last year eight more Pacific island broadcasters across the region now have resilience plans, as a vital component of sharing information with the public in times of disasters, this is extremely important. Through this training we have also seen Pacific reporters come to understand technical meteorological and climate information and report with greater accuracy. We are now looking forward to continuing this work with media across more Pacific island states.\"The media is vital for raising awareness of climate change issues and sharing timely updates during emergencies, particularly for remote communities. An initiative is the Pacific is supporting broadcasters to provide accurate reporting prior to and during natural disaster events. With their small size, open economies, and reliance on natural resources, Caribbean states are particularly vulnerable to a changing and variable climate. In response, the region implemented two consecutive adaptation to climate change projects from 1997 until 2014, and following the success of these regional initiatives, Caribbean Heads of State called for a specific agency to coordinate subsequent activities. As a result, the Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) was established as a centre of excellence in 2005 and is the world's only regional climate change centre.In its first decade, the centre has continued to pilot adaptation programmes, including climate data collection, climate projections, capacity building, and inclusion of climate change in national development processes. \"These actions have only been effective because the work has been grounded in firm regional commitment, policy and strategy,\" emphasises Dr Kenrick Leslie, CCCCC executive director.The work on regional climate change projections, for example, has been particularly vital for improved risk management. Through improved regional data collection and modelling, specific projections for areas as small as 8 km 2 are now available, compared with 300 km 2 previously provided by general circulation models. This has been achieved through extensive computer analysis conducted by a network of institutions and coordinated by the CCCCC.However, climate change projections alone are not sufficient and regional governments realised that building climate resilient economies would require transformational change at the institutional level. This challenge was recognised in the Liliendaal Declaration by Heads of State in 2009, in a regional framework to provide a roadmap for action from 2009 until 2015, and an implementation plan was further developed to deliver the framework's strategic elements.But, with member states and regional organisations already over-tasked and under-resourced, delivering such change requires an approach that recognises these constraints. To provide a solution, a sustainable resource mobilisation plan known as the 'Three Ones' principle, which was successfully used for a regional HIV/AIDS programme, was adopted. This is based on having one plan, one coordinating mechanism and one monitoring and evaluation framework, and works with a network of relevant organisations to utilise resources more effectively.Coordination, collaboration and partnerships have been key to the success of the CCCCC, and provide the foundations for the 'Three Ones' principle, helping to ensure a coordinated approach to climate change responses across Caribbean governments. Guided by this regional vision, the CCCCC has successfully executed a range of climate change-related programmes over the last 5 years, worth approximately €47 million. One of the tools developedThe Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre uses an innovative model to achieve the change required to respond to climate change and its impacts on development. Known as the 'Three Ones' principle, this involves one plan, one coordinating mechanism and one monitoring and evaluation framework for mobilising limited resources, policy setting and decision-making and monitoring.is the Caribbean Climate Online Risk and Adaptation Tool (CCORAL), which helps users to apply a risk management approach in decision-making and to prioritise their efforts given limited time and resources. The CCCCC and its partners are currently involved in extensive training and rollout of CCORAL across the Caribbean. \"Apart from some revisions, CCORAL has been widely accepted so far,\" says Keith Nichols, CCCCC project development specialist. \"We have seen some very useful applications in Grenada, including in agriculture, and interest has been high. We have not yet started full scale implementation but, to date, some national developmental activities have been revised to take into consideration climate risks. Rolling out has just started and the results are beginning to come in.\"\"Partnership is the way to success and without all our partners, we would not be in a position to do all the things we want to do,\" emphasises Kenrick Leslie. \"Through working together, climate change is now more widely covered in the region. Financing remains a challenge but for the future we have set up a trust fund to provide support in situations where external funds are not readily available.\"The CCCC work on climate change projections aims to help local governments to develop new climate adaptation policiesAlthough climate change affects everyone, young and old people, youth seem especially vulnerable because they will live longer and face the challenges throughout their lifetime. With reference to Africa, the situation is especially grim because Africa has the youngest population and agriculture is the sector that seems to offer the most opportunities for these millions of youth as they enter their working life. They do not see agriculture as a glamorous career option because they have seen how climate change disrupts agriculture. It makes it harder to make a case for youth to engage in agriculture. The youth see that agriculture is not profitable because it cannot guarantee an end return because of the varying weather patterns.How can climate change issues be tackled in a different way for the youth?Agricultural practices need to change. climate-smart agriculture, which looks at new and improved ways of producing food sustainably without damaging the environment and making sure crops that are being grown are resilient to the effect of climate change, is probably the answer for young people who want to engage in agriculture.What have been some key achievements with regard to youth to deal with the effects of climate change?FANRPAN mostly focuses on achievements in the policy arena, looking at how young people are now getting more involved in the climate change processes and how their voices are heard. The formal recognition of young people in the UNFCC process under the Youth NGOs constituency has been a major achievement.Young people can now make official statements and provide technical and policy input in climate change negotiations; they are now able to engage with policymakers through high-level meetings, seminars and thematic discussions. They have been involved in the process since 2009 and have made some progress. In terms of progress in Africa, the African Climate-Smart Agriculture Youth Group was formed in September 2014 during the Climate Summit in New York. This fairly new group wants to raise awareness, sensitise young people and build their capacity to implement climate-smart agriculture projects. And I think this is just the beginning.Considering the role played by women in gathering water and considering that by 2020, in some countries, yields from rain-fed agriculture could be reduced by 50%, what action needs to be taken towards young girls?There needs to be an increase in access to high quality education for girls, as much as for boys, as a start to addressing gender inequality issues. As long as young girls are not the priority in terms of schooling and education, we will still face the problem of them remaining at home to do chores, carry water and fetch wood. In addition, mainstreaming gender in climate change discussions is still finding its ground, a lot of work still needs to be done.What financing and policies will be required to enhance the youth's work on climate-related agricultural issues? Africa as a whole is still not getting enough money for climate financing, let alone the youth. The African Development Bank says Africa receives about €115 million compared to the €35 billion required.In terms of policies, we need clear guidelines and monitoring systems for climate change financing. And it will be important for African governments, once they get the money, to have structured climate-smart finance knowledge management systems where young people can have access to critical information. Also, sometimes information is just too complicated. This is another challenge, there is a need to simplify information and procedures around climate financing.The difficulty of engaging youth in agriculture Agriculture is not always very appealing to the youth and the impacts of climate change are making agriculture even less appealing as a livelihood. But by promoting new innovative practices and by giving youth a say in climate related matters, agriculture can be an attractive option.Sithembile Ndema Mwamakamba coordinates the Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis (FANRPAN) youth and gender programme, aimed at developing a holistic agriculture policy framework in Africa to support youth and women.Have you noticed a change in the behaviour of farmers who have taken out index-based climate insurance?In terms of behaviour, the GIIF programme has undoubtedly introduced the insurance culture, consequently changing smallholders' view of insurance. For instance, tea growers in southcentral Sri Lanka who have taken out index-based weather insurance now readily discuss getting coverage for other non-climate risks such as snake bites, accidents, fire, and so on. People are now aware that these risks can be covered.In Kenya, initial studies showed that index-based natural risk insurance users had increased their investments in production tools, fertiliser and other inputs by 19% in comparison to nonusers. A 16% increase in their savings relative to others was also noted. These findings reflect a change in behaviour.Local insurers with a national operating licence are required for the development of index-based insurance. It is therefore essential that we develop their capacity to innovate, negotiate with international and regional reinsurers, and create a desire amongst producers for these new products.Forces that drive innovation come from both private and public sectors. Clearly public-private partnerships will be required in the medium-term to develop these markets and enable them to grow to a critical size through management and quality control of data and regulation. It is also essential to have a government that facilitates access to insurance by subsidising premiums and supporting education, especially under responsible insurance schemes. Governments have a key role to play at the outset, but also during the market growth phase.NGOs that serve as go-betweens with farmers?Yes. The entire ecosystem that develops around index-based insurance, especially weather-oriented insurance, includes governments, local insurers, reinsurers, distributors, NGOs and foundations. In Benin, Burkina Faso, Mali and Senegal, we are working with Planet Guarantee to develop farmers' interest in these products and to anchor indexbased insurance (especially climate insurance) in their communities. NGOs working in the microfinance sector play a major role because access to insurance is often linked with access to funding. These insurance schemes have often been set up with financial and technical assistance from donors and governments. Will they be commercially viable in the long run?We might have to introduce the 'subsidy' parameter in the viability concept. In India, 32 million farmers already use index-based insurance (based both on weather and yield). This would not have been possible without significant government support. Agricultural insurance schemes in developed countries also require subsidisation to progress, but that does not mean the system is unsustainable or non-viable. Setting a purely financial sustainability goal at the outset seems unrealistic. Ultimately, access to cheaper information, the development of a broader market, and the coverage of diversified risks at regional and global level will also enable reinsurance to be cheaper. This could ensure financial viability, which is what we are working towards.More than 800,000 crop and livestock farmers and microentrepreneurs have taken out index-based natural risk insurance through the Global Index Insurance Facility (GIIF), managed by the International Finance Corporation of the World Bank Group. GIIF was launched in 2009 to promote access to innovative insurance products in developing countries. Gilles Galludec feels that index-based insurance is the way forward.Gilles Galludec is the GIIF Programme manager with over 25 years' management experience in the banking, microfinance and insurance sectors, mainly in developing countries.In the context of climate change, the need to enhance food production while maintaining natural resources and the resilience of agro-ecosystems is increasingly important. Already, a number of land use and agricultural production practices exist that offer opportunities to both produce food and provide environmental services. However, adoption by farmers has generally been limited, not least because some of these practices only become profitable after 2-3 years or more. Thus, land users may have to absorb losses for several years before they can profit from their investment and for many, this is unaffordable. Payments for environmental (or ecosystem) services (PES) can offer a solution to this problem.PES are payments made to producers and landowners to reward them for managing their land in such a way that ecosystem services are generated, to the benefit of wider society. Such schemes aim at encouraging positive behavioural change of individuals and groups towards good environmental stewardship. They must, however, be very carefully designed and implemented to ensure they meet their objectives for the environment, provide appropriate economic incentives for farmers and land users and do not compromise food security. For example, farmers should not become exclusively 'carbon growers' as a result of a PES scheme.One significant challenge in implementing PES is choosing who to target. To be effective and affordable, PES needs to be carefully targeted and time bound, not a blanket incentive scheme for all land users. But the process of choosing who benefits must be transparent and fair, to minimise the risk of favouritism and tension within and between communities. A second issue concerns how much to pay. If too much is paid, the scheme will be too costly and not sustainable, whereas the risk of paying too little is that the scheme becomes exploitative and beneficiaries will drop out over time.In attempting to find the right level of payment, an approach using a \"reverse auction\" to reward on-farm tree planting has been implemented in Malawi and Indonesia. The approach offers an efficient way of designing appropriate rewards systems and helping to improve the overall cost-effectiveness of a PES scheme. Details of the approach have been documented in the World Development Journal (Ajayi et al. 2012).There is a need now to look beyond the narrow scope of cash payments, and consider other options, such as in-kind payments and other forms of targeted incentive. Such incentives could include offering conditional access to rural credit, or to niche markets that provide premium prices. Farmers could be offered access to subsidised farm inputs during the first few years of implementation, on the condition that they have adopted ecofriendly land use practices in their field.Beyond that, there is a need to identify and document the most promising land use practices, gathering clear, robust evidence on how they contribute to food production and address climate change, and how they can be potentially scaled up to more land users through various efforts, including PES, where necessary.A final point is that land users' decisions are strongly influenced by the policy and institutional context within which they operate. Appropriate policies at all levels are required to align smallholder farmers' incentives with the needs of society as a whole, and to encourage them to consider the environmental implications when making land use decisions. In this context, there is undoubtedly a need to appraise existing national and sub-regional policies to assess if and how they have inadvertently created incentives or disincentives to good land use practices.","tokenCount":"14634"}

data/part_6/0157256883.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"71b39e9e32d09a3316a57cd091b79e86","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4e273929-b9b0-4d6e-b727-b1f8a17b4c17/retrieve","id":"240116939"},"keywords":["~~ k A¡\"","ü\"t:f•~.-\" T' ...... ~ ~;~ 4/'","1","l'•"],"sieverID":"93814cb9-3352-46b5-a035-1ff6788ede46","pagecount":"7","content":"MONOOMO (Cauca)\" \" , , \" l. Aspectos gene~a1es del departamentd.\"El departamento del Cauca se encuentra localizado en la región Sur-Occidental del País y su tel'ri\"torio\" estil atravesado por las Cordilleras Central y Occidental de 10s.Andes .. Cartográficamente se halla entre los 00°57' y 03\"20,'.' de Latitud Norte y entre los 75\"48' y 77° 57' de Longitud Oeste. Limita por el Norte con el Departamento del Valle del Cauca; por el Oriente con los departamentos de Nariño y la intendencia del Putumayo y por el Occidente con el departamento de Nariño y el Oc~ano Pacífico.El departamento tiene una extensión superficial de 30.495 Km 2 • de los cuales por la influencia orográfica un 34.5t aproximadamente pertenecen a un clima cálido, un 35.6% a un clima medio, un 19.7% a un clima frio y un 10.2% aun clima de páramo\" (1). Según un informe de OPSA. para el 'afio de 1977, en el país existían 218.330 Ha. en yuca de las '\" ~uales 17.000_(7.8%) se encontraban en el departamento del Cauea, con uñ reñdimiento promedio de 5.200 Kg/Hi. El pr~;;¡o-a ~i~~l na~ional ~~ -----es de 9.03~_~g¿Ha.Según esta misma fuente la producción de yuca es hecha en forma tradicional. en su totalidad y en forma de monocultivo.El censo Agropecuario realizado por el OANE en 1970-71 mostró que del total de las fincas visitadas en Santander de Quiliehao el 43.2% reportaban a la yuca como el cultivo principal.2. Características de los suelos de Mondomo .\".\"Originalmente esta unidad fué recubierta por una capa de ceniza volcánica de poco espesor y en la actualidad presenta como característica principal un avanzado estado de erosión, debido al cultivo en forma indiscriminada de la yuca, además de la presencia de vientos c&lidos que ascienden del .Río Cauca por las boyas de los FC~.La...J.e:L4.s-!Jl!U!!l!l!~~ y r~ondomo. AunqUE:! la precipitación es baja, cual ocasiona erosión severa. -2 -En general se presenta una topografía muy accidentada con pendientes. superiores al 40% y longitudes medias, aunque también hay pequeñas zonas de topografla más ondLiladas que corresponden a aquellas donde se ha conservado el recubrimiento de ceniza volcánica.En términos generales se observa. que son suelos de muy baja fertilidad natural. con alta presencia de aluminio, que sumado a las condiciones climáticas adversas son suelos de muy baja produ~tividad\" (1)  1.05 48.9 3. Características de la producci6n de yuca en Mondcimo gr. de suelo ppm = mg/kg de suelo ~egan los resultados del Censo agropecuario de las 504 explotaciones que reportan a la yuca como cultivo principal en .el municipio de Santander, el 54.9% tienen un tamaño inferior a 5 hectáreas de exten-si5n¡ el 21.2% se encuentran entre 5 y menos de 10 Ha. y el resto o sea el 23.9% son superiores a 10 hectáreas.En el mes de Marzo del presente año se aplicó una encuesta a 21 agricultores escogidos• al azar localizados en las veredas de El Turco. Mondomito. Nueva Colombia, todas pertenecientes al corregimiento de Mondomo.El tamaño promedio de las fincas fué de .11.7 Ha. Del total de agricultores entrevistados, el 95.2% tenían cultivos de yuca, con una -extensión promedio de 1.75 Ha; la altura promedio es de 1508 metros --s.n.m. el 95% eran propietarios y el resto arrendatarios.De la superficie total de las fincas encuestadas el 41.1% se destina--ba a agricultura; el 36.9% a 'cultivos permanentes y el resto o sea ,e~_~~.l% estaba,en cultivos transitorios. Un alto porcentaje de la 'tierra (54:6%) se encuentra en rastrojo o descanso; esto se explica a' la baja fertilidad del suelo y que los agricultores utilizan un sis-~tema rudimentario de control a la erosión: originada por el cultivo de -la yuca; es común sembrar 'en 'un lote 2,3 Y hasta 4 veces yuca para luego dejarlo en descanso durante 3-4 años; otros según la disponibilidad de tierra. 10 dejan hasta 10 años, por 10 tanto el agricultor se ve en'la obligación de tener gran parte dé la finca en uso improductivo.Solamente el 4.3% del área se encuentra en pastos. , 3.1. Utilización Agrícola del suelo .' .La' encuesta aplicada en la zona permitió conocer~l uso agrícola y los distintos cultivos que existen. Se describen én el cuadro siguiente: Cuadro 2. Uso Agrícola del suelo en la regi'on, de Mondomo (Cauca) (\"; .\" __ ... ,_. __ 0_.. .-~ -.,--' -~ .. _- De este cuadro se desprende que el 36.1% del área destinada a agricultura se encuentró, en el cultivo de yuca y que este cultivo cubre el 57.3% del área destinada a cultivos transitorios. La yuca presenta para el agricultor de la zona el 39.2% del valor total de la producci6n agrícola., \\ El cultivo de la yuca en la zona No existe una época determinada de siembra, la mayoría de los agricultores siembran en cualquier época del a~o; el cultivo se hace solo sin ningún otro cultivo i~tercalado. La preparación del suelo el 52% 10 hace con yunta de bueyes, el resto o sea el 48% hoyan el suelo manualmente; las variedades que existen en la región son = Algodona, Barranque~a. Americana y Vál1una. El períodovegetativo dfr las variedades Algodona, Barranque~a y American, es de 15 meses y para la Val luna es de 11 a 12 meses. Generalmente realizan tres desyerbas al cultivo: la primera a los 3 meses de sembrada, la segunda a 105 5 meses y la tercera a los 6 meses . Produce; ón de A lmi dón en 1 a zona Existen en ola zona 'de Mondomo aproximadamente 25 ra11andérías que fun--¿Tonan eñ-formao!leFrnaile,n'te durante todo el año, con algunas interrup-crones especialmente en las pequerias, las cuales tienen limitaciones -en el agua y la'cantidad de yuca a rallar. parece que las grandes no _ 1ienen problemas y pueden funcionar continuamente.A principios de este a~o CARE, SENA e lCA realizaron una encuesta a 14 ' o ,ralJa!lderías, localizadas en los municipios de Santander y Caldono.. ,-.~w. __ . ~~M\"_ ~.Los aspectos más importantes de esta encuesta se pr'esentan a continuación:2.Tas-raHan'dería's' compra-n 'yuca no solamente de la región, sino también en otros departamentos distantes tales como Huila y Putumayo. Los compradores de almidón de yuca localizados en Santander de Quilichao otorgan crédito a las rallanderías para que estos compren yuca a los cultivadores, asegurando de esta manera la compra de almidón • \" .. .:.~ ..-6cuente encontrar que estas rallanderfas compran yuca proveniente de otros departamentos.Extracción de almidón según variedades: Las R~llanderías por su experiencia alcanzada en muchos años de tra-'bajo, tienen su conocimiento sobre el contenido de almidón de las dls-,tintas variedades.La variedad que mejor precio tiene es la Barranqueña ($3.4 el kilo).. \"La algodona y AmericaQa tienen un precio de $2.85 el kilo. el almidón es comprado en Santander por los ~ntermediarios ti lo.Actualmente a $21.20 el En términos generales 175 kilos de yuca producen 12.5 kilos de afrecho y 525 kilos de yuca producen 12.5 kilos de mancha. Si la yuca es más añej a 1 a producci ón de mancha será mayo'r, yucas frescas producen me,nos mancha.La calidad del almidón está determinada por la cantidad de tiempo que se deje en el tanque asriador; en su totalidad el almidón que se produce en la zona es agrio.Generalmente el comprador de yuca puede guardar hasta 5 días el producto sin que se descomponga. Antes de ser rallado, sin cáscara solamente dura de 2 a 3 días. después se pudre.Organización y funcionamiento del Mercado del Almidón en la Zona , En el mercadeo del almidón se dan algunas características especiales qúe a continuación se describen:'En Santander de Quilichao se encuentran localizados cinco compradores de almidón (interme,diarios), los cuales funcionan como grupo oHgopólico al fijar semanalmente el precio del almidón que se va a comprar en la siguiente semana. Estos son los que distribuyen el almidón a las distintas industrias y panaderías que demandan el producto. En Mondomo existen 7 compradores de almidón, los cuales la mayor parte de almidón' la venden a los compradores de Santander de Quilichao. Algunos dueños de rallanderías para asegurar el suministro de yuca anticipan a los . \"• f ; ~ -7agricultores pequeñas cantidades de dinero ($500 -$1.000), dinero que ha sido prestado por los compradores de almid6n localizados en Santander, El preci o del a lmi d6n en Santander fl uctúa según 1 a cantidad de queso y el precio que éste tenga. Las panaderías son las principales consumidoras del almid6n y de queso. Al presentarse en época de verano una escasez de, leche y un aumento en l,os precios del queso, 1 a 'demanda por a lmi d6n di smi nuye. Las panaderías generalmente ,compran el almidón a un menor precio y lo almacenan hasta la aparición nuevamente de queso. 'El funcionamiento del mercado del almid6n de'yuca requiere un análisis más objetivo y profundo que será realizado en base a,esta primera aproximación ~l,conocimiento empírico y sus' particularidades que requieren ser conocidas con el fin de determinar el futuro que tiene el almid6n de yuca en el mercado nacional.(1) FEDERACION NACIONAL DE CAFETEROS DE COLOMBIA Estudio de zonificación y uso Potencial del suelo en la zona Cafetera del Departamento del Cauca. 1978 .","tokenCount":"1501"}

data/part_6/0159677497.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"afc59fe6be68df5243c5e0b5a149070a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d571437c-1fd8-4f98-b877-15aae4533d8e/retrieve","id":"-2094961048"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3891c536-04e4-462e-945e-6528e4c6859f","pagecount":"11","content":"Food systems (FSs) emit ~ 20 GtCO 2 e/y (~ 35% of global greenhouse gas emissions). This level tends to raise given the expected increases in food demands, which may threaten global climate targets. Through a rapid assessment, evaluating 60+ scenarios based on existing low-emission and carbon sequestration practices, we estimate that intensifying FSs could reduce its emissions from 21.4 to − 2.0 GtCO 2 e/y and address increasing food demands without relying on carbon offsets (e.g., related to afforestation and reforestation programs). However, given historical trends and regional contexts, a more diverse portfolio of practices, including diet shifts and new-horizon technologies, will be needed to increase the feasibility of achieving net-zero FSs. One likely pathway consists of implementing practices that shift food production to the 30th-percentile of least emission-intensive FSs (~ 45% emissions reduction), sequester carbon at 50% of its potential (~ 5 GtCO 2 e/y) and adopt diet shifts and new-horizon technologies (~ 6 GtCO 2 e/y). For a successful transition to happen, the global FSs would, in the next decade (2020s), need to implement cost-effective mitigation practices and technologies, supported by improvements in countries' governance and technical assistance, innovative financial mechanisms and research focused on making affordable technologies in the following two decades (2030-2050). This work provides options and a vision to guide global FSs to achieving net-zero by 2050.The Paris Agreement's goal of limiting the increase in global temperature to 1.5° above pre-industrial levels requires rapid and ambitious reductions in global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This can only be achieved by drastic emissions reductions across the energy; industry; transport; buildings; and agriculture, and forestry sectors 1,2 .Even if fossil fuel emissions stopped now, current trends in global food systems (FSs) would prevent the achievement of the 1.5 °C target and threaten the achievement of the 2 °C target by the end of the century 3 . However, carbon budgets or net-zero emissions are often only discussed for CO 2 emissions and not for non-CO 2 emissions, such as CH 4 and N 2 O, in which FSs, especially agriculture production, are the main source [3][4][5] .Today, FSs GHG emissions contribute to roughly a third of global emissions. In 2019, FSs emitted 16.5 (95%; CI range: 11-22) GtCO 2 e globally, the largest contributors were agriculture, land use, land-use change activities (~ 70%) and the remaining emissions coming from other downstream and upstream activities (i.e., retail, transport, consumption, fuel production, waste management, industrial processes and packaging) 6 . Since global food production is estimated to increase by 15% in coming decades 7 , FSs emissions might increase by up to 80% from 2010 to 2050 3,6,[8][9][10][11] . In addition, there are still almost 700 million people undernourished and living under severe food insecurity 12 who must be considered in FS planning. Therefore, the Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals can only be achieved with significant contributions from FS, including supply-side measures in agriculture production and demand-side measures related to diet changes and reduced food waste 5,13 , while strengthening food security and safety 14 .Substantial GHG emissions reductions in FSs are attainable by implementing low-emission interventions to improve efficiency and nature-based carbon sequestration 3,5,15 . Low-emission interventions could result in ~ 40-70% less GHG intensive production systems compared to today's average levels 16 . Additionally, a carbonwww.nature.com/scientificreports/ sequestration potential, of approximately 10 GtCO 2 y -1 , is associated with FSs production under the expansion of agroforestry systems, improved pasture and crop management and application of biochar to soils 5 .Nevertheless, the mitigation benefits of improved systems could be offset under food production's current growth trajectory, especially for livestock production 10 . Even with higher efficiency, greater production needed to meet growing demand might increase net GHG emissions. This condition suggests that dietary changes, including a reduction in consumption of livestock products and replacement by plant-based foods, is also important to help transition to low-carbon and net-zero food systems 5,8,13,15 . Furthermore, several technologies developed or under development might help further reduce emissions in the medium and long run, such as feed additives for livestock, novel perennials, soil additives, nanoproducts and intelligent food packaging 17 .Therefore, a combination of actions (e.g., implementation of low-emissions interventions for improving production systems efficiency, promotion of carbon sequestration; reduction in livestock-based protein consumption and deployment of new-horizon technologies) is likely necessary to reduce net GHG emissions of FSs aligned with net-zero emissions strategies 10,15 .Although the impressive commitment to the net-zero agenda of countries and the world's biggest food companies, guidance offering multiple options for achieving net-zero emissions in global FSs and informing the effectiveness of pledges and catalyze meaningful climate action is still needed. To date, most studies have focused on estimating global food systems emissions 6,18 and evaluating potential mitigation through a few and aggregated pathways using complex models 3,10 and none has proposed a roadmap towards net-zero food systems, which has lately been highly demanded by several food systems actors 19 .Through a rapid assessment using three datasets, the FAO forecast on global food production by 2050 7 and food value-chain emissions intensities 16 and carbon sequestration potentials 5 , we built 60+ pathways towards 2050 by analyzing global food demands with the implementation of four major interventions in FSs: (1) implementing low-emission practices to reduce emissions through increased production efficiency (10th, 20th, 30th, 40th pctl of least emission-intensive systems and average); (2) sequestering carbon in croplands and grasslands; (3)  shifting diets to reduce global production of livestock-based protein; and (4) adopting new-horizon technologies across food value-chains. In calculating these contributions, we also provide a vision, with examples, to downscale global sectoral goals to the regional level, highlighting areas where improvements are needed. It is important to note that since our analysis is limited to a global overview, the implications of FSs intensification may have different consequences at regional scales. Further analysis is needed to shed more light on the possibility to mix different intensification strategies to optimally meet socio-economic and environmental targets. However, as countries and companies begin implementing their pledges and establish sectoral targets, our analysis provides a transparent, scientific basis for gauging the ambition of these contributions to global net-zero food systems.Food system emissions snapshot. We estimate that global FSs emitted 18.7-21.4 Gt CO 2 e/y from 2010 to 2020 (Fig. 1). This estimate is consistent with the emissions range of recent estimates covering the same period (9-22 GtCO 2 e/y) 3,6,16,18,[20][21][22] . Four value-chains-beef, milk, rice and maize-are responsible for nearly 65% (13.9 GtCO 2 e) of total FS emissions, and seven value-chains (+ wheat, pig and poultry) are responsible for almost 80% of emissions (17.2 GtCO 2 e). Livestock production (meat and milk) alone accounts for 60% of total FSs emissions (12.6 GtCO 2 e) (Fig. 1). Close to 70% of FS emissions come from land-use change and farming activities 6,16 .The production of major grains, meat and milk is projected to increase 29-81% by 2050 compared to today's levels 7 . Under current average production practices, meeting the 2050 projected food production 7 would increase FS emissions by 38% (~ 8 GtCO 2 e/y) compared to 2020, respectively (Fig. 1). These findings are consistent with recent analyses that have suggested that global FS emissions might increase 30-50% by 2050 11 .We find that the adoption of low-emission practices could shift global FSs production from the average to the 40th, 30th, 20th and 10th-percentile (pctl) of least emission-intensive systems 16 and could reduce the emission of 9.1-13.2 GtCO 2 e/y in 2050 compared to the 2020 base year level (21.4 GtCO 2 e) (Fig. 2). Major contributions would come from livestock and rice value-chains (Fig. 2).Although these FS value-chains are the most emission-intensive ones, they also have the largest mitigation potential across FSs (Fig. 2). For example, improving production practices with existing technologies could reduce emissions by 40%-70% compared to average values: beef from 7.3 to ~ 2.5 GtCO 2 e/y and rice and milk from 2.4 to ~ 1.0 GtCO 2 e/y (Fig. 2). Most of this mitigation potential is related to reductions in land-use change (e.g., deforestation for agricultural land expansion), improvements in animal feeding and breeding and manure management, nutrient management (with focus on nitrogen fertilizers), water management in rice paddies and energy efficiency (e.g., renewables) across the value-chain as well as measures to reduce food loss and waste (i.e., improved packaging and storage) 5,16,17,23,24 . Also, using a global warming potential accounting for short-lived GHGs (GWP*), like CH 4 , means that relatively small annual reductions in CH 4 emissions (~ 0.3%) could eliminate global warming caused by the emissions of CH 4 from biogenic sources in 20 years [25][26][27] .Harnessing the carbon sequestration potential associated with low-emissions agricultural practices could contribute to an additional emission abatement of 10.5 GtCO 2 e/y 5 . Most of this potential is related to the belowand above-ground carbon accumulation with the expansion of agroforestry systems (5.6 GtCO 2 e/y) and soil carbon sequestration with improvements of pasture and crop management (2.5 GtCO 2 e/y), such as the adoption of reduced and no-tillage and grass-legume mixtures in pastures, and the application of biochar to soils (2.4 GtCO 2 e/y) 5 . Furthermore, it is worth noting that these mitigation actions also have synergies with food productivity, climate adaptation, and other environmental aspects (e.g., water and soil conservation) 17,28,29 .www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Reduction in livestock-based protein consumption. Reducing livestock-based protein consumption is often pointed out as another option to reduce GHG emissions from food systems 3,8 . Nevertheless, under current average livestock production practices, a reduction of livestock-based protein consumption would only decrease livestock emissions in 2050, compared to the 2020 levels, if projected production is cut over 25% (Table 1). At or below this level, livestock emissions would rise or be kept constant considering today's average production system emissions and projected increases in meat (+ 37%) and milk (+ 29%) productions by 2050 7 (Table 2). On the other hand, if accompanied by the implementation of low emission practices, reducing the consumption of livestock-based protein by 10% and 25%, for example, could promote emission reductions of 0.5-2.5 GtCO 2 e/y by 2050 (Table 1). Therefore, scaling the implementation of low-emissions practices to improve livestock production is a precondition to drive significant changes in emissions towards net-zero FSs.New-horizon technologies. New technologies to reduce GHG emissions from FSs include those that are still costly (Roe et al. 5 ) and primarily not yet present in food value-chains but could increase mitigation from GHG-efficient food production practices, land-use change, and carbon sinks 30 . This diverse pipeline, including consumer-ready artificial meat, methane inhibitors, intelligent packaging, vertical agriculture, nano-drones and 3-D printing, presents real opportunities for systemic change 17 . Also, if these technologies are developed to reduce costs of existing agricultural-related practices that are not cost-effective today (e.g., > 100 USD/tCO 2 e), it could unlock emissions reductions and carbon sequestration of approximately 8. 5   to 40% of today's FSs emissions and 50% of agricultural-related mitigation potential 5 . For example, the implementation of agroforestry has the technical potential to sequester approximately 11.2 GtCO2e/y, but only 20% of this potential is considered cost-effective today 5 .Food system mitigation potential. By randomly combining the implementation of major FS mitigation actions to target net-zero emissions by 2050 in 64 scenarios, we found that only eight would lead to net-zero FSs through the implementation of existing low emission and carbon sequestration production practices (Fig. 3), another eight scenarios would need to further rely on diets shifts and the remaining 48 would need additional emission reduction with the implementation of new-horizon technologies reducing up to 5 GtCO 2 e/y (Fig. 3). Through the implementation of existing low-emission and carbon sequestration practices only (i.e., excluding the reduction in livestock-based protein consumption and new-horizon technologies), we estimate that FSs emissions could shift from 21.4 to ~ − 2.0 GtCO 2 e/y by 2050 (i.e., 110% reduction compared to 2020 level by moving FS to the 10th pctl of least emission-intensive practices and harnessing 100% of the carbon sequestration potential) (Fig. 3).The higher the implementation of low-emissions practices (i.e., towards the 10th pctl of leasts emissionintensive systems), the lower the dependance on carbon sequestration, reduction of livestock-based protein consumption and new-horizon technologies. Therefore, scaling low-emissions practices to improve FSs production is fundamental to feasibly driving significant changes in emissions towards net-zero FSs (Fig. 3).  The conditions for harnessing the full FSs mitigation potential in the next three decades are ambitious given the cost-effectiveness of practices, differences in regional contexts (e.g., cost of implementation, institutional and technical capacity, and food access and demands), historical trends and uncertainties related to carbon sequestration 5,11,13,31,32 . For example, over the last 30 years (1988-2017), global productivity of cereals, rice, beef and dairy increased 9-40% while emission intensity (at farm level-major emission source; Fig. 2) was reduced by 7-40%, respectively (FAO-Stat, 2021). These numbers are far behind the emission reduction potential of ~ 65% (i.e., 10th pctl least emission-intensive systems) and more compatible with the 40th pctl least emission-intensive systems (Fig. 2). Only about 50% of the technical mitigation potential of existing agricultural-related practices and technologies are cost-effective today (e.g., up to 100 USD/tCO 2 e), and close to 75% of that is in developing (~ 65%) and least developed (~ 10%) countries (Roe et al. 5 ). This may add extra financial, technical and policy constraints for implementing FSs net-zero emissions plans, as developing and least developed nations likely have lower institutional capacity for implementing more effective climate policies 33 .There are still concerns regarding carbon sequestration permanence, which encompasses issues related to the time and vulnerability of the carbon sequestered in soils and biomass, such as (i) differential sequestration rates over time and long run decline to a near-zero rate, and (ii) release of sequestered carbon back into the atmosphere after discontinued carbon sequestering practices 31,32,34 . These aspects suggest that bolder actions to mitigate GHG from FSs are necessary to increase chances to achieve net-zero FSs emissions by 2050; according to the strategies and assumptions evaluated in this work, there is no silver bullet, and a combination of actions should therefore be targeted to increase the feasibility of achieving net-zero emission FSs by 2050 (Fig. 3).The roadmap for net-zero food systems. Without relying on carbon offsets (e.g., related to afforestation and reforestation), FSs have the potential to reach net-zero emissions by 2050 (Fig. 3), but countries' contextual constraints are likely to limit the potential reach of implementation. However, recent engagement of global FSs actors, along with advances in the plant-based protein industry and disruptive technologies 17,35,36 , has created momentum for action that may speed the implementation of low-emission and carbon sequestration practices, as well as the dissemination of diet shifts, to move FS emissions away from current trends. In this context, a vision for a net-zero FSs encompasses:• Large-scale adoption of low-emission practices to shift the production to the 30th pctl of least emissionintensive systems (~ 45% emissions reduction across FSs), which could mitigate 10.6 GtCO 2 e/y, or ~ 50% of the mitigation needed by 2050 compared to the 2020 base year. • Realizing 50% of the carbon sequestration potential associated with low-emission practices (i.e., soil carbon, agroforestry and biochar) could contribute another ~ 24% (5.2 GtCO 2 e/y) emission reduction. • Reducing the remaining FS emissions (5.6 GtCO 2 e/y) by decreasing 2050 projected livestock production, especially in high-and middle-income countries, in 25% (1.2GtCO 2 e/y) and by deploying new-horizon technologies (4.4 GtCO 2 e/y) (Fig. 3).Major actions to implement this vision over the next three decades could be summarized as follows:• By 2030, implement cost-effective actions to reduce CO 2 emissions from land-use change (e.g., deforestation and other land conversion) for food production along with using existing technologies to improve (i) beef, milk and rice production and (ii) nutrient management (focusing on nitrogen fertilizer) across major grain production systems (e.g., maize and wheat). By 2040, low-emissions agricultural practices should be implemented to harness the remaining cost-effective mitigation potential. Of this mitigation potential, 55% to 87% could be achieved with practices costing up to 100 US$/tCO 2 (Fig. 4; Table 2). • Implement cost-effective technologies and practices to sequester 1.7, 3.5 and 5.2 GtCO 2 annually by 2030, 2040 and 2050, respectively. This can be achieved by adopting agroforestry, applying biochar to soils and improving crop (e.g., tillage and cover crops) and pasture management (e.g., rotational grazing and fertilization) practices. Close to 45% of the carbon sequestration potential (4.8 GtCO 2 y −1 ) would cost up to 100 US$/ tCO 2 (Fig. 4; Table 2). • By 2040, scale the use of renewable energy (e.g., wind and solar), enhance fuel efficiency, expand the electric transportation fleet, improve fertilizer production, expand the circular economy and peri-urban agriculture, and promote diet shifts in high-and middle-income countries (Fig. 4; Table 2). • From 2040 to 2050, develop and produce affordable new-horizon technologies for negative emissions, with focus on livestock production systems (e.g., methane capture, feed additives and new breeds), novel plants and perennials for carbon sequestration and enhanced energy efficiency for storing, processing, transporting, packaging and retailing. Approximately 5.6 GtCO 2 e/y (2.6 and 5.7 GtCO 2 e emissions reduction and carbon sequestration, respectively)-or ~ 25% of the mitigation needed for net-zero FS-could be unleashed with the reduction of implementation costs (today above 100 US$/tCO 2 ) (Fig. 4; Table 2).Making net-zero food systems realistic. Our results show that the implementation of major mitigation actions for intensifying FSs based on existing low emission and carbon sequestration practices have the potential to reduce FSs emissions beyond net-zero by 2050 while increasing food production. Our analysis also demonstrates that an intensification strategy with a more diverse portfolio of practices, most notably diet shifts and new-horizon technologies, will be more effective for reaching net-zero emissions by 2050 without relying on carbon offsets (e.g., related to afforestation and reforestation).Even so, this scenario may not be realistic under today's trends considering that net-zero FSs require reducing emissions by 3.3% or ~ 700 MtCO 2 e annually between 2020 and 2050. In 2020, global fossil fuel emissions dropped 5.4% as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, which is an unprecedented emissions reduction (at least since 1970) 37 . However, as the global economy is rebuilt, a rebound of 4.8% is expected in 2021 37 , leaving a net emissions reduction of just 0.6%. These numbers illustrate how difficult and massive the challenge to change current production patterns and reduce emissions is. This scenario could be different for FSs given the recent engagement of global FSs actors with the climate agenda and climate commitments (e.g., UNFSSS, Global Methane Pledge, and SBTi) 38 . Along with significant advances in the plant-based protein industry and disruptive technologies, this engagement has created a momentum for action that may speed up the implementation of steps to move FSs emissions away from business-asusual trends.Against this backdrop, implementing cost-effective measures and making affordable practices and new-horizon technologies in the coming decades seems to be a reasonable mitigation pathway for increasing the chances of food systems achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. To make net-zero FSs realistic it is essential to overcoming barriers, for example, related to regional contexts (e.g., cost of implementation, institutional and technical capacity, and food access and demands), historical trends, and uncertainties related to carbon sequestration 5,11,13,31,32 . Furthermore, to realize ambitious emissions reductions, FSs actors must coordinate and promote improvements on several other fronts, including institutional capacity (i.e., governance), finance, research, and technical assistance, especially in developing and least developed countries, and plan major emission reductions in the short run using current cost-effective practices. This would improve the feasibility of net-zero commitments and make FSs less dependent on the success and affordability of new-horizon technologies for large-scale negative emissions (which are uncertain at the moment) and cause carbon-intensive industries to stop growth and move to less intensive options.The mitigation potential of FSs interventions must also be validated against efficacy and cost-effectiveness across regions to avoid unintended consequences and minimize trade-offs 39,40 , which safeguards the effectiveness of practices in reducing emissions and enhancing food production and security. To support this process, research could be directed to tailor practices for different contexts, while making affordable new-horizon technologies in the medium-and long-term. This process must be done in close coordination with technical assistance for effective adaptation and implementation of mitigation and carbon sequestration practices on the ground along with farmers, in conjunction with assistance to meet monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) of emissions requirements 41 . Science-based targets (FLAG) could be a reference as well as carbon market standards (e.g., VERRA and Gold Standard). Global benchmarks 11 must also be kept up to date to track the implementation of food system actions and commitments.Critically, the reorientation of both public and private sector sources of capital is needed to achieve net-zero emissions in global food systems by 2050. Firstly, financial mechanisms supporting the adoption of practices to realizing net-zero could be created by orienting traditional bank loans for positive climate impact, and scaling other approaches, such as blended finance and carbon markets 42,43 . Traditional bank loans offer a pathway to scale validated cost-effective technologies given the position of the lender to incentivize technology adoption. However, following the experience in the sector of renewable energy and energy efficiency, this requires access to patient capital and technical assistance for building the capacity of financial intermediaries, especially in developing and least developed countries, to construct loan portfolios and design incentive mechanisms that are explicitly linked to climate outcomes (e.g., Global Climate Partnership Fund-GCPF). The public sector can support in developing institutional frameworks such as cost-effective assessment and monitoring frameworks to enable the growth of such portfolios.Secondly, inovative financial mechanisms are needed to demonstrate the viability of investments in the adoption of low-emission interventions and carbon sequestration practices in developing and least developed countries, as well as absorb some of the early risk and up-front cost associated with a shift away from business as usual. Strategically allocating public sector capital to de-risk some of the private sector challenges (i.e. blended finance mechanisms etc.) and incentivizing the private sector to create new investment opportunities (i.e. carbon markets etc.,) are critical transition tools to build a diversified portfolio of cost-effective technologies. Furthermore, overlaying and co-designing such mechanisms with large corporations through, for example, implementing customized and collaborative corporate insetting programs within shared supply chains can ensure buy-in while contributing to the net-zero transition.Lastly, new funding models are required to sustain inflows of high-risk capital to incubate and accelerate new horizon technologies, especially to move technologies from the investment readiness phase to the implementation phase. Public sector can support in creating an enabling environment for such programs, especially in developing and least developing countries where models are less developed.Evidence shows that countries with better governance have more effective climate policies and could help maintain the integrity of the net-zero target while avoiding unintended consequences due to policy changes 44,45 . Investing in education, especially in regard to gender, is a key predictor of higher levels of governance. Increasing societal awareness of the need to support changes in food systems and consumption patterns is also fundamental for driving transformational change 14 .To foster this scenario at a global level, FSs net-zero plans could put more emphasis in the short run on a strong coalition of developing and developed nations, which are likely to have a higher capacity, while build capacity in developing and least developed countries, where international cooperation may also help.Since our analysis is limited to a global overview, the implications of FSs intensification may have different consequences at regional and country scales. Therefore, it is important that further analysis shed more light on the possibility to mix different intensification strategies to optimally meet socio-economic and environmental targets. Furthermore, data validation (e.g., emission factors and food production) is key for refining findings as well as recommendations for food systems stakeholders. This is especially applied to the levels of emission and emissions reductions while enhancing food production efficiency 16 , as well as carbon sequestration in agriculturebased systems 5 .Although net-zero FSs are achievable, bolder implementation of more efficient production practices is fundamental to feasibly meet both global food production and climate goals. This work provides an overview of this challenge along with a vision that could guide FSs actors towards these objectives.To estimate current and future FSs emissions and design strategies to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, we evaluated emissions from 19 major crop and livestock (food) value chains by multiplying their respective global domestic production projections under business-as-usual 7 by a range of value-chain emissions intensities (10th, 20th, 30th, 40th pctl of least emission-intensive systems and average) 16 (SM). This approach permits to estimate total food value-chain emissions at different emission intensities (percentiles) that can be further used to evaluate potential changes in emissions by shifting production system efficiency. Although there has been a business-as-usual increase in food production efficiency, this rapid assessment assumed that the business-asusual FS GHG emissions per unit of food produced remain constant at current levels-although we further discuss business-as-usual trends in the main text. For livestock value-chain emissions, we deducted emissions from feed production 16 to avoid double-counting the emissions from the production of feed ingredients (e.g., grains). Emissions intensities 16 encompass the emissions of major GHGs released through FS operations from \"farm to fork\": carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), nitrous oxide (N 2 O), and methane (CH 4 ).We estimated changes in FS emissions starting in 2020 through 2050 for multiple scenarios:• Implementation of low-emissions interventions to shift production to the 40th, 30th, 20th and 10th pctl of least emission-intensive systems 16 . Lower percentiles are associated with no or reduced land-use change and food loss and waste 15 . • We considered that this shift would promote carbon sequestration in cropland and grassland soils (through best management practices), above and below-ground agroforestry systems and the application of biochar to soils 5 . We tested the realization of those potentials at 50, 75 and 100% 5 . We did not consider the carbon sequestration potential from afforestation and reforestation (A/R) and other natural ecosystem restoration (e.g., mangroves and peatlands) to FS 5 . We also assumed the eventual spared area used for feed production would be directed to expansion of other crops for human consumption. • Reduce global production, driven by lower consumption, of livestock-based protein (meat and milk) by 10, 25 and 50%, calculated using the 2050-projected levels as reference 7 . We assumed that reducing consumption of livestock products lowers milk and meat production. This process should slow demand growth, and eventually reduce the number of livestock heads-the major GHG source in the agricultural sector.• Adoption of new-horizon technologies across the food value-chains. These technologies include those that are not yet present on farms but could increase mitigation from GHG-efficient food production practices, land-use change, and carbon sinks 30 , as well as make current cost-ineffective practices and technologies affordable 5 .We built a pathway towards 2050 by assuming these strategies would be implemented at a rate of 20, 50 and 100% by 2030, 2040 and 2050, respectively. For livestock and rice production, we adjusted 16 data to reflect the contribution of CH 4 emissions to warming potential using the GWP* concept [25][26][27] . Under GWP*, stable CH 4 emission rates contribute a relatively small CO 2 e emission. Increasing CH 4 emission rates are reflected as a large CO 2 e emission and can exceed the GWP -100 of CH 4 if rates increase at more than approximately 1% per year. Declining CH 4 emission rates are reported as a negative CO 2 e emission and can reach zero CO 2 e if emission rates decline by 0.35% per year over 20 years. For that, we consider 2020 as the base year where the GWP* concept was applied. We must also consider that approximately 70% of the emissions from livestock and rice production are in the form of CH 4 11 and that approximately 70% of these emissions come from farm level 16 . Despite providing 60+ pathways for achieving net-zero FS using a transparent and accessible methodology and framework, certain limitations and gaps remain, especially on data sources related to the FS emissions factors and carbon sequestration potentials used in this work. For example, the development of FS emission factors percentiles relied on several studies evaluating emissions across a number of food value-chains 16 . As some of those studies reported group farms into a single observation and/or provided an impact average and its associated standard deviation, to include intrinsic sources of variance across parts of the value-chain and across observations (e.g., emissions factors, processing, packaging, retail, and transport impacts; processing conversions; and other conversions), the authors re-specified all values associated with variance as normally distributed variables. As pointed out by the authors, this approach may have limitations if studies are not reporting standard deviations or if they are remodeling from inventory data were used to fill different emissions gaps for each study. Nevertheless, the approach was likely one of the best way to incorporate multiple sources of variance found across studies to develop emissions percentiles. Similar limitations may also apply to the carbon sequestration dataset used in this work 5 , it also relies primarily on several previous research to derive carbon sequestration potentials. However, by updating global and regional mitigation potentials using both sectoral and integrated assessment model (IAM) approaches and comparing the results of both approaches, this study significantly improved the estimation of land-based mitigation potentials. Additional research is however needed for validating key datasets for estimating emissions and removals in FS across difference geographies and contexts and, ultimately, refining recommendations for FS stakeholders. This is especially applied to the attainable levels of emission and emissions reductions while enhancing food production efficiency 16 , as well as carbon sequestration in agriculture-based systems 5 (Supplementary Information).","tokenCount":"4984"}

data/part_6/0193068463.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e5857a86d809d50e771973634bf46e73","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2a0df74e-dcc2-4c42-b7af-ebd7a729b126/retrieve","id":"-70940363"},"keywords":["Cassava","Stictococcus vayssierei","altitude","screening","tolerance Manioc","S. vayssierei","altitude","criblage","tolérance Variétés (Noms et/ou Code) Couleur et goût de Pulpe Maturité Comportement face aux maladies et ravageurs Rendement (T/Ha) Origine Butamu/Mv99/0395 Jaune","doux (Sucré) 12 mois Résistance à : Mosaïque","Bactériose","Acarien vert 20-25 INERA Disanka/I96/0211 Blanche (Amer) 12 mois Résistance à : Mosaïque","Bactériose","Acarien vert 30-35 Mvuazi/I95/0528 Blanche","doux (Sucré) 12 mois Résistance à : Mosaïque","Bactériose","Tolérance à : Acarien vert 35-40 Nsansi/I95/0160 Blanche","doux (Sucré) 12 mois Résistance à : Mosaïque","Bactériose","Susceptible à : Acarien vert 35-40 IITA-IBADAN Sawasawa/MM96/3920 Blanche","doux (Sucré) 12 mois Résistance à : Mosaïque","Bactériose","Tolérance à : Acarien vert"],"sieverID":"26a96794-78dc-4b93-8ba1-1f41b4db89e3","pagecount":"17","content":"Cassava is, economically, one of the most important root and tuber crops in Africa. However, its production is compromised by a large number of diseases and pests among which the african root and tuber scale (Stictococcus vayssierei  Richard). This insect causes damage that can result in a low yield and non tuber formation of cassava in case of serious infestation. It is in this context that a study on screening cassava (Manihot esculenta CRANTZ) genotypes was carried out for resistance to African root and tuber scale in different agro ecological areas of Beni (North Kivu province, in East of the Democratic Republic of Congo). The objective of the study is to assess resistance to African root and tuber scale of 40 varieties of cassava supplied by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Institut of Research Agriculture whose five local are found on the spot after survey. To reach this goal, we verified the hypothesis that stipulates that the introduction of new varieties of cassava in the country is a strategy to fight African root and tuber scale. All varieties were placed in four sites under mild altitudes (1000-1200 m) and high altitudes (1200-1400 m). The populations of African root and tuber scale in various stages of life and the tuberous root production of each variety were assessed every three months for two years in a randomized block experimental with four repetitions. The screening ANOVA findings showed significant effects, S. vayssierei infested the majority of tested varieties. Nevertheless, principal components analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis identified a reconciliation of tolerance vis-à-vis African root and scale in some improved varieties while released viz, Liyayi (MM96/0287), Obama (TME 419), Mvuazi (I95/528), Dinsaka (I96/0211) and while developing such as 20BI, 20B2, 20B4, 20B16, 20B27, 20B28, 20B29, 81, MM96/0105, MM96/4653, MM96/5272, MM96/5475, MM97/2206 as well as on some local varieties such as MUKAKASA, MBAYILO in different agro ecological areas of Beni Territory in view of the marketable tuberous root production at the end of screening. All the above-mentioned varieties gave a yielded ranging from 20, 3 T/ha to 74, 96 T/ha, included or over the interval acceptable by officially released varieties in DRC. The results indicated that the introduction of improved cassava varieties could be one of the alternatives for African root and tuber scale integrated management. Also, they show the importance of local varieties research for the development of cassava subsector.Le potentiel productif du manioc en Afrique est gravement compromis par la cochenille africaine de racines et tubercules (Stictococcus vayssierei Richard). En effet, en République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) le manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) est la principale culture vivrière et occupe 50% des superficies de toutes les étendues sous cultures vivrières [1].Les cochenilles extraient la sève des plantes, endommagent les tissus végétaux et injectent des toxines ou des virus chez nombreuses plantes d'importance économique [2]. De plus, les trous laissés sur les tissus végétaux constituent une porte d'entrée pour de nombreux pathogènes. C'est le cas de Stictococcus vayssierei Richard [3], [4], [5] ou la cochenille africaine de racines et tubercules (CART). Sa présence a été signalée pour la première fois en RDC dans le District du Bas-Fleuve, province du Bas-Congo au cours des années 1970 [6].C'est vers la fin de l'année 1980 que cette cochenille est devenue un ravageur nuisible majeur dans les champs de manioc dans certains pays tel que le Cameroun [7]. Le statut de ravageur de cette cochenille serait tributaire de l'intensification de la culture du manioc qui a entraîné le changement dans les pratiques culturales du milieu [8]  [9]. La CART infeste les parties souterraines du manioc sur lesquelles elle se nourrit pendant tout son cycle de vie [10]. Les dégâts de cette cochenille sur le manioc entraînent le manque de la tubérisation ou le faible rendement en cas d'infestation sévère [11]. À cause de l'importance alimentaire et économique du manioc, il nous semble plus raisonnable de penser à augmenter le rendement tout en réduisant les pertes par des moyens qui n'entraînent que peu ou pas d'effets indésirables sur l'environnement.Face à la résistance des cochenilles aux produits chimiques [12] et à la dégradation de l'environnement par ces derniers, la lutte intégrée passe actuellement comme la meilleure alternative. Cette lutte nécessite entre autre la maîtrise de l'écologie du ravageur et du potentiel génétique du matériel végétal, notamment la résistance aux maladies et ravageurs dans les agrosystèmes [13]. La rareté des données se référant à la résistance de variétés de manioc aux infestations de la cochenille S. vayssierei mérite une attention particulière. Au stade actuel aucune recherche n'a été menée à l'Est de la RDC, particulièrement dans le Territoire de Beni où des infestations énormes des cochenilles radicoles sont observées même en haute altitude non forestière alors que selon [3], les cochenilles ont été décrites comme étant endémiques dans les zones forestières humides de basses altitudes. Le choix de ce sujet se justifie par le fait que le manioc en Afrique joue deux rôles majeurs pour les populations : celui de culture de sécurité et celui de production de base pour le développement économique des régions pauvres [14]. Ses racines tubéreuses sont des matières premières des industries d'amidonneries et ses feuilles sont riches en vitamines et sels minéraux et constituent le principal légume et même le principal complément alimentaire de base de nombreux Congolais [15]. L'examen de la relation causale entre les effets dévastateurs de la cochenille africaine de racines et tubercules et la productivité du manioc nous a inspiré deux idées fortes en guise d'hypothèses :• Dans le germoplasme actuellement disponible en RDC, il y a des variétés de manioc résistantes à la CART.• Le test du germoplasme constitué de plusieurs génotypes permet l'identification des sources de résistance de manioc à la cochenille africaine de racines et tubercules.L'objectif global de l'étude est d'identifier parmi les 40 génotypes de manioc du germoplasme, ceux qui sont résistants aux infestations de la CART, en vue de proposer les stratégies de protection intégrée à développer dans la culture de manioc.Les essais ont été conduits en milieu paysan dans le Territoire de Beni, Province du Nord Kivu en RDC sous deux types d'altitudes (800 m à 1200 m) et (1200 m à 1400 m). Les sites d'étude et les coordonnées géographiques sont consignés au tableau 1 et à la la photo 4. Le Territoire de Beni étant situé à cheval sur l'Equateur, une grande partie bénéficie du climat équatorial de type Af, de la classification de Koppen, caractérisée par une pluviométrie mensuelle du mois le plus sec supérieur à 60 mm [16].Les conditions climatiques ayant prévalu pendant la période expérimentale en première année (2009) et en deuxième année (2010) sont résumées sur les Fig. 1, Fig. 2 et Fig. 3.   L'approche scientifique utilisée dans cette étude est l'expérimentation au champ dans le milieu paysan. Les variétés de manioc ont été plantées en bloc complètement randomisé. Le bloc avait une dimension de 21 m X 13 m. Dans chaque ligne dans le sens de la largeur six plants d'une variété de manioc étaient plantés aux écartements de 1m x 1m suivis sur la même ligne par six autres plants d'une autre variété.La méthode d'infestation était naturelle et s'opérait par les évaluations. Les observations sur la population des cochenilles africaine des racines et tubercules (CART) de manioc se faisaient à un rythme trimestriel sur le manioc âgé de 3 mois après plantation (3MAP), 6 mois après plantation (6MAP), 9 mois après plantation (9MAP) à la première année et jusqu'à 12 mois après plantation (12MAP) à la deuxième année de criblage pour l'évaluation de la production en racines Pour évaluer la population de CART, nous avons procédé au dénombrement des individus à tous les stades de vie (larves 1, larves 2, adultes, individus morts) sur les boutures mères, les racines tubéreuses et nourricières. La technique de comptage a consisté d'abord à séparer à l'aide des machettes et sécateurs les tiges sur les souches, les racines tubéreuses des autres non tubérisées sur les plants à évaluer et ensuite le comptage de CART. Au total, nous avons dénombré les populations de CART sur 80 plants par bloc aussi bien au premier criblage qu'au deuxième criblage pour tout le matériel végétal à chaque évaluation. Pendant le dénombrement nous avons utilisé les loupes entomologiques à agrandissement type Optivisor (optical Glasbinocular magnifier) pour dénombrer les larves 1 et larves 2 de la CART de petites dimensions. Nous avons recouru aux compteurs manuels rapides pour dénombrer les jeunes larves, les adultes et les individus morts. Pour indiquer la tolérance de certaines variétés à la CART, le nombre des racines commercialisables obtenu par chacune d'elles à chacune des évaluations a été pesé et extrapolé en Tonnes par hectare. Une racine est dite commercialisable lorsqu'elle est grosse avec un bon calibre, sans trous laissés par la CART et peut être vendue pour la consommation.Les analyses statistiques ont été faites à l'aide des logiciels JMP, SAS Institute pour l'analyse de la variance et XLSTAT 2015 pour l'analyse en composantes principales (ACP) et pour la classification ascendante hiérarchisée (CAH). Les données de comptage de la CART ont été transformées par la fonction logarithmique.Les résultats de comptage CART ont été exprimés en nombre d'individus par plant. Les populations de CART sur chacune des variétés sous moyenne et haute altitude pendant les échéances d'évaluation en première et deuxième année de criblage sont consignées aux tableaux 3 et 4. Les rendements en racines tubéreuses et les populations CART à la fin du criblage sont résumé au tableau 5. La figure 5 représente la structuration des quatre variables liées à la population CART et à la production en racines tubéreuses en analyse en composante principale (ACP). La figure 5 représente le dendrogramme de rapprochement entre les génotypes de manioc améliorés et locales sous criblage en moyenne et haute altitude sur base d'infestation de CART et rendement en racines tubéreuses en classification ascendante hiérarchisée.Le tableau 3 donne le nombre moyen de cochenilles radicoles par plant sur chaque variété de manioc à 3MAP, 6MAP et 9MAP dans le Territoire de Beni en moyenne et haute altitude en première année de criblage. Les clones de manioc MM96/0105, MM97/2206 et 20B28 paraissent les plus colonisées à presque toutes les échéances d'évaluation, pourtant leur productivité est bonne au vu des nombres des racines commercialisables observés (Tableau 4). L'exploitation de ces derniers génotypes de manioc dans le Territoire de Beni peut être comme une stratégie de lutte contre la CART. Globalement, les variétés et clones de manioc tels que Liyayi, 20B29, 20B1, Mbayilo, Mukalasa, 20B27, MM96/0105, MM97/2206, 81, Butamu et MM96/5272 ont été identifiés comme tolérants à la CART dans les zones agroécologiques situées en moyennes altitude de Beni à cause de leur productivité en racines tubéreuses (Tableaux 5).Le tableau 3 donne également les résultats de l'évaluation de la population CART à l'altitude de 1200 m à 1400 m en première année. Il se dégage de ces résultats que toutes les variétés ou clones criblés en haute altitude ont été faiblement colonisés par la CART à toutes les périodes d'évaluation (3MAP, 6MAP, 9MAP). Toutefois, à 6MAP nous avons observé une population plus élevée de CART, soit une moyenne équivaut à 38 CART par plant par rapport à 3MAP et 9MAP. La moyenne de la population cochenille a été de 31 CART par plant à l'échéance de 9MAP et de 24 à celle de 3MAP prouvant en suffisance que sous haute altitude l'infestation de clones ou variétés de manioc par la CART a été très faible.Aux regards de ces résultats, certaines variétés de manioc qui ont été sensibles à la CART sur les zones des moyennes altitudes ont présenté une bonne production en racines tubéreuses commercialisables et peuvent faire l'objet d'exploitation sur les zones de hautes altitudes (1200 m à 1400 m) du Territoire de Beni. L'amélioration de la productivité de ces génotypes sous hautes altitudes peut être attribuable au fait qu'il n'y a pas jusqu'ici une grande population de CART qui peut causer des dégâts entraînant la réduction du rendement en racines tubéreuses. La population de CART observée sous ces zones reste encore en équilibre avec les pratiques culturales utilisées. D'une manière générale les clones et variétés de manioc ci-après : 20B1, 20B2, 20B4, 20B16, 20B27, 20B28, 81, MM96/4653, MM96/5475, MM96/2100, MM97/2206 et Mvuazi, Dinsaka, Liyayi, Mukalasa, Mbayilo et Balulu ont été identifiés comme tolérants à la CART sur les zones de hautes altitudes du territoire de Beni. Parmi ces derniers génotypes de manioc cinq ont été précédemment identifiés comme tolérants aux dégâts de CART en moyenne altitude.Il s'agit de 20B1, 20B27, 2028, 81 et la variété locale Mbayilo. Ces cinq variétés peuvent être recommandées aussi bien en moyenne qu'en haute altitude dans le territoire de Beni à cause de leur production en racines tubéreuses.Les résultats sur l'évaluation de la population CART à l'altitude de 1000 m à 1200 m et de 1200 m à 1400 m en deuxième année se trouvent au tableau 4.Il ressort de ces résultats qu'à 6MAP, 12 variétés sur 40 de manioc en moyenne altitude ont hébergé une population CART élevée par rapport à 3MAP et 9MAP. La population moyenne de CART par plant à 6MAP a été de 38,9 individus. Egalement à 9MAP il apparaît huit sur 40 variétés de manioc avec une population élevée de CART par rapport à 3MAP. La moyenne de cochenille par plant à 9MAP a été de 36 individus. La population moyenne générale a été de 28,3 CART par plant pour toutes les échéances d'évaluation.La variété locale Kinyoka et la variété améliorée Nsansi ainsi que le clone 20B17 ont été faiblement colonisés par les cochenilles radicoles à toutes les échéances sur les toutes les zones agroécologiques du Territoire de Beni en premier et en deuxième criblage. Malheureusement ces variétés ont accusé de faibles productions par rapport à celles fortement infestées. Les moyennes des populations des individus hébergés par ces trois génotypes de manioc variaient entre 5 à 28 CART. Les variétés améliorées et locales telles que Liyayi, Butamu, 20B27, 81, MM96/0105, MM96/5272, MM97/2206 et Mbayilo ainsi que Mukalasa ont été plus colonisées par la CART. Par contre elles ont présenté une résistance dite « tolérance » à la CART au vu de leur productivité en racines tubéreuses (tableau 5) et pourront valablement servir dans les éventuels programme de création ou d'amélioration variétale. Les résultats sur l'évaluation de la population CART à l'altitude de 1200 m à 1400 m en deuxième année se trouvent également au Tableau 4. Il ressort de ces résultats que la population CART en haute altitude en deuxième année a été très faible pour toutes les échéances d'évaluation (3MAP, 6MAP et 9MAP) par rapport à la première année de criblage. Toutefois, à 9MAP il apparaît un grand nombre de variétés avec une population un peu élevé de cochenilles radicoles par rapport à 3MAP et 6MAP. Il y a eu moins d'individus à 3MAP et à 6MAP avec les moyennes d'infestation respectives de 7,6 et 9,5 CART par plant. Globalement 20 sur 40 des génotypes de manioc criblés sous les zones agroécologiques de hautes altitudes du Territoire de Beni ont présenté une tolérance à la CART, car leur production en racines tubéreuses a été acceptable et comprise dans l'intervalle des rendements des variétés en diffusion en RDC (Tableaux 1 et 5). Ainsi, quatre sur cinq variétés locales ont donné une bonne production en racines tubéreuses à la fin du criblage (12MAP) ; il s'agit des variétés Mukalasa, Mbayilo, Balulu et Kimbambu. Egalement, trois sur sept variétés améliorées en diffusion ont produit une grande quantité des racines tubéreuses de manioc à 12MAP, en l'occurrence des variétés Mvuazi, Dinsaka et Liyayi. Les rendements extrapolés à l'hectare des ces dernières variétés ont été respectivement de 63,8T/ha, 36,4T/ha et de 24,4T/ha. Nous avons aussi observé que 13 sur 28 variétés améliorées en développement ont produit plus des racines commercialisables dans l'intervalle des rendements des variétés en large diffusion en RDC. Ces variétés en développement étaient entre autre 20B1, 20B2, 20B4, 20B16, 20B27, 20B28, 20B29, MM96/4553, MM96/0105, MM96/2100 et MM97/2206. Les rendements extrapolés de ces clones ont varié de 24T/ha (pour MM96/2100) à 75T/ha (pour 20B1).Globalement, pour toutes les zones agroécologiques du Territoire de Beni, les variétés locales de manioc Mbayilo, Mukalasa, Balulu et Kimbambu ainsi que les variétés améliorées en diffusion et en développement telles que Liyayi, Mvuazi, Butamu et 20B1, 20B2, 20B4, 20B16, 20B27, 20B28, 20B29, MM96/4653, MM96/0105, MM96/4653, MM96/2100, MM96/5475 et MM97/2206 ont été à toutes les périodes d'évaluation moins ou fortement infestés par rapport aux autres variétés. Ces derniers génotypes de manioc ont présenté une tolérance à la CART à cause de leur production en racines tubéreuses à l'unité expérimentale. Ils peuvent être considérées comme une stratégie de lutte contre les cochenilles radicoles et révèlent une importance majeure en amont de la filière de mise au point des variétés résistantes à S. vayssierei par les généticiens.Le tableau 5 donne les rendements moyens des différentes variétés de manioc à la deuxième année de criblage (12MAP) sous différentes altitudes du territoire de BENI. Il ressort de ce tableau que les rendements en racines tubéreuses commercialisables les plus élevés a été observés sous hautes altitudes sur les variétés améliorées 20B1, Mvuazi et 20B16, soit respectivement 74,96 T/ha, 63,78 T/ha et 62,94 T/ha. Sous les moyennes altitudes les variétés améliorées Liyayi et 20B29 ont produit 53, 78 T/ha et 30,4 T/ha. Il se dégage de ces résultats que les variétés de manioc criblées dans le territoire de Beni ont été plus productives sous haute altitude que sous moyenne altitude. Cela se justifie par la présence de la cochenille Africaine de racines et tubercule du manioc et ses dégâts qui ont été élevés sous moyenne altitude. Toutefois, certains génotypes améliorés et locales de manioc ont toléré les infestations de la CART en moyenne altitude en produisant des rendements en racines tubéreuses variant entre 20 T/ha et 22,5 T/ha. Il s'agit des clones 20B27, MM96/5272, MM96/2206, MM96/0105 et les variétés locales Mbayilo et Mukalasa.L'ACP construite sur les quatre variables relative à la population de CART et au rendement en racines tubéreuses (3MAP, 6MAP, 9MAP et 12MAP) indique une bonne représentation des variables à travers le cercle de corrélation (figure 5) ; un bon taux de restitution de l'information sur la variabilité totale sur le plan F1, F2 (62,13%) et un étalement presque égale des individus le long des axes F1 qui contient 31,92 % d'information relative à la productivité des 40 variétés de manioc et F2 30,21% d'information sur la population des cochenilles. Variété La cochenille africaine des racines et tubercules (CART) cause des dégâts aussi bien dans les zones de savanes de haute altitude que dans celles de moyennes et de basses altitudes forestières contrairement à ce que rapportait [3] qu'elle était endémique dans les zones forestières humides de basses altitudes. Peut être que chez [3] les études ont été menées uniquement sur les zones forestières. Les rendements en racines tubéreuses des certaines variétés améliorées en diffusion de manioc sous criblage dans les moyennes et hautes altitudes ont été faibles par rapport leur productivité qui varie de 20 T/ha à 40 T/ha dans les zones qui ne connaissent pas les dégâts de cochenilles. Par exemple les variétés en diffusion de manioc telles que Obama, Nsansi, et Sawasawa ont produit moins de 20 T/ha par rapport à leur potentialité productive dans les moyennes et hautes altitudes du Territoire de Beni à cause des dégâts causés par les cochenilles radicoles. Certaines variétés locales et améliorées de manioc ont toléré les dégâts de la CART sous moyenne altitude malgré les fortes infestations de CART. Les variétés locales telles que Mukalasa et Mbayilo ont produit respectivement 22,43 T/ha et 22,53 T/ha sous moyenne altitude. La variété améliorée Liyayi a donné aussi 53,78 T/ha sous moyenne altitude. Ces résultats corroborent à ceux obtenus par [17] sur les effets des infestations de CART sur l'âge des variétés améliorées et locales du manioc en basse altitude à Tshela dans la province du Bas Congo.La classification ascendante hiérarchique des génotypes de manioc criblés en moyenne altitude montre qu'il y a eu des fortes infestations, par voie de conséquence réduction des rendements en racines tubéreuses. Par contre les faibles infestations ont été observées en haute altitude, partant augmentation des rendements de génotypes de manioc. Ceci semble concorder aux travaux antérieurs de [3] où il décrit les basses altitudes comme habitats de ces homoptères.Par ailleurs, il est bien établi que les interactions plantes-insectes depuis plusieurs centaines de million d'années, ont conduit à un processus de coévolution. Ce processus évolutif a permis aux plantes de synthétiser des métabolites secondaires bioactifs vis-à-vis des insectes. Plusieurs voies métaboliques telles que les cascades de réactions de phosphorylation et la voie de jasmonates parmi tant d'autres, ont à cet effet été rapporté dans la littérature comme responsables de la production des composés biocides par les plantes infectées [18]. Il faut en outre noter que l'expression des gènes qui contrôlent la biosynthèse de ces métabolites secondaires serait modulée par des facteurs environnementaux tels que le climat, la nature géologique du site, l'altitude, etc. [19,20]. Si cette affirmation n'est pas correcte, alors, on devrait s'attendre à ce qu'une variété améliorée de manioc testée résiste de la même façon à la cochenille Africaine de racines et tubercules (Stictococcus vayssierei Richard) sur tous les sites testés. Hors, nous avons observé dans la présente étude que le manioc résisterait mieux en altitude. Il pourrait s'agir dans ce cas d'une modulation épi-génétique et donc le(s) gène(s) de résistance à la cochenille seraient inductibles.Eu égards à ce qui précède le changement de certains facteurs climatiques entre autres la pluviosité serait la cause de cette différence de résistance. Toutefois, les études sur l'indicibilité des gènes de résistance de manioc combinées aux facteurs climatiques et écologiques de la CART s'avéreraient indispensable afin d'identifier les facteurs qui seraient à la base de différence de résistance dans différents sites du territoire de Beni.","tokenCount":"3638"}

data/part_6/0200266089.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3f48eebcc3fe75e1848f1c7750bbf9b3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/376d31a3-01b1-44b4-bc0f-8ce953f7e50e/retrieve","id":"916691679"},"keywords":["Distance-based learning","radio","climate change","Philippines","adaptation DWDA Station Manager","and Mrs. Catherine Jimenez, Communication Specialist, for their coordination, facilitation and secretarial support"," The Station Managers of the DA-RFO2: Engr. Fidelino R. Cabantac (Quirino"],"sieverID":"b7ae31fa-cf1b-4d2c-a6e9-717d2d5317ee","pagecount":"66","content":"This work was implemented as part of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), which is carried out with support from CGIAR Fund Donors and through bilateral funding agreements. For details please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors. The views expressed in this document cannot be taken to reflect the official opinions of these organisations.. Farmer listeners' intent to participate in other school-on-the-air program .. Table 15. Farmer-listener graduates' suggestions on future SOA program features ...One global issue threatening many country's efforts towards sustainable development is climate change. An unprecedented increase in greenhouse emissions has led to increased climate change impacts. It poses great challenges for the rural poor in developing countries that tend to rely on natural resources for their livelihoods and have limited capacity to adapt to climate change (Smit and Piliphosova 2001;UNFCCC 2007). Globally, climate change is attributed mostly to the changes in temperature, changes in precipitation, sea level rise and the melting of ice and snow in the Northern hemisphere (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2009).Long-term changes in climate variability and extreme weather-related events are already evident in many parts of the world. It has become increasingly clear that even serious efforts to mitigate climate change will be inadequate to prevent its devastating impacts that can reverse many of the economic gains made in the developing world in recent decades.In the Philippines, the climate change phenomenon is often associated with extreme weather disturbances such as typhoons and floods, which, in turn, affect many other sectors of the economy. With 50.3% of its total area and 81.3% of the population vulnerable to natural disasters, the Philippines is considered a natural disaster hotspot. About 85.2% of its USD 86 billion annual gross domestic product is endangered, as it is located in areas of risk (World Bank 2008). Since 2000, about three million people have been affected by various disasters annually. The vulnerability of the Philippine agriculture sector to climate change has been acknowledged to be substantial as it is the most vulnerable among Asian countries like Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam when it comes to floods and storms (ADB, 2012).In a study, Vista (2014) reported that climate-induced impacts will result in a net loss to the Philippine economy and its key agricultural sectors in the short run. Since production would be greatly affected and would have ripple and multiplier effects in the economy, it is imperative for Filipino farmers to employ adaptation measures to lessen the impacts of climate change.There is increasing urgency for a stronger focus on adapting agriculture to future changes in the climate. There are many potential adaptation options available at the management level, often variations of existing climate risk management. The management-level adaptation options are largely extensions or intensifications of existing climate risk management or production enhancement activities in response to a potential change in the climate risk profile.One of these include the cropping systems. There are many potential ways to alter management to deal with projected climatic and atmospheric changes. Citing several experts, Howden et al. (2007) enumerated varied adaptations to include: Altering inputs such as varieties/species to those with more appropriate thermal time and requirements and/or with increased resistance to heat shock and drought, altering fertilizer rates to maintain grain or fruit quality consistent with the prevailing climate, altering amounts and timing of irrigation and other water management. Wider use of technologies to \"harvest\" water, conserve soil moisture (e.g., crop residue retention), and use and transport water more effectively where rainfall decreases. Managing water to prevent water logging, erosion, and nutrient leaching where rainfall increases. Altering the timing or location of cropping activities. Diversifying income through integration with other farming activities such as livestock raising. Improving the effectiveness of pest, disease, and weed management practices through wider use of integrated pest and pathogen management, development, and use of varieties and species resistant to pests and diseases and maintaining or improving quarantine capabilities and monitoring programs.  Using climate forecasting to reduce production risk.However, there are yet relatively few studies that assess both the likely effectiveness and adoption rates of possible response strategies. Against the backdrop of rapidly changing weather conditions and the severity of the impact on poor subsistence farmers, it is urgent that the different options available to farmers to cope are documented. A good understanding of how they can be widely adopted is critical. This understanding includes the adaptation options that farmers may have access to, their perception towards them, and the determinants to adopting them.One development strategy thought of by the Philippine Department of Agriculture (DA) to inform the rice farmers about the effects of climate change and how to control its impact to rice farming is the use of the radio. As argued in a manual co-developed by DA Regional Field Office 02 (DA RFO2), despite the prevalence of high-speed Internet and television in today's world, radio is still a critical and relevant medium especially in developing nations (DA RFO2, 2018). Citing the data from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, more than 95% of the world's population uses radio, as compared to roughly one-third of the global population with Internet access.Philippine data shows that radio reaches 85% to 90 % of the population, while TV reaches less than 60%. For this reason, radio is considered the most reliable medium for sharing news in the countryside. The document further argues that radio transcends literacy and geographical barriers and being in audio mode, elicits strong emotional impact among listeners. Along with this, the \"Kaalamang Pagsasaka sa Himpapawid,\" a school-on-the-air Consortium, and other national and regional agencies in the region.The SOA-CSA program contained 68 modules broadcasted in 14 radio stations within the Cagayan Valley Region. About 10,000 rice farmers enrolled in the program, but only around 5,000 graduated. How the graduates used their knowledge on CSA, which they acquired from the radio program is the intent of this study.The study assessed the intermediate outcomes of the SOA-CSA program on farmer-learners in Cagayan Valley in the adoption of climate-smart rice technologies. Specifically, it was intended to accomplish the following objectives: The study is anchored on the theory that radio influences the rice farmers' knowledge and adoption of CSA technologies (Fig. 1). It is viewed that if the delivery of the program was effective, it could be evident in the awareness and knowledge of the causes and effects of climate change and the level of knowledge and adoption practices of the rice farmers taught in the radio program. It is assumed that the rice farmers who intently listened to the program and completed all episodes have higher level of awareness and knowledge of the climate-smart technologies.Consequently, these rice farmers are likely to adopt these technologies in the rice production practices that address climate change concerns. Adoption of climate-smart technologies is considered as a factor to the yield and income differences among farmers. The study used mixed research methods, i.e., the use of both quantitative and qualitative research strategies to gather the needed data to achieve the research objectives. The quantitative component of the study involved the collection of data through a structured questionnaire adopted from different sources. The qualitative aspect of the study involved the conduct of focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviewing of selected groups and partner agencies.The study was conducted in four provinces (Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya and Quirino) in the Cagayan Valley Region, particularly in municipalities within the broadcast reach of the 14 radio stations that aired the SOA-CSA materials. The population of the study was composed of all the graduates of the SOA -CSA program.Out of this population, an initial sample of 376 graduates was stratified across the provinces, with the most number coming from provinces that had the biggest number of graduates. The criteria for being selected in the study include: regular listeners; model farm participant; and resident of the area with good reception of the radio station broadcasting the SOA-CSA.Using the Slovin's formula to determine sample size and the proportional allocation technique, the samples of the study were distributed in the provinces shown in the table below. In the actual data gathering in the sampled towns, the list of graduates was inadvertently misplaced at the Municipal Agriculture Office (MAO). Thus, the sampling technique was altered. The research team used snowball sampling method to reach the other graduates in the sampled barangay. After locating and interviewing the first sample with a graduation certificate, names of other graduates from the barangay were identified. In several sampled barangays, the number of samples was not met owing to their ineligibility based on the inclusion criteria, or eligible respondents were out of town during the visit; no call back was made due to time and financial constraints. For this reason, the actual samples were 352.On the other hand, a total of 24 farmer leaders participated in the FGDs held separately in the four provinces. Some of the invited farmer leaders, who also hold positions in their communities, failed to come because of varied reasons. Nevertheless, the participants actively joined the discussion on the issues and concerns raised during the FGDs, which lasted for about one hour and thirty minutes.Two research instruments were used to gather the needed data. Afterwards, for the level of awareness, farmers were asked if they were aware or not of the causes and effects of climate change, and then were asked on the level of knowledge they have about each of the causes and effects, using a three-point Likert scale: Little, Much, Very The second instrument is the Focus Group Session Guide, the tool to guide in the discussion with farmer leaders (Annex B). The questions elicited from the FGD members their attitude, opinions, and ideas on the circumstances of their involvement in the SOA and future SOA programs, their knowledge and utilization (including sharing) of the climate-smart technologies, the problems related to their adoption, and the SOA program content and features they preferred.The October 2019. The composition of the FGD was from four to six. Using the FGD SessionGuide, the questions elicited responses on the members' attitude, opinions, and suggestions on the SOA learnings and utilization, as well as their preferences on future SOA programs and their features. The lead researcher facilitated all FGD sessions in the provinces.Data were encoded in EXCEL file to have ease in data encoding, cleaning, and manipulation.After data cleaning, the file was imported into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software.To categorize and describe the group, frequency count, mean, and standard deviation were computed. General responses in variables measured by Likert scales was interpreted by computing the weighted mean per statement. The arbitrary scale points to interpret the weighted means are the following:For Level of Knowledge:Level of Knowledge Farmer-listener graduates (FLGs) are predominantly males (69.9%); the rest (39.1%) are females. This trend characteristically describes the Filipino farmer in terms of gender, where there are more males (89%) than females (Census on Agriculture and Fisheries, 2002). In 2015, the proportion of females in the agricultural work force was 25.7%. It indicates that in the region, more females are joining the agriculture workforce.In terms of age, FLGs are in their adult stage, as shown in the mean age of 52.4 with a standard deviation of 10.4. The youngest is 24 while the oldest is 80. Moreover, the fact that there are farmers who listened to the radio affirms the value of lifelong learning to a farmer interested to improve his or her farming practices.This group of FLGs is younger than the national average age of Filipino farmers at 57, according to Director Asterio Saliot of the DA-Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) (The New Humanitarian, 2013). However, the 2017 survey of DA revealed that the farmers' average age is 60. Such trend is worrisome to the Department as this implies that young Filipinos are no longer interested to take on farming as an industry (Inso, 2018). More than three-fourths (86.1%) of the FLGs are married. This fact gives them more motivation to improve their rice production to meet the needs of the family members. In the FGD with farmer leaders, they claimed that this expectation was anticipated in the learning acquired from listening to the SOA-CSA program. They want new technologies that can increase their rice yield.In terms of educational background, the majority (54.6%) of the FLGs has reached elementary and high school levels of education. It means that they are capable of processing information heard over the radio. This educational trend among the famer-listener graduates in the region is far better than the reported national figure of one-third of agriculture workers who did not finish primary school (Briones, 2017).The reported income of the farmer-listener graduates ranges from a minimum of PHP 50,000(among the small landed farmers) to the maximum of PHP 1,500,000 (among owners of big farms). The median income is PHP 80,000, which is way below the average income of farmers (farm, off-farm, and non-farm) that is around PHP 100,000. Comparing it to the 2015 poverty line of PHP 108,800 set by the National Economic and Development Authority, most of the farmers could hardly make both ends meet. Nevertheless, the farmer leaders explained during the FGD session that they can cope with their financial needs by engaging in subsidiary livelihood activities. As they are dependent on farming, whatever problems encountered in their production activities impact on their financial capability to survive.Table 2 shows the biophysical characteristics of FLGs. Farm ownership for rice ranges from one-fourth of a hectare to 13 hectares. On the average, they till about 1.97 hectares (SD = 1.66). On the other hand, the area farmed for other crops ranges from one-fourth to five hectares; the mean is recorded at 1.57 (SD = 0.13).As indicated, some farmers own a small farm while others own large farm areas. In a report, Koirala, et al. (2014)  However, the figures are below other farmers' use of more advanced hybrid varieties (e.g., SL-H8) that yield from 160 to 245 cavans per hectare of irrigated land (Gomez, 2019).In the FGD sessions, farmers attributed their rice yield to the practice of recommended technologies, especially seed selection. However, the variations in the farmers' reported rice yield is attributed by experts to different factors such as genetics, agronomy, and climate variability brought by climate change (Lesk et al., 2016;Battiste & Naylor, 2009;Urban et al. 2015). Farmers also cited that even if they use high-yielding varieties, the expected economic benefit is negated by natural calamities such as typhoons, flooding, and market circumstances. The topics most FLGs listened to are along cultural management practices of rice, namely: variety and seed selection (96%); land preparation and water management (94.6%); nutrient practices and pests and diseases management (93.2%); postharvest operations (92.9%); harvest management (92.3%; crop establishment (90.9%); and impact of climate change on agriculture and food security. Most topics listened to by the FLGs were on the cultural management aspects. Evidently, they are interested to learn about the rice technologies that are critical in the growth of the plant to ensure better yield.In the FGD sessions, farmer leaders considered the information they acquired from the SOA-CSA program important to them as these influence the yield of their rice crop. Their realization of the impacts of climate change on their farming and the availability of food for them and the community added more reason for them to learn climate-smart technologies. In addition, they conveyed that their motivation to listen was for them to upgrade their adoption of technology that could give them more economic benefits. They answered affirmatively when asked if their expectations in listening were met.As evidenced by the data, not all FLGs were able to listen to all the topics. Only 169 or 48% of them listened to all the 24 topics; others missed a few of the topics owing to various reasons. Farmer leaders pointed out several factors for their inability to miss the broadcast: they were out of town;  the radio signal was poor, sometimes interrupted by intrusion of foreign language radio programs; and  they moved to the farm before the program was aired.However, those missing the broadcast inquired from their fellow farmer listeners what the topic was and what significant information was discussed. Others with cellphones asked a member of the family to record the program for them to listen to it later. Other listeners volunteered to share the information to those who missed the program, as well as on other farmers of the community who were not regular listeners. To some with cell phones, they visited the DWDA Facebook page to listen to the uploaded episodes they missed. Nearly all (92%) of the FLGs listened to the SOA-CSA program through their own radio sets.Those without radio sets (4.5%) listened to the program through the neighbor's transistor radio set, while an identical 1.7% of them with cellular phones either listened through the radio applications of their unit or listened through live streaming of the program on Facebook.They listened mostly at home (93.8%), while 3.4% brought to the farm their radio set and listened to the program as they undertook their farm chores. Others (2.9%) listened to the program with their neighbor's and through their cellphone unit where they were at the time of the broadcast. The use of these strategies attests to the FLGs' desire to learn CSA for rice. In some instances, listening to the radio program was a family affair. If the farmer is out, the wife or a child was requested to listen and share the information to the farmer later. This      On the level of knowledge on the effects of climate change, the trend shows much knowledge, with an overall weighted mean of 2.02. FLGs benefitted from their listening to the SOA-CSA program. In the FGD sessions with the farmer leaders, whatever little knowledge they have before listening to the program was increased by the information they heard. They have now a better appreciation of stopping their traditional practices (like burning of rice straw in the farm) that they realize contribute to the problem of climate change. If they persisted with these practices, they explained they would be disadvantaged with continued episodes of getting lower farm yield.FLGs were asked about their level of knowledge of the CSA technologies for rice, as well as their level of adoption. Consistently, these same technologies are the ones adopted almost always by them, except for the use of farm machinery that is used always.In the FGD sessions, farmer leaders pointed out that they adopted semi-farm mechanization or partial adoption. Farm machines are used during land preparation and harvesting while manual labor is used in pulling seedlings, transplanting, and harvesting palay that lodged heavily during windy heavy downpour. They explained the non-use of seedling transplanter because of they are not commonly used by them.On applying the 3 Rs of solid waste management, farmer leaders related how the golden snails collected from the rice farm are used in vermicomposting. They used vermicompost as basal fertilizer. They have learned not to burn the rice straw; rather, they spread them on the farm. They explained that if properly decomposed the farm is supplied with 5% of free urea already.They also explained the advantage of synchronous planting in reducing pest occurrence.Moreover, they shared the indigenous technology of laying madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) leaves on the farm for a while then draining the farm to drive away insects and corn plant hopper. Cutting branches of the tree and setting them in strategic areas of the farm also attains the same purpose. This practice manifests farmers' ability to blend tradition and science. On integrated pest management, farmer leaders shared their practice of observing the presence of insects in the farm. Farmer leaders attested that maintaining the paddies clean is effective in keeping insects and rodents away. If there are only two or three insects in a one square meter area, they believe that there is no need to spray pesticides. Instead, they prepare a concoction of pepper-Antibac fabric softening liquid-kerosene gas for the spot spraying to get rid of them.Encouraging information that arose from the discussions is the radiation or diffusion effect of farmers' adoption of recommended technologies. Farmer leaders confirmed the \"wait and see\" approach of some farmers; if they do not see the benefits of a technology, they are hard to convince to adopt it. Cited as example is the non-burning of the rice straw after the harvest.Setting them on the rice farm and plowing them over during land preparation makes the soil more fertile.As the non-adopting farmers realize its benefits, they begin inquiring from the farm leaders who are willing to share their learning. Likewise, farmer leaders narrated how they convinced other farmers of the advantage of transplanting one seedling per hill against the traditional practice. They claimed that they were able to convince non-listener farmers who found that there is less need of seeds when using hybrid seeds (15kg/ha) versus the inbred seeds (40 kg/ha.). In a research by Wanda ( 2016), agricultural radio programs in Africa have influenced farming activities and through the adoption of new ideas, farmers become economically empowered.The technologies sometimes adopted by the FLGs are along income diversification (2.46), crop diversification (2.42), using different cropping systems (2.28), and mixed cropping. The finding reflects the intent of the FLGs to have multiple sources of income that are not totally dependent on rice production. In the FGD sessions, they expressed the desire to learn farm diversification, including the acquisition of value-adding skills for their main product.The primary problems related to the adoption of climate-smart rice technologies are natural calamities (68.8%), lack of financial resources (67.3%), and lack of support from agencies (51.4%). Whatever inputs they invest to get more yields from the farm is dependent on the weather conditions. Farmer leaders, in the FGD sessions, revealed that at times their yield is reduced when drought and typhoons hit their area. At the flowering stage of the rice plants, rain showers between 9AM and 1PM are mentioned by the farmers to be detrimental to their rice plants. Strong winds at this stage, they claimed, are also unfavorable because pollens in the spikelets are blown away. On the other hand, typhoons during the maturity stage of the rice plants are disadvantageous for farmers to gain more profits. They alleged that when rice plants lodged due to flooding, the combined harvester could not be used. Under such situation, grains are submerged under water, resulting to the blackening of the grains and at worse, their germination. Consequently, when it is sold, it is cheaply priced.In terms of financial resources, farmer leaders narrated the red tape involved in securing loans, like the many documents to prepare and the certifications to secure. For instance, in the Agricultural Competitiveness Enhancement Fund loan offered by Landbank, loan applicants are required to submit documents, namely: MAO certification, Farm Plan, Notarized Statement that they do not have current loans, and Tax Information Number from the Bureau of Internal Revenue. Seemingly, the farmers do not appreciate the concern of the lending institutions to assure them of their ability to repay loans. On the farm mechanization loaning program, on the other hand, they claimed that it is only through a cooperative that it could be availed. The documentary requirements to be submitted are discouraging the farmer groups to secure this type of loan program.Clarifying their problem on lack of support from government agencies, some farmer leaders related that at times, the distribution of certified seeds and fertilizer is delayed. Related to this problem, farmers commented on the practice of government technicians in asking what rice variety they want, not based on the characteristics of the rice farm.Likewise, they are allegedly asked to subject the farm for soil analysis, but results are not delivered on time, keeping the farmers from following the recommended fertilizer needs. At times, though, the reason for the delay is their last-minute submission of the soil prior to land preparation. In addition, some farmer leaders explained their difficulty of managing farm weeds because irrigation water is not available at times. Those situations force them to apply weedicides.In the FGD sessions, some farmers suggested that the provision of support to the farmer listeners should not end with the graduation; there must be a follow-up to determine the technology application of the graduates. They should not be left to fend for themselves.Another suggestion is the need to time the airing of the SOA program before the onset of their Two government agencies are identified by the FLGs to be providers of support in their adoption of recommended rice technologies; these are the MLGU through the MAO (82.7%) and DA RFO 2 (76.7%). Nearly half of the farmer-listener graduates also mentioned the National Irrigation Administration (NIA), (49.4%), ATI (46.6%), and Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation (PCIC) (44.9%) that are supportive of them. The continuing program of the municipalities to provide seed and fertilizer subsidies has made the FLGs aware of the LGU support to them. Moreover, during the farm visits, the municipal agriculture extensionists provide farmers with technical assistance in their farming activities. Although the MLGUs are just conduits of the DARFO 2 in implementing agricultural productivity programs, farmers are unaware of the fact that it is the regional office as the main provider of the free inputs and technology disseminated to them by the MLGU.FLGs also recognize the free irrigation water provided by NIA in their respective areas.Similarly, they are aware of the crop insurance they benefit from through the PCIC.On the other hand, more than one-fourth of the farmer-listener graduates took cognizance of the support given by the PLGU (39.8%), Philippine Rice Research Institute (28.7), and Radyo ng Bayan -DWPE (28.4%). Because of their non-proximity to the farmers, the other agencies have no opportunity to be accessed by the farmer-listener graduates. State universities in the area, through their extension program, also extend support to the farmers in various ways.As for the other agencies cited by farmers, they could be referring to their involvement in the SOA-CSA. During the orientation, farmers were informed of the many agencies collaborating in the program.The study wanted to identify the various sources of information from which the FLGs derive their knowledge. Table 10 shows that DA RFO2 remains to be the main source of knowledge of the farmers through various modes. The SOA-CSA program (70.7%) was identified because of its recency in implementation. In the FGD sessions, farmer leaders estimated that their knowledge on CSA for rice technologies due to the SOA would border from 70 to 80%.This finding proves the effectiveness of the SOA as a mode of informing farmers of any agricultural development beneficial to them, especially on CSA, as the topics were devoted on it. The power of the radio as vehicle for agricultural development is asserted by Myers (2008) in his research that pointed out that unlike television and newspapers, radio is still the most popular and widely used medium of communication. The radio has also helped bridge the digital divide by providing an opportunity for sharing information limitlessly. The regular modes of information dissemination of DA RFO2 are also identified. These include flyers and pamphlets from DA and other agencies (58.8%); seminar-workshops (72.4%); meetings/fora (54.4%); and field days (54%). As part of the network of service providers, the involvement of the ATI with its season-long farm school was acknowledged by the FGD participants. This means that DA remains as the primary source of information of the farmers.As a partner agency in agricultural development, the extension workers from MAOs (71%) are cited as the major sources of what they know about climate-smart rice technologies.Considering that most agricultural development programs implemented by DA RFO2 are downloaded to the local government units, the farmers took cognizance of the important role of the MAO as an information provider.Majority (58.8%) of the farmer-listener graduates pointed out the assistance also provided by the Local Farm Technicians (LFTs). In the FGD sessions, nearly all the LFTs in their area share the information they learned to their fellow farmers. This finding attests to the advantage of deputizing and empowering LFTs because they are the most accessible technicians in their own communities. The monetary monthly incentive of PHP 3,000 for the eligible LFTs who complete requirements is mentioned as additional motivation for them to sustain their efforts as farm technicians.Inquired about the usefulness of the information learned from the SOA-CSA, the trend shows that they were useful to the farmer-listeners. Majority (55.7%) considered the learning useful, while 36.9% believed it was very useful. About 7% thought it was somewhat useful.Participants to the FGD sessions related the importance of knowing the causes and effects of climate change, especially the ways to reduce the risks in their rice production activities. They mentioned that their learning has made them cope with the uncertainties of farm production owing to unpredictable climatic conditions in their area. They explained that the usual cropping pattern has changed, pushing them to learn alternative options.Among those who found their learning useful, 53.4% were moderately influenced while 28.9% were fully influenced. Only 16.8% were slightly influenced. FGD participants mentioned that they have been convinced that adopting climate-smart rice technologies is indeed beneficial to them. From their initial use of the technologies they heard in the SOA-CSA program, they had observed their effects to their crops and consequently their yield.With the initial observations, they claimed that such technologies are relevant to them. Economic Benefits of Farmers' Listening to the SOA-CSAIn terms of economic benefits, about 96% declared that there was an observed increase in farm yield (Table 12). About 43% indicated they had much increase in their yield while 17% considered the increase just enough. The rest noted a little increase. Indeed, the SOA-CSA initially contributed to approximately 19-cavani increases per hectare in rice production by farmers who adopted the recommended technology.Moreover, the yield is higher among the FLGs who adopt more technologies, particularly the use of high-yielding hybrid varieties (e.g., SL8, Bigante, Pioneer) resistant to drought and flood, integrated pest management, organic farming, and efficient use of irrigation water. It means that adopting more recommended rice technologies would result to higher yield.Among those who reported lower yield were those using inbred varieties, like RC222, PSB, and RC82. To this variation, it was reported that adopting technologies for sustainable farming systems involves uncertainty and trade-offs. Technologies that can contribute to an economically efficient farm sector and the financial viability for farmers can motivate farmers to adopt them in their farms. Farmers will invest in and implement sustainable technologies and farm practices if they expect the investment will be profitable (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2001) In the FGD sessions, farmers indicated that the use of hybrid rice requires 15 kg of seeds only, as compared to the 40 kg required in using inbred varieties. The big reduction of input cost is the new practice of setting only one seedling per hill. Furthermore, nutrient competition is minimized, resulting to more grains and consequently higher yield.Because of the preceding circumstances, 96% of the farmer-listener graduates observed an increase in their farm income after the initial use of the recommended technology heard from the SOA-CSA program. The increase was generally much as about 58% of them clustered in the \"much\" and \"very much\" response categories. The mean income increase is PHP 18,345 (SD = P14,319). The finding reveals that the farmers' initial adoption of the recommended CSA technology has benefitted them financially. Other preferred commodities are livestock (54.5%), poultry (46%), and corn (41.8%). In the FGD sessions, the majority of the farmer leaders identified corn as their preferred commodity.In the discussion, however, they conveyed another threat on the profitability of corn production: the market price could be low because high-yielding corn varieties is inputintensive. To have more enrollees in future SOA programs, several considerations should be considered as suggested from the FLGs' experiences. Table 14 indicates that the most preferred time slot by 67.9% of farmers is 5 AM to 6 AM. In the FGD sessions, farmer leaders pointed out that at 5 AM, they are still at home and have time to listen. The Nueva Vizcaya group, however, mentioned that the feasible time for them is 4:00AM as they could listen to the program while they prepare their morning meal. As the sign-in time of most radio stations is 5 AM, they mentioned that 12 noon to 1 PM could be a good alternative. Airing the SOA outside those time slots would reduce listenership as most of them are already in the farm, except those who bring with them their transistor radio. The radio stations with the best reception within their area were suggested by the farmerlisteners. In the FGD sessions, the radio stations with good reception in the Isabela and Quirino provinces, and partly in Nueva Vizcaya, are DWSI (24.6%) and DZNC (2.9%). In addition to DWSI, DZRV (18.6%) in Nueva Vizcaya was suggested by the farmers. In Cagayan, DWPE was suggested by 27.2% of the farmers, while 8.6% identified DWDA. All community radio stations near their areas, although limited in signal coverage, were identified by other farmers.For the farmer leaders, choosing the radio station with the best signal is a major factor for the farmers to listen and to truly benefit from the program. When there are interferences from other radio stations and when the signal is fluctuating, farmers could not pick up the salient information that they need to know. Likewise, they will not be able to retrieve an information easily because a SOA episode cannot be replayed right away. Those with access to social media can review the broadcast they missed.In terms of announcers, the majority (59.6%) suggested a male and female tandem, while approximately 26% favored that both announcers be male. In the FGD sessions, the farmer leaders mentioned that they will listen to any tandem of announcers as long as they can present information clearly. Additionally, they suggested that the program hosts need to have a sense of humor to maintain the listeners' attention. They also desired that they talk slowly and clearly for them to catch up and take down notes.The 30-minute duration of the program is favorable for them. Likewise, they recommended that summary notes of each episode should be distributed to them during the graduation for them to review the lessons and revisit the episodes they missed.As Ilocano is the lingua franca in the Cagayan Valley region, it is identified as the preferred language during the program. Farmer leaders in the FGD sessions mentioned that technical terms in English without Ilocano equivalent was explained by the program hosts during the first SOA-CSA program. This strategy, they said, could still be adopted by the next batch of hosts.Farmer-listener graduates are predominantly married middle-aged men with a high school level of education. They have a median income of PHP 80,000 sourced mainly from farming activities. They till about two hectares of rice land and have more than a hectare for other e. After three years, an impact evaluation of the SOA-CSA should be conducted to assess the long-term impact of the program. In doing so, gender and age segregation of impact could be assessed.f. RAFIS, particularly DWDA and regional office website administrators, to sustain in the archives feature of the regional website or in the Facebook account all episodes of the SOA-CSA program for the FLGs to review and other interested farmers to listen.  ","tokenCount":"5887"}

data/part_6/0206828659.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c0d930e462163445321ed335ea8c07b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6575414e-25d4-4de8-a7cf-242b462a4c42/retrieve","id":"-887379187"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bd18507b-bf26-4c4c-90ca-adb9eda4802f","pagecount":"19","content":"Cattle production in Colombia has an important social and economic role but causes considerable environmental impacts, such as deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions by ruminants, particularly methane. Thus, technological innovations aimed at reducing these impacts must focus on both economic and environmental sustainability. Silvo-pastoral systems (SPS) offer productivity increases while generating environmental benefits and ecosystem services and are therefore at the center of debate around sustainable production alternatives. The objective of this article is to evaluate the economic-environmental performance of two proposed SPS for a cattle fattening system for the Colombian context: (i) Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo and (ii) Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman, both in association with Leucaena leucocephala trees for browsing and shade provision. They are compared with the respective base scenarios of only using the grasses in monocultures. The study consists of a financial analysis, which estimates potential profitability increases in beef production in the SPS, and an environmental evaluation, which estimates the monetary values of microclimatic regulation and reduction of methane emissions. The value of methane emission reductions is then integrated into a combined economic-environmental evaluation. Results show that both SPS improve the profitability indicators of the production system and reduce the probability of economic loss. Likewise, the reduction of methane emissions in the SPS is estimated at US$6.12 per cattle, and the economic value of microclimatic regulation at US $2,026 per hectare.Cattle farming is among the most important activities within the agricultural sector in Colombia. According to Fedegan [1], it contributes to about 1.4% of the national, 21.8% of the agricultural, and 48.7% of the livestock gross domestic product of the country. The cattle sector generates employment for more than one million Colombians, mainly in fattening (131,899 jobs), breeding (267, 581), dual-purpose cattle farming (530,739), and dairy farming (138,542). About 23 million hectares of land are used for pastures and forage production and the transformation of native landscapes and forests into pastures generates impacts on the different ecosystems of the country. Over the last decades and in the face of growing international concerns on climate change, environmental degradation, and the role cattle farming holds in that regard [2], the sector has been pushed into the center of debate on environmental impacts in Colombia, particularly on those related to deforestation, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and loss of biodiversity [3].the economic profitability and impacts of cattle production systems has been traditionally focused on the evaluation of implementing improved forages, mostly as monocultures [56,57,68,69,80,90,91], or grass-legume associations [55,92]. Likewise, only few recent studies have focused on providing estimates of the economic-environmental benefits of implementing SPS [93,94].Among the studies that approach SPS from an economic-environmental perspective, Bussoni et al. [93] present a comprehensive analysis that combines the economic benefits of SPS with environmental objectives in Uruguay through three hierarchical models. Model 1 focused on optimizing the combined Net Present Value (NPV) for cattle production (US$302,935) and forestry (eucalyptus timber) (US$556,578). Model 2 focused on prioritizing the cattle NPV (US$317,307) at the expense of a negative balance of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO 2eq. ) emissions (− 20,160 tons). Model 3 focused on minimizing the CO 2eq. emissions (+6,788 tons) in a scenario where environmental aims are pursued at the expense of a difference in the cattle NPV of US$-24,609 compared to Model 2. They conclude that both productive and environmental goals can be integrated, and the environmental goal can be achieved if prioritization happens at a higher hierarchical level. For the State of Sinaloa in Mexico, Cuevas-Reyes et al. [94] found that an intensive SPS with Leucaena leucocephala and Cynodon dactylon is financially viable and that viability significantly increases when the carbon capture potential is considered and monetized (i.e., NPV, IRR, and B/C increase by 15%, 9%, and 2.5%, respectively).Regarding the financial viability of SPS, Carriazo et al. [95], through choice experiments, studied the effect of technical assistance on the adoption of SPS in Colombia and found that ranchers value SPS with technical assistance for cattle production with US$290 per ha/year while the value for improved forages as a monoculture with technical assistance is significantly lower (US$128 per ha/year). Also for Colombia, Enciso et al. [57] estimated the economic benefits of integrating Leucaena diversifolia trees with the grass Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman in a SPS. Compared to the evaluated monoculture with Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman, the SPS showed strongly improved profitability indicators, such as for (i) the NPV, which depending on the scenario was up to four times higher in the SPS, (ii) the Internal Rate of Return (IRR), which improved from 11 to 22%, (iii) the Benefit-Cost ratio (B/C), which was positive in all scenarios, (iv) the payback period, which was reduced from six to four years, and (v) the minimum area required for obtaining two Colombian minimum salaries, which was reduced from 6.5 to 3.8 ha. Likewise, the probability of obtaining economic loss was lower in the SPS. Other profitability analyses conducted for SPS with Leucaena leucocephala in Costa Rica [96], the Caribbean region of Colombia [97], and the state of Michoacán in Mexico [98] report significantly higher IRR for the evaluated SPS, oscillating around 33%. In a review of different intensive SPS arrangements in Latin America, mainly with the species Leucaena leucocephala and Tithonia diversifolia, Chará et al. [99] highlight the positive impacts the establishment of these systems have on edible dry matter production, meat and milk production, the reduction of chemical fertilizer needs and feed concentrates, and thus, farm profitability. Braun et al. [64], in a summary on SPS for South America, conclude that SPS are economically attractive alternatives, which allow for deriving different products (e.g., timber, beef, milk, fruits) at different times, and that the inclusion of trees results in a more secure long-term income while the beef component is more oriented towards short-term incomes. Other authors, such as da Silva Santos and Grzebieluckas [100] for Matto Grosso in Brazil, Quaresma Maneschy et al. [101] for Pará in Brazil, Alonzo [102] for Belize, Boscana et al. [103] for Uruguay, Rade et al. [104] for Ecuador, Ramírez-Martínez and Salas-Razo [105] for Michoacan in Mexico, and Bernardy et al. [106] for Brazil, have also provided insights into the financial viability of different SPS setups in Latin America, evidencing positive results in most cases.Moving away from Latin America, other studies can be found for Australia, and particularly Queensland, where Leucaena leucocephala was identified as the most profitable legume for SPS, capable of doubling per hectare gross margins when integrated with perennial grasses [107], and if adopted at the regional level, could lead to economic benefits of US$ 69 million per year [108]. Francis et al. [109], in a study on the financial performance of SPS in Queensland, Australia, also found that the implementation of SPS is financially attractive, i.e., when timber production is incorporated.Although an increasing number of studies has evaluated the financial viability of SPS, only two partially quantify some of the ecosystem services offered by them [93,94], disclosing an important research gap around two topics, namely (i) further evaluating the financial viability of SPS in different contexts and (ii) integrating the monetary values of the offered ecosystem services and environmental benefits in comprehensive economic-environmental evaluations. This, however, raises questions on (i) the type of ecosystem services and environmental benefits SPS can offer, and (ii) the availability of technical data on those ecosystem services that allow for including them into the economic evaluation of SPS.SPS are conceived as multifunctional and dynamic socio-ecological systems, which result from a historical coevolution, i.e., of relationships, feedback, and dependencies, between local communities and their environment. SPS contribute to shaping a diversified landscape structure and configuration that fosters the provision of ecosystem services and environmental benefits to society and the planet [49].In addition to providing environmental benefits, such as the mitigation of GHG emissions [110][111][112][113][114], SPS provide numerous ecosystem services. Several studies [48][49][50][51]115] have documented evidence on the provision of ecosystem services by SPS, such as microclimatic regulation, carbon storage and sequestration, soil conservation, and the creation of habitats for biodiversity. These environmental advantages of SPS have allowed linking incentive programs such as Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) that seek to promote the conservation of water sources and ecosystems through sustainable production schemes [61,75,[116][117][118][119][120][121] and become a financial option for producers to partially monetize the environmental value of implementing SPS on their farms.In Colombia, Vallejo et al. [122] have studied the benefits SPS have on soil quality and nutrient recovery, and found them to be viable alternatives to improve soil quality and metabolic function, which is reflected in the significant increase in microbial biomass, biomarkers, and enzymes. For their part, Polanía-Hincapié et al. [123] carried out a field study that aimed at evaluating changes in the physical quality of the soil that comes along with the subsequent transition from traditional cattle management to SPS in the Colombian Caquetá department. Their results indicate that the implementation of SPS is an efficient strategy to restore the physical quality of the soil in degraded pastures, and contributes to increasing pasture productivity, while indirectly decreasing the pressure of deforestation in the Amazon basin. Martínez et al. [124] have studied the impacts of SPS on soil quality parameters in degraded soils in the Colombian Sinú river valley, showing that SPS helped in increasing soil pH and nutrient availability. Rivera et al. [51], on the other hand, explored the potential benefits that SPS have on the conservation and biodiversity of ecosystems. They conducted a study on the ant fauna in cattle farms in the La Vieja river basin in Colombia, analyzing the relationships between tree cover and the diversity and composition of ant species in different cattle systems. They found that treeless pastures had less than half the number of ant species than pastures that integrated for example Leucaena leucocephala trees. Mosquera et al. [125] evaluated the effects of land use changes on soil organic carbon, carbon content, and primary forest stocks, by comparing degraded pastures with improved pasture systems and SPS in the Colombian Amazon. Their results indicate that both the introduction of improved pastures and the implementation of SPS in degraded pastures are feasible alternatives for carbon sequestration. Prior to this, Ibrahim et al. [126], in a study in Colombia, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua, have documented the carbon storage potential of SPS in soil and biomass in rangelands.This study assesses the economic-environmental benefits of implementing two different SPS in Colombia, namely (i) Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo + Leucaena leucocephala trees (SPS Toledo) and (ii) Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman + Leucaena leucocephala trees (SPS Cayman). These SPS are contrasted with the establishment of two monoculture grass systems commonly present in the country, namely (iii) Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo (M Toledo) and (iv) Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman (M Cayman).Leucaena leucocephala is a shrub legume species that attains a height of 7-18 m as it matures. It possesses a remarkable ability to regenerate vigorously after browsing or substantial pruning. Its branches display a notable degree of flexibility without succumbing to tearing. Additionally, it is highly palatable, and its capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen is beneficial for the growth of associated grasses. This species thrives across a wide range of elevations, from sea level up to 1,600 m above sea level. It flourishes in areas with annual precipitation ranging between 500 and 3,000 mm, distributed either in a unimodal or bimodal pattern. Furthermore, it can withstand temperatures spanning from 25 to 30 • C. While it exhibits considerable drought tolerance, Leucaena leucocephala does not fare well in shaded environments. Adequate sunlight, ranging from 800 to 1,500 h per year, is essential for its optimal growth. The species is adaptable to neutral or alkaline soils and can thrive in stony terrains. However, it does not tolerate waterlogged conditions, acidic soils with high aluminum ion saturation, or intense and prolonged frosts below − 4 • C [127,128].Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo stands as a perennial grass, originating directly from the Urochloa brizantha CIAT 26110 accession. It showcases adaptability across a broad range of climates, thriving in sub-humid tropical conditions with dry intervals lasting 5-6 months and an average annual rainfall of 1,600 mm. Similarly, it flourishes in humid tropical environments receiving rainfall exceeding 3,500 mm/year. While it can adjust to acidic soils of limited fertility, its optimal growth occurs in soils of moderate to high fertility. This grass is susceptible to infestations by cercopids and spittlebugs within pastures. Establishing it can be accomplished through either seeding or vegetative propagation. Depending on the chosen method (broadcast or furrow) and seed quality, a sowing density of 3-4 kg/ha is recommended. During rainy periods, this grass can sustain a variable animal stocking rate ranging from 2.5 to 3 Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) per hectare. Its growth potential is also applicable to cut-and-carry systems, as it can reach a height of 1.60 m. Dry matter (DM) production averages fluctuate, measuring 25.2 t/ha in the dry season and 33.2 t/ha during the rainy season. It is feasible to conduct cutting every 8 weeks [129].Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman emerged as an interspecific hybrid originating from collaborative efforts between the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) (breeding), the Centro de Investigación de Pastos Tropicales (CIPAT) (evaluation and selection), Grupo Papalotla (introduction, commercialization). This grass variety exhibits a remarkable ability to thrive in moist environments and displays a notable adaptability to soils predisposed to waterlogging. Its growth pattern is characterized by a decumbent form, generating an abundance of runners. Particularly noteworthy is its responsiveness to humidity, which triggers a transformation in growth behavior. In its early stages, Cayman develops decumbent stems, fostering the emergence of shoots and roots at the nodes. This unique adaptation enhances nutrient absorption and oxygen production, particularly beneficial in poorly drained conditions. Beyond its waterlogging resistance, this hybrid boasts drought tolerance, marked palatability, stoloniferous growth, and an innate resilience against pests and diseases. Moreover, it facilitates the sustenance of higher animal stocking rates, making it an asset for cattle management [130].The data used for the financial analysis were obtained from a field trial established at the CIAT campus in Palmira, Colombia. According to Holdridge [131] the study area can be classified as pre-montane wet forest (bh-P), which is located at an elevation of approximately 1,000 m.a.s.l. The annual precipitation is 1,045 mm and the rainfall regime is bimodal (March to April, October to November). The average temperature is 23.8 • C and the relative humidity 75%. The trial was established on a fertile, clayey Mollisol (40-60% clay content) [132] with a pH of 7.54, CEC of 16.4 cmol/kg, good drainage, and P, Ca, Mg, and K concentrations of 25 ppm, 7.87, 6.17, and 0.82 cmol/kg, respectively.Four treatments were established, namely (i) SPS Toledo, (ii) SPS Cayman, (iii) M Toledo, and (iv) M Cayman. Measurements were made for one year, between April 20, 2021 and April 20, 2022, to cover all four seasons occurring at the location (two rainy and two dry seasons). The overall aim of the trial was the evaluation of animal liveweight gains in two different scenarios, SPS and grass monocultures. Each of the four treatments was carried out in an area of 1 ha, which were divided into 3 plots (0.33 ha each) for rotational grazing. In the two SPS treatments, the proportion between the respective grass and the Leucaena leucocephala trees was 70/ 30, and the tree density 2,000 trees per ha (25% for shade, 75% for browsing). A total of 14 Brangus cattle were utilized for grazing, evenly distributed across the two scenarios (SPS and M) in a 50% ratio. The average age upon entry of the animals was 18.6 months, with a mean of 19.1 months for the M treatment and 18.1 months for the SPS treatment. At the commencement of the trial, the typical weight of the animals in the M treatment stood at 349 kg, while in the SPS treatment, it was 345 kg. The grazing and rest intervals were maintained at 12 and 45 days, respectively. In terms of stocking rate, the M treatment accommodated 3 animals per hectare, whereas the SPS treatment hosted 4 animals per hectare.Regarding the environmental evaluation, following a comprehensive review of available information and data, one notable environmental benefit and a single ecosystem service were considered, namely (i) the mitigation of CH 4 emissions and (ii) microclimatic regulation. For the analysis of CH 4 emissions reductions, the study by Gaviria-Uribe et al. [133] was considered. Their research provided estimates of CH 4 emissions within this experiment across various diets in both M and SPS scenarios. As for microclimatic regulation, an assessment was conducted by measuring the extent of shaded areas within the SPS treatments on September 1, 2022, utilizing the Fields Area Measure application.In this study, a discounted cash flow model was employed to estimate profitability indicators, facilitating a comparative analysis of various investment options (SPS, M). The assessed indicators encompass NPV, IRR, and B/C, following the guiding principles outlined by Park [134]. These indicators are derived by adopting the most probable values within distinct specified models, aligning with the benefits and costs associated with each investment alternative. The assessment is constructed through a juxtaposition of the calculated profitability indicators for the different treatment scenarios. Costs incurred were categorized into four main areas: (i) establishment and maintenance costs, (ii) opportunity costs, (iii) operational expenses linked to animal health and supplementation, and (iv) labor costs. Conversely, benefits stem from the cattle's commercialization, with their profitability parameters contingent upon the liveweight gain observed in each of the evaluated treatments.For the elaboration of the cash flows, the following technical and economic assumptions were made: Technical Assumptions: All cattle engaged in the treatments were exclusively of the Brangus breed. To formulate the cash flows, stocking rates of 3.0 and 4.0 animals per hectare were adopted for the M and SPS treatments, respectively. These rates remained consistent throughout the analysis period. Liveweight gain was meticulously assessed for all treatments at both the commencement and conclusion of the experiment (Table 1). The feeding duration for the animals was standardized at 365 days across all treatments.Evaluation horizon: The evaluation horizon was determined based on the typical lifespan of the grass technologies, which is commonly recognized as 10 years [135], spanning from 2020 to 2029. It is worth noting, however, that both evaluated grass varieties can potentially remain productive for a considerably longer duration with proper management practices such as grazing and fertilization. Additionally, the assessed Leucaena leucocephala trees generally exhibit lifespans extending beyond 10 years. It is also important to acknowledge that in practical scenarios, farmers frequently exhibit reluctance to renew pastures, resulting in the continued utilization of established technologies for over 10 years. Nonetheless, this often leads to a decline in pasture productivity due to the scarcity of adequate pasture management practices. Nevertheless, to promote the effective adoption and utilization of such technologies, the present article adopts a 10-year timeframe as the technology lifespan.Discount rates: The determination of financing costs was based on the established credit lines for cattle production systems, including those incorporating silvo-pastoral settings, as defined by Finagro, the Colombian Fund for Financing the Agricultural Sector [136]. This discount rate is commonly employed as the representative opportunity cost for capital investments and is closely tied to the risk factors inherent in agricultural endeavors. To encompass the potential impact of variations in discount rates on system profitability, multiple scenarios were explored using DTF (fixed-term deposit rate) + 3%, 5%, and 8%, respectively. The projections for the discount rate were derived from two primary sources: (i) the Bancolombia Annual Report of Economic Projections for Colombia in 2020 [137], and (ii) the macroeconomic projections report for 2020 from the Banco de la República of Colombia, which collates insights from both local and foreign analysts [138].Permanent labor: Following the labor weighting factors outlined by Fedegan [139], a cattle fattening-oriented system requires approximately 2.3 permanent positions for every 100 animals. The salary estimate is calculated based on the prevailing monthly legal minimum wage (MW) for the year 2019, encompassing transportation assistance, social security contributions, and associated benefits, totaling around US$400 per month. To forecast the evolution of the minimum wage throughout the analysis period, it was assumed that the variation would mirror the anticipated inflation rate for each year, coupled with a labor productivity adjustment set at 1%, in accordance with historical data from national statistics [140]. The labor remuneration used in this analysis aligns with Colombia's salary dynamics, which are anchored by the MW. As reported by DANE [141], approximately 32.2% of the employed population in Colombia received a salary near 0.9 MW in 2020, while 17.8% fell within the range of 0.9-1.1 MW. This nuanced distribution provides insight into how rural area wages correspond to national average wage trends. Considering its proximity to the national average, with minor regional variations, the adopted MW serves as a suitable proxy.Inflation: Incorporating the impact of inflation, the analysis encompassed the estimation of revenues and costs over the evaluation period. Projections for income were based on the Consumer Price Index (IPC) data published by the Banco de la República of Colombia [142]. In parallel, the Producer Price Index (IPP), as calculated by the National Administrative Statistics Department of Colombia (DANE) [143], was employed to gauge production costs.Cattle price: In the context of local weather events and the global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Colombian cattle sector experienced inflationary and external influences, leading to a notable rise in cattle prices [1,42]. Given the exceptional nature of these price fluctuations, the study referred to prices from 2019 for the purposes of analysis.Risk is defined as the potential that the actual investment return will fall short of the expected investment return [134]. Consequently, profitability is intertwined with the volatility of income and cost streams, hinging on the unpredictability of key variables within the investment project, such as yields and market prices. Rural investment endeavors are particularly exposed to unique risks, their outcomes being contingent upon a broad array of variables, many of which lie beyond the investor/producer's control, such as climatic factors. In this context, it becomes imperative to integrate risk considerations into the assessment of profitability indicators for each evaluated investment. To this end, a Monte Carlo simulation model was employed. Monte Carlo simulation involves generating a sample of outcomes based on specified probability distributions [134]. This approach empowers decision-makers to explore potential outcomes and gauge the influence of risk on investment project profitability indicators. Executing the simulation necessitates the identification of random input variables, those capable of adopting multiple feasible values, and defining the plausible range for each. Probability distributions are then assigned to these variables, followed by the computation of projected indicator profitability. In the present study, the Monte Carlo simulation was executed using the @Risk software package (Palisade Corporation), involving 5,000 iterations and a confidence level of 95% across all treatments.The decision criteria are rooted in the average values of the profitability indicators NPV and IRR, alongside the Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C), which stem from the simulations conducted for both the M and SPS treatments.Net Present Value: This indicator represents the present value of the cash flow stream, calculated as the aggregate of discounted benefits subtracted from discounted costs [144].Internal Rate of Return: As outlined by Gittinger [144], an alternative approach to assess the value of a project using the revised cash flow involves identifying the discount rate that renders the net value of the cash flow equivalent to zero. This discount rate is referred to as the Internal Rate of Return (IRR), which, in essence, signifies the average return on the investment expenditure throughout the entirety of the project's lifespan. The equations for the NPV (Equation ( 1)) and IRR (Equation ( 2)) are as follows:(1)where E(FC t ) is the expected value of the net profit flow for period t, Var(FC t ) is the net profit flow variance for period t, r the real discount rate, r* the internal rate of return, and t the evaluation horizon of the project.Cost-benefit analysis: Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a structured economic evaluation tool that involves a comparison between the costs and benefits of a given project. Functioning as a comprehensive analytical framework, CBA serves as a means to assess and appraise both public and private ventures [145]. Economically speaking, the Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C) applies a discount mechanism to both the influx of benefits and the outflow of costs, utilizing a rate that approximates the opportunity cost of capital. This approach establishes a quantifiable linkage between the discounted value of project benefits and the corresponding value of the discounted costs associated with it. The equation for the B/C (Equation ( 3)) is as follows:where Bn are the benefits in period t, Cn the costs in period t, r the real discount rate, and t the evaluation horizon of the project. The Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C) provides a rough indication of the effectiveness of funds allocated to an investment, offering a transparent gauge of the viability and allure of an investment project. The decision criteria can be summarized as follows:• B/C > 1: This suggests that the revenue generated by the investment will surpass all associated expenditures, indicating project profitability. • B/C = 1: This signifies that both the generated revenue and expenses of the investment will be equivalent. The decision to proceed with the investment remains neutral. • B/C < 1: This implies that the generated revenue from the investment will fall short of covering all incurred expenses, indicating project unprofitability.The environmental evaluation encompasses the economic appraisal of environmental advantages and ecosystem services arising from the SPS as opposed to the M treatments. In terms of environmental benefits, the replacement of traditional M systems with SPS leads to a reduction in CH 4 emissions. In the realm of ecosystem services, three prominent aspects have been identified: (i) microclimatic regulation achieved through the shading effect of trees, (ii) carbon storage and sequestration within tree biomass, and (iii) soil nitrogen fixation. However, for the scope of this study, the focus is on valuing the environmental benefit of CH 4 emission reduction and the ecosystem service of microclimatic regulation. This decision is due to the absence of available technical ecological measurements for the assessment of carbon storage and capture, as well as soil nitrogen fixation.To assess the value of CH 4 emission reduction, the market price method [146] was implemented, leveraging data from major global Tradable Emission Permit Systems and economic mechanisms like CO 2 taxes. The market price method establishes the economic worth of CO 2eq. (v) by multiplying the volume of avoided CO 2eq. emissions (q) with the average market price for emissions and/or CO 2 taxes as sourced for the analysis year (p) (as represented in Equation ( 4)). In order to ascertain q, this study draws upon findings from Gaviria-Uribe et al. [133], who indicated that for every gram of animal liveweight gain, emissions of 0.36 and 0.33 g of CH 4 occur in the M Toledo and SPS Cayman treatments, respectively.To appraise the reduction in CH 4 emissions, certain assumptions were made regarding the initial (220 kg) and slaughter weight (450 kg) of the cattle. These assumptions enabled the utilization of daily liveweight gain data from different treatments and the CH 4 emissions factor per gram of liveweight gain. This information was employed to estimate emissions generated up until the point of the animal's sale. Since Gaviria-Uribe et al. [133] exclusively provide data for M Toledo and SPS Cayman, it was deduced that CH 4 emissions for SPS Toledo would be akin to those of SPS Cayman. Consequently, identical values as those for SPS Cayman were employed for assessing the monetary worth of CH 4 emissions reduction in SPS Toledo.To assess the monetary value of the microclimatic regulation ecosystem service, the method of avoided costs [146] was employed. This approach involves estimating the expenses associated with the establishment and upkeeping of a gray infrastructure that mirrors the shade coverage provided by the trees within the SPS. The chosen gray infrastructure for comparison is a shade mesh, as it is the prevalent choice for cattle systems in Colombia. In this context, the monetary value of the microclimatic regulation ecosystem service (v) is determined by multiplying the area encompassed by the shade (q) with the average costs associated with installing and maintaining the selected gray infrastructure (c), as illustrated in Equation (5).(5)It is essential to acknowledge several limitations that should be taken into account when interpreting the findings presented in this financial analysis.Firstly, due to the age of the cattle upon entering the SPS treatments, it was not feasible to measure initial-stage liveweight gain, a crucial component of the productivity curves associated with grazing. While the outcomes for the SPS treatments were more favorable compared to the M treatments, the exclusion of initial-stage liveweight gain measurements could potentially impact the results of the SPS treatments.Secondly, both input and labor costs used in modeling the cash flows for cost, benefit, and other indicator measurements were influenced by external factors, such as the COVID-19 pandemic [42,147]. The pandemic led to disruptions in agro-industrial input supply chains and local price inflation, directly affecting the implementation costs of the studied treatments. Consequently, the results of this study are significantly shaped by the global and local macroeconomic context that unfolded since 2020. This economic environment also impacted on the projections incorporated into the cash flow analysis. Considering the economic uncertainty at both national and international levels, inflation, wage, and producer price index forecasts used to project benefits and costs demonstrated higher-than-expected increases. Despite consulting multiple sources to compare forecasts from both public and private institutions, the prevailing trend was towards upward adjustments due to the economic uncertainty of 2020. To mitigate these extraordinary effects in the analysis, 2019 prices were adopted as the foundation for this study.Furthermore, it is important to recognize that this analysis was conducted on an experimental research scale within CIAT's campus.Consequently, the estimated productivity and costs may deviate from scenarios on farmers' fields under commercial conditions. In the realm of environmental evaluation, it is important to highlight that SPS generate various other environmental benefits and ecosystem services that were not quantified in this study. These include carbon storage and sequestration in tree biomass, soil nitrogen fixation, fertilization of soil through animal excrement, and the creation of habitats for various species. These services were not valued due to the lack of ecological estimates of physical units for each service specific to the SPS setups of interest. Furthermore, a social valuation exercise was not undertaken as it would have necessitated an additional experimental design involving participation from producers to ascertain values based on their perceptions. Additionally, the avoided cost method used reference prices from the Colombian Cauca Valley department, where the trial was located, which may yield different outcomes if applied to other regions within Colombia.One of the most important basic aspects for the financial analysis of SPS and M is the cost structure associated with the setup and management of the technologies, given that these largely define the investment decision producers need to make when adopting and implementing a new feed production system. As can be observed in Table 1, higher costs occur for the establishment of SPS, particularly they increase by 26% and 3% for SPS Cayman and SPS Toledo, respectively, when compared with the M alternatives. Regarding the maintenance and renovation costs, they tend to be slightly lower for the SPS, since less area is sown with the more labor and fertilizer intensive grasses which also need partial renovation after around five years to maintain pasture productivity stable. Regarding the benefits, due to the increased amount and quality of available feed, the animal stocking rates are 33% higher in SPS than in M, which translates into higher daily liveweight gains (+51%), annual per hectare animal productivity (+49%), and annual income from the sale of meat (+34%) in SPS.Table 2 presents the results for the financial indicators for the M and SPS treatments. A negative NPV was obtained for the two M treatments, precisely of US$-268 and US$-527 for M Toledo and M Cayman, respectively. Both treatments also show a negative IRR, although for M Cayman it is close to zero, and a high risk of obtaining economic loss, 67% and 81% for M Toledo and M Cayman, respectively. The two SPS treatments, on the other hand, show disparate results. As for the NPV, SPS Toledo presents a positive value of US$35, whereas it is negative for SPS Cayman (US$-218), which is related to the significant difference in establishment (+69%), maintenance (+30%), and renovation (+30) costs of the pasture in SPS Cayman compared to SPS Toledo. Likewise, the IRR is positive for SPS Toledo but negative for SPS Cayman, and the risk of obtaining economic loss is high for both. The B/C ratio is slightly positive for the SPS treatments. Despite these rather discouraging numbers, the data show that significant improvements occur in all indicators when implementing SPS instead of M.Figs. 1 and 2 show the results of the Monte Carlo simulation risk analysis for the M and SPS treatments. It can be observed that despite the still high risk of obtaining economic loss (NPV<0) in the SPS treatments (in 49% and 59% of the scenarios generated for SPS Toledo and SPS Cayman, respectively), it is significantly lower than in the M treatments (67.5% and 80.8% for M Toledo and M Cayman, respectively).Based on the results of Gaviria-Uribe et al. [133] it is found that the SPS Cayman treatment achieves a CH 4 emissions reduction of 0.03 g per gram of animal liveweight gain, which is equivalent to a reduction of 0.63 g of CO 2eq. compared to the M Toledo treatment. If this diet was replicated in a larger SPS, for example with 1,000 cattle, a reduction of 145 tons CO 2eq. could be achieved. Table 3 presents an overview of the data presented by Gaviria-Uribe et al. [133]. The economic value of the reduction of avoided CH 4 emissions corresponds to a potential income that a producer can access by implementing good environmental practices. This reduction contributes to the objective of climate neutrality in livestock farming, which is encouraged in Colombia by a program for payments for environmental services (PES). The PES program has a special emphasis on supporting livestock producers who implement silvo-pastoral systems and demonstrate environmental benefits such as the CH 4 emissions reduction presented in this article [119,148].When consulting the most important global carbon markets [149], the carbon tax in Colombia [150], the minimum price recommendation for carbon credits of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) [151], and the general equilibrium model with the Tradable Emission Permit System in Colombia of the National Planning Department (DNP) [152], an average price per ton of CO 2eq. of US$45.25 per ton can be defined for the period between January and August 2022 (Table 4).According to this average price, the monetary value for the environmental benefit of CH 4 emissions reduction in SPS Cayman can be estimated at US$6.12 per cattle. Considering the stocking rate of the experimental setup of four cattle per hectare, a total monetary value of US$24.49 per hectare can be observed, which is equivalent to an annual value of US$28.83. A replication of SPS Cayman at larger scales, for example in a cattle fattening system with 1,000 animals, could thus generate a monetary value for CH 4 emissions reductions of US$6,122 (Table 5).Concerning the microclimatic regulation ecosystem service, the SPS treatments encompass an area of 12,082 m 2 under shade, as  determined through field measurements, translating to a shade coverage of 60.4%. Engaging with ten shadow mesh providers in the Cauca Valley Department, the average prices for shadow mesh (per m 2 ), poles (per pole), and labor (per day) were ascertained to be US $0.78, US$5.49, and US$9.24 respectively. The anticipated lifespan of the infrastructure is three years. Thus, should the tree shade coverage within the SPS treatments be replaced by shadow mesh, the total cost over three years would amount to US$12,158, equivalent to US$4,053 annually and US$2,026 per hectare per year. When extrapolated to a larger scale, such as a 1,000-ha cattle fattening system, the monetary value of microclimatic regulation could potentially reach US$2,016,414 per year (as indicated in Table 6).In the last step of analysis, the monetary value of the environmental benefit of CH 4 emissions reduction provided by the SPS was integrated into the financial analysis. Table 7 shows how the financial indicators change under this scenario compared to the Base Scenario presented in Table 2.As the data for Scenario 1 shows, when the environmental benefit of CH 4 reduction is included in the economic evaluation, all economic indicators improve for the SPS treatments. Particularly, the NPV for SPS Toledo increases by 741% compared to the SPS Toledo without CH 4 reduction, and for SPS Cayman, it turns positive for the first time. Likewise, for SPS Toledo, the IRR increases by 517% and further improves for SPS Cayman. The B/C, however, only slightly increases when including CH 4 reduction. Regarding the risk of obtaining economic loss (NPV<0), further improvements can be observed for both SPS when CH 4 reduction is considered (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, the risk of obtaining economic loss remains high for both SPS Toledo (39.2%) and SPS Cayman (50.2%). This study evaluated the viability of integrating the tree legume species Leucaena leucocephala in two different grass monoculture cattle feeding systems, namely Urochloa brizantha cv. Toledo and Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman, under two SPS arrangements. Particularly, financial viability of this endeavor was evaluated in two scenarios, namely (i) a base scenario, which only considered the productive parameters, and (ii) a scenario which considered productive parameters and the environmental benefit of CH 4 emissions reductions in the SPS.The findings of the study reveal that the introduction of SPS in the base scenario yields noticeable enhancements in profitability indicators, such as NPV, IRR, B/C, and NPV <0, regardless of the chosen grass technology. However, despite these improvements, only   the SPS Toledo arrangement displays a positive NPV and IRR. It is worth noting that even this most favorable option does not exhibit strong attractiveness due to the relatively modest values of these indicators. These results exhibit some alignment with existing literature, as many studies exploring the economic viability of SPS similarly report significant enhancements, akin to the current study. Nonetheless, in most cases, these enhancements typically translate into highly positive economic indicators and overall viability [57,[96][97][98][99]95]. The unfavorable indicators observed for SPS Cayman can be primarily attributed to its comparatively higher establishment costs in contrast to SPS Toledo. Both cases, however, may also be influenced by relatively low daily liveweight gains observed in the trial that underpins this evaluation. These observed gains average less than 240 g in both SPS, which contrasts with similar SPS setups where gains typically range between 600 and 700 g [57]. These differences could contribute to the relatively discouraging results observed in this particular study. This rather unfavorable investment panorama, however, further changes when the monetary value of the environmental benefit of CH 4 emissions reductions is integrated into the profitability analysis. By integrating the value of CH 4 emissions reductions, which was estimated at > US$6, >US$24, and >US$28 per cattle, hectare, and year, respectively, the NPV of SPS Toledo increases by >700% and the one of SPS Cayman turns positive. Likewise, the other indicators further improve for both SPS. Nevertheless, this benefit alone still is not enough to make both SPS an attractive investment alternative as the relatively low IRR shows. The estimated savings in CO 2eq. emissions of 9% in the SPS, however, are attractive when it comes to climate change mitigation. Particularly, a SPS Toledo or SPS Cayman system of 1,000 animals (which would translate into an area of 250 ha considering the stocking rate of four animals per hectare) can save 145 tons of CO 2eq. compared with the grass monocultures, which are rather common in the Colombian cattle landscape [55,153]. This coincides with the study of Cuevas-Reyes et al. [94] who found that the profitability indicators of a SPS with Leucaena leucocephala and Cynodon dactylon significantly improve when their carbon capture potential is considered and monetized. Likewise, it coincides with Bussoni et al. [93], whose findings suggest that the reduction of CO 2eq. emissions can be combined with the productive goals of cattle farming under SPS.The ecosystem service of microclimatic regulation has been estimated to hold an economic value of $2,026 per hectare per year. It is important to note, however, that this value is not factored into the financial analysis. The internalization of the shade effect from trees serves as an intermediate component that does not impact the discounted NPV of SPS. This shade effect is utilized for the cattle's own intermediate consumption within the SPS. The establishment of the evaluated SPS, which yields approximately 60% shade coverage, brings about notable benefits. These advantages contribute significantly to various aspects, including (i) animal welfare improvement: SPS mitigate heat stress and reduce the presence of hematophagous flies, enhancing the well-being of the cattle [154][155][156][157][158], (ii) environmental enhancement: The shade cover of SPS reduces water consumption by the animals and promotes biodiversity [159][160][161], and (iii) productivity and quality enhancement: SPS positively influence productivity and quality indicators [154,159,162]. This multi-faceted impact highlights SPS's potential to contribute to climate change mitigation by curbing CH 4 emissions [110][111][112][113]. Additionally, SPS aid in climate adaptation by providing thermal comfort to animals amidst rising temperatures and bolstering feed availability during critical periods [158,159,163,164]. While not directly incorporated into the financial analysis, these ecosystem services reinforce the overall value and resilience of SPS systems.To fully unlock the comprehensive environmental, economic, and productive benefits of SPS, a conducive environment for adoption must be fostered. This involves tailoring strategies to account for the distinct characteristics and disparities among adopting farmers in various regions, as well as acknowledging their unique needs, experiences, and local expertise. However, creating such an adoption-friendly environment proves to be a formidable challenge, particularly in countries like Colombia where SPS adoption rates remain generally low [39,57,65,66]. The adoption process itself encounters numerous barriers that necessitate diligent efforts to overcome, as evidenced by research findings. These barriers encompass a spectrum of challenges, ranging from financial hurdles (lack of access to credit, extended payback periods) to knowledge gaps (limited access to information, technical guidance, and extension services; intricacies of SPS practices) [65,66,73,[165][166][167]. Socio-cultural factors also play a role, as traditional norms often associate pastures with tree-free landscapes [65]. Labor considerations add another layer of complexity, with SPS demanding higher labor input and facing competition from other (sometimes illegal) sectors [168]. Land tenure issues can further hinder adoption [72,73], while environmental concerns (perceived or actual) and the adaptation of species to specific environments pose additional challenges [169]. Market dynamics, legislative constraints, and a general farmer aversion to risk contribute to the array of barriers [39,65]. Addressing these multifaceted barriers requires a holistic and nuanced approach that combines targeted interventions, robust policies, and comprehensive support mechanisms. By strategically navigating these challenges, countries can effectively elevate SPS adoption rates, harness the array of benefits they offer, and ultimately establish a more sustainable and resilient agricultural landscape.To promote the widespread adoption of SPS, a variety of instruments and incentives have been proposed and implemented through research and policy initiatives. Among these, Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) have emerged as a notable strategy, offering strong incentives for adoption, particularly when farmers are actively engaged in their design [53,165,168,169]. Additional incentives encompass credits aimed at establishing SPS, tax benefits, commercial incentives such as price premiums, development of effective extension systems and technical support, removal of regulatory hurdles, and subsidies for trees, seeds, inputs, and equipment [39,165,170]. Research has also highlighted the importance of bolstering social networks and social capital, indicating their significant role in driving SPS adoption [66,72]. In instances where rural extension services are limited, complementary support from research initiatives can play a pivotal role in boosting adoption rates [166]. Over the past decade, Colombia has made considerable strides in scaling up SPS adoption, particularly by generating incentives to foster widespread implementation. Notably, the Sustainable Colombian Cattle Project (2010-2019) has facilitated the adoption of approximately 5,000 ha of SPS across the country [42]. The establishment of the Sustainable Cattle Roundtable in 2014 further supports the development of public policies and capacity-building efforts in sustainable cattle farming, with a particular emphasis on SPS [43,171]. This collective effort has culminated in the release of Colombia's first national-level public policy on sustainable cattle in 2022 [172]. Other significant policy advancements include the establishment of Zero-Deforestation Agreements for Beef and Dairy in 2018 [173], the development of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions for cattle since 2014 [174], and the enactment of the SNIA law reforming the national agricultural innovation system in 2017 [175]. In terms of financing, a groundbreaking credit line dedicated to SPS was introduced in 2020, aimed at supporting the acquisition of planting materials [176]. Furthermore, the private sector is actively contributing to incentives, such as product differentiation and price premiums (e.g., Sustainable Cattle Initiative GANSO, AngusAzul's sustainability program), and offering technical assistance for SPS establishment (e.g., GANSO, Alquería's Heirs of Tradition program) [40,42,177,19].While the benefits of scaling SPS are substantial, it's crucial to also acknowledge the potential unintended consequences of widespread adoption. Parodi et al. [178], for instance, advocate for implementing SPS primarily in areas unfit for crop production to mitigate unwanted competition with other agricultural systems. However, this approach may introduce negative outcomes, as evidenced by increasing deforestation trends observed when cattle intensification takes place on marginal lands [179,180], particularly when land tenure is unclear [181]. Castro-Nuñez et al. [8] highlight another potential concern, noting that the establishment of SPS can have adverse effects on forest cover in Colombia. This is attributed to improved cattle birth rates within SPS, which in turn lead to surplus calves often being sold to unsustainable fattening farms situated at the deforestation frontier. Notably, cattle farming expansion ranks among the primary drivers of deforestation in Colombia and Latin America [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. Moreover, the productivity gains yielded by SPS could inadvertently encourage cattle farmers to further expand their operations at the expense of forests and other vital ecosystems [68], a phenomenon referred to as the Jevons paradox [182,183]. To counteract such negative and undesired consequences and to uphold the principles of sustainability in cattle farming via SPS, a strategic combination of the aforementioned incentives and robust monitoring and control mechanisms becomes imperative [68,[184][185][186]. These mechanisms may include deforestation monitoring, traceability systems, and taxes targeting conventional pasture usage, among others. By implementing such measures, the potential adverse effects of SPS expansion can be mitigated, ensuring that the promise of sustainability in cattle farming is upheld.Silvo-pastoral systems are considered a sustainable production alternative for cattle systems in the global tropics and especially in Latin America. However, little is known yet about the financial viability of establishing such systems in different contexts and the added economic value of the environmental benefits and ecosystem services they provide. The present study aimed at contributing to closing this research gap by providing an economic-environmental analysis of two SPS for the Colombian context, considering the environmental benefit of methane emissions reductions and the ecosystem service of microclimatic regulation.The study shows that when the analyzed traditional grass monocultures are transformed into the proposed SPS, the profitability indicators get significantly better, yet no outstanding financial viability was observed in this case. This, however, changes once the monetary value of CH 4 emissions reductions is considered in the financial analysis, converting the proposed SPS into more attractive investment options. A widespread adoption of these SPS can create important socio-environmental benefits, such as the reduction of 145 tons of CO 2eq. for every 1,000 cattle fed in these systems, valued at US$6,121 -roughly what 32 typical passenger vehicles emit per year [187]. Likewise, the suggested tree cover in the SPS generates 60% tree shade, which, per 1,000 ha creates a value of US $>2million and adds to the numerous other ecosystem services SPS provide.However, for the scaling of SPS, numerous adoption barriers must be overcome, for which in Colombia, several public and private initiatives and programs were already established. In this regard, it is important that these endeavors consider the particularities and differences among the adopting farmers in different regions, as well as their needs, experiences, and local knowledge. It is also essential to integrate the monetary values of the environmental benefits and ecosystem services into the financial analysis of SPS, so that the stakeholders involved in the adoption process can make more informed decisions. This is, however, not always possible since technical data is not available for all environmental benefits and ecosystem services SPS offer for which it is recommended to include this in future research. To avoid unintended negative consequences in the adoption of SPS, such as deforestation, incentives (e.g., PES, credits, price premiums) need to be coupled with monitoring and control mechanisms (e.g., traceability, zero-deforestation). Only then, the sustainability claims of SPS can be upheld. Likewise, the knowledge component of SPS is very complex, and much of the adoption depends on the available knowledge, extension, and technical assistance, as well as farmer networks. A strengthening of these elements and better coordination among the actors involved is thus recommended. funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.","tokenCount":"8222"}

data/part_6/0212490421.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cfe9159b17d6372e042f6295488771c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d26d2420-1110-4fba-9ef9-931fbb22a834/retrieve","id":"-1358454903"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"187c1d01-2407-481a-b3a5-167bd88fb08b","pagecount":"8","content":"What is seed treatment? Benefits of Seed Treatment:S eeds saved by farmers may be infected with microbes that can induce diseases on the seedling and the crop. This can affect seed germination and may be transmitted from seed to seedling to plant.Seed treatment prevents and controls seed-, soil-, and air-borne diseases. It improves germination, vigor, and productivity.Seed treatment or dressing refers to the application of biological, physical, and chemical agents and techniques to seed to provide protection and improve the establishment of healthy crops.Seed treatment may involve use of fungicide, insecticide, or a combination of both, applied to the seeds to disinfect them from seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects.Seed treatment is like immunization -it provides a good insurance and protection of your seed and crop against diseases, seed-borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. This involves application of a chemical (fungicide/insecticide) to seed prior to planting to provide effective protection against many seed and soil-borne plant pathogens. The chemical treatment guards against the various seed rots and seedling blights that occur during storage or after planting. Always wear protective equipment and follow appropriate safety procedures when using chemical seed treatment products.Stem-feeders (Aphids)How to do seed treatment Procedure for chemical seed treatment Seed treatment materials are usually applied to seed in various forms: dust; slurry (a mixture of wettable powder in water) and liquids. Slurry application is the most common method especially for smallholder farmers. Read and follow instruction for the specific application procedure for each seed treatment product.Always wear protective equipment and follow appropriate safety procedures during seed treatment.Biological seed treatment consists of active ingredients that can include microbes such as fungi and bacteria, as well as plant extracts and algae extracts. The biological agents improve health of the root zone by competing with pathogens that may colonise seeds and newly emerged roots thus protecting the germinating seed and seedling from infection. The microbes stimulate rapid root development and nutrient uptake by the growing crop. Some of the biological agents for seed dressing include Trichoderma spp., Rhizobium spp., Bacillus subtilis, Psedomonas flourescens, Azospirillum spp., Neem and sea weed extracts Examples of biological seed dressing products in Kenya include: TriCoat, Mazao Flourish, Trianum, Biofix and LEGUMEFiX.Biological seed treatment products are environmentally friendly and easy to apply. These however required proper storage to keep viability of the biological agents.Plan to treat your seeds at the start of the rains when soil is moist and ready to plant. Measure the desired amount of seed using a tin (gorogoro), bucket or a weighing balance. You can treat both own saved seed or certified seed.Dissolve recommended amount of fungicide/insecticide per kg seed in water inside a plastic bag or bucket to make a slurry.Weka dawa kwenye ndoo kisha ongeze maji kidogo. Changaya dawa na maji ili iwe chepechepe.Put the seed in a bucket or a plastic bag. Do not use anything used for cooking or etching water.Weka mbegu kwenye ndoo au karatais ya plastiki. Usitumie chombo cha kupikia au kuteka maji.Stir and mix well with a stick or hand protected by the glove. Alternatively seal the bucket and shake vigorously to coat seed uniformly with fungicide slurry.Pour out the seed on a sack under a shade for product to stick on seed. Keep the sack away from rain or direct sunlight Mwaga mbegu juu ya gunia chini ya kivuli ili dawa ikaukie kwenye mbegu. Weka mbali na mvua au jua kali.","tokenCount":"570"}

data/part_6/0218144928.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"50e2f2493f288c357af9e2a9e944948f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b12eacf0-57ed-4ba1-8515-b5c121c8d23c/retrieve","id":"-2087490110"},"keywords":["P740 -Product Line 5.1.2: Fit-for-purpose national and meso-level strategies for livestock investment and policy Geographic scope:","National Country(ies):","Tanzania, United Republic"],"sieverID":"b43343c6-a506-47c9-804f-d17a3beee321","pagecount":"1","content":"Upgrading the smallholder dairy value chain: A system dynamics ex-ante impact assessment in Kilosa District, Tanzania Commissioning Study: ILRI Part II: CGIAR system level reporting Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs: • Increased livelihood opportunities Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: No Description of activity / study: The assessment looked at the ex-ante impacts of two policy interventions that improve productivity of local-breed cows, artificial insemination (AI) and producers' access to distant markets through a dairy market hub. The policy interventions were introduced under the CRP Livestock and Fish.","tokenCount":"93"}

data/part_6/0257639183.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"df5d23f1ea991943730493ad046c8352","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f61708be-d44f-44c6-a7cc-84f9582f9cf5/retrieve","id":"1869637284"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"afe90c00-893c-4212-860f-312ebcdc09c7","pagecount":"16","content":"Essential oils Distilling knowledge, re)discovering plants Field report from Haiti FOCUs ,11 Breadfruit Nutritious and healthy, but badly under-utilised viEwpOiNT ,16 An agricultural renaissance By Arlington Chesney iN BRiEF ,3 pUBLiCATiONs ,12 BETwEEN Us ,15 Family farming The future of the world After a long period of neglect and impoverishment caused by economic changes, small-scale farmers are at last back at the heart of the development debate. improving their livelihoods and their conditions for production is essential for countries in the south.It is an oft forgotten fact: 2.5 billion men and women -almost 40% of the world population -depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. In order to feed themselves and earn a living, they rely on the land, the sky and…the considerations accorded to them by governments and the international community. Sidelined in recent decades in favour of the agribusiness sector, these small-scale farmers are sinking deeper and deeper into poverty, especially in sub-Saharan Africa: they now account for three-quarters of the world's poor. \"Will the African farmer be simply wiped off the map?\" ponders SOS Faim in its 2007 campaign.Militants are not the only ones sounding the alarm. \"Only small-scale farmers can put an end to famine in Africa,\" declares the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). The World Bank shares the same view. In its World Development Report 2008, which focuses on agriculture for the first time since 1982, it maintains that promoting the growth of this sector is the most effective way to fight poverty.The future of family farming is well and truly back on centre stage. A common feature of these ventures is that they are family-runand managed, with production mainly aimed at satisfying the needs of the household and ensuring the sustainability of the farm. Crops, generally diversified so as to limit risks, are mostly sold at local markets, though in certain cases, some may go for export. Family farms are often labelled as 'traditional', or even 'archaic', decried for being unable to increase productivity or to modernise. But such stereotypical descriptions fail to take into account the diversity of the farmers and their ability to adapt.The bulk of agricultural export commodities such as coffee, cocoa and cotton are produced by family farming systems. The expansion of rice, horticultural and fruit production shows that small-scale producers are perfectly capable of innovating and increasing output if they are given the means. In all ACP countries, family farms play a vital role in producing food and supplying the towns. They continue to be an important source of support for urban families facing difficulties. But in spite of this, donors and governments have in the past few decades remained steadfast in their belief that large-scale agro export farms, deemed to be 'dynamic' and 'competitive', represent the only real hope for modernising agriculture.In developing countries, the withdrawal of the State from agricultural training and support, coupled with the structural adjustments of the 1990s and the opening up of markets have combined to erode conditions for family farm production and have led to a deterioration in rural living condit ions. Compounding the problem is trade liberalisation, which puts farmers from very different production backgrounds in competition with each other: intensive mechanised farming is 1,000 times more productive than manual rain-fed agriculture. The concentration of various food chains in the hands of major agrifood enterprises and changes in retail distribution systems (the proliferation of supermarkets, see Spore 110) are gradually chipping away at the position of small-scale farmers who, unlike other producers, receive no support from their governments. The population growth has led to a parallel expansion in land under cultivation, sometimes on marginal soils, and a reduction of the acreage available for each farmer. In Côte d'Ivoire, for example, the proportion of land farmed rose from 8.5% to 23.5% of the total territory between 1961 and 1999.The priority given to ever growing numbers of urban consumers and the subsequent reliance on subsidised imported products have caused agricultural prices to tumble. As a result, farmers in many regions can no longer make a decent living and in certain areas cannot even produce enough food for their own households (Spore 128).In Africa, population growth, which has hovered close to 3% a year since 1960, is higher than that of agricultural output, which has remained at 2% throughout the same period. Rates of output per capita have fallen, exacerbating food insecurity and encouraging young people to join the exodus to the towns or to leave their country altogether. In southern Africa, AIDS is devastating rural labour forces and intensifying the decline.In spite of this trend, the proportion of persons who depend on agriculture or related activities for their living remains extremely high and this sector plays a major role in the labour market. That is the conclusion of RuralStruc, a World Bank research programme on the consequences of liberalisation for rural development. In Senegal, for example, a highly urbanised country, of the 11 million inhabitants, 7 million -only a fraction lower than the number in 1960 -still rely mainly on rural activities for their livelihoods, in the absence of enough jobs in the towns. Each year, 120,000 young rural dwellers enter the labour market. If agriculture cannot offer them adequate revenues, they will join the ranks of the unemployed in Dakar or try at all costs to emigrate to Europe. \"Restoring, consolidating and developing the labour reservoir that constitutes African agriculture is one of the imperatives of the next decade\", comments Bruno Losch of RuralStruc.There is thus also a social dimension to the challenge of maintaining and improving family farm output. Abandoning this sector could lead to \"a massive and premature exodus of small farms that could overwhelm the capacities of many countries to cope\", warned Peter Hazell, of London's Imperial College, in Spore 125. A final consideration is that these farmers are the only ones able to safeguard their countries' natural resources, which are vital for everyone. They could turn this role to good advantage in the future, by using cultivation methods that preserve the environment and reduce CO 2 emissions (Spore 130).Modernising family farms and increasing productivity so as to make them competitive, while at the same time employing a substantial workforce for production, marketing and processing -that is the most pressing challenge. It can only be met by a radical change in policy. Decisionmakers need to wake up to the fact that family farming can be an engine of growth and that supporting this sector is a crucial first step. They need to offer assistance to the vast numbers of small-scale farmers so they can increase production and have better access to markets. It is vital that they revive agricultural research and extension, after a decade of neglect, that they encourage the development of irrigation, make it easier to access inputs and credit, improve the road network, electrify villages and help rural communities to emerge from their isolation through the use of ICTs.Making local markets more accessible by improving transport for products and access to price information can quickly lead to an increase of income for producers. Another approach worth exploring is the development of high value-added niche products, which can have valuable regional outlets or be used to make biofuels.To achieve these results, ACP countries must be allowed to equip themselves with appropriate agricultural policies that are adapted to their context, and protect their agriculture from competition. That is the verdict of small-scale farmers' organisations such as the Windward Islands Farmers' Association (WINFA) or the Network of Farmers' Organizations and Agricultural Producers in West Africa (ROPPA), which have put family farming at the top of their list of demands. These organisations deserve to be well supported and widely consulted, as they are the best placed to ensure that their members' needs and objectives are pushed to the fore once again, that they benefit from shared experiences and from the useful information they can make available. It is also important to give more space to women, whose dominant role in family farming is often overlooked, and to the young, who hold our future in their hands. n Spore 131 / October 2007 iN BRiEFIn South Africa, a pilot project is using enzymes to extract pectin from lemons and their zest. Pectin is a natural gelling agent used to reduce the quantity of sugar needed to make jam. The aim is to create an outlet for the tonnes of citrus fruit deemed unsuitable for export due to sub-standard quality -40% of the citrus harvest on the Eastern Cape. At a later stage, the public-private consortium behind the initiative is planning to develop powdered pectin for the export market.The Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicines (GALVmed) is a new initiative aimed at responding to the urgent need to address serious livestock diseases affecting the poor. The alliance, based in Edinburgh, UK, brings together researchers, research institutions, universities and pharmaceutical companies to produce new diagnostic tests, vaccines and pharmaceutical products, as well as improving ones already on the market. Two of the first GALVmed projects are being launched in Kenya. One hopes to develop a vaccine for Newcastle disease that is stable at high temperatures and available to small-scale backyard poultry farmers. The other aims to prevent East Coast Fever, which kills more than one million cattle a year, causing losses of over US$200 million (€148 million) in eastern and southern Africa.Pentlands Science Park Bush Loan, Penicuik Edinburgh EH26 0PZ Scotland, UK Fax: +44 (0)131 445 6222 [email protected] www.galvmed.org A weed that was once deemed to be of no use to farmers is transforming the lives of producers in Kenya's Western region. Farmers are using the tree marigold, Tithonia diversifolia, known to locals as Maua Maruru, to boost soil fertility. The prolific weed, which is rich in nitrogen and phosphorous, serves as a highly effective alternative to expensive artificial fertilisers. The concept was introduced to farmers by researchers from the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Staff who studied the farms are showing producers how to cut the weed and leave it to rot on the soil. According to Julias Adiwo, an ICRAF senior research assistant, the quality of soils in most parts of the western region has long been affected by over-exploitation. Most farmers own very little land and cannot afford to buy fertilisers. Although the weed grows naturally in most areas of the country, very few farmers had noticed the important role it plays in enriching their soils, he added.Elizabeth Ondiga, who has begun using the technique on her 0.8 ha plot, says she can now harvest enough maize and beans to feed her family until the following season. \"Prices of fertilisers are shooting up by the day,\" she said. \"The weed has proved a far better way to rejuvenate my farm.\"The red goat of Maradi, in southern Niger, is making a new home for itself in the centre of Burkina Faso. When the Bazega rural development project first introduced this typically Sahelian animal, many livestock keepers were sceptical that it would be able to tolerate the humid climate and survive diseases such as pasteurellosis and trypanosomiasis. But the hardy red goat has settled in well, amply justifying the decision to introduce it into the area in a bid to improve the incomes of women and young people.The goat's fertility and ability to reproduce at an early age have surprised livestock keepers. Females as young as 10 to 12 months can produce offspring and regularly produce two or three kids. Even when a mother is suckling her young, a herder can still collect close to a litre of milk each day, compared with a scant quarter of a litre in the case of the local 'mossi' goat. At 3 months, the red goat is worth FCFA17,500 (€27), double the price of an 8-month-old local breed. The red goat's soft fine coat is much sought after in the luxury leather goods sector to make shoes, bags and clothes.However, wider-scale development of this breed is held back by the fact that few herders in this area milk their goats thoroughly, since the milk is only really consumed by children. If the udder is not entirely emptied of its milk, mastitis (inflamation of the mammary glands) can ensue. Project managers have started to train farmers in good milking practices. This will lead to more healthy goats, producing high quality milk that can be made into cheese, yoghurt and other products. The tree marigold boosts soil fertility in Kenya.The red goat of Maradi (Niger) has surprised livestock keepers in Burkina Faso.weeds to the rescue Two of the young men, Joeli Raviakara, 24, and Sanaila Tukutukuivalu, 35, have now won a scholarship for a year's further training in Indonesia. On their return, the pair will lead the Bitukao Enterprise production team. The furniture products will initially be aimed at local and tourist markets. When more young people have completed training, there are plans to investigate the export market, said Mr Korodrau.In Benin, nearly 400 pupils from eight schools in the municipalities of Dassa-Zoumé and Glazoué recently took part in the second final of an unusual inter-school competition. Organised by CPN-les Papillons, a local environmental NGO, and supported by CTA, the contest encouraged children to \"plead for the protection of the environment\" before an audience of around one thousand people.Helped by their teachers, the youngsters had earlier produced manuals on biodiversity, natural ecosystems, environmental degradation and ways of protecting the planet. A jury examined the manuals and listened to the young advocates, who were each given a maximum of 20 min to present their case. There was warm praise for all the entries and each school received hoes, watering cans, refuse bins or other useful prizes. The youngest contestants also received plants.On two Wednesdays each month, as part of the same project, students from three institutes present a radio broadcast called 'Nature and Us'. Translated into local languages Idaasha and Maxi, the programme reaches several hundred thousand list eners, say organisers. It deals with various topics including bush fires, desertification, recycling of plastic bags, compost making, deforestation and reforestation, ecotourism and the environment.Camaté-Shakaloké BP 16 , Sokponta, Benin [email protected] www.oduland.com/cpn.htmIn the town of Dondo, in Mozambique's Sofala Province, members of a small wood-turners' cooperative have learned to turn a precious local resource into a high-fashion product. With support from the International Trade Centre (ITC) and ideas from designer and social entrepreneur Allan Schwarz, they craft high-quality bracelets that are making a splash at the high end of the fashion accessories market. Their design shows bold architectural forms that are selling well, featuring on catwalks and in glossy magazines. The move marks a turnaround for this poor rural community. Many were deskilled by years of civil war and previously trying with little success to earn a living making low-quality wood products for a tourism market that no longer existed.Founded by Schwarz, the Sofala Initiative, an alliance between a private company based at the Mezimbite Forest Centre, the Dondo woodcraft cooperative and the n'Hatanga community, has shown the forest community how to make the most of its wide variety of tropical trees, whose timber is durable and decorative, with rich colours ranging from deep burgundy to ebony. A replanting programme ensures that the wooden jewellery trade will be helping forest communities for generations to come. In Kenya, the Shompole Community Trust has won a top prize for conserving vast grasslands and savannah as part of a profitmaking ecotourism venture for the local Masai people. The trust was one of five community groups from tropical regions to win the UN-backed Equator Prize for their initiatives to alleviate poverty and conserve local biodiversity. Also named in the awards was the village of Andavadoaka in Madagascar, honoured for managing an octopus fishery so that it can provide sustainable longterm benefits. Each winning group will receive US$30,000 (€21,750).East Africa leads the continent in exports of certified organic products. The sector has received a further boost with the development of an East African Organic Standard (EAOS), launched in April 2007. EAOS is expected to enable economies of scale in training materials and certification, and create a unified negotiating position that should help organic farmers win access to export markets. But the potential of the new body to spur African organic exports could be seriously compromised by a move from the UK's largest organic licensing body. The Soil Association, which certifies more than 70% of retail organic produce in the UK, is considering withdrawing its endorsement of products imported by plane. It argues that air freight is responsible for 11% of carbon emissions and therefore at odds with organic principles. A decision is expected in November.Beekeeping is booming in Zambia. The Zambia Agribusiness Technical Assistance Centre (ZATAC) recently trained honey farmers in Mwinilunga District to produce certified organic honey for export to the international market. Meanwhile, in Solwezi, Kansanshi Mining Limited has brought in experts to train rural dwellers in beekeeping. One of the initiatives to emerge is Mutanda Honey, which buys comb honey from local farmers before processing and selling it to retail outlets. About 10,000 beekeepers in North-Western Province currently have 500,000 hives producing up to 1,000 t of honey and 100 t of beeswax annually, according to the Centre for International Forestry Research.The Coffee Research Institute (CORI) in Uganda has developed coffee trees that are resistant to the coffee wilt disease. \"The institute is trying out a wiltresistant Arabica coffee popularly known as Tuza. It is already doing very well in Bushenyi, Rukungiri and Ibanda Districts,\" said a CORI official. He explained that samples from the seeds have been tested and the results are promising. \"Plans are under way to take it to other districts, but it has to be done systematically to avoid mixing it with Robusta.\" A project to rehabilitate rice production has transformed Madagascar's Mandrare Basin from one of the country's poorest regions, where famine was rife, into a rice exporting area. The Mandrare project, funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), restored irrigation systems, roads and other infrastructures and introduced more intensive farming methods. It also set up a network of microcredit institutions. The area now exports up to 25,000 t of rice per year. A second phase has helped farmers to produce an annual 200 t of cabbage, tomatoes, onions, garlic and carrots, as well as 4.5 t of corn and cassava seeds and more than 8 t of rice seeds. The initiative has encouraged local farmers to form producers' associations to market their crops.Over the past 5 years, the cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) has spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa. The virus destroys the root while the leaves appear to be healthy, so farmers do not realise that their crop has been ruined until harvest time. Scientists from the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Tanzania suspect the virus is spread by people carrying infected cassava cuttings across Africa. They have now developed new varieties of cassava through cross-breeding, and trials have shown that these can successfully tolerate the virus. To speed up the spread of these varieties, the IITA is training farmers in a new method to increase the number of cuttings obtained from each plant.IITA-Tanzania ARI-Mikocheni (MARI), Plot 24B Sam Nujoma Road PO Box 6226 Dar-es-Salaam Tanzania Fax: +255 22 2775021 [email protected] ACP countries, older women are generally respected and listened to by their families and communities. However, until now, development officials have tended to focus on younger women to be partners in their projects. This approach is starting to change. A recent FAO seminar highlighted the key role played by grandmothers, dynamic women who in many countries of the South are often barely in their forties.An international NGO, 'The Grandmother Project', is working together with a number of community organisations in West Africa. In Senegal, the older women discuss female genital mutilation with the younger ones. In Mauritania, they are promoting good nutritional practices in the shanty towns. By combining traditional knowledge with an open approach to more modern ideas, these young grandmothers can contribute significantly to the success of projects for maternal and child health.Our elders, a resource for the future? In Spore 102, we observed that \"in most ACP countries the proportion of old people will grow for decades yet, despite HIV/AIDS and other ills.\" But much remains to be done, especially in agriculture, to ensure that they have access to adequate services for credit, training and obtaining equipment.The Grandmother Project (GMP) Via Aventina 30 00153 Rome Italy [email protected] www.grandmotherproject.org/index. htmlThe most feared enemy of groundnut producers in tropical regions is aflatoxin, a substance produced by the Aspergillus flavus fungus. It poses a serious threat to consumer health as well as to the revenues of farmers, who cannot sell their produce on international markets if the groundnuts are infected. In order to obtain highquality groundnuts, farmers need to take precautions against contamination both in the field and at every stage of production -tracking aflatoxin \"from the farm to the fork\".The European New tools for groundnut aflatoxin control in Sahel Africa project has revealed that water stress occurring towards the end of the crop cycle encourages the development of aflatoxins. It therefore advises producers to use short-cycle varieties that produce small seeds, which have been shown to have greater resistance. After harvest, granaries and warehouses must also be treated to limit the spread of infection.Varieties with resistance to aflatoxin are currently being made available in West Africa. In Senegal, CIRAD and the main Senegalese producers' organisation ASPRODEB are seeking to build a quality groundnut sector by linking producer associations with private sector [email protected] [email protected] Unité de recherche « Agrobiodiversité des plantes de savane » CIRAD Avenue Agropolis -TA 70 / 01 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5 FranceSome 5,000 professional fishers from Mauritius (2,000 in Mauritius and 3,000 in Rodrigues) have all received 300 free shares worth 10 rupees (€0.23) each from the Fishermen Investment Trust (FIT). Created to help poor coastal fisher folk, the FIT has a capital of nearly €1.5 million made available by the government of Mauritius. Its activi-ties include fishing, the processing of fisheries products, the purchase of fishing boats and equipment, the provision of loans to fishers, job creation and a range of other benefits for fisher folk. Part of the capital is also used to fund training at the Mauritius fisheries school.The FIT is modelled on the Sugar Investment Trust which will also be investing in profitable fisheries activities and marine farming projects. The profits will be reinvested in aquaculture and in the harvesting and processing of sea cucumbers.Thanks to the FIT, fisher folk have priority in enlisting in these new projects. For a profession whose members are used to relying on no one but themselves and the sea for a living, that is quite a revolution. In arid regions of Africa, the production of gum arabic from the Acacia senegal is an important source of revenue, but output varies widely from one year to another depending on rainfall.In field trials on adult trees in Burkina Faso, Niger and Senegal, researchers have shown that productivity of the acacias increases by 25% if they are injected with rhizobia at the onset of the rainy season. These soil bacteria stimulate the growth of trees, strengthen their resistance to variations in rainfall and improve gum production. Scientists have identified the genes that affect flavour in coffee beans, paving the way for higher quality coffee and potentially widening the added value sector of the coffee market. The team, from CIRAD in France and Brazil's Agricultural Institute of Paraná, says it has pinpointed the genes responsible for sucrose accumulation in coffee beans. Sucrose is thought to play a vital role in the taste of coffee by releasing flavour and aroma during roasting. The next challenge is to find ways of improving sucrose content in beans to ensure better quality and higher earnings for producers.Howtopedia is a collaborative library for practical knowledge and simple technologies. Developed along the lines of Wikipedia, it enables visitors to exchange links and tips in a range of fields, including agriculture and energy. With just a few clicks, you can find out more about uses of shea butter and how to grow mushrooms on water hyacinths. Still in its infancy, the on-line library awaits your comments and suggestions.www.howtopedia.org/intro.php?L=enThe WAHID Interface provides access to all data held within the new World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS) launched by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Here you will find information on veterinary staff, laboratories and vaccines, as well as reports and maps presenting the animal health situation, livestock diseases and unusual epidemiological outbreaks in member countries. You can search by country, by group of countries or by disease, as well as find out about efforts to tackle disease and compare the animal health situation of two countries.Rabbit rearing has the potential to improve the diets and income of many African households as well as soil fertility. Rabbits mature quickly and reproduce rapidly. In good conditions, a single doe can produce 60 kittens in a year. They can be fed garden and kitchen waste, take up little space and are quiet, making them suitable for urban and suburban environments. They produce high-quality meat and useful manure.In the Caribbean, a number of initiatives have aimed to promote rabbit production among smallholders.The USAID Farmer to Farmer Program sent volunteers to Haiti to teach local producers how to raise rabbits. Production has reportedly increased in Cap Haitien and Portau-Prince due to demand from tourist restaurants. In April 2007, FAO supported a 4-H project in Rose Hill, Jamaica. In Barbados, the Small Grants Programme of the Global Environment Facility (GEF-SGP) launched a Sustainable Organic Farming and Rabbit Rearing Project in July with a gift of rabbits to a primary school. In Trinidad, efforts are under way to establish contacts between retailers and suppliers, and to set up a rabbit meat processing plant.One factor holding back further expansion is the so-called Easter Bunny syndrome. \"Some people think of rabbits more as pets, too cute to eat, like the Easter Bunny. Even some of the farmers who raise them can't bear to slaughter them,\" said Ansari Hosein, at the St Augustine campus of the University of the West Indies, which recently carried out a study on rabbit production.In Weight gain was poor when rabbits were fed on green leaf material alone. The animals thrived when fed with a low-cost supplement of cassava, banana, sweet potato, sugarcane or coconut. warm welcome for solar invention Kenyan John Maina, inventor of a solar dryer for fruits and vegetables, has been awarded the Energy Globe Award for the 'earth' category. More than 700 projects from 96 countries competed with proposals for clean and sustainable energy uses. Prizes, which were awarded in April, were given for each of five categories: earth, air, water, fire and youth.Since 2002, 30 of these dryers have been used to add value to harvests, increasing the revenues of nearly a thousand farmers linked to the Sustainable Community Development Services (SCODE), where John Maina is the coordinator. Some 30 craftsmen have learned how to build the dryers using wood and simple sheets of plastic. The invention is proving particularly useful in Kenya, where 30 to 40% of fruits and vegetables are lost for lack of affordable postharvest conservation techniques. Solar energy, which is free and widely available, saves using fuel wood, which is increasingly hard to find in the Rift Valley region.Meanwhile, Congolese inventor Mr Tsengue-Tsengue, head of Challenge Futura, a company that makes agrifood equipment, has developed a solar dryer which he says gives constant power and can be regulated. When there is no sun, the drier can use hot water to power it instead. A partnership has been signed with French company Atlas which is studying \"a simplified version so that even illiterate people can use it easily,\" explains the inventor.The device won the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPPO) prize as well as an award from the Swiss solar energy association SWISSOLAR. Both prizes were presented at the 35th International Exhibition of Inventions, New Techniques and Products, held in Geneva in April 2007. Teak is a timber much in vogue, and as a result the demand for high quality plants is high. To meet the challenge, CIRAD has developed a system for industrially cloning teak plants, which overcomes two major stumbling blocks: the low rate of seed germination in plantations and the high level of heterogeneity of trees that grow from them. Several million plants grown in vitro have already been produced at very low cost.Contacts: [email protected] [email protected] fishers in Senegal have received their first ecolabel from the Swiss association Fair Fish. This certification sets fair conditions and a fixed minimum price for fishers and their families while at the same time seeking to conserve fish stocks. The label guarantees that fisheries enterprises respect traceability standards and use capture methods which minimise suffering to fish. At present, the fish is sold exclusively in Switzerland.Cité Sonees, Villa n° 1 Guédiawaye Dakar Senegal Fax: +221 871 47 55 [email protected] www.fair-fish.ch/englishResearchers from the EU-funded Pumpsea project have launched a water purification system in a tourist area of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, which uses mangroves to treat effluents from a hotel. The technique cuts faecal coliform bacteria in the water by almost 90%. Certain types of mangrove can filter nutrients, poisons and other contaminants found in wastewater, and could become valuable allies in the fight against pollution in subtropical coastal waters. The researchers have mapped most of the mangrove zones of Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania, and identified areas where this inexpensive and completely natural technique could be applied.www.pumpsea.icat.fc.ul.pt/main.phpTen of the world's most important natural history museum and botanical libraries have joined forces to launch an ambitious project: digitalising all the publications and documents on biodiversity in their possession with a view to making them accessible to all on the Web. Nearly 1.5 million pages are already available for consultation on the website of the Biodiversity Heritage Library. It will take about 10 years to create the 300 million digital pages planned for the site, which will also offer videos, photographs and maps.www.biodiversitylibrary.org/About. aspxSmall-scale fishermen in Senegal are using mobile phones to market their products and to log their departures and estimated times of return, so that rescue services can be alerted if there is a problem. The Innovative Internet and Wireless E-services for Strengthening the Livelihoods of Senegalese Fishermen project is run by MANOBI, a private telecommunications company, in partnership with three local fishing unions, several other companies and international organisations. The scheme uses short messaging system (SMS) and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) technologies. Fishers can also use their cell phones to access up-todate weather reports and market price information.The project has already produced good results. Fishers report increased incomes as a result of access to market data. One fishing union was able to send help to rescue an eight-man crew that had failed to return on time. The service also enables fishers to improve the quality of their products. By alerting potential buyers as soon as they land their catch, they can sell their fish while it is still very fresh. Typically, up to 30% of the catch of small-scale fishers is wasted while they wait to find a buyer.Whether they are shopping or eating out at a restaurant, environmentally aware South Africans can quickly find out if the fish offered to them comes from a threatened species. By keying in the name of the fish via SMS to a mobile phone number, they receive a colourcoded response from the FishMS service. Green means you can buy the fish; orange means the fish is legal, but stocks are threatened; red means selling the fish is illegal in South Africa. The service is offered by the Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative with the support of the South African government and the Green Trust.www.manobi.net www.panda.org.za/article.php?id=498Photo: © Syfia InternationalThe Ndiyo system enables several people to use the same computer at once.A simple new process for preserving coconut water could enable ACP small-scale entrepreneurs to tap into the growing market for this time-honoured tropical drink. The cold preservation technique was developed and evaluated in Jamaica by scientists from the University of the West Indies, the Coconut Industries Board and the Jamaican Scientific Research Council, with support from FAO. FAO has now published a free training guide, which clearly explains the process.Once exposed to air and warm temperatures, the quality of coconut water quickly deteriorates.\"The cold preservation process requires little investment and skills, and it offers small entrepreneurs a chance to enter the market of bottling coconut water of good quality,\" said Rosa Rolle of FAO's Rural Infrastructure and Agro-industries Division.The commercial production of canned coconut water involves sterilising the product using high temperature and short-time pasteurisation, a process that destroys some of the nutrients in coconut water and almost all its delicate flavour. The new process, which involves filtration, bottling and rigorous temperature control, protects the natural flavour of coconut water. It allows farmers to produce bottled coconut water that stays fresh from 10 days to 3 weeks. The cold preservation technology is not protected by patent and can be used by anybody.Good Practice for the Small-Scale Production of Bottled Coconut Water AGS Registry FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153-Rome, Italy Fax: +39 (0)6 5705 4960 [email protected] Detergent infused with citrus essence, citronella candles that repel mosquitoes, eucalyptus-based treatments to alleviate respiratory problems and -wait for it -socks impregnated with essential oils. Nature is a strong selling point right now and the agrifood, chemical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries are constantly on the lookout for natural substances that are just as effective as synthetic products but are also beneficial to health and the environment. The trend helps explain the massive upsurge in interest in essential oils (EOs), volatile fragrant substances produced by wild or cultivated plants. The most common method of extraction is steam distillation (see box) or, in the case of citrus fruits, cold pressing of the zest. EOs are not to be confused with the fatty oils extracted from oleaginous plants such as shea or jojoba.The price of these precious oils depends on the parts and quantities of plants used, as well as on the difficulty of harvesting them, a process mainly done by hand. One of the most costly EOs is Neroli oil, extracted from the blossoms of the bitter orange tree (Citrus aurantium), grown in many ACP countries. A tiny 2 ml bottle sells for around €13 on the Internet while the essence extracted from the skin of the fruits is between 10 and 15 times less expensive.According to the report Indian Oil Industry 2005, global output of EOs and citrus essences hovers between 100,000 and 110,000 t. Some 55% of production is accounted for by the South, led by Brazil, China, India and Indonesia, which are also major consumers. The international aroma and perfume market (worth US$6.3 billion in 2006, according to BCC Research) is expected to grow by an annual 4.5% in the coming years. The EU, Japan and USA are traditionally the biggest importers of EOs, but demand from Asian countries, especially South Korea and China, is growing rapidly. The boom in aromatherapy, a treatment involving the absorption, massage or inhalation of often organic EOs, is helping to create niche markets for high value-added products.ACP countries are well placed to profit from these trends. Their climate, the richness of their flora and plentiful supply of labour are clear advantages when it comes to growing and harvesting aromatic plants. Some countries have a virtual monopoly on plants with unique properties: Amyris balsamifera or West Indian sandalwood in Haiti, muhuhu (Brachylaena hutchinsii) in Kenya and Tanzania, buchu (Agathosma betulina) in South Africa, to mention those that are most widely marketed.The Caribbean has a long tradition of EO production. Despite strong competition, Grenada remains the world's second largest exporter ofSome 4,000 plant species contain aromatic essences, but only a few hundred of them have sufficient concentrations to allow extraction of essential oils. Steam distillation in a still is the most common extraction method. The parts of the plant -flowers, leaves, fruit peel or roots -are placed in a tank through which steam is passed. This causes the aromatic cells to rupture, releasing the molecules of essential oils. The blend of steam and oil then passes through a condenser -a coil that has been cooled down in a vat of cold water. When the liquid (hydrolat) emerges, the oil floats to the surface and can be harvested. The final quantity and quality of the product depend on careful monitoring of the temperature and pressure inside the still, and to an even greater extent on the quality of the plants used, which must be picked at the right moment. The quantity of EO harvested varies significantly from one plant to another, and this affects price. To obtain 1 kg of pure essence, you need to distil 1,000 kg of orange blossom and 600 kg of rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), but only 6 to 7 kg of cloves (Syzygium aromaticum). A more delicate process, extraction by solvent involves chemicals and is mainly used to capture the perfume of the most fragile flowers such as jasmine.Cold pressing is exclusively used to extract essences from the zest of citrus fruit (orange, lemon, bergamot or other). The equipment needed is inexpensive. You simply peel the fruit before pressing and centrifuging the skin to harvest the essence. The zest of 100 kg of citrus fruit produces between 500 and 850 g of essence.nutmeg oil (Myristica fragrans) after Indonesia. Haiti is the world's leading producer of amyris oil (Amyris balsamifera) and the second biggest producer of vetiver -see our field report -and produces citrus essences for liqueurs. Jamaica is known for its EO made from the leaves and berries of the pimento (Pimenta dioica and P. racemosa), while Dominica produces significant quantities of bay essence (Laurus nobilis). The search for new aromatic plants to develop in the region may help in the push for agricultural diversification and job creation.In the Pacific region, the Centre for the Development of Enterprise (CDE) is encouraging farmers to start producing EOs to help them penetrate the world market by offering quality products which, it says, are in growing demand. Two species of sandalwood have traditionally been an important source of revenue for the region: Santalum austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu and S. yasi in Fiji and Tonga. Three medicinal plants have been identified as holding out significant promise for the local EO industry: a variety of basil (Ocimum gratissimum), a type of mint (Plectranthus amboinicus) and a tree (Pandanus tectorius).Despite the rich diversity of its flora, sub-Saharan Africa still only plays a marginal role in the EO market. Notable exceptions are South Africa, which has a sizeable output of different oils (eucalyptus, geranium, camomile, lavender), Côte d'Ivoire (citrus essence) and Madagascar, a major producer of EOs extracted from ylangylang and cloves. Other countries, including Ghana, Malawi and Nigeria, have recently joined their ranks.In 2004, PAHE, the pan-African network for aromatic plants and essential oils, launched a campaign to encourage African countries to draw up SME development strategies for the production of essential and edible oils. The initiative was aimed at creating jobs and increasing earnings from traditional knowledge and non-timber forest products. South Africa has successfully created various support programmes for small-scale farmers producing EOs. In the Northern Cape, the country's Department of Science and Technology is encouraging the cultivation and distillation of geranium as a way of creating jobs and reducing poverty.EOs belong to a group of products which, according to the CDE, have the advantage of requiring little investment and simple, tested technologies that are easy to use and install in rural settings. They can make a significant contribution to boosting revenues for rural communities, take up little space and can easily be despatched by plane at reasonable cost. Production methods have to meet exacting quality standards to ensure that plants have adequate levels of active ingredients. Those that fail to do so command lower prices. Since EOs are complex substances, they require regular laboratory testing if they are to qualify for export. One important step is to determine their chemotype (see box) -their precise biochemical structure, which is strongly influenced by the ecological area in which a plant is harvested.As Spore observed back in 2000 (Spore 86), \"It is a rewarding, but exacting market to conquer, and one where quality counts.\" The EU imposes rigorous standards. The REACH system, which since 2006 has ensured control of 30,000 chemical substances, also applies to essential oils. It requires manufacturers to demonstrate that their products are not harmful in any way, a process that is beyond the means of most ACP SMEs, unless they have assistance.Adding to their difficulties is the fact that small-scale producers must also take account of specific market constraints, which may change dramatically from one year to the next due to competition. Producers need to be well informed of market trends, build up contacts with potential clients and make sure they hold onto those clients by supplying adequate quantities of EOs regularly. Even though producers in the South now have more direct access to the markets of industrialised countries -mainly due to the Internet -these markets remain distant, sporadic and exclusively based on raw materials. It is hard to find export markets for plant-based products, unless they are part of a long tradition such as Bay Rum in the Caribbean, a blend of EOs, including one extracted from Pimenta racemosa. This has long been used in Europe as an eau de Cologne or hair lotion.Most recent studies on EOs focus on the commercial opportunities that local and regional markets offer ACP countries. One example is a small-scale enterprise in Ghana which is seeking to tap the markets of neighbouring countries with an anti-mosquito lotion based on citronella EO (Cymbopogon nardus).EOs can be extremely useful in their country of origin where their antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal properties may help protect humans, livestock, crops and harvests. In Papua New Guinea, pharmacies sell waria waria oil distilled from Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa, whose antiseptic properties are similar to those of tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia).A number of research initiatives are under way in ACP countries to study the properties of EOs extracted from local flora, based on Tropical essential oils are selling well in European pharmacies.An essential oil can contain dozens or even hundreds of components, which lend it its particular taste or fragrance. A gas chromatography laboratory test is needed to determine the percentage of each constituent. Two EOs extracted from plants belonging to the same botanical species can have the same components, but in very different proportions, depending on the place where the plant was harvested. The amount of sun and the type of soil on which the plant grew both play an important role. That explains differences in price and the fact that plants from some regions are more sought after than those from others.The active ingredients and their concentration vary widely between varieties. For example, there are several hundred varieties of eucalyptus, but only a dozen of them produce an EO, obtained by distillation of the leaves. The oil from E. globulus, cultivated in Malawi and South Africa amongst other places, is rich in eucalyptol.It is prized for its beneficial effect on the respiratory tract. Essence of E. citriodora or lemon eucalyptus, which grows mainly in Madagascar, has a calming effect due to its high content of citronellal, and is also used in the perfume trade.Photo: © Syfia International DOssiER traditional knowledge. In South Africa, branches of Lippia javanica have long been used to repel insects. The EO from this shrub has been found to be effective in warding off Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which are vectors of yellow fever. When added to candles, the EO repels 98% of these mosquitoes, compared with 40% using citronella. In Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Congo and Kenya, tests are being conducted to establish the capacity of various plants to repel malaria-carrying mosquitoes.In Cameroon, several universities are working together to study the efficacy of EOs extracted from local plants to act as biopesticides. Some are looking at the potential of EOs to combat weevils and lesser grain borers, pests which cause serious damage to maize stocks. Others are comparing the ability of various citrus essences to fight Phaeoramularia angolensis, a fungal pathogen that causes spotting on citrus fruit and leaves, and hampers cultivation in many parts of Central Africa. At the heart of the network, the University of Ngaoundéré is focusing on the domestication of plants as sources of EOs and the dissemination of this information further afield.In Burkina Faso, a team from the agricultural research institute INERA has demonstrated the efficacy of EOs extracted from Cymbopogon citratus, C. giganteus, Lippia multiflora and Ocimum basilicum against rice seed fungi. In Madagascar, the antibiotic properties of EO of Cinnamosma fragrans, one of the country's many traditional medicinal plants, have caught the attention of researchers from the national rural development research institute FOFIFA and CIRAD, who see it as a potential substitute to the antibiotics used on shrimp farms.The success currently being enjoyed by EOs is fuelling a constant search for new plants with potentially beneficial ingredients.This can sometimes lead to over-harvesting of wild plant populations, especially in forests. Cultivation is the best option, as a way of avoiding serious damage to biodiversity while encouraging the creation of jobs and income for small-scale producers and distillers.Photographic credits: © C Jewell, © R Bosch, © F and K Starr, © www.geranium-bourbon.com, © Syfia International Pierre Léger has forged a cast iron reputation in his field. Frager/Agri Supply, the factory he owns in southern Haiti's Plaine des Cayes, supplies almost 70% of the world market in vetiver essential oil. \"I export more than 80 t per year\", says the 59-year-old agronomist, as he points to an array of samples on display in a corner of his sizeable office in Port-au-Prince. Becoming and remaining the world leader in the vetiver market is no mean feat, especially in a country as volatile as Haiti. The secret of Mr Léger's success can be summed up in a few words: always provide clients -mainly drawn from the European perfume industry -with top quality products, and always respect delivery deadlines.This businessman from the Caribbean's poorest country readily acknowledges that the 25,000 or so farmers who supply the vetiver roots are the real pillar of the industry. \"Frager/Agri Supply belongs to the community of the South,\" he asserts. \"The farmers play a direct role in its management; they monitor performance and sometimes tell me which decisions I should take.\" For Mr Léger, the country's glaring lack of infrastructure remains the main obstacle to the development of the essential oils industry in Haiti. \"The appalling state of the roads, combined with draconian electricity rationing and a lack of ports and airports have led a number of producers to abandon this sector,\" he laments.The head of the world's biggest vetiver factory is actively involved in community activities. Translating that commitment into training for the young, he offers study grants at Haitian and foreign universities. He recently donated 25 ha of land to the government for the construction of a university campus in the region.Since 2000, this towering entrepreneur -he is almost 2 m tall -has broadened his horizons: he regularly travels the world to share his expertise and help countries beset by poverty like his own native Haiti to set up essential oil production facilities. It all began when the International Trade Centre (ITC) sent him on a mission in Africa's Great Lakes region to evaluate the potential of these countries to produce EOs. \"At the time, essential oils were little known in Rwanda and Burundi,\" recalls Mr. Léger, who is firmly convinced that South-South cooperation is the most effective way of fighting poverty. Now both Burundi and Rwanda are on the point of becoming producers of quality essential oils, he says. \"Plantations of patchouli have been introduced there,\" he says. \"They have carried out trials and obtained the best quality patchouli oil in the world.\"Since then, his advice has been sought from all corners of the globe -from Asia, South America and Africa. But his responsibilities as company director in Haiti do not allow him to satisfy all the requests. He did, however, launch a partnership with Brazil last year.After 34 years in essential oil production, Mr. Léger believes the time has come to hand over the reins to the next generation. \"My father introduced me to this sector when I was very young and I have done the same with my son and daughter. The world perfumery industry has shown no hesitation in accepting them,\" says the agronomist. He himself took over the business from his father Frank in 1984, after studying in The Netherlands. The essence of the art, so to say.Jean Among the cargo of Captain William Bligh's Bounty, during its ill-fated voyage from Tahiti in 1787, was a consignment of 1,015 potted breadfruit plants. Though most of the breadfruit was lost in the mutiny that followed, subsequent trips by the infamous captain delivered plants to the Caribbean.Breadfruit was domesticated in the Pacific long before Captain Bligh ever sailed there, and has nourished islanders for more than 3,000 years. Aside from the Pacific and the Caribbean, the breadfruit tree also grows in some coastal regions of Africa, especially Mozambique and Guinea. But this species, Artocarpus altilis Fosb, is not to be confused with African breadfruit (Treculia africana) -a totally different plant -or jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) which looks similar. A multipurpose tree, breadfruit provides food, timber, medicine and natural insecticides, and is an integral part of home gardens for many ACP communities.Though grown in almost 90 countries, breadfruit is still an under-utilised crop, with often untapped potential for improving nutrition and increasing incomes. There is also considerable scope to improve the quality of the cultivated varieties and to develop processing to make more value-added products. At the CTA-supported First International Symposium on Breadfruit Research and Development, in April 2007, Aleki Sisifa, Director of the Land Resources Division at the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, observed that breadfruit is underutilised because it is given low priority by governments and research institutes.The symposium, held in Nadi, Fiji, explored progress in breadfruit research, conservation of genetic resources and food product development. A number of speakers stressed the importance of this crop as a healthy local food source, especially in the Pacific, where a growing tendency to consume imported processed foods is having an impact on health as well as the economy. Breadfruit is rich in energy, vitamins A, B (thiamine, riboflavin and niacin) and C, phosphorus and iron. It can be used to prepare a vast array of dishes, including appetisers, salads, soups, stews, casseroles, breads and desserts. Like banana and plantain, it may be eaten ripe as a fruit or under-ripe as a vegetable.Nutritionists and researchers interested in extending the reach of breadfruit say there is good potential for developing innovative food processing techniques, using traditional methods as a springboard. Fermentation offers one interesting possibility, adapting techniques used to make dishes such as masi ulu -fermented breadfruit biscuits from Samoa. On a recent visit to Pohnpei, food scientist Dr Richard Beyer demonstrated how breadfruit can be ground, extruded and dropped in hot oil to puff up like 'cheese balls', making a tasty local snack. Breadfruit chips -slices fried in oil -are made commercially in Trinidad and Barbados. Still in Barbados, flour made from the dried fruit is sometimes partly substituted for wheat flour in bread-making. Breadfruit flour is much richer than wheat flour in lysine and other essential amino acids. In Jamaica, the flour is boiled, sweetened, and eaten as porridge for breakfast.Surplus or damaged breadfruit can be used as livestock feed. In the Pacific, efforts are under way to encourage smallholders to use the fruit as the basis for a balanced swine feed. Tons of breadfruit unfit for human consumption go to waste each year while pig feed is imported.In some ACP countries, notably Fiji and Samoa, breadfruit is becoming an export commodity. Sangeeta Prasad, from Food Processors (Fiji) Ltd, says the company can barely keep pace with the growing demand from Australia, Canada and New Zealand. In Dominica and Trinidad, breadfruit is canned for shipment to London, New York and New Zealand. Other techniques developed to improve conservation methods for export include freezing and vacuum-sealing. Some Jamaican exporters partly roast the whole fruits to coagulate the latex, let them cool, and then ship them by sea to New York and Europe.According to Fiji Breadfruit Industry Development Project Coordinator Andrew McGregor, breadfruit has a large market potential with communities of Pacific islanders living in New Zealand, but better post-harvesting and presentation are needed. Breadfruit continues to respire even after harvesting, causing packing cartons to soften and collapse. Importers also require fruit to be graded by size and better packaged. Other efforts are focusing on improving the quality of the fruit itself. At Fiji's Ministry of Agriculture, the Research Division is developing ways of raising seedlings through different propagation techniques like marcotting (air layering), root cuttings and root suckers. Officers from the ministry are working closely with exporters to control pests. Meanwhile, on the Pacific island of Niutao, work is under way to make a soughtafter dwarf variety available to growers in other parts of the region. Negotiations with the islanders has resulted in an agreement to mass produce the tree -popular because of the ease with which it can be managed and harvestedfor distribution to smallholders on other islands.In Vanuatu, breadfruit is eaten roasted over the embers. This documentary looks at the potential offered by biofuels to sugar producers in Brazil, France and Mauritius. In this latter country, sugarcane is threatened by the end of the EU Sugar Protocol, which is expected to lead to a drop in prices of around 40%. Producing ethanol is one way of protecting the sugarcane sector and the jobs of the people who work in it, while at the same time reducing energy costs. The 52-minute film explains how and why large agricultural enterprises such as those in Brazil are entering this new market.The second part of the documentary looks at the likely impact on the planet of the biofuels expected to at least partially replace petroleum. It raises the issue of the potential damage caused by their production, if this is done at the expense of food crops, especially in developing countries. Hence the recommendation by many experts to wait for the second generation of biofuels based on forestry or agricultural waste such as straw. Researchers interviewed on the film warn that it is an illusion to think that the Earth can feed its 9 billion inhabitants and also supply them with energy. Cutting consumption of petroleum remains the number one priority. Published in 12 languages, this CD ROM offers a selection of articles presented at the conference in Nairobi, Kenya, in September 2005 on Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS). These techniques enable marginalised communities to plot their territory on maps, ranging from simple sketches to 3D models. Traditional knowledge mapped in this way is a useful decisionmaking tool and facilitates communication between groups and with governments.The CD ROM presents a range of experiences from various locations. It shows how a community in Fiji has used PGIS to safeguard its cultural heritage, while in Ghana it has helped solve land rights problems. In Namibia, meanwhile, people have used the technology to promote community management of natural resources. Wherever it is used, PGIS can help local communities to establish their rights and make sure they are acknowledged by third parties. The CD ROM also contains numerous references as well as some short video clips demonstrating practical exercises. This unusual atlas makes a link between regional ecosystems and poverty in Kenya. Nature's Benefits in Kenya overlays georeferenced statistical information on population and household expenditures with spatial data on ecosystems and their services, such as water availability, wood supply and wildlife populations to yield a picture of how land, people, and prosperity are related in Kenya. With improved management in poultry keeping, the survival rates of chicks can be increased from three out of ten to eight. Any sweet potato variety can be dried to make chips, which can then be made into flour. Five new titles from CTA's Practical Guides series aimed at small-scale producers in eastern Africa, offer a host of such useful nuggets of information. All of the 8-page leaflets are clearly illustrated and simple to follow, with a good set of addresses for further information. Global Environmental Governance is an interesting read and a useful tool for anyone involved in this important but increasingly complex sector. The introductory essay explores the reasons why the international community is having problems in making headway on global environmental issues. The dictionary explains some of the terms that can act as a stumbling block during negotiations. One of the difficulties, it emerges, is that not everyone speaks the same language. Or rather, not everyone involved in preparing and reporting on some of the many conferences on the subject uses the same definition for terms that are widely employed.Jargon and acronyms abound in the field of Global Environmental Governance (itself an acronym, GEG). As the authors point out: With explanations for more than 5,000 terms, acronyms and organisations, this book should unlock the often impenetrable terminology and prove helpful to anyone interested in environmental or sustainability issues. Each year, almost 7 million t of fish bycatch -the part of a catch that inadvertently ends up in the nets -are taken by fishing vessels. Most of it is either discarded at sea or used for human or animal consumption. Shrimp trawling is generally regarded as one of the least selective fishing methods, and has a serious impact on populations of sea turtles, sharks, coral and other marine species.A number of ACP countries are working towards the development of bycatch reduction mechanisms. In Nigeria, a device called the fisheye has been effective in reducing catches of juvenile fish, while Mozambique recently made trawl efficiency devices mandatory on shrimp trawlers. Research is continuing in other countries, including Costa Rica, Trinidad and Tobago.This guide is the product of a worldwide FAO project to minimise wastage and damage to species taken indiscriminately. It offers technical information and construction details for many devices that have been proved to reduce bycatch in tropical shrimp-trawl fisheries. Full of clear illustrations, it explains how to select, install and maintain the devices.The Convention on Biological Diversity recognises \"the vital importance that women play in the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.\" This book explores how women can make a particular contribution. The authors examine the issue from a general standpoint -acknowledging that both women and men have roles, rights and responsibilities in ensuring the sustainable use of biodiversity resources. They also provide plenty of examples to support their argument. There are chapters on a number of ACP experiences, including biodiversity management in the wetlands of Kampala in Uganda, the role of women and biodiversity in fostering sustainable development in Cameroon, and strategies and constraints in the Gambia, Kenya, Lesotho, Mauritius, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Using case studies from 18 countries taking part in the DFID Regoverning Markets programme, this book looks at some of the challenges facing farmers struggling to keep up with the wave of new demands made by food manufacturers and retailers. Among ACP countries featured in the study are Kenya, South Africa, Uganda and Zambia.The book explores the impact of the modernisation of food supply chains on the people whose livelihood depends on food production. It offers some solutions to living with this inexorable process, showing small-scale farmers that there is strength in numbers if they can group together. It also provides advice on best practices for small-scale producers seeking to be part of supermarket supply chains, and identifies some of the main obstacles which need to be removed. Floriculture is a growing sector for small-scale producers in Fiji and this useful manual will help readers find out more about its potential and how to get started. Packed with information and illustrations, the guide offers clear concrete advice on growing anthuriums, orchids, gingers and heliconias, from selecting a site right through to post-harvest handling.A Pictorial Handbook South Sea Orchids, 2007. 38 pp. South Sea Orchids Ltd (SSO) PO Box 570, Lautoka, Fiji Fax: +679 662 2283 [email protected] increasingly important field of biotechnology is not always easy to understand for those outside the sector. The FAO glossary of terms and acronyms commonly used in biotechnology for food and agriculture is now available on CD-ROM (Arabic, English, French and Spanish). A user-friendly search facility allows easy cross reference between the four languages. CrossRef, a non-profit organisation seeking to improve access to published scholarship through collaborative technologies, is extending its reach to include hundreds of journals from Africa. The organisation, whose linking service enables researchers to click on a reference in a journal and access the cited article, has reached agreement with the National Inquiry Services Centre (NISC) and African Journals OnLine (AJOL). NISC is registering its entire list of South Africanbased academic journals and bibliographic databases. AJOL, a fast-growing, independent journal aggregator, will contribute links to articles from more than 260 multi-disciplinary journals from 21 African countries.Publishers International Linking Association 40 Salem Street Lynnfield, MA 01940, USA Fax: +1 781 295 0077 [email protected]. www.crossref.orgThough gaining wider recognition as a major global problem, illegal logging remains poorly researched and understood. There are still few reliable figures on the extent of this phenomenon and many regard the issue as a simple problem of law enforcement. This book sets out to explore the many aspects of illegal logging, including its causes and implications for rural livelihoods. It also makes policy recommendations in the hope of reaching solutions to combat this widespread but complex scourge.  Oum ar Sow is an advi ser on lives tock reari ng for a susta inab le rura l deve lopm ent prog ramm e run by an Aust rian NGO (EWA /PAD ER) in Loug a, nort hern Sene gal. The artic le on scho ol farm s (Spo re 127) brou ght back mem ories for him of his early year s at prim ary scho ol. \"At the time I was learn ing the first lette rs of the Fren ch alph abet and I used to watc h the olde r pupi ls, after their even ing lesso ns, rush out behi nd the class room s to wate r their carro ts, cabb ages , turn ips and aube rgine s... We liked goin g with them beca use they som etim es let us taste the vege table s they had grow n, whic h were delic ious . We used to go and get ferti liser (stric tly orga nic) for them , fetch ing man ure in whe elba rrow s and sack s from our fami lies' field s and barn s.\" \"In this way, the auth oritie s soug ht to use the educ ation syste m to mak e a link betw een scho ol and later life,\" cont inue s Oum ar Sow . \"The fact that I am now a vet and invo lved in rura l deve lopm en t is partl y due to the stron g impr essio n that this train ing mad e on me. I wou ld have liked to see this syste m beco me more wide spre ad, for deve lopm ent is first and forem ost abou t prod ucin g food so as to be self-suffi cient .\"Many of you already share information gleaned from Spore and pass your copies on to other readers -at work, in the village, in reading groups or within organisations. We are delighted to hear it, but we want to go one step further. With your help, we want to ensure that Spore is read by anyone who is likely to find it useful.For this reason, you will find two questionnaires inside this issue. We are asking you to renew your subscription and update your contact details. And we are also offering you the chance to help someone else take out a subscription.The orange form is for those of you who are already subscribed to Spore. Please complete it, taking great care to follow the instructions at the top of the page. This will help us to update your details and to better tailor our services to your needs. Do you know anyone who has never read Spore? If so, you can offer the green form to an organisation or individual in an ACP country working in the field of agricultural and rural development -whether it be in research, the agro-food sector, trade, knowledge sharing or agricultural training.We will give priority to organisations -including women's and youth groups -as well as to agricultural training centres and the libraries of teaching institutes.please note: as we have a limited budget we CANNOT accept individual subscription requests from students or farmers.Use the envelope supplied to return the form by post, and don't forget to add a stamp! If you have access to the Internet, there is no need to post the form. Simply go to http://spore-subs. cta.int, type in the access code on the back of the orange form and fill out the form, submitting it online only. In early June 2008, we will draw three requests at random from the on-line forms. The winners will be able to participate in a conference of their choice, on an agricultural or rural development topic, with expenses paid by CTA.So get to work! Thank you for your cooperation. The best way to understand the term 'New Agriculture' is to take a closer look at 'Old Agriculture'. Until very recently, agriculture was seen as a farm activity, based on primary commodities for both local and export markets. 'Old Agriculture' was dominated by the traditional export commodities sugar, bananas and rice, which enjoyed preferential treatment in the EU for access and price. After the Uruguay Round negotiations, it became clear that these preferences would eventually disappear. The result has been the partial or total demise of such industries, with substantial loss of jobs at farm and -in the case of rice and sugar -factory levels in the Caribbean region. It was apparent that Old Agriculture was dying. However, it still impacted significantly on the social structure of countries and the preservation of their fragile ecosystems, critical for maintaining the pristine environment necessary for tourism, a most important activity especially in the island countries.A different approach was needed if agriculture in the Caribbean was to be revitalised. This new concept soon became known as 'New Agriculture'. Given the dynamism of the international environment, it will continue to evolve. But for the time being, New Agriculture has certain key characteristics. It encompasses the entire agro-product chain, from the production of inputs, including machinery, to the sale of final products, whether fresh or processed. It also places emphasis on niche markets and value added products and is responsive to changing dietary practices for safe, nutritious and easily utilisable foods. New Agriculture includes nonfood items, such as nutraceuticals, biofuels, herbal products and handicrafts. It is driven by technology, especially biotechnology and informatics, and is a business and hence market-driven sector rather than one that is led by production. It requires a different set of extension, educational and research skills and programmes and is organically linked to other economic sectors, including tourism, education, health, transport, trade and finances.The success of New Agriculture will partly depend on government responsibility and responsiveness. Most importantly there must be total involvement of all stakeholders. For example, in St Lucia, where a hotel chain was looking for supplies of fresh fruit and vegetables, representatives from the hotel, the Ministry of Agriculture, local farmers, the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI) and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA) met and developed a programme of activities and targets. As a result, the hotel received a reliable and timely supply of products and the farmers earned increased income. There have been similar experiences in Jamaica and Nevis, and IICA is planning to introduce programmes in at least two other Caribbean countries.There are plenty of other examples of New Agriculture in action. One is the introduction of greenhouse technology to produce quality vegetables for national markets. Another is Haiti's Prohuerta programme, inspired by Argentina, producing commodities to improve diets. In Guyana, the Trilakes Community is producing organic pineapples for processing and export to the European market.Of course, there are hurdles. People have to be convinced of the need to dialogue with each other and agree on common objectives. All partners must have a long-term commitment and be determined to weather any storms that arise. At first, it may not be easy to convince small-scale farmers to try the new approach. But with the right encouragement and assurance that the inputs, technical support and markets are available, they will soon start participating, and once they are successful, we will see a multiplier effect. If farmers do not try New Agriculture, they are unlikely to be able to make a living from farming. At that point, they will have to move to other productive sectors, either in the rural or urban areas. If they shift to the latter, the result will be an added burden for national authorities seeking to provide appropriate social, civil and perhaps even penal facilities. n [email protected] It was apparent that 'Old Agriculture' was dying.","tokenCount":"11595"}

data/part_6/0275102292.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac32c8cf541d60a5c226ecfc8b356baa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c2667699-3d68-4846-8b7c-85ad9802776a/retrieve","id":"-1467812248"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d8232293-da42-4e9f-9a6a-6efdcd17cdfe","pagecount":"65","content":"the specific crop programs revolve around breeding. ~le breeding itself is a numbers game with the following procedures:A. A world wide collection of germplasm is obtained so that there is sufficient genetic variability that sorne interesting characteristics can be comhined from different parental sources.The identification of the desired characters to over come specific constraints to yield increase is made.The \"relevant cionstraints\" on the production side are sorne combination of disease and insect pests, soil anel Hater conditions, and plant characteristics 2 .2/For example, rice breeding at IRRI was principally con--cerned with building sho~ter, sturdier varieties to respond to higher fertilizer levels without lodging with complete water control through irrigation. Breeding research was also directed at four diseases and threepests.Finally, non-photoperiod sensitivity was desired; however, this is a different type of characteristic sought principally by International Centers in order to give wider adaptability for the new material.See P.R. Jennings, \"The Amplification of Agricultural Production\", Scientific American 235(3) (Sept.1976), p.186; and p.R. Jennings, \"Plant Type as a Rice Breeding Objective\", erop Science 4 (,lan-Feb 1964), pp.13-l5.• .c.The \"re1evant constraints\" can be imposed by consumer 3 condi tions, such as taste preferences , as \\-1e11 as production factors.The germp1asm is screened for the characteristics identified in B. The best potential parents are identified 4 .D. These selections are then crossed and recrossed unti1 varieties emerge ,~ith the maximum of the desired characteristics.E. The varieties (or segregantsl are released to National Institutions for either dissemination, trials in different agro-climatic conditions, or further crossing for desired region specific charac-3/Consumers may not eat or may offer a lower price for a -bean of a specific color, size, or textura.In the cas~-of cassava consumers would be expected to prefer lower HCN content and a longer shelflife. 4/At this stage the selection process (before the initiation of the breeding program) may identify cultivars with a sufficient number of ¿haracteristics to be released into evaluation trials.Where there is high yielding ability but insufficíent resistances to disease and soil factors, these cultivars can he tíed to cultural practices and released as \"improved varieties\".In a horizontal resistance breeding strategy, the screeningis not so much for \"best\" parents as concerns resistance to pathogens but for wide genetic diversity without strong vertical resistance genes.It is thís stage that separates a horizontal resistance breeding strategy from this \"normal\" breeding strategy (see Appendix for discussion of horizontal resistanceJ. The International Canters are increasingly utilized for traioing younger scientists from variaus national organizations in developing countries. This proceso facilitates tha contacts for the successful operation of E above, 6!Part of the comparative advantage is physical.A larger breeding team can'specialize more and thereby produce a much larger number of crosses.Slmilarly, the interaction between agricultural disciplines should be useful for problem deflnition and solving.However, the most important advantage of International Centers may result from the \"mínimum critical investment\".Breeding requires highly trained personnel, spacialization in a specific crop, is expensive, and is a long term investment.National governments in developing countries generally havefew trained agricul tural scientists and have to be eoneerned with many crops.Moreover, research ls generally given a low priority in publie expenditures and decision makers in developing countries tend to prefer investments with a short payoff periodoThe advantages of the Intarnatíonal Centars are team size, specialization, large scale funding and continuity.This combination is considered by international donora to have a higher probability of reaching the \"mínimum critical investment\" for breakthroughs in new varieties than similar funding of most national systems.. '• 5 ternational Centers in relation to National Institutions is in their ability to diagnose desired new variety characteristics for a series of specific regions in a large number of developing coun-7 triesThe crucial decisions are in the definitions of the \"relevant constraints\". The rest is a more mechanical process of collecting germplasm (A), screening and crossing IC and D), and disseminating (E).International Centers are continually in a process of gathering, refining and digesting this information about the \"relevant constraints\" for the critical breeding decisions.This information gathering can be divided into three stages:7/0ne dilemma of International Centers is the development of a -methodology for obtaining more systematic definition of the \"relevant constraints\" from National 1nstitutions before the new material is released. The present tactic is to begin re leasing something aS soon as possible such as the better se~ ~ections (under C) or nintermediate technology\".The final product of 1nternational Centers is new varieties. However, in the process of mounting a breeding program, the other agricultural sciences generally identify a series of practices, which increase yields under experiment station conditions.Examples of these~intermediate technologies~are clean seed production, fertilizer response and spacing alternatives, andherbicide recommendations for different soil types.By identifying something profitable at the farm level the 1nternational Centers can build up better institutional ties with National Institutions and encourage mOre of their input into research design in the early stages of the process.Unfortunately, experiment station technology is not always relevant to farm level conditions.The technology may not be profitable, it may not fit into the existing farming systems, or it may increase risks much more than farmers are willing to accept.Hence, farm level testing is critical to evaluate whether the \"intermediate technology\" is relevant. are continually in a process af gathering, refining and diges! ing this informatian about the \"relevant constraints\" for the critical breeding decisians.'Ehis infonnation gathering can be divided into threc, stages: The objective oi this paper is to provide case histories of tha role of these three types of information on the r~search design of beal1s 2\"nd ca5sava In CIl\\.T. Obviou51y, this process is continu~ 1ly e'101'1ing so that the paper I5 only our snapshot oi the\" Dr~,sent si tuation.The available macro data is sketehy. Production data is unreliable when home consumption is important or there are many retail outlets. Area i5 rarely exactly measured and these erops are often produced in multiple cropping systems.Information on agricultural systems i5 rarely produced. Nevertheless, the macro data is \"useful to indica te trends and to make some inferences about stiategy.    For all tlle Latin American countries including Mexico and Colombia mean yields show extreme fluctuation (see Figures 2-5).This extreme annual variability is the principal characteristic of Latin American bean production.Any research strategy for bean production in Latin America has to concentrate on Brazil and Mexico.The extreme yield variala tion indicates the riskiness of bean production.The next step in 9/J. H. Sanders y Camilo Alvarez P., \"Tendencias de la Produc ción de Fríjol en América Latina -11\", mimeo, CIAT, Cali, Colombia, Julio 1977, pp. 4, 18, 26. 10/Bean area but not yields would be sensitive to changes in ~ national policy or economic conditions. Substantial between year fluctuation in bean yields vould not be expected in res ponse to changes in relative or absoluta profitability.    cassava, so that prices tend to be low and consumption concentrated in lów-income groups or on-farm subsistence. 80th factors then lead to the generalization that cassava ls primarily a subsistence crop grown under small farm conditions. Such generalizations, however, should be supported if used as the basis for a breeding strategy.The following section shall deal with whether the macro data support these assumptions about the location of cassava and the predominance of small farmers.  age-icultural ilTeas 2nd \"S vell exhibits striking yield stability.Sli~ltly !ligher yields are noted outside the North anc1 Northeast.In the Northeast, small farms (less than 10 hectares in size) account for over 70 percent of the cassava area harvested.In the primary agricultural areas of Brazil, the South and Southeast, modal farm size for cassava producers is somewhat larger, being between 11 20 and 50 hectares . Cassava in this latter area is produced under a wide range of technologíes from small scale hand cultivation to Tab1e 2. Brazi1 - industrial utilization.The Center West and to a les ser extent the North rep-resent the frontier expansion areas in Brazilian agriculture.The principal activity of these areas is livestock production.Here cassava is primarily produce for subsistence, given the lack of infrastructure and the long distances to markets.Parms on which cassava is cultivated tend to be larger due to the large pasture component, but cassava plots themselves tend to be small.,Brazil except the Southea~t during the last decade (Table 2)In the llortheast cassova production has increased slightly faster than lhe population growth rateo In this small farm area cassa\\¡a Serves as a major subsistence food crop and demand (and therefore supply) expansion is principally a function of population growth. This subsistence role of cassava is highlighted in a 1960 household budget survey of Brazil (see Table 3). Consumption in the rural areas is three times that in the urban areas and per capita consumption in the rural areas of the Northeast is almost three times the level of the rural areas in the South andSoutheast. Since the cassavaproduction system in the Northeast is based• u.pon small farm production, a large part of the cassava produced is consumed, if not on the farm, w.ithin the local rural market area.In areas where cassava production takes place on large farms, per capita consumption falls, implying more is marketedTable 3.Ilrazil -Cassava Per Capita Consumption by Area in 1960.Total on a Fresh Basis -------kg.jcapita per year ----------- The East contains two states of the Northeast (Bahia and Sergipe) and the rest of the states of the Southeast, except Sao Paulo.The North and Centar Wast were not included. Bo\"h systems of production \\vould indicate that demand factors will be í'\",por t.ant in determining the adoption of ne\", varíeties particu-1ar1y as tl,e desired plant characteristics tor human consumption, animal feed, starch,and alcohol production are different 13Before re turning to demapd in thc j.nferences section the nex t S0Ctioll \\;tIl examine the a\"l:a on farm level constraints to proclnct:ion increase.Farm level constraints to the introduction of ne'\" technology have been measured in two ways, the Benchmark and the Gap approaches.In the Benchmark approach variation in yields on farmers' fie1ds with present cropping systems and varieties is 14 ana1yzedThe Gap approach attempts to explain the differences l3iror human consumption reduction of HCN and improved storeability are the critical characteristics.Whereas for the other uses, higher starch content is the critical desired characteristic.l~/This technique estimates the effect on yields of various con s traints with present varieties and systems. These estimates are expected to understate the yieId losses of new, higher yieIding varieties unIess the new variety were more resistant or tolerant to the spepific constraint.•1 ~/Elsewbere the single cropping and multiple cropping systems were compared. Qne explanation for a multiple cropping system or at least for diversification\" is as a risk avoidance mechanism.. Large farmers due to greater wealth can take more risks.They utilize rn~re inputs and specialize.See Camilo Alvarez P., \"Análisis Econ6mico de Algunos Sistemas de Producción de Fríjol en Cólombia, 1974-1975\", CIAT, Cali, Colombia, Marzci 1977, mimeo, 17 p5ginas., for a desc~iption of the two syst~ms.The risk avdidance hypothesis was tested with two years of experimental data from CIAr from 20 experiments. It was found that at the Colombian prices single cropped beans were more profitable and riskier than the beans-corn erap combinat.ion.See C.A.---rrancis and-J.H. Sanders, ' \"Economic An~lysis of•~ean and Maize Systems: Monoculture Versus Associated Cropping,\" CIAT, Cali, COlombia, Ju1y 1977, mimeo, 29 pages,.Risk avoidance, improved absorption of family labor and nutrition are a11 p~tential explanations for diversification rather than multiple cropping.The principal explanation f.or• rnultiple cropping is sorne type of cornplemen-~arity.CIAT experimental results comparing associated cropf1ing of 'c•orn and ~ea.ns with the mono-culture systems show less ihsect proble~s in both crops, les s ladging of corn and more nitro gen fixation by beans in associat~d cropping.Also planting beans beneath the corn should protect the soil better than corn alone especially on sloping and high or intense rainfall areas.See Further research in these areas of complementarity esp€cial1y in entomology.and micro-biology is continuing at elAT.There is also work on the physiology of the interaction of various systerns.The bencfits of these complementary effects hdve to be compa~ed with the costs of the effects from 1ight, water and nutrient competition.  . ' < This is the total area available to the farmer . Nith more than one system of beans, perecntages refer to the number of farmers in Bean equivalents are caleulated by utilizing priees af ather commodities relative to beans as follows: Yield(beans) + Price (eorn_)_Yield(maize) \" Yield(bean equív.) Price (bean) The bean cpop in the Valle reglon ean be g~own in 3.5 months and followed by another c'rop.Refers to the second intarcropping combination cf beans/maize/potatoes, beans/maíze! \"at\"racacha lt and others.CIAr, Annual Report 1976, Cali, Colombia, p.A-74.-The constraints limiting bean yields in the two types of systems were evaluated utilizing production function analysis (Figures 7 and 8). Assuming that the samples were representative of the regions the economic losses associated with the disease and insect pests in one production season in these regions were substantial (Table S). There are series of disease and insect , 18pests attacking beans wi th dif ferences between the 'two reglonsThere appears to be a very high payoff to obtaining resistance tb any one or a f ' 19 combination o the above constralnts .Approximately, 95 percent oE the beans produeed were soldame consump~lon ,eSB t an one pereent o pro uctlon i:110 lügh bean pricgs Ln Colombj,a and the risk from storage :insecto; t]¡e félrmer did not obtain tile nutritional benefits of inCrOQ3ed bean consumption.ln Colombia, beans were elearly a eash erop ,in this semester.l~These differences in disease ineidenee between regions have been prineipally attributed to the altitude differenees. We are indebted to various other members of the Bean Team for this observation.Outside of the larger farms in the Valle bean producers did not recognize the existence of disease and insect problems. Low yields were generally attributed to soil fertility or 'weather in spite of the supermarket of pests encountered in farmers' fields.Unpublished data from these field interviews \" in Huila and Narino.19/5ince these results are time and location specific, this type of snapshot of yieldconstraints would be much more useful if it could be obtained for a series of regions over a longer time periodo However, these field surveys are expensive. Each of the 177 farms was interviewed three or four times by agronomists trained to identify the insect, disease, and weed problems of beans.  .. .not appear to be a constraint to expanding cassava cultivation.1 ! \"The largest cost component in the cassava production system 20 is labor . Weeding, is the principal labor activity and the most costly operation. Fifty-six percent of the labor utilized in cassava production is devoted to weeding as compared with 21 percent for land preparation and planting and 8 percent for harvesting. Given the adequate available land in most regions, seasonal labor for weeding may be a constraint to cassava output expansiono lIowever, only three percent of the farmers utilized as expected herbicide an~hese were larger farms.The study supported the generalization that cassava is usually grown on poor soils (see Table A-12 in the Appendix) .Most of the soi1s were low in phosphorus (except in zones 11 and V), 10w in potassium (except in zone 11), and moderate to high1y acidic (except in zones 11 and V). As soils in zone Vare typi-20/This level of labor utilization is similar to that of the Northeast of Br~zil. • .)\"lt An important finding of the study sample ,vas that 99 pe.!::. cent of the cassava was marketed (see Table A-16 in the Appendix) .In the small farm areas of zone 111 where subsistence consumption would be expected to be high, farmers retained only 6 percent of their production for use on the farm.Horeover, in all other zones the percentage retained \\4\"-\" negligible. Cassava has a long storage life in theground b~t minimal post-harvest durability, a maximurn of 48 hours for most varieties.Hence, the farmer apparently waits until he ha\" a market ana su F-f icient labor to harvestthe crop. Th,?importancR of marketing land prices) and labor availability in ca SSél Vil. productton systern.s J. s very clear.In summary, weea control appears tobe a critical con-Cassava is predominantly produced by small farmers on infertile soils with minimal purchased inputs. Under these circumstances a new cassava technology based on high input utilization would have little chane e of adoption and in turn minimal impact on national yield levels 24 , Hore information is necessary on the 23/The impact of weed competition on yields of cassava ha ve --be en experimentally tested at CIAT. (see CIAT, Annual Report 1973, Cali, Colombia, 1974, pp.104-l05).24/Cassava production on the large commercial farms in --zone II is an exception to this.The factors contributing to cassava production in this area and the other regions in Colombia will be discussed in the following section.economic lossesthroughout the target are a resulting from the three diseases mentioned 25 .In the next section the sources of yield variation will be more systematically analyzed.25/Experimental research on the impact of Thrips attaek --on susceptible eassava varieties in the Cauea Valley showed that Cassava yields declined by'only 8-15 percent under attaek.Based on this researeh it was eoneluded that \"breeding for yield potential had priority over breeding for thrips resistance\". See A.v. Schoonhoven and J.E. Peña, \"Estimatíon of Yield Losses in Cassava Following Attack from Thrips\", Journal of Eeon. Entomology, 69(~), p,S16 .. ..The sample survey confirmed the low productivity of cassava production in Colombia. Average yield levels were 6.2 tons per hectare (fresh weightlas compared Hith consistent yielc1s of.over 20 tons per hectare of selected CIAT varieties in the Colombian .1 . 1 26 rC~lona trla s . The variation around this mean \\-las large, a standard deviation of 6.5 ton s , \\-lhich reflectec1 principally the yield rJifferences bet\\-leen producing regions (see Table 8). An un-c1c,,:standing of tlle f-a.ctors that contribute to the overall Using multiple regression analysis, the limiting factors on yields of cassava were delineated. The \"relevant. constraints\"were soil factors and diseases (see Table9). Purchased inputs, plant population, and weed control were not significant, which would.indicate that yield limiting factors were regional in their impacto Inter-regional differences in soil and clima.te appeared . .• . ' .'  Where the principIe cassava diseases were found, there was a large reduetion in yield, contradicting the usual finding that cassava ia highly resistant to diseases and pests, Control of either Superelongation or Phoma Leaf Spot would resul t in an increase of almost 3, S, tons per hectare on affeeted farros as compared to an average yield of 6.2 tons per hectare.Control of Cassava Bacterial Blight would have added a further 0,75 tons to yields on affected farms.However, in this production sea son the area affeeted by these diseases was relatively minoro non,\" of these diseases affected more than fiv\" percent of the caSS2V'1 area, Thus, based on this samFle control of these discases would inerease average yields in the eountry by no more U\\C'n S percent nr e, 3 tons per heetare (see Figure 9). However, for individual farmers in areas where these diseases are prevalent, disease control would have a signifieant impaet on yield.Intercropping also resulted in a yield reduction of 1.8 tons per hectare.As only 31 percent of the eassava area was 28/Experimental trials at CIAT ha ve shown that cultural practices such as plant population, weed control, and use of fertilizer do have a significant impact on yield. These findings would not contradict the conclusions h~re as variation in cultural practices would be expected to have,an impact on yield level, of the high-yielding varieties used at CIAT, Within the farm sample the low-yielding varieties and the impact of other factors override the impact of cultural practices.This would imply that cultural practices may become a much more important factor with the release of new high-yielding varieties. , .. However, profitability and labor eonstraint eonsiderations enter into whether sueh a reeomrnendation should be made.If eassava and maize (the major form of erop association) intercrop yields are expressed in terms of cassava eguivalents, differences in yields between monoculture and intercropping were insignifieant 29As Figure 8 illustrates differenees in soil faetors aeeounted .ror much of the difference between elltrent average y1elds and potential yields based upon eurrent varieties and syst0ms oi prodLlction. J!jgh soil aeidity, low levels of phos-P lorus, éln I eavy soi. tGxtnre a contribute to ower yle .. ( s !Yom 60 to 70 p~rcent of tho eassava in tl1e sample was grOl-iD llnc1er tllese conditiolls. 1'he pl: illC ipal a r:é;a where these poor soil conditions were not found was in zone 11. These findings suggest that most cassava is grown on either highly acidic or low fertility status soils or both. Cassava does perform relatively well compared to most other crops under such.adverse conditions, giving yields in the three to six ton range. This partially supports the contention that cassava is grown primarily 29/Camilo Alvarez P., \"Anál'isis Comparativo de Tres Sistemas de Producción• de Yuca,;'. R.O, Díaz y P. Pinstrup-Andersen (editores), Descripción Agro-Económica del Proceso de pioduce ión de Yuca en Colombia. CIAT, Cali, Colombia, Junio, 1977, pp.L-1-2 1 ¡.2Q/In the regression all three factors entered as dummy variables. Phosphorus was stratified above and below 15 ppm, soil acidity aboye and below a soil pH of 5.0, and soil texture between the predominance of light or heavy texture soils. percei ved uneconorni.c response or higher profi tanili ty from lalld rotation than from increasec1 input use.Recognizing that there are constraints on input supply markets, the capacity of output markets, anc1 extension and technical services, especially to smallholc1er producers, as well as capital and risk constraints at farm level, the probability of success of a high input technology for cassava was consic1ered low. Rather, wic1espreadincreases in farm-level productivity were consic1ered to be likely to be obtained by developing new high-yielrling genotypes, resistant to high soil acidity anc1 ac1aptedto minimum levels of purchased inputs 31 Horeover, as the above micro data suggest the development of such varieties do es not preclude a yield response to higher fertility levels or pesticide application, should the price incentives for fertilizer and pesticide use become sufficient1y great.The C~~t~eat Inne~enee Stage 'The availab1e rlaero and Hiero data indieate some cwnc>ra1 direetions i.Tl both programs but still leave gaps in the defini.tion of the \"yelevant constraints\". These gaps have to he bridged by inferences élbout Latin American pro(lt¡c-t.i.on of these t\\IJO cOll}lT1odities. These inferences come frolTj members of the te.am and cthers 'dith experience in Latin America. Obviously, it is important to verify or reject these inferences with the col1ection of better field data in the future.Finally, the definition of a \"relevant constraint\" is not sufficient for it to be included in research designo The other necessary compo~ent is the subjective decision of the breeder that the desired characteristics to overcome the \"relevant constraint\" can be successfully incorporated into   The major insect ~/This extremely useful division was made by Douglas Laing, Physiologist of the CIAT Bean Programo For further detail see CIAT, Annual Report 1976, Ca1i, Colombia, 1977, pp.A-57, 68. 3~/Under experimental conditions climbing beans have demonitrat--ed the potential to fix nitro gen to equivalent levels of ~1 kg/ha. of nitrogen.Since beans are predominantly found on small farms where few input s are purchased, this 1s a potentially very important resulto See CIAT, Annual Report 1975, Cali,Colombia, 1977 p.A-22. ~JThese inferences in r. were based upon the 1dent1fication by the scientists working in bean production in Latin America of the diseases and insects in their respective countries (see Tables 10 and 11l.After this survey was taken Golden Mosaic becam~ an important problem in the principal bean production regions of Brazil and Central Amcrica.    Table 11.Majar insect peses of Seans (Phaseolus vulgarisl and their importan ce j)y' COllntry in Latin America.   The crucial operating decisions of the Bean Program were then that beans of many colors and plant types would be sought.Secondly, high input packages would not be relevant unless beans were able to move into the better soil areas of Latin l;merica vThere large farmers predominated. Since beans had not been able to capture these areas previously and high value export crops with a long tradition of research and developed infrastructure for marketing would have to be displaced, the potc~n f:.{al for beans to enter these areas on anything more than n. short t8ym b;)sis Has considered to be a \"long shot 1l36 . Assuming away the resouree eonstraints of this group makes re-.search design easier and experimental yields higher. However, it increases the probability that the technology will not be relevant to farm level conditions in Latín America.Present constraints on bean production are a series of disease and insect pests, laek of water control (irrigation), and use of few eash inputs. Henee, the stress of the Bean Program has been on breeding for resistance to the majar diseases, tolerance to Empoasca, and breed1ng for high nitrogen fixing ability rather than assumine that farmers will be willing to purchase large amounts of chemicals for disease and insect control and fertilizers...n' me\"Ol?2 : -571\" 7 7 paZ? 7=\"-'170:7 7't mzerrM\"W• -e !trw'ttWiWtKr&H >0-' • . . . •fXj '~Wi'*t!'%tM >j\"\"tif'W7ifffl.;,i¡fMt-.Given the riskiness of bean production and the prevalence and seriousness of a series of diseases anJ one insect, the principal objective of the research strategy would be to achieve resistance to a multiplicity of diseases in beans of various color s and ideotypes.This focus on resistance was based on selection and breeding to the major diseases.Both vertical and horizontal resis-37 tances were sought depending upon the particular pest The use of sorne vertical resistances in beans can be justified for the following reasans:(1) the di.scontinuous nature of bean production and the mul Ur1.icit'f oE ü;JeotypelS should provide sufficient epidemic cOntrol should a particular vertical resistance break down, and(2) there are a number of methodological problems with beans in breeding for horizontal resistance.The first point stresses the fact that the spread of bean disases is limited because beans in Latin America, unlike grains, are produced in widely separated pockets. Also, it is unlikely that any one bean variety will become widely distributed due to preferences for different colors and ideotypes. Thus, any breakdown of vertical resistance will tend to be localized Even if a vertical resistance breaks down, the benefits of a few years of successful protection are often much greater than the costs of the resistance breeding.In 1) Area planted to cassava in Zone 11 makes up only B percent of the total Cassava area in Colombia.2) After Veoez~ela, Colombia has the highest price for cassava of aoy country in South America (see Table A-13 in the Appendix). Farmers.in Zone 11 receive the highest prices for cassava of any area in Colombia.Furthermore, caSSava prices in the seventies in Colompia have been at their highest level since 1955.See R.O. Díaz and Per Pinstrup-Andersen (eds.) (1977), op.cit., p.A-14.3) Yield levels in Zone 11 are already relatively high.In the. study samp'le large farm yields in this zone averaged 14.2 ton s per hectare and ranged as high as 52.0 tons per hectare.Thus, farmers in this arca are already exploiting a high yield advantage under high prices 1evels. This conclusion is supported by the information available on nat income par hectare for various crops (see Tahle A-14 in the Appendix). Currently, in Zone 11 cassava would displace most other crops except rresh vegetables, plaintains, and•coffee.However, prices are at the extremely high leve~ of U3$100 per ton.If prices dropped merely to the current price level in Zone V, net income would be almost zero.In Zone V as a comparison, cassava has on1y some advantage over maize and sorghum ano even then on1y at the high price leve15 (US$S5 per ton).In that zone ~assava is usually grown on poorer 50ils.As new high-yielding varie~ies ar~ introduced, cassava príces would be expected to fallo In thi5 circumstances 'demand considerations (particularly the price elasticity of demand) becomes the relevant determinant of whether _.~assava with higher yielding ability would break into commercial large farm a~eas.As the price elasticity of demand is low, this would be considered unlikely pnd, a cassava technology oriented initially toward current prbducers, would have the greater impact on raising production levels.  vegetatively propagated {a clone) and is not season bound, there is both spatial and sequential continuity of identical hest tissue. If resistance were vertical and broke down there would have been no evolutionary survival value, thus the necessity fer horizontal resistance in its evolution.This factor provides support for the usual generalization that cassava is highly resistant to diseases and pests, though as CIAT trials have shown this may not be so for any one particular cultivar against all pathogens.. '\" . \",-,~ {","tokenCount":"4737"}

data/part_6/0293054610.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"030b5fd0d74197abf1e5a879936591ac","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/512a3530-af7c-4943-9238-1a6238f0e801/content","id":"-511936337"},"keywords":["molecular markers","pathotypes","resistance","stem rust","wheat"],"sieverID":"99558e15-0b9b-45ca-8f6b-537e8cc4e2cd","pagecount":"9","content":"In Central Asia, stem rust (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) causes considerable damage, especially during growing seasons with high rainfall. Ug99 is a race of stem rust that is virulent to the majority of wheat varieties. To develop disease-free germplasm, wheat material was screened using the predominant stem rust races of Kazakhstan and tested in two nurseries; CIMMYT-Turkey and the Plant Breeding Station at Njoro, Kenya. A total of 11 pathotypes of P. graminis f.sp. tritici were identified in Kazakhstan from the stem rust samples collected in 2008-2009. In particular, pathotypes TDT/H, TPS/H, TTH/K, TKH/R, TKT/C and TFK/R were highly virulent. Of the 170 advanced lines of wheat, 21 CIMMYT lines resistant to 5 aggressive Kazakhstani pathotypes of P. graminis were identified. A high level of resistance was observed in 11 wheat cultivarsThe region of Central Asia is one of the most important wheat growing areas in the world. Wheat is grown on 15 mil ha, including 5 mil ha of winter or facultative wheat, and 10 mil ha of spring wheat. Kazakhstan is one of the largest wheat producers in Central Asia. Wheat rusts are an important problem in Kazakhstan and are one of the major factors reducing the productivity of wheat. Stem rust (Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici) causes considerable damage, especially during growing seasons with higher rainfall. The stem rust fungus attacks the aboveground parts of the plant. In turn, infected plants produce fewer tillers and set fewer seed. In cases of extremely bad infection the plant may die. Currently, more than 60 numbered or temporarily designated stem rust (Sr) genes for resistance to stem rust have been listed in the Komugi Wheat Genetics Resource Database (http:// www.shigen. nig.ac.jp, accessed 26 June 2011). Utilization of many of these genes in breeding programmes has S147 resulted in the effective control of stem rust in most countries (Visser et al. 2011). Ug99, which has the designation of TTKSK, is a race of stem rust that is virulent to the majority of wheat varieties. Unlike other rusts, which only partially affect crop yields, stem rust can cause 100% crop loss. Up to 80% of all Asian and African wheat varieties are susceptible to the fungus and according to the FAO, major wheat-producing nations east of Iran -such as Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan -should be on high alert (http://www.agro-delo. ru/news/5572.html, accessed 5 March 2008). To combat the menace of rust, screening of various nurseries from national and international breeding programmes was initiated. The aim of this work was to find sources of stem rust resistance and to develop disease-resistant germplasm.Wheat genotypes used in this study included a set of 16 isogenic lines and differentials for Sr genes, 44 wheat commercial cultivars and breeding lines from national breeding programmes of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan, Azerbijan and Russia, and 170 advanced lines from International Trials Nurseries, CIMMYT.Experimental materials were grown in 2008-2010 in two locations of Central Asia which differed in soil conditions, temperature and moisture. The experimental station in Almalybak, Almaty region, located at the foothill zone is a relatively well irrigated location. Wheat plants were irrigated three times during their development at a rate 600 m 3 /ha. At this location altitude above sea level is 785 m and during the three years of this study annual rainfall ranged from 332 to 644 mm. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied at a rate of 60 kg/ha and phosphate fertilizer at a rate 30 kg/ha. The other location is an irrigated location in Gvardeysky, Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems (RIBSP), situated in the Zhambyl region, Kazakhstan in the desert-steppe zone, and therefore, the climate is extremely dry with great variation. The crop growth season is characterized by drought and dry winds, especially as the crop reaches maturity. The total rainfall is 200-220 mm. Plants were irrigated 3-4 times at a rate 650 m 3 /ha. The soils in both testing locations are light, ranging from sandy losses to brown semi-desert soils to light silt loams. Each experiment consisted of three randomized replications.Field trials were conducted by sowing seed of the entries during autumn (20-25 September) of 2008-2010. The plots were inoculated in the spring at the tillering stage with a mixture of identified isolates representing the most prevailing races of the pathogen from Central Asia.Seedlings of winter wheat cultivars and advanced breeding lines from Kazakhstan and CIMMYT were tested under the controlled greenhouse conditions at RIBSP. The structure of the stem rust population was determined according to the identification system of Roelfs and Martens (1988) based on inoculation of isogenic Sr-lines with P. graminis spores that had been modified. According to this system, the plant reaction is determined on 16 lines divided into 4 groups of 4 lines. The first group included near-isogenic lines for Sr5, Sr21, Sr9e, Sr7b; the second -Sr11, Sr6, Sr8a, Sr9g; the third group -Sr36, Sr9b, Sr30, Sr17. The fourth was the set of near-isogenic lines for Sr24, Sr25, Sr27, Sr32 (Kazakhstani additional set). According to combination of responses of resistant (R) and susceptible (S) plants, each rust isolate was coded in letters. As a result, each pathotype has a code including 4 consonants of English alphabet from B through T. Virulence of the pathotypes was also studied using a set of Sr isogenic lines (Green et al. 1960). Stem rust pathotypes with virulence to 8-13 Sr-genes were used in the greenhouse for wheat seedling test (Table 1). For each plant, infection type (IT), based on a 0-4 scale, was recorded 20 days after inoculation. The IT data of seedling reactions were analyzed using the methods described by Stakman and Levine (1922). Disease severity was recorded following Peterson et al. (1948). Sampling of the spores, their storage, examination, reproduction and use were carried out according to methods described by Kiraly et al. (1970), Konovalova et al. (1977) and Roelfs et al. (1992).The experimental material was screened with the predominant races in the region of Central Asia. Cultivars Bogarnaya 56 and Steklovidnaya 24 were used as susceptible checks, which were used for multiplication of the pathogen spores in the greenhouse and as spreaders in the field tests. Advanced lines of wheat were also tested in the nurseries of CIMMYT-Turkey and at the Plant Breeding Station, Njoro, Kenya.Total genomic DNA was extracted from leaves following the protocol described by Riede and Anderson (1996). PCR was performed as described by Chen et al. (1998). DNA samples from the parents and breeding lines were screened using STS marker Sr24#12, which co-segregates with the Sr24/Lr24 locus (Mago et al. 2005) and is used for identification of wheat lines in breeding populations with resistance to stem rust. PCR products were resolved on 8% polyacrilamide gels stained with ethidium bromide.A total of 11 pathotypes of P. graminis f.sp. tritici were identified from the stem rust samples col-lected in 2008-2009 in Kazakhstan. The study of virulent pathotypes using differentials for Sr-genes indicated that the pathotypes PCP/C and PCR/Q were virulent only to 8 out of 16 Sr-genes studied (Table 2). Isolates of the pathogen studied in 2008-2009 were highly virulent. Isogenic lines of Sr5, Sr11, and Sr25 in 2009 became susceptible to pathotypes TPS/H, TTH/K, TMR/H and TKH/R. Results presented in Table 2 indicate that 6 pathotypes (TDT/H, TPS/H, TTH/K, TKH/R, TKT/C and TFK/R) were highly virulent (part of virulent Sr-lines was 75% and more). They were selected from durum wheat cultivars (Bezenchukskaya 139, Damsinskaya 90 and Navryz 2).The presence of highly virulent pathotypes in the population of stem rust represents a great threat to commercial varieties of wheat in Kazakhstan. The results of tests of wheat cultivars to four pathotypes show that the tested cultivars differ in their resist-  Sr5,21,9e,7b,8a,9g,36,9b,30,17,25,32  Sr5,21,9e,7b,11,6,8a,9g,9b,17,25,27,32 TCK/H North of Kazakhstan Sr5,21,9e,7b,9g,9b,30,17,25,32 TFK/R North of Kazakhstan Sr5,21,9e,7b,8a,9g,9b,30,17,24,25,32  Sr5,9e,7b,9g,36,17,24, 25 Sr5,21,9e,7b,11,8a,9g,9b,17,24,25,32   Sr5,21,9e,7b,8a,9g,36,9b,30,17,25,32/Sr11,6,24,27 75.0 Bogarnaya 56 TPS/H Sr5, 21,9e,7b,11,8a,9g,36,9b,30,25,32/Sr6,17,24,27 75.0 Damsinskaya 90 TTH/K Sr5, 21,9e,7b,11,6,8a,9g,9b,17,25,27,32/Sr36,30,24 81.2 Sr5,21,9e,7b,9g,36,30,17,25,32/Sr11,6,8a,9b,24,27 62.5 Sr5,9e,7b,9g,36,30,17,32/Sr21,11,6,8a,9b,24,25,27 50.0 Sr5,9e,7b,9g,36,17,24,25/Sr21,11,6,8a,9b,30,27,32  Sr5, 21, 9e, 7b, 9g, 9b, 30, 17, 25, 32/Sr11, 6, 8a, 36, 24, 27 62.5 К-84482, 18297 TMR/H Sr5, 21, 9e, 7b, 11, 9g, 36, 9b, 17, 25, 32/Sr6, 8a, 30, 24, 27 68.7 Omskaya 19 TKH/R Sr5, 21,9e,7b,11,8a,9g,9b,17,24,25,32/Sr6,36,30,27 75.0 Saratovskaya 29 TKT/C Sr5, 21,9e,7b,6,8a,9g,36,9b,30,17,32/Sr11,24,25,27 75.0 Sr5,21,9e,7b,8a,9g,9b,30,17,24,25,32/Sr11,6,36,27 75.0 ance to disease (Table 3). For example, cultivars Almaly and Tungush were susceptible to all four pathotypes (IT 3, 4, 4+ and Umanka (Russia). The use of these cultivars and advanced lines in the breeding process will allow the development of new wheat cultivars resistant to stem rust.Within greenhouse conditions, 170 F 3 lines carrying Sr-genes were tested for resistance to five races of P. graminis (TDT/H, PCR/Q, TKH/R, TTH/K and TFK/R) that are currently prevalent in Kazakhstan. As a result, 21 CIMMYT lines resistant or moderately resistant to all 5 aggressive pathotypes were identified (Table 4). When testing the resistance of wheat lines to the field collection of P. graminis, lines that were immune or had moderately resistant reactions were identified. Nine wheat lines, which showed '0' infection type (Table 4) in the field, were found to be most resistant to this pathogen. All of the selected lines were highly or moderately resistant to all five pathotypes. A consistent resistant reaction both in the field and in the greenhouse to five specific races was observed in 11 of the F 3 lines.  Some of the wheat entries were resistant in the field (IT 0), but were susceptible to individual pathotypes in the greenhouse. However, we also identified a number of lines combining resistance in the field and race-specific resistance to stem rust (T-2003//TREGO/JGR8W/4/ AGRI/NAC//KAUZ/3/1D13.1/MLT, PASTOR/ MILAN/3/F10S-1//STOZHER/KARL, EMB16/ CBRD//CBRD/5/TX69A509-2//BBY2/FOX/3/ PKL70/LIRA/4/YMH/TOB//MCD/3/LIRA and TREGO/BTY SIB//ZARGANA-3/3/TAM200/ KAUZ).Because Ug99 is virulent to the majority of wheat varieties, we tested promising material at the Plant Breeding Station, Njoro, Kenya, 2009. Experimental material tested in Kenya was developed using local spring commercial varieties and wild relatives of wheat. Table 5 presents the resistance of 13 winter wheats to stem and yellow rust. Screening of winter wheat germplasm allowed selection of 6 from these 13 breeding lines which were resistant to both stem and yellow rust: KSI3/97Sr25, 95SR/Progress, 186Al/159 Arthur, Progress/94SR36, 241F4/Tr. monococum CP-1223 and 242T/Tr. timopheevii. Ten of the thirteen lines demonstrated high or moderate levels of resistance to stem rust, among them entries #2070, 2071, 2075, 2080, 2081, 2084, 2085, 2089, 2090 and 2095. At the same time nine of the entries (#2080, 2081, 2084, 2085, 2089, 2090, 2093, 2096 and 2097) showed an immune reaction to yellow rust. Thus, all 13 wheat lines tested at Plant Breeding Station, Njoro are valuable for breeding for both stem and yellow rust resistance.The aim of this part of the study was to screen elite advanced wheat lines from Kazakhstan and CIMMYT with molecular markers linked to stem rust gene Sr24/Lr24. The genotypes analyzed in this study are presented in Table 6. It is known that gene Sr24 is located on the Agropyron elongatum tranlocation on chromosome 3DL where leaf rust resistance gene Lr24 is present (McIntosh et al. 1977). Sequence tagged site (STS) marker Sr24#12 is closely linked to Sr24. This dominant marker typically amplifies only one band, this was used to screen for Sr24/Lr24 genes. The expected size of this marker is 500bp. Resistant germplasm source of Sr24, LcSr24Ag, was positive for the marker (Figure 1). Seven out of twenty five genotypes (#2 Progress/94-W2691SrTt-1-Sr36, BAYRAKTAR and #25 TREGO/BTYSIB//ZAR-GANA-3/3/TAM200/KAUZ) were positive for the Sr24#12 marker and displayed the DNA-fragment associated with Sr24/Lr24 resistance genes. These seven breeding lines are likely to possess Sr24/Lr24 resistance. They also demonstrated immunity or moderate resistance level in the field, except the line #14 with the rating 10MS (Table 5).The screening of winter wheat germplasm from different nurseries in the field and greenhouse allowed the evaluation of resistance to stem rust. From the results obtained in our studies, it can be concluded that the populations of stem rust in Kazakhstan include highly virulent pathotypes. A total of 11 pathotypes of P. graminis f.sp. tritici were identified from the stem rust samples collected in 2008-2009. The pathotypes TDT/H, TPS/H, TTH/K, TKH/R, TKT/C and TFK/R were highly virulent (75% and more). The use of these pathotypes for evaluating wheat germplasm for resistance could help to improve breeding for stem rust resistance.A high level of resistance to all four aggressive pathotypes was observed in wheat cultivars and advanced lines Taza, E-19, E-99, E-102, E-572, E-796, E-809 (Kazakhstan), Ekinchi (Azerbaijan), Dostlik and Ulugbek 600 (Uzbekistan) and Umanka (Russia).Of the 170 advanced lines, 21 CIMMYT lines resistant to 5 aggressive Kazakhstani pathotypes of P. graminis were identified. A consistent resistant reaction to the field collection of rust and to five specific races was identified in eleven advanced lines of wheat. These entries can be used as donors in the breeding programmes aimed at stem rust improvement.Based on the data obtained from Turkey-CIM-MYT and the Plant Breeding Station Njoro, Kenya, out of the 13 tested entries, 6 valuable winter wheat breeding lines resistant to both stem and yellow rust and 10 wheat lines, showing high or moderate levels of resistance to Ug99 were selected.Using the STS molecular marker Sr24#12, associated with Sr24/Lr24, seven carriers of wheat stem rust resistance genes were identified. These results will assist breeders in choosing parents for crossing in developing varieties with desirable levels of stem rust resistance in Kazakhstan and will facilitate the stacking of resistance genes into advanced breeding lines.Thus, this genetic study of stem rust resistance allowed the identification of disease-resistant germplasm of wheat. A number of advanced lines showed a high level of yield potential combined with resistance to the Ug99 stem rust race and to other races which are predominant in the region of Central Asia.   500 bp","tokenCount":"2267"}

data/part_6/0293090478.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b6cfb254f96a5bc609cef4b231462cd2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/71c7f7fb-0377-4996-832b-52d086097ab7/retrieve","id":"1062239457"},"keywords":["Phaseolu","s vulgatis","2","Research networks","3","High-yielding varieties","4","Seed production","5","Soclo-economic development","6","Participatory research","7","Agroindustr:ial complexes","8","Andean Region","l","Voysest","Oswaldo","II","Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation","N","Title"],"sieverID":"9ad5c130-4cad-4675-a29f-b998252ded9d","pagecount":"73","content":"To increase bean productivíty in the Andean Regían. the Regional Bean Project for the Andean Zone (PROFRIZA. its Spanish acronym) was created through an agreement made between the Government of Switzerland, represented by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation {SDC}. and the Intemational Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). From its beginnings in 1988, PROFRIZA operated as a regional project of CIAT's Bean Program until June 1998, when the SDC began managing PROFRIZA In December 1999. PROFRIZA ceased operating as a regional network. As of 2000, a new strategy will be followed: the SDC's regional offices in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru will draw up bilateral agreements with national programs in these countries to carry out activities that will lead to the fulflllment of the project's original mission. CIAT will provide technical assistance.When a mission has the ambitious goal of contributing to the economic, social, and ecological development ojbean-growing areas ojthe Andean Regían, it seems presumptuous to announce that the goal has been accomplíshed: more so when even the most untrained field observer can perceive how backward and deplorable living conditions still are in most rural areas of the Amelicas.We should not forget. however, that the inevitable tasks that we committed ourselves to fulfill had to be accomplished within fixed periods. In the last resort, fulfilling our mission consisted in making contlibutions, fruit of those tasks that we ourselves proposed to carry out within the time peliods agreed upon. The obvious dissatisfaction about how much was not accomplished and the new circumstances that could have arisen in that attempt are the new challenges that will have to be faced under new time periods, and with new strategies and actors.To ensure that the poor find the path to well-being is the work ofmany, each doing his or her part. This report outlines PROFRIZA's participation in that effort. and the catalytic effect its contributions had. The project's most direct contlibution was the development. identification, and dissemination ofimproved germplasmnew varieties that are more efficient in severa! ways. This new technology prometed changes in several areas. even outside the field of production, beca use of the commitment of those institutions leading the bean project in severa! countries.These ins titutions not only achieved in commítting other institutions of diverse interests to participate to va.rying degrees in the projec t. but also s u cceed ed in turning PROFRIZA into a broad~sp ectrum regional network. CIAT's technicaJ assistance and the SDC's financial support were decisive in helping a n ative crop, eaten and valued by the poor. to receive the attention it deserved. but was often denied on behalf of-paradox:ically-demand.The present report outlines PROFRIZA's achievements during 12 years ofwork. years that were decisive for the bean crop's modernization. In the late 1980s, any reference to bean in the Andean Region was commonplace. always alluding to its importance as a \"poor man's food\" and as the exclusive resource of small farmers .Bean is still what was then, an inexpensive protein. a \"meat of the poor~, and the object of many other unsavory expressions. But today it is also a crop that is seeking its own niche in the modero world. The bean enters the new century with a new image in the Andean Regían: as a competitor wíth other products for new openíngs in national and international markets. Bean farmers also have a new mentality; they no longer want to simply grow beans. but they also want to link themselves, somehow, to the commodity market.How did this happen? In this report, we will illustrate PROFRIZA's participation in this process. You will read about how a cardboard box containing lO kg ofb eans and arriving in Bolivia in 1978 from Colombia, could, 20 years later, tum into thousands of tons shipped from Bolivia in metallic contaíners to five different countries. You wíll read how Peru, against all statistical trends at the end of 1980s. converted forecasted deficits into impressive surpluses during the l990s and is today an exporter. You will also find out how Ecuador changed the panora ma for beans in the highlands by introducing bush varleties; and how Colombia compensated its loss in productivity, for explicable reasons, by increasing the area planted. You wíll see how, during this d ecade, societies, fa.nner associations. and new bean programs arase. And, when you finally read how the poor of the Andean Region now no longer suffer from a lack of beans and, moreover. benefit from surpluses, then you will understand why PROFRIZA can say M Mission accornplished!\" Oswaldo Voysest VoysestThe annual growth rate ofproduction dming the 12 years ofthe PROFRIZA project ranged from 2.7% and 4.3%, depending on the country. In the Andean Region overall (i.e. , Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru). this rate reached 15%. Impressive production levels were reached during 1994 to 1996-16.9% for Bolivia, 14.9% for Peru, and 8 . 7% for Colombia, contrasting with the negative val u es for Latin Ame1ica as a whole (-4.5%: Appendix B. Table 27).The growth rate ofbean production during 1988-1999 was higher than that of the population during the same period. In three countries it was even higher than population growth rates during 1964-1975 (compareTables 27, Áppendix B andTable 28, Appendix C).Bolivia is a unique case. Bean production has increased impressively since the 1980s, when the a.rea planted to bean was an insignificant 670 ha, to 1999, when 20.000 ha were planted (Table 6).Because bean ts used as a rotation crop, the increase in area planted to beans is a very important criterion when measuring research advances. Increased area is used as an index of the efficiency of released varieties or of an attractive rnarket.All countries recorded significant increases in the area planted to beans, especially Peru andBolivia durtng 1997-1999 (Appendix B, Table 24). Figures agree with the high growth rates (12.8% and 21.2%, respectively) shown by both countries in the previous 3 years (Appendix B, Table 27).Bolivia hadan important take-offbetween 1994 and 1999 (Table 6); Colombia rnaintained a steady increasing rate throughout the period (Table 18); and Ecuador and Peru maintained relatively stable figures throughout the period (Appendix B, Table 25).When specific regtons are considered, significant increases in productlvity can be observed. For example, in the Peruvian coastal regions, yields of more than 1000 kg/ha were easily recorded (Appendix B, Table 26).Productlvity levels increased by 15% between 1997 and 1999 in the productlon areas of Chuquisaca and Coch~barnba in Bolivia, and, in Santa Cruz, productivity increased by 8% as a result of the use of new bean varieties.New varietles account for most of the progress made. Between 1988 and 1999, countries released 50 new varieties that were disease resistant and had other agronomic advantages such as early maturity, erect growth habit, commercial grain types, and, in the case of climbing beans, less aggressive growth.Bolivia released 8 varietles (Table 10). Colombia 12 (Table 20). Ecuador 14 (Table 17), and Peru 17 (Tables 12 and 13). Between 1996 and 1999 Peru identlfied 12 varietles with export-type grain that were released to farmers (Table 14).Bolivia About 80% offarmers use improved varieties. Durtng 1994-1996, 72% ofbean farmers stopped planting 'SEL 1' in favor of the improved variety Carioca Mairana.Of the area planted to beans in the Santa Cruz Plains, the Chaco Plains, and the northem valleys ofBolivia, 95%, that is, 18,000 ha, are sown with irnproved varieties.Colombia has been characterized as a technology exporting country: 11 varietles, first developed in Colombia, are now planted in 20 countries of Latin Arnerica, North Arnerica, Asia, and Mrica (Table 19).Of the area planted to beans in the Department of Santander, the fourth largest bean-growing region ofthe country, 70%, that is, 5000 ha, are planted to improved, anthracnose-resistant varieties.Of the area planted to bush bean in the northern and southern highlands, 70% (i.e. , 11,000 ha) and 80% (i.e., 1500 ha). respectively, are planted to improved varieties.Once the most serious production problems of coastal areas-rust, viruses, and nematodes-were solved, the dissemination of Peruvian varieties was quick and extensive.In Chincha, the most important bean-growing area of the Peruvian coast, 80% of the area planted to canario-type bean and 100% of the area planted to navy bean are now sown with improved varieties.Along the northern coast, the varieties most used are also improved varieties developed by the project.The varieties developed at the main research sites have been disseminated to neighboring departments (Appendix B. Table 26).In Cusco, 94% of farmers of flve provinces now use new varteties. Production in creases and partlcipation of varieties in this effort are lúgh.In Cusco, new varieties have had a \"colonizing\" effect, spreading to different valleys and neighboring departments (Table 11).In Bolivia, not only 80% of farmers use improved varieties, but 50% of them also use certlfied seed.In Bolivia, 14 farmers have established a small seed company (APROSFYM, its Spanish acronym) that produces certlfied seed, using artisanal methods.In Peru, between 1991 and 1998, a group offarmers, althougll not formally consolidated as an enterprise, produced seed that was used to establish about 5000 ha.In Ecuador, although two groups of seed producers were consolidated in 1994-1996, neither has shown growth durtng the 3 years.Final Report PROFRIZA 1988PROFRIZA -1999 To improve the marketing ofbeans to • Diversify local consumption of bean, favortng the consumer's access to both traditional and other market classes.• Promote the different forros of natural bean consumption (dry and fresh grain, toasted grain, and green pods) and processed (packaged, canned, and frozen).• Convert beans into an export product.During the last decade, annual consumption per capita increased in Colombia, remained stable in Peru, and decreased slightly in Ecuador (Appendix D, Table 29).Both urban and rural consumption figures for Santa Cruz, East Bolivia (Appendix D, Table 31). are impressive, having surpassed even those for Brazil.In Cusca, Peru, the popping bean variety Q'osqo Poroto INIA helped disseminate new ways of ~onsuming this type of bean. In Chincha, Peru, where 90% of the beans consumed bdong to the canario type, navy bean began to be consumed on a mass scaJe, thanks to the dissemination ofthe improved, nematode-resistant 'Larán Mejorado INIA' among farmers.Bean consumption in the Andean Region has become notably diversified (Appendix D, Table 30). representing an important advance because predilectlon for specific and traditional market classes has always been an obstacle for developing the bean trade in the Region.In 1998, Bolivia exported 20,000 tons ofbeans, mainly to Brazil, Japan, and Colombia, for more than 8 million U.S. dollars. Bean has accounted for more than US$36 rnillion in foreign exchange for Bolivia since this crop was introduced into the plains (Table 8). ASOPROF, a small farmers' associatlon, has turned out to be the drtving force behind bean production and export in Bolivia (Table 5).Between 1994 and 1998, Peru exported pulses (cowpea, broad bean, beans, and lima bean, in that arder) for a value totalling more than US$46 million (Appendix E). The evolution of ASOPROF, an orgarúzation created in 1990 with the participation of 11 grassroot organizations, should be highlighted. This asstJciation began with 470 small farmers who planted beans during winter. In 1999. ASOPROF grouped 23 organizations, representing 2000 farmers, and selling beans to Japan. Colombia, Brazil, ltaly, and Spain (Tables 1-5).All national institutions supported by PROFRIZA have received contributions from foreign institutions and, in sorne cases, national institutions. indicating the level of credibillty PROFRIZA has attained and its strength. Especially important is the PROSEM agreement in Peru through which private enterprises (through IPEL members) and the SDC (through PROFRIZA) contributed US$30,000 and US$3,000, respectively, to finance a bean seed production project to be executed by PROMPEX through PROMENESTRAS.The regional exchange of experiences was encouraged between representatives of the most important associations of the Andean Reglan. PROFRIZA extended invitations and sponsored the visits of:The president of IPEL (Peru) to Bolivia on two occasionsThe manager of ASOPROF (Bolivia) to ColombiaThe President and Manager of ASOPROF (Bolivia) to PeruThe Manager of Crop Diversification of FENALCE (Colombia) to BoliviaThe integration so far achieved through the regional network is seen as the first step toward fonning strong national programs.Until 1980, production statistics for the Department of Santa Cruz, East Bolivia, did not include figures for common bean (Phaseolus vulga.ris L.). Twenty years la ter. bean production in the area is sometimes from as muchas 20.000 ha, a stríking fact in a country where bean consumption was traditionally rninimal. Although this number seems insignificant when compared with those of other bean-growing countrtes of Latín America, they are extraordinary when placed in the social context of East Bolivia. The Bolivian case has no parallel in Latin America; the social impact of incorporating beans into the traditional production system is an example of what can be done by a people who want to get ahead with something in which it believes. lt also shows the role that can be played (so that the people may achieve) by agrtcultural research and international cooperation in a special union of interinstitutional efforts led by the local university.In August 1933, thanks toan earthern road that had recently been constructed, the first motorized vehicle entered Santa Cruz from westem Bolivia. Yet. its momentous arrival gave little hint of the great significance that the Cochabamba-santa Cruz Highway, asphalted in 1956, would have in the future of many Bolivians. Foreign missions. arriving in 1942 and 1951, recommended that plantations be modemized and programs of agricultura! settlernent be carried out to relieve pressure in Bolivia's overpopulated interior. In 1953, settlement and exploitation of new areas began. us hering in an era of drama tic changes for the once-desolate vast plains and su b -Andean mountains of East Bolivia.Without analyzing the advantages or disadvantages of this migra tion for the region's economic developrnent versus its ecological balance. the fact is that, b y the beginning of the 1980s, large-scale agriculture had developed in the northern, northeastem. eastem, and southeastem sectors of the Santa Cruz Departrnent, in an approxirnate radius of 160 km from the Santa Cruz City. These areas. where Iand use comprised extensive cultivation of soybean. sugarcane, rnaize, and rice. and livestock raising. are known as ~integrated\". and were joined with other areas expanding under similar progressive technology. While th ese areas grew, areas of settlement (organized and voluntary) expanded. oc:cu pied by migrants from the country's interior (Departments of Cochabamba. Sucre. Potosi. and La Paz). The migrants were attracted by organized plans for settJement or by possibilities of manual labor that th e rice, sugarcane, and cotton farrns offered.The Universidad Autónoma MGabriel René Moreno\" (UAGRM) began work in beans by circumstance. In 1977, the Agricultural Experimental Center (CEA) of the UAGRM's Faculty of Agricultura! Sciences was created, starting up agricultura! research in that center of learning. In 1978, one of its staff, Francisco Kempff, attended the frrst course on beans given by ClAT at its headquarters in Cali, Colombia. In 1979, the CEA became the Institute for Research in Agriculture and Renewable Resources (IlARNR) and, in 1980, the IlARNR's Bean Program was created at Kempffs initiative after his experience in Colombia. The first research activities-of the brand-new Bean Program were to evaluate bean lines from CIAT's international bean yield trial nurseries. Not even the most fertile mind had imagined, when Bolivia received the first cardboard box containing 10 kg ofbean seed from Colombia in October 1978, that, 20 years later, Colombia would be receiving container loads of tons of red beans produced in the plains and valleys of East Bolivia.Bean lines ofblack-seed and Brazilian types , sent by CIAT to the UAGRM, were evaluated during thesis work and in trials in coordination with the MAbapó lzozog\" Project. Other than studying, through thesis work. the most appropriate times for planting and weed control, the Program established, at the opportune moment, demonstration plots in two settlement centers, San Julián and Comando, to help farmers become familiar with the new crop. Kempff had the vision to r ealize the possibilities of beans as a winter crop and, because bean consum ption in Santa Cruz was almost unknown, of selling them to Brazil. Although the small-farming settlers accepted beans, the large-scale farmers in the zones of integration and expansion did not, being reluctant to deal with a new crop and its insecure markets, and the abundant labor required for manually harvesting and threshing the crop. The University and settlers decided to gamble on the new crop. thus beginning their adventure with beans in East Bolivia.The proposal to plant beans as a winter crop, at first sight. seemed simple, so much so that it may even have had occurred to other people who knew the area. The difference, however, was that the UAGRM could effectively implement two basíc measures:• To malee decisions based on research. That is, through research, to determine the answers to questions such as which varieties would be the most efficient, when and where they should be planted, and how to salve the problem of seed supply.• To use a particípatory strategy. Results of agronomic research included the identification of:• 1\\vo recommended sowing dates for beans in the Department of Santa Cruz: winter months in the plains (400-600 m), and summer months in temperate valleys (1600-2000 m).• The best two varleties ofthe black-seeded type-ICA Pijao and BAT 76, which were were used to initiate commercial production-and the best varieties of a differently colored seed for the Brazilian market, particularly 'Carioca' that, since 1983, was called 'SEL 1' and had markedly changed the export panorama.The UAGRM remaíned in charge of the winter production of basíc seed in the plaíns. Certified seed was produced in the temperate valleys, ídentified as the most promising area for seed production beca use of possible planting in the austral summer. Here, the UAGRM directly controlled 40 ha of seedbeds and n umerous small farmers (even as many as 100). who each sowed l to 2 ha. The commercial production ofbeans was. by commission of the CAO, in the hands of the PROMASOR Farmers Association. which negotiated, in 1981, with CORDECRUZ for credit to produce seed and promote the crop. The bean adventure in East Bolivia, thus, hada participatory fo cus from its initial phases.[14Final Report PROFRJZA 1 988-1999Artisanal seed production was begun in the valleys under the responsibility of small farmers. Land was worked with oxen, weeds controlled manually, diseases and pests controlled with manually operated backpack sprayers, and harvesting was manual (by pulling off pods). Threshing was done with chapapas, an artifact similar to a marimba, on which dried plants were placed and gently stru.ck with a flat piece of wood. Seed with a low percentage of broken grains and impurities was thus obtained. Basic seed for planting seedbeds was proportioned out by the UAGRM, once the Regional Seed Certification Office qualified the seed. At harvest, the farmer should have received double the quantity he or she origínally received or, in its absence, the cash equivalent at liquidation. Seed lots were selected by previous agreement among farmers and the Bean Program, and the selection confirmed by the Seed Certification Office. Pesticides were delivered by the UAGRM, at cost, which was charged against the harvest. Duríng the growíng season, the Program gave the certified-seed producers technícal assistance.The mínimum requírements for producing seed encompass a guarantee of the genetic identity of the variety under multiplication, and the compliance with certaín standards of germination and health to guarantee the product's quality.In summary, the bean-seed production system established in Santa Cruz fulfliled the following minimum requirements: •• Planting for seed production occurred ata different season to that for commercial production;• The production was from basic seed; and• The control and supervisory agencies were involved in the process.Only one small detail differentiated the artisanal system from a more elaborate and formal system of seed production: the producers were small farmers who used artisanal practices for bean production and sale. The Bolivian experience was, from the beginning, an authentic process of artisanal seed production, almost without parallel in Latín Ameiica.The Achilles' heel of this excellent planning was in marketing, because production, for lack of domestic markets, was almost exclusively destined for unstable export markets. su eh as those of Brazil, whích were accessed on an informal basis. Usually, black beans were sold or exchanged in Brazil for equipment, machinery, or inputs. Business, however. was not always successful. For example, in Montero, northern Santa Cruz, all the 1500 farmers, who formed part of the Integrated Services Cooperative \"Santa Cruz Norte\" Ltd. (CISSCN). planted black b eans for sale in Brazil. but, on severa] occasions were notable to sell or exchange even one bag. Yet. bean production in East Bolivia grew from almost zero to about 2.000 ha.  (IIA-El Vallecito). as the IIARNR carne to be called. Under his direction the Program perhaps made its most important achievements. In 1987, 'SEL 1' ('Carioca'} had already replaced the black-bean type and plans to encourage local consumption were being considered. The CISSCN had ap proved a project financed by USAID to plant 500 ha to cartoca-type beans for export to Brazil and to promote consumption among the 11,000 people who fonned the base of this cooperative of 1500 fanners .Other organizations also developed activ:ities to promote export and consumption of beans. These organízations included an institution whose efforts, together with those of the UAGRM, were key to the development of beans in East BoliVia: the Mennonite Association for Economic Development (MEDA). This NGO was established in the mid-1980s, beginning by entertng the field of promoting the bean crop, giv:ing technical assistance to the fanners of Colonia Berlín and helping to export their black beans to Brazil. In 1987, Colonia Berlín made its flrst legal export of 100 tons to that country with MEDA's assistance. particularly that ofits then Executive Director, Calv:in Miller, who, with Ortubé. was the motor in consolidating bean production in Santa Cruz. The funds that the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) made available through PROFRIZA to the UAGRM's Bean Program in 1989 were decisive in launch.ing the bean crop in Santa Cruz. The UAGRM could also install demonstration plots precisely where MEDA was organ.izing small farmers and thus con tribute to consolidating the efforts of MEDA's leader Calv:in Miller and lea ders of other groups in organiZing the fanners .Various events highlight PROFRIZA's participation:ASOPROF was created.The area planted to beans gradually grew.A seed production system was consolidated.Both exports and domestic consumption grew.~u -~:} ___ .::=:::..::::::.:...----The \"crisis of fallow la nd\" (described on page 23) was mitigated .Employrn ent was gener ated a nd fa mily welfare improved.The crop expanded t o other areas of the cou n t ry.Useful germplasm was gen erated and dis seminated.Flr\\al Report PROFRJ.ZA 1988-1999 Below we shall see how an activity that began asan adventure becarne reality~ how the bean crop had come to stay in East Bolivia!MEDA's efforts to organize small fanners were rewarded on 16 March 1990. when the National Association of Bean Fanners (ASOPROF) was bom, based on ll grassroot organizations, made up of 470 small fanners who had been planting beans as a winter crop for about 7 or 8 years. The Association currently integrates 22 associations, bringing together 2000 small farmers {Table l). ASOPROF was bom wíth the mission to promote the cultivation and consumption of beans in Bolivia through productlve units based on the small fann. It aims to increase fanner income and improve fanning families' diet. To do so, it prometes the development of the bean crop in new areas where beans can provide an economically profitable altemative for small farmers and be sustainable within their production system. ASOPROF's principal activities are as follows:• Producing and marketing certified bean seed.• Providing technical assistance wíth production and postharvest handling.• Marketing beans on domestic and export markets.• Promoting bean consumption at rural and urban levels .ASOPROF has legal status. Since its foundation, ASOPROF has focused its activities in the Department of Santa Cruz. But, in 1992, its focus widened to include other departmen ts: Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, and Tarija (Table 3). where it operates through the collaboration of other institutions: CEDEAGRO (Cochabamba). FEDEAGRO (Chuquisaca). and ACLO (Tarija).The social unit of ASOPROF is the s mali fanner: almost 65% of the 3500 fanners making up ASOPROF plantan average of 5 hato beans (Table 4).Sorne indicators show the role played by ASOPROF in seed production and marketing and the economic benefits that these have represented for the Association's smali-farmer members (Table 5).  So far we ha ve desclibed the bean crop's development in Bolivia since the beginning of the 1980s, but we have not discussed any growth figures . The reader shou ld understand the bean's populality in East Bolivia so that h e or s h e can appreciate the d evelopment of other important acUviUes related to the crop tha t were taking place simultaneously with the crop's development. The fluctuations in the area planted observed between 1983 and 1987 reflect the uncertainty of the Brazilian market. The unexpected growth of area planted in 1991 is the result of the exaggerated expectations of large-scale fanners who, enticed by the Brazilian market prices of the year befare. began producing beans . The sudden. severe shrinking of area planted the next year reflects the deception felt with the same market.The true average of yields was 1000 kg/ha . Yields of 1200 kg/ ha were obtained when the planting areas were relatively small. When more lands were incorporated , particularly of less favorable regions. su eh as the plains. the average yield dropped.Flrlal Report PROFRIZA 1 988•1999 Yields ofless than 1000 kg/ha can be attributed partly to \"bad years\" , affected by climatic variations.At the beginning of the 1980s. once the varieties were identified and basic knowledge of the crop was developed, the UAGRM, under the leadership of Marco Koriyama. began a program for seed production near Mairana (at 1600 m). About 180 small farmers from 20 communities planted about 300 hato beans durtng the austral summer (December-January). This crop was to produce seed for farrners to plant beans as a winter crop (April-May) in the plains (at 400 m).By the begínning of the 1990s. the farmers of Mairana already had a small seed company. Its equipment had been donated by the CIAT Seed Unit, foundation seed by the IIA-El Vallecito, technical assistance by the University and the Regional Seed Certification Office, and administrative and marketing support by ASOPROF. The company was called APROSFYM, and was organized with the participation of 14 farmers. Thanks to the talent of one its members, Tito Orquera. who designed a stationary thresher, APROSFYM succeeded in interesting the FAO-Postharvest Project to help enhance the thresher's model and thus begin producing and selling the machine in series.At the decade's end, the original seed production model is still beíng followed and encompasses not only Mairana and the plains but also otber localities. Research: UAGRM Variety record:Regional Seed Office Producti.on of basic and foundation seed:UAGRM or autborized companies Quality control:Regional Seed Certification Service Thanks to its organized system of seed production, Bolivia can, unlike other countries with older traditions of bean production, exhibit adequate levels of certified-seed production (Table 7).Until 1989, MEDA and CISSCN coordinated the entire chain of activities (distribution of seed, credit, and marketing) ortented toward bean export. From 1990 onward, when ASOPROF was created, the Association assumed these same responsibilities for the small farmers. while PROMASOR & C. A. and two prívate enterplises (DITEX and Cordillera) were in charge of marketing for large-scale To enter the export market and compete with other companies, ASOPROF became partners with MEDA in an export company, ASOMEX. ASOMEX's members include the farmers, MEDA, and representatives of 20 communities. Bolivia currently exports beans to Brazil, Colombia, Japan, ltaly, and Spain. Most of this production comes from small farmers who, 20 years ago. had scarcely heard of beans. The biggest export market is Brazil, which had been accessed on an informal basis since 1980, a little after the bean adventure in Santa Cruz began. In 1986, export to this country was formalized on the signing of the Paz-Sarney bilateral agreement, which ensured a channel for free export for 70,000 t/year. The market begun to grow from lOO met.ric tons in 1987, through 300 in 1988 and 700 in 1989, to 2878 in 1990. The exported beans were mostly carioca type, but other types have also been exported: sorne preto (black) andjalinho (butter). Because of the high number of nisei Brazilans (J apanese descendants) living in J a pan, Bolivia has recently begun exporting carioca-type beans to that country. Through research carried out in recent years by the UAGRM's Bean Program. new bean types have been adapted to East Bolivia, opening up new export m arkets in Colombia (Table 8) and Spain.Pirtal Report PROFRIZA 1988-1999  A 1994 1 study found that ín urban Santa Cruz, 60% of the population consumed camba beans (Vigna unguiculata, or cowpea) at an annual rate af 2.2 kg per ca pita. On introducíng the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris}. the offer of beans became more diverse. resulting in the new grain becoming incorporated l. Maruique 8, R. 1994. Estudio de consumo y mercado de frejol PhCLSeolu.s uulga.Ii.s L. en el departamento de Santa Cruz [Bolivia). S.S. thesís. University Autonóma \"Gabriel René Moreno\". Santa Cruz. Bolivia.into tbe díet of 53% of consumers, so much so tbat the annual average of consumption rose to 3.9 kg per capita. The introduction of common beans affected tbe consumption of traditional camba beans in that the number of their consumers dropped to 49% of tbe original number and the quantity consumed was reduced by 16%. However, the net balance of consumption of these two grains (Vigna unguiculata and Phaseolus vulgari.s) in crea sed to 160% as the per ca pita bean consumption rose from 2.2 to 5. 7 kg/person.In the rural sector, befare beans were introduced, 37% of tbe rural population consumed cowpea atan annual average rate of 4 kg/person. Now, 70% of tbe population consume botb Vigna and Phaseolus beans. Unlike in the urban sector where consumption dropped, Vigna bean consumption went up by 29%. Total annual consumption of Vigna and Phaseolus beans rose from 4 to 11 kg/person, tbat is, by an increase of 168%.Up-to-date figures from a 1998 study by Norha Ruiz de Londoño, of CIAT, showed impressive bean consumption rates in the vartous social strata of the urban and rural sectors of Santa Cruz:• In the study area, 75% of rural familles, and 50% of urban familles, consumed beans. Consumption rates in low-strata farnilies reached 84%.• Consumption per capita estimated for the rural population surpassed the average for Brazil. In Santa Cruz, annual consumption is 23.5 kg/person (in Brazil, it is 18). In the urban sector, overall consumption is 6 kg, but the population's lower strata annually consume 12 kg/person.• Ifwe consider the average amounts consumed by bean eaters only, then figures are about 31 and 12 kg per capita/year in the rural and urban sectors, respective! y.• Beans contríbute one-third of a rural person's daily protein requírements and 17% of those of an urban dweller's.In Santa Cruz, land grants to settlers varíed from 1 O to 50 ha. Smaller grants were considered as undesirable beca use settlers with only 1 O or 20 ha were found to rapidly exhaust virgin bush and to become caught in the trap of the so-called ~crisis of fallow land\". This crisis sets in when secondary vegetation invades the land left under fallow and settlers find it impossible to combat it. They then have only two options: to use machinery or to raise cattle to take advantage of tbe grass that eventually invades everything. Because both options represent heavy investments, the small farmer must abandon his land and look for more virgin forest. In many cases, receiving more land only meant postponing the crisis that inevitably carne. Fallowing. a widespread in subsistence agricuJture, is nota practice opposed to modern agricultural systems; it can b e improved with the inclusion of crop rotation. alley cropping, plant cover. or a groforestal.[34Final Report PROF'RIZA 1988-1999 For the Santa Cruz settlers, the lack of a sllitable winter crop motivated most to migra te in search of temporary jobs. The introduction of beans into the region allowed settlers to farm their fields in winter and to introduce highly recommended practices such as rotating cereals (maize in summer) with legumes (beans in winter). Beans also enabled fanners to develop capital that would one day allow them to mechanize their property, buy livestock, or do a combination ofboth.Although introducing beans reduced the problems of the so-called \"crisis of fallow Iand\" for farmers, it probably also induced them to incorporate more land under agriculture-beans being profitable and solving a series of daily problems. often far removed from production, but intensely united to their well-being. For example:• In winter, 86o/o of the are a cultivated is under beans. Befare the crop was introduced, only 9% of the arable land was exploited in winter.• Beans ensure better land use: cereal rotation with legumes.• By hampering weed invasion during winter. beans are estimated to reduce production costs of summer crops by as much as US$1.5 million.• Beans elimina te farmers' need to migrate to other regions to find winter work by generating a source of work for the farmers and their families. Almost half of the workdays expended on bean cultivation are contributed by the family. representing about 222,500 workdays for the season. Table 9 shows the growing social impact that beans have on the region as an employment generator.In Santa Cruz, in the areas of integration and expansion where modero agriculture is carrted out. the felling of trees has been pitiless and irrational. In the land settlement areas. increased number of trees were felled in favor of a profitable crop that solved many of the farmers' problems. including those unrelated to production. Farmers of the land settlement areas are part of a tragic scenario: they come from the high plateau, fleeing from misery and desperation, to \"invade\" a piece oftheir own country, covered by jungle. They discover the land and cultivate it, thus offering their children food, stability, farnily identity, and improved well-being. To their country, and to the world in general, they show that poverty such as that which they suffered in the Platea u can be surpassed, that they can always help themselves, provided they have the resources and can be supported when these faíl.The impact of farmers' actions in this case should also include improved living conditions that give their lives more dignity. Hence, when judging the role beans play in East Bolivia, environmentallosses should be balanced against the gains of these human nuclei in terms of growth as people. Man is part of the environment and his well-being is the best example of sustainability-what better example than precisely this one of the human condition!As we have already shown, beans initiated their pílgrimage to Bolivia in 1982, being frrst planted in the Department of Santa Cruz in the plains (at <500 m) as a winter crop and in the mesothennic valleys (1500-2000 m) as a summer crop. Between 1990 and 1998, beans became consolidated in localities other than Santa Cruz: Muyupampa (province ofLuis Calvo) and Monteagudo (province ofHemando Siles) in the Department of Chuquisaca, and the area of Mizque (province of Mizque) in the Department of Cochabamba. In 1999, the bean began entertng the valleys of the Departments ofTarija and Potosí. What a settlerlThose lines and varieties that CIAT introduced to Bolivia in 1979 began to yield between 1982 and 1985 with the fust commercial planting ofblack-seeded varieties: BAT 76, a line from ClAT, and ICA Pijao, a Colombian variety. Varteties of other seed colors then followed, such as the Brazilian Cartoca, Cartoca 80. Catu, Aroana, Ayso, and Rosinha. Ofthese, the most outstandingwas 'Carioca•, which had started, in 1983, with the name \"SEL 1\" and began to predorninate. 'SEL 1' had the virtue of encouraging bean consumption in East Bolivia where black beans had been rejected. In 1990. when Bolivia became a member of PROFRIZA, the flow of improved gennplasm became more intense. The UAGRM's Bean Program strengthened its genetic improvement team, and new market classes of beans Qalinho, calima, cranberry, navy) were incorporated into the Program's work portfolio and new cultivars were launched (Table lO).As a result of the development and dissemination of improved germplasm by the UAGRM, beans not only settled in Santa Cruz, solving the problems that small farmers had with winter. but were also disseminated to other regions of Bolivia to which they brought important changes. These changes functioned (without indulging in hyperbole) as a springboard for small fanners to modem agriculture, as• shown by the farmers having:Pina1 Report PROFRJZA 1988PROFRJZA -1999  • Made changes in the structure of their production system by introducing a new ero p.• Adopted new technology, which had required training.• Developed a capacíty for management and thus could enter export markets.• Achieved access to resources, including credit for working capital, machinery. and other equípment.Although the bean adventure in East Bolivia has many participants, we must recognize that, without the UAGRM's cooperation and guidance, the adventure would not have begun when it did, nor would it have arrived so far. The creative and bold step that the University took beyond the academic and scientific to push ahead a socioeconomic project based on an unknown crop, ridiculed as a food for the poor, is worth pointing out. Local institutions also deserve credit for their altruistic response to the UAGRM's call to support a project aimed at society's general well-being. All benefited from those who dared to dream, and CIAT and the Swiss Agency for Cooperation in Development did well to have believed in them for over 20 years. The bean adventure in Bolivia is an example of collaborative spirit and steadfastness.Working Together.The Hazards of Forecasting ln late 1989, outstanding CIAT professionals made an in-depth analysis of important FAO data and reached the following conclusions regarding the panorama of beans in Latín America for year 2000: y Although the projectiDn of current aggregate productiDn and consumptiDn trends do not poin.t toward a deficit in the supply of beans for year 2000, the level of aggregation conceals the fact that projectiDns for Brazil and the Andean Region establish annual de.ficits of 351 and 107 thousand tons, respective/y. The estimated dejicitfor the Andean Region amounts to 34% of the productiDn, and is mainly concentrated in Peru and Ecuador. •'2 FAO statistics for 1988FAO statistics for -1999 indicate that annual growth rates of bean production, area harvested, and yield in Peru were 4.3%. 2.2%, and 2.0%, respectively (AppendiX B.'Table 27). thus reversing the pessimistic forecasts. Peru is currently self-sufficient in bean production and even exports beans . How did this happen? All can be attributed to govemmental support. a dynamic and motivated prívate sector formed by intrepid entrepreneurs. and small and medium-scale fanners who were confident about the future.In Peru, 97% of alllandowners are small fanners. Here, as in the rest of the Andean Region, bean is not only a crop for low-income fanners, but it is also planted in small areas scattered throughout the country. This crop is planted in a diversity of environments, found in highlands and coasts, ranging from sea level to 3400 m , and under different production systems. In both regions. beans are not only an important component of the local diet, but also an important source of in come for the rural population. But. beca use the conditions of production differ markedly between the two regions, their strategies for tackling bean problems also differ significantly.Peru has about 80,000 ha planted to beans. About 48% of this area is in the highlands (700-3200 m above sea level) . accounting for 45% of the national Pilla! Report PROFRlZA 1988PROFRlZA -1999 production. In this regían, climbing bean, planted in association with maize, predomina tes; 90% of the area is planted under dryland conditions and yield averages are less than 600 kg/ha.Fanners search for climbing-bean varieties with nonaggressive growth, so they can be grown in association with maize in production systems where marketing the ear of tender maize (choclo) is the main objective. The release in 1989 of 'Kori Inti', an early maturing variety that develops in the lower two-thirds of the maiZe crop -a characteristic that prevents lodging-fulfilled this objective. 'Kori Inti' has successfully spread throughout Valle Sagrado in Cusca. and is planted in association with the economically important, Iarge-grained, white Urubamba maiZe.Farmers need disease-resistant, climbing-bean varieties to reduce pesticide use and to express genotypic yield potentiaJ. Examples of the advances PROFRIZA has made toward fulfilling this need are the varteties INIAA Cajabamba, a white bean resistant to rust and anthracnose, and Gloriabamba, a rnesoamerican type resistant to anthracnose-both for the northern highlands . Another variety. Q'osqo Poroto INIA a type of popping bean resistant to anthracnose, was developed for the southem highlands.Farmers also need bush bean varieties with different planting times to expand the crop's cultivation frontier. Examples of such varieties are Jacinto INIA, a bush varlety resistant to three diseases. including anthracnose and adapted to a broad range of altitudes (1600-3000 m.a.s.l.). and INIA 17, another bush variety that is broadly adapted (Table 12)This region accounts for 16% of the country's bean-growing area and 23% of production. Along the coast, all cultivated areas, regardless of crop, are under regulated irrigation. Average bean productiVity ranges from 850 to 1200 kg/ha.  13).Ex:port-type varieties aJso need to be identified that can be successfully planted on the coast. Twelve varieties of the following market classes were selected and disseminated: caballero, Great Northem, navy, alubia, white kidney, dark red kidney, light red kidney, red marrow, pinto, carioca, and black turtle (Table 14).In Peru, to talk about Andean crops is to taJk about patato, an endless number of tubers. quinoa. kiwicha, maize. wheat. barley. maca. and. if need be. broad bean and lentil. but cert.ainly not beans. The paradigm changed slightly as the century drew to an end. and bean became categortzed as an Andean crop beca use of the advances this crop has made, especially in the southem highlands. Among the achievements are the following:Better Companions for Maize 'Q'ello Poroto', a climbing bean with yellow, giant-sized grains. is the most popular variety in the southem highlands . Although farmers plant it in association with maize, its growth habit is characterized by copious vegetative production and a long growing period from planting to maturity. These characteristics can make the bean a difficult companion for certain types of maize, íncluding the very popular starchy varieties Blanco Urubamba, grown for its high market value worldwide in the Valle Sagrado de los Incas (Cusca}. and 'Amarillo Oro'.'Koii Inti', an early maturtng climbing bean with a well-balanced growth habit. can be grown in association with maize without sígnificantly decreasing its yields. Its development has allowed bean production to increase by about 5000 tons of d.ry grain in the inter-Andean valleys of the southem highlands. such as the Valle Sagrado de los Incas, where maize is traditionally monocropped. This bean vartety has spread to Limatambo. Mollepata. Paruro, and Acomayo in the Department of Cusco, and to Curahuasí, Abancay, and Andahuaylas in the Department of Apurimac, al1 in the southern highlands.Another good companion for maize was identified within the class of popping beans, a traditional crop found in the inter-Andean valleys of the Departments of Cajamarca and Cusco. In Cusco. popping beans are grown in association with the maiZe varieties Blanco Urubamba and Amarillo Oro, among others. as a production altemative in whích cultural practices are performed for the main crop (maize). 'Q'osqo Poroto INIA' is a popping bean of nonleafy growth habit and resistant to the main races of anthracnose (Conetotrichwn lindemuthianum) and to halo blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola). With its release, the cultivation of maize and poppíng beans in association h as íncreased signíficantly in many Cusco valleys situated between 2600 and 2900 m.a.s.l.Popping beans, also called toasting beans. are known in Peru as poroto. ñuña. apa, nwnia, among other denominations. and in Bolivia as k'opuro. These beans constitute a unique genetic resource of the Andean Region, distributed between Cajamarca ln the northem highlands of Peru and the Department of Chuquisaca in Bolivia. In Cusca, popping beans are mainly planted in the hígh valleys of the Urubamba River at sites su ch as Ollantayt.ambo, Pachar, and Urubamba. at altitudes varyi.ng from 2800 to 2900 m.a.s.l.The grains of this type of bean pop when beated in oil or placed in a bot frying pan. These beans presenta broad variability not only in grain color but also in their capacity to pop. Tender, floury t:ypes With high popping capacity are the most ¡]4Flnal Report PROFRIZA 1 988 • J 999 preferred. With low fat and high protein contents, the beans are also used to make a very nourtshing \"ñuña milk\" in sorne parts of Peru.Popping beans not only representan important source of protein for the rural population of the highlands of Peru and Bolivia, but they also ha ve possibilities as a cash crop. Their potential in the urban market is as great as that of peanuts, popcom, and toasted broad beans, all significant snack foods. The popping bean could therefore represent an important source of income for one of the most marginalized sectors of Latin Ame rica: the lndian populations of the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia. Furthermore, popping beans require less fuel for cooking, and, as a result. the consumption of these beans may represent an economic and environmental component in regions where fuel is limited. In addition to its nutritive and fuel-saving attributes, popping beans have a potential for biological N fixation and can adapt to associations with other crops, su eh as maize, making it an efficient food crop. Des pite all these advantages. the popping bean is little known outside its traditional production areas and its cultivation has never reached a Iarge enough scale to plan large-scale marketing because:• Although certain types (e.g., Chec'che, Angel Poroto. and Pava} are preferred, none have been disseminated on a large scale beca use of the wide diversity of consumer preferences.• Most types of popping bean have a leafy foliage that makes them unattractive for planting in association with maíZe varteties of high market value.• Most varteties are susceptible to diseases, especially anthracnose. Ascochyta, and halo blight.• The best known types of popping bean have a varying capacity to pop that seldom reaches 100%, thereby hindeiing marketing.• Most urban consumers have not even heard of popping beans. whereas t-road beans and peanuts are well-known snack foods .An individual selection conducted by Vidal Ortiz in 1991 in a collection from Limatambo, Anta Province. Cusca. was the origin ofwhat later would be known as the vartety Q'osqo Poroto INlA, the first officially released vartety of popping bean. Mirihan Gamarra, who participated in the selection of this vartety, and her team conducted a widespread campaign to disseminate the new variety, showing those majar characteristics that differentiated it from other known types of popping bean:• Nonleafy foliage that allows it to grown in association with rnaize without affecting yields.• Resistance to anthracnose and halo blight. two major diseases.• High market value: lOOo/o popping capacity: the grains, when toasted, do not form rosettes: grains weigh less after toasting than do local ecotypes.'Q'osqo Poroto INJA' is widespread in Cusca. The support of the Peruv:lan Government in setting good prices for popping bean and its inclusion in the National Food Program (PRONAA. its Spanish acronym) were decisive in encouraging plantings of 'Q'osqo Poroto INJA' on a commercial scale in Cusca. Many plantings used the trellis system that allowed yields to reach almost 3000 kg/ha. Although popping beans have not yet entered urban and intemational markets, the availability of a vartety such as 'Q'osqo Poroto INIA' opens up endless possibilities for this ancestral crop. one of the many valuable legacies left by the Incas.Bush beans introduced to Cusca in the 1960s represented an interesting option for farmers because their early maturity meant they could be planted as many as 4 months after the last planting date for climbing beans. This flexibility of planting time allowed farrners to have food practically at any time. Despite these obvious advantages. the area planted to bush beans did not increase substantially and was restricted to a few valleys in Cusca. mainly because the introduced varieties Red Kidney, Puka, and Rojo Mollepata began to show. with time. susceptibility to the main bean diseases occurring in the highlands. Also, the red grain color was not partlcularly popular in the area.In 1980, CIAT supplied a red bean that, despite its color, began to spread throughout the region. In 1995, this bean was released as INIA 17, becoming very popular in the Department of Madre de Dios. deep in the jungle, possibly beca use of its hardiness. The new vartety showed resistance to halo blight and interrnediate resistance to rust, anthracnose, and web blight. In 1994, bean variety Jacinto INIA was released; its golden yellow color was similar to that of the most popular variety. known as Yellow Giant' or 'Q'ello Poroto'. lt rapidly gained popularity among fanners because of its commercially acceptable color, agronomic characteristics. early maturity, and disease resistance.In the southem highlands, new bush bean varieties have hada colonizing effect, spreading throughout several valleys in Cusca, although they are still to achieve large-s cale production in the areas where they are established.In the northern and central highlands. bush beans have also assumed a ucolonizing\" role. Varieties such as Huerequeque INIA, Larán Mejorado INIAA. and Canario 2000 INIAA, d eveloped for coas tal areas. are being cultivated in the secluded inter-Andean valleys (between 800 and 1300 m. a.s .l.) of the Departments of Cajamarca. Ancas h, and Lima.Examples of innovative germplasm for an ancient region-the so-called In ca Region integra ted by the depa rtme nts ofCusco and Apurimac-are new climbing-bean varieties wh ose less aggressive growth h ave made it possible to penetra te areas planted to monocrop ped m aize ; a truly spectac ular popping bean vartety; a nd early ma turing bus h bean varieties that h a ve opened new fron tiers for bean cu ltiva tion .Final Report PROFRJZA 1988•1999 The advantages that this technology has brought to this area is reflected partly in fue progressive increase in the area planted to beans in this regían, being sometimes, as in Cusca, eight times more than the plantings of the early l980s (Table 11).AJthough the germplasm supplied by INIA, through its association witb CIAT Via PROFRJZA. has had a less dramatic impact, it has also brought benefits to the northem highlands, specifically in Cajamarca. 'INIA Puebla'. an early maturtng var.iety resistant to anthracnose, was widely disseminated among fanners of the bean-growing areas of fue Department of Cajarrnarca, and can be found, even today, in marketplaces, together with 'Glortabamba', anofuer widely accepted vartety that was distributed by CIAT in 1985. An adoption study conducted by CIAT in 1990 in bean-growing areas of Cajamarca determined fuat, 3 years after release, 65% of farmers were growing the vartety Glortabamba. About 35% of the bean-growing area showed a 90% increase in productivity, compared with areas growing local varteties. The adoption of 'Gloiiabamba' mean t. in 1988, a 27% increase in production for fue study areas Chota, Santa, and Cajabamba, and a 22% increase for the entire bepartment of Cajamarca. The additional production was estimated at 3038 tons at a value ofUS$1,519,000. The rate ofretum on the research was estimated at 29%, With a cost-benefit ratio of 3.17.Table 12 shows the vaiieties released by INIA for fue highlands overall during the period of PROFRlZA's intemational cooperation actiVities.We could say that by fue end of 1995. fue nomenclature of beans along fue PeruVian coast was limited to such terms as ~canario\", \"bayo\", \"panamito\", \"caballero\" when referring to the most popular beans in the region. In 1999, bean-related vocabulary had expanded to \"cranberry\", \"pinto\", \"caiioca\", \"alubia\", \"navy\", \"calima\", \"red kidney\", \"caraota\", and others that identify intemationally recognized market classes of bean. This enrichment in the vocabulary of farrners and entrepreneurs. and even con sumers. can be attrtbuted to changes in the production s tructure. technology, management. and access to resources. These changes have occurred as a result of a new economic model now being applied in Peru and which opens new opportunities for small farrners to compete in a market economy. Thanks to the technologies developed. beans have b ecome a competitive crop in both domestic and foreign markets.The climate prevailing in the Peruvian coastal region favor s bean cultivation aJI year and is restricted only by water availability for irrigation. La.nd and water are both scarce and expensive; farmers therefore prefer highly profitable crops . However. bean has aJways been an ideal rotational crop in this artd region beca use of its low production costs. rapid economic retums. and high domestic demand. So that the bean can fulfill íts role efficie ntly. ít must not only be resistant to rust. common mosaic. root r ot. and nematodes. but also be early maturtng to cover the temporary spaces left by crops for the international market. A major INIA achievement was the release to farmers of varteties. resista.nt to rust and common mosaic. of alllocaJly consumed m arket classes (Table 13). These varíeties were developed by Angel Valladolid. and are the mos t preferred by farmers . Estimates indicate that they occupy no less than 50% of the area planted to beans along the Peruvian coast. Fína1 Report PROF'RIZA 1988-1999  under the sponsorship of the private sector. PRO MENESTRAS, headed by Valladolid and with CIAT's assistance, initially identified export-type bean varieties that best adapt to coastaJ conditions. Priva te enterprise, through the Association of Exporters (ADEX. its Spanish acronym). also implemented a proposal of productive alliances. through which agroindustries contracted small fanners to plant legumes, guaranteeing their purchase while providing technical assistance, seed, and direct credit. The program's success can be attributed to the crop's short vegetative period (from 90 to 120 days) and the low investments required (US$500-600/ha) . By late 1999, not only had efficient bean varieties of severa! intemational market classes been identified (Table 14), but Peru had succeeded in exporting beans to at least 15 countries ata value of more than US$45 million, during the last 5 years (Table 15). Although this figure may not seem spectacular. it is significant ifwe consider that, only a few years ago, economists had predicted a dire panorama for bean production in this country.Beans is basically a small-farmer crop. The average fann size ranges from 3 to 5 ha in the highlands and from 3 to 1 O ha on the coast. The are a under bean cultivation is estimated to be less than 30% of the fann area. If 73,000 ha are planted to bean in Peru, then 19.000 farmers or rural families produce beans. ofwhich 5000 were in PROFRlZA's area of influence. On the average, l ha of beans requires 60 working days from planting to harvest. most of which involve family labor. The use of improved varieties has increased fanners' income b y more than 30% because of their greater yield potential and lower production costs resulting from reduced use of pesticides. Improved varieties have also helped protect the environment by reducing the need for potentially polluting agrochemicals.In the past. the bean offer showed strong seasonality, adversely affecting prices because of simultaneous harvests in highland and coastal regions. By planting improved varieties with broader adaptation and thu s extending harvest time, seasonality of the bean offer is n o longer so marked. and prices are more stable, thus benefiting farmers . Increased production and productivity have generated new and majar sources of employment throughout the production and marketing chain.Beans as a Small Farmer' s Crop Of all the legumes cultivated in Ecuador, beans are the most widely grown and consumed. Dry grain consumption is as important as that of fresh grain: the national demand for dry grain in 1999 was estimated at 21,670 tons and that for fresh grain at 27,798 tons. The consumption of snap beans (green pods) is also ímportant, although volumes are unknown. Table 16 presents several characteristics of bean cultivation in Ecuador.In Ecuador. 90% of the area planted to beans is located in those altitudes where most Peruvians live and where most of the nation's crops are grown. maínly by small farmers. More than 40% of the bean-growing area is planted to climbing bean in association with maize, a production system that is used almost exclusively by small farmers. Areas producing bush beans are mostly located in highland valleys (1000 tq 2500 m .a.s.l.} or in the foothills of the western cordillera (800 to 1200 m.a.s.l.}. This panorama shows that beans is a small-farmer crop, planted in a region where farmer-market linkages are precarious and where agroindustries do not provide support or advisory services for bean farmers. Most of the produce is destined for household consurnption or the local market. except for beans produced in Carchi, Imbabura, Pichincha, and Chimborazo, departments that, each year. informally export to Colombia the product from about 29,000 ha planted to red beans. (]6Final Report PROFRIZA 1988PROFRIZA -1999 with evident advantages over traditional ecotypes planted by farmers_ As a result, INIAP 403-Bolón Bayo (1988) andINIAP 416-Canario (1994) were released_Select early maturing types. Climbing bean is planted in association with maize, but in traditional sweet-maize-growing areas or where prices for sweet maize justify cultivation. These early matuiing climbing beans must have a harvest time that coincides with the Iipeníng of the comcob. As a result. the early maturing varieties INIAP 400 (1988) andINIAP 421-Bolívar (1999) were developed.Select export-type varieties_ While farmers of the northem highlands. who have access to calima-type (red mottled) varteties, can export their product to Colombia, farmers planting climbing beans could not export their produce. Now, thanks to variety INIAP 412-TOA (1993), they can do so.Conduct improvement by gamete selection, using molecular markers (1998). INIAP undertook the genetic improvement of the two rnost popular traditional bean varieties 'Canario' and 'Bolón Bajo', using modem breeding techniques. INlAP personnel were traíned for this work, and additional resources and technical assistance were obtaíned frorn PROFRlZA and CIAT, respectively.In Ecuador. bean cultivation generates employrnent for both rnen and women. For each hectare planted to beans, about 50 casual working days are needed. Women participate in probably 50% of the tasks for production (weeding and hilling) and postharvest handling (grain dryíng and classification) _ Bush beans are the most important option in production systems of the Ecuadorean highlands beca use of their short growth cycle, ease of plantíng, market demand, and prices. About 50,000 farnilies produce bush beans. As a result of INIAP's patient work during 25 years, Ecuador is now self-sufficient in beans and even exports_ Thanks to the red-grained varieties that INIAP has released to farmers. about 8500 farnilies of the northem provinces of Carchi and Imbabura export from 15.000 to 20,000 tons ofbeans per year to Colombia, representing a foreign exchange of between 10 and 15 million u :s. dollars for the country.In the southem highlands, most of the beans produced are consumed fresh (fre sh grain or green pods). The dissemination of disease-resistant varieties a nd their broad range of adaption can be considered as significant contributions from INIAP, considering that the use of chemical products to control diseases in crops consumed fresh represents a high risk for human health. M u eh remains to be done in the Ecuadorean bean sector. The future will hopefully increase the number of actors. A work team at INIAP is proactive in the search for solutions to problems that are likely to artse in the future so that beans will continue to be served on the tables of Ecuador's new generations. INIAP's work over 2 decades has also included other crops such as peas. bread bean, lentils. and Jupine , and has assigned them priortty (ata level not seen elsewhere) so Ecuadoreans can ha ve access to cheap sources of protein. Based on these results. INIAP can be seen asan effkient custodian of Ecuador's food secmity.In Colo1nbia Sharing is a Two-Way RoadStatistics show that Colombia is a large producer and consumer of beans. However, this production is not enough, and Colombia has to import beans. Another aspect that statistics show is a sustained growth in production and productivity in the country, which reflects. in part, the contribution of technology. However, the reduction in area planted durtng the last 3 years is cause for concem and reflects the overall detertoration observed lately in Colombian fields because of the evident lack of incentives to plant traditional crops (Table 18).Colombia has a longstanding tradition ofbean production and consumption and a potential capacity to absorb greater amounts of beans than it now produces. Bolivia and Ecuador share part of their bean production with Colombia, a current importer. But sharing is a two-way road and what statistics do not show is the enormous contrtbution that Colombia has made to the bean crop, not only in Andean countrtes but also worldwide. Table 19 shows the different places in the world where Colombian varieties, developed by CORPOICA, are grown.Other than having contrtbuted 11 of its varieties so that 20 other countrtes could have improved germplasm for irnmediate use. Colombia has also contributed improved genetic m aterials so plant breeders around the world could use them in their own breeding programs. \"La Selva\" Research Center (2200 m.a.s.l.}, Department of Antioquia, developed, with support from PROFRlZA, populations dertved from interspecific hybrtdization between cornmon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and so-called petaco bean (Phaseolus polyanthus L.) . Petaca bean is resistant to the fungus Phoma exigua var. diversispora. a characteristic that was transmitted to common bean in a congruent backcrossing program. The matertals generated by this program were made available to the national prograrns in the region. This contrtbution is importan t. given the lack of high levels of resistance to Phoma in common bean.  In addition. the Obonuco Research Center (2710 m.a.s.l.) distributed 68 climbing-bean populations that had showed resistance to rust and anthracnose and high yield under Colombian conditions to national programs of the Andean Region. This way CORPOlCA has remained faithful to its tradition of being not only an important center for generating valuable gennplasm, but also a generous donor of its resources .For more than 40 years, CORPOICA during its vartous stages (as DIA. ICA. and now as CORPOICA) has always fulfilled its rnission of mak.ing new varteties available to farmers according to the existing demand. The years during which PROFRJZA operated were no exception. As indicated in Table 20, between 1988 and 1999, Colombian agiiculture continued to benefit from the contribution of improved germplasm generated through the CORPOICA-CIAT agreernent.The greatest virtue of this new germplasrn has been its efficiency, that is, its capacity to be used under the different circumstances of a given production system. Beans have as many as eight different growth habits, they can m ature in periods ranging from 75 to almost 300 days , and, in Colombia, grow at altitudes ranging from 800 to almost 3000 m .a.s.l. Plant breeders in Colombia have had to develop genotypes for the different environments and situations in which beans are cultivated, a task at which they have certainly succeeded. []4Final Report PROFRIZA 1988-J 999Associating with High~Value Crops: The Case of Coffee in CaldasCoffee. a crop that is key to the Colombían economy, is highly technified. The coffee-growing area covers 8,500,000 ha, ofwhich 1,010,000 are located on the slopes ofColombia's three majar mountajn ranges, with an annual precipitation of 1000-3000 mm (rajns falling 350-750 times ayear}. Most of the coffee is planted on lands with a 20% to 90% gradient.In coffee-growing areas. beans are socioeconomically significant, constituting not only an important source of proteins for local consumers but also a source of income for small farrners. Of the total domestic production, 80% is consumed in coffee-growing areas, which, however, produce only 15%. An altemative to increase the area planted to beans would be to intercrop with coffee. Todo so, however, requires bean varieties that are not only preferred by consumers, b ut also have growth habits that do not interfere with the rnajn crop--coffee-in any way. These beans should also be disease resistant because coffee crop management in Colombia dispenses with the use of pesticides. Moreover, the bean's vegetative period should be such that harvesting does not interfere with cultural practices íor the coffee crop. In brtef, the coffee-growing regían needs efficient bean varteties.CORPOICA accordíngly developed, with the collaboration of CIAT and under the auspices of PROFRIZA, the bean varteties ICA Cafetero, ICA Caucayá. and ICA Quimba ya. The release of these varteties has increased the area of beans intercropped with coffee in the Department of Viejo Caldas (now the Departments of Caldas. Risaralda, and Quindío}. The new varteties are now being planted in zocas (cleared squares of coffee land) and on land where traditional coffee is being renewed with the new variety Colombia. As a result, the income of coffee growers is diversified , a staple foodstuff is provided for the large floating population that appears during coffee harvest. and farmers can reduce costs by not having to weed between coffee rows.The Department of Santander accounts for 10% of the country's bean production, surpassed only by the Departments of Antioquia (22%). Nariño (14%). and Huila (11 %}. accordíng to 1987-1997 statistics. Within Santander, the provinces of Guanentá and Comuneros account for 50.2% of the Departrnent's bean-growing area, with 7580 ha planted to the crop; 79.6% of Santander's bean production is located in the municipalities of Villanueva. San Gü, Bartchara, and Curiti.Bean is a relatively new crop in Santander. In the early l980s, it emerged asan economic altemative for local families during the crisis suffered with traditional crops such as tobacco, maize, millet, and pita fiber. Cultivation began with radicaltype red-grained variety. Between 1982 and 1992, anthracnose became the most serious factor limiting bean production in Santander. CIAT lines began to be evaluated in 1987 and. in 1994. the first calima-type anthracnose-resistant variety (lCA Guanentá) and in 1997 another radical-type variety. also resistant to anthracnose. was released (CORPOICA Froilán}. Although not officially released, Colombia.s[] 'AFR 166', an experimental CIAT line with radical-type grain that is also resistant to anthracnose, became widely adopted by fanners by 1995, thanks to the efforts of Adrian Maitre.According to impact assessment studies conducted by CORPOICN. 49.4% of fanners adopted vartety ICA Guanentá and 79% the vartety CORPOICA Froilán. Factors contributing to the success of the newly released varieties included participatory research, a technological offer tailored to farmers' needs and expectations, a stable market demand. and the tobacco crisis. This last factor was especially important beca use the economic altemative of planting beans particularly benefited small fanners. who were mostly sharecroppers. The impact assessment study established that profits from the new varieties were highly attractlve to farmers. The monthly profits from varieties Guanentá and Froilán was 8.9% and 12%, respectively, much higher than the opportunity cost for capital in the area. Moreover, the interna! rate of social retum ofbean research in the area was 64%. By year 2000, these new varieties are estimated to genera te clase to 3000 permanentjobs. ofwhich around 600 would be incremental. Final RepoTt PROFR12A 1988-1999 Appendix BBased on FAO data, statistics corresponding to the 12 years ofthe PROFRIZA project (1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) are compared with those corresponding to the 12 years befare the date on which CIATbegan clistrtbuting improved germplasm (1964)(1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975).Table 23. Bean production in the Andean Region, 1964to 1999. Country 1964-19661973-19751994-19961997  Country   1964-1966 .  1973-1975  1994-1996  1997-1999  (10 9  ","tokenCount":"11214"}

data/part_6/0324622639.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e49332f1f7ed69e6600083cedb01416d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1d55bc91-1e6a-4a76-b6ce-68d63a6f13ab/retrieve","id":"1688399751"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"44560043-a138-42d6-b96a-506ef21b374d","pagecount":"4","content":"Los recursos genéticos constituyen la base biológica para la seguridad alimentaria mundial y están conformados por la diversidad del material genético que contienen las variedades tradicionales y los cultivares modernos, así como las plantas silvestres afines a las cultivadas. Estos recursos son la materia prima más importantes de los fitomejoradores y el mayor aporte para la producción y diversidad genética que utilizan los agricultores. Constituyen también un depósito de adaptabilidad genética que sirve como garantía ante el peligro representado por los cambios medioambientales y económicos (1).Se estima que de las 250.000 a 300.000 especies de plantas existentes en el mundo, cerca del 10 a 20% están amenazadas (2). Con los recursos y condiciones actuales, la conservación in situ no permite proteger a todas las especies en peligro de extinción. En todos los países las áreas protegidas abarcan sólo una fracción de los habitats de especies amenazadas, por ello el Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica (CDB), suscrito en 1992 por 157 países, reconoce la necesidad de complementar la conservación in situ con medidas de conservación ex situ. En el caso de las especies en alto riesgo de erosión genética o en extinción, la conservación ex situ puede ser la única forma de conservarlas. Para otras especies, la conservación ex situ sirve como una medida complementaria a los métodos de conservación in situ.La conservación ex situ de especies vegetales adquiere cada día más relevancia como parte de una estrategia para conservar la diversidad biológica existente en el mundo. Las actividades agrícola y forestal, así como las ciudades y complejos turísticos están expandiendo aceleradamente sus fronteras, generando degradación de ecosistemas naturales, pérdida de habitats y, como consecuencia, la extinción local de especies. Esto sin contar con otros factores, como la constante degradación por pastoreo y desertificación.Muchos esfuerzos se han concentrado en la conservación ex situ, particularmente los bancos de germoplasma. En 1963, en la Duodécima Sesión de la Conferencia de FAO se promovió fuertemente la conservación ex situ y se marcaron las pautas para la colección, conservación e intercambio de los recursos genéticos. Hoy, como resultado, hay un total de 1300 bancos de germoplasma alrededor del mundo totalizando aproximadamente 6 millones de muestras (3). De ese total alrededor de 600,000 accesiones se mantienen en el sistema del Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR) y el resto permanecen conservados en los bancos de germoplasma nacionales.Los bancos de germoplasma constituyen una de las estrategias más comunes para conservar la diversidad biológica vegetal ex situ, permitiendo conservar por mucho tiempo y en un espacio reducido muestras representativas de diversidad genética de una gran cantidad de especies de plantas (4).Nuevos acuerdos han sido firmados con el Órgano Rector del Tratado Internacional sobre los Recursos Filogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura, en donde las instituciones se comprometen a proteger las colecciones y hacer que los materiales y su información sea disponible a los usuarios El elemento central del Tratado es el Sistema Multilateral, creado para facilitar el acceso y distribución de beneficios para los 35 cultivos y 29 géneros de forrajes especificados en el anexo 1 del Acuerdo. El acceso facilitado se concede solo para fines de investigación, mejoramiento y capacitación al servicio de la alimentación y la agricultura, los recursos genéticos de estos cultivos son disponibles a través de un Acuerdo normalizado de transferencia de material (SMTA) (5).En 1994, los once centros del CGIAR firmaron un acuerdo con FAO colocando sus recursos genéticos '' en fideicomiso ''. Este acuerdo fue reemplazado por el nuevo acuerdo celebrado el 16 de Octubre de 2006 en donde los Centros Internacionales firmaron un acuerdo de asociación con el Tratado Internacional, mediante el cual colocan sus colecciones dentro del Sistema Multilateral tal como viene indicado en el artículo 15 del tratado (6).A partir de los 70's el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) aceptó el mandato mundial para el germoplasma de fríjol, yuca y forrajes. A partir del 1 ro de Enero de 2007 entró en vigencia para el CIAT, al igual que los otros centros del CGIAR, el SMTA. En el período 1994-1996 se utilizó un ATM CIAT (Acuerdo de Transferencia de Material) y en 1997-2006, se usó un ATM aprobado por la FAO. El CIAT mantiene las colecciones de fríjol y forrajes en banco de semillas y la colección de yuca es mantenida en forma de in vitro. Dentro de los objetivos institucionales del CIAT se encuentran la caracterización, evaluación, documentación, conservación, multiplicación y distribución de los cultivos de su mandato.Estado del germoplasma registrado en el Sistema Multilateral del Tratado Internacional Un total de 64,870 accesiones de fríjol, forrajes y yuca han sido registradas en el Sistema Multilateral del Tratado Internacional. Las accesiones de fríjol conservadas en el CIAT está representada por un total de 35,231, la mayor parte de ellas corresponden a P. vulgaris y el resto a P. lunatus, P. coccineus, P.dumosus y P. acutifolius. La colección de yuca conservada en forma in vitro comprende un total de 6,499 accesiones, un 85,6% corresponde a M. esculenta y el resto a 33 especies del género Manihot. El germoplasma de forrajes está representado por un total de 23,140 accesiones y comprende 150 géneros con más de 730 especies silvestres (7).Los principios y procedimientos en las que se han enfocado las acciones de la Unidad de Recursos Genéticos (URG) del CIAT son las siguientes:1. Suscribiendo el acuerdo con el Tratado Internacional el 16 de Octubre de 2006, el CIAT se compromete a colocar sus colecciones en fideicomiso dentro del Sistema Multilateral de Acceso facilitado y Distribución de Beneficios. Según los artículos de la parte IV y 15.1 del Tratado, el CIAT se compromete a distribuir materiales en conformidad con las disposiciones del Tratado y mantener éste servicio (Art. 12.3) (6).2. El germoplasma disponible para la distribución, está viable, sano y con características conocidas.3. Copias de seguridad son enviadas a otras instituciones mediante Acuerdos entre las instituciones. 4. Repatriación del germoplasma al país de origen cuando es requerido. 5. investigación enfocada en precisar mejor el objeto de la conservación y en mejorar la eficiencia y confiabilidad de los métodos de conservación.6. Formación de recursos humanos especializados en métodos de conservación.Los recursos genéticos son conservados con el propósito de que puedan ser utilizados en cualquier momento. Muchas de las muestras distribuidas cada año son usadas por el mismo centro, mientras que otro grupo de muestras son distribuidas a instituciones externas.Monitoreos periódicos de viabilidad y sanidad aseguran el mantenimiento de las colecciones en un alto grado de calidad permitiendo por lo tanto una distribución segura. La Unidad de Recursos Genéticos del CIAT ha distribuido en un periodo de 25 años un total de 399,570 muestras de fríjol a 98 países, 83,098 muestras de forrajes a 104 países y 28,590 muestras de yuca a 67 países. De los usuarios son los programas nacionales (NARS) y Universidades los que han recibido un mayor porcentaje las accesiones distribuidas, las estadísticas reflejan que la distribución de estos cultivos es relativamente alta.Un total de 20.000 accesiones de yuca y sus especies silvestres son conservadas ex situ en CIAT, IITA, y programas nacionales en más de 45 países (8). El cultivo de yuca es un buen modelo de estrategias complemen-tarias de conservación y varias opciones de métodos ex situ como colecciones en campo, conservación de semillas, conservación in vitro y crioconservación son disponibles para la conservación de éste recurso genético.El germoplasma de yuca puede ser mantenido en el campo, éste método tiene una ventaja porque permite que los materiales puedan ser evaluados y caracterizados. Una de las desventajas es el espacio que puede ocupar y la presión constante a plagas y enfermedades lo que dificulta por lo tanto la distribución de un material sano.La conservación de semilla sexual puede ofrecer un alto grado de acceso y seguridad a corto y largo plazo. Sin embargo, no es siempre disponible porque muchos genotipos son estériles, esta metodología es recomendada para las especies silvestres porque puede asegurar el mantenimiento de la diversidad genética que se encuentra en ellas, lo que permitiría en el futuro atender la demanda de los mejoradores a fin de obtener variedades con mejores características La conservación in vitro en yuca está bien desarrollada y ha sido aplicada en muchos bancos de germoplasma. La colección de yuca constituida por 6,499 accesiones, procedente de 23 países, es mantenida bajo condiciones de crecimiento lento con una frecuencia de subcultivo de una vez cada 12 meses, éste procedimiento permite una rápida multiplicación para la distribución de germoplasma (9). Nuevas metodologías han sido establecidas para lograr un crecimiento mínimo utilizando inhibidores de etileno lo que ha permitido extender el tiempo de conservación (10). Esta metodología ha servido para tener el duplicado de seguridad en otra institución, permitiendo que la reposición de la misma se realice en un período más largo. La conservación in vitro ha sido establecida a partir de plantas libres de enfermedades producidas a partir de termoterapia y cultivo de meristemas y evaluadas para los diferentes virus de la yuca de importancia cuarentenaria como son el Mosaico Común de la Yuca (CCMV), Virus X de la Yuca (CsXV) y Cuero de Sapo (FSD) (11). Estos procedimientos de limpieza y certificación de la colección han facilitado la distribución de germoplasma hacia otras instituciones, tener un duplicado de seguridad en otra institución y repatriar colecciones a países que han perdido sus materiales por diversos motivos, entre ellos desastres naturales, como ocurrió con materiales de Cuba, Perú, Ecuador y Paraguay.De 1979 al 2006 la Unidad de Recursos Genéticos ha distribuido un total de 28,590 muestras de yuca (5,795 accesiones diferentes). La alta demanda nos indica que éste recurso es de interés para los mejoradores y científicos de 67 países. El principal usuario de éste germoplasma han sido los diferentes proyectos de CIAT quienes han recibido un 64% (18,373 muestras) y las instituciones externas han recibido el 36% (10,217 muestras). Estos resultados sugieren que la demanda por el germoplasma de yuca es sustancial y proviene de un rango amplio de usuarios externos y utilizados para diferentes propósitos. Son los Institutos nacionales y Universidades los que solicitan en una mayor proporción materiales de yuca, siendo agronomía, investigación básica y mejoramiento los propósitos más comunes (Figura 1).Otra de las alternativas para la conservación del germoplasma de yuca es la crioconservación, la cual permite el almacenamiento a largo plazo. La metodología desarrollada consiste en la encapsulación-deshidratación de ápices y posterior inmersión en nitrógeno líquido (12). La técnica permite que la yuca sea conservada por muchos años sin necesidad de un mantenimiento periódico. Esta técnica requiere menos espacio y permite duplicar la colección en otro sitio, en el momento la técnica está siendo evaluada en el 10% de la colección de yuca.Una serie de estudios han sido realizados para analizar el costo de conservar el germoplasma de yuca en campo, in vitro y crioconservado. El costo promedio anual varía considerablemente de acuerdo al método de conservación utilizado (Cuadro 1). Estos costos de conservación son insignificantes comparado con el beneficio potencial que se genera a partir del acceso y del uso continuo de éste germoplasma (13). ","tokenCount":"1838"}

data/part_6/0325991625.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0532838cc3081f8f8d2a882944423009","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b06f6b2-5dbe-4ba8-97e9-75a4bb75858f/retrieve","id":"1914642645"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3c399170-bb0b-4e96-a557-f1ff02dfcbd3","pagecount":"4","content":"La importancia de la agrobiodiversidad y la consideración de su valor económico total La biodiversidad agrícola es la base para la supervivencia y bienestar del ser humano. Sin embargo, a pesar de su importancia, la biodiversidad agrícola a nivel de ecosistemas, especies y genética continúa perdiéndose a un ritmo acelerado. Entre los factores causantes se encuentran la sustitución y cambios indiscriminados en los sistemas de producción, cambios en las preferencias de los consumidores, el crecimiento económico y la globalización de los mercados, estrategias desacertadas de marcos regulatorios (incluyendo los subsidios), epidemias, desastres naturales y conflictos civiles.Un limitante crítico en la implementación de estrategias de conservación es que a pesar de que cada vez se reconocen más los beneficios de la biodiversidad agrícola, su valor total a menudo no es considerado completamente por parte de los individuos y la sociedad en general. Esto se debe a que numerosos componentes de la biodiversidad agrícola proporcionan una combinación de beneficios al agricultor (como beneficios privados, por ejemplo, relacionados con la producción de alimentos y fibras) y beneficios a la sociedad en general (como beneficios públicos, por ejemplo, relacionados con la resiliencia del agroecosistema y el mantenimiento de los procesos evolutivos y opciones futuras). Los mercados capturan solamente una parte de este valor económico total, subestimando así el verdadero valor de estos recursos. De esta forma se crean sesgos en contra de las actividades compatibles con la conservación y el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. Dado que los costos de conservación tienden a ser locales (a nivel de agricultor), mientras que los beneficios tienden a ser regionales, nacionales o incluso mundiales, no se puede esperar que los agricultores de escasos recursos puedan asumir los costos de conservación de los recursos genéticos vegetales y animales (RGVA) meramente para el beneficio de la sociedad en general sin contar con los incentivos adecuados para tal fin. Las gráficas y explicaciones ofrecidas a continuación nos ayudan a comprender el origen de esta situación.Se puede percibir la erosión de la agrobiodiversidad en la sustitución del variado acervo existente de RGVA por un rango más reducido de recursos genéticos especializados mejorados. Esta sustitución se presenta como parte de un proceso de desarrollo agrícola enfocado en la intensificación, es decir, la manipulación de los insumos y los productos generados con miras a incrementar el crecimiento agrícola a corto plazo.Puede esperarse que los RGVA locales muestren un mejor rendimiento que los RGVA mejorados en entornos marginales de producción, y que han sido modificados ligeramente por insumos externos. Con la intensificación agrícola, los RGVA mejorados (desarrollados para lograr rasgos productivos bajo entornos modificados) se hacen más productivos debido a su mayor capacidad de respuesta ante insumos externos, especialmente en áreas favorables en términos de potencial agronómico y acceso al mercado.Como se puede apreciar en la Figura 1, los RGVA locales sobrepasarían el rendimiento de los RGVA mejorados en términos de los ingresos que generan para los agricultores a un nivel determinado de intensidad 1 del sistema de producción , I*(0). Tras alcanzar el nivel I*(0), los agricultores encuentran cada vez más atractivo reemplazar los RGVA locales por los mejorados, ya que la curva de los RGVA Mejorados se encuentra en este momento por encima de la curva de los RGVA Locales. Para convencer a los agricultores de mantener los RGVA locales más allá de este punto, sería necesario un incentivo o pago adecuado para compensar al agricultor por la pérdida asociada a la variedad mejorada que deja de sembrar. Se puede determinar la proporción del incentivo requerido teniendo en cuenta la diferencia observada entre las dos curvas después del punto I* (0).Via dei Tre Denari 472a 00057 Maccarese Roma, Italia Contacto: Adam Drucker [email protected] ¿Pero qué justificaría la creación de tales incentivos? Acaso estas estrategias de conservación no interferirían con el proceso de crecimiento agrícola y la generación de ingresos? De hecho, existen una serie de razones que sugieren que la sustitución de RGVA locales por RGVA mejorados se está presentando bastante prematuramente. Tal sustitución solamente debería presentarse en niveles superiores de intensificación de las fincas, como lo muestra el punto I*' en la Figura 2. Entre estas razones se encuentran las siguientes:1) Se ignoran los valores asociados con la conservación, no asociados al mercado y/o bienes públicos. Es altamente probable que esto tenga particular relevancia en el caso de la agrobiodiversidad. Las características de los bienes públicos no solamente se limitan a los valores de uso directo asociados con la producción de alimentos y fibras, sino que también incluyen los beneficios privados asociados con el uso de la agrobiodiversidad para minimizar riesgos relacionados con impactos externos, como eventos climáticos extremos, plagas y enfermedades. Sin embargo, a escalas geográficas más extensas, el uso de la agrobiodiversidad también cumple un rol de bien público al apoyar la resiliencia de los agroecosistemas, el mantenimiento de las tradiciones socioculturales, identidades locales y conocimientos tradicionales, al igual que el mantenimiento de los procesos evolutivos, el flujo genético y los valores de opción globales.2) Se puede haber sobreestimado el rendimiento de los RGVA mejorados, por ejemplo, en caso de haber obtenido menos producción en fincas de lo esperado en comparación con los resultados en las estaciones experimentales y la existencia de impactos ambientales no previstos.3) La existencia de subsidios para el uso de RGVA mejorados los hace más atractivos a primera vista. Estos subsidios pueden darse de muchas formas, entre ellas, el libre acceso a semillas mejoradas, subsidios en capital para insumos como fertilizantes o pesticidas, servicios de apoyo gratis o subsidiados, precios de mercado subsidiados.Como resultado los agricultores probablemente se enfrenten a incentivos financieros (es decir, privados) que no corresponden con los valores económicos reales o totales (es decir, los valores públicos que incluyen beneficios y costos no asociados al mercado), de modo que lo que sería el punto de sustitución óptimo a nivel social bien podría estar a la derecha del punto I*. Esto significa que la sustitución actual de RGVA por variedades mejoradas trae como resultado el mantenimiento de una cantidad de agrobiodiversidad inferior a la socialmente óptima. Aunque la distancia precisa entre I* y I*' se podría teóricamente determinar conociendo las elasticidades relativas (inclinaciones) de las curvas de los RGVA locales y mejorados, es posible extraer algunas conclusiones generales prácticas de este sencillo modelo analítico.a. Hacia la izquierda de I* se puede pensar que los agricultores tienen incentivos financieros para no reemplazar los RGVA locales, conservando así aquello que provee altos valores económicos.b. Solamente más allá de I*' , la sustitución de los RGVA locales por RGVA mejorados estaría justificada financiera y económicamente (aunque esto no puede usarse para justificar la sustitución al punto de extinción de RGVA).c. Una sustitución que se presenta entre I* y I*' se asocia con una pérdida sub-óptima de RGVA locales, aunque la sustitución parece financieramente deseable desde la perspectiva privada/del agricultor, no puede estar justificada económicamente desde un punto de vista social. Esto se debe a que la pérdida adicional de los valores no asociados al mercado supera los beneficios de la sustitución.Como se aprecia en la Figura 2, las estrategias de conservación en marcos regulatorios para alcanzar el punto de sustitución óptimo, y por ende el nivel óptimo de servicios de conservación de la agrobiodiversidad, incluirían: (a) la consideración de externalidades negativas y eliminación de subsidios (con el fin de abordar los puntos [2] y [3] anteriores), lo cual movería la curva para los RGVA mejorados abajo hacia la derecha (hasta MEJORADOS'); y (b) en donde existen valores de no mercado y valores públicos significativos de RGVA locales (de acuerdo al punto [1] anterior), se requiere implementar unos mecanismos adicionales para permitir la 'captura' de los valores económicos totales asociados con los RGVA locales de modo que la curva para los RGVA locales se mueva arriba hacia la izquierda (hasta LOCALES').• Desarrollo de mercados de nicho para productos asociados con los RGVA locales • Recompensas tipo PSA (pagos por servicios ambientales) para la utilización en finca de los RGVA, denominados PACS (pagos por servicios de conservación de la agrobiodiversidad).Este último además podría aplicarse para alcanzar I*' aun cuando no se corrijan los puntos (2) y (3), o para motivar a los agricultores a conservar los RGVA locales en posiciones a la derecha de I*' -es decir, con el propósito de evitar pérdidas irreversibles estableciendo Figura 1: Sustitución de la agrobiodiversidad desde el punto de vista de la economía (Perspectiva Financiera/Privada) a otros RGVA amenazados (conocido como efecto de \"fuga\").En este contexto, los esquemas PACS podrían proporcionar unas bases más sólidas y flexibles para las actividades de conservación, y pueden ser más adecuados para asegurar la conservación in situ de poblaciones de RGVA.La relación entre el desarrollo de mercados de nicho y los PACS puede entonces verse como una relación complementaria. De hecho, una estrategia de conservación amplia podría incorporar una combinación de instrumentos para incentivos, y como tal podría combinar el desarrollo de mercados de nicho con esquemas PACS.Se necesita valorar debidamente la biodiversidad agrícola e implementar mecanismos que permitan la \"captura\" de aquellos valores por parte de los agricultores que incurren en los costos de conservación, proporcionándoles un incentivo para conservar aquello que beneficia a la sociedad en general. Esto requiere el desarrollo de métodos económicos adecuados, herramientas de apoyo para la toma de decisiones y estrategias adecuadas de intervención política.Aunque un instrumento potencial para la conservación de la biodiversidad nodomesticada -como \"los PSA\"-ha sido aclamado por algunos observadores como \"tal vez la innovación más promisoria en conservación desde Río 1992\", los esquemas PSA no han abordado hasta la fecha la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad. Al contrario, han mostrado una tendencia a enfocarse en el secuestro y almacenamiento de carbono; protección de la biodiversidad no-domesticada, protección de líneas divisorias de aguas y protección de la estética paisajística.La capacidad de los PSA relacionados con la agrobiodiversidad, denominados esquemas de \"pagos por servicios de conservación de la agrobiodiversidad\" (PACS), para permitir la \"captura\" de los valores públicos de su conservación a nivel del agricultor, creando así incentivos para la conservación de la agrobiodiversidad y apoyando el alivio de la pobreza rural, parece ser por tanto algo que vale la pena explorar.un limitante de sostenibilidad--, en tanto compensen a los agricultores al menos por sus costos de oportunidad 2 de utilizar los RGVA locales.El desarrollo de mercados de productos nicho para productos relacionados con la agrobiodiversidad se promueve cada vez con mayor fuerza como un medio para lograr de manera sostenible la conservación a través de la utilización directa de los recursos a conservar. Estos \"enfoques de conservación a través del desarrollo\" son potencialmente sostenibles, ya que parten de los canales de mercados agrícolas ya existentes, y de esta manera se pueden emplear para generar una fuente sostenible de financiamiento.Sin embargo, cabe recordar que depender exclusivamente del desarrollo de mercados puede ser una estrategia arriesgada para la conservación de un acervo variado de recursos genéticos, especialmente considerando que las condiciones del mercado pueden variar con rapidez y generalmente los consumidores y el agro-negocio tienden a favorecer un grupo reducido de especies/variedades de cultivos o razas animales.Los enfoques basados en cadenas de mercado también pueden requerir unas inversiones iniciales relativamente altas para generar volúmenes apropiados de producto, estando estos volúmenes bastante por encima de los requeridos para lograr unas metas modestas de conservación, y en donde el tener demasiado éxito puede incluso desplazar 2 En este contexto, los costos de oportunidad son los beneficios que se prevén de cultivar RGVA locales en lugar de los RGVA mejorados más atractivos a nivel financiero.Figura 2: Sustitución de la agrobiodiversidad desde el punto de vista de la economía (Perspectiva Económica/Social) ","tokenCount":"1928"}

data/part_6/0338969354.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26d5d40d7187a9cfb727ac694f9aadca","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5ecaa316-9660-4763-a42f-d93177f9a2dd/retrieve","id":"263330625"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f865ac86-945e-42d8-b785-65335a7be204","pagecount":"2","content":"Since 1998, Vietnam has adopted a series of laws designed to promote a basin--based integrated approach to water management. In 2001, eight \"River Basin Planning Management Boards (RBPMBs)\" have been established in eight basins. The RBPMBs act as coordinating bodies under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development (MARD). However, as it turns out their roles and mandates and their positions in the administrative system of water sector remain ill--defined and their contribution to the improvement of water resources management in the basin practically nil. In December 2008, a new decree on River Basin Management was approved by the Government of Vietnam, including the management of river basins to protect the environment as well as the regulationInternational Forum on Water and Food and distribution of water resources. At present, there are changes underway in the RBO arrangement which would operationalize IWRM in river basin in a more meaningful and practical way. But so far no new RBO arrangement has been executed under this new decree for two major reasons: (1) establishment of new RBOs has run up against the existing administrative system of WRM that resists sharing traditional bureaucratic power; and, (2) the linkage between the model and the existing institutions remains unclear. This case examines the challenges of introducing effective and operational RBOs as innovative institutions in the context of a long existing power distribution in the water bureaucracy that does not yield easily to changes.","tokenCount":"240"}

data/part_6/0364539774.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b07601ace81ee832da11bd16c4e558d5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0016e9ef-1ead-4bad-b8a4-543153ee51d3/retrieve","id":"-1065797170"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3457460d-04a9-49a9-895e-2aa7d34f2a94","pagecount":"2","content":"Conducting a survey to assess knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) in all CRP Livestock study sites in Ethiopia. • Training on rational use of drugs for farmers, extension agents, community animal health workers, veterinarians, and drug providers (prescribers and dispensers) • Determine antimicrobial residue level in milk and meat using validated antibiotic residue test kits and compare with the established tolerance (safe) levels of antibiotic residues for consumers. • Test milk samples for antimicrobial resistanceImproved understanding of use of veterinary drugs in small ruminant production and how producers perceive treatment with antimicrobials • The use of drugs in food-producing animals in Ethiopia has been increasing with improved access to veterinary drug stores. • However, knowledge on how these drugs work and how they should be used to achieve the intended impact is often not passed on to livestock keepers. Wrong use of antimicrobials and other veterinary drugs and non-enforcement of withdrawal periods contribute to the risk of emergence of resistances and may result in residues in food items. Resistances are not only a public health concern, but also contribute to treatment failure in livestock, thus threatening livelihoods. • As the major causes of morbidity and mortality of small ruminants in project sites in Ethiopia are respiratory diseases, use of antimicrobial drugs for treatment is inevitable.SmaRT Ethiopia intervention factsheet 22, May 2017Resource requirements (low to high) Land Water Labour Cash Access to inputs Knowledge and skillsBiruk Alemu, ILRI, [email protected]; Hiwot Desta, ILRI, [email protected] , Gezahegn Alemayehu, ILRI, [email protected] Barbara Wieland, ILRI, [email protected]","tokenCount":"251"}

data/part_6/0368965797.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e022f615312fe92ea958db8e9da795b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ceff0306-1d4e-49fd-a9d7-4ec0a75da6d8/retrieve","id":"-967671916"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"296bcae9-4a0c-4553-bf55-7ec457945f07","pagecount":"8","content":"The IPMS steering committee discussed the draft program of work for the period of April 2008 to March 2009, in a meeting held on March 25 at the recently established Ethiopian Meat and Dairy Technology Institute (EMDTI). The proposed program of work and budget was approved during IPMS Board meeting on May 8 th , 2008. Following the requests from Zones and Woredas adjacent to the project's Pilot Learning Woredas (PLW), specific attention was given to the role of IPMS in facilitating the scaling out of approaches and technologies through capacity development, knowledge management and promotional activities. On April 2 nd -4 th , 2008, IPMS participated in the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) Millennium Celebration Exhibition held in Addis Ababa. The project used the opportunity to showcase highlights of the various project components to exhibition visitors including H.E Ato Addisu Legesse, the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture & Rural Development and Dr. Aberra Deressa, State Minister of Agriculture & Rural Development.Honey production is a major source of income for many farmers in Alaba. In the past few years the Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (WoARD) and its partners have taken considerable measures to introduce modern beehives in the area.IPMS started working on apiculture development in Alaba's Galato and Wanja Peasant Associations (PAs) in 2004. The objective was to increase the effectiveness of ongoing apiculture development efforts. A rapid assessment of apiculture development in the Woreda revealed lack of appropriate knowledge and skills as major constraints inhibiting use of improved beehives. To address these capacity gaps, the following series of interventions were undertaken using a value chain development approach, benefiting thirty farmers organized in six groups. and Beza-Mar Honey Processing Factory in Nazareth to increase their knowledge of modern honey production and processing.Sugarcane is cultivated in different parts of Ethiopia by sugar processing factories and small-scale farmers. Bure Pilot Learning Woreda (PLW) is one of the major sugarcane growing woredas in the northwestern part of Ethiopia.Even though studies have shown the profitability of small scale sugarcane processing and marketing, not much has been done in Bure to develop the sugarcane business. Most sugarcane produced is sold at the local market.The typical consumption of sugarcane involves chewing the stalks to extract the juice.The IPMS project in collaboration with BahirDar Farm Mechanization Research Center introduced a simple hand-operated tool that can be used to extract sugarcane juice. This manual cane crusher (juice maker) was more appropriate considering the electricity scarcity in the Woreda.This simple technology increased the value of sugarcane from 1.50 birr per cane, when sold for chewing, to 8.00 birr when processed and sold as juice.The machine can extract four glasses of juice from an average cane and a glass of cane juice is sold for 2 birr. In addition, this processing has increased the number of sugarcane consumers since it broadened the age groups that can consume sugarcane juice -including older men who previously had trouble chewing the cane to extract the juice. The juice can be served with lemon to add flavor or as jelatin-candy prepared by freezing the juice. Another benefit of this technology is the use of sugarcane processing by-product or bagasse for animal feed and fuel wood.Even though, sugarcane processing is new in Bure, its profitability is likely to encourage other sugarcane growers in the country to adopt this technology. Currently, the project is exploring possibilities of other processed products such as jaggery (brown sugar). IPMS facilitated a credit fund of 51,000 birr to help the farmers establish apiary sites in their backyards. An additional 32,475.00 birr was provided to produce bee colonies. The credit fund was channeled through Menchonone Alaba Farmers Union.In 2007, the number of modern beehives per household among trained farmers ranged from four to ten with an estimated annual income of 900 to 3000 per household. Today almost all members produce bee-forage in their backyard, and informal bee forage seed market has developed among farmers. Their income is expected to increase as the number of beehives and bee forage increases coupled with improved apiculture skill and knowledge gained through the trainings.Future IPMS efforts in these area will focus on production of local exotic forage and bee wax. In 2008, two additional PAs will be targeted to scale out the positive outcome of this intervention. The bee-hive producers will also be supported in improved marketing.Innovative Livestock Development...In the past few months poultry development has received a lot of attention in Dale Pilot Learning Woreda. IPMS in collaboration with the Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (WoARD) has been actively working to increase production and marketing of poultry in the area.Until recently a government-run poultry farm was the major source of supply for commercial pullets (egg-type chickens) and broilers (meattype chickens). However, since demand was outstripping supply, the Woreda Office of Agriculture & Rural Development (WoOARD) and IPMS introduced a community-based commercial pullet supply system.The program started with training sessions (conducted by WoARD experts) introducing modern poultry technology and poultry vaccination for village-based poultry production. Over 80 women organized in five groups attended the training sessions. These women were trained on chicken rearing, management of the hay brooder, preparation of chicken feed from local resources, and vaccination of chickens. Methods, approaches and technology used to raise day-old chicks to the age of three months when they will be ready to be sold directly to rural and urban egg producers were demonstrated.At the end of the training, each woman was provided with chicken hay brooder, a runner prepared by the local carpenters and 50 day-old pullets with sufficient feed and vaccine against New Castle Disease (NCD). The commercial pullets are known for their high egg production, 260 eggs per year compared to local chicken of 60 eggs per year. IPMS facilitated in input supply credit fund of 136,000 birr which was channelled through SNNPR's Rural Finance Service Administration Office.Currently, the 80 women in five clusters in five kebeles (Soyama, Debub Mesenkela, Weynenata, Debub Mesenkela and Ajawa) are rearing 4,000 chickens with 1% mortality rate at the time of reporting. The breed introduced in the first round were preferred as egg layers. The same system can be used to introduce other breeds such as meat & egg types as the need arises. This intervention helped to create an alternative input supply and in the process practically demonstrated that a market-oriented chicken rearing and egg production business can be a major source of income and empowerment for small-holder women farmers.Vaccine for new pullets Knowledge Dissemination... The IPMS working paper series has been established to share lessons-learned and knowledge gained in the implementation of the project with members of research and development community in Ethiopia and beyond. The following three working papers are the latest additions. Please contact IPMS for copies of these publications. IPMS' intervention in facilitating small ruminant fattening in Goma Pilot Learning Woreda is only a few months old. Even so, 120 farmers (57 of whom were women) have already benefited from this activity. In March 2008, IPMS channeled a credit fund of 233,000 birr through Oromia Credit & Savings Share Company (OCSSCo) to be used by farmers for purchases of sheep for fattening. A loan amount enough to purchase five sheep was given to selected farmers. The project used the following two new approaches to ensure the success of this intervention. Cotton seed meal from an oil factory in the Woreda was introduced as supplementary feed. Previously the seed meal was sold to other distant Woredas since intensive fattening was not practiced in Goma. IPMS, the Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (WoARD) and OCSSCo made the necessary arrangements to buy and transport 170 quintal of cotton seed meal, enough to fatten 600 sheep over a threemonth period. Target farmers were mobilized to form a community based safety-net (insurance) scheme. The farmers contributed 10 birr per sheep as a group self-insurance fund to cover for accidental animal loss and deposited the money in a joint bank account opened in the credit institute. A committee was formed to administer the 6,000 birr insurance fund and community-based insurance bylaws (in Amharic, English and Oromifa (local language) was endorsed and distributed to the committee members.Innovative Livestock Development... Today, farmers in the area plant cowpea, lablab, and pigeon pea intercropped with sorghum and maize. They retain their own forage seed for planting the following year and FTCs have continued supplying forage seeds to interested farmers. More and more farmers are intercropping forage with sorghum and maizeencouraged by the successful experiences of their colleagues. The economic benefits of legume -cereal intercropping and the relationship between improved forage production and improved milk yield is now well understood by many farmers in the Woreda.Ocssco handing over a bank account book to community farmers insurance committeeLately, more and more farmers in Bure and Alamata Woredas have started short-term fattening of small and large ruminants. This new interest was a result of efforts extended by Woreda Offices of Agriculture and Rural Development (WoARD) and IPMS staff to build fattening knowledge and skills among farmers in selected villages.What is most interesting is that while in most villages farmers organize themselves for collective supply of inputs and output marketing, farmers in one village in Bure district and another one in Alamata district have organized themselves for collective production. This is an interesting positive deviation from the \"traditional wisdom\" which no longer promotes cooperative forms of production. Some probing questions revealed the reasons behind these \"new' cooperatives.A major reason for forming these groups was to share knowledge and skill among themselves. Locating and managing the animals in one place allows them to learn together and share skills and knowledge. They can also arrange for input supply and marketing collectively to reduce transaction costs. This is very much in line with the much quoted farmer field school model, except that those are usually initiated by \"outsiders\" with infusion of high external resources.Another reason mentioned was economies of scale of labor. At this early stage of development, the number of animals per farmer is rather low, while management is relatively labor intensive. By organizing themselves into pairs, and arranging for each pair to take turns in looking after the \"group\" stall fed animals, they reduced their labor input compared to fattening the animals individually. This is an interesting farmer innovation in meeting production challenges and acquiring knowledge and skills for development. How such groups will evolve over time as the number of animals increases remains to be seen.Capacity Building... Thirty experts from Woreda, Zonal and Regional Office/Bureau of Agriculture, Regional Bureau of Finance and Economic Development (BoFED) and Amhara Regional Agriculture Research Institute (ARARI) attended the workshop. More than half of these participants are currently engaged in M&E work in their organizations, and they will be involved in the upcoming IPMS M&E activities. Similar trainings will be conducted in Tigray, Oromia and SNNPR in the coming months of 2008.IPMS conducted an introductory GIS training in Awassa town from May 19 th to 24 th , 2008. The objective of the training was to strengthen the capacity of regional stakeholders in collecting, managing, and outputting spatial data. Similar training workshops were previously conducted in Oromia, Amhara and Tigray Regions. Study tours are effective means of knowledge sharing. Two such tours were recently organized in Fogera Pilot Learning Woreda (PLW). The study tours enabled the participants to witness experiences of other farmers in addressing issues around communal grazing areas infested by Hygrophila (Amicala); horticulture/vegetable storage technique; and proper management of credit funds. The tours were organized for the Woreda Office of Agriculture (WoARD) experts, Woreda and Regional Advisory and Learning Committee (WALC & RALC) members and the woreda farmers.The first study tour was a follow-up to last year's Amicala eradication campaign that resulted in the clearing of 268.5 ha of grazing land in 6 highly infested kebeles within one week. Sixteen farmers, four Development Agents (DAs), and three WoARD experts (livestock, horticulture and land administration) participated in the tour. The group visited an enclosed communal grazing site in Atsbi, onion and potato storage technologies in Alamata and protected hillside in Mersa Woreda Tigray and North Wollo. The participants of the tour learned the benefits of enclosed communal grazing areas and the relevance of regional laws and community collaboration in conserving natural resources.Following the study tour, the participants presented feedback reports to the Woreda officials including the Woreda Justice Office representative, and the Woreda and Kebele Administration delegates. At the end of the workshop Kebele level participatory action plans were prepared and approved.As a result of these efforts and continuous community discussions two Kebeles demarcated their communal grazing areas and prepared management plan and internal bylaws -Shina Kebele 10 ha and Kuhar Michael 5 ha. In support of these Kebeles, the WoARD provided more than 500 kilos of forage seeds to be sown in the enclosed areas.The second study tour was organized for ten RALC and WALC members to share experiences with members of the Ada Union about credit fund management and to explore the possibility of using Geneses Farm as a source for germplasm.Livestock health problem coupled with inefficient veterinary service is a major issue for Mieso Pilot Learning Woreda pastoralists. Until recently this issue was mostly addressed through traditional medicines and in severe cases untrained pastoralists provided veterinary services which usually resulted in unwanted side effects. Livestock disease and subsequent attrition is a major livestock development constraint in the Woreda.To meet this challenge the Woreda Office of Pastoralists and Rural Development (WoPRD) and IPMS engaged in strategic capacity enhancement of the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in a value chain based livestock development approach by establishing decentralized veterinary service provision schemes and training community based animal health workers or paravets. The main focus of the training was to enhance the capacity of traditional livestock healers in primary animal health care procedures, identifying common diseases and using appropriate treatments. Eighteen traditional livestock healers drawn from nine Peasant Associations were given fifteen days of training from March 24 th to April 7 th , 2008 in Bordode zone. The paravets were linked to drug suppliers in Nazareth and Addis Ababa. As of June 16t h , 2008 the eighteen paravets have officially graduated and started their operation using their own finance as initial investment.This inexpensive and reliable form of veterinary service is already benefiting the remote and widely mobile pastoralists in the area. For example, the paravets conducted CCPP (Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia) outbreak assessment from April 7 th to 13 th 2008 and reported their findings to the WoPRD, Hirna Disease Investigation Laboratory, and the Woreda Administration Office. This effort immediately resulted in a vaccination program that involved the WoPRD vet staff and ten of the trained paravets. From May 17 th to 20 th , 6300 heads of cattle in 6 PA's were given CCPP vaccination. ","tokenCount":"2473"}

data/part_6/0393326758.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"90de0cb83ca6cc46f3b7e9a188923105","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6287b22f-44b7-4318-9b38-d927ad2615ff/retrieve","id":"1974247640"},"keywords":["Conservation agriculture","conventional tillage","grain yield","soil moisture content"],"sieverID":"ee4e7790-2b02-4301-a4ff-0d4906456b3d","pagecount":"6","content":"This article focuses on the results from trials developed to monitor the short-term effects of conventionally tilled systems versus CA on soil quality and crop productivity under conditions of the major cropping systems in central, north-central and north-eastern regions of Namibia. Conventional tillage (CT), Minimum tillage (MT), Minimum tillage, mulch (MT-M), Minimum tillage, rotation (MT-R) and Minimum tillage, mulch and rotation (MT-MR) were the primary treatments tested. Significant differences (p≤0.000) among the treatments were observed in the 0-60 cm soil profiles where MT-M plots had the highest soil moisture content (39.8 mm, Standard Error of Mean 0.2815) over the study period. A significant difference (p=0.0206) in grain yield was observed in the second season with CT plots yielding the highest grain yield (3852.3 kg ha -1 , standard error of mean 240.35). Results suggest that CA has the potential to increase water conservation and contribute to reduction of the risk of crop failure. Climate change driven degradation under conventional tillage necessitate alternative sustainable tillage methods. Conservation tillage methods and conservation agricultural practices that minimize soil disturbance while maintaining soil cover need to be adopted more locally as viable alternatives to conventional tillage.It is reported that in eastern and southern Africa, between 10 to 25% of rainwater is lost to runoff, and another 30 to 50% is lost through evaporation from unprotected soil surfaces (Rockström et al., 2001). Purcell et al. (2007) highlighted that soil moisture stress resulting from drought, dry spells and high moisture loss through *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected](s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Elevatio (m asl): 964Climate: Hot, semi-arid Annual mean temperature: 21.3°CAnnual mean rainfall: 600-700 mm Soil texture class: Loamy sand to sand Source: L.P Kudumo (2019); After CYMMIT (2016) evaporation is one of the primary limiting factors in crop production as it affects many plant biochemical and physiological processes. Due to climate change, mitigation has become more of a need in agriculture as erratic weather patterns are projected to become increasingly worse (Rowswell and Fairhurst, 2011). Tillage is the preparation of the soil for the production of crops for human consumption, animal feed and/or for the improvement of the soil. It is known to influence soil physical properties such as soil hydraulic properties, change flow path, rate of water infiltration and percolation and the stability of the biotic factors (Dexter, 1988). Tillage methods (Fuentes et al., 2003) and climatic factors, especially rainfall distribution and reliability (Fowler and Rockstrom, 2001) influence available soil moisture which is key for plant growth, development and soil physical properties. Conventional tillage (CT) is the most common practice used among small holder farmers and has been practiced for a long time (Chen et al., 2011). However, CT is reported to be unsustainable over the long term in more intensive production setup as it contributes to inefficient natural resource use, poor soil water retention, soil degradation and global warming (Ferna´ndez et al., 2009). Conservation agriculture (CA), on the other hand is a crop management system based on three principles of minimal soil disturbance, crop rotation or intercropping and permanent soil cover with crop residues or growing plants (Friedrich et al. 2012). CA is a less energy intensive system as compared to CT and can improve crop yields while conserving water/moisture, eliminate organic matter loss, and reduce erosion among others (Dumanski et al., 2006). For sustainable and increased agricultural crop productivity, it is critical that good maintenance and improvement of soil quality is undertaken (Fourie et al., 2007) and thus the conservation of natural resources in recent decades has developed into a key global objective and a major national aim for Namibia as well. The objective of the study was to document and compare the effects of different tillage systems (CT and CA) and the influence of the individual CA principles on soil moisture and crop yield. The hypotheses tested were that (a) CA treatments have significant higher water infiltration and soil moisture content (b) the CA principles (minimum tillage, soil cover and crop rotation or intercropping) have significant influence on soil moisture content eventually leading to greater crop productivity.Liselo Research Station (17.524745°S; 24.238707°E) located in the Zambezi Region of Namibia was the site of the experiment. The station is situated 7 km west of Katima Mulilo, 964m above mean sea level in a hot, sub-humid region with mean annual temperature of 21.3°C and mean annual rainfall of 600-700 mm. The site predominantly has loamy sand to sand with pH of 5.3 (Table 1).The experiment consisted of eight treatments in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) set-up with four replications on a 2016 m 2 trial plot (50.4m x 48m). Treatments tested were; Conventional tillage only (CP), Convectional Tillage with Mulch (CP-M), Conventional Tillage with Rotation (CP-R), Conventional Tillage with mulch and Rotation (CP-MR), Minimum tillage (MT), Minimum tillage, mulch (MT-M), Minimum tillage, rotation (MT-R) and Minimum tillage, mulch and rotation (MT-MR). Each plot was composed of 7 rows (90 cm row spacing and 35 cm within row) by 12 m and plots with rotation were split into subplots each with 7 rows by 6 m. CT plots were tilled with an animal drawn mouldboard plough, while CA/minimum-tillage plots were tilled with an animal drawn Magoye ripper, opening narrow furrows about 5-10 cm deep.Soil samples were taken at the onset of the study and tested the levels of nitrogen and phosphorous, Organic C, estimated SOM and pH for comparison against suggested nutrient ranges suitable for grains. Soil samples were tested using spectral analysis by a mobile Soil Lab stationed at the Directorate of Agricultural Production, Extension and Engineering Services (DAPEES) office Of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Land Reform (MAWLR) of the Republic of Namibia in the town of Rundu in the Kavango East region.Maize (Zea mays, Commercial hybrid maize variety Zamseed 606) was the principal crop and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) an important secondary crop used in rotation with maize. The maize and cowpea crop varieties were manually seeded in November during both cropping seasons. Maize was seeded in rows spaced 90 cm apart with inter row spacing of 35 cm using two seeds per planting station, later thinned to 1 plant (31,746 plants/ha target Treatments with cowpea rotation were mulched with 2.5-3 t/ha of grass at the onset and all crop residues retained on the soil surface in the subsequent seasons after harvesting. Weed control was achieved by disturbing only the top soil using a hoe at 30 day intervals and when necessary. At harvest, cobs were removed from the plots and crop residues (Stover) was retained on the respective CA and CT treatments.Access tubes were installed in all plots for the purpose of soil moisture data collection, one tube installed per plot and readings taken using a capacitance probe (PR-2 probes, Delta-T Devices Ltd., UK) to the depth of 1 m. Soil moisture measurements were taken once a week during the dry season (May -October) and twice per week during the rainy season (November -April) and calculated as mean soil moisture content in millimeters (mm). Data from the 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40 and 40-60 cm horizons were recorded over the study period, calculated and presented as mean soil moisture content (mm) in the 0-30cm and 0-60 cm soil depths.Maize was harvested at physiological maturity and total aboveground biomass and grain yield determined on each plot. Subsamples of 20 cobs per plot were taken as samples and used to determine maize grain moisture.Linear model, Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Statistical analysis software 'Statistix 9' for personal computers was used to test for normality and test for any significant difference in moisture content and grain yield. Probability levels of 0.05 were used to determine the level of significance among the means. LSD All-Pair wise Comparisons Test was used to compare soil moisture and grain yield for treatment effect. The next section presents the results.Soil testing results showed low levels of nitrogen and phosphorous, organic carbon, and estimated SOM, readings far below the suggested range for grains. Only potassium and Soil pH fell within the suggested range for grains (Table 2).Rainfall in the 2016/17 cropping season was erratic with a short rainy season with the site receiving a total of 499.9 mm/a. A two week and six day dry spell was experienced during the first season between February 2nd and 22nd, 2017.In the subsequent season (2017/18), a higher total rainfall of 521 mm/ was recorded although the rainfall events during the season were similarly erratic with especially low rain incidences at the onset of the season (Figure 1). Over the study period, MT-M continuously had the highest soil moisture content, particularly in March (69.0 mm), while MT-MR was almost consistently the least soil water storing treatment over both the rainy and the dry seasons in the two years (Figure 1). Conservation agriculture is reported to be most effective when all its three operational principles are put into practice accompanied by good timing of all operations (ZCATF, 2009). Although all CA principles were applied in MT-MR, the results in terms of soil moisture conservation are at variance with expected impact of this treatment. CA is taken to be a long term intervention, as most benefits especially improvement of the soil's physical properties are though only enjoyed in the longer term (Derpsch, 1999), 4-5 years after application of such soil tillage system (Thierfelder et al., 2015). It is probable that the two years implementation of CA treatments was insufficient to reverse effects of many years of conventional tillage on the land. The fact that MT-MR showed differences from other CA plots could possibly be due to a reduction in soil water holding capacity of nontilled plots induced by openings in the soil left by decaying roots of crops and weeds or the effective extraction, use and evaporation of water by crops in the MT-MR plots.Significant differences (p=0.000) were observed between combinations of tillage systems and CA principles in relation to soil moisture content, in agreement with findings by Fuentes et al. (2003) and Gicheru et al. (2004). Mean soil moisture content ranged from 34.1 to 39.9 mm, with minimum tilled plots higher in moisture content than CT plots. The observed differences may be attributed to the water saving techniques incorporated in the treatments particularly in MT-M (39.8mm) and MT (37.7mm) plots while CT only plots were on the lower end as the second least water conserving treatment (36.1mm). A CA treatment with all principles incorporated, MT-MR, was the least water storing treatment of all plots (Table 1). McVay et al. (2006) and Thierfelder and Wall (2010) reported that conservation agriculture plots generally have greater water content in years with low precipitation, as was recorded in this study carried out in years in which rainfall below the annual mean was recorded. In years of high precipitation, no greater differences are found between CA and CT plots (Thierfelder and Wall, 2010). While it's unexpected, plots where all CA principles are incorporated are sometimes found to retain lower soil moisture content than a field ploughed, not mulched and with no crop rotation. No-till treatments may reduce water-holding capacity leading to reduced moisture (Liu et al., 2013).Maize grain yield in the first season was not significantly affected (p=0.0884) by tillage systems and CA principles, however significant difference (p=0.0206) was recorded in the subsequent season (Table 3). CT-MR plots recorded the highest grain yield with MT being the least productive. Minimum tillage with selective incorporation of CA principles increased maize grain yields. It appeared that incorporation of mulch or rotation to minimum tillage leads to increased maize yields as observed MT to MT-M and MT to MT-R, respectively (Table 3). It was also observed that incorporation of both mulch and rotation led to the highest increase in yield from MT to MT-MR. Maize grain yields were found to follow no particular order over the two seasons. Minimum tillage treatments averaged less than 1500 kg ha -1 maize grain yield in the first season and more than 2500 kg ha -1 in the second season (Figure 2).Although no significant difference (p=0.0884) was observed in the first season, conventional tillage treatments were found to have yielded more maize grain than minimum tillage treatments, indicating the benefit of CT in the first season.Maize grain yield followed the order CT-MR > MT-MR >CT-M > MT-R >CT-R > MT-M >CT>MT in the second season during which soil moisture was not very different between treatments (Figures 1 and 2). Higher soil moisture due to mulch appears to have positively influenced maize grain yield, as seen in the second season, where MT-MR delivered the highest maize grain yield of all the CA treatments and second highest overall in contrast, to the first season. MT-M and MT in that order had higher soil moisture content than conventional tillage treatments, but their maize grain yields were generally lower than that of CT (Figures 1 and 2). Mulched plots, CT-MR, MT-MR, CT-M and MT-M generally had higher maize grain yields than plots not mulched. Thus, whereas MT-MR may have recorded lower soil moisture content relative to all other treatments, this did not translate into lowered maize grain yield. This may point to effective and efficient use of soil moisture by maize under MT-MR where the crop extracted more soil water and converted it into higher yield.The results indicated that minimum tillage systems conserve more soil moisture in the 0-60 cm deep soil profile and can improve maize grain yield as compared to traditional tillage. Even where soil moisture may have not been conserved in CA plots, the grain yield was superior.Generally, CA (Minimum tillage) treatments had higher mean soil moisture as compared to CT (conventional tillage) treatments throughout the study period, especially over dry season.Application of mulch and crop rotation appeared to positively influence both mean soil moisture and maize grain yield over the study period compared to no mulching and, not practicing rotation.Yields followed the order CT-MR > MT-MR >CT-M > MT-M >CT>CT-R >MT-R >MT clearly showing mulch's influence on crop yield. This study has in part shown that reduced soil disturbance and residue mulch application can conserve soil moisture, and when implemented together with crop rotation practices enhance crop performance and improve maize production in the northeastern regions of Namibia.","tokenCount":"2378"}

data/part_6/0413801329.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dcd0bebb5dc074e5c4828adb33a49983","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13658b28-1469-446e-8a5a-d19984d067fb/retrieve","id":"-1817460536"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"156677d0-c5d8-4799-b858-2d74cb0bdf86","pagecount":"18","content":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community.This activity was conducted to determine climate-smart agricultural practices' biophysical and socioeconomic impacts over the last 12 months, using the Doyogena (Southern Ethiopia) and Basona (North Ethiopia) climate-smart landscapes as a case study. More specifically, this activity addressed if CSA practices (i) guarantee farmers resilience to climate change; (ii) increase food productivity and household income; and (iii) prevent gender-related bias (i.e., improving women's participation in decisions, access/control over resources). From each site, 200 adopters (i.e., farmers who practicing the abovementioned practices) and 200 non-adopters (i.e., farmers` as usual practices) were selected randomly. Hence, 800 households were surveyed from six villages from Doyogena and 25 villages from Basona sites. The activity was conducted between 21 December 2020 to 05 January 2021 at Doyogena and between February 01 -16, 2021 at Basona climate-smart landscapes. Twelve enumerators for Doyogena and fifteen for Basona sites were selected, trained for three days, and performed pre-testing with 8 -10 farmers before data collection. At Doyogena, a portfolio of eleven promising CSA options was evaluated, namely, (i) terraces coupled with Desho grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum); (ii) controlled grazing; (iii) improved wheat seeds (high yielding, disease-resistant & early maturing); (iv) improved bean seeds (high yielding); (v) improved potato seeds (high yielding, bigger tuber size); (vi) cereal/potatolegume crop rotation (N fixing & non-N fixing); (vii) residue incorporation of wheat or barley; (viii) green manure: vetch and/or lupin during the off-season (N fixing in time); (ix) improved breeds for small ruminants; (x) agroforestry (woody perennials and crops); and (xi) cut and carry for animal feed. At Basona, on the other hand, the impact of seven CSA options was evaluated, namely, (i) terrace (soil bunds); (ii) terraces coupled with phalaris and tree lucerne); (iii) trenches; (iv) enclosure; (v) percolation pits; (vi) check-dams; and (vii) gully rehabilitation.Abebe Nigussie is an assistant professor at Jimma University and a part-time consultant. His research focuses on the biogeochemical cycle of carbon and nutrients from agricultural soils and developing interventions to reduce soil greenhouse gas emissions. Scientific studies have shown that the agricultural sector is being affected by extreme weather events such as droughts, heavy rainfalls and high temperatures (Lesk et al., 2016). The negative impact of climate change is expected to be more severe in developing countries -where food production depends entirely on rainfall (Recha et al., 2017). In Africa, for instance, the yields of maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolour), and millet (Panicum miliaceum) are expected to reduce by 5%, 14.5% and 9.6%, respectively, due to climate change at the end of 21st century (Knox et al., 2012). Therefore, it is crucial to develop technologies to curb the adverse impact of climate change on food production and realize sustainable development goals aimed to eradicate poverty and hunger by 2030 (Ambaw et al., 2020).Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices have been promoted as a prominent strategy to improve farmers resilience to climate change and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Evidence also suggested a significant role of CSA practices to ensure food security under a changing climate. With this premises, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) implemented integrated CSA practices in highly degraded landscapes across different developing countries, including at Doyogena (Southern Ethiopia) and Basona (Central Ethiopia). The integrated CSA practices at Doyogena and Basona include soil and water conservation measures, grazing management, crop rotation, incorporation of crop residues and perennial-crop based agroforestry systems. These CSA portfolios are implemented to rehabilitate degraded lands and improve resource-poor farmer resilience to climate change. Therefore, the objective of this study is to assess the perceived effects of CSA practices on biophysical resources, food security, crop and livestock productivity, income and adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers for climate shocks. In addition, this study will examine gender-disaggregated effects of CSA practices on farmers' livelihood and key gender dimensions (i.e., decision making, access over resources). This activity will identify the main climate shocks over the last 12 months and monitor the contribution of CSA options to aid farmers resilience to these climate shocks.   A total of 400 farmers from Doyogena and 400 farmers from Basona were selected randomly. In each site, 200 households -who have practised CSA practices (i.e., treatment group) and 200 households -who have not received CSA interventions were used in this study. The control groups are those who live in the nearby climate-smart landscapes. This study approach helps monitor the impacts of CSA options by comparing the treatment groups with the control in terms of livelihood/welfare indicators (i.e., food security, productivity, income and resilience of farmers for climate shocks). Training workshop for data enumerators at DoyogenaPrior to data collection, eleven enumerators for Doyogena and 15 enumerators for Basona were selected.These enumerators are working at the regional agricultural research centre, university and central Accordingly, nine household heads -that were not part of the main survey -were used for pre-testing.On average, enumerators in both districts used to fill in three survey questions per day, resulting in 399 and 396 completed questionnaires from Doyogena and Basona Worena districts, respectively.Some responders were unwilling to give information for some questions, particularly on the household income, production (i.e., yield), the number of livestock owned and land size. In addition, few respondents were unwilling to make themselves available for the interview; in such cases, we replaced them with other household heads with similar household characteristics. Sometimes, the Geofarm tool was not working at all and/or was very slow. Data synchronization takes a very long time, and on average, it took about 15-30 minutes to synchronize the data. At Basona, it wasn't easy to get female respondents.The questions on income and production should be designed so that farmers can respond to the questions honestly. The Geofarm tool needs to be improved for (i) efficient and quick off-line data collection; and(ii) fast data synchronization.This activity report aims to present the steps followed in the data collection process, which will monitor the uptake of CSA practices in the climate-smart villages in the Doyogena and Basona Worena districts.Based on the data collected, the following steps will be:▪ characterization of rural farming systems and livelihoods to determine household incomes, productivity and food availability, indicators of food security and poverty, and farm and household characteristics;▪ Examine the perceived effects of CSA options on farmers' livelihood (agricultural production, income, food security, food diversity and adaptive capacity) and key gender dimensions (participation in decision-making);▪ Provide recommendations that can help donors and policymakers to justify funding and guide priorities in scaling up the adoption of CSA technologies and practices;▪ Produce CCAFS Working paper and info notes; and▪ Produce manuscript and submit to a peer-reviewed journal.","tokenCount":"1116"}

data/part_6/0437199466.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d9087ba6d95b61952572a845d9004255","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8ca99c27-9916-4346-8f4c-d9cfff0052d1/retrieve","id":"-312581172"},"keywords":["TAAT Clearinghouse. 2022. Small-scale Farm Mechanization Catalogue. Clearinghouse Technical Report Series 015","Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation","Clearinghouse Office","IITA","Cotonou","Benin. 24 pp Small-scale Farm Mechanization Catalogue"],"sieverID":"4d7593fa-89c5-4469-9d4f-7b6777f6eaad","pagecount":"28","content":"Front cover photographic credits: A hand tractor converted into a trailer (Ikonic Farm Machinery (K), safe and effective threshing operations (Sasakawa Africa), a woman learns how to operate a hand tractor (Ikonic Farm Machinery) and the impressive reach of a water gun.The TAAT Top 100 Technologies. The Clearinghouse developed a database of the Top 100 Technologies that are transforming African agriculture. It is based upon the approaches of the TAAT Commodity Compacts but also includes those from the CGIAR Collaborative Research Programs that are recently described as ready for next user. These technologies are divided between those involving improved genetics and plant and animal breeding (23%), those based upon the distribution of digital information (3%), production input products of proven efficacy (21%), crop and animal management technologies of utility within agricultural extension messaging and campaigns (27%) and the availability of appropriately designed labor-saving equipment (26%). These technologies have a direct role towards the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals in relation to farm productivity, food security and hunger reduction, responsible food consumption, improved household nutrition and diets, economic growth, climate-smart innovation, partnerships for the goals, and improved human equity and empowerment.The Top 8 Mechanization Technologies. This catalogue presents eight technologies that serve to mechanize and automate small-scale farming. These technologies include: 1) Hand tractors for land preparation, 2) Mechanized weeding operations, 3) Power sprayers for agrochemical delivery, 4) Land augers as an innovative labor-saving tool, 5) Drip irrigation for efficient water use, 6) Water guns for cost-effective irrigation, 7) Multi-threshers for efficient post-harvest processing, and 8) Forage choppers in livestock feed systems. Details on each of these eight technologies are included in the catalogue. Also included is information on the safe handling and maintenance of these equipment.Background. A power hand tractor is a small two-wheel device powered by a small petrol or diesel engine ranging in power from 5-18 horsepower. These machines are most often attached to a rotavator that allows for land tillage, but other attachments are available, including those that create furrows. These tractors are guided by handlebars that provide control over their direction and downward force and accompanying throttle to guide engine speed and a release to disengage the engine from the rotovator. The most powerful hand tractors can break new ground and dry heavy soils, while the least powerful ones are best suited to preparing previously cultivated soils. These machines are different that riding tractors with two axils that are generally 50 hp or greater. There are many brands of these two-wheel tractors and reference to them includes terms such as \"rototiller, walking tractor, mechanical ox, and single-axle tractor\".Hand tractors reduce the drudgery of hand tillage, a practice closely associated with the drudgery of small-scale farming. Because of their smaller size and tight turning area, hand tractors till areas that cannot be accessed by larger tractors, including lands with steeper and irregular slopes. Hand tractors are powered by a single axil (gear only), so there are no additional belts or chains, improving their reliability and reducing maintenance requirements. It is unlikely that a farmer managing only one hectare or so can afford a riding tractor, hand tractors available for US $700 to $3,000 are much more within reach. A single operator can prepare a hectare of land in a single day using this machine. Many models have attachable tines that allow for adjustment in cultivation width, allowing for use as a weeder at wider crop spacing. Some tillers can be used in flooded paddy soils as well, allowing for the incorporation of residues and inputs.Maintenance is fairly easy, unlike larger tractors that require skilled mechanics. One must regularly check oil and fuel levels and ensure that dirt does not accumulate on the engine during use. The depth of tillage is less than a riding tractor and these machines may form or prove unable to break through hard pans that form in clayey soils. The times of tillers may become clogged by rocks or soil clods, forcing temporary shut down during safe removal.A 12 hp diesel-powered tiller with adjustable tine attachmentOptions and Specifications. Hand tractors are available with either petrol or diesel engines ranging in size for 5 to 18 hp, with more powerful units offering greater capacity. The machines allow for a range of operations including seasonal ploughing, harrowing, and forming beds, and later in the season for weeding between crop rows and in orchards. In addition, hand tractors may be attached to trailers to transport goods and people. Clearly, opportunity exists to engage in the trade, sales, and servicing of hand tractors as their popularity and accessibility grows. Companies specializing in the wholesale importation of these machines and their attachments are needed to meet growing demand, and the competition between such companies will bring prices down. Opportunity exists to design attachments that better meet small-scale farming needs, and for decent employment through the assembly and maintenance of these machines. Ideally, agrodealers will begin to market these machines within their shops as well. Finally, land preparation using hand tractors will be offered as contract services by local operators to reduce drudgery among a growing number of small-scale farmers. A hand hoe consisting of an iron blade and short wooden handle is the most common weeding tool, and it is closely associated with the drudgery and continued poverty of small-scale farming.A power weeder is an alternative approach to weed management through secondary tillage that greatly relieves drudgery associated with hand weeding. Two basic types of power weeders are available; ones that are worn on the operators back where weeds are cut and buried to shallow depths through arm movement (power backpack weeders) and others that resemble small walking cultivators that pass between crop rows chopping weeds and burying them to adjustable depths (mini-cultivators). The machines require skillful use and maintenance to ensure that crop plants are not injured in the process of weed removal and that the machinery remains in good working order.Advantages. The advantage of mechanized weeding is that the control of unwanted plants is achieved without heavy field labor. This control is best achieved within a wider strategy of integrated weed management, particularly through the judicious use of pre-emergent and selective herbicides. Using mechanized weeders, it is possible for a single operator to greatly reduce weeds from 0.5 to 1.0 ha per day, particularly for field crops with widely spaced rows and in orchards with open space between perennial plants. An advantage of mechanical weeding is that operators need not wear heavy protective gear other than boots and in some cases dust masks. One disadvantage to mechanized tillage is when rocks or soil clods clog the rotating blades, causing the machine to be temporarily shut down for the blockage to be cleared. Another difficulty is the cost and the inability of poorer households to afford them.Options and Specifications. As stated above there are two basic types of power weeders; backpack weeders and mini-cultivators. A typical backpack weeder consists of a petrol engine and small fuel tank mounted onto a padded backpack frame connected to a flexible power hose leading to a handle ending in different replicable power heads bearing either rotating or circular blades. The handle is controlled with grips that also allow access to an on/off switch.The small petrol-powered engine (e.g., 35 to 50 cc) is air cooled and intended to operate at a continuous speed without overheating. These machines weigh between 6 and 9 kg and allow operators to weed up to 1 ha in a day using only 2 liters of fuel. Because the rotary blade sits upon and digs into the soil there is little arm fatigue during its use. Use of this machine is 10fold more labor efficient compared to hand weeding with a hoe. An advantage to this machine is the wide range of different heads that can be affixed to it that may be used for cutting brush, levelling tilled fields, harvesting field crops, and even powering small water pumps. These units are available at a cost of US $240 to $380 each, depending on the size of the engine and the number of different heads included with the purchase.Mini-cultivators are fundamentally different machines that serve a similar purpose in terms of weeding, but lack the wider utility of the other backpack attachment heads. A small petrol or diesel engine (e.g., 2 to 3 hp) is mounted onto a wheeled frame that leads to handlebars at one end and rotating tines at the other. In general, these blades are 17 to 25 cm in width, incorporate materials to a depth of only 2 or 3 cm and weigh about 20 kg. While most of these machines are intended for single, well-spaced rows, modified versions allow for 2 or three closely spaced rows of vegetable to be weeded as well. Note that smaller hand tractors with adjustable tines may be used for this purpose but generally clean wider paths and dig to deeper depths. Either wheels or the rotating tines may serve as traction to pull the cultivator forward along a course determined by the operator's use of the handlebars. Some models include tail \"anchors\" that affect the depth of soil disturbance. Note that the tines must be set between rows with sufficient space away from plant stems to avoid any damage to plants.In general, these machines are available at a cost of US $200 to $300 each. to swing the nozzle in a steady, sweeping motion to minimize this effect. The greatest advantage is that the application of sprays is directed by a human who is in a better position to exercise caution when applying potentially dangerous materials to agricultural crops and cultivated lands.Options and Specifications. As stated earlier, there are two basic types of power sprayers: backpack and trolley. A backpack sprayer typically has a 16 to 25 m tank containing spraying solution, a 33 to 50 cc petrol engine and 0.5-to-1.0-liter fuel tank, and a short hose ending with adjustable wands or spray guns. In general, this machine weighs 10 kg and can deliver sprays about 5-times more rapidly than pump action backpack sprayers, covering about 0.5 ha per hour. A trolley sprayer is mounted on a wheeled frame consisting of the 50-to-200liter tank, 3 to 6 hp pump, a fuel tank and up to 50 m or so hose, usually mounted on a reel. The trolley remains stationary while the operator deploys the hose, delivering up to 25 liters of stray per minute. One disadvantage is that operator movements with the trolley hose are more limited, and care must be made not to injure plants as the hose is deployed and moved.An advantage of trolleys is that they may be fabricated using local materials and customized to specific needs. Both types of strayers require calibration to be used properly.There is a three-step method to calibrate these sprayers.Step 1 measures and marks off an area equal to 500 square meters (such as 20 x 25 m).Step 2 adds a measured amount of water to the tank, sprays the area and then measures the amount of water remaining in the tank. The difference between the amount in the tank before and after spraying is the amount used per 500 square feet (= 0.05 ha).Step 3 compares the measured application rate with the recommendation on the pesticide label. If the difference between the recommended rate and the measured rate is greater than 5% of the recommended rate, adjustments are made to reduce the application error. Note that operators must wear proper safety equipment including gloves, boots, eye protection, water resistant jackets and hoods and masks.Availability and Commercial Opportunity. Judicious use of agrochemicals is fundamental to Africa's agricultural transformation and use of power sprayers provides a means to this end.Their use allows farmers the ability to intelligently alter application practices as conditions warrant. Compared to pump action sprayers, this equipment is not yet widely available, and this may be corrected by agricultural product suppliers stocking them side-by-side. In addition, availability of power strayers provides greater opportunity for contract service provision to farmers as a rural enterprise that in turn leads to more effective control of pests.Recent biological invasions by Fall Armyworm and the Yellow Desert Locust were met by these actors but there is scope for greater linkage to farmers. It is important that wherever these sprayers are marketed, so too is necessary personal protective gear. Agricultural extension advisers must be aware of this agrodealer linkage and ensure that precautionary messages on pesticide safety are available through it. That trolley type sprayers can be fabricated locally is also an important consideration as it may contribute to growing agro-industry, and the comparative advantages of backpack versus trolley approaches must be considered.Technology 4. Earth Augers as a Labor-Saving ToolBackground. An earth auger, also called a post-hole digger, is a machine used for drilling holes into the ground. It consists of an engine powering a vertical shaft that rotates screw blades that rotate to displace soil, resulting in a cylindrical hole. It is used to efficiently dig uniform fence post holes and planting holes.Holes results from a rotating helical screw blade winding around lower part of the shaft. The lower face of the screw blade progressively displaces soil from the bottom of the hole, and the remaining screw blade serves as a conveyor to lift the loose soil upward to the soil surface. When the hole achieves a desired depth and the tool is withdrawn, the blade removes any remaining soil. The rod often ends in a sharp point that keeps the auger along a straight path. The screws are available in various sized that control the width of the hole, and there are extension bits that allow for steeper penetration. A skilled operator can prepare a 40 cm deep hole 25 to 30 cm wide in less than a minute.Advantages. The main advantage of an earth auger compared to a manual post hole digger or shovel is savings in terms of the time and effort required, and the uniformity of the resulting holes. The precise width of the holes is determined by the diameter of the screw blade and the depth may be controlled using extensions. Manually digging a series of holes results in fatigue that leads to less uniform holes with irregular shape, including sloped walls. More precise holes allow for more reliable preparation or backfill materials, whether they be cement and gravel for fence posts or enticed soil for planting holes.A representative, commercially available earth auger includes a 64 cc, single cylinder, two-stroke petrol engine with a 1.3-liter fuel tank containing a fuel to oil ratio of 25:1. It sells for about US $230. The engine is mounted onto a metal frame with handles that allow control by the operator and ready access to its throttle. that Its drill bit length is 0.8 m but with available extension bit lengths of 0.35, 0.5 and 0.8 m, allowing for drilling depths of 1.6 m. Different drill diameters may be attached available in diameters of 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 cm. A more powerful auger with a 2 hp, four-stroke engine costs US $450, including an assortment of screw blades (15, 20 and 25 cm bits). Individual replacement blades cost between US $30 and $50 depending upon their width, and extension bits are US $25 to $30 depending upon their length.Availability and Commercial Opportunity. Use of land augers is far more common in the construction industry than among farmers, particularly smaller-scale ones. A quick survey of earth auger suppliers discovered numerous suppliers in Kenya, locally marketing several different single operator petrol powered models as both agricultural and construction equipment. In addition, other options included two-operator models with wider and deeper blades and much larger augers attached to external power sources. Local suppliers were also readily identified in Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia, although queries for other countries suggested that local suppliers act as importers on demand. Most of these imported models were linked to manufacturers in China. A quick search of suppliers in China discovered over 15 manufactures, revealed over 25 single-operator, petrol-engine models, some as powerful as 80 cc, others available for as little as US $50 each with no minimum order, and yet others supported by a wheeled frame that guides the auger as it drills. Clearly, many options and price ranges are available to those seeking to import and distribute this equipment. Also, a 4-stroke, 196 cc, 6.5 hp two-operator model with a bit size 70 cm in diameter is sold for less than US $200 each.An important emerging use of earth augers equipped with wider screw bits is the rapid scaping of soil pits as a water harvesting practice. \"Zaï\" pits are a dryland farming approach developed in the Sahel. These pits are formed by digging shallow basins of 20 to 30 cm diameter and 10 to 15 cm deep into croplands, allowing the pit to collect water, wind-driven soil particles and plant debris. Early evidence suggests that forming these pits using an earth auger rather than hand tools is at least five time faster. On sloped lands, the soil excavated from the pit is placed downslope to better permit water catchment, a step that requires use of hand tools. Note that this same technique is also used to rehabilitate crusted and degraded lands. Greater availability of earth augers used for this purpose will likely increase this practice in dryland agriculture and allow greater expression of its climate-smart features.Background. Drip irrigation is a system that slowly delivers water onto the roots of plants in a way that strategically places moisture and minimizes evaporation. It is the most efficient method of irrigating with over 90% of its water utilized by crops. It is relatively easy to install and reduces disease problems associated with wet leaves. Drip irrigation systems distribute water through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters that operate at a relatively low water pressure. Components used in drip irrigation include a pump or pressurized water source, a water filter and particle separator, a backflow check valve and simple pressure regulator, a distribution mainline, control valves, smaller diameter laterals (or sub-mains), and emitters that deliver water at slow rates. While complicated in design and somewhat expensive to install, the savings in water and yield improvement is substantial.Advantages and Disadvantages. The advantages of drip irrigation include high water use efficiency with minimal leaching of fertilizers, ability to irrigate unleveled and irregularly shaped fields, and greatly reduced weed growth and soil erosion. Drip irrigation delivers its water to the crop root zone rather than the field at large. Soluble fertilizers are readily injected through water delivery. Drip irrigation does not wet foliage, reducing the risk of disease. In addition, drip systems operate at lower pressure than others, reducing their energy cost. The disadvantages of drip irrigation include its high initial cost, sensitivity of tubing to UV light, clogging of the emitters by sediment, and additional \"cleanup\" costs after harvest as the tubing must be rewound and stored for use. In sandy soils, drip systems may be unable to wet the soil surface for uniform germination. Most drip systems result in little or no leaching, causing salts to accumulate. Finally, pipes may suffer from rodent or insect damage, requiring replacement and increasing expenses. Because of the way the water is applied in a drip system, traditional surface applications of fertilizer are sometimes ineffective, so drip systems often mix liquid fertilizer with the irrigation water, a practice referred to as \"fertigation\" and resulting in substantial fertilizer savings.Options and Specifications. A typical drip irrigation system consists of a pump unit; a control head; mainlines and sub-mainlines; lateral lines; and emitters or drippers. The system may include additional features such as reservoir tanks and fertigation injectors. The pump unit takes water from the source and provides the correct pressure for delivery into the pipe system. The control head consists of valves to control water pressure and filters to clean the water. Mainlines, sub-mainlines and lateral lines supply water from the control head to the fields and are usually made of PVC or polyethylene hose. These water delivery lines are often buried. There are two types of drip irrigation: sub-surface drip irrigation where water is applied below the soil surface, or the much more common surface drip irrigation where water is applied directly to the soil surface. Sub-surface irrigation employs narrow plastic tubes buried in the soil at a depth between 20 and 50 cm. The tubes are either porous throughout or are fitted with regularly spaced emitters. Major difficulties with this approach are the narrow orifices of the emitters that may become clogged by roots, soil particles and precipitating salts; and that tillage practices become complicated. As this approach is not very common it is not considered further.Surface drip irrigation is much more common and uses a variety of drip emitter devices. Lateral lines fitted with emitters are placed on the soil surface along crop rows. Pressure is low so the water emerges as drops rather than as spray. Emitters control the discharge of water from the lateral lines to the plants, with one line used to irrigate one or two rows of crops, depending upon their spacing. Emitters are placed off the soil surface to prevent clogging and are calibrated to release between 2 to 16 liters per hour. The ends of the lateral lines are periodically flushed to discharge particulates. Drip irrigation emitters are \"pressure compensating\", meaning that they can discharge water at a very uniform rate under varying water conditions. This trait allows for more constant flow under fluctuating input pressure and different slopes. Some drip irrigation emitters are built with a self-flushing mechanism reducing the risk of clogging, others are flushed by opening the end of each line.Availability and Commercial Opportunity. One acre (0.4 ha) of land may be placed into surface drip irrigation for about US $1120 with costs as follows: drip lines (US $770), pump and filter ($166), poly main and sub-mains ($100), and valves and fittings ($88). Drip irrigation is closely associated with greenhouse horticulture and higher value crops. A quick internet search of drip irrigation suppliers in Kenya revealed over 20 suppliers of drip irrigation materials, including many suppliers outside of Nairobi. Some suppliers provide complete \"kits\" for 1/8 and 1/4 acre. In many cases, suppliers will assist in the design of these systems as they sell the materials required for it. Another search revealed 14 suppliers in Lagos, Nigeria but fewer suppliers away from the city. Opportunity exists to develop agribusinesses around the design of drip irrigation systems and the sales and installation of its materials, but several African countries still do not have ready access to this technology.A small greenhouse equipped with drip irrigationBackground. A rain gun is an irrigation device that supports high water flows and an extended radius of \"water throw\" through its sprinkler. They allow relatively few stations to cover large areas of field, and at the same time are portable, allowing a gun and its stand to be moved to different field locations according to needs and schedules. These guns require high water pressure and flow and can project water for up to 60 m in distance that covers a circular area of 1.1 ha. This coverage allows these systems to be installed quickly and cost-effectively assuming the conditions for their reliable operation are met. At the same time, adjustable jets allow control of the throw, droplet size and impact to suit the irrigation needs of more delicate crops.Advantages and Disadvantages. Rain guns offer major advantages to farmers seeking to place substantial areas of land into irrigation is a simple way but also require that precise conditions in terms of water quality, flow and pressure be met. Each water gun is mounted upon a stand that raises it off the ground so that its throw does not disturb adjacent plants. The base of the stand is connected to a water source, in most cases a flexible hose like that used by firefighters. This allows the rain gun and stand to be moved to different stations so that only one gun covers large areas of field (e.g., 4 to 6 ha) depending upon water requirements and irrigation schedule. The coverage is adjustable in terms of distance, droplet size and completeness of circular angle, with 360 o projection most common. Claims exist that the force of rain gun water is sufficient to disrupt the activities of some pests. At the same time there are disadvantages, even beyond the exacting requirement for water. The rain gun operates from a central pivot position that is not suited to smaller or irregularly shaped fields. Because it operates at such high pressure, the rain gun must be handled with caution and its parts must be well maintained and regularly inspected to ensure against wear. Each rain gun requires substantial investment and is usually serviced by a single high pressurehigh volume water pump that must also be purchased and maintained. Strong winds adversely affect water coverage. Rain guns allow farmers that have relied upon rainfed production of field crops in the past to adopt irrigation as a practice, reducing risks of climate change Options and Specifications. Rain gun technology is designed for a variety of uses and applications where relatively high flows and extended radius of the water throw are required.These sprinklers operate at pressures of 2.5 to 7.5 kg/cm 2 and flows of 5 to 30 liters per second. Below these thresholds, the gun does not function in a uniform and reliable manner.The nozzle diameter is in many cases interchangeable, 10 -30 mm, resulting in wetting radius of 25 to 60 meters. At highest flow rates, one position can deliver sufficient water for crop irrigation in as little as 2 or 3 hours, allowing for repositioning several times a day.Availability and Commercial Opportunity. Rain gun and their accompanying materials are not widely available in many African countries, but it is important that they become so. A quick search in Kenya discovered over 10 suppliers in Kenya, including those away from Nairobi, as well as importers from China and India. They were readily available in Uganda as well, although some only throw water 30 m. Similar findings were obtained for Nigeria although there was not a clear distinction between rain guns and more conventional sprinkler apparatus. The advertisements in Zambia were mostly posted by importers rather than local suppliers but electronic discussion on rain gun technology is ongoing. Many other countries lack suppliers, and this provides commercial opportunity.A complete rain gun irrigation system was recently purchased in Nairobi for US $669 after comparative shopping.The components and costs were rain gun head (US $140), tripod stand ($90), 90 m hose ($110), 2\" high pressure 7.5 HP water pump ($290) and 6 m suction hose ($39). These systems are affordable to farmers conducting small-scale commercial enterprise and must become more available across Africa!The stand of a rain gun; note that water enters from the base through a threaded fitting and is delivered to the rain gun mounted at its topBackground. Threshers are power equipment that separate crop residues from seed and grain in a time-efficient manner. These machines are powered by small petrol engines and consist of a feed chute that leads to a threshing chamber where crop residues are separated from seeds in a rotating drum, and then a blower removes lighter residues. Operators put in dried harvest materials through a feed chute, pushing materials into an internal spinning drum where seeds are physically separated from crop residues and then fall through a screen. Whole shoots may be passed through the machine rather than pods and heads alone. Remaining crop residues are then expelled through an exit chute. These chopped materials have further use as organic resources. The seed is passed across a blower that removes finer materials (e.g., dust) that winnows (cleans) the seed, passing through a collection chute that allows the seed to be bagged. Different types of crops may be processed based upon the screen mesh. Threshers are available to process crops such as maize, rice, common bean, wheat, sorghum, millet, sunflower, and pigeon pea.Advantages. Typically, women are assigned the task of manually threshing crops by hitting piled harvest with sticks until the grain falls loose, a task that requires about one hour of work to recover 25 kg of seed. Small-scale mechanical threshers can process seeds and grain many times more rapidly than traditional threshing and winnowing operations. Mechanized threshing is very labor efficient, allowing for the processing of between 150 to 500 kg of saleable product per hour, depending upon the crop and machine. The smaller the seed, the more rapid the processing time. Not only is processing more rapid but also more thorough because the in-built blower cleans grain more completely than traditional winnowing. Mechanized threshers cause less breakage to grain and seed than manual beating which gives farmers a quality and market price advantage.Mechanized threshers separate and clean grain and seed in one single operation, making produce ready for sales on local markets or trading without need of further processing.Power thresher processing sorghum grain Options and Specifications. Different types of power threshers are available which are distinguished according to the type of crops they process (e.g., single crop or multiple crops), according to their mode of operation (e.g., batch drum or axial flow), and the type of threshing cylinder (e.g., syndicator, beater, spike tooth and rasp bar). The smallest threshers weigh as little as 100 kg and may be mounted on motorcycles for on-farm use. Portable threshers are positioned next to piles of harvest on a level surface. Larger machines may be transported by small trucks and established within communities for collective use by farmer groups. Threshers have a modular design, and their basic components include a feeding chute, threshing cylinder, aspirator blower, chaff outlet, straw outlet, hopper, and cam for oscillating sieves, oscillating sieves, transport wheel, frame, and main pulley. Small engines (5 to 8 HP) that consume only 1 to 2 liters of fuel per hour typically operate these threshers. These threshers are often mounted on wheels and have handles that permit their movement. A tarp is set below the collection shoot to keep the seeds clean and to facilitate bagging. Residues must be periodically raked away as they are ejected from the exit chute. It is extremely important that operators of these machines must be trained in the maintenance, minor repair, and safe use of this equipment and that they be operated without distraction (see section \"Safety First!\").Availability and Commercial Opportunity. Some threshers are produced in Africa, and a large number are available for import. A quick internet search gives 110 thresher models offered by suppliers from India and 52 from China, although some were intended for use on only one crop or for small grains only. There is scope for commercial provision of threshing services that make better quality grain available to households sooner after harvest. This post-harvest service may be provided by independent business interests or as a means of assuring grain quality to produce buyers. Marketing threshers is a different matter and involves either distributing fabricated equipment or importing it. Large discounts are available to those importing equipment in larger quantities. Multi Background. Residues and stover from crops offer an important source of livestock feed but owing to their bulk their preparation using manual labor is extremely time consuming. When animals are herded over croplands after harvest, only 20-30% of stover is eaten since they prefer the sweeter parts that are easier to digest. Access to quality feed is the most important factor in successful livestock rearing. Many farmers feed whole stover to their animals which slows down their digestion and causes sub-optimal growth. Motorized residue processing is ideal for mixed crop-livestock farming, particularly where underutilized crop residues are plentiful, and costs of animal feed are prohibitively high. Small-scale motorized cutters facilitate collection of stover from the field, allowing residue recovery from several hectares in a day. Use of motorized choppers and crushers make it possible to provide suitable feed and mulch for soil cover while saving time and effort. Depending on the chopper model, throughput capacities range from 1 to 1.5 ton of stover per hour.Advantages. It takes a lot of time from farmers to manually collect crop residues from the field and chop these into small pieces by hand so it can be consumed by cattle. The manual process limits the amount of stem residues that farmers utilize for livestock. Motorized cutters and choppers address this constraint and improve organic resource management within the farm. The machines are self-powered, easy to operate, low-cost, easily transported between fields, and allow large amounts of crop residues to be processed from fields by only two workers. These machines are suitable for a wide range of fresh and dried materials available throughout the year Mechanized residue processing benefits storage and preservation of feed products by making it possible to compact the material in bags that can tightly packed instead of loosely piling whole stover into a shed. Packing enhances flavor andUse of motorized stover cutter (left) and mobile chopper (right)nutritive value as well. Increased availability of chopped and shredded residues from crops is fundamental to local production of well-balanced feed rations. Chopped and crushed stover from cereal and legume crops is also suited to produce silage. Through mechanized residue processing, farmers can earn additional income, rear larger numbers of animals, increase milk and meat yield, and avoid feed shortages during dry seasons or prolonged drought. The technology serves both animal and crop production since residues fed to livestock produce manure which in turn improves soil fertility when returned to the field.Options and Specifications. Motorized chopper machines can be used for either fresh and dry plant materials from a wide range of cereal crops like maize, sorghum, and millet, as well as legumes such as soybean, groundnut, and cowpea. Chopping works best for green stover before fibers harden, while crushing is mostly done after residues have dried. Chopper machines have four main parts; a pair of horizontal rollers that moves stover forward, a hexagonal shear cutter with knifes, a hammer for crushing the chopped stover, and a 7 to 13 horsepower engine running on petrol or diesel. Choppers and hammers work at the same rate as the roller to ensure uniform sized feed material. Material is further ground through the beating action of the hammers until it passes through holes in an adjustable screen. Crushed material is pushed forward by the motion inside the chamber. Residue processing machines are easily transported between fields and farms using a donkey cart of motorbike. Most residue choppers are fitted with wheels.Motorized cutters and mobile choppers are commercially available in many mixed crop-livestock farming communities across Sub-Saharan Africa. Demand for the technology is rapidly growing thanks to its many advantages and dissemination by national agricultural development agencies. Motorized cutters that can handle all types of cereals cost about US $1,000 to $1,500 on international markets. Local sales prices for new stover choppers with in-built engine ranges from $1,250 to $1,700 depending on the size, the manufacturer, the country of origin. Imported models are usually more expensive than locally fabricated ones. This small-scale equipment may be offered as a package to individual farmers, their associations, other service providers or feed producers. Processing stover from cereal and legume residues offers an attractive business opportunity since added value is created and market demand exists. Return on investment depends on the cost of whole stover, labor, fuel and maintenance, cost conditions that vary between locations and times of year. Machines provided to farmer associations led the production and sales of more than 100 tons of stover worth US $22,000 in less than six months. On animal feed markets in many African drylands, one ton of crushed stover sells for US $330 to $500 depending on the quality and time of year. Starting a forage chopping business may indeed be a timely investment!It is extremely important that the smallscale machines featured in this catalogue be handled in a safe and responsible manner, and in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Some guidance in these safe operations follows.Hand tractors. The danger from hand tractors (Technology 1) is damaging feet and lower legs by the rotating tines and operators must remember to wear protective footwear and keep feet well back from power train. Another danger exists when roots and rocks bind the tines, and operators must turn off the power before disengaging them. Operating hand tractors on steep slopes is inherently dangerous. Even when turned off, the times may recoil so tools, not hands, should be used when cleaning these machines after each use. Children should not operate hand tractors despite their enthusiasm to do so! Mechanized weeding operations. Mechanized weeders pose the same dangers to users as hand tractors, particularly the mini-cultivators (see Technology 2). Because they are lighter in weight, the tendency is to swing them around quickly to avoid contact with crops. Again, tines may become bound by roots, rocks and clods, and operators must turn off the equipment and rely upon tools before disengaging them because the tines may recoil once freed. Particular care must be taken when using the circular rotating blades of backpack weeders to trim woody vegetation because they tend to be swung in a sidewise motion away from the ground and they may recoil causing loss of control of this devise, even posing a danger to others.Power sprayers. Operators must always be aware that power sprayers (Technology 3) can discharge large amounts of harmful substances and wear protective gear. This gear includes respirators, eye shields, gloves, water resistant clothing and boots. Spraying and wash up must be performed in an environmentally responsible manner and according to product specifications. Many locations have specific regulations on the safe disposal of pesticides and their wash water and special care must be taken not to contaminate waters and farm animals.Land augers. The greatest danger from augers (Technology 4) is injuring the operator's feet or legs with the rotating screw. When encountering rock or roots, the device may recoil out of control and operators must be solidly positioned against this. If the bit jams, one must turn Despite the excitement, operators must have sufficient strength to handle power equipment Operators of sprayers must always wear protective gear (right, never left) off the auger before dislodging it and always keep hands away from rotating screws. Operators must always wear protective boots and resist the temptation of rushing from one hole to the next with the machine engaged.Rain guns. The safety precautions taken during installation, use and dismantling of a rain gun (Technology 6) include ensuring that the gun is securely fixed to its stand, avoiding the fast reverse rotation of the gun as it operates, and ensuring that \"quick couplings do not slip and discharge uncontrolled. Adjustments to the gun's diffuser screw should not be made as it operates and once in operation, one should remain at least one meter away.Power threshers greatly reduce labor requirements, but their operations are inherently dangerous unless the machinery is operated as intended (Technology 7).Threshers require that crops be fed manually through a feeding chute into a spike-tooth cylinder and chaff-cutter that can seriously injure hands. Human factors such as inattentiveness, overwork, wearing of loose clothing, failure to remove wristwatches and bracelets, and use of intoxicants greatly increase this risk. Threshing accidents can be minimized through the following measures: 1) Threshers must be fitted with a safe feeding chute at least 90 cm in length with half of that covered, 2) Only skilled and trained workers should operate a thresher who avoid talking and unnecessary distractions while performing their duties, 3) Extra care must be taken when feeding crops lacking stalks into the thresher as this requires closer proximity of hands to moving parts of the machine, 4) Ensure proper lighting if the machine is to be operated at night and the area surroundings the thresher must be kept free of obstructions, and 5) Do not smoke or light a fire near the threshing yard as the dust and residues from the thresher are extremely flammable. The thresher workstation should include a first aid kit.Forage choppers. Safety must be practiced when using forage choppers (Technology 8) because of their several moving parts resulting in cutting action. Operators are expected to push fresh or dried plant materials into a chute so that it is cut into various sizes, and then collect and remove chopped material as it accumulates. Equipment must be carefully inspected, and users must understand the importance of protective shields as they operate the machinery. Care must be taken not to feed the chopper woody material or rocks that can damage the blades. Forage crops are often grown on rough and steep land, and the choppers are portable, but operators must not set the chopper on land that is not entirely stable. Otherwise, the same safety precautions apply to both threshers and forage choppers. This section serves only to highlight the extreme importance of safety in the operations of small-scale farming equipment as these machines are intended to reduce human drudgery and not cause injury. Most accidents result when operators become rushed or overconfident.The aversion to careers in agriculture among young people results from the perception of necessary drudgery and poor returns to effort. Wider reliance upon small-scale farming equipment serves to counteract this misconception. One important mechanism to promote this equipment is through the activities of youth groups, allowing for skills development in the use, maintenance, and safe handling of these machines. This route is particularly relevant when youth undertake agribusiness incubation leading to their development of innovative agribusinesses and modernization of their home farms, affirming that they are no longer bound to practice agriculture in ways overly reliant upon manual operations. In this way, mindset change results from exposure and hands-on learning, allowing youth to embrace agriculture as a mechanized and profitable pursuit, and to find commercial opportunity in advancing mechanization as a growing trend across the small-scale farming sector. Agricultural mechanization and modernization equipment allow young producers to optimize their time and reduce production costs. Furthermore, larger farming communities demand for mechanization services from youth create opportunity for further income generating option. Several examples of this trend follow.In Zambia, the use of a hand-held tractor for land preparation and furrow making is less costly and more labor efficient, increasing crop yield and profit for young rural entrepreneurs. A variety of attachments is available to not only rotovate the soil but to also establish raised beds, irrigation furrows and erosion control structures. Similar youth enterprises in Uganda and Kenya also provide mechanized weeding services to farmers.Youth are actively engaged in the control of Fall Armyworm and the Yellow Desert Locust, two insect invasions with dire consequences to African farmers. Reliance upon a power sprayer and alliance with agrodealers networks increased the efficiency of this service provision. At the same time, youth were well positioned to access control information via electronic media and to comply with health and safety requirements. Farmers discovering widespread invasion of maize fields were particularly motivated to see contractors provide rapid services that saved their crop. Reliance upon power sprayers allowed operators to treat fields five times more rapidly than others using pump action backpack sprayers, and to offer better coverage of leave undersides and inside whorls at the same time. Youth-led Rapid Response units operating from agrodealer shops developed toolkits consisting of a customized cargo tuk-tuk, power sprayers, safety equipment, commercially recommended pesticides, farmer information materials and communication tools. One group in West Kenya serviced 227 clients, treating an average of 0.20 ha per client at a cost of US $5.68 each, equivalent to only US $28 per ha. Subscription to this service resulted in a return to investment of 4.1:1 in terms of rescued maize. Similarly, youth offering spraying services to farmers earned approximately US $2000 a month in Uganda.A team of youth in Uganda founded a business called \"Mr.Clean\" that weeds and plows land for a fee. Over time, their services included contracts with the Uganda National Roads Authority to control unwanted vegetation along roadsides. Now they offer assistance to other youth-led startups unable to afford their own machines.Youth have capacity to operate at the cutting edge of technology. Some developed expertise in the installation of pond aerators enhancing the levels of oxygen in fishponds and greatly improving water quality and fish health. Others developed expertise in the operations of drones used for small-scale aerial spraying of crops. Youth in Kenya adapted land augers to quickly prepare water-harvesting features for dryland agriculture, mechanizing the establishment of a climate-smart cropping practice and reducing its labor requirement four-fold.These opportunities have an institutional dimension as well. The ENABLE-TAAT Compact works in partnership with the Government of Benin to introduce small-scale mechanized farming to the country's youth. The greatest opportunity, however, resides with the private sector. Once skills in the management of small-scale farming equipment is obtained, it is possible to grow an importation and retail business around this expertise. The price difference between these different equipment sold in quantity and the local sales prices in Africa are quite large, allowing for reasonable profits to be made from modest turnover of stock. These machines once sold serve as the focus for additional youth-led businesses that offer contract services to farmers, reducing the drudgery associated with agriculture in an incrementally improved manner.Youth preparing a sprayer drone for flightTAAT offers its services toward the advancement of modernized agriculture. It brokers a wide range of needed technologies and bundles them through a process of co-design into winning solutions. It recognizes that modernized agriculture must serve as the main engine for economic growth in Africa and operates accordingly. Change is intended to achieve not only food and nutritional security but also to meet obligations under climate agreements allowing collaborative efforts to better combine global, national, and community-level interests. TAAT operates from this unique perspective to mobilize innovative solutions through better partnering that includes honest technology brokerage and effective, scalable skills development through five key mechanisms. Unique understanding. Expertise is offered in the areas of site characterization and problem identification. Innovative solutions. Leadership is provided in technology brokerage and solution bundling based upon a dynamic portfolio of candidate technologies. Better partnering. Assistance is offered in the better co-design and management of projects prompting agricultural transformation. Honest brokerage. A robust capacity for impact assessment and constructive learning is achieved through standardized monitoring and evaluation.This catalogue describes the role of small-scale farm machines within Africa's agricultural transformation and several of that equipment that are most important to that process. Small-scale farming is widely associated with lives of poverty resulting from subsistence agriculture and drudgerous manual labor. This perception must be changed if commercialized agriculture is to drive rural economic development, particularly among talented youth that will provide farming's future generations. Too often, these youth are seeking ways to escapeUser queries directed to the ProPAS website offering information on agricultural technologies agriculture as a career path rather than committing their lives to exciting new enterprise opportunities. Mechanization is key to this commitment, both in terms of greatly reducing manual labor associated with core farm tasks, but also in designing livelihoods around the innovative services that support mechanization. The growing importance placed upon mechanization by the agricultural community is reinforced by recent findings of the ProPAS internet site where more queries were directed toward mechanization technologies than any other category.Contract services offering use of these equipment are particularly important. Reliance upon hand tillage often results in portions of fields remaining idle because there was insufficient time and labor to prepare them for planting. Cultivated farmer fields often become weedy for the same reason. Insect invasions go unchecked because their swarms overwhelm available control options. Droughts destroy crops in places where irrigation water is only slightly out of reach. The market value of grains is reduced because manual threshing results in excessive damage to processed harvests. All of these constrains are readily met with technologies presented in this catalogue!The advantages of power tillers, weeders and sprayers are obvious to anyone who has undertaken their laborious manual alternative, but challenges must be met to make this machinery available and to keep them functioning. Equipment suppliers must extend their sales further into rural areas, and agrodealers must be willing to invest in and market this equipment. Farmers must join together to purchase and share these machines. Extension agents must promote mechanization and mechanics must develop the skill sets needed to maintain and repair the equipment or else it risks falling into disuse. Development specialists must recognize the extreme importance of small-scale mechanization to Africa's agricultural future and accommodate this need within the formulation of rural development projects through the design of public-private partnerships. It seems the smaller the equipment, the more relevant it becomes to poorer farmers, and incentives must be offered to these labor-saving machines within their reach, and to create jobs for their families as service providers of these equipment into the future.The development objective of TAAT is to rapidly expand access of smallholder farmers to high yielding agricultural technologies that improve their food production, assure food security, and raise rural incomes. This goal is achieved by delivering regional public goods for rapidly scaling up agricultural technologies across similar agro-ecological zones. This result is achieved through three principal mechanisms; 1) creating an enabling environment for technology adoption by farmers, 2) facilitating effective delivery of these technologies to farmers through a structured Regional Technology Delivery Infrastructure and 3) raising agricultural production and productivity through strategic interventions that include improved crop varieties and animal breeds, accompanying good management practices and vigorous farmer outreach campaigns at the Regional Member Country level. The important roles of sound policies, empowering women and youth, strengthening extension systems and engaging with the private sector is implicit within this strategy. The Clearinghouse is the body within TAAT that decides which technologies should be disseminated. Moreover, it is tasked with the responsibility to guide the deployment of proven agricultural technologies to scale in a commercially sustainable fashion through the establishment of partnerships that provide access to expertise required to design, implement, and monitor the progress of technology dissemination campaigns. In this way, the Clearinghouse is essentially an agricultural transformation incubation platform, aimed at facilitating partnerships and strengthening national agricultural development programs to reach millions of farmers with appropriate agricultural technologies.Back cover photographic credit: Correct (left) and unsafe (right) personal protection while spraying pesticides.","tokenCount":"8410"}

data/part_6/0484344599.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e0a51cbeaf48a8ebfe40e9db85ef6933","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f36e9e48-fc38-4ab4-b880-f8dff77b4513/retrieve","id":"1102606769"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ffe2c34d-06b9-4104-9011-0ca11ef58758","pagecount":"2","content":"The ILRI forage germplasm information system was developed to share information about the germplasm held by ILRI as a global public good under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.The web site includes information on the collection sites of material held in the ILRI genebank, as well as summary characterization data and an image collection of some of these materials. It also has factsheets on the management of some common forage species.GENESYS is a rich source of information on plant genetic resources diversity of seeds conserved in genebanks worldwide. GENESYS is a gateway from which germplasm accessions from genebanks around the world can be easily found and ordered. GENESYS is the result of collaboration between Bioversity International (www.bioversityinternational.org/) on behalf of the CGIAR System-wide Genetic Resources Programme (SGRP), the Global Crop Diversity Trust (www.croptrust.org/) and the secretariat of the international Treaty on the Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (www.planttreaty.org/). GENESYS helps to secure the long-term conservation of plant genetic resources.The Forage Register is another initiative of the SGRP. It contains passport data for forage accessions conserved in a number of major collections of plant genetic resources.  ","tokenCount":"192"}

data/part_6/0487415979.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0729a159608c58489d1fa07de7ba0308","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f950fff-a47f-4e5d-aa14-2b84603f438b/retrieve","id":"1234197505"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bcd202e5-45ed-4f1d-959a-58c2897a5979","pagecount":"23","content":"Lack of rapidly available, site-and system-specific knowledge about such solutions and their potential environmental impacts What is CLEANED? The CLEANED tool lets users explore multiple impacts of developing livestock value chains in explicit ways.These indicators fully align with the environmental dimensions of concern, as prioritised by the global experts.The Architecture  • Rapid results: flagging potential environmental issues associated with planned livestock development strategies→So that environmental results can be considered when designing livestock development/investment programs and policies →Promotion of sustainable livestock production practices →Users acknowledge (i) increased recognition of environmental issues, (ii) guidance on policy and investment decisionsAn example from Northern Tanzania's dairy VC Focus = intensifying dairy systemsIn 3 distinct sites with 3 typical systemsIntervention package -changes in inputs and parameters• Clear environmental co-benefits• Overall improved efficiency• More absolute emissions with increase in land requirements in Muheza highland and Hai.• Potential reduction in total GHG emissions in Muheza lowland driven by improved feed efficiency and lower animal numbers • More land required in Muheza highland and Hai but less in Muheza lowland, driven by high yield of improved forages and reduced animal numbers as compared to baseline","tokenCount":"187"}

data/part_6/0491854619.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e1df8c1431e5208feb1c79744e27618","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.resakss.org/sites/default/files/Biennial%20Review%20Brief_Eswatini.pdf","id":"-391217267"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4a224ed5-2efa-4bac-a72f-4ca5fb9b2b0b","pagecount":"8","content":"Established in 2006 under the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), the Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System (ReSAKSS) supports efforts to promote evidence-and outcome-based policy planning and implementation. In particular, ReSAKSS provides data and related analytical and knowledge products to facilitate CAADP benchmarking, review, and mutual learning processes. AKADEMIYA2063 leads the work of ReSAKSS in partnership with the African Union Commission, the African Union Development Agency-NEPAD (AUDA-NEPAD), and leading regional economic communities (RECs).1  Introduction T he 2014 Malabo Declaration outlines Africa's vision for accelerating agricultural growth and transformation on the African continent through seven broad commitments from 2015 to 2025. The commitments include: (1) upholding the principles and values of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), (2) enhancing investment finance in agriculture, (3) ending hunger in Africa by 2025, (4) reducing poverty by half by 2025 through inclusive agricultural growth and transformation, (5) boosting intra-African trade in agricultural commodities and services, (6) enhancing the resilience of livelihoods and production systems to climate variability and other related risks, and (7) ensuring mutual accountability to actions and results by conducting a continent-wide biennial review (BR) to monitor progress in achieving the seven commitments. As part of fulfilling commitment 7 (mutual accountability), the second (2019) BR report and Africa Agriculture Transformation Scorecard (AATS) were launched at the 33rd African Union (AU) Summit in February 2020. This brief highlights Eswatini's performance in the second BR and assesses challenges faced and lessons learned by the country during the review process. The brief also reviews policy and programmatic changes in Eswatini that can be attributed to the first (2017) and second BRs. It concludes by highlighting required policy actions for Eswatini to implement to meet the Malabo Commitments by 2025.For the second BR, the benchmark (minimum score for a country to be on track in implementing the Malabo Declaration commitments) was 6.66 out of 10 (AUC, 2020). Even though Eswatini did not meet the benchmark, the overall score indicates an increase of 5 percent in the country's performance compared to the first BR. As shown in Table 1, Eswatini performed well below the benchmark and the poor performance is attributed to the country's poor performance in all the thematic areas. On the other hand, the country performed better than Southern African Development Community (SADC) middle-income countries as well as SADC countries as a whole, on average, in 3 thematic areas (themes 3, 4, and 7) (Table 1). For theme 5, however, Eswatini performed below SADC low-income countries, on average. The areas of very weak performance included the commitment on agriculture finance (score of 3.27 compared to the minimum score of 10) and a commitment on boosting intra-Africa trade and services (score of 1.39 compared to the minimum score of 3). In comparison to the first BR, the country also regressed in themes with already weak performanceby 59 percent on theme 2 and 10 percent on theme 5 (Table 2). Conversely, Eswatini saw notable improvements on 5 of the 7 commitments compared to the first BR, namely: recommitment to the CAADP process; ending hunger by 2025; halving poverty through agriculture; enhancing resilience to climate change, and commitment to mutual accountability for action and results as depicted in Table 2. While Eswatini reported on most of the BR indicators, some data gaps remain which the country needs to address in future BRs. Data quantity and quality challenges continued to affect the BR process, including in this round which was engulfed by several data gaps due to incorrectly compiled or uncompiled data. Data for the reported commodities were obtained through special studies conducted by consultants who were engaged by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Availability of data on post-harvest losses and climate change resilience remained a challenge. Furthermore, given that Eswatini is still in the process of developing a trade-in service strategy, data on trade-in services could not be obtained for reporting purposes.The following actions taken by Eswatini contributed to the country's success during the second BR: Participation at regional BR training workshop and dissemination of BR report within the country. Stakeholders also reported on and reviewed the (National Agriculture Investment Plan) NAIP annually.An independent technical review report was submitted to the Ministry evaluating the implementation of NAIP.The projects related to NAIP were funded and the funds allocated were reflected in the national budget. These helped to ease the implementation of projects, particularly regarding accountability and transparency and enhanced reporting to the portfolio committee.Public expenditures to agriculture increased as compared to the reported figures in the first BR and more resources were made available for emergency relief activities, including for drought.The ministry of agriculture began to pilot the commercialization of Swazi Nation Land Bill to enable households to secure their land rights.Overall, the second BR report shows that Eswatini is not on track to achieving the Malabo commitments by 2025. This is a setback for the country because in the first BR, the country's overall score was above the minimum benchmark, indicating that the country was on track to achieving the Malabo targets. Moreover, the country is still quite a long way regarding putting in place policies to attract its youth into agricultural value chains and increasing spending for agriculture research and development as a share of GDP. Eswatini needs to implement recommendations emanating from the second BR to ensure there is progress on the commitment areas for which it did not do well, while still focusing on areas where the performance was satisfactory.The following recommendations are important for Eswatini to improve implementation of the Malabo commitments and to get back on track for the next BR:There is a need to develop or update the national plan for implementing the Malabo declaration using the CAADP implementation approach, including an inclusive and participatory approach to facilitate the Eswatini CAADP Process. Eswatini needs to expedite the process of developing a NAIP that is compliant with the Malabo Declaration commitments and also prepare a NAIP implementation progress report. The second generation of NAIPs (NAIP 2.0) is quite imperative for Eswatini to attain the Malabo Declaration targets. Continuous Stakeholder engagement is also necessary to maintain the CAADP momentum.Eswatini should focus on increasing the proportion of men and women engaged in agriculture with access to financial services.There is a need to increase total agricultural research spending as a share of agricultural GDP.This will offer useful insights into relative levels of agricultural research and development investment needed in Eswatini.Eswatini is known to have weak land tenure security and obtained poor scores on this indicator. Therefore, the country needs to invest more in strengthening the land tenure rights of land users or owners to increase the proportion of farm households with ownership or secure land rights.There is also a need to improve and develop efficient monitoring and evaluation and data management systems in Eswatini as well as harmonise all the BR data into the Central Statistics Office. The country needs to align its indicators and targets with those of the BR process to avoid duplication and to minimise discrepancies.In-order to foster the principles of ownership and mutual accountability in the agriculture sector, there is an urgent need to improve the coordination of Eswatini's BR report validation processes. Presenting the country BR report to parliament-the agriculture portfolio committee-and to the cabinet can help to generate buy-in and ownership of the process at the highest level of political leadership.Lastly, Eswatini should ratify the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) to enhance and strengthen bilateral agricultural trade. ","tokenCount":"1247"}

data/part_6/0492760927.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"69aedef24ca8f2dc5ecbdc831e566af9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27efea15-e577-4cd5-8424-4cc346911079/retrieve","id":"-1744816883"},"keywords":["climate change","adaptation","agriculture practices"],"sieverID":"dd51599b-4538-4744-a8d0-fa5f6138b670","pagecount":"49","content":"e Segurança Alimentar (CCAFS). Maputo, Moçambique. Disponível on-line no site: www.ccafs.cgiar.org. Publicado pelo Programa de Pesquisa de CGIAR sobre Mudanças Climáticas, Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar (CCAFS). Os relatórios de CCAFS tem como objetivo difundir os trabalhos de pesquisa e práticas sobre mudanças climáticas, agricultura e segurança alimentar e estimular o feedback da comunidade científica. O Programa de Pesquisa de CGIAR sobre Mudanças Climáticas, Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar (CCAFS) é uma parceria estratégica de CGIAR e o Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Este programa é realizado com os fundos dos doadores do CGIAR, a Agência Dinamarquesa de Desenvolvimento Internacional (DANIDA), Agência Australiana para o Desenvolvimento Internacional (AusAID), ajuda Irlandeza, Fundos do Ambiete de Canada, Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros dos Países Baixos, Agência Suíça para o Desenvolvimento e Cooperação (SDC), Instituto de Investigação Científica Tropical (IICT), Ajuda da Inglaterra, Governo da Rússia, a União Europeia (UE), Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros e do Comércio da Nova Zelândia, com o apoio técnico do Fundo Internacional para o Desenvolvimento Agrícola (FIDA).Moçambique é tido como um dos países que vai sofrer mais os efeitos negativos das mudanças climáticas, através de uma maior intensificação dos fenómenos de secas, cheias e ciclones. O distrito de Xai-Xai devido à sua localização geográfica no litoral e na foz de um dos grandes rios de Moçambique e da África Austral, o rio Limpopo, irá sofrer frequentes ciclones e cheias. Mas também há população que pratica agricultura na zona alta, no sistema de sequeiro, que poderá sofrer das irregularidades das chuvas. Estes eventos climáticos poderão prejudicar a maioria da população do distrito pelo facto de depender de actividades vulneráveis às mudanças climáticas, nomeadamente agricultura, pecuária e exploração de recursos florestais. Por outro lado, a maioria dos produtores tem um fraco acesso à informação e infraestruturas básicas para o desenvolvimento de actividades de adaptação às mudanças climáticas.Como forma de apoiar esta população nos seus esforços de adaptação aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas, o Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique (IIAM) e o Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), no âmbito do Programa CCAFS (Mudanças Climáticas, Agricultura e Segurança Alimentar), desenharam um projecto designado \"Gerindo o risco climático para melhorar o modo de vida e a capacidade de adaptação das famílias rurais nos ecossistemas agrários no sul de Moçambique\", para os distritos de Xai-Xai e Chicualacuala, província de Gaza.Este diagnóstico surge no âmbito deste projecto e visa analisar os problemas, os conhecimentos e as necessidades dos produtores potenciais beneficiários na área de adaptabilidade aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas de modo a desenhar intervenções que respondam às suas necessidades. A recolha de dados da pesquisa baseou-se em três diferentes abordagens, nomeadamente: (i) o questionário dirigido aos agregados familiares (AFs); (ii) a discussão com grupos focais constituído por membros das associações de produtores e; (ii) entrevistas semi-estruturadas dirigidas aos líderes comunitários, lideres das associações de produtores e agentes de extensão agrária baseados nos povoados estudados. No total foram inquiridos 166 agregados familiares, quatro grupos de discussão constituídos por quatro a 12 pessoas e, entrevistados 10 informantes chave.Os resultados da pesquisa mostram que a população dos quatro povoados do distrito de Xai-Xai pesquisados tem muitas lacunas na aplicação das práticas agrícolas com destaque para o controle de pragas e doenças no milho, mandioca, feijão nhemba, hortícolas, citrinos, cajueiros e mangueiras; melhoramento da fertilidade de solo e conservação da humidade de solo; cultivo de variedades melhoradas tolerantes à seca; compassos culturais e épocas de sementeiras recomendadas. No que concerne às actividades de pecuárias, os AFs têm fraco domínio das práticas de maneio alimentar e sanitário nas principais espécies existentes. No maneio dos recursos florestais, há um fraco domínio de todas as práticas que visam o melhoramento, conservação e aproveitamento dos recursos florestais. Os AFs também têm poucos conhecimentos das matérias de processamento de produtos agrários e conservação de milho, feijão nhemba e batata-reno. Os produtores têm igualmente constrangimentos de natureza financeira para o acesso e utilização das novas tecnologias agrárias.As estratégias identificadas para uma maior capacidade adaptativa aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas incluem a organização de treinamentos e demonstrações das melhores práticas agrárias com desataque para as práticas que demandam pouco investimento financeiros para o seu acesso e utilização. Similarmente, vai-se apostar na produção de informação radiofónica sobre os conhecimentos agrários para sua vinculação na rádio comunitária, com o objectivo de sensibilizar os produtores a adoptar práticas que contribuem para uma melhor adaptação e resiliência do modo de vida perante os efeitos das mudanças climáticas.      Moçambique, devido a sua localização geográfica, é apontado como um dos países que vai sofrer mais os efeitos negativos das mudanças climáticas, nomeadamente secas, cheias e ciclones (Mosquito et al., 2009;MICOA, 2005). Os impactos das mudanças climáticas serão agravados devido à limitada capacidade humana, institucional e financeira que Moçambique tem para antecipar e responder directa ou indirectamente os seus efeitos (MICOA, 2005).As regiões Sul e Centro de Moçambique são apontadas como sendo as que sofrerão mais os efeitos negativos das secas, cheias e ciclones (MICOA, 2006)  , 2005). Estes eventos climáticos poderão prejudicar a maioria da população do distrito pelo facto de esta população depender de actividades que são muito vulneráveis aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas, tais como agricultura, pesca e exploração de recursos florestais. Estes efeitos serão ainda mais agravados devido ao fraco acesso à informação e infraestruturas básicas para o desenvolvimento da capacidade adaptativa da população aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas (Matavel, 2012).Para minimizar os impactos das mudanças climáticas previstos no distrito de Xai-Xai, o projecto de investigação sobre adaptação às mudanças climáticas implementado pelo IIAM em colaboração com CIAT, pretende realizar acções de pesquisa e disseminação de tecnologias assim como práticas de produção agrária que melhor se adaptem às mudanças climáticas e às condições de produção locais. De acordo com Swanson (1991) e Boydell & Leary (2003) as acções de transferência de tecnologias, incluindo as de pesquisa para transferência de tecnologias poderão ser eficazes caso sejam antecedidas por um diagnóstico dos problemas, e das necessidades dos produtores alvos da intervenção.Este diagnóstico conduzido em quatro povoados do distrito de Xai-Xai surge como meio para assegurar que: (i) os conhecimentos e a informação a oferecer aos produtores respondam às preocupações e limitações dos beneficiários (Boydell e Leary, 2003); (ii) a interacção entre a investigação, extensão e produtores, que é fundamental para adopção das tecnologias, seja boa (Swanson, 1991); (iii) não haja sobreposição das acções; (iv) o corrente projecto aprenda das lições de projectos anteriores do mesmo âmbito implementados no distrito de Xai-Xai.O presente relatório de pesquisa apresenta a descrição das práticas agrárias, de maneio dos recursos florestais, de processamento de frutas, assim como descreve as tecnologias disseminadas e as potenciais barreiras de adopção das tecnologias. O relatório também apresenta as principais áreas de necessidades de formação e informação para os potenciais beneficiários do projecto no distrito do Xai-Xai. Analisar os problemas, os conhecimentos e as necessidades dos potenciais produtores beneficiários da intervenção na área de adaptabilidade às condições de mudanças climáticas de modo a desenhar intervenções que respondam às suas reais necessidades.1) Identificar as lacunas existentes em termos de informação, conhecimentos e tecnologias agrárias (agricultura, pecuária e recursos florestais) nas comunidades do distrito de Xai-Xai para melhor responder aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas. 2) Descrever as potenciais barreiras que podem interferir na participação dos beneficiários nas intervenções de disseminação das tecnologias e no acesso e utilização dos conhecimentos a serem disseminados. 3) Identificar as estratégias de intervenção para responder às lacunas identificadas;O trabalho de recolha de dados para este diagnóstico privilegiou a combinação dos métodos quantitativos e qualitativos. A combinação dos dois métodos visa fundamentalmente suprir as fraquezas e/ou aproveitar as forças de cada método (Denscombe, 2007). Para os métodos quantitativos usou-se o questionário administrado aos agregados familiares (AFs) e nos métodos qualitativos recorreu-se às entrevistas semiestruturadas com os informantes chaves e discussão com grupos focais. As técnicas usadas neste diagnóstico são também sugeridas pelo Swanson (1991), como sendo as recomendáveis para a fase de diagnóstico dos problemas, necessidades e sistemas de produção locais dos produtores.Com o questionário recolheu-se a informação sobre as características dos potenciais beneficiários das formações, práticas agropecuárias, o nível de domínio dos conhecimentos relevantes para a mitigação dos riscos das mudanças climáticas, e o interesse em aprender essas práticas por parte dos potenciais beneficiários. As entrevistas semiestruturadas e as discussões com grupos focais foram usadas para recolher informação geral sobre: as características dos sistemas de produção locais, as principais fruteiras e as práticas usadas para o processamento e conservação das frutas; os principais constrangimentos nas actividades agrárias; as estratégias a adoptar para a disseminação das tecnologias agrárias e; os factores que poderão influenciar as actividades de transferência e divulgação de tecnologias agrárias.Este diagnóstico foi conduzido em quatro povoados pertencentes a três postos administrativos do distrito de Xai-Xai. O distrito encontra-se no extremo sul da província de Gaza e é limitado ao Sul pelo Oceano Índico, a Norte pelos distritos de Chibuto e Chókwé, a Este pelo distrito de Bilene e a Oeste pelo distrito de Mandlakazi (Ministério de Administração Estatal, 2005; UNEP/FAO/PAP/MICOA, 1998). O distrito possui uma população recenseada em 2007 de 212.459 habitantes. Estes eventos climáticos poderão prejudicar as actividades agropecuárias do distrito principalmente por que a maior parte dos produtores desenvolvem as suas actividades ao longo do vale do rio Limpopo.O diagnóstico foi conduzido em quatro povoados selecionados para a implementação do projecto no distrito de Xai-Xai. Os quatro povoados possuem 19 bairros e um total de 5.576 agregados familiares (Tabela 1).Para a recolha de dados quantitativos optou-se pela estratégia de amostragem probabilística estratificada por área geográfica, nomeadamente povoado e bairro. Esta estratégia visava fundamentalmente garantir que seja recolhida informação de todos os povoados beneficiários desta intervenção. Em cada povoado, foram seleccionados de forma aleatória, dois a quatro bairros, em função do número de agregados a inquirir. Dentro dos bairros foram selecionadas aleatoriamente os quarterões e nos quarterões os agregados familiares à inquirir.O tamanho de amostra para o inquérito foi de 166 agregados familiares. Este tamanho de amostra foi calculado com base na fórmula recomendada para casos em que a variável mais importante de estudo é nominal ou ordinal e a população de estudo é finita 1 . Foi considerado para o cálculo da amostra, o nível de confiança de 95% e margem de erro de 5%.O inquérito conseguiu cobrir em 100% o número de amostra planificado. A maioria dos inquiridos é de Posto Administrativo de Chicumbane (49%) seguido de Chongoene (36%). Os inquiridos do posto administrativo de Zonguene representam 15% do total do universo da amostra do estudo (Tabela 1). Em termos de sexo dos inquiridos, a tabela 2 mostra que a maioria dos inquiridos é de sexo feminino (78%). Quanto à idade dos inquiridos, esta varia de 18 a 83 anos, com uma média de 43 anos e a mediana é de 40 anos. Para as entrevistas com os grupos focais, foi organizado um grupo focal em cada povoado. Portanto, foram organizados quatro grupos focais compostos por 4 a 14 produtores membros de associações de produtores. A maioria dos participantes dos grupos focais era de sexo feminino (Tabela 3). A tabela 5 mostra o número e percentagem dos agregados familiares que praticam actividades agropecuárias, com ênfase para as áreas de intervenção do corrente projecto no distrito de Xai-Xai.Quase todos AFs dedicam-se à agricultura (99,4%) e cerca de 63% tem a pecuária como uma das suas actividades principais. Em relação às actividades florestais, menos 6% dos AFs fazem corte e venda de lenha e estacas. Apenas 0.6% dos AFs estão envolvidos na produção e venda de carvão. A maior percentagem dos AFs envolvida na exploração dos recursos florestais é constituída por aqueles que fazem a recolha e venda de frutas silvestres e outros produtos não madeireiros (13%). O resultado da localização das machambas pode-nos ajudar a perceber que a questão das inundações das áreas de produção no vale do Limpopo afectará a maioria da população, cerca de 80% da população, dos quais 20% tem machamba apenas na zona baixa e os restantes têm em ambas as zonas.Mas também em casos de fraca precipitação, as áreas de produção da zona alta, onde cerca de 79% dos AFs produz, poderão também sofrer. Portanto, nas estratégias de alívio aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas no distrito de Xai-Xai devem-se direcionar as suas acções tanto para as questões de inundações e cheias, como para casos de secas.A tabela 7 apresenta o número de AFs membros e não membros de alguma organização de produtores e a localização das suas parcelas de produção, se estão apenas na zona baixa ou apenas na zona alta e se têm machambas em ambas as zonas. Os resultados mostram que dos 166 AFs inquiridos nos povoados do distrito de Xai-Xai, apenas 15% são membros de alguma organização de produtores. A maioria dos produtores associados assim como não-associados têm pelo menos uma parcela na zona baixa. Esta maioria representa 88% dos associados (16% têm parcelas apenas na zona baixa e 72% em ambas as zonas) e aproximadamente 80% dos não associados (21% têm machambas apenas na zona baixa e 59% têm machambas em ambas as zonas). Estes resultados de associativismo deixam claro que a maioria dos produtores de Xai-Xai não faz parte de associações. Mas por outro lado, os resultados nos dizem que não existem grandes diferenças entre os associados e não associados em termos da localização das suas machambas. Isto implica que nas intervenções, tanto da zona baixa assim como da zona alta, deve envolver os dois grupos de produtores.A figura 1 mostra a preferência por culturas dos AFs dos povoados estudados no distrito de Xai-Xai (percentagem dos AFs que pratica as principais culturas). A cultura mais praticada é o milho (98%), seguida da mandioca (90%), batata-doce (78%), feijão nhemba (83%), amendoim (80%) e hortícolas (57%). Um segundo grupo de culturas praticadas é constituído por abóbora (43%) e o feijão jugo (41,0%). As culturas cultivadas por menos de 15% de AFs são a batata-reno, o arroz e a melancia. A mapira e mexoeira não são cultivadas no distrito de Xai-Xai. As seguintes culturas, milho, batata-doce e hortícola são mais praticadas na zona baixa, ao longo do vale do rio Limpopo (Figura 2), e o arroz só se cultiva na zona baixa. A mandioca, o feijão nhemba e amendoim são maioritariamente cultivadas na zona alta, no sistema de sequeiro.Figura 2: Culturas praticadas na zona baixa, vale do LimpopoA Tabela 8 apresenta as principais práticas culturais que são utilizadas nas diversas culturas, nomeadamente a preparação da terra, sementeira, sacha e colheita e o período do ano em que acontecem. Duma forma geral, o distrito de Xai-Xai tem duas épocas agrícolas que correspondem às sementeiras de inverno e verão. A maioria das sementeiras ocorre entre Setembro e Dezembro, onde são semeadas seis das nove principais culturas praticadas nomeadamente, milho, mandioca, batatadoce, hortícolas, feijão nhemba e feijão jugo. O outro período pico das sementeiras é de Abril a Junho, com a sementeira de cinco das nove culturas, nomeadamente milho, batata-doce, amendoim, batata reno e hortícolas.As hortícolas são as únicas que são feitas durante todo o ano, no sistema de regadio. O milho e a batatadoce são cultivados nas duas épocas agrícolas.Em relação às sachas, os períodos de maior actividade correspondem aos meses de Outubro a Fevereiro e de Maio a Junho. As colheitas ocorrem ao longo de todo o ano (Tabela 8). As culturas praticadas durante todo ano e as que são semeadas nas duas épocas agrícolas, são fundamentais na estabilidade alimentar por providenciar produtos em mais do que um período do ano. Para as outras culturas que são praticadas em apenas uma época agrícola, devem ser adoptadas estratégias de armazenamento ao nível do AF, de modo a assegurar a sua disponibilidade para a família ao longo do ano. O sistema de cultivo mais usado pelos produtores locais é o de consociação de culturas, com excepção de batata-doce, que tem sido cultivada no sistema de cultivo puro. Mas há casos em que a batata-doce é cultivada nas bordaduras do campo. As consociações mais frequentes são: mandioca com amendoim; mandioca com feijão jugo e milho; milho com feijão nhemba.Para avaliarmos a aplicação das práticas de cultivo que podem ajudar a reduzir a vulnerabilidade das comunidades aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas, os inquiridos foram questionados sobre 16 práticas ligadas ao melhoramento da fertilidade de solo, controlo de pragas e doenças, conservação da humidade de solo, uso de variedades melhoradas e uso de compasso e densidade adequados para cada tipo de cultura e condições de cultivo.A tabela 8 apresenta o número de AFs que usaram ou não, nos últimos três anos, cada uma das 16 práticas agrícolas. A maioria das práticas agrícolas apresentadas não foi aplicada pelos AFs dos povoados inquiridos no distrito de Xai-Xai. Menos de um quarto dos inquiridos respondeu que tinha usado as seguintes práticas: aplicação de adubos; preparação e aplicação de composto; aplicação de pesticidas sintéticos; preparação e aplicação de pesticidas naturais; lavoura mínima; uso de variedades melhoradas tolerantes à salinidade, e pousio melhorado. Entre 25% a 49% dos inquiridos responderam que tinham usado as seguintes práticas: aplicação de estrume para melhorar a fertilidade do solo; culturas de cobertura, variedades melhoradas tolerantes à seca e consociação de árvores/arbustos com culturas anuais (Tabela 9). Uso de prática de preparação da terra para o cultivo através do sistema de corte e queima 48 28,9% Cultivo em linha usando os compassos e densidade recomendada para cada tipo de cultura 99 59,6%Fonte: Dados do inquérito aos AFs colectados pelos autores Contudo, mesmo para as práticas em que mais da metade dos inquiridos responderam que tinham aplicado nos últimos três anos, nem todas foram realmente aplicadas. Isto porque na triangulação com informação das entrevistas semiestruturadas e nos trabalhos com grupos focais percebeu-se que: (i) as pessoas que responderam que fazem cobertura morta na verdade se referem à incorporação dos restos de colheita e capim na altura de lavoura; (ii) o cultivo em linhas usando os compassos e densidade recomendada, é feito principalmente nas hortícolas. No milho também é feito, mas só quando a lavoura é feita com recurso à tracção animal e/ou com tractor, meios esses aos quais a maioria da população não tem acesso.Questionados sobre porque não faziam a cobertura morta, os entrevistados de Poiombo e Aldeia 3 de Fevereiro afirmaram que esta actividade demanda muito tempo adicional dos produtores, que podia ser usado para fazer outras actividades. Em relação ao cultivo em linha, não se conseguiu a explicação.Com base no trabalho com os grupos focais e entrevistas semiestruturadas com os informantes chave, foram apurados os principais constrangimentos que os agricultores encaram nas actividades agrícolas.Os constrangimentos encontrados estão relacionados com o fraco acesso e domínio de informação e conhecimentos agrícolas pelos produtores. A seguir apresentam-se os principais constrangimentos por povoado do distrito de Xai-Xai: Perda da produção na zona alta devido à escassez e irregularidade das chuvas;  Deficiente conhecimento das técnicas de conservação de produtos agrícolas pós-colheita (batata reno e hortícolas);  Fraco conhecimento das práticas de controlo de pragas e doenças nas hortícolas principalmente o controle da lagarta na couve e repolho;  Limitado uso de sementes melhoradas;  Fraco domínio e aplicação da densidade e compassos recomendados para cada cultura. Perda de produção devido a ocorrência frequente de défices hídricos na zona alta e inundações na zona baixa;  Incerteza das épocas de sementeira devido à variabilidade climática (épocas das chuvas) trazendo como consequência a fraca produção na zona alta;  Assoreamento da vala principal de drenagem e consequentes inundações dos campos;  Deficiente conhecimento das técnicas de rega e drenagem, causando inundações em áreas reservadas para produção agrícola;  Deficiente e fraco uso de adubos orgânicos e inorgânicos;  Fraco domínio das dosagens de pesticidas;  Redução do rendimento nas culturas de: (i) milho, devido ao escaravelho preto e gafanhotos;(ii) arroz e feijão nhemba, por causa da praga de escaravelho preto.  Pragas e doenças nas hortícolas principalmente no tomate e couve (principalmente afídios);  Perdas pós-colheita no milho e feijão nhemba devido à ocorrência de pragas de armazém como o gorgulho, e fraco domínio das práticas do seu controlo;  Erosão das encostas devido à remoção da cobertura vegetal para a prática da agricultura pela população; Baixos preços de venda no mercado devido à fraca capacidade de negociação;  Saturação do mercado de hortícolas no período fresco. Secas cíclicas e inundações frequentes dos campos de produção (zona baixa), que contribuem para a perda da produção;  Incidência de diversas pragas de campo nos tubérculos e no milho;  Incidência de pragas e doenças nas hortícolas particularmente na couve, alface e repolho;  Perdas de produção pós-colheita devido a pragas de armazém, principalmente o gorgulho nos cereais;  Assoreamento das valas de drenagem. Assoreamento das valas de drenagem, dificultando o movimento das águas e provocando inundações;  Cheias e secas cíclicas prejudicando as culturas;  Perdas de rendimento das culturas de: (i) milho, devido à lagarta invasora, broca do colmo, escaravelho preto, gafanhoto elegante, míldio e listrado; (ii) couve e repolho, devido a lagartas das folhas; (iii) tomate e batata reno, por causa de murcha bacteriana; (iv) alho, por causa de ferrugem, e; (v) mandioca, devido ao gafanhoto elegante.  Perdas da produção de milho no armazém devido, principalmente, ao ataque de gorgulho.Os constrangimentos aqui apresentados mostram-nos que a produção agrícola é afectada principalmente por questões relacionadas com a variabilidade da precipitação, pragas e doenças nas principais culturas praticadas, uso de semente não melhorada, baixa fertilidade de solo, compasso e densidade de plantação inadequados e inundação dos campos de produção (zona baixa).As principais espécies de animais criadas no distrito de Xai-Xai são os bovinos, caprinos, suínos e aves (galinhas e patos).A Figura 3 apresenta a proporção dos AFs nos povoados inquiridos, que possuem cada uma das principais espécies de animais. Neste gráfico, pode-se ver que as aves e os caprinos são as espécies mais comuns nos AFs de Xai-Xai, sendo criadas por 67% e 47% dos AFs, respectivamente. Os bovinos e os suínos existem em 25% e 24% dos agregados familiares inquiridos, respectivamente. Quanto aos suínos, provavelmente existiam muito mais criadores antes da peste suína africana que assolou o distrito de Xai-Xai meses antes desta pesquisa. Para perceber quais as estratégias de maneio pecuário usadas pelos AFs nos últimos três anos para fazer face à variabilidade climática, foram sugeridas no questionário nove práticas de maneio, descritas na Tabela 10. Duma forma geral, há um fraco uso destas práticas de maneio pela maioria dos AFs de Xai-Xai. Apenas em uma das nove práticas (identificação de doenças mais frequentes nos animais), houve mais de metade dos inquiridos que aplicaram nos últimos três anos. O isolamento dos animais doentes do resto da manada (aplicada por 44% dos AFs) e o tratamento de doenças mais frequentes nos animais (aplicada por 33% dos AFs), constituem as práticas mais aplicadas pelos criadores inquiridos nos povoados deste distrito. As restantes práticas foram aplicadas por menos de 25% dos AFs inquiridos (Tabela 10).  Em Chicumbane, os constrangimentos identificados são similares aos levantados nos povoados de Nhocuene e Poiombo com a excepção dos abcessos que ocorrem nas cobaias (cavia porcellus). A carência do pasto, que afecta os bovinos e caprinos num total de cerca de cinco meses ocorre nos períodos de Janeiro a Fevereiro, devido à inundação da zona baixa onde a maioria dos criadores pasta os seus animais; e de Agosto a Outubro, devido à seca que reduz a disponibilidade e qualidade de pasto nesse período (Tabela 12). Para além das duas razões acima apresentadas relacionadas ao período do ano, a escassez de pasto é também apresentada como sendo causada pela redução das áreas de pastagens devido ao aumento de número de criadores na zona, expansão da área residencial e das actividades agrícolas do projecto Uambau.A diarreia nos caprinos ocorre nos meses de Junho e Julho. A doença de sarna nos bovinos, caprinos e coelhos, tem-se registado no período de Junho a Agosto. A peste suína africana, que tem causado mortes massivas de animais ocorre com maior frequência nos meses de Abril e Dezembro. As doenças de newcastle, nas galinhas, e hepatite vírica, nos patos, apresentam uma maior prevalência nos meses de Junho, Julho e Dezembro. As cobaias sofrem de abcessos principalmente de Agosto a Outubro (Tabela 12). A maioria das frutas é colhida no período entre Dezembro a Fevereiro, ondem amadurecem pelo menos cinco das nove fruteiras existentes nos povoados estudados. O período mais pobre em frutas é correspondente aos meses de Agosto a Novembro. Nestes meses só se colhe entre um a dois tipos de frutas das fruteiras mencionadas. Isto nos sugere a seguinte pergunta: será que nos períodos de maior abundância da fruta ela é totalmente aproveitada? Será que as comunidades têm algumas estratégias de processamento e conservação da fruta para permitir o seu consumo diversificado e em períodos de escassez?Nas entrevistas com os informantes chave e nos trabalhos com grupos focais, constatou-se que estas frutas alistadas na tabela 14 são maioritariamente consumidas sem nenhum processamento e também não existe uma estratégia para a sua conservação. A excepção vai para o caju que é usado para a preparação de sumo de caju e bebidas alcoólicas.As razões apresentadas de não processamento e conservação das frutas exóticas estão ligadas ao não domínio dessas práticas pela comunidade dos povoados estudados. Encontramos apenas um caso dos membros da Associação Ntlawa Wa Djondzo Yaku Vikela Ndala, baseada na Aldeia a Voz da Frelimo, na localidade de Zonguene, que aprendeu a fazer sumos e jams a partir de frutas. Alguns membros têm preparado estes subprodutos da fruta de uma forma regular.As frutas nativas mais comuns no distrito de Xai-Xai são o canhu, mapfilwa, tindziva, nheva, nula, ata silvestre, massala e tâmaras. O canhu, mapfiwa, tindziva e a massala existem em todos os povoados estudados. As outras frutas são comuns em apenas um dos povoados. Nula (em Poiombo); Tamara (em A Voz da Frelimo) ou em dois povoados; nheva (em Nhocuene e Poiombo); e ata silvestre (em Chicumbane-sede e Aldeia a Voz da Frelimo) (Tabela 15).A maioria das frutas amadurece no período entre Novembro e Abril. Neste período amadurece três a quatro espécies de frutas. Os meses de Junho e Julho, não se colhe nenhuma fruta nativa e no período de Agosto a Outubro pode-se comer apenas a massala (Tabela 16). Fonte: Dados da discussão com grupos focais, colectados pelos autores Duma forma geral, o período entre Dezembro e Fevereiro é a época de maior abundância de fruta nestas comunidades. Isto pelo facto de das 17 frutas exóticas e nativas mais comuns nas quatro comunidades estudadas, colher-se entre nove a 11. Entre os meses de Julho e Outubro há grande escassez de fruta, tanto das fruteiras nativas assim como das fruteiras exóticas.Tal como registado nas frutas exóticas, as nativas também são consumidas maioritariamente em fresco, sem processamento e conservação, com excepção de canhú [Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst.Sbsp. Caffra] e massala (Strychnos spinosa Lam.) que também são usadas para a preparação de bebidas alcoólicas.A seguir são apresentados, por povoado beneficiário do projecto no distrito de Xai-Xai, os principais constrangimentos encarados pelos AFs na produção e processamento das frutas nativas e exóticas. Os constrangimentos identificados dizem respeito ao acesso e domínio da informação e conhecimentos ligados ao maneio de fruteiras e processamento das frutas. Em todos os povoados apenas foram apesentados problemas ligados as frutas exóticas, provavelmente devido à limitada disponibilidade de florestas para se explorar as espécies nativas. Ataques severos de afídios nos citrinos;  Baixa produtividade dos cajueiros, devido ao problema de oídio;  Declínio do rendimento das mangueiras e citrinos devido ao apodrecimento das suas frutas antes de amadurecimento.Povoado de Chicumbane-sede  Incidência de pragas e doenças nos citrinos e cajueiros;  Perda de muita fruta no pico de amadurecimento por falta de mercado para a venda da fruta fresca e fraco domínio das técnicas para o seu processamento e conservação. Incidência de pragas e doenças nas laranjeiras (cochonilha e mosca da fruta) e nos cajueiros (oídio);  Perda de grandes quantidades de manga no pico de amadurecimento por falta de mercado para a venda da fruta fresca e fraco domínio das técnicas para o seu processamento e conservação.A incidência de pragas e doenças nas fruteiras e o fraco domínio das práticas de processamento são os dois problemas que afectam as três comunidades entrevistadas. Como vimos anteriormente, a maioria das fruteiras atingem a maturação no período de Dezembro e Fevereiro, o que pode significar excedente de fruta nesta época. Ai que surge a necessidade de processamento e conservação de fruta neste período, não só como uma estratégia de diversificação das formas de consumo mas, principalmente, como um meio de aproveitamento da fruta, de acréscimo de valor e de contribuição para a renda familiar.Foi inquirido aos AFs sobre qual o seu nível de domínio sobre as 15 práticas de produção agrícola, apresentadas no questionário, que podem minimizar os efeitos do risco climático (Tabela 17). Os resultados mostram que mais de 50% dos inquiridos responderam que não tinham domínio em 11 das 15 práticas apresentadas.As práticas com mais agregados familiares (mais de 80%) que não dominam (nenhum ou fraco domínio) são as seguintes: aplicação de adubos e pesticidas sintéticos; preparação e aplicação de pesticidas naturais; preparação e aplicação de pesticidas naturais; e captação e conservação de água das chuvas na machamba (ex. sulcos espaçados, micro-bacias, sulcos fechados, etc.). Na segunda posição, em termos de número de pessoas que não dominam, (entre 60% a 80%) encontramos: preparação e aplicação de composto orgânico; lavoura mínima; uso de variedades melhoradas tolerantes à seca; pousio melhorado usando espécies de rápido crescimento e tolerante à seca (ex. feijão bóer variedade gigante, leucaena, etc.). E na terceira posição temos consociação de árvores/arbustos de crescimento rápido com culturas anuais, com 51% de AFs que não dominam (Tabela 17). Em três práticas de produção agrícola, a maioria dos inquiridos respondeu que tinha bom a muito bom domínio. Essas práticas são as seguintes: (i) uso de cobertura morta, (57%); (ii) cultivo em linha usando os compassos e densidade recomendada para cada cultura (62.6%) e; (iii) rotação de culturas (68%). Em uma prática, uso de culturas de cobertura, metade dos inquiridos disseram que não tinham domínio e outra metade disse que dominava.Cruzando os resultados de aplicação das práticas agrícolas (Tabela 9) e o domínio dessas práticas pelos produtores de Xai-Xai (Tabela 17), pode se ver que os produtores aplicavam o que responderam que dominavam. Portanto, há constrangimentos apontados que podem ser resolvidos por algumas das práticas aqui indicadas, mas que eles não aplicam por razões provavelmente relacionadas com o fraco domínio tecnológico das mesmas. Contudo, não se pode ignorar a provável existência de outros factores que possam influenciar a não aplicação de certas práticas e que não tenham sido apurados neste estudo.A Tabela 18 apresenta o nível de domínio pelos AFs, das nove práticas de maneio pecuário indicadas no questionário deste estudo. Em todas as práticas de maneio pecuário, registou-se mais de 50% dos inquiridos que responderam que não tinham domínio (nenhum ou pouco domínio).As práticas de maneio pecuário em que mais AFs (mais de 80%) responderam que não dominam são: conservação de forragem em feno; conservação e tratamento de resíduos agrícolas da machamba para alimentação do gado na época de escassez de pasto; uso de blocos multinutritivos e suplementação de ruminantes na época seca; cultivo de árvores forrageiras resistentes à seca; retenção/colheita e conservação de água da chuva para o abeberamento do gado; e construção de currais melhorados (p. ex. curais elevados para cabritos, ovelhas). A prática de isolamento dos animais doentes do resto da manada (principalmente com brucelose e tuberculose), com 61% dos inquiridos que não dominam, está na segunda posição. O terceiro grupo é constituído pela prática de identificação das doenças mais frequentes nos animais, em que 53% dos AFs responderam que não tinham domínio (Tabela 18). Aqui vamos apresentar o nível de domínio das práticas de maneio de recursos florestais pelos AFs de Xai-Xai. Das seis práticas de maneio de recursos florestais inquiridas, constatou-se que a maioria dos AFs não tem domínio (nenhum e pouco domínio). Para todas as práticas de maneio florestal, mais de 80% dos inquiridos responderam que não tinham domínio (Tabela 19). Para avaliação do domínio das práticas de processamento de produtos agrárias pelos agregados familiares foram usados nove tipos de agroprocessamento, ilustrados na Tabela 20. Duma forma geral há um fraco domínio das práticas de processamento pela maioria dos AFs. A percentagem dos AFs que respondeu que tinha bom a muito bom domínio de cada prática, não ultrapassa os 21%, com excepção da produção de farinha de mandioca em que cerca de 69% dos inquiridos respondeu que tinha bom a muito bom domínio. Das oito práticas que a maioria dos inquiridos respondeu que não tinha domínio, podemos subdividir em dois grupos. O primeiro grupo é constituído por sete práticas, em que mais de 80% dos inquiridos disseram que não tinham domínio. As sete práticas que constituem o grupo das que mais pessoas não sabem como processar são: processamento de frutas em sumos, jam e conservante a seco; preparação de manteiga a partir da amêndoa de canhú; processamento de batata-doce (em sumos, jam, bolos, biscoitos, etc.); preparação de sumos, bolos, biscoitos e conservante seco a partir de hortícolas; e processamento de caju em melaço. O segundo grupo é constituído pelo processamento de leite de vaca/cabrito em iogurte, em que 75% dos AFs alegam não terem domínio (Tabela 20). Estes resultados reforçam as constatações registadas na descrição dos constrangimentos do maneio de fruteiras em que as comunidades indicaram que perdiam muita produção no pico da maturação de muitas frutas devido ao fraco domínio das práticas de processamento da fruta para o aproveitamento daquela fruta que não é consumida e/ou não encontra o mercado.Neste capítulo pretendemos identificar as áreas em que os AFs estão interessados em receber alguma informação e conhecimento. As áreas usadas para esta avaliação são as mesmas anteriormente analisadas no capítulo de avaliação do nível domínio e de aplicação das práticas agrícolas, pecuárias, florestais e de agroprocessamento e conservação de produtos agrários.A Tabela 21 descreve o nível de interesse dos AFs, em aprender as práticas agrícolas. Das 15 práticas alistadas na tabela 21, a maioria dos AFs dos quatro povoados do distrito de Xai-Xai envolvidos no estudo, mostrou muito interesse em aprender todas as práticas com excepção do uso de variedades melhoradas tolerantes à salinidade, onde 47% de AFs responderam que tinham muito interesse. Para as restantes práticas, entre 55% a 90% dos AFs, responderam que tinham muito interesse em aprender. As práticas que registaram percentagens mais altas, mais de 80% dos AFs com muito interesse de aprender, são as seguintes: aplicação de adubos e pesticidas sintéticos; aplicação de estrumes de animais; preparação e aplicação de composto orgânico e de pesticidas naturais, uso de variedades melhoradas tolerantes à seca e pousio melhorado usando espécies de rápido crescimento e tolerantes à seca (ex. feijão bóer, variedade gigante; leucaena, etc.). O segundo grupo de práticas com maior aceitação para sua implementação, entre 60 -80% dos AFs muito interessados, é constituído pelos seguintes conhecimentos: rotação de culturas, consociação de árvores/arbustos de crescimento rápido com culturas anuais e lavoura mínima. A prática de captação e conservação de água das chuvas na machamba (ex. sulcos espaçados, micro-bacias, sulcos fechados, etc.) está no terceiro grupo, com 55% dos AFs.Estes resultados de interesse conjugados com os de domínio e aplicação das práticas agrícolas pelos agregados familiares dizem-nos que há necessidade e interesse em disseminar todas as práticas de produção agrícolas sugeridas para adaptação às alterações climáticas no Xai-Xai, com excepção da prática de uso de variedades melhoradas tolerantes a salinidade. Nesta prática a maioria dos inquiridos não tem nenhum domínio mas também não está interessada em aprender. Isto pode significar que o problema de salinidade ainda não constitui uma grande preocupação na maioria das zonas do distrito de Xai-Xai, com excepção de Zonguene onde aparentemente o problema é mais sério.Com base nas entrevistas e discussão em grupos focais, os produtores acresceram e/ou reforçaram a lista das áreas em que estão interessados em receber treinamentos. As áreas ou os tópicos que os produtores disseram que têm interesse em aprender são os seguintes: Compassos e densidades culturais no milho e hortícolas diversas.  Uso de herbicidas com ênfase nas dosagens;  Épocas ideais actualizadas para a sementeira de diversas culturas, tendo em conta as mudanças ocorridas com as alterações climáticas;  Práticas de conservação da humidade de solo;  Técnicas e estratégias de melhoramento da fertilidade de solo;  Controle de pragas nas culturas de milho, hortícolas e mandioca.A tabela 22 apresenta o nível de interesse dos AFs em aprender as práticas de maneio pecuário. Em sete das nove práticas de maneio pecuário alistados na tabela, a maioria dos AFs (52% a 95%) respondeu estar muito interessado em receber os conhecimentos sobre as respectivas práticas.As práticas como identificação de doenças mais importantes e isolamento de animais doentes do resto da manada são as que mais de 80% dos AFs mostraram ter muito interesse em aprender. A construção de curais melhoradas está no segundo lugar em termos de número de AFs interessados, com 72% de AFs. O terceiro grupo de práticas que teve muitos AFs interessados (entre 50% -59%) é constituído pelos seguintes conhecimentos: conservação de forragem em feno; conservação e tratamento de resíduos agrícolas na machamba para alimentação do gado na época de escassez de pasto; uso de blocos multinutritivos e suplementação de ruminantes na época seca; e cultivo de árvores forrageiras resistentes a seca (Tabela 22). O fraco interesse em aprender as práticas de retenção e conservação da água deve-se ao facto de o distrito possuir recursos hídrios permanentes e semipermanentes. Em relação ao fraco interesse em aprender as práticas de tratamento das doenças, o mais provável é que este trabalho é feito pelos promotores. E os produtores acham que quem deveria aprender é este grupo que assiste os criadores.Duma forma geral, os AFs demonstraram interesse em aprender todas as práticas que anteriormente responderam que não tinham aplicado e não dominavam as formas de sua aplicação. Para além das áreas descritas na tabela 21 acima, os produtores disseram-nos que estavam interessadas em receber os conhecimentos sobre a desparasitação dos caprinos e bovino.Em cinco das seis práticas usadas para avaliar o nível de interesse dos AFs de Xai-Xai em aprender as práticas de maneio de recursos florestais a maioria dos inquiridos disse estar muito interessada em aprender os seus conhecimentos (Tabela 23).A prática com mais AFs interessados em aprender é a de cultivo de plantas medicinais, com 92%. Em segundo lugar estão as práticas sobre colecção e tratamento ou pré-tratamento da semente de árvores florestais de espécies nativas e apicultura, com percentagens de 64% e 60% respectivamente. As práticas sobre estabelecimento e gestão de viveiros florestais de espécies nativas e implantação e maneio de florestas com espécies nativas estão no terceiro grupo dos conhecimentos que a maioria dos AFs está muito interessado em aprender. A percentagem dos inquiridos com muito interesse é de 57% para os viveiros e 55% para a implantação e gestão de florestas (Tabela 23).A única prática que teve menos de metade dos inquiridos interessados em aprender é o cultivo de pasto e forragem na floresta, que registou 49% de agregados familiares dos povoados inquiridos, no distrito de Xai-Xai (Tabela 23). A intervenção no âmbito de transmissão dos conhecimentos sobre colecção e tratamento da semente, assim como estabelecimento e maneio de viveiros florestais pode impulsionar os trabalhos de produção de mudas de espécies florestais para o cumprimento da decisão presidencial \"um líder uma floresta\". Isto porque por exemplo, o líder comunitário de Chicumbane disse que para responder a decisão de criação de florestas comunitárias, as comunidades dependem das plantas disponibilizadas pela Direcção Provincial da Agricultura, que não são suficientes para responder às necessidades.A tabela 24 abaixo apresenta o resumo das respostas dos AFs de Xai-Xai em relação ao seu nível de interesse em aprender cada uma das nove práticas de processamento sugeridas no corrente diagnóstico. Em todas as práticas, a maioria dos AFs respondeu estar muito interessado em aprender.As práticas com maior número de inquiridos interessados (mais de 80%) são: processamento de frutas em sumos, jam e em conservante a seco; preparação de manteiga a partir da amêndoa de canhú; processamento de batata-doce (em sumos, jam, bolos, biscoitos, etc.); preparação de sumos, bolos, biscoitos de hortícolas; processamento de hortícolas em conservante seco; e processamento de caju em melaço. O segundo grupo é composto por duas práticas nomeadamente: processamento de leite de vaca/cabrito em iogurte (73%) e produção de farinha mandioca (65%) (Tabela 24). Nas entrevistas com informantes chave e nas discussões nos grupos focais, os produtores também manifestaram interesse de aprender as práticas de conservação pós-colheita de milho e feijão nhemba, principalmente para evitar o gorgulho e rato que casam grandes perdas da produção destas duas culturas.A Tabela 25 mostra as tecnologias agrárias disseminadas nos postos administrativos de Chonguene, Chicumbane e Zonguene nos últimos três anos. A introdução de muitas tecnologias agrárias indicadas teve em conta a necessidade de se fazer face aos efeitos da seca e cheias (ou ambos). Outras tecnologias foram focalizadas ao aumento da renda e segurança alimentar e nutricional das famílias.Tendo em vista a redução do impacto da seca foram introduzidas as práticas de produção de ananás, mandioca e batata-doce, e as hortas caseiras em Nhocuene e Poiombo. Em Poiombo também foi introduzido o cultivo da variedade de tomate HTX14 que é relativamente mais tolerante à seca. Em Poiombo foi ainda introduzida a prática da agricultura de conservação, uma prática que também foi experimentada no povoado da Voz da Frelimo. Destas práticas apenas a agricultura de conservação é que não está a ser aplicada por razões que não conseguimos apurar.Em Poiombo e Nhocuene a Visão Mundial também focalizou as suas acções na disseminação de práticas de gestão integrada das pragas e doenças, tanto na zona baixa como na zona alta. Em Zonguene a Visão Mundial também introduziu novas culturas de cenoura, pimento e beringela, enquanto em Poiombo introduziu o cultivo de batata reno. Estas práticas e culturas continuam sendo aplicadas, contudo as pragas e doenças continuam a ser preocupação dos produtores. Isto porque, nestas comunidades, há ainda um fraco domínio dos princípios básicos de seu controlo.Visando melhorar a actuação dos produtores, a Visão Mundial capacitou os produtores de Poiombo e Nhocuene na gestão de produção e preparação dos planos de negócio. Alguns dos informantes chave destes povoados referiram que esta capacitação melhorou a actividade agrária dos produtores.Em Poiombo, os Serviços Distritais das Actividades Económicas (SDAEs) introduziram a piscicultura como uma actividade alternativa às actividades agrárias tradicionais. Nhocuene, Poiombo e Chjicumban e-Sede Tecnologia de processamento de arroz e uso de multi-cultivadoras especialmente na produção do arroz.Projecto de reabilitação da Barragem de Massingir Poiombo Fonte: Dados dos grupos focais e entrevistas semiestruturadas aos informantes chaves, colectado pelos autores Para reduzir o impacto da erosão hidrica que muitas vezes ocorre durante o tempo chuvoso e a erosão eólica causada pelos ventos fortes que ocorrem com alguma frequencia na zona de Chicumbane, foi introduzida a prática de plantação de mudas de eucalipto e casuarinas. Esta actividade de plantação de árvores aconteceu apenas com apoio das instituições públicas locais. A liderança da comunidade local mesmo sabendo da importância desta acção, diz que não tem como reagir porque não tem mudas e nem tem pessoas, no povoado, preparadas para fazer os viveiros.A visão Mundial e os Serviços Distritais das Actividades Económicas (SDAEs) desenvolveram acções de consciencialização das famílias sobre a necessidade de praticar actividades agrárias tanto na zona baixa como na zona alta como forma de assegurar que a falha de produção na zona baixa devido às inundações poderia ser compensada pela produção na zona alta e vice-versa.Na perspectiva de assegurar maior e melhor aproveitamento dos produtos agrícolas, a Save the Children, em coordenação com os Serviços Distritais das Actividades Económicas introduziram o processamento da batata-doce de polpa alaranjada e mandioca aos membros da associação de produtores do posto administrativo de Zonguene. A Visão Mundial também capacitou os produtores de Poiombo e Nhocuene em processamento de batata-doce de polpa alaranjada. Mas de uma forma geral há fraca aplicação destas práticas de processamento introduzidas. As pessoas destas comunidades alegam as dificuldades financeiras para a compra dos ingredientes necessários e a falta de mercado para a comercialização dos produtos processados como as principais razões da fraca aplicação.A extensão agrária e o IIAM introduziram a estratégia de melhoramento e maneio da fertilidade de solo através da preparação e aplicação de composto nos povoados de Poimbo e a Voz da Frelimo. Esta prática não foi adoptada pelo facto de requerer tempo adicional dos produtores.Em relação às estratégias de disseminação das tecnologias a Tabela 25 mostra que a maioria das tecnologias e práticas agrícolas foram apresentadas aos produtores em secções de treinamento intensivos de curta duração, um a cinco dias, e através de demonstração baseadas nas técnicas de escola na machamba do camponês e campo de demonstração de resultados. Segundo as organizações intervenientes no processo de disseminação, estes métodos foram mais preferidos porque usam os princípios que ajudam a ter maior motivação e participação dos produtores no processo de aprendizagem.Foram identificadas algumas barreiras que podem interferir na participação dos beneficiários nos eventos de capacitação e no acesso e utilização dos conhecimentos disseminados. As referidas barreiras incluem aspectos sociais e culturais, disponibilidade de tempo e recursos necessários para o acesso e utilização das novas tecnologias agrárias, entre outros aspectos.No distrito de Xai-Xai foi indicado que os horários para a participação em potenciais eventos de capacitação dos produtores devem ser seleccionados de forma cautelosa uma vez que regra geral os produtores estão nos campos de produção, individuais ou da associação, até cerca das 13 horas, embora em alguns casos continuem as suas actividades até ao final da tarde.Algumas práticas agropecuárias têm baixa probabilidade de serem adoptadas. Este é o caso das práticas de pousio e rotação de culturas que embora sejam até certo ponto conhecidas e reconhecido o seu benefício, não são realizadas porque alguns produtores só tem uma machamba, o que não facilita a sua execução; Esta situação é mais acentuada em Nhocuene e Poiombo onde uma grande parte das áreas da zona alta que eram destinadas à prática das actividades agropecuárias foi destinada à habitação como consequência das inundações que geralmente ocorrem no distrito de Xai-Xai, especialmente na zona baixa, reduzindo drasticamente as áreas de produção e limitando a possibilidade de realizar o pousio e a rotação de culturas. Em Chicumbane-Sede, os produtores perderam grande parte dos seus campos, na zona baixa, a favor da Empresa Chinesa Uambau que explora uma grande área do Vale do Limpopo.Práticas que impõem um esforço físico adicional ao produtor ou práticas em que se exigem a sua comparticipação financeira têm menos probabilidade de serem adoptadas. Este é o caso de por exemplo, das pulverizações contra o oídio, dos banhos carracicidas e dos diversos insumos agrícolas. Os banhos carracicidas tendem a ser cada vez menos regulares porque os criadores de gado devem comprar os produtos necessários. Para os insumos agrícolas tais como a semente melhorada, adubos e pesticidas, os produtores não têm usado na maioria dos casos devido aos preços de compra que são altos. As poucas vezes que eles usam é nas hortícolas ou quando estes são disponibilizados a custo zero.No povoado de Poiombo foi apresentado uma limitação relacionado especificamente à limitação da área de produção de arroz devido à limitada capacidade de aquisição de equipamento para fazer as sachas e mondas. Esta questão está relacionada com a disponibilidade local destes equipamentos.O Quadro 8 apresenta as organizações locais envolvidas na disseminação de informação e conhecimentos agrários, no distrito de Xai-Xai. Fazem parte desta lista, os Serviços Distritais das Actividades Económicas de Xai-Xai, as casas agrárias de Nhocuene e Poimbo, Visão Mundial, associações de produtores, Empresa do Regadio de Baixo Limpopo, Rádio Comunitária de Xai-Xai, Empresa Chinesa Uambau e Centro de Formação da Associação WutomiAgri.Os SDAEs de Xai-Xai é uma instituição do Estado que coordena as actividades económicas no distrito, incluindo actividades agropecuárias. Os SDAEs estão baseados no posto administrativo de Chonguene e tem extensionistas nos quatro povoados onde este projecto das mudanças climáticas está em implementação.As casas agrárias de Nhocuene e Poimbo localizadas nos bairros que ostentam os mesmos nomes são outras organizações de grande interesse no processo de disseminação de informação e conhecimentos agrários. As casas agrárias permitem a articulação entre os SDAEs, através dos extensionistas, e os produtores. É nas casas agrárias onde se vendem insumos diversos (fertilizantes, sementes, pesticidas, etc.), equipamentos e instrumentos de produção. As casas agrárias também possuem condições para organização de eventos de formação tais como salas de aulas e campos para as aulas práticas e demonstrações diversas (Figura 4). Em Chonguene funciona a organização não-governamental Visão Mundial, que através do seu Projecto de Segurança Alimentar dá assistência técnica agrária aos produtores locais através de treinamentos, demonstrações e disponibilização de insumos agrários, e dinamiza esquemas de poupança comunitária.No distrito de Xai-Xai existe uma empresa designada por Empresa do Regadio de Baixo Limpopo, que funciona em coordenação com os SDAEs, prestando apoio na abertura e limpeza das valas de drenagem. Esta empresa também esteve envolvida na capacitação dos extensionistas e das casas agrárias. Portanto, os trabalhos de capacitação comunitária nas áreas ligadas ao maneio de água de rega deveriam ser feitos com envolvimento desta empresa.Os produtores para além de estarem organizados em casas agrárias também estão em associações de produtores. As associações de produtores são organizações locais de produtores envolvidos em actividades agropecuárias. Estas organizações permitem o apoio interno entre os seus membros e facilitam a assistência técnica providenciada pela extensão agrária. As associações de produtores funcionam como meio de disseminação de informação e tecnologias agrárias aos produtores não associados, desempenhando assim uma função social muito importante. Na área de implementação do projecto foram identificados três associações, sendo duas em Chicumbane e uma em Zonguene.A outra organização local relevante na disseminação de informação e práticas agrícolas é a rádio. A rádio é um dos meios de comunicação de massa encontrado no distrito de Xai-Xai. No distrito de Xai-Xai funciona a rádio local designada rádio comunitária de Xai-Xai mas a população de distrito também tem acesso a outras rádios com destaque para a antena nacional da Rádio Moçambique. A rádio comunitária de Xai-Xai é um órgão de comunicação muito importante na actividade agropecuária. A rádio comunitária é muito utilizada pelo sector da Agricultura local para a veiculação de informação relacionada com a campanha agrícola, aparecimento de surtos, vacinação de gado e situações de cheias e secas. A rádio comunitária constitui um espaço para a difusão de informação e tecnologias agrárias mesmo em locais onde a extensão agrária não tem alcance directo.Na baixa de Chicumbane existe a empresa Chinesa Uambau, uma organização nova que desenvolve actividades agrárias no distrito de Xai-Xai. No âmbito da responsabilidade social, espera-se que esta empresa venha capacitar as comunidades de Chicumbane, que perderam as suas parcelas de produção, em matérias de produção agrícola, com destaque para a produção de pasto e fenação.Ainda no povoado de Chicumbane, existe uma instituição consagrada a formação agrária designada por Centro de Formação da Associação WutomiAgri. Esta é uma organização que se dedica à formação de jovens na área de produção agrária e empreendedorismo. Tem condições para acolher as formações e outros eventos de transferência de tecnologias nomeadamente salas de aulas, alojamento, campos para as práticas e técnicos/professores efectivos. As informações são transmitidas às populações durante as reuniões. Estes eventos têm sido momentos para diálogo entre as lideranças locais e a população e têm sido aproveitados para debater diversos aspectos da vida comunitária.A rádio é outro recurso muito privilegiado na disseminação de informação e interacção a nível local dado que muita população possui aparelhos de rádio (receptores). A disseminação de informação é feita através da Rádio Comunitária de Xai-Xai, sediada na cidade de Xai-Xai. A Rádio Moçambique (RM) é igualmente muito utilizada na disseminação de informação.O uso da rádio para a veiculação de informações carece de pagamento e os horários e língua de veiculação são acordados entre os organismos interessados e a rádio. A produção de programas de rádio pode ser feita em conjunto com os técnicos da rádio, em estúdio ou fora dele, observados os aspectos logísticos. A rádio também pode veicular spots produzidos por outras instituições. O Sector da Agricultura tem-se socorrido das duas instituições (Rádio Comunitária de Xai-Xai e RM delegação de Gaza) para difundir diversas informações, especialmente sobre vacinações de animais, ocorrência de surtos, entre outras. As instituições de gestão de calamidades também são um exemplo de organismos que usam a rádio comunitária para difundir informações de interesse das populações locais especialmente no âmbito de cheias e secas.A televisão é um outro recurso usado para a veiculação de informação usado por diversos organismos, contudo, de importância relativamente menor comparativamente com a rádio uma vez que um limitado número de famílias possui aparelhos de televisão. Alguns bairros, como é o caso de Piombo, não possuem energia eléctrica. Mesmo nos bairros com a rede eléctrica, o acesso a energia eléctrica para algumas famílias é limitado.O uso de material escrito como cartazes, folhetos, brochuras, manuais, etc., é muito limitado dado que poucos produtores são capazes de ler e escrever. A produção ou reprodução de materiais impressos podem ser feitas na cidade de Xai-Xai onde são prestados diversos serviços, incluindo serviços de internet.A região de Xai-Xai tem acesso a rede de telefonia móvel (Vodacom, mCel e Movitel). Os telemóveis duma forma geral, ainda não são aproveitados para a disseminação de informação agrária. Mas é uma oportunidade que devia ser considerada.No plano de acção resultante desta pesquisa, foram considerados os instrumentos já usados no distrito para a disseminação de informação de práticas agrícolas, principalmente as que achamos que podem ser efectivos nas acções propostas (anexo 1).5.1 Quais são as principais fontes de renda e subsistência dos agregados familiares e até que ponto essas actividades são vulneráveis as alterações climáticas?Quase todos agregados familiares dos quatro povoados de Xai-Xai diagnosticados dedicam-se a agricultura e mais de metade estão envolvidos na criação de animais e cerca de 13% estão envolvidos na exploração de recursos florestais. Segundo Plano Estratégico de Desenvolvimento do Distrito de Xai-Xai (2010), as actividades agro-pecuárias e a pesca de pequena escala constituem as principais fontes de rendimento e subsistência das famílias principalmente camponeses do distrito de Xai-Xai. Em relação aos recursos florestais, há poucas famílias que exploram devido, fundamentalmente, a escassez de florestas próximo das comunidades. A exploração dos recursos florestais se concentra na recolha de frutas silvestres e outros recursos não madeireiros, como a lenha para servir de combustível e estacas para a construção. A escassez de recursos florestais poderá minar as actividades da maioria dos agregados familiares pois a lenha e o carvão vegetal são os principais combustíveis domésticos no distrito de Xai-Xai (Ministério Administração Estatal, 2005).Como se pode ver pelos dados acima, a população de Xai-Xai depende principalmente de actividades sensíveis às mudanças climáticas nomeadamente a agricultura, a pecuária, a pesca e a extracção de recursos florestais. Segundo os modelos de previsão de vulnerabilidade social, quanto maior for a população dependente dos recursos naturais, maior é o risco de vulnerabilidade as alterações climáticas (Matavel, 2012). Portanto, a população de Xai-Xai, dependendo da estratégia de adaptação que ela está a adoptar, poderá estar vulnerável às alterações climáticas porque as principais actividades de subsistência e renda são intimamente ligadas aos recursos naturais.Em termos de culturas, as mais praticadas são milho, mandioca, feijão nhemba, amendoim e batatadoce. Os animais domésticos mais importantes nos AFs dos povoados onde o projecto está em implementação são as aves, os caprinos, os bovinos e os suínos. Estas culturas e espécies de animais mais importantes são também descritas como as mais importantes para os AFs do distrito, no perfil do distrito, editado em 2005. As espécies comuns nos quatro povoados e que são importantes no fornecimento da fruta nativa são as seguintes: Canhú [sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich) Hochst. Sbsp. Caffra], Mapfilwa (Vangueria infausta Burch.), Tidziva (Dialium schlechteri Harms), Nheva (Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H. Hemsl.), Nula, Ata silvestre (Annona senegalensis Pers.), Massala (Strychnos spinosa Lam.), Tâmaras (Phoenix reclinata Jacq.).Apesar de em média os AFs terem três machambas, eles praticam o cultivo da maioria das culturas em sistema de consociação. Uma parte das principais culturas nomeadamente o milho e a batata-doce é semeada nas duas épocas agrícolas e as hortícolas são cultivadas durante todo o ano, aproveitando-se das condições de água existentes no vale do rio Limpopo.Nos povoados diagnosticados, a maioria dos produtores tem áreas de produção nas zonas altas e baixas, provavelmente para minimizar os efeitos tanto das inundações na zona baixa, que são muito frequentes nos últimos anos, como ilustram alguns relatórios (Asante, 2009; Ministério para a Coordenação da Acção Ambiental, 2006; Ministério para a Coordenação da Acção Ambiental, 2007), e a seca na zona alta que as populações também reportam como sendo um fenómeno importante nos últimos anos.Os agricultores das zonas inquiridas praticam agricultura nos moldes tradicionais, com fraca aplicação das práticas de controlo de pragas e doenças nas culturas, de práticas de melhoramento da fertilidade de solos e de conservação da humidade de solos. Há Também um fraco uso das variedades melhoradas que podem responder melhor a certas alterações climáticas. A fraca aplicação das práticas melhoradas deve-se a combinação de factores, nomeadamente: desconhecimento e/ou fraco domínio desses conhecimentos, nível de demanda de tempo adicional e recursos financeiros.Começando das pragas, vimos que os produtores têm tido perdas de produção no campo, principalmente nas culturas de milho, mandioca, feijão nhemba, hortícolas, citrinos, cajueiros e mangueiras e perdas pós-colheita, isto é, no armazém, devido a pragas e doenças. Isto pode estar associado a combinação de dois factores: o fraco domínio, uma vez que maioria dos inquiridos respondeu que não tinha conhecimentos sobre as praticas de controlo de pragas e doenças; a fraca capacidade de compra dos pesticidas, já que em alguns locais os produtores afirmaram que não aplicam práticas que demandam recursos financeiros adicionais. A questão de pragas vem reflectida também como preocupação dos produtores de Xai-Xai no perfil do distrito e na pesquisa conduzida pelo Marques et al. (2006). A incidência de pragas e doenças nas machambas localizadas no vale limpopo, segundo Marques et al. (2006), resulta de cultivo intensivo sem rotação de culturas. Com as mudanças climáticas este problema poderá ser mais frequente (MICOA, 2007;Cruz et al., n.d) e poderá contribuir para fracos rendimentos agrícolas.Há casos também de produtores que não aplicam algumas práticas agrícolas devido a importância que dão a cultura. Por exemplo, as poucas famílias que fazem alguma aplicação de adubos e fertilizantes nas suas machambas são as que se dedicam ao cultivo de hortícolas, provavelmente devido ao facto desta cultura ser de rendimento.Os produtores da zona alta não aplicam as práticas de conservação da humidade de solo como a cobertura morta, apesar de reclamarem de perdas de produção devido a seca porque alguns não dominam esta prática mas outros acham esta prática demanda mão-de-obra adicional, como foi referido pelos produtores de Poiombo e Chicumbane. E, os produtores das zonas baixas queixam-se das inundações frequentes das áreas de produção devido provavelmente ao fraco funcionamento das infraestruturas instaladas. Os modelos de circulação geral da atmosfera e, respectivas probabilidades associadas indicam uma previsão do aumento em mais de 25% o caudal do rio Limpopo e aumento da probabilidade de maiores picos de cheias neste rio nos próximos anos (Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades, 2009) e consequentemente no vale do Limpopo, onde se localiza as áreas de produção da maioria da população dos povoados estudados. A questão de estabilidade institucional e de infraestruturas públicas é um dos indicadores mais importantes de vulnerabilidade social (INGC, 2009, citado por Matavel, 2012) Há também um fraco uso de sementes melhoradas que poderão estar adaptadas as condições actuais resultantes do impacto das mudanças climáticas tais como a seca. Isto deve-se fundamentalmente ao facto de demandarem custos financeiros adicionais para os produtores.Na pecuária também há uma fraca aplicação das práticas de maneio alimentar e sanitárias, que ajudam na adaptação aos efeitos das mudanças climáticas. Por exemplo, os produtores apesar da redução da área de pastagem e a escassez do pasto devido a expansão da área residencial e as inundações e secas respectivamente, não aplicam as práticas de conservação de pasto e nem de aproveitamentos de resíduos agrícolas para alimentação do gado. Os produtores também não têm a hábito de fazer o tratamento das doenças nos seus animais apesar destes animais constituírem fonte de subsistência e em casos de renda do agregado familiar.Para a alimentação, há registos de carência de pasto principalmente na época seca (Julho a Setembro) em todos os povoados. Isto deve-se a seca e a redução da área de pastagem com o aumento da área residencial e conflito das áreas de pastagem com actividades agrícolas. Há também escassez de pasto na época chuvosa no povoado de Chicumbane devido a inundação da área de pastagem, uma vez que os animais são pastados maioritariamente no vale do rio Limpopo. Mas em contrapartida, a população deste distrito não está a usar as práticas de conservação de forragem em feno, e de resíduos agrícolas devido ao fraco domínio dos procedimentos para a preparação destas e de outras alternativas alimentares. Com a previsão do aumento da frequência das cheias (Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades, 2009), associada a expansão da área residencial e agrícola, tornará a actividade pecuária nas comunidades de Xai-Xai mais vulnerável as alterações climáticas. Portanto, é importante a adopção de alternativas alimentares de gado bovino e caprino no período de escassez do pasto.No que concerne as doenças, quase todos animais são frequentemente assolados por doenças típicas de cada espécie de animal. As doenças mais comuns nos quatro povoados estudados são: as diarreias, as sarnas, as diversas pestes, ferimentos nos cascos, abcessos e parasitas. Duma forma geral os criadores não têm dado cuidado sanitário aos seus animais. Segundo os extensioinitas, o maneio sanitário tem sido sempre relegado como da responsabilidade do governo e das ONGs, através dos promotores comunitários, que têm providenciado assistência a custo zero. Portanto, muitos criadores não estão dispostos a sustentar as despesas de tratamento dos seus animais. Mas por outro lado, os criadores não têm domínio das práticas de prevenção e controle das doenças dos principais animais criados nos povoados em pesquisa.Para os recursos florestais para além de serem escassos devido ao crescimento da área populacional, também não se registam iniciativas da própria população para o seu maneio sustentável. Olhando para aquilo que é a importância destes recursos uma vez que a lenha e o carvão são os principais combustíveis domésticos para a maioria da população do distrito de Xai-Xai, esperava-se uma maior reacção por parte dos agregados familiares para responder a esta problemática da redução das áreas florestais. Algumas iniciativas existentes são promovidas pelas ONGs e pelas instituições Governamentais e têm como foco a promoção das actividades de reflorestamento através de fornecimento de plantas e capacitação das comunidades no estabelecimento de viveiros comunitários de diversas espécies, com destaque para o mangal, casuarinas, eucaliptos e algumas fruteiras (Matavel, 2012).Outro elemento importante na adaptação as mudanças climáticas é a questão de aproveitamento da produção existente através do processamento, conservação e consumo. Duma forma geral, há um baixo nível de processamento dos produtos agrários. O fraco processamento tem causado perdas principalmente nas hortícolas, quando não se consegue vender toda a produção devido a saturação do mercado; na batata-doce, quando os produtores são forçadas a colher devido as inundações; nas frutas da época (nativas e exóticas), durante o pico da maturação, porque as famílias não conseguem consumir toda a produção. Por exemplo, todas as famílias têm mangueiras e quando é pico de maturação, ninguém consegue comer e nem vender, localmente, toda a sua produção. Nos produtos pecuários constatamos que, por exemplo, não há hábito de produzir iogurte com leite de vaca ou de cabrito.As principais razões de não processamento são o fraco domínio das técnicas de processamento e conservação dos produtos processados, a fraca capacidade financeira, para aquisição dos insumos necessários para o processamento e a alegada falta de mercado para a comercialização dos produtos processados. Este último factor é discutível porque os produtores não deram evidências de alguma tentativa de pesquisa de mercado.Das práticas que podem contribuir para adaptação aos impactos das alterações climáticas e que os produtores disseram que não tinham domínio, algumas eles estão interessados em aprender mas em outras não.Para a produção agrícola, os produtores estão interessados a aprender: (i) as diversas práticas de maneio de pragas e doenças nas culturas de milho, mandioca, feijão nhemba, hortícolas, citrinos, cajueiros e mangueiras; (ii) o melhoramento da fertilidade de solos com diversas práticas como a aplicação de adubos químicos, estrumes, preparação e aplicação de composto orgânico, pousio melhorado, consorciação de culturas com espécies arbóreas; (iii) uso de variedades melhoradas e tolerantes à seca, para os produtores da zona alta. Mas não estão interessados a aprender a usar variedades melhoradas tolerantes a salinidade. Isto pode ser um sinal de que este problema, com excepção de Zonguene onde já há evidência de existir solos com altos índices de salinidade, (Matavel, 2012) ainda não constitui uma grande preocupação.No que concerne a área pecuária, os criadores estão interessados em apresentar as práticas de maneio alimentar nomeadamente a conservação de forragem em feno, conservação e tratamento de resíduos agrícolas, uso de blocos multinutritivos e cultivo de árvores forrageiras. Mas este último tema, apesar de haver interesse poderá não ser muito prático para estes povoados devido a tendência de urbanização da maioria dos bairros. Em relação a componente sanitária, os produtores estão interessados em aprender a identificar as principais doenças e a aplicar a estratégia de isolamento dos animais doentes do resto dos animais. Mas eles acham que não precisam de aprender a tratar os animais, provavelmente porque eles assumirem que esta tarefa é da responsabilidade dos promotores sanitários.Para a área florestal, os agregados familiares estão interessados em aprender as práticas de maneio dos recursos florestais, provavelmente porque em alguns povoados já ressentem as dificuldades de acesso ao material para construção das suas casas, o combustível lenhoso e fruta nativa.Os produtores estão interessados também em aprender o processamento e conservação de todas as principais frutas (nativas e exóticas) e de todas as culturas, incluindo aquelas que não indicaram ter perdas de produção devido a lacuna de conhecimento do seu processamento. Os agregados familiares também estão interessados em conhecer as técnicas de produção de leite em iogurte.Cerca de metade dos inquiridos não sabe ler nem escrever na língua portuguesa e nem fala a língua portuguesa. Este dado pode constituir uma barreira para o acesso de informação quando esta é providenciada de forma escrita e também quando os meios de divulgação usam a língua portuguesa.A questão dos horários em que se organiza os eventos de disseminação dos conhecimentos, para casos de disseminação cara-a-cara, foi apresentado como sendo um aspecto importante a considerar, pelo facto de, regra geral, os produtores estarem ocupados nas suas machambas quase todos os dias, principalmente no período de manhã. Este facto acontece em maioria das famílias uma vez que elas têm em média três machambas e a maioria das actividades é feita manualmente. Portanto, é crucial negociar-se o período de encontros para a disseminação dos conhecimentos e o local para que os produtores tenham espaço para continuarem a exercer as suas actividades agrícolas.Quanto às práticas agrárias também foram identificadas algumas barreiras que podem interferir no acesso e adopção dos conhecimentos e tecnologias que podem melhor responder a adaptação as mudanças climáticas. Essas barreiras incluem as financeiras, tipo de tecnologia (se demanda trabalho adicional) e do acesso ao mercado para a comercialização da produção.Muitas práticas que demandam recursos financeiros adicionais para a sua aplicação, tais como, a compra de semente melhorada, o uso de pesticidas para o controle de pragas e doenças, os adubos químicos para a melhoria da fertilidade dos solos e o tratamento das doenças dos animais domésticos, poderão não ser facilmente acessíveis e usados pelos produtores de Xai-Xai. Esta afirmação é baseada no facto de as famílias não estarem por exemplo, a fazer a pulverização dos cajueiros contra oídio e a não levar o seu gado bovino para os banhos carracicida, mesmo sabendo a sua importância, apenas pelo facto de estes serviços implicarem o desembolso de valores monetários. Excepção vai para algumas actividades de rendimento, como é o caso de produção de hortícolas, onde há maior probabilidade de serem aplicadas as práticas que envolvem custo financeiros baseando no facto de as poucas pessoas que disseram que aplicavam pesticidas na sua machamba serem os produtores de hortícolas. E também pelo facto de durante a recolha de dados termos presenciado a compra de semente de hortícolas na casa agrária de Nhocuene.As práticas que demandam um esforço físico e tempo adicional para a sua aplicação também poderão não serem facilmente aceites pelos agricultores de Xai-Xai. Este é o caso de cobertura morta, conservação de forragem em feno e a conservação e tratamento de resíduos agrícolas para alimentação do gado. Isto porque, por exemplo, os produtores de Poiombo e Chicumbane terem afirmado que conhecem a prática de cobertura morta mas não aplicavam porque rouba muito tempo deles que poderia ser usado para outras actividades. Esta justificação de não se aceitar as práticas que adicionam tempo de trabalho das suas actividades pode vir pelo facto de eles terem já muito trabalho, uma vez que em médias cada AF tem três áreas de produção e a maioria das actividades agrícolas são feitas manualmente.As estratégias de processamento e conservação dos produtos agrários poderão não seradoptadas em grande medida se a sua disseminação não estar associada a análise e discussão sobre a cadeia de valor dos produtos eleitos. Isto porque os poucos produtores treinados em processamento de frutas diversas e batata-doce de polpa alaranjada têm apresentado a limitação de mercado e custo dos insumos para o processamento como um dos factores que os impede a aplicar os conhecimentos adquiridos. Se fizermos paralelismo com a experiência de compra de insumos para as hortícolas, pelo facto de ser uma cultura que tem o mercado e eles vêem os retornos do seu investimento, é possível também, para este caso, adquirir-se os insumos para o processamento.Considerações finais e recomendações 6.1 Considerações finais  A maioria dos agregados familiares são vulneráveis as mudanças climáticas em curso e/ou das previstas para o distrito de Xai-Xai, pelo facto de terem como fonte de subsistência e renda a agricultura, pecuária, pesca e exploração dos recursos florestais, actividades sensíveis aos fenómenos climáticos tais como secas e inundações. Este factor é agravado pelo fraco domínio, pelos produtores, dos conhecimentos de certas práticas que podem ajudar a adaptabilidade da comunidade produtiva aos novos cenários climáticos, associado ao fraco poder financeiro para aceder a algumas tecnologias e/ou a indisponibilidade de tempo e de recursos humanos para aplicar as práticas que demandam tempo adicional do produtor. As potenciais barreiras que podem interferir na participação dos beneficiários nas intervenções de disseminação das tecnologias e no acesso e utilização dos conhecimentos a serem disseminados são nomeadamente: o nível de escolaridade dos produtores, principalmente, o facto de a maioria não saber ler, escrever e falar a língua portuguesa, o que pode constituir uma barreira para o acesso de informação quando esta é providenciada de forma escrita e através de meios de comunicação que usam a língua portuguesa; os horários em que se organiza os eventos de disseminação dos conhecimentos, para casos de disseminação cara-a-cara, que devem ser compatíveis com as actividades diárias dos produtores; o tipo de tecnologia em termos se ela demanda custos financeiros adicionais para o seu acesso ou utilização, necessita de um esforço físico e tempo adicional significativo para a sua utilização. Em todos os povoados beneficiários do projecto, existem organizações de produtores que têm sido envolvidas em actividades de transferência de tecnologias. Portanto, estas organizações podem constituir potenciais parceiros locais na implementação de acções de divulgação e transferência de tecnologias agrárias. Para além destas organizações de produtores, podemos contar com o SDAE, a rádio comunitária de Xai-Xai e a Rádio Moçambique delegação de Gaza. Existem também ONGs que operam, nestes povoados, e que podem ser envolvidos no processo de transferência de tecnologias agrárias. Considerando as barreiras que os produtores têm para o acesso e utilização das tecnologias agrárias aconselháveis para melhor adaptação aos impactos climáticos esperados no distrito de Xai-Xai, recomendamos a sua capacitação em práticas culturais, incluindo práticas de baixo custo de maneio de pragas e doenças; uso de semente melhorada tolerante a seca; práticas de armazenamento de cereais e feijões de baixo custo; estratégias de maneio da fertilidade de solos com base nas práticas culturais e outras práticas que usam recursos localmente disponíveis. Recomendamos também a capacitação dos produtores em práticas de conservação de pasto e de aproveitamentos de resíduos agrícolas para alimentação do gado bovino e caprino na época seca; práticas de identificação das principais doenças e a aplicar as estratégias de isolamento dos animais doentes do resto dos animais para evitar a sua propagação. No processamento e conservação de produtos agrários, recomendamos a capacitação dos produtores em práticas de processamento e conservação de frutas (nativas e exóticas) e culturas diversas. Para o alcance de mais pessoas principalmente pessoas de baixo nível de escolaridade, recomendamos a produção de informação radiofónica sobre os conhecimentos agrários para sua vinculação na rádio comunitária, com o objectivo de sensibilizar os produtores a adoptar práticas que contribuem para uma melhor adaptação e resiliência do modo de vida perante os efeitos das mudanças climáticas. Recomendamos também a capacitação dos produtores e criadores em recursos financeiros, por via de crédito, para elevar a sua capacidade de acesso de outras práticas eficientes no que concerne ao acesso e utilização agrícola.","tokenCount":"12229"}

data/part_6/0493119783.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d98d13462dd4fa0d07ebf04cde18ae15","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dcd67843-95e0-4073-a5f0-225c85629381/retrieve","id":"-1363748383"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"fb477d12-18ae-4839-bc10-6e7d148962f9","pagecount":"64","content":"CIAT encourages wide dissemination of its printed and electronic publications for maximum public benefit. Thus, in most cases, colleagues working in research and development should feel free to use CIAT materials for noncommercial purposes. However, the Center prohibits modification of these materials, and we expect to receive due credit. Though CIAT prepares its publications with considerable care, the Center does not guarantee their accuracy and completeness.Land degradation is a consistent loss of ecosystem functionality due to human and natural processes (Lal et al. 2012), or as defined by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) a \"reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes arising from human activities\" (UNCCD 2015c). Historically, it is a well-documented issue (Grove 1996, Beach et al. 2006, Ellis et al. 2013) and the degree of degradation has forced civilisations to adapt land management practises to the state of the environment, or abandon the landscape altogether (Costanza et al. 2007). Over the last four decades there has been an increase in human-induced land degradation and it is estimated to affect one third of global arable land (UNCCD 2015a, Vlek 2005) and to cost between USD 6.3-10.6 trillion annually or 10-17% of the world's gross domestic product (ELD 2015).Land degradation affects livelihoods, biodiversity and ecosystem services while it exacerbates climate change and ultimately impacts the well-being of 1.5 billion people globally (Lal et al. 2012, ELD 2015). The impacts are not evenly distributed across the globe, as approximately 40% of all land degradation occurs in the poorest countries, the least capable of mitigating and adapting to the impacts (UNCCD 2015b). Furthermore, as the impacts of land degradation have direct effects on both climate change and biodiversity loss (Lal et al. 2012) Acknowledging that land degradation is a global challenge and building on the international momentum to restore degraded lands (see for example Initiative 20×20 in Latin America and AFR100 in Africa), the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) identified Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) as an important component. While SDG 15 calls for the protection of terrestrial ecosystems and the fight against land degradation in general terms, target 15.3 explicitly formulates the vision of a \"land degradation neutral world\".  After the political establishment of LDN in the context of the SDGs and the UNCCD, the challenge now becomes one of operationalization. First efforts to implement LDN at country level have been initialized already. In 2015, the UNCCD ran a LDN pilot project together with 14 countries 1 , which is now being followed by the LDN Target Setting Program (TSP) implemented by the UNCCD´s Global Mechanism. Following the invitation by the UNCCD COP to set voluntary LDN targets, so far more than 100 countries officially expressed their interest to participate in the TSP. The TSP aims at supporting countries in setting LDN targets, identifying strategies and measures to achieve these targets and establishing a corresponding monitoring scheme. It is expected that countries wishing to engage in the LDN process present their targets at COP 13 in late 2017.LDN target setting is a complex process that includes numerous political and technical aspects. The UNCCD´s LDN Technical Guide proposes a step-wise approach to define LDN targets and identify measures to achieve them (UNCCD 2016a). An integral part of any LDN target setting process is the assessment of a baseline, that means taking stock of the current land status. The LDN baseline is the basis for informed target setting and functions as a reference state for future monitoring. First attempts to develop national LDN baselines were undertaken during the LDN pilot phase in 2015.The objective of this report is to identify entry points and challenges for subnational LDN baselines in order to inform subnational planning processes as potential vehicle for the implementation of LDN targets on the ground. For this purpose two focus regions were chosen within two of the countries -namely Namibia and Costa Rica -that participated in the first LDN pilot phase. The focus areas in Namibia and Costa Rica are the regions of Otjozondjupa and Rio Jesus Maria watershed respectively. Both Namibia and Costa Rica provide interesting case studies given the differences in types of land degradation, national capacities, and land resources.The selection of methods for baseline assessement will have to take the subsequent monitoring of changes over time and space into consideration, as this is key for the detection of land degradation. Much care must be taken in choosing a methodology that ensure scientific rigor and quality of the assessment. It must quantify the impacts of human activities on the environment, as well as ensure better informed decision making through clear and concise communication of the current state of the land. Box 1 shows a checklist of important criteria for selection of land degradation assessment methodologies (UNCCD 2016a, UBA 2015, LDN Methodological Note [LDN-MN] 2015). These criteria will be explored in the following chapters in an analysis of available methods and data for sub-national baseline assessment.Box 1: Checklist of criteria for selection of baseline assessment methodologies.  The indicator 'Land cover' is indicative of socio-ecological dynamics of management. Furthermore, this indicator is capable of identifying vulnerable transitions between natural and human-managed land cover classes. The indicators 'Land productivity' and 'Carbon stocks'2 Different technological aspects of LDN baseline mapping and monitoring are progressing at a relatively fast pace which resulted in some challenges during the writing of this report. For example, while the methods chapter (2) was completed by February 2016, changes were made in naming of the indicators (e.g. Land Cover / Land Use is now Land Cover) and general framework (e.g. the meaning of \"tier\" has changed). The authors have attempted to stay abreast of the changes in LDN vocabulary and recommendations regarding new datasets. However, some aspects of this report may become outdated as new datasets are published and improved satellite products become available to the wider public. This progress is a positive sign of the global commitment towards achieving a world that is land degradation neutral.measure the biophysical state, above ground NPP and below ground organic carbon content, of the different types of land cover. Both land productivity and soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are directly affected by land management and are vulnerable to land degradation (LDN-MN 2015). 3The drivers of land degradation are highly complex socio-ecological processes working on multiple scales both in space and time and there has been debate about the appropriateness of the proposed indicators. Scientific literature supports this, as e.g. Geist and Lambin (2004), Wantzen andMol (2013), andSommer et al. (2011) all argue, a single set of cross-scale indicators are highly unlikely to accurately identify land degradation in different locations around the world (see also Box 2). Consequently, given the complexity of land degradation and as well as the range of capacities countries have, the TSP allows for local adaptations of these indicators and encourages the use of additional indicators that are relevant in the specific context (Buenemann et al. 2011, Sommer et al. 2011, LDN-MN 2015). The Technical Guide (UNCCD, 2016) also recommends different tiered datasets for developing LDN baselines and monitoring:• Tier 1: includes global and regional data (i.e. from earth observation systems)• Tier 2: refers to data from national statistics or national earth observation systems • Tier 3: are primary data from field surveys and ground measurements With regard to tier 1, UNCCD (2016a) has defined default global data sources with the aim to provide participating countries with globally available data for their validation and/or use in the absence of national data. These default data sources are included within the following review (chapter 2).As the word 'trend' implies land degradation monitoring is an analysis of changes over time. It is important to emphasize that in a baseline assessment, no time-series analysis is required as the assessment deals with the current natural resource stocks and state of the land.The following chapter focuses on available methods and data for assessing LDN baselines at the sub-national scale in Otjozondjupa Region in Namibia and Rio Jesús Maria watershed in Costa Rica, using available Tier 1 data. Chapter 3 will examine what Tier 2 and 3 data are available in the respective sub-national regions, as well as what alternative indicators might apply. It also covers the process of multi-criteria decision making process which was used in stakeholder workshops in both locations, to ensure. Lastly, we present the conclusions in chapter 4.This chapter gives an overview of remote sensing data sources and examines existing methodologies and datasets that can be used for developing baselines for LDN at subregional level using Tier 1 global datasets selected in accordance with the abovementioned checklist in Box 1.Land degradation assessments generally have been completed using several approaches, or combination of approaches (Sommer et al. 2010, Reed et al. 2011) The terms local, national, regional, and global scales are used throughout this report. The different scales refer to the management/institutional unit or the ecological scale it captures. There is no clear definition of the extent of the different scales, as it is highly contextual. For instance farm sizes vary from thousands of ha in Western Australia (can be captured by coarse scale data) to less than 0.5 ha subsistence farms in Tanzania (needs to be fine scale data to capture changes). The same is evident of municipal and country sizes around the world as well as ecosystem sizes and boundaries. Therefore, the appropriate scale of data reflect the scale of land management and the boundary of the underlying ecosystem (Willemen et al., 2009).radar waves are not restricted and they provide additional valuable information like surface roughness. However, few baselines exist, there is less expertise available in the land cover community, and passive optical systems are still the most widely used.The increased quality and availability of remote sensing data, including free satellite imagery such as MODIS and Landsat (e.g. the archives of the University of Maryland Global Land Cover Facility), and more recently Sentinel-2 of ESA's Copernicus program have opened a range of new possibilities for the application of remote sensing in the operational assessment of land degradation processes. The most commonly used free remote sensing sensors are listed below The explanatory value of remote sensing data can be increased by different modelling techniques. Modelling involves mathematical changes to values of the original data in order to capture features that are not directly measured by the data available, e.g. turning the points of soil samples into a continuous map, or when various remote sensing data layers are comprised into one map with multiple features.It might be necessary, for instance, to combine remote sensing data with field observations, or to improve on spatial and temporal resolution with ancillary remote sensing images (Congalton et al. 2014). MODIS of NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites, for example, produces a number of bands of different wavelengths that can detect multiple changes in the landscape with a high temporal resolution (see Table 2.1). However, many of these derived products are still only available at a coarse scale (500m and 1km), which challenges the assessment of land degradation because it often takes place at a finer scale.It is likewise possible to combine multiple remote sensing data into one analysis. For example, MODIS can provide a high temporal resolution, time series, allowing for analysis of seasonal patterns and phenology, while Landsat can provide better granularity to identify what processes and land uses underlie the situation. Remote sensing has been applied for the assessment of land degradation in several different contexts, most commonly for analysis of land cover and productivity, but also for assessing SOC and soil erosion prevalence in landscapes (see e.g. Eva et al., 2012;Vågen et al., 2013). 3) agricultural land (and artificial surfaces) change to natural and semi-natural land cover type.It is important to establish a solid baseline for these changes, as again, the context is central.There may be cases where highly degraded mining or agricultural lands are abandoned and the subsequent succession growth would be classified as semi-natural land cover. While these areas are still degraded when compared to the original land use, they may be classified as nondegraded when compared to the previous land use. This can be found in e.g. tropical rain forests, where cleared areas show quick succession after they are abandoned.A combination of approaches might be needed for detailed assessments of land cover baselines at a fine scale, as discussed above. It is advised (UNCCD 2015c(UNCCD , 2016a) that data used to establish a baseline should preferably be an average of a period of 10-15 years, and therefore, should be available from at least the year 2000 and onwards. The measurement unit should be in hectares, and the classification be based on Food and Agriculture Organization's (FAO) Land Cover Meta Language (LCML) is recommended to ensure global comparison is possible (UNCCD 2016a).The European Space Agency's (ESA) Climate Change Initiative Land Cover dataset (CCI-LC) (www.esa-landcover-cci.org) is the default tier 1 option for land cover set by UNCCD (UNCCD 2016a). This dataset is based on modeling of multiple remote sensing products (SAR, Landsat, MERIS, MODIS), has a 300m resolution, is publicly available, and is produced every five years since 1998, with the last updates in January of 2016. It classifies 22 different land cover categories. The spatial resolution can miss some of the detail important for sub-national assessments of land use changes (Ban et al., 2015), as for instance in small scale heterogeneous landscape, as shown in Figure 2.1. However, ESA's CCI-LC datasets were shown to be quite accurate at a global scale (74% accuracy) (Bontemps et al., 2015). Furthermore, it is still in production so will be available for future monitoring and evaluation (M&E) procedures, as well as be comparable between regions. This initiative was launched by China in 2010 with the aim to develop a set of land cover mapping products globally. The approach is a model that combines imagery from the 30m resolution Landsat, MODIS imagery, and SRTM digital elevation data (www.globeland30.org). Maps were produced for 2000 and 2010 (Error! Reference source not found.2.2) and thus have the recommended 10 year coverage for land cover baseline assessments. It is however, no longer updated and therefore will not be sufficient for future change detection. The GL30 is a publicly available at globallandcover.com.The land cover classes can be quite coarse for baseline studies at sub-national levels. GL30 is included in this review because it has a finer spatial resolution and better accuracy than ESA CCI-LC (300 m), and might be able to better capture the changes in small scale landscape mosaics. Figure 2.2 shows a 30m resolution land cover map for Namibia. Furthermore, GL30 is produced from a combination of multiple imagery and is an example of how additional spatial data can improve the final product, if spatial resolution is too coarse (Congalton et al. 2014), as discussed above 4 . The This spatial segmentation is then used to calculate on what type of land cover change has occurred. The final step in the JRC Trees-3 framework includes a visual validation process by experts, and therefore has an integrated validation program for processing. This is shown to be up to 90% accurate. The Trees-3 is also equipped to scale up the sub-national baselines in a consistent manner, and thus would contribute towards a transparent and internationally comparable baseline methodology. It does however, only cover tropical (humid) areas and within these, only forest land cover. Thus, it lacks a continuous cover for overall terrestrial land degradation.Another promising JRC land cover dataset is a phenology 5 -based land cover classification that can use multiple remote sensing products, including Landsat 8 (30m), MODIS (250m) and5 Phenology is the study of periodic changes, in this case in vegetation, influenced by e.g. climatic cycles and interannual changes of for instance leaves on trees. This can differ much between seasons and in some cases cause wrongful classification of the land cover (http://forobs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/products/software/).now also Sentinel 2 imagery (10m resolution) (http://forobs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/trees3/). This method has the same geographical structure and validation process as TREES-3 and exhibits equally high accuracy in tested areas (between 82% and 90%). It offers a few more land categories than TREES-3, shrub, grassland and sparse vegetation, but no land uses (e.g. cropland). The idea behind the phenology based land cover mapping is to capture differences in vegetation over the seasonal changes that might occur, and thus give a more accurate picture of the vegetation, than one time imagery. This method has been applied to Landsat 8 imagery and thus, only provides data going back to 2013, but is compatible with older products from Landsat imagery for backdating (Simonetti et al. 2013). The product is still being developed and tested and only a few areas have been mapped to date. Furthermore, the script is available for Google Earth Engine (a data archive and cloud computing platform), which is free but has a selective membership process through application.Terra-I is a fully automated near-real time observation system for monitoring deforestation activities, developed primarily for the humid tropics (www.terra-i.org/). Terra-I has finer spatial resolution than ESA CCI-LC, at 250 m at 16 day intervals, as well as the ability to discern between natural and human induced land degradation, which could prove important in determining land degradation drivers 6 . The model consists of a forecasting model that predicts future normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values 7 , based on historic greenness (MODIS NDVI time-series), and observed or estimated meteorological and climate fluctuations and thus estimates the probability of change attributed to human disturbances (Reymondin et al. 2013). This method has not been applied for assessment of land degradation as such, other than deforestation, and is as such not equipped to detect degradation in non-forested systems such as grassland or agricultural fields.The LandPKS currently consists of two smartphone apps -LandInfo and LandCover -for data collection (http://landpotential.org/index.html). The main aim of LandPKS is to use mobile technologies and cloud computing to crowd-source knowledge and information, expanding the concept of Ecological Knowledge (Herrick et al., 2013). The LandPKS has been applied for assessing soil texture and land cover, with case studies in Namibia (not in Otjozondjupa), Kenya, and Ethiopia. The method has not yet been applied to assess land degradation and is still under development. Thus, this system would have to be developed further, and may in the future offer a low-cost rapid assessment of LUC in LDN assessments.The LDSF (Vågen et al., 2013a) was designed for landscape-level assessments of land degradation (http://landscapeportal.org). It includes soil carbon dynamics and stocks, land cover change (vegetation cover and floristic composition), land use, soil health, hydrological properties, biodiversity, soil erosion and compaction. It uses \"sentinel sites\" designed to provide accurate baseline data and monitoring of land health. By combining field measurement protocols that are systematic with remote sensing data from a range of different platforms (e.g. MODIS, Landsat, RapidEye and Sentinel-2), the LDSF is being used for identification of land degradation hotspots and soil mapping at both regional and local scales.The LDSF has been applied in more than 35 countries in the tropics for baseline assessments of land degradation at multiple spatial scales, as well as for local assessments of soil health and land degradation with spatial resolutions ranging from 5 m to 30 m (Vågen et al., 2013b;Winowiecki et al., 2015) and at continental scale with a spatial resolution of 500 m (Vågen et al. 2016). The methodology has four main components: 1) A spatially stratified, hierarchical, field sampling design using 10x10 km sentinel sites; 2) Use of soil infrared (IR) spectroscopy for prediction of soil properties (for Indicator 3) 3) Use of remote sensing and ensemble learning methods for mapping of land degradation and land health; 4) Remote sensing for mapping of land cover and land use change. LDSF uses a combination of Landsat and MODIS derived data to determine the land cover, and thus has the same time series as these products.The following table includes a brief overview of the advantages and disadvantages of each method as mentioned in section 2,2 Land productivity is a measure of above ground net primary productivity (NPP), and is defined as the difference between the total photosynthesis and the total plant respiration in an ecosystem, or as the total new organic matter produced during a specified interval (Clark et al. 2001). It is reported in tons of dry matter per hectare per year (tDM/ha/year).Primary productivity of plants shows distinct dynamics over different temporal scales; daily variability due to the position of the sun, intra-annual variability due to seasonal effects and inter-annual variability due to changes in climate, or changes in management and land use. In order to detect degradation from temporal series of NPP, it is therefore important to filter out the effects of the vegetation's natural dynamics, that is specific for the type of ecosystem in question (Dutrieux et al., 2016;Jacquin et al., 2010).The LDN TSP (UNCCD 2016a) guides land productivity to be disaggregated by type of land cover it occurs in and productivity is therefore a proxy for management, land use intensity, and potentially degradation. If organic matter is extracted faster than it is produced NPP will decrease and is an indication that the ecosystem is being degraded (Haberl et al. 2001).Proxies for NPP, such as the much used Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) (Rouse et al., 1974) from MODIS, basically account for the quantity of the standing biomass at a given time. Although biomass and productivity are closely related in some systems (Lohbeck et al., 2015), they can differ widely when looking across land uses and ecosystem types. For instance, a challenge with NDVI, specific to rangelands with bush encroachment, is that productivity will likely increase.In such a scenario, an increase in NDVI means that land degradation is occurring, where normally an increase of productivity would indicate the opposite. Similarly, intensive monocropping systems with fertilizer application could also produce a false positive, i.e. an increase in productivity that is not associated with a decrease of land degradation. In this case, fertilizer-use can mask the real state of the land under production (UNCCD 2015c). These scenarios need to be evaluated in the context of the region of the LDN baseline assessment (UNCCD 2016a). Also, there are discussions about whether NDVI tends to saturate when applied over densely vegetated areas (Huete et al., 1999), which is a concern when using NDVI to estimate NPP in forested regions, or when applying it to forest degradation (Kennedy et al. 2010).NDVI has also been suggested as a simple proxy for overall land degradation in areas where precipitation is not the main driver of vegetation dynamics, e.g. in humid tropics (Yengoh et al., 2014). However, the relationship of NDVI and -for example -soil erosion, which is a major land degradation process, is very weak (figure 2.3).Given some of the challenges with NDVI-derived products mentioned above, there are some commonly used vegetation indices that can be used as an alternative or an addition to traditional NDVI products. In the following section, firstly the JRC Land Productivity Dynamics (LPD) -default Tier 1 option for Land productivity as defined by UNCCD -is presented, and then three commonly used derivative products are discussed for their added value at national and/or subregional level: Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Soil-Adjusted Total Vegetation Index (SATVI), and The Normalized Cumulative RUE Differences (CRD) index. These could potentially improve the existing NDVI based productivity estimates in certain contexts, either by themselves or as in complementation to NDVI.The JRC Land Productivity Dynamics (LPD) data has been proposed as a default dataset by UNCCD (2016a) when countries do not have better alternatives available. This dataset is based on a 15-year time-series of NDVI observations, and as such already includes the trends. It is produced at a spatial resolution of 1 km and data are classified into five productivity classes depending on the state of the system (see Table 2.3). The NDVI is adjusted for seasonality and phenology, as mentioned above, in an analysis of long-term changes (29 years, using NOAA GIMMS 3G) and current (5 year SPOT VEGETATION) efficiency levels of vegetative above ground biomass was combined into land productivity dynamics (Cherlet et al. 2013). A global map of LPD was furthermore derived by using 15 year SPOT VEGETATION 1999-2013. Increasing productivity IncreaseThe JRC dataset's 1 km resolution is unlikely to be of appropriate scale to reflect human activities at a sub-national scale (Ban et al., 2015), especially in small scale landscape mosaics. UNCCD (2016a) suggests using the above classification to determine the degree of degradation.The method relies on remote sensing measures of productivity trends of above ground biomass, such as NDVI, for different land uses, e.g. forest or agriculture.The Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) was proposed by the MODIS Land Discipline Group (Huete et al., 1999) as an improvement over NDVI, as it takes more information into account about vegetation and canopy structure, and is more reliable in areas that has a high biomass, where NDVI has been shown to saturate. EVI uses the same satellite imagery as MODIS NDVI and is thus also available at 250m resolution. It includes coefficients to reduce the influences of soil (i.e. light reflectance under the plants) and atmospheric conditions (i.e. light reflectance above the plants, e.g. cloud cover) on the VI 9 : The Soil-Adjusted Total Vegetation Index (SATVI) from Landsat 5 TM 10 was developed to specifically measure above ground biomass in arid vegetation, by including both green and senescent -dry -vegetation for rangeland monitoring (Marsett et al. 2006). Thus, the SATVI is more sensitive to dryland vegetation that has a weak signal of chlorophyll compared to other VI indices, as e.g. NDVI (Qi et al. 2002, Marsett et al. 2006) 11 :10 Bands 3, 5, and 711 Where ρ is the reflectance values of the different bands of the sensor: band 5 (short-wave infrared), 3 (red) and 7 (mid-infrared band).However, SATVI has been shown to falsely suggest vegetation in barren and rocky areas and such areas should be masked out before processing. Furthermore, it is limited to satellites using short-wave sensors, such as Landsat, which gives a minimum resolution of 30m (Marsett et al. 2006).The Normalized Cumulative RUE Differences (CRD) index uses Rain-Use Efficiency (RUE; Le Houerou 1984) to normalize MODIS NDVI and decouple the rainfall variability from productivity (Landmann and Dubovyk 2014). This separates human-induced productivity changes from climatic variations. CRD is thought to be an indicator for productivity decline in dryland areas, where vegetation dynamics are strongly linked to precipitation (Yengoh et al. 2014). However, there have been quite a few reported inaccuracies with this method, especially when modelling over short time series in high intensity agriculture systems, which challenge the use of CRD as a stand-alone indicator (ibid). Nevertheless, CRD has been shown to have an accuracy of 68% or higher in detecting changes in vegetation productivity depending on land cover type in drylands (Landmann and Dubovyk 2014).The following table includes a brief overview of the advantages and disadvantages of each method or datasets as mentioned in section 2.3. Soils that are losing organic carbon are experiencing degradation and SOC is thereby a key indicator of soil health. The organic carbon also plays an important role in the biogeochemical cycles that can restore soil health. Soil carbon sequestration is therefore recognized as an important strategy for both, climate change mitigation as well as adaptation.Indicator 3 reports on organic carbon stock above (biomass and leaf litter) and below ground (soil), however since above ground organic carbon is already to some extent reported through the UNFCCC, and there is no operational total terrestrial carbon estimation methodology to date, this baseline assessment will concentrate on Soil Organic Carbon (SOC). Furthermore, SOC has so far mostly relied on modeled trends based on LUCs (LDN- MN 2015, IPCC 2006). SOC is to be reported as tons of carbon per hectare (t/ha C). In the following sections, we review some of the existing methods that are available for a specific country or context to report and monitor SOC stocks, and we outline important considerations when assessing SOC.There are a number of existing methodologies and datasets available to measure soil organic carbon (Aynekulu et al., 2011;Ellis and Larsen, 2008;McBratney et al., 2006;Stockmann et al., 2013 among others). They differ in the sampling framework used, field sampling methods and observations, laboratory analytical methods, uncertainty and change detection, and costs. Most important, however, is making sure the sampling framework and associated measurements comply with the objectives of the study at the appropriate scale. Furthermore, one should carefully match the type of analysis with the appropriate sampling strategy. In fact this is a continually debated subject in the soil science community (Brus and de Gruijter, 1997;Heuvelink and Webster, 2001).Two widely used analytical methods to measure soil carbon concentration are the Walkley-Black (wet chemical oxidation) procedure (Walkley and Black, 1934) and dry combustion. Dry combustion is generally the recommended reference test for soil carbon as the Walkley-Black procedure only recovers about 75% of the SOC in the soil sample (Bhattacharyya et al., 2015). The latter method is, however, recommended when working in low SOC soils (less than 2%) (Rowell and Coetzee 2003).Soil infrared spectroscopy (IR) is another (emerging) technology that makes large area sampling and analysis of SOC feasible (Brown, 2007;Brown et al., 2006;Shepherd and Walsh, 2002;Vågen et al., 2006). The use of IR, and in particular mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy, produces consistent (and reproducible) predictions of SOC and allows for increased sample densities in order to capture the high spatial variability of SOC across landscapes (Terhoeven-Urselmans et al., 2010;Vågen et al., 2016). Recent reviews show a strong increase in the use of both NIR and MIR spectroscopy for soil analysis (Bellon-Maurel and McBratney, 2011;Stenberg et al., 2010;Viscarra Rossel et al., 2011). The use of IR data can be integrated with geospatial statistics and remote sensing for estimation of SOC concentrations and stocks at scales that range from local (within farm) predictions to continental assessments (Vågen et al., 2012, 2013b, 2016, Winowiecki et al., 2015, 2016). Another major advantage of IR for soil analysis is the capacity to predict many soil properties simultaneously from a single spectrum (Stenberg et al., 2010), which further reduces the total analytical costs of soil analyses. When combined with the high throughput achievable when using IR for soil analysis, inventories of SOC stocks at project level or larger geographical extents become feasible.Methods for mapping of SOC concentrations and stocks at different spatial scales are under rapid development, with significant progress being made based on the systematic collection of data on SOC stocks, combined with remote sensing and novel approaches for statistical modeling, such as machine learning algorithms. Previous estimates of the spatial distribution of SOC were generally based on available soil maps, such as the Digital Soil Map of the World (DSMW) and later the HWSD (Batjes, 1996(Batjes, , 2004;;Henry et al., 2009). These maps were produced at a very coarse spatial resolution, with large uncertainties, and were at best able to give rough estimates SOC stocks at continental scales. More recently, SOC has been mapped based on remote sensing, including air-borne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) (Asner et al., 2012), and space-borne Landsat (Vågen et al., 2013b), Quickbird (Vågen et al., 2012) and MODIS (Hengl et al., 2014;Vågen et al., 2016). Combining the use of cumulative soil mass to calculate SOC stocks with IR and remote sensing has been shown to have potential for assessing the spatial distribution of SOC stocks in landscapes (Winowiecki et al., 2016) by being both cost-effective, logistically efficient, and yielding high levels of accuracy.The default option set by UNCCD (2016a) to measure soil organic carbon is the SoilGrids database from the International Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) (http://soilgrids.org). In terms of the indicators relevant to LDN processes, the SoilGrids database provides predictions on soil properties and classes at a resolution of 250m (see figure 2.5). The SoilGrids system is freely available and can be used by countries that don't have more accurate national or sub-national data available. ISRICs main objective is to provide the international community with information on global soil resources, focusing on soil data and soil mapping, as well as the application of soil data.This means that the soil maps are based on the best global fit and might need field verification on a national or subnational scale to increase accuracy. However, SoilGrids is based on a continuously increasing number of soil profile descriptions (currently around 150.000) and covariates so that accuracy is increasing rapidly. Besides providing baseline maps of soil organic carbon, the mapping framework is built to accommodate shared soil data from different sources. Existing and newly gathered soil data (including soil spectroscopy data) for an area of interest can be uploaded -e.g. through the SoilInfo App (http://soilinfo.isric.org)to improve the accuracy of predictions.Soil organic carbon is predicted for six different depths, allowing for the calculation of carbon stocks, which can be used as approximations for baseline values for carbon monitoring. These baseline maps can also be used for optimization of sampling strategies for future carbon monitoring.For Africa, the 250 m soil property maps used a combination of legacy soil data from the Africa Soil Profiles databases and soil data collected as part of the Africa Soil Information Service (AfSIS) project. The SoilGrids framework can also be used as a tool for monitoring and evaluation. The combination of a) an automated mapping system and b) a mechanism for crowdsourcing makes SoilGrids a tool for monitoring changes in soil organic carbon. Regular model runs will use the new sets of observations or measurements contributed, and automatically produce new maps for the area of interest.The following table includes a brief overview of the advantages and disadvantages of each method or datasets as mentioned in section 2,4. This chapter focuses on the process of evaluating the methods that have been presented in chapter 2, plus any additional methods as well as tier 2 and 3 data available or being developed in Namibia and Costa Rica and identified during local workshops. Furthermore it describes the evaluation of additional indicators beyond the UNCCD indicators Land cover, NPP, and SOC. The overall evaluation process consisted in selecting and weighting different criteria, ranking the available methods, and developing a plan for the implementation of baseline production.Multiple sources of combined data are likely to be most precise, as was the conclusion from earlier land degradation assessments (LADA/GLADIS 2009, Sommer et al. 2010, Reed et al. 2011). This is especially relevant if assessments must capture changes over time in at fine scale with heterogeneous land uses, compared to changes at large spatial scales.While general criteria for LDN methods are presented in Box 1 above, national partners in Namibia and Costa Rica stressed that the following three criteria, in particular, were crucial for a baseline assessment. The selected method(s) must be:1. cost-effective, 2. appropriate for the available national capacity and be repeatable independently by local partners, and 3. have value for other regional and national projects. This specific emphasis does not necessarily imply that partners are less interested in methods that offer the highest resolution or accuracy. However, final decisions on the methodologies selected depend to a great extent on data requirements for local initiatives and capacities to implement the methods independently.For instance, in Namibia, the pilot area is much larger and local capacities are being developed, partners are less interested in the latest techniques, if this means that the method is not costeffective or that the methods have to be implemented by non-Namibian organizations. Contrarily, in Costa Rica the area is much smaller and there is a need for high resolution data. Here national institutions and universities have varying capacities, and thus partners were more interested in robust methodologies, that generate highly detailed information needed for local planning and local/national implementation.Many countries have other commitments to the different UN conventions. It is therefore not desirable to increase the burden on national governments for reporting. One way to lessen the burden and be more cost-effective is to share datasets and monitoring tasks, for example on land cover and land use change. It is also increasingly more important that methods meet the available capacity and can be built to implement the methods and monitoring system independently.Partners in Namibia and Costa Rica also emphasized that the LDN baselines needed to support ongoing development and sustainable land management plans. Where methods can support such plans, they will find greater buy-in and political support. This is especially important when the baseline is complete and targets are set for reaching land degradation neutrality. For example, degraded agricultural lands may already have targets related to NPP and SOC and the LDN targets should not conflict existing targets. Similarly, areas may already have land cover and land use change targets such as reforestation of areas that were previously deforested. Therefore, selecting a baseline method needs to be informed by ongoing national and regional (planning) processes and sustainable development plans.One of the difficult tasks with multi-criteria tradeoff analyses is setting weights for different criteria. For example, it is not a trivial task to compare cost-effectiveness and national capacity. Perhaps one method provides an opportunity to train national staff in a desired methodology but it does not provide the proper time-frame (10 years) to establish a trend for LDN. Weighing or ranking different criteria with a large group of workshop participants who have different perspectives can become problematic. Even the process of who is invited to the workshop and gets to decide, influences the process. Another challenge is that facilitators and decision makers often have to work with incomplete information. For example, not all the cost of implementing different methods were available at the time of the workshops, which was a challenge given that cost-effectiveness was one of the most important criteria.During the workshops, it was therefore important to have a transparent process and recognize the limitations of selecting methods with incomplete information. There was deliberately extra time built-in for debate and discussion, and time was taken during each step of the process to make sure issues were clearly disseminated and understood, and thus that there was consensus to move forward. Overall, the selection process followed a three-step approach:1. Overview of available information on methods, including national approaches, and reaching agreement on additional indicators where necessary 2. Weighting of selection criteria by LDN indicator 3. Completion of selection matrix to select one method for each indicator During each workshop, presentations were given by experts on the different methods for each indicator (see chapter 2). Workshop participants were given ample time to ask detailed questions to make sure there is clear understanding of the pros and cons of the different methods. Local experts were also invited to give presentations on approaches used at the national level. The tables presented in chapter 2 at the end of each section were very useful to stimulate discussion. Two approaches were used for weighting and scoring (1 to 5, with 1 being unsuitable and 5 being highly suitable) the different options. In Namibia, participants were divided in groups and each group discussed how the criteria should be weighted, and what score should be given for all three LDN indicators. The scores were then combined to determine the approach for each indicator. In Costa Rica, the workshop participant group was larger and there was more expertise in specific topics so that the groups were divided according to the LDN indicators. In each sub group, participants were asked to weigh the criteria and then assign scores to the different methods. In both cases, the groups had to agree to give one score collectively. This requires that everyone is engaged and this approach promotes discussion. Having a facilitator in each group helped to guide the discussion and allow all members of the group to be heard. Alternatively, we could have asked each participant to give a score which allows all participants to participate fully and does not allow a single person to dominate the discussion.The final step could not always be completed given the lack of critical information as described above. In both Costa Rica and Namibia, additional information was collected after the workshops ended. In Costa Rica, participants selected four methods for the three LDN indicators plus erosion risk. They also expressed a desire for more training to understand some of the methods better and be able to make more informed decisions at a later stage. In Namibia, participants narrowed it down to two approaches and requested that the budgets were worked out first so that the final decision could be taken by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, which is responsible for executing the LDN agenda in Namibia. Before we present the final selections, an overview of each region is given below.The Otjozondjupa Region (figure 3.1) is situated northeast of the capital of Windhoek and spans 105,460 km 2 and a low population of approximately 144.000 people (0.73 persons/km 2 ) (Namibia Statistics Agency 2011). The region is predominately characterized by grassland and sparsely vegetated shrubland, and scattered small areas of closed canopy forest. The land tenure is predominantly privatized, except for the community lands in northeast districts. Land use is mostly rangeland cattle farming, much of it being intensive commercial cattle farming, grain production, and a large proportion of smallholder subsistence agriculture mainly in the communal lands (King et al. 2011, Gilolmo andLobo 2016). Namibia is naturally the most arid country in sub-Saharan Africa, and prolonged droughts are well-known occurrences, which is projected to increase and become more unpredictable in the future (Ziedler 2010).Bush encroachment represents a great threat to the livelihoods of the (e.g. pastoralist) communities living in dryland ecosystems (e.g. Angassa and Oba, 2008). It is described as the increase in biomass and abundance of woody species and the suppression of perennial grasses and herbs (Ward, 2005) leading to dense thickets often composed of thorny and/or unpalatable bushes. It often occurs as a result of land degradation in African drylands, for example due to overgrazing or changes in fire regimes (Zimmermann et al., 2008). Once established, invasive woody species can also be a major driver of land degradation due to the suppression of perennial grasses and reduced ground cover as a result (Joubert et al., 2008) and soil nutrient depletion (Klintenberg and Seely, 2004;Moleele and Perkins, 1998;Oldeland et al., 2010;Rocha et al., 2015).In Africa, certain species of the genus Acacia are known encroachers. In Namibia, grasslands are often encroached by Acacia mellifera and Acacia reficiens, often occurring together  (Joubert et al., 2008;Zimmermann et al., 2008). While these are native, encroaching species invade land by being very efficient in utilizing available resources (nutrients, water, light, energy), and have traits that allow them to quickly take up these resources making them unavailable for other plants (Funk and Vitousek, 2007).The negative consequences of bush encroachment are widespread and include: adverse effects on native species (Meik et al., 2002;Spottiswoode, 2009), diminishing agricultural production, rangeland degradation (Angassa, 2005), watershed quality (Huxman et al., 2005), increasing erosion (Grover and Musick, 1990;Vågen and Winowiecki, 2014) and loss of ecosystem carbon (Jackson et al., 2002) and loss of aboveground biodiversity. (Jackson et al., 2002) reported higher SOC in encroached areas in dry areas and a decrease in SOC in wetter regions.The deeper and more expansive root systems of many woody vegetation types, compared to herbaceous plants, means that they have access to soil water from deeper soil layers, which in turn means that they tend to have longer seasonal periods of water extraction and can thereby reduce soil water content consistently throughout the year (Kemp, 1983). In addition, their greater leaf area will increase water loss by transpiration and increase soil evaporation through the exposure of the soil (Huxman et al., 2005). As a consequence, encroachment has been shown to directly decrease streamflow in some cases (Cleverly et al., 1997).While there are limited data available on degradation currently, Namibia is concluding a number of action-plans to combat environmental degradation and integrate management of all the regions as well as land tenure reforms, and thus centralizing national data might become a priority in the near future (King et al. 2011). Globally available datasets show an increase of NDVI in grassland regions which is most likely due to bush encroachment (LDN Country Report 2015, Gilolmo and Lobo 2016). Bush encroachment is not always a direct consequence of land use change however. Drivers of bush encroachment are much debated (Ward, 2005) and likely include a combination of different factors including grazing intensity, fire management, and climate change. Unless extremely severe, it is unlikely that the three standard LDN indicators recommended by UNCCD can detect bush encroachment.To our best knowledge there are no existing tier 2 or 3 land cover maps for Otjozondjupa Region that could improve on the default ESA CCI land cover maps. However, Namibia is currently developing the Integrated Regional Land Use Plan (IRLUP) based on participatory land use planning which is scheduled to be completed in 2016. The plan will include georeferenced land use maps for each region for both present and future land uses.Changes in productivity presume that healthy land exhibits a high productivity while degradation reduces the net primary productivity, but that is a matter of context as outlined above. For Namibia, bush encroaching vegetation increases (aboveground) biomass and productivity compared to the grassland it encroaches. Therefore, applying straight forward Tier 1 productivity maps as an indicator, may erroneously classify degrading encroached areas as areas under recovery. Bush encroachment in drylands can be difficult to detect with some of the most commonly used VIs, such as NDVI and CRD, since many of the new species found in these areas have a relatively weak signal in terms of chlorophyll. Other types of VIs have been explored as alternatives, including the EVI and SATVI (Marsett et al., 2006;Qi et al., 2002) as they tend to be more sensitive to canopy structure and dryland vegetation cover (i.e. senescent vegetation).There is an existing program in Namibia that monitors land productivity trends based on MODIS data. The Rangeland Monitoring Project (http://www.namibiarangelands.com/) publishes mean monthly NDVI, precipitation, and vegetation condition maps on their website. The project is also developing new methods to map bush encroachment that will become available in 2017.In addition to Figure 2.5 above (SoilGrids250), Figure3.2 shows a soil carbon stock map based on the LDSF framework. Existing studies of SOC for Otjozondjupa and surrounding areas have reported values ranging from about 6.2 g C kg -1 to 11.5 g kg -1 in the topsoil (0-20 cm depth) in rangeland soils. Somewhat higher SOC concentrations can be expected in dense bushlands or dry forests. based on the LDSF (see Vågen et al., 2016) As described in chapter 2, the methodologies that were used to make these maps are based on soil profile data collected in sites across the world (so called sentinel sites), and thus have a global best fit, not a national or regional best fit. There are no tier 2 or 3 data available in Namibia to test the in situ accuracy of either map, although these methodologies have a published accuracy based on studies done elsewhere. One way forward would be to improve on these two methods by collecting local data to validate the models.Biodiversity and functional properties (e.g. time of leaf emergence) of the vegetation are important indicators of land degradation, and using these as additional indicators will be helpful especially for detecting bush encroachment as this may prove to be challenging using the current tier 1 indicator. Remote sensing has been used for mapping of woody species diversity (Innes and Koch, 1998;Rocchini et al., 2015) and can be applied in the assessment of land degradation. Such additional indicator may help in the detection of bush encroachment as species composition and biodiversity change in bush encroached areas. Some remote sensing techniques can also distinguish between the leaf phenology of the two types of Acacia prevalent in bush encroachment areas in Namibia (Oldeland et al., 2010): A. mellifera, which has leaf flushing in September and A. reficiens, which has leaf flushing in December. The JRC Phenology land cover data could potentially detect the differences in phenology and thus bush encroachment at 30 m resolution. Furthermore, dryland grasses have different metabolic pathways in the photosynthesis than bushes and trees, called the C4-pathway. Recent techniques can detect this and use C3/C4 carbon isotope ratio in soil carbon and map this using remote sensing. This can be used to assess bush encroachment, because the relative abundance of C3 carbon will be higher in soils under woody vegetation, as compared to soils under tropical grasses that have a C4 photosynthetic pathway.The Rio Jesus Maria watershed (352 km 2 ) in Costa Rica is very different from the Otjozondjupa region in Namibia and thus other issues arise when developing a baseline. Rio Jesus Maria watershed is situated along Costa Rica's Pacific coast (Figure 3.3) and has lost most of its natural vegetation cover due to deforestation and agricultural expansion. Currently the majority of the watershed consists of grasslands for extensive cattle ranching and secondary forests (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), 2011). Reduced vegetation cover, poor infrastructure, and extensive cattle ranching have led to wide scale soil degradation and erosion and the concomitant widespread loss and redistribution of soil and nutrients in the watershed, degradation of soil structure, water pollution and downstream floods.Studies show that local communities, especially the ones living downstream, are affected by lack of fresh water supply, failing crop yields during floods, ultimately increasing food insecurity and poverty in the region (Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), 2011). Floods sometimes also inundate populated areas resulting in damage to infrastructure and properties.The complex topography of the Rio Jesus Maria watershed, and its relatively small size, means that assessments of land degradation need to be made at fine spatial resolution to capture the level of degradation properly. This will present a challenge for most tier 1 remote sensing products publicly available, as their spatial resolution is most often too coarse to capture smallscale dynamics. Furthermore, the use of remote sensing products can be challenging as there is often extensive cloud cover in the area. However, Costa Rica has a suite of tier 2 data developed and available.Land cover is important for detecting deforestation which is the primary cause of land degradation in Rio Jesús Maria watershed. However, the resolution of land cover change detection plays an extremely important role in being able to detect land degradation. In addition to changes in land cover from forest to non-forest, combinations of land use with soil type, topography, and management (practices / intensity) also drive land degradation in this geographical context (Hoyos, 2005). As a result, the direct relationship between land cover change and watershed degradation may not always be accurate (Ponette-González et al., 2015).The coarse resolution of a tier 1 dataset describing forest loss/gain, does not match the trends estimated by national institutions as part of the national programs for monitoring forest cover (MINAE 2015). As the national initiatives' tier 2 datasets use finer resolution and are linked to the national programs for payment for ecosystem services and REDD, existing data such as those produced as part of various initiatives to map forest cover in Costa Rica may be very useful for assessing land cover.Costa Rica developed various policy reforms and incentives in the 1990s to stop deforestation and forest degradation, and favor reforestation in areas where forest cover was lost. The main national mechanisms for support of reforestation are the national forestry development plan and the national program for payment of ecosystem services managed by the National Fund for Forest Financing (FONAFIFO) of Costa Rica. In order to track progress linked to these national policies and incentives, FONAFIFO and the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC) have worked to develop forest cover maps for 2000, 2005, 2010 with a resolution of 30 x 30 m. These maps were derived from Landsat and SPOT images and focus only on two types of land cover: forest and non-forest.In 2013 SINAC updated the national forest cover map using RapidEye Images (from December 2011 until July 2012) to generate the first forest cover map at resolution of 5m. This map identifies eight categories of forest, from pristine mature forest, secondary forest, deciduous forest, palm forest, silvopastures, forestry plantations, mangroves and paramo. Other lands uses such as annual and perennial crops, wetlands, water bodies, bare soil, sand and urban infrastructure are grouped in one category of \"non-forest\". This detailed forest map was the basis for the stratification and location of sample plots for the 2013 National Forest Inventory (SINAC 2015) (see Figure 3.4).In order to cover a multitude of reporting methodologies, Costa Rica is developing a national system for monitoring land use change dynamics. This system should provide information on land cover, land use change for forest and other important ecosystems, and will be the cornerstone for reporting on national targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (linked to REDD and Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions [NAMA]). A group of experts is currently working on the development of this system, particularly in the development of a unique land classification system for the country. The monitoring methodologies have not been defined yet and could therefore be streamlined with LDN reporting needs. Costa Rica is also in the final period of consultation of its National REDD+ Strategy, and has submitted its proposed national Forest Reference Emission Level and Forest Reference Level (FREL/FRL) to the UNFCCC for a technical assessment. Although Costa Rica included all REDD+ activities in its national REDD+ strategy, only emission reductions from deforestation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks have been included in the FREL/FRL. FREL results are based on a temporal analysis of land use change for the period 1986-2013, using Landsat images. The classes recognized in these maps are: forest, annual crops, permanent crops, grasslands, settlements, wetlands, paramos and natural and artificial base soil (MINAE 2016).The land productivity indicator involved vivid debates during the workshop. This was due to several factors. First, it was acknowledged that many different institutions had satellite data from different sources with different resolutions, and without a clear overview of the content and availability of the national repositories, it was difficult to make this decision. During the post-workshop period, it was proposed that this would be a separate consultancy, to do a complete review of data and capacities within Costa Rican institutions and to produce a land productivity baseline, which would be appropriate for both the small watershed as well as the national scales.Since there is a strong emphasis on monitoring forest cover and deforestation, and given the relationship between forest cover and land productivity, efforts to produce these indicator baselines may be combined. For example, there is a possibility to use the newly developed FREL/FRL for reporting to the UNFCCC, to establish forest change, as an indicator for land productivity. In combination with other data, or as a stand-alone, these data might hold potential for improving spatial resolution, have long time series, and thus improve the indicator for trends in land productivity.One other possibility that takes advantage of the relationship between land productivity and deforestation is the Terra-I framework which was reviewed in section 2.2.5. Terra-I monitors deforestation in near real-time, based on changes in productivity, and is freely available. While it has better spatial resolution (250m) than JRC LPD (1km), the workshop participants regarded this as too coarse. We mention it here to highlight potential ways to combine future efforts in Costa Rica in completing the baselines for both land cover and NPP.Currently there are no completed maps of soil organic carbon for Costa Rica available from national initiatives. Various institutions are working on digital soil mapping as well as on collection and systematization of nationally available soil data. For example, the University of Costa Rica and the National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) have been working with the Soil Information System for Latin America (SISLAC). SISLAC is a collaboration between FAO -Global Soil Partnership, CIAT, Catholic Relief Services (CRS), EMBRAPA (Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation), and national institutions from 19 countries in Latin America. As part of SISLAC, Costa Rica received training in digital soil mapping and has started to produce draft SOC maps. At the time of the workshop, 500 soil profiles were available which has now tripled to 1500 soil profiles, mainly available for coastal areas which had been prioritized. In addition, the National Forest Inventory collected 280 soil samples from 1,000 m 2 in 2013, covering six different forest land uses (Figure 3.5) across the whole country. Some readily available SOC maps could be used as a SOC baseline map. For example, LDSF has a 500 m resolution map of SOC for Jesus Maria watershed (Figure 3.6). However, this resolution was considered too coarse by the national stakeholders who participated in the workshop. Others are also working on making global SOC maps available at finer resolution. ISRIC, for example, has made available a 250 m resolution product recently. In order to make meaningful assessments of SOC status and trends we suggest that these will need to be made at 30 m or finer resolution for this watershed.The currently available data may not be sufficient to produce a reliable estimate of SOC in the Rio Jesus Maria watershed because of scattered sampling plots that only cover forest land covers; with only few data points available in Jesus Maria. Therefore there is a need to increase the number of soil measurements to be able to develop digital soil maps for Jesus Maria. Also, while digital soil mapping training has started through the SISLAC collaboration, there is still an expressed need to further strengthen this through capacity building.  (Vågen et al., 2016).A critical factor determining SOC trends in the Jesus Maria watershed is likely to be soil erosion, particularly along waterways and on steep slopes, as highlighted in the Community Development and Knowledge Management for the Satoyama Initiative 13 (COMDEKS). It is recommended as an indicator that should be considered, in addition to the three core indicators, when assessing land degradation in the watershed.National efforts to assess soil erosion in Costa Rica, currently focus on assessing the vulnerability of soil to be eroded using the PAP/RAC methodology. During a presentation by INTA at the workshop in San José, it was explained that this method does not quantify the amount of soil lost due to water or wind erosion, but it gives an index defining the grade of erosion risk/potential (Priority Actions Programme Regional Activity Centre -Split 1997). Soil vulnerability to erosion is based mostly on soil physical properties and land cover. INTA and the University of Costa Rica are tailoring the methodology to conditions in Costa Rica and are updating the soil map of Costa Rica to have a better application of PAP/RAC methods in areas where soil information is not complete. Part of these efforts include plans to develop a detailed soil sampling to characterize soil profiles and soil properties in particular areas of the country.The soil sampling methodologies used by INTA could also complement the efforts to collect new soil samples in Jesus Maria in relation to soil organic carbon.The Namibia workshop was conducted from February 9 to 11, 2016, in Windhoek. The workshop was organized in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET). One factor that was important in Namibia was the fact that very little data already existed for Otjozondjupa region. While the basic data to determine land productivity through net primary production is available at national level, there are no national baselines for bush encroachment or SOC (other than the ISRIC and LDSF datasets that are based on modeling techniques and do not yet include ground truth data). National land cover data are very coarse, and thus not of much relevance for Otjozondjupa. Furthermore, the severity of bush encroachment in Otjozondjupa and other areas of northern Namibia was critical during the methods selection process. It became obvious that extensive new field data had to be collected to map areas under bush encroachment and accurately map bush densities as well. The requirement to do extensive fieldwork influenced the selection of a methodology for the three remaining LDN indicators.Given that extensive areas will have to be surveyed to collect data on bush encroachment, it was a logical next step that other land cover data would be collected at the same time in order to be cost-effective and complete the land cover and SOC baseline maps. During method selection, the emphasis was thus placed on optimal and efficient field sampling design for collecting data for three indicators: land cover, soil organic carbon and bush encroachment. Another factor that influenced the selection of a method for SOC measurement was the desire to execute the different components of the work locally, for as much as feasible, and therefore give preference to techniques that are locally and nationally used already. While the LDSF method was desirable because it presented a complete package for different indicators, the methodology relies on the use of soil infrared spectroscopy which is currently not available in Namibia so it was not the preferred option by the participants.The final selected methods were thus:• Indicator 1 -Land Cover: ground truth data collection for a supervised classification of Landsat data at 30m resolution. • Indicator 2 -NPP: collaboration with local partners to produce a NDVI-derived baseline using the same Landsat data. • Indicator 3 -SOC: field data collection of soil profile data, analyzed locally at the Ministry of Forestry, and baseline produced using the ISRIC methodology.• Bush Encroachment: field data collection to produce a baseline with different gradients of bush encroachment (density) based on the methodology for Land Cover.Appendix A provides a summary of the activities and expected cost for implementing this approach.The Integrated Regional Land Use Plan (IRLUP) is an important way forward to address land degradation in Otjozondjupa. Any targets for achieving land degradation neutrality should be integrated into general land use planning. Another project of interest for the LDN study in Otjozondjupa Region is the GIZ De-Bushing Project (DBP). This project aims to quantify the extent of existing bush encroached area and determine its spatial distribution, as well as the possible economic utility of the encroaching biomass (e.g. for charcoal production). Furthermore, a proposal to establish a GIS database of the dynamics of bush encroachment (the BIS-GIS database) is pending a second round of feedback from the Namibian Statistics Agency (NSA). The outcome of this project could offer valuable information on methodology and extent of bush encroachment in the Otjozondjupa region for the LDN baseline procedures.The review of the BIS-GIS has shed light on a few considerations expressed by National Statistics Agency (NSA), which are of relevance to the LDN methodology. Firstly, it is important that a baseline assessment relies on quantitative and ground-truthed data, and that the methodology requires validity testing to determine the level of accuracy of the products. It is also important to use existing technology and infrastructure made available by various ministries (e.g. Department of Surveys and Mapping, DSM), to reduce uncertainties and replication of already derived information and adhere to existing policies and quality standards. Secondly, spatial, temporal, and methodological consistency of available remote sensing and vector data are an expressed concern of the NSA, as not all regions of Namibia are equally well-covered. This will most likely not affect the pilot area of Otjozondjupa much as there is consistent remote sensing data coverage in this area, but might be of concern to other regions of Namibia in a national baseline assessment framework. Given the strong capacity in Costa Rica, most of the selected methods were methods that are currently used nationally and that national experts are already familiar with. The final method selections were:• Indicator 1 -Land cover: Use the same methodology that is used to produce land cover maps for Costa Rica's REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) commitments to the UNFCCC. • Indicator 2-NPP: The approach is to first investigate which data are nationally available from different government offices. Then it will be necessary to agree on which of the indexes will be used for the baseline analysis of NPP and decide whether the national organizations or an external consultant will carry out analysis to complete the baseline. In Costa Rica, there are several planning processes on sub-national level that are important to address land degradation in general and for specific pilot areas, for example, municipal regulation plans, territorial rural development plans, management plan for protected areas, management or strategic plans for biological corridors, beside others.The following considerations expressed by different stakeholders in Costa Rica are of relevance to the national LDN process:First, a baseline assessment for LDN should rely on quantitative and ground-truthed data, be as accurate as possible using the existing data bases, technology and infrastructure available in the country to reduce uncertainties and replication of already derived information.Secondly, a baseline assessment for the proposed, relatively small, pilot area should be applicable on national level for a national baseline assessment.Thirdly, there are several ongoing projects of interest for the LDN process in Costa Rica.-The Sixth Operational Phase of the GEF Small Grants Programme in Costa Rica (2016-2018) aims at enabling community organizations to enhance livelihoods by restoring degraded forest and production landscapes for socio-ecological resilience in the watersheds Jesús Maria and Barranca. It supports, among other, adaptive landscape management plans and policies, reforestation and restoration campaigns. -The GIZ-Project \"Implementation of the National Biocorridor Programme (PNCB) within the context of Costa Rica's National Biodiversity Strategy\" (2014-2020) commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB). This project supports, among other, the establishment of a baseline and monitoring system for biological corridors including in parts the same or similar indicators as proposed for LDN. Furthermore, the project facilitates planning processes for sustainable land management in biological corridors. In addition, advice for the establishment of financial mechanisms generates funding for implementing relevant SLM measures. -The \"NAMA support project: Low-carbon coffee Costa Rica\" (2016-2019), commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB) and the UK Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS). This project supports the voluntary action geared to climate change mitigation, including efficient application of fertilisers, the use of shade trees and measuring, reporting and verification of CO2 reductions.The LDN Target Setting Programme of the UNCCD focuses preliminary on the national scale for land degradation assessments and LDN target setting. In order to support the implementation of a LDN approach, national assessments need to be complemented with more detailed sub-national baseline assessments. This report provides a review of the available data and methods for the three LDN indicators in the context of two pilot areas. These areas -Otjozondjupa region in Namibia and Rio Jesús Maria in Costa Rica -were identified with the respective partners participating in the national LDN processes, because both have degradation challenges that are relevant for many regions around the world. These challenges are important to address and strengthen national capacities and readiness to engage in mitigating land degradation.There are a number of existing and free global datasets that could offer information to the land degradation assessments at sub-national scale. For Indicator 1 Land Cover Change there are multiple land cover maps available, e.g. GL30, JRC Trees-3, Terra-I, and LDSF, which are viable options to complement the default option, the ESA CCI-LC dataset. These datasets and methods can be used as stand-alone or as supplements to national data. Indicator 2 Land Productivity data are also available at the global level, which serve to derive more accurate data (e.g. using EVI, SATVI or RUE). It is suggested to use NDVI derived products that are more sensitive to senescent vegetation in dryland areas, soil conditions, and that have atmospheric adjustments in areas with extensive cloud cover. Moreover the resolution of the freely available data is not suitable for supporting local planning in countries such as Costa Rica where there is great variability in biophysical conditions over small areas.The negative impacts of bush encroachment are widespread and include: diminishing agricultural production and rangeland degradation, decreasing watershed quality, and loss of aboveground biodiversity. While bush encroachment is considered the most severe form of land degradation in Namibia, it has confounding challenges for all three LDN indicators. This is because bush encroached lands usually show positive trends in net primary productivity and soil organic carbon, and they will reflect a land cover change from grassland and shrubland to bushland and forest, which is considered a positive change from the LDN perspective.Workshops were held in both Namibia and Costa Rica to discuss the process with local stakeholders. For LDN methods national partners stressed that the following three criteria were important to take into account. The selected methods should be:1. Cost-effective 2. Appropriate for the available national capacity and be repeatable independently by local partners 3. Have value for other regional and national projects Both focus areas have a number of ongoing projects and processes that can be used to share either reporting obligations or primary data collection, and building on these commonalities can offer a reduction in costs to the LDN baseline assessment and future monitoring efforts.In Otjozondjupa, Namibia, the main problem associated with land degradation in dry grassland is bush encroachment. There is no existing data on bush encroachment available, and therefore other options were explored further. Namibia is furthermore experiencing a lack of both existing national data, as well as a centralized data repository, and data that is available is not readily accessible. Namibia chose to opt for classification and ground-truthing of finer spatial resolution from globally available Landsat imagery and SoilGrids methodology, and extensive data collection to map distribution and densities of bush encroachment. The final selection was as follows:• Indicator 1 -Land cover: ground truth data collection for a supervised classification of Landsat data. • Indicator 2 -NPP: collaboration with local partners to produce a NDVI-derived baseline using the same Landsat data. • Indicator 3 -SOC: field data collection of soil profile data, analyzed locally at the Ministry of Forestry, and baseline produced using the ISRIC SoilGrids methodology. • Indicator 4 -Bush Encroachment: field data collection to produce a baseline with different gradients of bush encroachment (density) based on the methodology for Land Cover mapping.In Rio Jesús Maria watershed, Costa Rica, deforestation and subsequent watershed degradation has led to severe soil erosion. Costa Rica has a large collection of national data, and local experts therefore opted to expand on existing national data for the three indicators, as well as increase national capacity on soil mapping and erosion modeling. The final selection was as follows:• Indicator 1 -Land cover: Use the same methodology as used to produce land cover maps for Costa Rica's REDD+ commitments to the UNFCCC. • Indicator 2 -NPP: The approach taken is to first investigate which data are nationally available from different government offices and task one with producing an NDVI change analysis to complete this baseline. • Indicator 3 -SOC: Costa Rica has started work on SOC mapping under the SISLAC framework and decided to complete this work. In addition, workshop participants requested additional training in other Digital Soil Mapping techniques in order to do a more robust evaluation of all available techniques at a later time. • Indicator 4 -Erosion (existing erosion and erosion risk): Participants selected training in the RUSLE-3D technique to produce a map of current erosion to complement their modified PAP/CAR approach.Both countries have existing processes in place or starting up, which might be helpful to the LDN baseline assessments and reduce cost of primary data collection. In Namibia this is namely the IRLUP process, but also the GIZ De-Bushing Project and The Rangeland Monitoring Project, can assist in addressing the gaps in national data. For Costa Rica there are a number of ongoing national processes that will enable more extensive national data on land degradation, most importantly improvements of their reporting mechanisms to the UNFCCC and the engagement with SISLAC.While the pilot phase provided a national baseline based on globally available datasets, this review of other datasets and methods points to a need for higher resolution (primary) data in order to develop baselines for the two sub-national regions in Namibia and Costa Rica. Moreover, subnational baseline assessments may require additional field data collection depending on the characteristics of degradation occurring locally. In certain contexts, additional indicators beyond Land Cover, Land Productivity and Soil Organic Carbon, may be required to adequately assess land degradation at a subnational level.","tokenCount":"12080"}

data/part_6/0588902052.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"00861aa59fe78778a854503be9a528ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b95cf107-2938-4a8b-abac-a1eb48ff8547/content","id":"-1372835823"},"keywords":["AFLP, DNA fingerprinting, genetic diversity, synthetic wheat AFLP, amplified fragment length polymorphism","CIMMYT, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center","DNA, deoxyribonucleic Acid","PCA, principal component analysis","PIC, polymorphic information content","RFLP, restriction fragment length polymorphism","SSR, simple sequence repeat","UPGMA, unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages"],"sieverID":"27673e98-46d8-4dfa-8b71-75e52eb34504","pagecount":"12","content":"Genetic diversity among 14 drought tolerance (drought accessions) and 27 salinity tolerance (salinity accessions) related conventional and synthetic wheat (Triticum sp.) accessions containing different sources of the D genome was assessed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). The wheat accessions were analyzed with 20 EcoRI/MseI primer combinations. Among 918 fragments scored, 368 were polymorphic across all 41 wheat accessions, 348 were polymorphic among the drought accessions and 310 were polymorphic among the salinity accessions. Similarity coefficients among all accessions based on Jaccard's coefficient ranged from 0.18 to 0.92 with an average of 0.53 ± 0.01; among drought accessions, from 0.16 to 0.79 with an average of 0.43 ± 0.02; and among salinity accessions, from 0.16 to 0.92 with an average of 0.57 ± 0.01. Polymorphic information content (PIC) among all accessions ranged from 0.05 to 0.50 with an average PIC of 0.30 ± 0.01; among drought accessions, from 0.13 to 0.50 with an average PIC of 0.37 ± 0.01; and among salinity accessions, from 0.07 to 0.50 with an average PIC of 0.29 ± 0.01. Cluster and principal component analysis showed distinct groups of accessions both within drought and salinity entries. These accessions possess a substantial amount of genetic diversity and would be very valuable materials for breeding wheat with drought and salinity tolerance.Das, M. K., Bai, H-H. et Mujeeb-Kazi, A. 2007. Diversité génétique des variétés classiques et synthétiques de blé tolérant la sécheresse et la salinité selon la technique AFLP. Can. J. Plant Sci. 87: 691-702. Les auteurs ont évalué la diversité génétique d'obtentions de blé (Triticum sp.) classiques et synthétiques tolérant la sécheresse (n = 14) ou la salinité (n = 27) et renfermant différentes sources du génome D par la technique du polymorphisme amplifié de la longueur des fragments (AFLP). Les obtentions de blé ont été analysées grâce aux combinaisons d'amorces 20 EcoRI/MseI. Sur les 918 fragments évalués, 368 étaient polymorphes chez les 41 obtentions, 348 étaient polymorphes chez les obtentions tolérant la sécheresse et 310 étaient polymorphes chez celles tolérant la salinité. Le coefficient de similarité reposant sur le coefficient de Jaccard variait de 0,18 à 0,92 avec une moyenne de 0,53 ± 0,01 pour l'ensemble des obtentions, de 0,16 à 0,79 avec une moyenne de 0,43 ± 0,02 pour celles tolérant la sécheresse, et de 0,16 à 0,92 avec une moyenne de 0,57 ± 0,01 pour celles tolérant la salinité. Le contenu de matériel polymorphe variait de 0,05 à 0,50 avec une moyenne de 0,30 ± 0,01 pour l'ensemble des obtentions, de 0,13 à 0,50 avec une moyenne de 0,37 ± 0,01 pour celles tolérant la sécheresse, et de 0,07 à 0,50 avec une moyenne de 0,29 ± 0,01 pour celles tolérant la salinité. L'analyse des grappes et des composantes principales révèle l'existence de groupes distincts parmi les obtentions tolérant la sécheresse et celles tolérant la salinité. Ces obtentions présentent une importante diversité génétique et constitueraient du matériel d'une grande utilité pour la sélection de variétés de blé tolérant à la fois la sécheresse et la salinité.Mots clés: AFLP, identification par le code génétique, diversité génétique, blé synthétique Abiotic stresses such as drought and salinity are major global constraints to wheat production. Approximately 32% of the wheat-growing regions in developing countries go through some drought stress during the growing season (Morris et al. 1992). In total, around 45 million ha of wheat-producing land are characterized by periodic drought stress (Byerlee and Moya 1993). Soil salinity causes significant reductions in plant productivity, and consequent economic losses associated with reduced grain quality and yield of agricultural crops (Pitman and Lauchli 2002).Genetic diversity is the foundation for genetic improvement of various crops. Genetic diversity of germplasm including those naturally occurring or synthesized can be assessed through pedigree analysis (Cox et al. 1985;Martin et al. 1991) and DNA markers (Autrique et al. 1996;Karp et al. 1997; Barrett and Kidwell 1998;Davila et al. 1998;Soleimani et al. 2002;Sasanuma et al. 2002). DNA markers, however, provide a direct measurement of genetic relationships among samples analyzed based on their genome composition. Also, an unlimited number of markers is available for such analyses. Therefore, DNA markers are a necessary complement to pedigree analysis.Based on restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in 113 improved cultivars and landraces of durum wheat (T. turgidum L.), Autrique et al. (1996) reported a mean genetic distance of 0.21 and 0.31 within the improved lines and landraces, respectively. Using AFLP markers Barrett and Kidwell (1998) studied genetic diversity among wheat (T. aestivum L.) cultivars from the US Pacific Northwest, and reported mean genetic diversity estimates ranging from 0.49 to 0.58 for within spring and winter types and between spring vs. winter types. Manifesto et al. (2001) used AFLP and simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and quantified the genetic diversity among 105 modern and older bread wheat cultivars from Argentina concluding that Argentinian bread wheat germplasm had maintained a relatively constant level of genetic diversity during the last half century. Soleimani et al. (2002) detected a substantial amount of genetic variation between and within cultivars in 13 registered modern Canadian durum wheat cultivars based upon AFLP markers, reporting a mean pair-wise genetic distance of 0.40. Sasanuma et al. (2002) studied genetic diversity of wheat wild relatives from the Near East using AFLP, and reported the existence of potential genetic diversity among the wild relatives in natural populations. Lage et al. (2003) reported genetic diversity using AFLP and agronomic traits among 54 synthetic hexaploid wheats derived from crosses between emmer wheat (T. dicoccum L.) and goat grass (Aegilops tauschii Coss.). Based on AFLP, they observed clear grouping according to geographical origin for the T. dicoccum parents, but no clear groups for the Ae. tauschii parents. The hexaploid synthetics also revealed similar clustering as the T. dicoccum parent. Based on percentage polymorphic markers, the synthetic hexaploid wheats showed a considerably higher level of AFLP diversity (39%) than normally observed in cultivated wheat (12 to 21%).Reports on molecular marker studies of genetic diversity among wheat germplasm with drought tolerance are limited. Moghaddam et al. (2005) studied genetic diversity in bread wheat genotypes for tolerance to drought using AFLPs and agronomic traits such as plant height, days to flowering, days to maturity, grain yield and harvest index. Their study included 14 wheat genotypes from Iran and 14 wheat genotypes developed by or obtained by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). They reported that the genetic basis of drought tolerance of these accessions was different, particularly when comparing Iranian and CIMMYT accessions. No report was available on mol-ecular marker studies of genetic diversity among salinitytolerant wheat germplasm. However, Lindsay et al. (2004) reported an SSR marker closely linked to Nax1, a locus for sodium exclusion that gives salt tolerance in durum wheat, mapped on chromosome 2AL.Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) markers are the most suitable means for genetic diversity estimation (O'Donoughue et al. 1994;Plaschke et al. 1995;Kim and Ward 1997). However, the extent of their utility may depend on the type of the DNA markers, level of polymorphisms they reveal, and their genome coverage. Markers that can detect higher levels of polymorphism between wheat varieties can be utilized more efficiently to estimate genetic diversity. AFLP is such a marker class that can generate high levels of polymorphisms even in low polymorphic species like wheat (Bai et al. 1999). It is a multiplex marker system in which several polymorphic bands can be produced per assay (Vos et al. 1995). In addition, AFLP analysis is highly reproducible making it a suitable marker system for genetic diversity analysis and high-resolution mapping (Zabeau 1993).Since genetic diversity for traits such as drought and salinity tolerance is limited in conventional wheat, introgression of genes from wild relatives into elite cultivars has been a major wheat-breeding program objective within CIMMYT. Aegilops tauschii Coss. (2n = 2x = 14, DD), a diploid wheat relative, is a rich source of resistance genes to many biotic and abiotic stresses (Mujeeb-Kazi and Rajaram 2002). Synthetic hexaploid wheats (2n = 6x = 42, AABB-DD), which are generated by crossing tetraploid durum wheat (2n = 4x = 28, AABB) to various Ae. tauschii accessions, are an important bridging material for introgression of desirable genes from Ae. tauschii into bread wheat. CIM-MYT has developed numerous synthetic hexaploid wheats using diverse durum cultivars and Ae. tauschii accessions. These synthetic wheats possess many other important biotic stress traits that can be utilized for wheat improvement (Mujeeb-Kazi 2003a), such as resistance to Fusarium head blight (Fusarium graminearum Schw.), leaf rust (Puccinia triticina Eriks.), Septoria tritici blotch (Septoria tritici Roberge in Desmaz.) (Mujeeb-Kazi et al. 2000), Karnal bunt (Tilletia indica Mitra) (Mujeeb-Kazi et al. 2001a)  (Cox 1998;Xu et al. 2004). A set of germplasm with high levels of tolerance to drought and saline environments has also been identified (Reynolds et al. 2005). The objectives of the present study were (i) to evaluate genetic diversity of the selected germplasm sets that contain different D genome accessional sources conferring tolerance to drought and salinity based on AFLP and (ii) to identify parents for developing doubledhaploid-based mapping populations (Mujeeb-Kazi 2003b).Wheat accessions in this study include 14 accessions (drought accessions) with different levels of drought toler-ance and 27 accessions (salinity accessions) with different levels of salinity tolerance. The drought accessions consisted of five conventional wheat cultivars, five synthetic hexaploid wheats, and four durum wheat cultivars that were parents of the respective synthetics (Table 1). Entries D1 to D5 are the synthetics with superior drought tolerance and are currently being used for drought tolerance wheat breeding in CIMMYT. Their advanced derivatives after crosses with bread wheat cultivars have also performed well under reduced irrigation. Among the five conventional wheat cultivars, cv. Opata is a susceptible check and an ideal drought sensitive parent for developing mapping populations. The salinity accessions consisted of 19 conventional wheat cultivars, seven synthetic hexaploid wheats and one durum wheat cultivar (Table 2). The durum wheat (PDW 34) and wheat cultivars Oasis, PBW 343, Galvez S87 and Yecora F70 are salinity-susceptible, while the rest of the accessions are salinity tolerant. The salinity-tolerant accessions have been selected based on potassium: sodium (K:Na) discrimination levels in hydroponics using protocols of Gorham et al. (1987) and Shah et al. (1987). All salinity-tolerant accessions had K:Na ratios over 2.5, where a ratio of close to 1.0 indicates salt sensitivity. Entry S5 (PDW 34), the durum susceptible check had a K:Na value close to 1.0. The synthetic wheats differed not only in sources of D genome, but also in their A and B genome compositions. The latter durum parent in every case was salt susceptible (Pritchard et al. 2002).Genomic DNA was isolated from bulked wheat leaves of two to three seedlings (approximately 10 d old) using the CTAB procedure (Saghai-Maroof et al. 1984). AFLP analysis was performed using protocols described by Zabeau (1993) and Vos et al. (1995). Laboratory optimization and minor modifications for AFLP analysis were made according to Bai et al. (1999). Genomic DNA (300 ng) from each of the wheat entries was double digested with EcoRI and MseI restriction enzymes. Following restriction digestion, EcoRI and MseI adapters were ligated to the digested DNA fragments. Ligated DNA was diluted 10-fold for pre-amplification. Forty micro-liters of PCR reaction mixture contained 10 µL of the diluted DNA, 4 µL of 10X PCR buffer, 4 µL MgCl 2 (25 mM), 1.6 µL dNTPs (5 mM), 0.75 µL EcoRI pre-amplification primer (100 ng µL -1 ), 0.75 µL MseI pre-amplification primer (100 ng µL -1 ), 0.15 µL Taq polymerase and 18.75 µL of deionized water. Pre-amplification PCR was done in a MJ thermocycler (MJ Research Inc., Waltham, MA) with the following thermal profile: 94°C for 1 min followed by 30 cycles at 94°C for 30 s, 56°C for 60 s and 72°C for 60 s. The PCR product was then analyzed on 1.5% agarose gel to confirm pre-amplification.The pre-amplified DNA was diluted 10-fold. The PCR reaction mixture for selective amplification included 2 µL of the diluted DNA, 1 µL of 10X PCR buffer, 1 µL of 25 mM MgCl 2 , 0.4 µL of 5 mM dNTPs, 0.35 µL of MseI selective primer (50 ng µL -1 ), 0.4 µL fluorescence-labeled EcoRI selective primer (1 ρmol µL -1 ) from LI-COR (LI-COR Inc, Lincoln, NE), 0.04 µL Taq polymerase, and 4.8 µL deionized water. The PCR thermal cycles were as follows: 2 min at 94°C followed by 13 cycles at 94°C for 30 s, 65°C for 30 s, 72°C for 60 s with the annealing temperature lowered by 0.7 °C after each cycle; then followed by 23 cycles at 94°C for 30 s, 56°C for 30 s, 72°C for 60 s. A final extension was conducted for 5 min at 72°C. Twenty AFLP selective primer combinations were used for selective amplification (Table 3).The PCR products from the selective amplification were mixed with 5 µL of loading buffer and denatured for 5 min at 95°C before 1 µL of this product from each sample was loaded on each well of a 6.5% denaturing Gel Matrix gel (Li-Cor Inc., Lincoln, NE). The gel was ran in 1X TBE buffer at 1500 V and 40W for 3.5 h in a Li-Cor automated DNA sequencer (Li-Cor Inc., Lincoln, NE). DNA size standard from Li-Cor was used as a reference to calculate molecular size of each AFLP fragment.AFLP bands ranging from 70 to 350 base pairs were scored as present (1) or absent (0). Unambiguous fragments were entered as 0.5 in the data matrix. In order to ensure accurate scoring, all markers were scored at least twice. Polymorphism rates were estimated for all possible pairs of lines by dividing the number of polymorphic bands by the total number of bands. Polymorphic information content (PIC) was estimated using the formula used by Anderson et al. (1993):where p i is the frequency of the ith allele. Each polymorphic fragment was scored as a locus with two allelic classes. The maximum PIC value of an AFLP locus was 0.5. Cluster analysis and principal components analysis was conducted using the procedures in the NTSYS-pc software (Rohlf 2000). Genetic similarity between entries was estimated using the similarity coefficients of Jaccard (1908), Rogers and Tanimoto (1960) and Nei and Li (1979). The resulting distance matrices were used for cluster analysis by the UPGMA [unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages (Sneath and Sokal 1973)] method. The goodness of fit of the clustering to the data matrix was assessed by cophenetic correlation using the NTSYS-pc software (Rohlf 2000).Analyses of 41 wheat entries (14 for drought and 27 for salinity) with 20 AFLP primer combinations produced a total of 918 scorable AFLP fragments (Table 3). A partial AFLP image generated from Li-Cor 4200 DNA analyzer showing typical AFLP variation when a single pair of AFLP primers was used for selective amplification is shown in Fig. 1. Of the 918 markers, 368 were polymorphic among all 41 wheat entries (drought and salinity entries combined) studied, 348 were polymorphic among the drought entries, while 310 were polymorphic among the salinity entries. For all 41 entries, the number of polymorphic bands per primer combination ranged from 8 to 33 with an average of 18.4 ± 1.5 (Table 3). For the drought germplasm, the number of poly-morphic bands per primer combination ranged from 8 to 30 with an average of 17.4 ± 1.4, while for the salinity entries, the number of polymorphic bands ranged from 6 to 26 with an average of 15.5 ± 1.4 per primer combination. Polymorphism rates were estimated at 40, 38, and 34% for all 41 entries, drought entries, and salinity entries, respectively.Pair-wise comparisons were conducted between the genotypes based on the AFLP data. Jaccard's similarity coefficient was used to evaluate the genetic diversity among the accessions. Within all 41 entries, the highest similarity coefficient (0.92) was between synthetics S22 and S25 and the lowest similarity coefficient (0.18) was between the drought entry D7 and the salinity entry S5 (the salinity-susceptible durum wheat check). The average similarity coefficient for all 41 entries was 0.53 ± 0.01. The result from pair-wise comparisons indicated that about 37% of the entry pairs had similarity coefficients of 0.50 or less (Fig. 2). Within the drought entries, the highest similarity coefficient (0.79) was between synthetics D2 and D4 although they were unrelated based on their pedigree information. The lowest similarity coefficient (0.16) was between entry DP2 (a durum wheat) and D7 (a conventional wheat). The average similarity coefficient for drought entries was 0.43 ± 0.02. Pair-wise comparisons indicated that more than half of the entry pairs had similarity coefficients of 0.50 or less (Fig. 3). Within the salinity entries, the highest similarity coefficient (0.92) was between synthetics S22 and S25 and the lowest similarity coefficient (0.16) was between the entry S5 (the salinitysusceptible durum wheat check) and S6 (a conventional wheat cultivar), with an average similarity coefficient of 0.57 ± 0.01. About 31% of the pair-wise comparisons had similarity coefficients of 0.50 or less (Fig. 4).For all 41 entries, PIC ranged from 0.05 to 0.50 with an average PIC of 0.30 ± 0.01 (Fig. 5). For the drought entries, PIC ranged from 0.13 to 0.50 with an average PIC of 0.37 ± 0.01 (Fig. 6), while for the salinity entries, PIC ranged from 0.07 to 0.50 with an average PIC of 0.29 ± 0.01 (Fig. 7). PIC of AFLP in drought entries was high and mainly appeared between 0.40 and 0.50 (Fig. 6), while PIC of AFLP in salinity entries was relatively lower with two peaks appearing in both distribution extremes (Fig. 7).In general, high cophenetic correlations ranging from 0.873 to 0.944 were obtained (Table 4) where r > 0.9 indicates a very good fit; 0.8 < r < 0.9 indicates a good fit; r < 0.8 indicates a poor fit (Capo-chichi et al. 2001). All three methods used in these analyses gave a good fit with the best cophenetic correlation from the Jaccard coefficient (Table 4). No major variations were observed in the dendrogram patterns obtained by the three similarity coefficients; therefore, only the dendrogram obtained based on the Jaccard coefficients is presented. The dendrogram involving all 41 wheat accessions grouped the accessions into three main clusters (Fig. 8). Cluster one consisted of all five durum entries used in this study [one from the salinity entries (S5) and four from the drought entries (DP1 to DP4)]. The second cluster consisted of all conventional wheat entries (D6 to D10) from the drought entries and 15 of the 19 conventional wheat entries and one synthetic wheat entry from the salinity entries. The third cluster had all the five synthetic wheat entries (D1 to D5) from the drought entries and five of the six synthetic wheat entries from the salinity entries. This cluster also contained four conventional wheat entries from the salinity entries. The similarity matrix based on the Jaccard's coefficient was also used as input for principal component analyses (PCA). A plot of the first three principal components for all 41 accessions is presented in Fig. 9. The results from PCA are similar to those obtained by UPGMA clustering (Fig. 8). The five durum entries separated from wheat at the first principal component (PC1), and the second principal component (PC2) contained the cluster consisting mainly of the conventional wheat entries. The third principal component (PC3) contained the cluster consisting mainly of the synthetic wheat entries. The genetic constitution of the synthetics was different from the conventional wheat cultivars studied, thus suggesting that synthetics would add diversity to the drought-and salinity-tolerant germplasm.The dendrogram for the drought accessions grouped the accessions into two main clusters (Fig. 10). Cluster one consisted of the four durum parents (DP1 to DP4). Cluster two consisted of all five synthetics and five conventional wheat lines. The second cluster formed two sub-clusters that were separated at the 46.5% similarity level with one sub-cluster consisting of the five conventional wheat lines and the other consisting of the five synthetics. Durum parents were distant from both the synthetics and the conventional wheat lines. The plot of the first three principal components for the drought accessions is presented in Fig. 11. The results from PCA are similar to those obtained by UPGMA clustering (Fig. 10). The four durum entries separated from conventional and synthetic wheat entries at the first principal component (PC1), and conventional wheat entries separated from synthetics at the second principal component (PC2). The third principal component (PC3) separated individual accessions within each major cluster. The clustering of the drought entries also indicated that genetic constitution of synthetics was different from the conventional wheat cultivars studied and thus the synthetics would add more diversity to the drought-tolerant germplasm.The dendrogram for the salinity accessions (Fig. 12) shows that this clustering method grouped 26 of the 27 entries into two major clusters while entry 27 (S5, the salinity-susceptible durum wheat check) remained by itself. The two major clusters merged into one cluster at the similarity level of 50.4% and the susceptible durum check (S5) merged with this cluster at the similarity level of 28%. The durum check lacks the D genome; therefore, it is genetically distant from the synthetics and conventional wheat cultivars. Of the two major clusters, one cluster consisted of six of the seven synthetics and four conventional wheat lines. Another cluster consisted of one synthetic and the remaining conventional wheat lines. The PCA results (Fig. 13) also support the results obtained by UPGMA cluster analysis (Fig. 12). PC1 separated two major distinct groups of wheat, while PC2 clearly separated the durum check (S5) from the two wheat groups. PC3 separated individual accessions within each major group consisting of both conventional wheat cultivars and synthetics.Synthetic wheat lines developed at CIMMYT have many valuable traits including drought and salinity tolerance that can be used for genetic improvement of wheat. The present study was aimed at measuring genetic diversity among several drought-and salinity-tolerant synthetic and conventional wheat lines using AFLP markers and to identify parents    for developing doubled-haploid-based mapping populations (Mujeeb-Kazi 2003b). Twenty primer combinations used in this study revealed substantial genetic diversity among the drought-tolerant and salinity-tolerant wheat germplasm.When all 41 wheat accessions were analyzed together, the average similarity coefficient was 0.53 with the lowest similarity coefficient being 0.18. Within the drought entries, the average similarity coefficient was 0.43 with the lowest similarity coefficient being 0.16. The lowest similarity coefficient for the salinity entries was the same as that for drought entries, but the average was higher (0.57). These results and the distribution of the similarity coefficients indicated substantial amounts of genetic diversity among the drought and salinity entries. Based on 117 polymorphic AFLP markers, Bohn et al. (1999) reported genetic similarity among 11 wheat lines ranging from 0.40 to 0.83 with an average similarity of 0.61. Using AFLP markers Barrett and Kidwell (1998) reported mean genetic diversity estimates of 0.58 for pair-wise comparison of spring vs. winter wheat, 0.53 for within winter wheats and 0.49 for within spring wheats. Soleimani et al. (2002) using AFLP markers reported a mean pair-wise genetic distance of 0.40 for several Canadian durum wheat cultivars.Our results of the average PIC (0.30 ± 0.01 for all 41 entries, 0.37 ± 0.01 for drought and 0.29 ± 0.01 for salinity entries) were similar to that of Manifesto et al. (2001) who reported an average PIC value of 0.30 ± 0.15 in wheat for AFLP markers. However, the range of PIC values (0.26 to 0.38) reported by Manifesto et al. (2001) were smaller than the ranges of PIC values (0.05 to 0.50 for all 41 entries, 0.13    to 0.50 for drought entries and 0.07 to 0.50 for salinity entries obtained in our study. PIC is a quantification of the number of alleles or bands that a marker has and the frequency of each of the alleles or bands in the entries under study. Since a marker with fewer bands has less power to distinguish between entries and alleles present at low frequency also have less power to be distinguished, a higher PIC was assigned to a marker with many alleles and with alleles present at roughly equal proportions in the entries under study. Thus, PIC can be looked as the measurement of usefulness of each marker in distinguishing one individual from another. For AFLP, each polymorphic fragment was scored as a locus with two allelic classes and the maximum PIC of an AFLP locus is 0.5. Therefore, the PIC values in our study indicated that the AFLP markers were reasonably powerful in distinguishing one individual from another. This was in congruence with Manifesto et al. (2001).Dendrograms (Figs. 8, 10, and 12) obtained by cluster analysis using UPGMA and Jaccard's similarity coefficient show that there was substantial diversity at the DNA level among the drought-tolerant and salinity-tolerant germplasm. When all the 41 entries were used in the cluster analysis, the five durum entries were grouped together as expected. One cluster contained all conventional wheat and only one synthetic wheat line and the other cluster contained mainly synthetics but some conventional wheat entries. This indicated that most of the synthetics were distant from the conventional wheats. These two later clusters contained both salinity and drought entries. This indicated that these drought and salinity entries had enough genetic similarity to cluster together.  For the drought entries, the four parents were grouped together in both PCA and cluster analysis, that was expected because they were all durum entries with AABB genomes. It was interesting to note that four of the synthetics developed from these four parents by crossing each to a different Ae. tauschii accession were closer to each other, suggesting that genetic constitution of different Ae. tauschii accessions involved in these crosses could be similar to each other. The two sub-clusters of the drought accessions merged at the 46.5% similarity level indicating that they    were distantly related at the genetic level. It was interesting to note that one of these two sub-clusters contained the five conventional wheat lines and the other contained the five synthetics. Although both the conventional wheat lines and the synthetics have the same genome, AABBDD, they exhibited differences due to their earlier conventional and recent synthetic origin. This also indicated that AFLP markers were powerful enough to reveal such genetic distinction. It would be possible to select appropriate drought-tolerant parents from both groups for a breeding program to enhance genetic diversity for drought tolerance. Our results are in congruence with those of Moghaddam et al. (2005) who reported existence of genetic diversity among drought-tolerant wheat entries from CIMMYT and Iran.The salinity entries formed two major clusters that merged at the similarity level of 50.4%. These two groups were clearly separated by the second principal component. The result indicated a high level of genetic diversity among these entries. Using these entries to breed for salinity tolerance would enhance genetic diversity of salinity-tolerant cultivars. As expected, accession S5, the salinity susceptible durum wheat check stood alone in both the dendrogram and the PCA plot and merged with the other accessions at the similarity level of 28%. This result again indicated that AFLP fingerprinting provided a very accurate measurement of genetic relationship among diverse entries. Both synthetics and conventional wheat entries in each of two sub-clusters indicated substantial genetic diversity within the salinity-tolerant wheat and synthetic accessions.The synthetic and conventional wheat entries used in this study have shown different degrees of tolerance to drought and salinity. Genetic diversity assessment using AFLP has clearly indicated that there exists ample diversity among these entries at the DNA level and therefore some entries would be very valuable when breeding objectives target drought and salinity tolerance. Some of the entries would be valuable for using as parents for developing doubledhaploid-based mapping populations.","tokenCount":"4596"}

data/part_6/0590433744.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3ee54352e75dff628c1a1a58c334d36a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/883451e0-8fbe-4a87-8550-e9e691bb0f97/retrieve","id":"1116396963"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"519f43ea-1e61-4e99-97a6-d11b7e2a33eb","pagecount":"9","content":"Sterility and low seed set in bananas is the main challenge to their conventional genetic improvement. The first step to seed set in a banana breeding program depends on pollination at the right time to ensure effective fertilization. This study aimed at determining bract opening time (BOT) to enhance efficient pollination and seed set in bananas. A Nikon D810 digital camera was set-up to take pictures of growing banana inflorescences at five-minute intervals and time-lapse movies were developed at a speed of 30 frames per second to allow real-time monitoring of BOT. Genotypes studied included wild banana (1), Mchare (2), Matooke (4), Matooke hybrid (1), and plantain (1). Events of bract opening initiated by bract lift for female flowers (P < 0.01) started at 16:32 h and at 18:54 h for male flowers. Start of bract rolling was at 18:51 h among female flowers (P < 0.001) and 20:48 h for male flowers. Bracts ended rolling at 02:33 h and 01:16 h for female and flowers respectively (P < 0.05).Total time of bract opening (from lift to end of rolling) for female flowers was significantly longer than that of male flowers (P < 0.001). On average, the number of bracts subtending female flowers opening increased from one on the first day, to between one and four on the fourth day. The number regressed to one bract on day eight before start of opening of bracts subtending male flowers. There was a longer opening interval between bracts subtending female and male flowers constituting spatial and temporal separation. Bract rolling increased from partial to complete rolling from proximal to the distal end of the inflorescence among female flower. On the other hand, bracts subtending male flowers completely rolled. Differences in BOT of genotypes with the same reference time of assessment may be partly responsible for variable fertility. Hand pollination time between 07:00 and 10:00 h is slightly late thus an early feasible time should be tried.Banana (Musa spp.) plants are monoecious where male and female flowers are primarily unisexual and separated on the same inflorescence 1 . They have a year-round flowering habit implying that pollinations can be made all year 2 . The inflorescence develops in the pseudostem after which leaves are replaced by bracts. The first three or four bracts are the largest and typically do not bear flowers. After emergence, the inflorescence takes on a horizontal or pendent position for edible bananas. Female flowers emerge before male flowers and are usually separated by neutral flowers 3 . This implies that there is no self-pollination within an inflorescence except in some genotypes with hermaphrodite flowers 4 . Geitonomous pollination can occur between flowers in different generations on the same mat.Each bract bears two rows of flowers in a cluster, one above the other. Similar to most monoecious plants, bananas produce more male than female flowers. The flowers are irregular with a compound tepal, androecium and gynaecium as the three main parts. These flower parts are all joined at the point of connection of the style with the ovary thus form an inferior ovary 5 . Depending on genotype, soil fertility, and environmental conditions, the inflorescence usually bears between 1 to 30 female flower clusters, followed by 0 to 4 neutral flower clusters and up to 300 male flower clusters 1 .Rapid conventional improvement of bananas is hindered by a complex array of factors that result in male and female sterility 6 . Among factors that influence seed set especially for controlled pollination is pollinating at the right time of the day to ensure maximum seed set 7 . Flowers must be pollinated soon after opening as ovules start to disintegrate 24 h after anthesis 1 . On the other hand, pollen viability is highest at 08:00 h and lowest at 16:00 h 8 . Shepherd 7 obtained the highest seed set in pollinations made at 07:00 h and the lowest after pollinating at 16:00 h. A thorough understanding of banana floral biology could therefore contribute toward solving the poor seed set problem in edible banana. Increase in seed set per cross made would create a wider progeny base for breeders to make meaningful selections and consequently efficient breeding pipelines 6 .Flower opening time is a tightly regulated trait in plants, and this determines when and which pollinators are involved in the pollination process. This in turn determines the fitness of a plant species to survive. Banana is a facultative day long plant with long photoperiods leading to early inflorescence initiation 9 . Bract opening at night implies that bats participate in pollination, although diurnal insects have also been reported to visit flowers 10 . The exact start of bract opening time (BOT) is unclear in banana, as opposed to crops such as rice, where flower opening time is between 09:00 and 14:00 h 11 . A case study by Amah et al. 6 found that bract lift in Mchare bananas in Arusha Tanzania started late afternoon but appearance of flowers was after night fall. The study also found that there is maximum flower visitation frequency at dawn which is believed to be the period of maximum stigma receptivity.Maximum seed set was obtained after controlled pollination of 'Gros Michel' between 07:00 and 10:00 h 7 and this has been widely adopted 6,7 . In rice, flower opening time is known to be controlled genetically by about three genes, but weather conditions have also been observed to have an influence 11 . Weather is likely to trigger flower opening so that pollination happens under favourable night conditions. Since the widely adopted pollination time range is between 07:00 to 10:00 h, the assumption would be no differences in BOT among banana genotypes. Also, female and male flowers are separate in banana and there is no information on whether opening is synchronized on separate plants. The aim of this study was therefore to determine BOT in banana under field conditions and how BOT is influenced by weather conditions.Field site and banana genotypes used. The experiment was conducted at two sites in Uganda; the National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) in Kawanda and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Sendusu station, Namulonge. Kawanda is located at 0° 25′ N and 32° 32′ E at an elevation of 1177 m, while Namulonge is located 0° 31′ N and 32° 36′ E at an elevation of 1160 m. Banana genotypes used included Musa (AAA-EA group Matooke subgroup) 'Enzirabahima' , 'Nakitembe' , 'Enyeru' , 'Kabucuragye' 12 , and 'NARITA 17' (AAA) which is a Matooke hybrid from collaborative breeding efforts between NARL and IITA 13 . Also used were Musa (AA group subgroup Mchare) 'Mlelembo' and 'Kamunyilya' and Musa (AAB group subgroup Plantain) 'Gonja' for a B-genome representation. Letters \"A\" and \"B\" in groupings denote contributions from progenitors Musa acuminata and M. balbisiana respectively. Wild banana M. acuminata spp. burmannicoides 'Calcutta 4' was also included.At NARL, 'Enzirabahima' , 'Nakitembe' , 'Mlelembo' , 'Kamunyilya' , and 'Calcutta 4' were studied between July 25 and September 27, 2016 whereas 'Enyeru' , 'Kabucuragye' , 'NARITA 17' , and 'Gonja' were studied at IITA between September 20 and November 11, 2018. Observations were made on already established plants in pollination blocks planted at a spacing of 3 × 2 m. For each genotype, a single inflorescence was studied. Cultivars in the Matooke and Mchare subgroups were treated as replicates since variability within these subgroups are said to have arisen from somatic variation 14,15 . The subgroups studied were therefore; Mchare (2), Matooke (4), Matooke hybrid (1), plantain (1), and wild banana (1).Because banana plants usually grow to a height of more than 3.0 m, a table of 1.0 m was used to supplement the camera tripod stand which could go up to a 2.0 m height. The tripod stand was firmly bound on the table surface to avoid movement and shaking of the camera. A Nikon D810 camera (Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) was used to take photographs of the growing banana inflorescences at an interval of 5 min. The camera flash was set to manual mode with highest power and fastest sync speed; it was left on throughout the study period. The period of flower study started when the inflorescence was in the erect position and pictures were taken continuously until opening of a few bracts subtending male flowers. With MatLab Version 9.4 (R2018a) software developed by MathWorks (https:// www. mathw orks. com/), timelapse videos were made at a speed of 30 frames per second (fps). The videos were played using Kinovea Version 0.8.15.0 software (https:// www. kinov ea. org/) developed by Joan Charmant and time for bract opening events were recorded. Bract opening events included time of bract lift, time of start and time of end of bract rolling. Bract lift implied the loosening of the bract due for opening on the tightly packed flower bud while start of bract roll time was when the tip of bract started rolling backwards. Bract roll rate was determined by subtracting time of end of bract rolling from time of start of bract rolling. Total time of bract opening events was calculated by subtracting time of end of bract rolling from bract lift time. Events time for each bract were converted to fractions (hours) and averaged separately for bracts subtending male and female flowers for each inflorescence. Data were subjected to one-way analysis of variance without blocking with subgroups as treatments; data for bracts subtending female and male flowers were analysed separately. Total time of bract opening events for bracts subtending female and male flowers was also compared in a paired t-test with genotypes constituting pairs. Analysis of variance and the t-test were run using Genstat for Windows 19th edition (http:// www. genst at. co. uk) developed by VSN International (VSNi).Irrespective of when the bract started to open, time-lapse videos were paused at 08:00 h for each bract to measure the angle of bract lift with reference to the rachis for both female and male flowers. Bract roll was scored on the scale of 1 for minimal roll to 5 for complete bract roll. Bracts events that could not be observed for partially or fully obscured bracts were recorded as missing data. Time duration between bracts subtending female and male flower opening was calculated as time of lift of first bract subtending male flowers minus bract roll end-time of last bract subtending the female or transition flower cluster. Average bract roll scores and lift angles per cluster position were plotted against bract position number. For genotypes whose single bract events happened before and after 00:00 h, total hours from 00:00 h of the previous day were counted and averaged.Weather data were obtained from the NARL and the Namulonge agro-metrological stations. The Namulonge agro-metrological station is 1.5 km from the IITA -Sendusu station thus data were used for the latter station because of their proximity. From the NARL station, we obtained temperature (°C) data recorded at 15:00 h whereas from the Namulonge station, we obtained average daily temperature (°C) and light intensity (lux). During the study period, temperature at 15:00 h at NARL ranged from 23.5 to 32.0 and averaged 29.0 °C. On the other hand, daily temperature at Namulonge was in the range of 20.5 and 24.6 with an average of 22.8 °C while light intensity ranged between 1167.7 and 3316.2 with an average of 2263.1 lux. Correlation analysis was performed between bract opening events time and weather data. The analysis was performed with Genstat for Windows 19th edition (http:// www. genst at. co. uk) software developed by VSNi.The authors confirm that the banana genotypes used in this present study was in accordance to international, national and/or institutional guidelines.Bract opening events. Banana bract opening events were generally initiated by bract lifting followed by bract rolling (Table 1). In some cases, bract lifting and bract rolling were simultaneous events, especially for the first three female clusters and particularly for 'Mlelembo' . In observed subgroups, Matooke had the earliest lift and start of rolling of bracts while wild banana 'Calcutta 4' lifted and started rolling its bracts last (Table 1). Bract lift and start of rolling was statistically significant for bracts subtending female flowers but not for those of male flowers. And end of bract rolling happened first in Matooke and last in Plantain; this was statistically significant for both bracts subtending female and male flowers.On average, lift and start of rolling events for bracts subtending female flowers happened before events for bracts subtending male flowers, the exception was end of bract rolling. Bract rolling rates among female flowers were not statistically significant, results for male flowers were not analysed as there were many data missing. Total duration of bract opening was not significant among female flowers but was significant among male flowers. Total duration of bract opening events of female flowers was more than that of male flowers (paired T-test prob. > 0.001, 6 d.f.).With the exception of 'Gonja' , all observed inflorescences exhibited a tendency of partial rolling of bracts subtending female flowers a day or two before actual lift and roll (Fig. 1a,b). This happened to a varying degree from proximal to distal end of the inflorescence in different genotypes, especially in the first three to four bracts. On the other hand, bracts subtending male flowers did not exhibit partial rolling of bract tips before fully lifting and rolling in subsequent days (Fig. 1c,d). It was observed that bracts that had not completed rolling and curling of fingers backwards were halted when day broke. The process continued on subsequent days simultaneously with lifting and rolling of fresh bracts. By the time female and male flowers were visible, the compound and free tepals had already opened to expose female and male flower parts in all genotypes studied. In some genotypes especially 'Enyeru' and 'Kabucuragye' , inflorescences moved from the horizontal-pendent position towards the horizontal position at dusk and fell towards the pendent position by mid-morning. This was a repetitive process during bract opening period of female flowers.On average, more bracts subtending female flowers opened per day in the mid-section of the inflorescence compared to proximal and distal ends (Fig. 2). One bract subtending female flowers opened on the first day with maximum number of bracts opening on day four. This gradually reduced up to one bract opening on day eight which was the last day of bract opening for female flower clusters. All bracts subtending female flowers opened in a period of three to eight days (Table 1). In the event of multiple bracts opening on the same day, former clusters had flowers with brownish stigmas while latter clusters had flowers with creamy stigmas. And for multiple bracts opening on the same day, opening events were simultaneous or were separated by up to four and a half hours with former bracts opening first. After opening of bracts subtending female and transitional clusters, there was on average a longer lapse before the onset of opening of bracts subtending male flowers. The longest lapse period was in 'Mlelembo' while 'Kamunyilya' , 'Enzirabahima' , and, 'NARITA 17' had lapses of less than a day (Table 2). Lapse duration of less than a day between male and female flowers was the same as the opening interval of bracts subtending female flowers.Bracts subtending female flowers at the proximal end of the inflorescence partially rolled, the degree of rolling gradually increased towards the distal end (Figs. 1a,  3). Bracts subtending female flowers at the distal end completely rolled, which was comparable to bracts subtending male flowers. On the other hand, bracts subtending male flowers had a relatively similar appearance after rolling irrespective of the bract position (Fig. 3). The angle of bract lift at 08:00 h was also small in proximal clusters but gradually increased towards the distal end of the inflorescence (Fig. 4). This was generally exhibited by all observed inflorescences. On average, bracts subtending female flowers in position one lifted to about 25° while bracts in position eight lifted to more than 60° by 08:00 h. Male flowers were observed to have more insect visitors compared to female flowers especially between dawn and about 08:00 h.Influence of weather on bract opening. Average daily temperature had no significant relationship with time of bract opening events for both female and male flowers at the IITA-Sendusu station (Table 3). There was also no relationship between temperature recorded at 15:00 h and bract opening events time at NARL station (data not presented). High light intensity led to late bract lift, start of rolling and end of rolling among bracts subtending female flowers (Table 3). High light intensity also led to a faster rate of rolling for bracts subtending female flowers, there was no relationship with total events time. On the other hands, high light intensity led to an early lift of bracts subtending male flowers.In banana, bract opening behavior depends on the time of the day, the position of the bract, and sex of the flowers enclosed by the bract. Bract opening is a continuous process especially in the first bracts subtending female flowers of some genotypes; it starts in the evening and continues through the night (Table 1). In cases where bracts did not fully open, the process was halted early morning and resumed in the evening. It is therefore not obvious to judge whether such bracts have opened or not. However, opening is permanent as opposed to some plant species which open and close their flowers at specific times. Ssebuliba et al. 16 considered East African Highland bananas ready for pollination when bracts were half way open with stigmas having a creamy white appearance. According to observations made in the current study, it can be said that bract lifting is indicative of flower opening thus pollination can start.    Bract lift and bract roll seemed to be a response of a certain light quality 6 , the response time and speed are genotype dependent. Finger curling also seems to be triggered by the same factors that lead to bract opening. Bract opening and finger curling are likely to be a response of changes in turgor pressures in cells that lead to tissues being pushed in a given direction 17 . This was evident with upward movement of the inflorescence from the horizontal-pendent toward the horizontal position in the evening and downward movement towards the pendent position by mid-morning. These movements were genotype dependent and small, maximum oscillation was about 10˚. A similar pattern was observed for leaf folding to influence relative canopy cover 18 .Generally, bracts subtending female flower lifted and started rolling earlier than those subtending male flowers. However, male flowers ended opening before female flowers, resulting in faster bract opening for male flowers (Table 1 and t-test). This might be due to the smaller bract size of male flowers (Fig. 1) or an adaption for female flowers to find male flowers open with ready pollen. Consequently, the strategy ensures maximum pollination success and survival of the Musa spp. Studies have revealed that pollen viability reduces with time after flower opening 1 . This is in agreement that controlled pollination should be done between 07:00 and 10:00 h 7 . In comparison to lilies, some flowers were observed also to open starting at 17:00 h while others open during day. Both nocturnal and diurnal pollinators were found to be active flower visitors 19 . This implies that pollination in banana can start in the evening as long as bracts for parents in the cross of interest lift in time.In Musa itinerans, two nectar production peaks were found, that is between 08:00 to 12:00 h and 20:00 to 24:00 h 20 . This maybe a close depiction of what happens in edible bananas thus emphasizing the potential importance of diurnal and nocturnal pollinators. Bats, bees, and birds were found to be among the most important pollinators of bananas at Onne, Nigeria 10 . However, natural pollinators were not the main focus of the study though they are good indicators of when stigmas might be highly receptive. Since nectar quality and quantity varies between different agro-ecologies and seasons 21 , flower visitations and seed set are also expected to vary accordingly. Different agro-ecologies are also expected to experience variable BOTs due to variable solar radiation. Likewise the different growing seasons (rainy and dry) might also affect BOTs and therefore seed set 22 . However, a comparison of time from sunrise to beginning of bract lift of Musa AAA Cavendish cultivars in a glasshouse and M. basjoo in the garden in Belgium revealed no significant difference 6 . But comparison of bract curling time in Mchare in Arusha with short days and Cavendish cultivars in a glasshouse in Belgium with long days in summer, there was early curling in the glasshouse. However, bract lift time may be a better event to use for comparison than bract curling or rolling time.Bracts of both female and male flowers of different genotypes completed opening at different times and this may be partly the reason for variable pollen viability and stigma receptivity (Table 1). Female flowers that finish opening much earlier may set less seed compared to those that finish opening closer to the routine time of hand pollination between 07:00 and 10:00 h. Conversely, male flowers that are ready shortly before the time of hand pollination are expected to have higher pollen viability. This probably explains the high fertility of 'Calcutta 4' as it finished opening at 06:30 h. Some male flowers like those of Matooke finished opening as early as 21:54 h (Table 1) and are expected to have pollen with low viability at the time it is measured the next day.All observed inflorescences opened one female bract on the first day, increasing to multiple bracts opening on subsequent days (Fig. 2). One to three bracts subtending female flowers were observed to open per day from the second bract position of the inflorescence. The pattern of opening took on a hyperbolic shape with up to four bracts opening on the fourth day in the midsection of the inflorescence. For hand pollination, more clusters are therefore expected to be pollinated per day during bract opening in the mid-section of the inflorescence. The different clusters of female flowers that open on the same day are likely to have stigmas with varying receptivity. The darker appearance of stigmas of former clusters compared to creamy stigmas in latter clusters reflects higher receptivity in the latter 2 . This may explain why some clusters set more seed especially in the mid-section of a seemingly fertile inflorescence.Upon complete opening of female and transitional bracts, inflorescences went into a pause period before male flowers opened (Table 2). In additional to spatial separation of flowers, this is temporal separation to promote cross pollination in banana. However, temporal separation of male and female flowers is not very effective for genotypes that had less than 24 h of separation. With aid of crawling insects, self-pollination may happen between the last female cluster and the first male cluster as stigmas are likely to be receptive for more than one day. Once male flowers started opening, one bract opened per day and occasionally two bracts were observed to open on the same day. For highly fertile genotypes like 'Calcutta 4' , ample pollen is produced to pollinate many female flowers. Male flowers are also produced throughout the inflorescence growth period which ensures constant supply of pollen especially for controlled hand pollination. Averages of bracts subtending male flowers opening per day could not be calculated as there were two to three observed bracts subtending male flowers for most genotypes. It appears that proximal bracts subtending female flowers are less stimulated to lift and roll compared to distal bracts subtending female flowers and all bracts subtending male flowers. This was revealed by low vigour of bract lift and the small angle of lift at 08:00 h especially in the first female flower cluster (Figs. 2, 3). The bract angle of lift increases from proximal to distal end and this has been linked to reduced fertility in proximal clusters 2 . But it may not be the case since highly female (in all clusters) and male fertile 'Calcutta 4' showed the same pattern as edible bananas. The high R 2 for female bract roll scores compared to bracts subtending male flowers was a result of more bracts used to calculate averages for bracts subtending female flowers compared to bracts subtending male flowers (Fig. 3). For bracts subtending male flowers, two to three bracts were observed for most genotypes thus the first three data points were close to the trend line. Since the number of female clusters varies, reducing number of data points were used to calculate average bract lift angles in the distal end or larger inflorescences. Besides, bract lift angles of some clusters could not be measured because of obscurity or being in awkward positions. This led to the last two points being far off the trend line for angle of lift and hence a low R 2 .Flower opening time is said to be genetically and environmentally controlled, results from this study are in agreement since light had considerable influence on bract opening events (Tables 1, 3). Significant effects of temperature, solar radiation, and vapor pressure deficit on flower opening time have been observed in rice 11 . For Musa spp., only light has a significant relationship with BOT. However, there was early curling under long summer days in the glasshouse in Belgium compared to short days in Arusha field conditions 6 . This suggested a particular light signal for BOT in Musa spp. It is unclear why high light intensity led to early lift of bracts subtending male flowers and this calls for farther investigation. Since bracts subtending male flowers instinctively open later than bracts subtending female flowers, light intensity had less effect on the former bracts. The small sample size could have also had an impact on the results in the study, the light flush from the camera could have also affected the results. The extent of weather effects on BOT in banana need to be studied in field conditions of locations with significantly different day length for a more reliable conclusion.Hand pollinations in banana have to be done at the right time for maximum seed set which is critical for their improvement. This study assessed BOT to determine when flowers are likely to be most receptive. Banana bracts subtending female flowers start lifting late afternoon and complete opening mostly after midnight. This implies that current controlled pollination at 07:00 to 10:00 h might perhaps be too late. But it would make sense to try and pollinate as early as possible especially as soon as bracts subtending male flowers open. The aim should also be to pollinate when pollen viability is highest just after bract opening considering the fact that opening events time for bracts subtending female and male flowers may be different. Since bananas open bracts partly during day and partly at night, nocturnal and diurnal pollinators have a role to play as natural pollinators. Bract rolling and lift angles seem not to be linked to fertility as the highly fertile wild banana 'Calcutta 4' behaved just like the sterile edible bananas. For some genotypes like 'Gonja' , there is a considerable time lapse between female and male flower opening thus self-pollination is not a concern with aid of pollinators.","tokenCount":"4565"}

data/part_6/0602673022.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4b5d8ccf828db1cfaa44b051502741bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2fb697a8-0da5-468b-9e0d-29db8d586f4a/retrieve","id":"-173280691"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8e27ea9c-f1b4-407c-89ce-3c0a8a89874d","pagecount":"2","content":"resilience of local farming systems through sustainable land-use, and livestock, soil and natural resource management; boosting yields through continued genetic improvement, better agronomy, and pest and disease management; and increasing incomes by engaging smallholders more effectively with markets.By considering interactions of many different elements within and across the farm, landscape, value chain, and food systems levels, CIAT, in Asia, undertakes scientific research addressing questions and issues along the entire agricultural path, FROM SOIL TO PLATE.With more than 60 percent of Asian population either directly or indirectly relying on agriculture for livelihood, agriculture remains key to uplifting lives of many people in the region, as well as to providing sufficient and nutritious food for all.In Asia, CIAT undertakes scientific research enabling smallholder farmers, agri-food businesses, and national governments to use smart technologies and innovations and make evidence-based decisions, towards achieving profitability, environmental sustainability and resiliency in agriculture.Over decades, CIAT's research has directly contributed towards increasing competitiveness, efficiency and Planting highly productive, nutritious forages on small areas of the farm can allow farmers to increase livestock productivity without relying on increasingly scarce natural resources. CIAT's research aims to support farmers by making available forage options that meet quantity and quality requirements for profitable animal raising, while improving productivity through gains in overall efficiency and access to livelihoodenhancing ecosystem services.• Improved forage options for more productive and sustainable livestock production CIAT's research focuses on dynamic interaction between farms and landscapes, mobilizing climate science to facilitate informed decision-making on adapting to and mitigating climate change, including by protecting ecosystem services. Through the Climate Policy Hub, a portfolio of tools help guide land management planning and policy formulation by a whole range of stakeholders, from farmers to businesses to development organizations and governments. Some of these toolsclimate scenarios, impact modeling and assessments, vulnerability assessments, prioritization processes, policy analyses -also help identify, test and scale climatesmart agriculture technologies, while othersFor more information, get in touch with Dr. Peter Laderach at ([email protected]).-climate advisory services, early warning systems, monitoring-reporting-verification (MRV) systems -aid implementation of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures.To help smallholder farmers tap into the abundant opportunities offered by cassava, CIAT continues to develop improved varieties and works to effect stable and sustainable yields through enhanced pest-disease, soil and seed system management. In order to enhance overall competitiveness of value chains, the team in Asia implements a mix of innovations, which includes investigating innovative options for adding value to cassava industrial waste, among others; using spatial analyses and geo-referencing techniques to track cassava demand and identify bottlenecks; investigating cassava seed systems, including policy and procedures for moving plant material; and analyzing regional policy, infrastructure and logistical regulations to evaluate supportive networks and value chainwide services which foster smallholder development.• Integrated, inclusive cassava value chains for diverse uses and markets• Stable and sustainable yields through enhanced pest-disease, soil and seed management system• Novel varieties for value addition and efficiency gainsResearch countries: Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam For more information, get in touch with Dr. Dindo Campilan ([email protected]).CIAT strengthens capacity of a wide range of agricultural value chain actors to engage with one another in a more inclusive and sustainable manner. Across Asia, CIAT supports Heifer International towards effectively including smallholder farmers and cooperatives into animal product value chains following the LINK methodology. Also being investigated is the effectiveness of Farmer Business Schools in Vietnam to enhance the capacity of vegetable farmers to engage effectively with markets.• More strategic public-private investment priorities in high-value agricultural commodities• Inclusive businesses through greater market participation of small-scale producers• Sustainable food systems for safe food and improved diet along the ruralurban transectFor more information, get in touch with Dr. Stef de Haan ([email protected]).By coordinating activities in Vietnam related to the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health, CIAT contributes to the goal of achieving healthier diets for poor and vulnerable populations through a better understanding of food system-diet dynamics, and through identifying and enabling innovations in value chains and policies. CIAT's work on food systems responds to concerns about diet trends, i.e. transitions, and demands, with a view to developing systemic solutions that address problems such as malnutrition and food insecurity. ","tokenCount":"694"}

data/part_6/0612615787.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"84eeed06ba027609e9ac79190fc1e246","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6761730-60e6-4576-befa-160562e96594/retrieve","id":"422242046"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b459840a-02d5-42d5-a435-7133b213df2b","pagecount":"89","content":"Con estos apuntes se pretende dar una visión general sobre la estadística y el uso de los Diseños experimentales en el cultivo de arroz.Inicialmente se da algunos elementos de esta-d~stica descriptiva y estad!stica inferencial y por última se describen COn ejemplos los diseños completamente al azar, bloques al azar, con un solo factor y verios factores y final.en_ te el diseño en parcelas divididas.Este pequeño manua: se pudo reali~ar por la colaboración btindada por los miembros de la Unidad de Servicios de Datos d_l • CIAT, por el Programa de Arroz, y las enseñanzas del ~Iofe~Qr 1 Jorge A. Escobar. ( por ej.: el número de macollas por sitio puede ser 15, 20, o el número de plantas de arroz por parcela puede ser 150, 160, etc. Otra clasificación de las variables es: Variables . , dependientes y variables independientes; estas últimas toman uno u otro valor dependiendo de los valores que tome la variable independiente, así por ejemplo. La producción de arroz (variable dependiente) depende de la cantidad de nitrógeno que se haya aplicado al suelo. 1. 3. Población física: Conjunto de individuos con características comunes, r' por ej.: Las plantas de arroz de la variedad CICA6., 1. 4. Población estadística: Conjunto de observaciones o mediciones de una población física, por ej.: Las alturas de las plantas de arroz. De una población física se pueden generar varias poblaciones estadísticas, así de las plantas de arroz, se pueden tener además de las alturas, los rendimientos de grano, las áreas foliares y otras. Huestra: Parte de una población física o estadística. Razones ~ las cuales ~ forman muestras. a) Porque es impos.ible o resulta antieconomico tomar a toda la población 1. 6.Para una mejor comprensi6n de los temas que se desarrollaran, se darán algunos conceptos básicos:1.1. Estadística:\"Es una ciencia pura y aplicada, que crea, desarrolla y aplica técnicas, que permitan colectar, analizar, interpretar datos, y tomar decisiones en casos de incertidumbre \". La estadística descriptiva, cama su nombre lo indica, solo sirve para describir poblaciones o muestras y la estadística inferencial permite tomar decisiones en casos de incertidumbre con una probabilidad de error.1 .2. Variable:Es una característica que varia, por ej .. CIERTO PARA LAS CIENCIAS AGRICOLAS y BIOLOGICAS\"-Ante la variabilidad de los fenómenos, la estadística proporciona herramientas ~ útiles, para poder tomar decisiones con niveles altos de confiabilidad, po r ej.: Se puede llegar a decidir si un sistema de siembra (transp~ante) en arroz, supera o no a los sistemas tradicionales, con un margen de probabilidad dado.Cuando se obtienen datos de una muestra o de una población física, es muy díficil sacar conclusiones, si el número de observaciones es muy grande, pudiéndose aplicar en 8Ste caso la frase \"Los arboles no dejan apreciar el bosque\", , .. \"-5-Tablas de frecuencia:Permiten agrupar las N observaciones de una muestra de acuerdo a su magnitud, en varias clases o grupos.Los pasos a seguir en la construcción de una tabla de frecuencia son:l.Seleccionar el número de clases (K); para esto puede utilizarse una regla práctica: . ' uso del criterio práctico se tomaron 12 clases (ver tabla 1). Nótese que la diferencia entre , t los limites de clase es igual para todas las clases 0.899 Ton/ha, lo cual es deseable cuando se construye una tabla de frecuencia.La Marca de Clase (MCi) se obtiene al promediar los l!mites de clase, y su funció~ es: Representar a todas las observaciones que caen dentro de una clawe i. l TABLA 1: Tabla de frecuencia, de la producción en toneladas por hectarea del \"Vivero internacional de rendimiento de arroz para AmericaLatina\" -Variedades Tempranas.  La media ponderada X p es:Siendo fi, el factor de ponderacion, en este caso el número de Has. o sea:En las tablas de frecuencias, se halla la media, ponderando las marcas de clase por la frecuencia absoluta.Por ej.: para hallar el promedio de las producciones del VIRAL-Tempranas (ver tabla 1) se procede así:.07 ton/ha.Las medidas más conocidas son:-Rango (R)Desviación están--Coeficiente de Variación (CV)El Rango (R) es la diferencia entre el mayor y el menor valor de un conjunto de datos, así el Rango de las observaciones de la Pago 10 es: 7.0-1.0=6.este caso Ton/ha.La Varianza (S2) se halla así: x 100Este parámetro no tiene unidades y permite:Comparar la variabilidad ue características igua-les en poblaciones diferentes. Por ej,: Rendimiento de grano de arroz vs. rendimiento de grano de fríjol.Comparar la variabilidad de características diferentes en poblaciones iguales, asi por ej.: el rendimiento de grano en arroz vs. altura de plantaso En las tablas de frecuencia se puede calcular la va- que provienen de muestras con diferente n6mer6 d~ observaciones.La fórmula es:Siendo S2. = Varianza de la muestra i1.GLi = Grados de libertad asociados a la varianza i (ni-1)En el siguiente ejemplo, en el cual se tienen las varianzas de la producción de una variedad en (ton/ ha)2, provenientes de experimentos con diferente n6- Al probar este tipo de hipótesis de nulidad pueden En la Tabla 1 • se calcula:-Qu~ % de los Rendimientos fueron menores de 7 • 2 ton/ha -Qu~ % de los Rendimientos fueron mayores de 9 .9 ton/ha. (,CORRELACION y REGRESION:*En esta parte se pretende dar una idea general sobre la correlación y la regresión, sin entrar a detalles matematicos; este tema sería tratado con mayor profundidad al.final de este curso.Es el grado de asociación que existe entre dos variables.Existe correlación positiva cuando al incrementarse la magnitud de un« variable, la otra también se i ,crementa, así por ejemplo al incrementarse hasta cierto límite la cantidad de Nitrógeno, la producción de arroz aumenta, o al aumentarse el número de desyerbas la producción aumenta.Existe correlación negativa, cuando al aumentarse la magnitud de una variable, la magnitud de la otra disminuye, as! por ejemplo, al aumentar el peso de malezas por unidad de area, disminuye el rendimiento de grano.Cuando se asocian dos variables, generalmente a una se le denomina variable independiente y a la otra variable dependiente; los valores que toma esta última dependen de los valores que ha tomado la variable dependiente, así por ejemplo, la producción de Capítulo tomado de MuRoz, J.E. \"Curso de Arroz para profesionales de America Latina\"~ Primer curso de 1979.producción depende de la cantidad de malezas presentes.Como cuantificar el grado de asociación:Al realizar un diagrama de dispersión, en el cual se ubica en el eje X la variable independiente y en el eje Y la variable dependiente, y localizar los respectivos pares de datos. se puede apreciar si existe o no correlación 7 si esta es positiva o negativa; pero no se puede determinar ningun valor.( Para cuantificar el grado de asociación se usa el coeficiente de correlación = r, cuyos valores están entre menos uno y más uno así:En la medida en que el coeficiente de correlación se acerque a uno, en valor absoluto, la asociación tiende a ser perfecta, cuando el y es positivo hay correlación positiva y cuando r es negativo hay correlación negativa.La fórmula para calcular res:• ..  .1. Tabla 2:\"Efecto de la competencia de malezas en arroz\".Rendimientos de arroz en Kg/parcela y peso de malezas en Aleatorización o asignación al azar de los tratamientos.Control del error experimental.La aleatorización evita la introducción de errores sistematicos en los experimentos, es decir evita que unos tratamientas se vean mas favorecidos que otros. Así,si una variedad de arroz se siembra en un terreno fertil y la otra en un terreno con problemas de fertilidad, no puede concluirse que una variedad produce mas que otra, porque no se puede saber, si la producción se debe a la variedad en si misma o a la fertilidad del suelo.La repetición es el número de veces que un tratamiento se repite en un experimen~o, es deseable que el número de repeticiones sea igual para todos los tratamientos para compararlos con el mismo nivel de precisi6n.El error experimental se puede minimizar controlando las Es muy importante seleccionar con anticipación las variables de respuesta que van a ser cuantificadas.Asi en ensayos de rendimiento, se mide la producción;en ensayos para control de malezas, ademas de la producción de arroz, debe tomarse una medida sobre el grado de control de malezas por ejemplo: ?eso seco de malezas.(DISENo COMPLETAMENTE AL AZAR:6.1.Características Generales:Es el diseño más simple, y se usa cuando las unidades experimentales son homogéneas.Se puede comparar cualquier numero de tratamientos.Los tratamientos se aplican a las unidades experimentales al azar.Cualquier numero de repeticiones por tratamiento es posible, es decir los tratamientos pueden tener diferente número de repeticiones.Proporciona más grado de libertad al error que cualquier otro diseño, con el mismo número de tratamientos y repeticiones.Dada la restricción de que las unidades experimentales deben ser homogéneas, se usa muy poco en el campo, pero es de mucha utilidad en experimentos de laboratorio o de invernadero, donde se pueden uniformizar las unidades experimentales, por ejemplo en invernadero el suelo se puede homogenizar, y en el laboratorio se puede preparar un medio de cultivo homogeneo.Modelo Estad!stico:Este diseño experimental está asociado al siguiente modelo estadístico:Error experimental en la repetición j'esima del tratamiento i'esimoEfecto de la media general Variable de respuesta ¿el tratamiento i'esimo, en la repetición j'esima.Con los siguientes supuestos: -47pletamente al azar, como se observa en el siguiente esquema: .SCT = i=l Se halla la suma de Cuadrados Total (SCT) Sehabia lanzado la hipótesis nula de no hay efecto de trata--50-La regla de decisión para probar la hipótesis es:Acepto H : Si Fe < F t F t se busca en la tabla de F. con un nivel de significancia dado, en nuestro casO 5%, con los grados de libertad de tratamientos y del error así:-51-7.-52-DISENo EN~BLOQUES COMPLETOS AL AZAR:  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Porque de esta manera habra mas homogeneidad dentro del bloque, y más diferencia entre bloques. En este caso el largo de las parcelas debe ser paralelo al gradiente de fertilidad.Otro caso en el que se puedan usar bloques rectan-gulares, ocurre cuando existe alguna pendiente en el terreno, ya que en la parte \"baja\" del lote habrá mayor deposición de materiales provenientes de la parte alta y por esta razón el suelo puede ser -55-Cuando se quiere por ejemplo, probar el efecto dé algunOS tratamientos sobre el control de las malezas, se pueden detectar por reconocimiento del terreno zonas de alta, mediante y baja infestación de malezss, al \"bloque\" con forma geometrica definida deja ~e ser útil y se convierte en un conjunto de parcelas que tienen como característica común el grado de infestación de malezas así:1;;; ::;..:;-.-,././v ,yrr\"'\"\". \" -,..., , i) Sea:Media del bloque J Entonces:'V -' . 'Jo. es un estimador de j.l , Yi' es un estimador de II + ' j Y.j es un es.timador de j.l + 8 j Ro: Sj = O para todo j (no hay diferencia entre bloques).Las reglas de decisión para las 2 anteriores hipótesis son similares a las reglas de decicion para el diseño completamente al azar.La construccion de la tabla de análisis de varianza, se puede resumir asr:( ..7.5. Ejemplo numérico de un diseño en bloques al azar:\" \" Titulo: \"Ensayo de rendimiento para cuatro lineas de arroz y una variedad testigo\".En la tabla siguiente se presentan los rendimientos por parcela. expresados en tone lad as por hectárea.  En base a los grados de libertad y a la 'suma de cuadrados se obtiene la tabla de análisis de varianza de:    Como se observa en la tabla de análisis de varianza, se puede dividir la suma de cuadrados de tratamientos, y se prueban aisladamente cada uno de los efectos, encontrándose que rechazó la hipótesis nula Realmente no es un dise60 experimental, sino un \"arreglo de tratamientos\".9.1. Características:Las características principales son:Se usa solamente para experimentos factoriales, generalmente cuando se estudian dos factores.Se utilizan dos tamaños de parcela, la de tamaño mayor se denomina parcela principal y la parcela de tamaño menor subparcela.La aleatorización se cumple en dos etapas, en la prim~ra se asignan al azar las parcelas princi-, .pales y en la segunda se asignan al azar las subparcelas en las parcelas principales.Se compara con mayor precisión el factor que se asigna en las subparcelas.Es ventajoso cuando por alguna razón práctica, un factor debe tener parcelas grandes, o cuando se desea comparar con mayor precisión un factor que otro.En la mayoría de los casos, este arreglo, se realiza bajo un dise60 en bloques al azar, razón por la cual, en la aleatorización y en el modelo estadístico se tendri en cuenta el efecto de \"Bloque\".('\" ","tokenCount":"2055"}

data/part_6/0685387961.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9a5f1b71440ef9b080c1eaa6a6c3bc7a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0f3a95a3-4070-44cc-90b0-7185d763ea11/retrieve","id":"-999496156"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c0816f04-06b9-4617-92ba-4a0105cc9b56","pagecount":"20","content":"CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. www.cgiar.orgWe would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund: www.cgiar.org/funders.An animal identification and traceability system (AITS) is a necessary component in livestock development to help in identifying and tracing animals. The identification of animals enables selection of those with superior performance, monitoring of their health status, managing and monitoring productivity in herds and tracking the movement and trade of animals and animal products. As part of the interventions in the dairy sector of Nepal under the CGIAR Initiative on Sustainable Animal Productivity for Livelihood, Nutrition and Gender (SAPLING), the Africa Asia Dairy Genetic Gain Program (AADGG) approached the Nepal Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD) and offered support in developing an AITS. In line with relevant protocols and agreement with the MoALD, an AITS was developed in consultation with key stakeholders in the country and submitted to the government for approval.The AITS protocol (Annex 1) was approved by the Ministry (Annex 2), and the requisite ID generation system has been deployed in the sub-domain (https://ainms.moald.gov.np/) under the domain (https://moald.gov.np/) of MoALD in the server provided by National Information Technology Center (NITC) of Government of Nepal. An initial set of Animal IDs has been generated using the tools developed and equipment purchased through the AADGG program for the tagging of more than 500 buffaloes in the AADGG/SAPLING project areas. The identification of animals is initially being rolled out for all buffaloes registered under the AADGG/SAPLING program. It will be expanded to other regions of the country where performance recording is being implemented through the government.The partners in Nepal include the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD), the Department of Livestock Services (DLS), the National Livestock Breeding Office (NLBO), and the National Animal Breeding and Genetics Research Centre (NABGRC). The National Information Technology Center (NITC) under the Department of Information Technology (DoIT) supports the hosting of the national database.Any improvements and changes in the livestock sector are hinged on the availability of information and data on animal characteristics and their performance within different production environments. From the collation of onfarm records, national animal databases are built and maintained for ready access to information on existing Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR) in a country. This information is critical for strategic planning, cost-effective development of livestock improvement programs and conservation of threatened AnGR. Livestock recording systems thus provide a multipurpose lead technological tool for transforming livestock production, notably in developing countries (Hoffmann et al. 2011). The adoption of animal identification and traceability within a country is an initial critical step towards implementing a breeding program for improving animal productivity under the existing production systems.In Nepal, the AITS provides an opportunity for the Department of Livestock Services (DLS) which is responsible for monitoring livestock productivity and the disease status of the population to track information electronically across different regions of the country. The system developed provides a platform for Dairy farmers, and in the long-term farmers keep different species of animals to identify, monitor and track their animals and products for better returns. The AITS additionally provides a boost for the Nepal Livestock Insurance Program that seeks to mitigate the risks for farmers yet has no uniform system for identifying the animals. The ability of the new AITS system to provide unique identification for each animal across the different regions of the county provides an opportunity for the insurance companies to provide better targeted and more realistic insurance products for the different types of animals.A fully functional, comprehensive, integrated, and centralized web-based software application developed by ILRI will be used by the Department of Livestock Services to run the Unique Identification Number (UIN) generation, distribution, and management. The entire web-based system is deployed/hosted in the data center provided by the NITC under the Department of Information Technology (DoIT) under the Ministry of Communication, Information, and Technology (MoCIT). It can be accessed through the link https://ainms.moald.gov.np/ by the authorized agency (DLS) under MoALD.The UIN consists of 12 digits starting with animal species* (one digit), province code (one digit), auto-incrementing index for each animal (nine digits), and a single check digit. The generated 12 digits including the last check digit will be printed in the animal ear tag and displayed.*Species is indexed as follows:1 -Cattle, 2 -Buffalo, 3 -Goat, 4 -Sheep, 5 -Pig, 5 -Dog, and so on.Currently, access is given to the NLBO Pokhra, which is the agency designated by MoALD to generate UIN. As the program expands, the NLBO Pokhra station will be able to provide user credentials to other provincial directorates or any other designated office to enable them to generate unique numbers that are in line with the system requirements. In line with the mandate provided through MoALD, any individual, development partner, or institution that needs to tag or identify animals will be required to NLBO Pokhra to provide the IDs as per the protocols determined. Costs for printing and applying the tags on the animals will be met by the concerned requisitioner.The types of tags recommended for use in large ruminants will be 50 x 55 mm on which the 12-digit animal ID will be printed in two rows with six (6) digits in each row.The animal UIN generation and management system will be run under the sub-domain (https://ainms.moald.gov.np/) of the main domain (https://moald.gov.np/) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development (MoALD).The fully functional animal identification system is in place in the government domain. ICT personnel have been trained to generate the Unique Identification Numbers (UIN) and a tag printer is in place at the NLBO station in Pokhra. An initial 7,000 buffalo will be tagged under the AADGG/SAPLING program in Koshi and Madhesh Provinces. The AITS will be publicized and rolled out across other regions of the country through the Nepal government institutions. Identification and traceability of farm animals are critical components of the transformation of livestock production systems in middle-and low-income countries. The identification of animals enables monitoring and evaluation of their performance and productivity across systems, networking and building trust among actors in value chains for different products from livestock, and tracking the movement and trade in animals and animal products. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO 1 ), and the International Committee for Animal Recording (ICAR 2 ) have developed guidelines and standards for animal identification recording and Traceability to be adopted by their member states and other interested countries. Additionally, the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) promotes the identification and traceability of animals as a pillar to improve animal health and welfare across the globe. Countries however require legislative frameworks to enable the adoption of animal identification and traceability across different farming systems.Over the years, different methods and protocols have been adopted by stakeholders and service providers in Nepal to identify and trace animals. A pedigree and performance recording scheme The overall objective of the AITS is to establish and support a robust animal identification and traceability system in Nepal that supports decision-making in the livestock sector. The specific objectives are:o to establish an ICT-based system for generating unique identification numbers (UIN) for each animal across the different livestock species o to facilitate collaboration among the public, cooperative and private sector actors in improving the production and productivity of different livestock species o to facilitate tracing of animals and animal products for food safety and animal disease controlThis protocol includes:This protocol is prepared to register farms (herd /farmers) and animals with a unique number, that will be registered onto a national database. At the time of animal registration, the animal ID, date of birth, dam ID, Sire ID and Breed are recorded using ICT tools. The registration tools have modules to enable the capture of information on the movement of animals off the farms for different purposes. In addition, the owner of the animal will receive a unique number with their address, farm name, and other relevant information for traceability. Please see Appendix 1 on the generation of a 12-digit Unique Identification Number (UIN) for each animal.This system was established to trace animals from where they were produced and maintained throughout their lives. The information for an animal registered on the system is updated to reflect any new location of the animal if the animal is moved from one farm to another. Finally, dates and details on the slaughter or death of an animal are recorded. The data recorder or service provider authorized to use the AADGG application shall make entries in the application when they realize that the particular animal has moved from another location.Linking the National Animal Health Information System to the AITS to identify the outbreak of any diseases and monitor the movement of diseases from one place to another place. Certification on health status will be required for animals whenever there are changes in their ownership, or when they are moved to different locations of the country.The Pedigree Performance Recording System (PPRS) used for the genetic evaluation of animals will be linked to AITS. The system will be expanded to collate data from smallholder farms alongside medium and large-scale operations.The benefits of the AITS include:1. National animal identification protocols facilitating animal performance recording and genetic evaluation for improving productivity across different farming systems.2. Enhanced food safety and control of the quality of products from livestock 3. Opportunity for Export of animal products 4. Enhanced monitoring and tracing of diseases across the livestock population.5. Platform available to support the adoption of animal insurance across livestock systems 4. Implementation of unique identification number (UIN) for farm animals a) The AITS will initially be available for all interested farmers through the NLBO station at Pokhra. In the long term, Animal identification will become mandatory to enable farmers to receive government incentives and/or participate in governmental programs.b) At registration, each animal will be assigned a 12-digit Unique Identification Number (UIN) with the last digit as a check digit for its identification (Please see Appendix 1). Through the system, poultry will be identified as a flock.c) Government, non-government organizations, and third-party agencies that work in livestock development and animal identification are encouraged to use and follow this AITS protocol.d) Organizations requiring a UIN to tag their animals shall request the authorized central agency NLBO, Pokhra, to generate a UIN using software developed in collaboration with ILRI as part of the AADGG-SAPLING Nepal program. The generation of UINs can later be expanded to Provincial Directorates.e) Once the UIN is received, the requisitioner is responsible for purchasing and printing tags and applying them to their animals at their own cost.f) A unique flock identity number will be used to identify poultry.District-level offices called VHLSECs /Municipal LSs determine the required number of tags and submit their request via email/web-based system to the Provincial Ministry or Directorate of Livestock and Fisheries Development (DoLFD). This shall be verified by the relevant DoLFD or provincial ministries and forwarded to NLBO Pokhra for UIN generation.Agencies including development partners, investors and insurance companies can directly approach NLBO Pokhra for UIN. As adoption of the system expands, Provincial Directorates will be given the responsibility to generate UIN for their regions in line with set protocols.The requisitioner shall collect the UIN from the authorized agency (currently NLBO Pokhra) and print tags they purchased at their cost.o A Plastic, Barcoded RFID can be used with the standard number to print UIN.o The quality, material, size, and other standard specifications of ear tags should be followed as per this AITS protocol (Appendix 1).o A 50 x 55mm tag for large ruminants in which a 12-digit animal ID will be printed in two rows by six (6) digits in each row as illustrated in Figure 1. o The distribution of ear tags at each stage will be documented through a digital database.It is mandatory for animals tagged with the UIN to be registered using the Africa-Asia-Dairy-Genetic Gains (AADGG) mobile application at the time of applying the tags.Data entered at registration will be synchronized to a centralized national server.It is noted that over time, animals have been identified and tagged using different identification systems by both governmental and non-governmental organizations.To minimize the challenges of multiple identification numbers for an individual animal (or a flock of poultry), we propose that a new UIN be assigned to each animal to replace the existing Ear Tag. Registration information on these animals via the AADGG App will require documentation of both the previous Tag ID and the new UIN 6. The animal Identification number management systemThe UIN generation system has been deployed in the sub-domain (https://ainms.moald.gov.np/) under the domain (https://moald.gov.np/) of MoALD in the server provided by National Information Technology Center (NITC) of the Government of Nepal.The integrated, centralized web-based data management system designed, developed, and deployed for the animal UIN for AITS will be routinely managed and further upgraded by MoALD. The web-based platform allows for the configuration of required parameters, cross-validation checks, detail reporting, summary reporting, and infographics dashboard, which are needed to optimize quality assurance and data management activities. The web-based platform also has a facility to communicate with other platforms via API to share and validate data. Access to relevant data will be authorized and granted as per MoALD's set priority and permission procedures.Any authorized organization may request API-based accessibility to get the required data/information integrated with their system, and the MoALD will hold the authority to make the decision. Different actors from different sectors will be able to get access to the data, information, system, report, and many more as needed. Only authorized users from any of the organizations will be able to access the system and data. The basic type of analysis and generation of standard reports will be automated in the system and will be accessible to higher-level offices. Further, any organization requiring access to the data to conduct any research or analysis shall submit their application to MoALD, and MoALD will provide access to applicants. For instance, VHLSEC or local level Livestock Section (LS) will get access to verify the information of identified/registered animals as per the AITS Protocol if they get some claim on the insurance. Users from VHLSEC or the local level Livestock Section (LS) will be able to see the data of the registered animal in their particular location. They also will be able to monitor the progress made by field workers and many more. Other institutions and third-party agencies/organizations will get an API-based connection to the data if they want to communicate for a particular access. They will not be able to push any data but will be able to pull animal information. The security protocol of information technology will be used at most. The DoIT will oversee the security of data and the system.While the general public can access limited information about registered /tagged animals (owner name, location, species, breed, sex, date of birth, etc.) through the web URL (https://ainms.moald.gov.np) or AADGG App (using tag number), an authorized person can access the AADGG Platform (web, mobile app) using a given credential for all types of animal performance details.At the inception of the system, UIN numbers were generated, printed on tags, and applied to more than 7,000 buffaloes in the Koshi and Madhesh Provinces through the dairy Buffalo improvement program supported by the AADGG-SAPLING program implemented by ILRI.","tokenCount":"2594"}

data/part_6/0689327167.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cdad9aaa072772684b932b03954a5fef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a7edf74f-e25e-4b6f-9847-d9a8e304efc1/retrieve","id":"-1814457317"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e9622069-abc1-468d-881c-0bbb3b62690f","pagecount":"17","content":"Participatory Mapping or mapping with professional knowledge, experience and actual knowledge of the community has been mentioned since 1970s (IFAD, 2009) and it appreciates local people's contribution in decision making. The Participatory Mapping is broadly applied not only in natural source management but also in many other fields (Chambers, 2006)  such as developing of hunger elimination and poverty reduction, education, husbandry, and security maps, etc.The Participatory Mapping method was also applied by Vietnam's Department of Crop Production and the CCAFS SEA in designing the approach for Climate-risk mapping and adaptation planning -CSMAP (Yên et al., 2019). Maps were developed for climate risk scenarios in normal and extreme years, using available database on terrain, climate, hydrology, infrastructure and practical experience of farmers, scientists and local officers.Local knowledge is very important in identifying affected area, the level of climate risks and adaptation measures taking into account local contexts (natural resources, infrastructure and production activities). In CSMAP, spatial and temporal factors are used in analysis following a 5-step process as specified in Figure 1. The process of developing CSMAP is perform collectively by agriculture, land use planning, hydrology, natural resources and environment officials, GIS experts, private sector partners and local people (i.e. agricultural extension officers, commune and/or village leaders, farmers, etc.) who have experience in agricultural production.To develop maps for a province, detailed information needs to be updated from district level. Invite 2-3 representatives from each district (following criteria above) to participate in a provincial workshop/meeting. Note:• To take best advantage of indigenous knowledge, participation of a wide range of stakeholders from related agencies is recommended. • The maps developed following steps below require frequent update by local stakeholders due to changes in biophysical conditions or agricultural development plans.Step 1: Define Climate-risksThe extent to which Climate-risks affect crops depends on intensity and time of occurrence of the risks, and other factors such as crop variety and growth stage, crop management practices, infrastructure readiness, and local resilience capacity. For example, salinity intrusion causes less damage to crop at tillering stage than flowering stage. Therefore, climate-risks and their potential damage levels diverse among different areas within the same region under similar climate conditions. However, there are various understanding about the definition of climate-risks and their potential damage levels. Therefore, it is important to achieve common understanding among stakeholders through participatory mapping method.Purpose: to develop criteria to determine Climate-risks.-List of Climate-risks (i.e., drought, flood, …)-Potential damage levels of those risks to crops (i.e., high, medium, low)Refer to secondary data on Climate-risks, hydrometeorology, climate-responsive infrastructure and recent agricultural production in the targeted region.Focus Group Discussion -FGD (Appendix 1): Organize thematic FGDs with 10-15 participants. This method encourages participants to share their opinions. During FGDs, the facilitator should respect all individual opinions, record the number of votes for and against each point. The ranking or scoring methods can be adopted to support decision making (Appendix 4).Key Informant Panels -KIP (Appendix 2): KIP with scientists in the fields of agriculture, irrigation, hydrometeorology, land use planning, natural disaster prevention, and people who have experience in local agricultural production, community development, and local authorities.However, the quality of information from KIP is subject to the personal view and their expertise, and can be strongly influenced by their biases.Materials and equipment required: A0 sheets, markers and colored papers.The facilitator lists Climate-risks in the targeted region and relevant causes (Appendix 3) on an A0 sheet (841 x 1189 mm) for all participants to view and discuss, and request participants to supplement the list if necessary (Table 1).It should be noted that one type of risk to production can be caused by a variety of climaterelated events, such as flooding can be caused by upstream flows or by local heavy rains. One Climate-risk can also cause different subsequent risks. For example, drought can cause a shortage of necessary irrigation water and can induce salinity intrusion, which results in water becoming unusable for agricultural production. In case of multiple Climate-risks, the Pairwise Ranking Method (Appendix 4) can be used to select the Climate-risks to be prioritized. The facilitator asks participants to name the identified risks and how to evaluate their levels of potential damage in the targeted region. S/he takes notes on an A0 sheet for participants to view, discuss, and agree on the local names of the identified risks and criteria to evaluate their potential damage levels. It should be noted that potential of historical and future damages may be different due to the potential changes in infrastructure and other responsive measures.Example: For the case of the Mekong River Delta (MRD) in Vietnam, the timing, frequency and intensity of the risk, and readiness capacity of a specific area are combined by participants to define 4 potential damage levels associated with proportion of potential yield loss: (1) High: more than 70%; (2) Moderate: 30%-70%; (3) Low: less than 30%; and (4) No affected: no significant effect on yield.Potential damage levels of a Climate-risk are subject to timing, location and intensity of the risk, and land use type and readiness of preventive structures. Thus, it is needed to prepare different responsive scenarios. For instant, moderate vs severe drought events or regular vs intensive operations of irrigation systems…To develop risk scenarios, the facilitator guide participants to list normal and extreme years of an identified climate disaster together with clear definition of the 'normal' and the 'extreme' events. Facilitators can use the same method being described in S1.1 and S1.2.Step 2: Participatory mappingPurpose:This step is for participants to get familiar with the base map, and check the place names and ground objects on the map. This step also allows updating the base map with recent changes.Participants are able to recognize the directions, land marks and locations on the base map.The main method of this step is FGD (Appendix 1). In implementing the CSMAP method, through FGD, participants help each other get familiar with the maps.The paper base map for hand-drawing, scale from 1:50,000 to 1:100,000 for province level, from 1:10,000 to 1:50,000 for the district level, from 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 for the commune level, and from 1:2,000 to 1:5,000 for the village level. The base map should include the following layers: topography, land use/land cover, land marks and administration. The base map should be printed in color on a A0 paper.The facilitator asks participants to place the map following the correct direction and check the place names and ground objects on the map.A Climate-risk often occurs in a specific period of time. For example, floods caused by surplus flows and heavy rain often occur during the rainy season, while droughts occur during the dry season. Clear definition of temporal boundary will help participants to link the risk with the targeted agricultural product better.Spatial boundary of the risk is often defined by physical land conditions such as terrain, relative elevation, soil type, and available of preventive structures (e.g. drainage canal, dyke, pump station, sluice gate, etc.) and development stage of the crop. Spatial boundary on the map can be determined by participants based on pre-prepared information of topography, administration, land use pattern and land marks of the target area.Note: both temporal and spatial boundaries of a climate risk are relative and need to be defined for each scenario.To define the temporal and spatial boundaries of the climate risk for each of agricultural products by pre-defined scenario (S1.3).-A map for each Climate-risk in a scenario for a particular product by season.-The potential damage levels of the risk in S1.1 are defined for every land management unit (such as plot, field or sub-region depending on the required details) on the map.The main method to define the potential damage levels of Climate-risks is FGD (Appendix 1) which may be combined with modeling method.The modeling method requires expertise in hydrometeorology and agricultural system. It is usually performed by research institutions because it requires a large number of input parameters and includes a complicated process of calibration and validation. Then, the simulation results will be validated by local stakeholders through FGD.In implementing the CSMAP method, FGD enables sharing experience about the historical Climate-risks among stakeholders.-The paper base map for hand-drawing, scale from 1:50,000 to 1:100,000 for province level, from 1:10,000 to 1:50,000 for the district level, from 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 for the commune level, and from 1:2,000 to 1:5,000 for the village level. The base map should include the following layers: topography, land use/land cover, land marks and administration. The base map should be printed in color on a A0 paper.-A transparent film of A0 size is placed on top of the map to allow participants to outline the spatial boundaries of the Climate-risk.-It is advised to use erasable markers so that the film can be reused for multiple tasks.The markers should come in different colors for different types of information.Implementation process:The facilitator guides participants to define the temporal boundary (a particular season or time period) and the relevant Climate-risks (outcome of S1.1). For example, floods usually occur in rainy seasons while droughts happen in dry seasons.The determination of spatial boundaries of the climate risk on the map is carried out in various tasks for different products, planting seasons, scenarios and risks. Therefore, it is necessary to define clear tasks to carry of the delineation of spatial boundaries. The process is recorded in the Table 2 below: Note: The process from now until the end of Step 3 is carried out for each task (as defined in Table 2).The facilitator instructs participants to:-Fix the transparent films on the base map.-Draw the boundaries of the areas that will potentially be damaged by the climate risk.-Write the potential damage levels in the middle of the map polygons using different codes to distinguish the levels. Other remarks can be noted at the margins of the map.-Place the map with the film on a flat surface and take photos perpendicularly for saving and storing information. It is recommended to use natural light to prevent reflections on the film.The output of this step is fed into Step 3 to propose adaptation plans.Example 2. For rice production in the MRD of Vietnam, there are two Climate-risks: drought-salinity intrusion (from January to March) and floods (from August to November). There are two scenarios of potential damage of these risks: (a) the moderate-damage year and (b) the extreme-damage year.Step 3: Propose adaptation plans Adaptation plans for a particular risk need to be developed for specific sites based on natural characteristics, products, infrastructure readiness and the risks map (output of Step 2).Propose adaptation plans for each task in Step 2.1 (Table 2).Output:A map of adaptation plans for each task (Table 2).To carry out this step, the main method is FGD (Appendix 1) which may be combined with the modeling method.The base map (Step 2.1), the transparent film with risk boundaries and potential damage levels, and erasable colored pens.Implementation process:The facilitator guides participants to review the climate risk, its potential damages across the region and causes of the risk. This helps the participants build an overall picture of the region and synthesize information up to this step. Table 3 demonstrates a template that can be used to facilitate this process, and an example of the output. Adaptation plans need to be relevant to local characteristics, the risk and its potential damages.In general, there are two types of adaptation actions: construction and non-construction.In this document, a construction action is understood as using artificial works to overcome and mitigate damages caused by climate-related hazards, such as building a dike system to limit inundation due to floods, building pumping stations and canal systems to tackle water shortage in dry seasons, building culverts to prevent saltwater intrusion to the fields, etc. A construction action is often highly efficient with measurable effects. However, it takes large investments and a long time for design and construction. It is, therefore, suitable for medium-and long-term adaptation plans and is a challenge for localities with limited financial resources.A non-construction action for adaptive agriculture is understood as adjusting production activities according to the laws of nature towards ecosystem restoration and development, for examples: changing cropping structure, using climate-resilient varieties, adjusting cropping calendar, capacity building, etc. A non-construction action is relatively easily and quickly operated and highly relevant to local conditions. Therefore, this document encourages use of non-construction actions in developing adaptation plans for Climate-risks.In this step, the facilitator supports participants to discuss adaptation actions for each specific area on the map listed in Table 3. The adaptation actions should be practical, and require minimum investments and time for deployment. -Participants note the current farming practices and seasons for each specific area on the risk map (S2.2) using markers, abbreviations and acronyms can be used if applicable. For example: use a red market to note \"WS Rice (Nov.-Mar.)\" to refer to Winter-Spring rice season from November to March of the following year as a current cropping practice.-Use markers of a different colour to note the adaptation plans on the same map. For example: use a blue marker to note \"WS Rice (Oct.-Feb.)\" to refer to adjusting the Winter-Spring season to October -February as an adaptation action. Actions can be coded in Table 3 and noted using the same codes on the map.-Place the map with the film on a flat surface and take photos perpendicularly for saving and storing information. Them, the film can be cleared for reuse afterwards.Step 2.2.3 and Step 3 for all tasks defined in Table 2. Because rice lands in the Northern part (codes II and III) are lowly prone to the risks, the triple rice pattern can be maintained but the planting month of Winter-Spring season is recommended to be shifted from December to November to avoid impact of the risks at the end of the season.Step 4: Revise climate-smart maps and adaptation plansRevising the initial maps of climate-risk and adaptation plans with a wider range of stakeholders is necessary to obtain a most feasible outputs.Revise maps of climate-risks and adaptation plans with participation of larger group of local stakeholders.Information on maps of climate-risks and adaptation plans are evaluated and finalized.FGD and (Appendix 1) and/or KIP (Appendix 2). In this step, it is recommended that FGD is likely more efficient than KIP because it allows to get common understanding and agreement among stakeholders.Before organizing FGD or KIP, initial maps with full descriptions should be digitalized and layout. The maps' layouts can be shown to stakeholders during discussion either in digital (i.e. Jpg, PDF or GIS layers) or in printed format.-In case of using printed maps, the transparent film can be used to draw recommended changes. Other necessary materials are color markers and notes. -In case of using digital maps, projector or large screen is necessary to present thematic maps.Depending on number of participants, heterogeneity of the study area, participants can be split in smaller groups of 3-5 persons. Each group is assigned to discuss on climaterisks and associated adaptation plans for a particular area. For example, revising maps for a province can be done by sub-groups focusing on individual districts.Due to a large variation of stakeholders, briefing development process and initial maps to participants are definitely required. In this step, the facilitator briefly introduces the objectives, methods and obtained outputs of previous steps, and then guide participants to get familiar with the map as shown in Step 2.During the discussion, the pre-prepared map layouts are presented to participants for their comments and suggestions for improvements. The facilitator can use supporting equipment to note recommended changes.Map refining process can be done in following order:-Evaluate the extent and level of climate-risks shown on the map.-Refine climate-risk maps by season and scenario.-Evaluate adaptation plans shown on the maps.-Refine adaptation plans by season and scenario.Changes can be updated directly on digital maps or documented or noted on paper maps for GIS processing.Step 5: Regional integration of mapsRefining maps separately by sub-groups (Step 4) may result in conflicts over identified options among regions of the study area. For example, over storing water of the upstream provinces may lead to water shortage of the downstream provinces; or operation scheme of irrigation structures (i.e. dam, sluice gate) developed by a district may conflict with planting plan of the others, which use the same irrigation system. Therefore, the local adaptation plan needs to be integrated in the ecological and regional context. Management and sharing schemes of common resources (e.g. water, infrastructure) need to be discussed in this step.Integrate the adaptation plans at local scale into ecological region scale.Regional maps of climate-risks and adaptation plans integrated and agreed by stakeholders.FGD (Appendix 1) or KIP (Appendix 2) can be used. The maps obtained from Step 4 can be shown to stakeholders during discussion either in digital (i.e. Jpg, PDF or GIS layers) or in printed format.-In case of using printed maps, the transparent film can be used to draw recommended changes. Other necessary materials are color markers and notes. -In case of using digital maps, projector or large screen is necessary to present thematic maps.First, the local maps refined in Step 4 are presented to all stakeholders. Then, the facilitator guide stakeholders to match local maps into the ecological map. Mismatches can be discussed among stakeholders to make necessary adjustments based on stakeholders' agreement. To adjust the map, follow instructions in S4.3. The final maps are standardized using the same projection, scale and base-map.","tokenCount":"2873"}

data/part_6/0721476826.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8d3d6a7f6f04eae6ebac563f20d96434","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c853eb1-31d5-414a-8b6b-3512aba1bf25/retrieve","id":"-985912618"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"de8d1a8d-0a84-49cd-80a2-4c860a8bc3c1","pagecount":"2","content":"P1327 -Building foresight portfolio for WHEAT AFS, including synthesis, gap analysis and new studies, as input in conducting priority setting for WHEAT AFS Description of the innovation: Peer-reviewed journal article with highlights: Major cereals will remain a critical feature of the agri-food system for the foreseeable future. The cereal-based agri-food system is strictly dependent on the supply capacity of rural areas. Rural areas are transforming in fundamental ways and will bring change in the major cereal-based agri-food systems. Rural transformation is key to understanding the future of cereal-based systems. Understanding rural transformation is needed to prioritize research for development strategies and investments.","tokenCount":"102"}

data/part_6/0765204513.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a67e0f815cf841038135b069bb8687fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e2c649a-7526-4635-a955-ce8fe5a269cd/retrieve","id":"214513115"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"308de707-dd07-46dc-9554-b0b60fad1192","pagecount":"4","content":"Sequencing swine leucocyte alleles for vaccine development Why is this work important?Swine leucocyte antigen (SLA) genes are among the most important determinants of swine immune responses to disease and vaccines. Accurate and comprehensive SLA genotyping methods are required to understand how SLA gene polymorphisms affect immunity, especially in pigs with diverse genetic backgrounds. The work outlined in this brief contributes to advances in knowledge required for generation of efficient vaccines against swine pathogens and diseases, such as African swine fever.African swine fever (ASF) is a haemorrhagic fever affecting pigs. If introduced into a farm, it can kill all the animals within a few days. The disease is caused by a large DNA virus and the only member of Asfaviridae family, but has similarities with the pox viruses, such as chicken pox and goat pox, among others. The virus is initially found in cells of the macrophage type; but in the later phases of the disease, it also infects other cell types such as epithelial cells. Distinct clinical symptoms are high fever, redness (hemorrhage) of the ears and on other patches of the skin, and death. Unfortunately, there are no available commercial vaccines or treatment to control or prevent ASF virus infection. The only method of preventing ASF is by using strict biosecurity methods, e.g. fencing of animals, avoiding contact with wild pigs, washing of boots before entering pig enclosures, use of quarantine pens for new animals, etc. Compartmentalization and zoning of pig herds can be used to keep areas ASF-free; however, this approach can be difficult to introduce and maintain on a large-scale in Africa as pigs often roam freely in rural and peri-urban systems. Moreover, poor African pig producers are less likely to implement control strategies or report disease outbreaks because of a lack of knowledge and incentives to do so. Therefore, this disease poses serious socio-economic consequences in affected and nearby countries and highlights the urgency of developing efficient countermeasures against ASF.With an estimated 34 million pigs in sub-Saharan Africa, an ASF vaccine could benefit from 6-17 million smallholder farmers, providing protection in cases of generalized outbreaks and preventing outbreaks in nearby areas. As the pig population in Africa rises, disease spread could be increasingly problematic (Steinaa et al. 2016).In What are Swine leukocyte antigens?SLAs are tissue type antigens in pigs, also more commonly known known as major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC). These antigens are very diverse and vary among individual pigs. The diversity among the different molecules are clustered in a certain region of the molecules. This region is responsible for binding of short peptide fragments from pathogens, which they present to cells from the immune system. This can then trigger the immune system to react to the pathogen to clear it from the body.SLA class I molecules are encoded by three regions in the pig genome, SLA-1, SLA-2 and SLA-3 (Lunney et al. 2009;Renard et al. 2006). SLAs from European pigs are characterized far better than their African counterparts. Currently, 85 SLA-1, 85 SLA-2 and 36 SLA-3 gene sequences, coding for MHC class I molecules, have been published in the Immuno Polymorphism Database , but very few, if any, originate from African pigs. The origin of African pigs is not completely clear, and there is phylogenetic divergence between pigs from West and East Africa. Pigs from East Africa have high frequencies of genes from pigs in the Far East, consistent with data found from African chickens, which confirms that livestock were transported from Far East over the Indian Ocean thousands of years ago. Later, with successive European colonizations, other pig breeds were introduced and were mixed with the original pigs, further adding to the gene pool (Amills et al. 2013).Why are SLA sequences interesting?Each SLA type binds pathogen peptides with a particular peptide motif, e.g. the amino acid arginine at position 2 and lysine at position 9. Different SLA types exhibit a preference for different peptides. Hence, the SLA molecules 'fit' with certain peptides in the pathogen, also called epitopes. This is important knowledge for the development of subunit vaccines. In the process of selecting antigens/ epitopes, for them to be included in a subunit vaccine, consideration must be given to the SLAs in the target pig population. Knowledge of peptide motifs can also be used for prediction of epitopes using neural network algorithms such as NetMHCpan (Hoof et al. 2009), developed by Danish Technical University (Stryhn et al. 1996).ILRI has sequenced the expressed swine leucocyte antigens from 34 Kenyan pigs. Messenger RNA, which represents expressed genes, was copied to DNA (cDNA) and parts of the SLA genes were amplified and sequenced using Illumina MiSeq. Many novel sequences were identified.Three African SLAs have been expressed as protein and positional scanning combinatorial peptide library analyses have been performed by our Danish collaborators, Soren Buus and Anette Stryhn (University of Copenhagen). This has generated peptide binding motifs for these three SLA molecules (Morten Nielsen, Danish Technical University).  ","tokenCount":"819"}

data/part_6/0769740128.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e90e3b67918700c7b924373a8e5ab1a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/055a9de2-8d96-4f40-b844-135f2731591a/retrieve","id":"217933853"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2a58b0ea-f4da-418e-acd0-7b0ba4dae095","pagecount":"62","content":"The HEALTHY FUTURES project evaluates the effects of environment and climate change effects on selected vector borne diseases (Rift Valley fever, malaria and schistosomiasis) in East Africa. The project will use both empirical and simulated data to develop prediction models and information systems that can support the management of these diseases. Empirical data will be collected in three pre-determined case study sites including Ijara district in Kenya (Rift Valley fever and malaria study site), Lake Albert in Uganda (schistosomiasis study site) and northern and southern Rwanda (a second malaria study site).Ijara is one of the six districts in Garissa County, north-eastern Kenya. It falls in V-VI agroecological zones (semi-arid and very arid respectively) with the south-eastern part neighbouring the coastal strip falling in zone IV (semi-humid to semi-arid zone).Temperatures range between 15 and 38 0 C though they tend to remain high throughout the year except in April -August due to the low altitude and semi-arid conditions. Rainfall is low and bimodal, with its density ranging between 200 mm to 1000 mm per annum. The district is inhabited by the Somali pastoralists who live in small families commonly in trading centres or watering points. The average population density is 7 people per square kilometre. The district was selected for this work because it is a hotspot for RVF and it has also been used previously by research projects such as Arbovirus Incidence and Diversity (AVID) project for similar activities; it will be possible, therefore, to obtain secondary data for some of the analyses. In addition, the district has high levels of poverty, malnutrition, and morbidity rates especially among children and women.Since 1961, Ijara has had at least 4 RVF outbreaks -these occurred in the years : 1961, 1962, 1997-98 and 2006-07. These outbreaks produce devastating effects on both public health and animal production given that the native pastoral communities rely heavily on livestock for their livelihoods. Preliminary results obtained from an analysis of historical data indicate that RVF outbreaks are associated with excessive and persistent rainfall that lasts for a period of at least 3 months. Participatory studies have shown that outbreaks cause tremendous losses through livestock mortalities, abortions and trade embargoes. An individual-based model developed as part of the HEALTHY FUTURES project's activities track RVF virus transmission dynamics between vectors and hosts and demonstrate that hosts' herd immunity play a critical role in moderating the frequency of epidemics. The model also provides a framework for testing alternative scenarios, for example, the effects of varying relative proportions of livestock and other potential hosts on RVFV transmission. This is critical for the evaluation of land use and biodiversity changes on the disease incidence and hence the effectiveness of control measures.xiThe level of malaria transmission in the district is low and unstable because of the harsh climatic conditions. The area is semi-arid with low rainfall density ranging between 200 to 1000 mm per year. Multiple intervention programs have also been implemented in the district over the last 5 -10 years. These interventions have had a substantial impact on the risk of the disease. However, the disease still poses a risk to the local communities particularly during the wet seasons. Long periods of underexposure, frequent droughts, cross-border migrations that are common in the area, and use of counterfeit drugs, among other factors are likely to increase the local community's vulnerability to the disease particularly if the on-going intervention programs are temporary halted or discontinued. An analysis of hospital records obtained from the local health centres did not find any association between climate variables -precipitation and temperature -probably because of the effects of the on-going interventions.More work is being done to generate decision support tools and risk maps for managing these diseases. This report is intended to give initial findings. It is structured into four chapters: Chapter 1 describes the location of the district and its physical features; Chapter 2 presents preliminary findings on RVF analyses; Chapter 3 presents results of a statistical analysis of hospital records on malaria and Chapter 4 outlines some of the work that will be done in the coming months.1 Ijara district -location and physical featuresIjara is one of the six districts in Garissa County, north-eastern Kenya. The district lies between 1 0 7`S and 2 0 3`S and 40 0 4`E and 41 0 32`E and borders Fafi district to the north, Lamu to the south, Tana Delta to the southwest, Tana River to the west and Republic of Somalia to the east. It covers an area of 9,642 km 2 (GoK, 2009). Figure 2.1 shows the location of the district in Kenya. The district is subdivided into six administrative divisions namely: Masalani, Ijara, Sangailu, Kotile, Korisa and Bodhai. The district has one constituency (i.e., Ijara), 11 electoral wards and one local authority, Ijara County Council (GoK, 2009).The district falls in V-VI agro-ecological zones (semi-arid and very arid respectively) with the south-eastern part neighbouring the coastal strip falling in zone IV (semi-humid to semi-arid zone). Approximately one quarter of the district on the eastern part is covered by the Boni Forest. The forest is indigenous and constitutes the northern strip of the Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest mosaic. Areas adjacent to the forest fall under the agricultural Zone IV, which gradually changes to V and VI as one moves westwards. The forest is an important resource for the local pastoralists since it is used as a dry season grazing site. The vegetation in the other parts of the district comprises acacia shrubs, star and elephant grasses, etc. (GoK, 2009).The district generally has a flat topography interspersed with undulating plains. Its altitude ranges between 0 and 90 meters above sea level. Most of the district has black cotton and alluvial soils with small patches of sandy soils towards the coastal border. An analysis conducted by the GIS Unit, ILRI, indicates that 56% of the district has haplic solonertz soil type, while 23% and 18% has eutric planosols and eutric vertisols, respectively. These soils have poor drainage properties and they form deep cracks when dry -they are, therefore, not suitable for rain-fed agriculture. The Tana River that runs along the western boundary of the district has a tremendous influence over the climate, settlement patterns, and economic potential within the district for it forms the single most important source of water. Seasonal rivers (laghas) that are found in most parts of the district provide water for both human and livestock consumption during the wet season.Temperatures range between 15 and 38 0 C though they tend to remain high throughout the year except in April -August due to the low altitude and semi-arid conditions. Rainfall is low and bimodal and its density ranges between 200 mm to 1000 mm per annum. The two wet periods in the year occur between March to May and October to December, with the second period having higher rainfall densities than the former. Rainfall and temperature patterns for the year 2011 measured at Garissa meteorological station, which represent most of the north-eastern Kenya including Ijara district, are pre presented in Figure 2.2.   32,890 29,743 62,633 37,136 33,582 70,718 37,980 34,346 72,326 38,737 35,030 73,767 Source: National Coordination Agency for Population and Development, Ministry of Planning and National Development, (2005).The projected population figures given in Table 2.1 indicate an increasing trend over the period. The number of males marginally exceeds the number of females. Ijara division has the highest population, accounting for 32% of the total. Masalani division, in which the district headquarters is located, has the second highest population and accounts for 25%.The district has a population growth rate of 3.5% which is higher than the national average of 2.9%. Similarly, the district's mean fertility rate is 7 births per woman while the national average is 4.9 (Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Ministry of Health (MOH), and ORC Macro, 2004). The district's life expectancy for men is 60 years while that for women is 57 years. The national average (for both men and women) is 46 years. Current estimate for the crude death rate is 10 deaths per 1,000. Infant mortality rate averages 91 per 1,000 live births while that for children under five years of age is 163 per 1,000 births.Based on these statistics, it was predicted that the population of the district would increase from 70,718 (level projected for 2008) to 73,767 by 2012. Given that 59% of the district's population living in absolute poverty, such an increase in population has negative impacts on food security, water availability, provision of public health and other social services. Most of the people depend on livestock. Agriculture (crop production) is another major economic activity and is largely limited to the Tana basin and Bodhai division.Overtime, the district has received local immigrants mainly from the Kamba community who travel in search for blue-collar jobs in the district. It is also probable that citizens of the Somali Republic who have relatives in the district could have immigrated to the district when that country was being ruled by insurgents.Ijara district has 100,000 ha of arable land of which only 1% is currently under crop production. Over 90% of land is either trust land or government land that is used by the local communities for pastoralism. The carrying capacity of the land is 15.5 total livestock units/ha and the proportion of the population working in the livestock sector is 95%. However, the potential for crop production is immerse with some isolated farms producing for the export market.  (Daubney et al. 1931). Humans become infected after either a bite of an infected mosquito or by intensive contact with acutely infected animals or by handling infected tissues. In man, the disease manifests either as a mild influenza-like syndrome in a majority of cases (> 80 per cent) or as a severe disease with haemorrhagic fever, encephalitis, or retinitis (Soumare et al., 2012). In Kenya, RVF outbreaks have previously occurred in 1931, 1951/53, 1961/63, 1967/68, 1977/79, and  In Ijara, an extensive serological survey showed that buffaloes, warthogs and waterbucks had RVFV-neutralizing antibodies, suggesting that these animals were exposed to the virus during the outbreak (Evans et al., 2008). The district also had RVF outbreaks in 1961/1962and 1997/1998(Woods et al., 2002;Murithi et al., 2011).A number of analytical studies have been implemented in the district to identify risk factors for the disease. LaBeaud et al., (2008)  A more recent analysis of historical data on RVF epizootics corroborate these findings and shows that high and persistent precipitation over a period of 3 months and low altitude is associated with the incidence of the disease while the presence of soil sub-types solonetz and luvisols in an area leads to persistence of outbreaks for a period of at least 3 months (Bett et al., 2012).Following the 2006/2007 outbreak, ILRI in partnership with the Department of Veterinary Services (DVS) implemented studies in Garissa and Ijara districts to assess the impact of the outbreak and identify ways of improving the prediction, detection, and response to RVF (ILRI, 2007). The study found out that the severity of the epidemic particularly in the northeastern Kenya was exasperated by delays in recognizing risk factors and in taking decisions to prevent and control the disease. The study found out that epidemics of RVF can most effectively be prevented and controlled through the active monitoring of key risk factors leading to timely decision making and the targeting of prevention and control resources.The new transmission studies being done under the HEALTHY FUTURES project build on the work that has been done to further investigate the disease transmission dynamics. They utilize a mechanistic model that simulates the disease transmission dynamics as an analytical framework which specifies the type of data or information required for a holistic assessment of the disease system.RVFV transmission mechanisms are poorly understood partly they involve complex interactions between multiple agents (a wide range of vector and host species) and drivers that operate at local (e.g. socio-economic practices and land use) and regional levels (including climate change). In the Horn of Africa, RVF epidemics occur periodically following periods of prolonged heavy rainfall. It is believed that the virus persists during the interepidemic periods in drought resistant floodwater Aedes eggs. It is also thought that riverine vegetation, moist bushed and wooded grasslands and forests can support endemic transmission of the virus probably because these areas always have high population densities of mosquito vectors and potential reservoir hosts.This study utilizes an individual based RVF model (IBM) as a framework for studying these transmission dynamics. The study area, as described above, is inhabited by transhumant pastoralists whose movements (to and from wet and dry grazing areas) could be important for RVFV maintenance and transmission. Individual based models (IBMs) are suitable for studying such complex non-linear systems where space is crucial and agents' positions are not fixed. They are also useful for simulating agents' behaviours especially if they are expected to change over time as they adapt based on acquired knowledge or in response to new challenges.The model is currently being used to determine types of studies that should be implemented to obtain input parameters. Scenario analyses are also being implemented to generate hypotheses on RVFV transmission mechanisms. The structure of the model is described below.The key components of the model include: (i) the environment or landscape, (ii) agents, and (iii) processes describing interactions in time and space.The model simulates livestock and vector population dynamics and RVF transmission in a spatially-explicit environment that is subdivided into 100 x 100 grids of square cells measuring 500 x 500 m. This framework allows for the incorporation of spatial heterogeneities in the model such as the locations of the grazing sites by season and vector breeding sites. A reliable estimate of the carrying capacity of the area has not been obtained. For the purposes of this analysis, it is assumed that the current cattle and sheep populations of 300,000 and 600,000, respectively, (Department of Veterinary Services, unpublished data) represent equilibrium populations of these livestock species. Sensitivity analyses are, however, being conducted to determine the effects of varying the equilibrium population sizes on epidemic patterns.Vector breeding sites (dambos) are randomly distributed within the grid. The number used at the model initialization stage is given in Table 3.1.Two host species, namely cattle and sheep are used as agents in the model. Their attributes include species (cattle or sheep), age (neonate, weaner, yearling or adult), sex (male or female), infection status (susceptible, exposed, infectious or removed/resistant), time since infection and physical location. Animals are also aggregated to form herds or flocks. The numbers of herds, flocks and individuals generated at the model initialization stage are given in Table 3.1.Dynamic processes that drive the model operations are classified into three, these are: i. Mosquito population dynamics, ii. Host population and movement dynamics, and iii. RVFV transmission dynamics.All of these processes are updated on daily basis. The model considers two RVFV vectors, namely Aedes mcintoshi (indicated throughout this report as Aedes spp.), as the primary vector, and Culex spp., to represent all the possible secondary vectors. Their population dynamics are simulated using a stage-structured transition matrix model described by Yussof et al. (2012) based on the parameters used are presented in Table 3.2. This model illustrated in Figure 3.1. Each vector has four life stages, i.e., eggs, larvae, pupae and adult. Each stage has corresponding probability of surviving and staying in stage i, denoted by i P , and the probability of surviving and growing from stage i to stage i+1, denoted by i G .A list of these development and survival probabilities constitute a transition matrix A and the population of a given stage at time t, X(t), is obtained by multiplying the transition matrix with X(t-1), the population of each life stage at time t-1.i P and i G were computed as described by Yussof et al. ( 2012) based on i S , the survival rate for stage i, and i d the duration in that stage i, as follows:andClimate variables: temperature, precipitation and humidity influence the development rates of most vectors including mosquitoes. At the moment though, only daily rainfall densities obtained from Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) are used to estimate the development and survival probabilities. Work is underway to include temperature estimates to these functions.For Aedes spp., simulation starts with the hatching of eggs in inundated soils. During dry periods, eggs of Aedes spp that are dormant in dried up soils are assumed to suffer a low baseline mortality rate of μ Ae. When conditions that favour hatching are provided (i.e., flooding that persists for at least 2-3 days), hatching occurs at the rate, H A . Hatching rate is made to depend on the amount of flooding, therefore extensive floods leads to the hatching of a higher proportion of dormant eggs.Larvae develop into pupae after P A days while pupae emerge as adults after E A days. Larvae, pupae and adults have baseline mortality rates of μ Al, μ Ap and μ Aa, respectively. Females seek a blood meal every G A days. Following a successful feeding, these mosquitoes lay eggs on moist soil at the edge of the flooded areas. Aedes spp are assumed to lay S A eggs per batch; all the eggs laid by infected Aedes spp are assumed infected trans-ovarially. RVFV is thought to be transmitted transovarially by floodwater Aedes mosquitoes (EFSA, 2005). Mosquitoes that emerge from the infected eggs develop into infectious vectors. It is assumed the development rates of the immatures, and feeding frequencies and baseline mortality rates for the mature stages are not influenced by RVFV infection. In addition, the model does not as yet allow for the variation in the duration of the gonotrophic cycle, or the number of eggs laid per batch, with an increase in the age of the vector.Culex spp lay eggs on fresh or existing pools of water; these eggs cannot withstand desiccation, therefore they don't remain dormant in the soils like those of the Aedes mcinthoshi. The development processes from eggs to adults are similar to those described for Aedes spp. There is however no transovarial transmission of RVFV in Culex spp or in any other secondary vectors.Persistent rainfall and flooding provide extensive breeding surfaces especially for Culex mosquitoes. Linthicum et al. (1983) indicates that flooding that persist for at least 4-6 weeks allows for the development of massive swarms of secondary mosquitoes which amplify the transmission of RVF when cattle, goats and sheep are present. Similarly, a participatory survey that was carried out in Ijara in following the 2006-2007 RVF outbreak established that the mean interval in days between the start of heavy rains and appearance of mosquito swarms was 23.6 days (Jost et al., 2010). To mimic these dynamics, the number of Culex mosquitoes obtained from the matrix model is amplified based on a by 23-day cumulative rainfall. The cumulative rainfall is also used to control the hatching of infected Aedes spp. eggs that remained dormant in the soils during the dry and low rainfall periods.Model runs generated for this analysis focussed on the period January 1, 2005 to July 23, 2010 so as to capture the recent RVF outbreak that occurred in the district between October 2006 and February 2007. The number of herds and flocks used to initialize the model are given in Table 3.1. These populations represent 1% of the assumed equilibrium population of cattle and goats in the area.A new host is allowed to enter the system through births or purchase while exits occur through mortality, RVFV-associated mortality (case fatality) or through sale; the parameters used to run these simulations are given in Table 3 After parturition, cattle and sheep will undergo a waiting period of 180 and 60 days respectively before it can start breeding again.Hosts move between wet and dry grazing sites depending on season. In the current model, host movements are driven by cumulative daily rainfall. Livestock are confined to the wet season grazing areas when the cumulative (TRMM) rainfall over a period of 21 days is >100 mm/month. Below this threshold, livestock are transferred to a dry season grazing area. Movement ranges within each site are outlined in Table 3.3.The probability that a given host gets exposed to RVFV depends on its level of interaction with infectious vectors present in the area. Given that a host can get infection either from either of the vectors used in the model (Aedes spp and/or Culex spp), the model simulates infection processes for each vector independently and then aggregates them to obtain a composite transmission coefficient, hi  for each host. Parameters that are multiplied to obtain the transmission coefficient for a given vector include:(i) The ratio of the population of the vector species to that of a specified host species, (ii) The vector's biting rate, (iii) The probability that the vector feeds on the host depending on the blood meal index, (iv) The probability that the host gets infected following a bite by an infectious mosquito;(v) The prevalence of RVFV infection in the vector,The composite transmission coefficient ( hi  ) is transformed into host's infection probability ( hi p ) using the formula: A compartmental SIR model is used to simulate RVFV infections in mosquitoes. Susceptible vectors can pick RVFV infection either from infectious cattle or sheep. The transmission coefficient for vector i is estimated by first simulating the interactions between that vector and host species i, followed by aggregating the estimates for all the species that each vector would feed on. Parameters used to estimate this coefficient include: i. vector biting rates ii. blood meal index (indicating the proportion of meals obtained by vector i on host j.iii. the probability that the vector will get infected from an infected blood meal iv. the prevalence of RVFV infection in host i.Following exposure, susceptible mosquitoes will join exposed category for L Ae days (Aedes spp) or L Cu days (Culex sp). They will become infectious at the end of that period. It is assumed that an infectious vector remains at this state for its remaining lifetime. Most of the input parameters for this work have been obtained from the literature.  Given the multiple and complex interactions that the model is structured to simulate; it will not be possible to use traditional methods of validation, e.g. fitting the model empirical data. In addition, there is scanty data on temporal-spatial distribution of RVF incidencemost of the available records have been collected during epidemics. Attempts have been made, therefore, to test the model using pattern oriented modelling approaches. This is an attempt to establish whether the model mimics RVF occurrences at different scales and ecologies other than that used to build the model. In this analysis, Arusha region of Tanzania that officially reported the 2007 RVF outbreak in February 12, 2007 was used. Daily TRMM rainfall data for the area were obtained and used to drive the model. Temporal patterns of the RVF outbreak were then analysed against those observed in Ijara.In future, model validation will include testing various parameterizations of the input parameter values to determine how well they simulate observed patterns.Three main studies have been done to generate additional information for RVFV modelling; these include:1. Statistical analyses of historical data on RVF outbreaks in Ijara district to determine the correlation between climate variables (temperature and rainfall) and the outbreaks, 2. Participatory epidemiological surveys to determine types of livestock species kept and their proportions, livestock demographic parameters, and movement patterns, 3. Entomological and epidemiological surveys to determine the risk of RVFV infection in livestockAnnual records on RVF epizootics in Kenya dating back to 1979 were obtained from CDC Kenya. RVF epizootics included outbreaks associated with stormy abortions in livestock especially small ruminants and hemorrhagic syndrome that occurred after prolonged periods of heavy rainfall, and were confirmed using laboratory tests [ELISA] or reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction [PCR]). Outbreaks were recorded by year, province, district and area. For the purpose of this analysis, the data were restructured by: (i) classifying the areas affected by divisions defined during the 1999 human population census (n = 505), and (ii) refining the time component of the outbreaks from an annual to monthly time scale. The refinements were made with reference to records kept at the Department of Veterinary Services.Gridded climate data comprising monthly mean precipitation, maximum and minimum temperatures for the period January 1979 to December 2010 were obtained from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF). The data merged with the disease data and kept in a database designed using MS Access database. They were subsequently exported to STATA/SE 11.1 for statistical analysis. A division was used as the unit of analysis. The outcome ( ij y ) represented the infection status (Yes/No) of a division in a given month, therefore it was analyzed as a dichotomous outcome with a binomial distribution, i.e., ) , 1 (Univariate logistic regression models were used to assess the association between the climate variables: precipitation and temperature and RVF outbreaks. Alternative forms of the climate variables were tested; precipitation, for instance, had 7 alternative formulations including:monthly values, -lagged values by 1 and 2 months, -running cumulative values for the recent 2 and 3 months, -running mean values for the recent 2 and 3 months. Maximum and minimum temperatures and NDVI values were used in the analyses as well and competing models compared based on the log likelihood values.The choice of the variables and the lags tested was based on the studies that have been done by Anyamba et al. (2009) which indicates that rainfall, NDVI, sea surface temperatures and outgoing long wave radiation are good predictors for RVF, with NDVI representing ecological variables. Anyamba et al. (2012) also suggested that cumulative rainfall anomaly for 3-4 months immediately preceding an outbreak is critical for RVF outbreaks in East Africa. Temperature does not change much in the area, so lagging was not considered for this variable.Random effects logistic regression models were also fitted to the data to account for clustering of observations in time (due to repeated observations by division). One model had precipitation (3-month aggregate) and minimum temperature as predictors while the other had precipitation as the only predictor. In both models, division was treated as a random effects variable and the correlation structure (for observations within a division) were assumed to be unstructured. The structure of the model used was as follows:Given that the analyses presented in this report were limited to the data from Ijara district, it was not possible to include the other potential predictor variables such as elevation, soil types, land use given that most of their values would be similar.Identification and mapping of the survey sites Participatory surveys were held between August and November 2012 to collect information on livestock demographics and movement patterns. A sub-location, the smallest administrative area with a human population of 4,000 -5,000 was used as the sampling unit. A total of 27 units were selected using stratified random sampling technique from a sampling frame that comprised 40 sub-locations. A division was used as a stratifying variable; the total number of sub-locations per division and the number that were selected are outlined in Table 3.5. One site within a sub-location was purposefully selected for an interview. A site was selected if it had a majority of the families clustered in a small area. Each meeting comprised at least 10 participants and it involved the local pastoralists and community leaders. These meetings were convened with the help of the community animal health workers and the local administrator, which in most cases was the Chief of the area. The meeting sites were geo-referenced after the interview using the Arc 1960 Geographic Coordinate System. Figure 3.3 shows the distribution of these sites within the district.Semi-structured interviews were carried out using the local Somali language with the help of a translator --each session took about 1 hour. The interviews were guided by a checklist of open-ended questions. Probing was also done to investigate other relevant issues that emerged from these discussions. The main items that the checklist covered include:1  Participatory epidemiological (PE) techniques used in the surveys include semi-structured interviews, proportional piling and participatory mapping. These techniques have been described by Cleaveland et al. (2001), Catley and Mariner (2002) and used in several studies including Bedelian et al. (2007) and Bett et al. (2009). Table 3.6 outlines the specific information gathered using each of these methods. Proportional piling is a scoring technique used to determine perceptions on the relative importance, abundance or frequency of a list of items. It uses a set of counters (e.g. beans, pebbles, etc.) that are piled against a given item and then counted to determine relative percentages or proportions. This survey used a total of 100 beans for all the exercises conducted.To determine the relative proportions of livestock species kept, participants were first asked to list the type of livestock species commonly kept in their area. The responses given (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, chickens) were listed on a flip chart. The participants were then given 100 beans to distribute to the listed items (species) based on the relative abundance of the livestock species assuming that 100 beans represented the population of livestock in the area. Circles were often drawn besides each item to guide the participants on where to place a pile of counters for a species. Livestock species that had the highest population got a bigger pile of beans and vice versa. The piles were counted when all the participants had settled on the distribution provided. They were also asked to give reasons that supported the results observed -e.g. why a particular species was perceived as having the highest/lowest population sizes.The same approach was used for the other proportional piling exercises. For example, on the proportion of abortions/pregnancies carried to term, participants were given 100 beans to represent animals that were pregnant. They were asked to divide the beans into two: the number of animals that was expected to carry their pregnancies to term verses the number that would abort. The exercise was completed for a peacetime period (no major disease outbreaks) and for periods with RVF epidemics. Other exercises involved determining the relative population sizes of age cohorts of cattle, sheep and goats (neonates, weaners, yearlings and adults) identified by the participants, and the relative proportion of animals lost through mortality, sold, or purchased by season.Data obtained from these exercises were entered into a database designed using MS Excel and analysed in SATA 11 using non-parametric statistical tests. Medians and their respective 10 th and 90 th percentile ranges were estimated from the proportional piling scores.Participants were guided to develop maps of their areas indicating human settlements, grazing sites, watering points, roads and service centres e.g. towns. These maps were used to facilitate discussions on a variety of socio-economic activities including livestock grazing patterns. Timelines were used together with the maps to identify locations where livestock were, on a monthly basis, over the period July 2011 to July 2012. Timelines on livestock movements/locations were developed in a reverse order starting with identification of the sites where livestock were in July 2012, and the earliest time (month) when these animals were taken there. This approach was repeated until the full period specified above was covered. Mapping of the livestock movement patterns was done by species (specifically cattle, sheep and goats).Data on livestock movement patterns obtained from the participatory mapping exercises were entered into a database designed using MS Excel. The data variables that could be formulated include: sub-location, GPS coordinates of the interview sites and other locations that had been used for grazing over the year, livestock species, month/year, and an indicator variable which when used together with the month/year specifies whether a given livestock species was just arriving at a given grazing site, had been there for some time or was being moved out to other sites with more pasture/water. Monthly mean NDVI data for all the geo-referenced sites for the study period were obtained from SPOT VEGETATION, filtered and merged with the movement data obtained from the map. Statistical analyses were done to determine mean NDVI values for periods when livestock were being moved out of their recent grazing sites. Up to 1000 bootstrap samples were generated from the sample and used to estimate 95% confidence intervals for the mean NDVI values for each site at the time when animals were being moved out from these areas. These analyses were done in STATA 11 and the results represented thresholds for livestock movement from specific sites. Movement patterns for sheep and goats were combined since these livestock species were often moved to similar locations.Cross sectional surveys were implemented in the district between October and November 2012 at a time when the government had issued a warning on the likelihood of an RVF outbreak. The Meteorological Department had predicted higher than normal amounts of rainfall for the period. Flooding was expected to occur and contingency measures for RVF were being put in place.Eleven sites (10 sites in homesteads area and 1 site in the Boni forest) were selected and used for the survey based on historical information suggesting that these areas had been involved in the 2006/2007 outbreak. In the homesteads, vectors were sampled using CDC miniature light traps placed in the livestock night sheds. This trapping targeted night-time host-seeking mosquitoes. Three traps were set each evening (6 pm) and left overnight and gathered the following morning. Trapping in the Boni forest targeted day-time host-seeking mosquitoes (Plate 3.1). The forest is considered to be a good breeding site for mosquitoes due to high humidity, dense vegetation, presence of hosts for blood meal and presence of water bodies. Samples were barcoded (by trap) and transported alive to a field laboratory where they were sorted, identified to genus level and frozen for storage and transportation.Pooling was done by genus, traps and trapping sites and transported to ILRI Nairobi where they will be subjected to further laboratory analyses to identify blood meal sources, infection status and species diversity.In the same sites, 300 blood samples were collected from cattle and sheep. Herds/flocks sampled included: (i) animals that had just been brought back from the Boni forest (given that the short rainy season was commencing and the pastoralists were bringing their animals back home), and (ii) herds/flocks had not been vaccinated. The sample size (n = 300) used represented minimum number of livestock that would be needed to detect RVFV infection. This number was distributed It was estimated using the formula:where N -the population size (900,000); α -1 -confidence level (0.05); d -the estimated minimum number of diseased animals in the district (population size × the minimum expected prevalence (1%)). This estimation mainly targeted small ruminants (sheep and goats in equal proportions) because they are not usually vaccinated against RVF compared to cattle and the commonly used serological tests do not have the capacity to differentiate infection from vaccination. Cattle, however, can act as good sentinels for RVFV infection because they travel much further than the small ruminants and so they were likely to get greater exposure to mosquito-borne viruses. Limited attention was focussed on cattle in this study because there was no assurance that the project team will get unvaccinated herds.Community animal health workers were used to identify appropriate herds/flocks to sample. For each animal recruited, 20 ml venous blood was drawn from the jugular vein using heparinized vacutainer tubes and transported to the field laboratory where each sample was aliquoted into 5 ml barcoded vials. The samples were then frozen and transported to ILRI Nairobi for further laboratory analyses.District.Ijara district, like those affected by RVF outbreaks in the north-eastern Kenya, has recorded at least 4 outbreaks since 1961 (Table 3.7). Before then, outbreaks were confined to a few districts in the Rift Valley. The data given in the table suggest that all the districts reported outbreaks at the same time.Table 3.8 gives results of univariate analyses that were done to evaluate unconditional association between RVF outbreaks and precipitation, temperature and NDVI. These results demonstrate that RVF outbreaks in Ijara are significantly associated with precipitation and NDVI, which represents ecological changes that promote RVF occurrence, e.g. the development of vector breeding sites. Based on the log likelihood estimates, cumulative rainfall for a recent period of 3 months was strongly associated with RVF outbreaks than the other forms of rainfall variable used in the analysis. In all the sites visited, participants listed cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and chickens as the common livestock species kept. Cattle, goats and sheep, in that order, are the most abundant and highly valued species compared to the donkeys and chickens (Table 3.10). Participants indicated that they don't keep camels because they are very susceptible to trypanosomosis, the most prevalent vector-borne disease in the area. Wild animals that were identified as being common include buffaloes, warthogs, leopards, cheetahs and a variety of gazelles.Field exercises used to collate data on livestock age structures and their respective risks of mortality required a lot of time to complete. This activity therefore involved a smaller number of villages and focused only on cattle, sheep and goats. Most participants identified at least 4 livestock age categories for each species; these included:cattle: Dalan (0-3 months), Ashirow (4-6 months), Sarar (7-36 months) and Hauwechi (37 months and older); -goats: Dalan (0-3 months), Sarar (4-5 months), Asan (6-12 months) and Riya (13 months and older), and, -sheep: Maqal (0-1 month), Saben (2-3 months), Laah (5-6 months) and Hauwechi (7 months and older). Minimum and maximum ages for each category, relative population sizes, and age categoryspecific risk of mortality were also determined. Younger animals, in general, are perceived to have a higher risk of mortality than older ones. The participants further indicated that mortality levels were higher during the dry than the wet season. Goats are perceived to have a lower risk of mortality compared to cattle and sheep (Table 3.11). Sheep and goats are more likely to be sold (to raise funds that can be used to meet some of the domestic needs e.g. school fees, purchase of grains, settlement of debts and fines etc.) or slaughtered compared to cattle (Table 3.12). Most of the sales occur during the dry than the wet season, with sheep being sold more often than goats. In general, the proportion of animals slaughtered is higher during the wet than the dry season.Findings on a range of reproductive indices such as the duration that young animals take to mature, interval between parturition and subsequent heat, proportion of animals that require repeated services to conceive, twining and proportion of abortions expected during the wet and the dry season are outlined in Table 3.13. Participants, as expected, indicated that females mature earlier compared to males and that dry weather conditions delay both the age at first breeding and the interval between parturition and subsequent heat.In addition, it is perceived that goats have higher proportions of repeat services and higher twinning frequencies compared to the other livestock species. Goats are also perceived to have higher baseline abortion risk relative to cattle and sheep. In all the species, the risk of abortion is higher during the dry than the wet season.Plate 3.2 outlines movement patterns of livestock in Hara sub-location, Ijara district. Similar maps were developed for all the sub-locations visited. General observations made from the mapping exercise are:-Boni forest (located along the Kenya Somalia border), the Tana delta and the banks of River Tana are used as dry season grazing areas. However, Boni forest is heavily infested with tsetse flies, therefore pastoralists move to this site when there are no alternative grazing grounds. Animals are also grazed in conservancies such as the Ishaqbini during the dry season.-Because of the high tsetse challenge in the Boni forest, small ruminants (sheep and goats) are seldom taken there. These animals are often grazed in the peripheries of the forest or in the Tana Delta. In particular, goats are perceived to be more susceptible to trypanosomosis and they are less responsive to medication.-The respondents said that cattle are usually moved out of the wet season grazing sites much earlier than the small ruminants because they are more sensitive to lack of pasture than goats and sheep.-A small herd mainly comprising lactating cows is often left behind in the homesteads when livestock are moved to the dry season grazing sites. These herds provide milk for children, women and the elderly people who remain behind in the homesteads, -Movement between sites could take a short (about 2 days) or a long period (up to 15 days) depending on whether animals can get water and pasture along the migratory routes,To better understand climate thresholds for movement, monthly mean NDVI estimates for the areas where livestock were grazed in during the period considered for these analyses (July 2011 and July 2012) were obtained; these are summarised in Tables 3.14 and 3.15. The overall NDVI mean for the study period was 0.42 (95% CI: 0.38 -0.46).At the time when sheep/goats and cattle were being moved out of a grazing site, mean NDVI values were estimated to be 0.15 (0.08 -0.22) and 0.27 (0.14 -0.40), respectively. These values support observations made by participants that sheep and goats have lower thresholds for movement compared to cattle. A total of 300 blood samples were collected from livestock that were being moved out of the dry season grazing areas towards the end of 2012. Forty nine per cent of these samples were obtained from goats, 35.7% from sheep and 15 % were obtained from cattle that had not been vaccinated. At the same time, vectors sampled (using CDC miniature light traps baited with carbon dioxide) included 2,513 Culex, 33 Anopheles, 9 Mansonia and 7 Aedes mosquitoes.These samples are being analysed in the molecular laboratory at ILRI for RVFV infection. In addition, blood meal sources for mosquitoes are also being investigated using PCR tests.Predicted population dynamics for Aedes app and Culex spp driven by daily TRMM rainfall are given in Figure 3.4.These populations are used to estimate the force of infection, and hence the probability of a host getting infected with RVF virus. Predicted RVF virus infection incidences in cattle and sheep that follow the upsurge in the number of mosquitoes are presented in Figure 3.5.The inset graph in Figure 3.5 demonstrates that RVF epidemics tail off slowly depending on the rate of disappearance of the flood waters. The main graph also indicates that there are periodic occurrences of RVFV related with The model has also been used to conduct a number of scenario analyses. Results of an analysis assessing the effect of varying the area under floods (5 -50%) are presented in Figure 3.7.Predictions given in Figures 3.4 and 3.5 suggest that even though there was heavy precipitation, followed by an upsurge in the number of Aedes and Culex mosquitoes between days 865 to 921, an insignificant outbreak of the disease occurred in livestock at the time. Predictions given in Figure 3.6 suggest that naturally acquired immunity could have played a role in limiting the likelihood of a full-blown epidemic. During this period, peak incidence of the disease in cattle is predicted to have been below 5% since over 60% of the animals were immune. This immunity declined over time such that by day 2000, 40% of the animals were immune. Immunity can therefore play a big role in dampening RVF outbreaks as well as in determining their frequency of occurrence. These analyses are being refined so as to help in determining the duration of herd immunity acquired following RVFV outbreaks. Increasing the number of the mosquito breeding sites increases the populations of vectors, hence the force of RVFV infection, and the probability of an animal encountering at least once mosquito breeding site as it moves around while grazing. Predictions given in Figure 3.7 demonstrate that higher numbers of mosquito breeding sites produces higher incidence of RVFV in cattle that also develops much faster than lower number of breeding sites. The model simulates interactions between the various components of the disease system including vectors, hosts, and the environment and its processes are driven by climatic and socio-economic variables. This approach therefore represents an initial attempt to study how climate drivers interact with local/socio-economic processes such as livestock movements, off-take rates and herd immunity changes to influence the incidence of RVF.The analysis of historical data shows that RVF outbreaks are associated with excessive and persistent rainfall that lasts for a period of at least 3 months. It also reveals that temperature variability is not a significant predictor although these findings will be verified as the statistical model is refined, for example, through the inclusion of other districts and key predictors that could not be used. Nonetheless, similar results have been reported by Anyamba et al. (2012) and they are consistent with observations made by Logan et al. (1991) and Linthicum et al. (1983) that flooding for 10-15 days is necessary for the emergence of RVFV infected Aedes floodwater breeding mosquitoes and that the persistence of floodwaters for a further 4-6 weeks and their colonization by secondary mosquito vectors allows for the amplification of the virus to epidemic proportions. Anyamba et al. (2009) also indicates that RVF outbreaks occur after excessive rainfall and flooding, often associated with El Nino weather phenomenon in the Horn of Africa. El Nino weather patterns follow an anomalous warming of the sea surface temperatures (SSTs) by >1 ⁰C in the eastern-central pacific region and concurrent anomalous warming of SSTs (>0.5 ⁰C) in the western equatorial Indian Ocean leading to increased precipitation (Anyamba et al., 2009). They indicate that in 2006/2007, cases of RVF occurred after 3-4 months of sustained above normal rainfall and associated green-up in vegetation. These observations have been used in setting thresholds for the RVFV transmission model though more work is needed to refine hydrological dynamics that lead to flooding. Analyses on historical data have utilised animal and not human outbreak data although both human and livestock cases were reported in the district during the 1997-98 and 2006-07 outbreaks. Attempts are being made to collate human cases and identify risk factors involved in anima-human transmission so as to estimate the expected impacts of the disease (on both human and livestock health and livestock trade).Animal movements contribute immensely to the transmission and maintenance of infectious diseases. For the purposes of this work, animal movements are classified into three levels depending on the range of distances covered; these are: This report focuses on the second and third levels of movement since these could be relevant for RVFV transmission in Ijara. The local Somali community practice transhumant pastoralism (involving seasonal migration patterns) as the key socio-economic activity to cope or manage the effects of adverse climate. Animals are moved from inhabited areas with diminishing pasture and water to areas where these resources can still be found. Participatory survey established that the number of movements undertaken in a year depends on environmental conditions and the type of animals kept. An analysis of these movements against NDVI estimates as a proxy for climate variability indicates that there is a pattern of increased movement during periods of low NDVI. Small ruminants have a higher NDVI threshold for movement than cattle since they browse on a variety of shrubs that can withstand drought conditions for a slightly longer time than the normal pasture. Similar analyses have been used previously by Worden (2007) to analyse livestock movement dynamics in the greater Amboselli ecosystem in Kenya. Low NDVI estimates, however, might not always imply increased livestock movement because they measure the amount of greenness or green forage that is present in an area rather than pasture availability. In fact drought mitigation strategies focus more on accessing standing dry biomass rather than green forage. Nevertheless, these estimates can be valuable for guiding livestock movement dynamics in the model. It can also be correlated with rainfall density, as it has been done in agronomy, to allow for predictions of future movement patterns assuming that there are minimal changes in land use patterns.Efforts are underway to determine whether seasonal/transhumant migrations influence RVF transmission/persistence. Areas used as dry season grazing sites e.g. the Boni forest and riverine vegetation along River Tana have the potential to sustain an endemic transmission of the virus since they have a rich diversity and density of animals and vectors. Observations made by Shope et al. (1982) indicating that the virus can exists in endemic cycle in forests or in humid and shrubby grasslands are very relevant in this case. Analysis of the biological samples collected from animals that were being brought back from these areas would therefore be invaluable for this assessment. If it is established that these areas have some RVFV activity, then it is likely that exposures that occur while livestock are being grazed there help in sustaining naturally acquired immunity. These hypotheses are consistent with unproven opinions suggesting that major RVF outbreaks occur after prolonged periods of drought when a large proportion of otherwise immune animals are lost, and so they get replaced with naive populations.It has been shown that local livestock movements amplify the rate transmission of an infectious disease especially if movements occur in the course of an outbreak. Anyamba et al. (2010) observe that movement of vireamic animals to other ecological zones in the course of RVF outbreaks amplifies outbreaks especially if these areas have large populations of Culex mosquitoes that play a role in creating secondary RVF transmission foci. Scenario analyses conducted using the RVFV model (not shown) suggest that the range of distances covered per day correlate positively with size (incidence and duration) of an epidemic. This is due to the fact that there is an increased chance of an animal getting into a vector breeding zone the further it moves away from its base.Outputs from the transmission model suggest that herd/flock immunity against RVF can influence the size and intervals of the outbreaks. This appears to be more important in cattle, given their lower turn-over rates, than sheep. It is currently thought that an animal that recovers from natural infection remains immune for the rest of its life. This implies that livestock offtake rates (sales, slaughters and mortalities) are very important in determining the longevity of acquired herd-level immunity by influencing the rates at which immunized animals are removed from the herds/flocks. Preliminary findings show that small ruminants have high turn-over rates compared to cattle. During the dry season for instance, 19% of sheep and 15% of goats are sold to meet some of the household needs. The high offtake rates negatively affect the persistence of herd immunity. The data collected from these surveys will be analysed further and used for the prediction of immunity dynamics over time.There are many other factors that can influence RVFV transmission dynamics which cannot be exhaustively addressed by this report. One of this is the type of hosts that are present in an area (a measure of biodiversity). Participatory surveys identified types of livestock species being kept in the area, their relative population sizes as well as wildlife species that are common in the district. This information is being used to determine types of hosts that should be considered when developing a multi-host model. It is known however that there is a huge variability in the susceptibility of the various animal species to RVFV infection. Domestic animals, for instance, have been listed in a decreasing order of susceptibility as: sheep, goats, cattle, camels and water buffaloes (FAO, 2003). Similarly, antelopes, cape buffaloes, monkeys, cats, dogs and rodents are known to be susceptible while birds, reptiles and amphibians are refractory to RVFV infection. The presence of such a big diversity of hosts in an area can either promote the transmission of the disease (e.g. by providing a larger potential source of blood meal for the vectors or harbouring the virus, etc ) or reduce further pathogen transmission especially is some of them act as dead-end hosts. This is one of the interesting aspect of the topics that would be addressed as the model is expanded and refined.Malaria is a major public health problem in Kenya and it accounts for 30% of outpatient consultations, 15% hospital admissions, and 3-5% inpatient deaths (Njuguna et al., 2012). In arid and semi-arid areas (e.g. Ijara district), malaria transmission is extremely seasonal since the vectors that are involved (mainly Anopheles arabiensis and An. gambiensis) are sensitive to climate variability. These vectors are confronted with highly variable and challenging climatic conditions, particularly during the dry seasons, which cause drastic shrinking or complete disappearance of larval habitats, a decline in the vector population and hence a reduction in the incidence of the disease. Build-up of a new population of vectors in subsequent wet seasons arise either from new populations of immigrants from the neighbouring areas or an expansion of the small local populations that survive the dry period (Mala et al., 2011). Given that Anopheles eggs have low tolerance to desiccation, adults have to survive the dry spell in order for the species to survive by hiding in barrows, abandoned houses, etc.Malaria cases often cluster by geographic/ecological, socio-economic, or demographic factors. In Arid and semi-arid areas, closeness to a river, watering points or irrigated areas has been associated with an increased prevalence of the disease (Oesterholt et al, 2006). Other risk factors that have been reported include living in grass-thatched houses (preferred by mosquitoes), engaging in outdoor occupations such as herding cattle, low altitude, and dense vegetation cover (Mala et al., 2011;Noor et al., 2009). These relationships are, however, not linear; Ijumba and Lindsay (2001) indicate that the use of vector control measures such as bed nets or improved access to medical services masks the expected effects of these risk factors. In fact recent observations indicate that malaria caused by P. falciparum is declining in sub-Saharan Africa due to large-scale bed net programmes and improved case management. Malaria risk mapping work done by Noor et al. (2009) also shows that a large proportion of Kenya (94%) has low intensity transmission which can be difficult or costly to quantify empirically.The intensity of malaria transmission is often measured using: (i) the entomological inoculation rate (EIR), which represents the average number of infective bites per person per unit time, and (ii) Ro, the average number of secondary infections in a non-immune population resulting from a single new infection. However, both of these indices are difficult to measure directly. EIR, for instance, is estimated as the product between the proportion of mosquitoes carrying sporozoites in their salivary glands (sporozoite-rate) and the mosquitohuman biting rate. In semi-arid areas (like Ijara district), sporozoite rate is usually very low and seasonal. Mosquito-human biting rate is also influenced by many factors such as the density of the mosquitoes, relative locations of mosquito breeding sites and areas of human aggregation. Alternative measures for P. falciparum risk have been developed and used since the 1950s, e.g. parasite rate (PfRT), which represents a proportion of a random sample of population with malaria parasites in their peripheral blood, spleen rates, etc. PfRT has been used to map malaria risk in Africa. This is a preliminary analysis that uses hospital records obtained from health facilities in Ijara district to determine whether the number of cases reported in the district can be associated with climate variables -precipitation and temperature. The data represents the number of outpatient malaria cases recorded over a 5 year period and the proportion of the cases that are found to be positive for malaria following laboratory investigation. This analysis is however prejudiced by the fact that hospital records do not necessarily represent the background incidence of a disease. In this case, more work will be done to estimate EIRs and repeat the analysis in order to generate more solid evidence on the linkages between climate and malaria transmission.Hospital records on malaria cases in Ijara district for the period 2006 to 2011 were obtained from the District Health Records and Information Office. The data comprise monthly records of inpatient and outpatient cases; mortalities from the inpatient cases; the number of cases tested versus those that turned positive for malaria following laboratory investigation; and annual quantities of insecticide-treated nets and long lasting insecticide treated nets, artemisinin-combination therapy distributed to people and the number of houses covered with indoor residual spraying.Descriptive analyses were done to explore trends in malaria incidence based on the number of outpatient cases and the proportion that turned positive on laboratory investigation. Subsequently, simple statistical analyses using Generalised Linear Model (GLM) were done to assess the correlation between these outcomes (total number of outpatient cases and proportion of the cases that turned positive) and climate variables: mean precipitation, mean minimum and maximum temperature estimates for the district obtained from ECMWF. Both current and lagged (1 and 2 months) rainfall and temperature estimates were used in the analysis. The dependent variables i y were assumed to have a normal distribution with mean i  and variance 2  represented as:, and the general structure of the model:The two climate variables (precipitation and temperature) were used in the analysis because they have been shown to influence the incidence of malaria. Precipitation influences humidity and causes the development of mosquito larva habitats. Changes in temperatureOutputs from the statistical analyses conducted using the GLM model show that both the number of reported malaria cases and the proportion of positive cases obtained from laboratory investigation are not correlated with either precipitation or temperature (Table 4.2). This analysis explores unconditional relationship between the incidence of malaria and climate (rainfall and temperature) in Ijara district based on cases obtained from the health facilities in the district. This is a simple analysis which is done while recognising the fact that other biological and non-climatic factors are equally important in the disease epidemiology. The records used in the analysis are aggregated by facility/month; this might help to reduce noise in the data. The catchment areas for the health facilities are also quite large relative to population densities. The district has a total of 11 heath facilities comprising one district hospital that serves a population of 100,000 people, one sub-district hospital and three health centres, each serving a population of 30,000 people and six dispensaries, each serving a population of 10,000 people (Njuguna et al., 2012). The representativeness of the data can also be questioned considering the fact that a large proportion of the target population seek medical services from private clinics, pharmacies and traditional healers, etc. which are not captured by the public health surveillance. Nevertheless, the quality of surveillance for infectious diseases has been improving in the country following the introduction of Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) program by WHO and CDC.Most studies have demonstrated that climate factors are important drivers for malaria transmission, affecting both the development rates of the malaria parasites and vectors. This topic has generated a lot of interest because of the expected impacts of climate change on human health. A rise in temperature is expected to increase the transmission and prevalence of malaria by increasing the vector feeding rate and by shortening the incubation period of the parasite in the vector. Precipitation, on the other hand, provides a medium for the development of the aquatic stages of the vector and increases humidity, which enhances the longevity of the vector (Alemu et al., 2011). A recent analysis by Akinbobola and Omotosho et al. (2012), for instance, reported that rainfall (with a lag of one month) and maximum temperature are positively correlated with malaria incidence in Nigeria.Contrary to the expectations expressed above, this study did not find any correlation between climate variables and incidence of malaria in Ijara district. This can be attributed to increased uptake of malaria prevention and control measures such as IRS, ACTs and LLINs. Njuguna et al. (2012) reports that a majority (76.5%) of the cases reported in these facilities are diagnosed using clinical examinations and no laboratory confirmations are done. In fact the degree of positivity that is obtained following laboratory diagnosis rarely goes beyond 40%. This trend is thought to cause an over-representation of malaria incidence and hence an over-treatment. In fact it has been demonstrated that spleen and parasite prevalence in communities that live in villages with health facilities are significantly lower than those communities that live in villages without these facilities (Mboera et al., 2008).There is a need for more studies on the relationship between climate variability and malaria transmission dynamics, and how it is influenced by anthropogenic drivers, including the application of large scale intervention measures. It has been reported that the endemicity and geographical extent of the disease is declining globally, and yet there are predictions that suggest an increased burden of the disease as a result of the global climate change (Gething et al., 2010). This paper also observes that non-climatic factors such as disease control, indirect effects of urbanization and economic development have had greater influence on the geographic extent and intensity of malaria worldwide than have climatic factors.More work is being done to refine the RVFV model particularly on developing an appropriate module to simulate flooding dynamics. This needs to be driven by topography, soil types, precipitation and temperature. There is also a need to develop a way of incorporating wild life, for example having a group of hosts that have variable contribution to the RVFV transmission. In addition, the model does not explicitly include people yet it would be necessary to determine the impact of the disease on humans. This has not been one because it is believed that infections that have substantial impacts are acquired through contact with tissues and (or) fluids of infected animals. This will not be possible to model dynamically. However, a parallel survey is being conducted to identify the proportion of people that engage in risk practices such as slaughtering animals, consumption of uncooked meat etc. to be used for the development of a statistical model that estimates the risk of the disease in humans when there are outbreaks in animals.Biological samples that have been collected so far are inadequate. More sampling will be done particularly in the dry season grazing areas to determine whether they support an endemic transmission of RVF.Finally, RVF is a zoonotic disease and there is a need to collect socio-economic data that can be used to assess factors that promote exposure to humans. This work will be done in collaboration with the University of Nairobi.","tokenCount":"10381"}

data/part_6/0845647738.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"62f033f4c6d7c51e6d731f23c9520984","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c196e2ef-5583-4297-8ae3-6465c05b8a18/retrieve","id":"-1751694123"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"41330420-96f2-4f02-a154-7ff780669482","pagecount":"11","content":"This study applied logit and transformed logit regression to examine factors affecting the adoption of orange flesh sweet potatoes, and intensity of such adoption, by a representative sample of 340 farmers in the Busia and Rachuonyo (OFSP) districts of Kenya in 2009. A double-censored Tobit model was also used to study factors affecting intensity of adoption. The study also investigated whether participation in a value chain extension intervention programme increased farmers' likelihood of adopting OFSP. The participation variable was first tested for endogeneity and \"purified\" before using it as a \"proxy\" in the adoption regression. The results suggest that the district where the farmer comes from, knowledge on value addition and nutritional benefits, and availability of vines were the key factors for adoption. The results also suggest that participation in a value chain extension programme enhanced the probability of adoption. Factors affecting intensity of adoption were site, value addition, vines availability, level of commercialization and having a child of up to five years.Sweet potato (Ipomea batata L.) is an important traditional crop that is grown customarily by small-scale farmers in many developing countries mainly for household consumption. It is traditionally regarded as a \"poor man\"s\" crop as it is typically grown and consumed by resource poor households, and mainly by women, and it gives satisfactory yields under adverse climatic and soil conditions, as well as under low or non-use of external inputs (Carey et al., 1999;Kung\"u, 1999;Ndolo et al., 2001;Githunguri and Migwa, 2004).As a food security crop, it can be harvested piecemeal as needed, thus offering a flexible source of food and income to rural households that are mostly vulnerable to crop failure and consequently fluctuating cash income. In addition to being drought tolerant and having a wide ecological adaptation, it has a short maturity period of three to five months. It is also an excellent source of vitamin A, especially the orange fleshed varieties (Ndolo et al., 2001). The orange fleshed varieties are also tasty and have attractive color to children (Kaguongo et al., 2008a) hence have high potential to address caloric and vitamin A deficiency problems of children among the poorest communities (Stathers et al., 2005;van Jaarsveld et al., 2006;Low et al., 2007). However, most varieties in sub-Saharan Africa are white-fleshed, low yielding and lacking beta-carotene, the precursor of vitamin A (Stathers et al., 2005).Sweet potato is produced in most parts of Kenya, being concentrated in districts of Nyanza and Western provinces. About 60% of the households in these two provinces live below the poverty line (Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), 2003), an indication of a potentially high proportion of the population without adequate quantity and quality of food intake. The potential of sweet potato\"s contribution to food security, increased incomes and reduction of nutritional deficit is, therefore, considerable and is yet to be fully exploited in developing countries (Woolfe, 1992).Although commercialization of sweet potato is still low in most parts of Nyanza and Western provinces, its gross margin of USD 238 to 362 ha -1 is highly competitive when compared with that of maize (USD 55 to 244 ha -1) and cassava (USD 97 to 171 ha -1) which are the other important crops commonly grown in these regions (Nyoro, 2002;Stathers et al., 2005;Kaguongo et al., 2008b;Fermont et al., 2010). However, the area allocated to sweet potato is often a small fraction of area allocated to maize or cassava because sweet potato is often grown as a subsistent crop (Gakonyo, 1993;Kaguongo et al., 2008b;Fermont et al., 2010).The Traditional Food Project was a programme in Kenya and Tanzania jointly implemented between April 2007 and September 2009 by the International Potato Center (CIP), Farm Concern International (FCI), Urban Harvest (UH), and World Vegetable Center (AVDRC-Asian Vegetable Development Center). Its aim was to increase productivity, utilization and marketing of Traditional African Vegetables (TAVs) and sweet potatoes, specifically orange flesh sweet potatoes (OFSP). The project aimed to achieve this through the delivery of improved extension services to the farmers participating in the programme. The three OFSP varieties promoted in Busia and Rachuonyo districts in Kenya were Ejumula, Vindolotamu and Vitamu-A.To promote increased adoption, commercialization and marketing of improved varieties of the targeted crops by the programme farmers, the project used a \"Commercial Villages\" (CV) approach. The approach uses a collective approach in interventions aimed at increasing adoption, productivity and commercialization by the rural poor. In the scheme, farmer groups are clustered together to form one large group called a \"commercial village\" that aims to benefit from economies of scale in extension work, input sourcing, production and marketing activities.To evaluate the impact of interventions from this programme, the researchers plan to conduct impact analyses using baseline and adoption data generated from participants (members of the programme) and nonparticipants (non-members of the programme). However, before undertaking any impact assessment, it is imperative to establish whether the programme participation by farmers was instrumental in the adoption of improved technologies and innovations and control for confounding factors that affect the adoption and impacts measured in terms of any outcome variable. The objective of this study is, therefore, to analyze the adoption of OFSP among sample farmers in two provinces of Kenya by identifying key determinants of adoption and intensity of adoption of OFSP, and establishing whether programme participation enhances adoption and intensity of adoption. The review of adoption studies by Feder et al. (1985) indicated, inter alia, that adoption decisions are influenced by a number of socioeconomic, demographic, ecological and institutional factors and are dependent on the nature of the technology. Studies of the key determinants of technology adoption by farmers growing upland rice and soybeans in Central-West Brazil (Strauss et al., 1991) and to evaluate the role of human capital and other factors in adoption of reduced tillage technology in corn production (Rahm and Huffman, 1984) found that farmers\" education and experience play a crucial role in facilitating technology adoption. Doss (2003) reported that the major reasons for not adopting farm-level technology in East Africa were: (1) farmers\" lack of awareness of the improved technologies or a lack of information regarding potential benefits accruing from them; (2) the unavailability of improved technologies; and(3) unprofitable technologies, given the farmer\"s agroecological conditions and the complex set of constraints faced by farmers in allocating land and labor resources across farm and off-farm activities. The mismatch between technology characteristics and farmers\" technology preferences has also been identified as the most important factor for the low level of technology adoption in Ethiopia (Wale and Yallew, 2007).Other studies have revealed that off-farm incomes and availability of information influence technology adoption decisions through affecting risk aversion levels of smallholder farmers. Risk aversion level is likely to be negatively associated with adoption as farmers are less certain about the profitability (productivity) of new technologies when they use them for the first time. Farmers level of risk aversion (which is a function of their poverty level, lack of information on the productivity of the technology, and non-stability of the impact of the technology) is also an important factor in the adoption decision (Feder and Slade, 1984;Feder et al., 1985;Kristjanson, 1987;Kaguongo et al., 1997).To improve availability of relevant information for increasing adoption, many development agents have devised several approaches and innovations. When the innovation system is linked to farmers to promote effective communication, problem identification, problem solving and personal interactions of a formal or informal nature, higher adoption of technology is likely (Steffey, 1995). Putler and Zilberman (1988) revealed the importance of physical capital endowment in the adoption process. Physical capital commonly associated with adoption of technologies has been identified as farm size or cultivated land, livestock and farm implements owned (Feder and O\"Mara, 1981;Rahm and Huffman, 1984;Shapiro, 1990;Nkonya et al., 1997). Financial capital and credit access have also been shown to affect adoption of agricultural technologies and innovations especially when such adoption does not involve increasing diversification, which is viewed as a reducing measure (Feder and Umali, 1993;Cornejo and McBride, 2002;Simtowe and Manfred, 2006).A Kenyan study, which evaluated the effect of women farmers\" adoption of OFSP in raising Vitamin A intake, found that women farmers were likely to adopt the OFSP if the clones were sufficiently high in starch (high dry matter), low in fibre, and if they were introduced through community-level education programmes that focused on the health of young children (Hagenimana and Oyunga, 1999). A study in Mozambique revealed that some of the key factors affecting adoption of OFSP included availability of vines, intensity of extension service and number of times the respondent received vines (Mazuze, 2005). A number of studies have also revealed that most of the factors affecting adoption also affect the intensity of adoption (Alene et al., 2000;Kaliba et al., 2000).The study was conducted in Rachuonyo (Nyanza province) and Busia (Western province) districts of Kenya. The Rachuonyo site comprised of the most commercialized sweet potato area in the country. Nyathiodiewo, a local variety which is yellow fleshed, is the most commonly grown variety accounting for over 90% of total production in the area. Traders from major towns of the country (Nairobi, Kisumu, and Nakuru) bought sweet potatoes from the district and transported them using large trucks. Sweet potato is also regarded as a food security crop in the area and is particularly important when there is an undersupply of maize. The site is located in the lower midland tea zone (LM2), with elevation ranging from 1,300 to 1,700 m and mean annual precipitation of 1,300 to 1,700 mm. The long rains occur from February to June while short rains occur from August to November.The Busia site comprised of an area where sweet potato is less commercialized although sweet potato is important as a food security crop and farmers produce it on a small scale mainly for home use and only sell when there is an excess or when there is a pressing demand for cash. The area falls within the marginal sugarcane zone (LM1), with elevation ranging from 1,200 to 1,300 m and annual precipitation of 1,400 to 1,550 mm. The mean annual temperature ranges from 20.4 to 22.3°C. Sweet potato is planted in the months of April through June during the long rains and September through mid-November during the short rains. Sweet potato varieties grown are mainly white fleshed such as Bungoma and Kampala, and none is predominant in the area.Farmers were grouped into participants if they participated in the Kaguongo et al. 495 traditional Food Program and non-participants if they did not.Baseline and adoption survey data were collected for the purpose of undertaking impact assessments by comparing both participant and non-participant farmers before and after the programme implementation. The baseline survey was conducted in September to October 2007 while the adoption survey was conducted in November to December 2009. The two surveys used structured questionnaires to gather information on socio-economic characteristics, cultivation, consumption and marketing of sweet potatoes by the households. Each site had four CVs comprising of about seven farmer groups each and with an average of 18 participants per group. Representatives of participant farmers (beneficiaries) and nonparticipant farmers (non-beneficiaries) were interviewed during the baseline and adoption surveys. During the baseline survey four farmers were randomly sampled per group per CV. The same farmers in the baseline survey were targeted during the adoption survey, but due to high attrition additional participants were sampled for the adoption survey. The non-participant farmers who acted as the \"control\" for the study were sampled from villages with similar characteristics as those from which participant farmers in CVs originated. Twenty non-participant farmers were randomly sampled to act as control for each CV. A total of 340 farmers were interviewed during the adoption survey, of which 205 were participants and 135 were non-participants. Due to the nature of the programme interventions, the sample selection criteria included two priorities: the first priority was targeting farmers who were members of farmer groups and the second priority involved targeting farmers with children of up to five years during the onset of programme implementation (2007). However, lack of foreseeable benefits by would-be \"control\" farmers resulted in non-willingness to participate in the study, hence the priority one was relaxed for \"control\" farmers. Relaxation of priority one and retaining priority two resulted in more \"control\" farmers having children of up to five years and fewer of them belonging to farmers groups compared to nonparticipant farmers.Data collected were entered and \"cleaned\" using CSPro. The SPSS software package (Norušis, 2005) was used for data processing while the STATA package (StataCorp, 2008) was used for econometric analysis.Modeling farmers\" decision making about whether to adopt or not to adopt a technology constitutes a discrete (whether or not to take up the technology) and continuous (the intensity of use of the technology) decision (Wale and Yallew, 2007). Most adoption models are based on the assumption that farmers are faced with a choice between two alternatives and the choices they make depend on identifiable characteristics of the technologies (Pindyck and Rubinfeld, 1997).In a logit model, the parameter estimates are linear and, assuming a normally distributed disturbance term (μ), the logit maximum likelihood (LML) estimation procedure is used to identify explanatory variables affecting the adoption of OFSPs.According to the logit model, the likelihood of an individual farmer adopting a new technology t2, given a well-defined set of socioeconomic and physical characteristics (X), is represented as:(1)Where: Pi = is likelihood of the i th farmer adopting a technology, labeled as Adoptioni; Xi = exogenous variables; â = the coefficients. The adoption logit model was specified as:Table 1. Summary description of the variables used in modeling adoption and intensity of adoption. The wealth index (WID) was calculated from cultivated area of land, total livestock units and number of equipment items and tools owned by the farmer using principal component analysis (PCA). Attempts to use individual assets in regression models result in an unnecessarily high number of explanatory variables and create multicollinearity. Use of PCA is convenient since it solves the problem of aggregating assets of different units and controls multicollinearity which is likely to occur when many types of asset variables are included in the regression equation (Nieuwoudt, 1977;Filmer and Pritchett, 2001;McKenzie, 2003;Vyas and Kumaranayake, 2006). Table 1 shows summary details of variables in the econometric models used in this study.Since participation in extension programme was one of the factors evaluated for its influence on the adoption of OFSP, there was a need to test for endogeneity. Selection bias occurs because participation is rarely random and this is often correlated with the outcome variable of interest (Heckman, 1979;Goodfellow et al., 1988;York, 1998;Cuddeback et al., 2004). A Hausman specification test (Hausman, 1976) was performed to evaluate if the participation variable (Pi) was endogenous.The exogeneity of Pi was tested using the estimated residual ( i) from the reduced form equation (participation regressed on its instruments) as explanatory variables in the structural equations (with adoption as the dependent variable).(2)Where Yi is a vector of variables postulated to affect participation and Wi is a vector of exogenous variables postulated to affect adoption of OFSP.If the residual variable of the reduced form Equation ( 2) is correlated with the dependent variable in the structural Equation (3) of adoption, then it means the participation variable is endogenous (Gujarati and Sangeetha, 2009). To get rid of the correlation between the Pi and a Heckman\"s two-stage regression approach was used where the participation variable (Pi) was first regressed on all the predetermined variables in the whole system, involving participation Equation ( 2) and adoption Equation (3) (Zuehlke and Zeman, 1991;Arendt and Holm, 2006;Kacagil and Demir, 2006).The predicted i estimated from the instrumental equation, which is free from influence of the stochastic disturbance ì, is used in the second stage regression replacing Pi.The intensity of adoption in this paper is defined as the proportion of area under OFSP and is estimated as a fraction of total area under sweet potatoes. The larger the proportion the more intensive is the adoption of OFSP. Wale (2010) used logit transformation regression to explain land share allocated to local coffee varieties in Ethiopia which was the response variable. In the present study, the  (4)For proportion data with 0, 1 extremes and continuous values inbetween, use of OLS regression is inappropriate because predictions are likely to go beyond the 0 to 1 range. Papke and Woodridge (1996) indicate that the drawbacks of linear models for fractional data are analogous to the drawbacks of the linear probability model for binary data. Logit transformation is performed on the dependent variable as shown in Equation 5 (Birkhaeuser et al., 1991;Grigoriou et al., 2005;Wale, 2010):However, this procedure cannot be applied directly if the dependent variable takes the extreme values of 0 and 1, that is, the transformed variable cannot be evaluated. Hence, to deal with this problem the extreme values (0 and 1) are substituted with close approximations (Birkhaeuser et al., 1991;Grigoriou et al., 2005;Pryce and Mason, 2006;Wale, 2010).There were 263 (77.4%) zeros and 8 (20.4%) ones which were replaced with 0.000001 and 0.999999, respectively. After this OLS regression is conducted on the transformed dependent variable (Equation 6): In all sites, 38.2% of respondents had adopted growing of OFSP, with 66.1% of 168 households and 11.0% of 172 households adopting in Busia and Rachuonyo districts, respectively. The mean age of household head was 47.3 years and 34.1% of household heads were female. There was no statistically significant difference between adopters and non-adopters by age or gender. Households with off-farm income were also not statistically different between adopters (63.8%) and nonadopters (69.0%). More adopters (33.1%) than nonadopters (10.0%) were doing value addition of sweet potato and also more adopters (48.5%) than nonadopters (19.5%) knew that OFSP contain vitamin A (beta carotene).The number of years of formal education for adopters (7.6 years) was significantly higher than that of nonadopters (6.7 years) indicating possible positive association between education and adoption of OFSP.Testing of endogeneity started with a search for instrumental variables that influenced participation in the programme but with no direct effect on adoption of OFSP. This evaluation indicated that gender of the household head, belonging to a farmer group, total area allocated to all types of sweet potatoes, number of children of up to five years of age and area under cassava were good proxies for participation. Table 2 shows the details of the instrumental variables used to predict participation in the extension programme.The programme targeted farmer groups as a way of increasing effectiveness of extension and ensuring collective action was easily achieved, and this may explain why belonging to a farmer group highly increased the odds of participating in the programme. The coefficient for gender of the household head was also significant (p < 0.05) indicating that female headed households were more likely to participate in the programme than male headed households (Table 2).Having children of up to five years had a negative and statistically significant coefficient. The results indicate that households with more children were less likely to participate in the intervention programme possibly because child care and attending programme trainings were competing for the available time. Although area allocated to sweet potato and cassava positively affected participation in the programme as expected and improved the model fit, their coefficients were not statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. The endogeneity test using residuals from the participation instrumental equation yielded a p-value of 0.064 indicating that the Null hypothesis of exogeneity would be rejected at the 10% level of significance but accepted at the 5% level of significance. Hence, to yield efficient and consistent estimates we treated farmers\" decisions to participate in the programme as endogenous in adoption decision and followed a two-stage procedure to solve the endogeneity problem. The predicted participation variable (PRE_2) obtained from the first stage regression using all predetermined variables in all the systems was used in the adoption equation as a \"proxy\" for participation.The value from the Hosmer and Lemeshow Chi-square test was non-significant (0.108), which indicates that the binary logit model adequately fitted the data while Omnibus tests of model coefficients indicated that all predictors jointly predicted the dependent variable well at the 5% level of significance. The classification table also showed good prediction performance of 85.1% (90.5% of ones and 78.2% of zeros correctly predicted), which compared well with the Count R 2 of 89.5%. Some variables hypothesized earlier to explain adoption of OFSP were dropped from the model either because including them in the regression analysis reduced the goodness of fit of the model and their estimated coefficients were not statistically significant at the 5% level, or they were correlated with some of the factors that improved the goodness of fit. The variables dropped were such as the number of children in the household, number of years of formal education of the head, number of days in a week the household consumed sweet potatoes, and selling any type of sweet potato. Table 3 presents the estimated logit regression model results.The results indicated that site, participation in the programme, skills of value addition, knowledge about vitamin A and availability of vines were crucial factors determining adoption of OFSP. The results also suggested that age of the household head and asset ownership influenced adoption although their coefficients were only significant at the 15% level of significance. However, labor availability did not affect adoption possibly because there was no difference in labor requirement between OFSP and other varieties grown by the sample farmers.Some of the identified variables mirrored the findings from Mazuze (2005), who observed that adoption of OFSP varieties is affected by the district where the respondent resides, quality of extension and availability of vines to farmers. The study further observed that to spur adoption of OFSP, it was important to identify market opportunities for processed products and link farmers to potential processors and market outlets.According to the results, being in Busia district increased the odds of adopting OFSP than being in Rachuonyo. A farmer in Busia is 54 times more likely to adopt. This could be due to several underlying factors, which included the fact that sweet potato was more commercialized in Rachuonyo District than in Busia District and the yields of the local varieties grown in Rachuonyo were comparable to the yields of OFSP varieties being introduced. More importantly, the short time of programme implementation might not have had sufficient effect on traders\" preferences that might not have been willing to trade in the less familiar OFSP in Rachuonyo Districts. Increasing promotion campaigns targeting traders and consumers might have increased the probability of farmers in Rachuonyo adopting OFSP.The estimated coefficient for the participation variable was statistically significant at the 5% level and had a positive sign (in reference to participants), as hypothesized. The odds for the farmers who were in the programme adopting OFSP were three times higher than those who were not. This was according to the expectation of the programme implementers and researchers, who postulated that collective action resulting from aggregating farmers in commercial villages, would make it easy and cost effective for farmers to access extension services and planting materials. Although the programme was implemented for about 2.5 years, it means that farmers participating in the programme had a higher probability of adopting OFSP. This result offered justification for impact analysis, that is, researchers could conduct a more robust econometric analysis to evaluate the intensity and impact of adoption using differences in differences (DD) as earlier planned.As hypothesized, farmers who had the know-how of processing sweet potatoes were about four times more likely to adopt OFSP than those who did not have the know-how. Some farmers processed sweet potatoes into dried chips for long storage or made sweet potato flour and mixed this with sorghum or millet flour to make porridge, or mixed sweet potato flour with wheat flour for making baked products such as cakes, bread, scones and buns. Although a few farmers sold these products in the markets and institutions such as schools the majority used them at home to improve the nutritional value and reduce the costs of making the products. The products made using OFSP varieties are tastier, nutritious and appealing to farmers and hence farmers were more likely to prefer OFSP for further value addition. This means if dissemination of value addition techniques was included in intervention programmes, the adoption rate would have even been better.The regression results suggested that farmers who had knowledge about the nutritional content of OFSP were about three times more likely to adopt OFSP than those who did not have this knowledge. This was in conformity with a priori expectation as knowledge of the nutritional value of OFSP was likely to motivate adoption of OFSP, especially for home consumption. This means any Kaguongo et al. 499 programme that includes effective training on the nutritional value of OFSP is likely to enhance its adoption.As hypothesized, the results suggest a negative impact of constraint of vines, i.e. farmers who have limitations in accessing vines are less likely to adopt OFSP. However, the odds of not adopting due to constraints of vines were not high (0.104). This could be because most farmers who were not able to preserve planting materials or get them from neighbors were linked to the seed multipliers by the programme, and this reduced the odds of not adopting.The age of the household head had a negative sign as expected. According to the results, if age of the household head increases by one year, the odds in favor of not adopting increase by 2.0%. The main reasons given for older people being less likely to adopt new technologies was that they were said to be less receptive to new ideas and were less willing to take risks. This means there may be a need to review methods of technology dissemination used in the intervention programme to ensure that they are attractive to both young and old farmers.Testing the results of the OLS regression of the transformed dependent variable for heteroscedasticity using the Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey test rejected the OLS model with homoscedasticity ( 2 tabulated = 14.07 and  2 calculated = 88.99). To remedy the heteroscedasticity, a weighted least squares regression was run using White\"s heteroscedasticity-corrected variances (Robust standard errors) using Stata (Gujarati and Sangeetha, 2009).The HC3 estimator was used for heteroscedasticity correction following the suggestion that it is the best estimator, especially in small samples (Long and Ervin, 2000).Results of the transformed logit model revealed that participating in the programme and nutritional knowledge of OFSP did not influence the intensity of adoption of OFSP. However, in addition to site, value addition and constraints of vines, having a child of up to five years and selling any type of sweet potato also significantly influenced the intensity of adoption (Table 4). Having a child of up to five years positively affects intensity of adoption at the 10% level of significance. However, this variable was not significant in the double-censored Tobit model. The results of the double-censored model were similar to those in the logit transformation regression for other variables (Table 5).Site had a positive and statistically significant coefficient in the logit transformation regression results,  indicating that being in Busia had a positive effect on the intensity of adoption. The same site specific reasons affecting adoption were expected to affect intensity of adoption. However, the results indicated that participation did not influence the intensity of adoption. This means once the programme influenced farmers to adopt new varieties, other non-programme factors were more important in determining the proportion of land allocated to OFSP. Similarly, although nutritional knowledge had a positive effect in intensification, it was not statistically significant.Results suggested that having know-how of value addition had a significant positive effect on intensity of adoption. Farmers who had processing techniques were able to earn extra cash from OFSP products (chips, flour and mandazi), and hence they were willing to put a greater proportion of land under OFSP. This suggests that market access was crucial to adoption intensification as suggested by the coefficient of marketing variable which was positive and statistically significant. This means that once programme participation and other factors influenced farmers to grow OFSP, possibly for home consumption, the possibility of marketing the OFSP alongside other varieties increased the likelihood of intensifying adoption. Since OFSP was promoted for both home consumption and marketing, it emerged that those farmers who commercialized any type of sweet potato were more likely to increase the proportion of land under OFSP than those who were not.Logit transformation results also indicated that constraints of vines (planting material) affect intensity of OFSP adoption negatively and significantly. The results from the two regressions (binary logit and logit transformation) mean an intervention programme that includes training farmers on how to preserve their vines and how to source vines is more likely to increase both adoption and intensity of adoption.Although having a child of up to five years of age did not seem to affect adoption of OFSP, its estimated coefficient in the logit transformation regression was positive and statistically significant. This suggests that once the farmer has made decision to adopt OFSP (for other reasons reported in Table 4) having a child of up to five years of age affects the rate of intensification positively. This could mean that the observation by farmers of how their children devoured the OFSP after harvest and the awareness that children benefited the most from consumption of OFSP, which was one of the messages delivered by the programme, probably affected intensification positively.This study evaluated the factors affecting adoption and intensity of adoption of OFSP in Busia and Rachuonyo Districts in Kenya using adoption data collected from 340 farmers in 2009. The main objective was to determine the adoption rate of OFSP, the key factors determining adoption of OFSP and intensity of adoption, and to investigate whether participation in an extension intervention programme significantly increased the probability of adopting OFSP.The empirical results revealed four factors that are important in influencing both adoption of OFSP and the intensity of adoption. These factors include (1) district where the farmer resides, (2) know-how on value addition, (3) knowledge on nutritional value, and (4) availability of vines.The study suggests that to enhance technology adoption and its intensity, the attribute preferences of farmers and site specific factors (such as annual precipitation, soil fertility and performance of local varieties) will have to be integrated into the development of improved varieties and the extension approaches should be packaged so as to build on the value systems and preferences of both experienced and young farmers.The results suggest that yield performance of OFSP in Rachuonyo district is one of the possible areas that need to be addressed to promote adoption at the site. There is a need for intervention packages to address competitiveness of new varieties against local varieties and create awareness of the potential benefits of OFSP among the value chain players. The results also suggest that farmers who had processing (value addition) techniques and those who were linked to a OFSP processor were able to earn extra cash income; hence, had a bigger proportion of land under OFSP. This demonstrates the importance of linking agricultural technology adoption with value addition and marketing. The results underpin the importance of using a value chain intervention and a collective action approach in the framework of a commercial village, where production and marketing innovations are sought, to ensure that the adoption programme succeeds. Knowledge about the desirable features of OFSP varieties and farmers\" participation in the intervention programme also boosted adoption, confirming that adoption interventions need to create awareness, train beneficiaries and engage farmers in the implementation of a programme such as the Traditional Food programme.Availability of vines also affected both adoption and intensity of adoption of OFSP; hence an extension programme should ensure adequate access to vines either through conservation in wetland or irrigated areas or through establishment of a sustainable network of vine multipliers.The age of the household head only affected adoption of OFSP and had no effect on intensity of adoption. The negative effect of age means the promotion campaigns and extension approach should be appropriate for both the young and the aged, and the attributes of the Kaguongo et al. 501 technology need to be adapted to all ages of farmers. Two factors, (1) selling sweet-potato and (2) having a child, affected intensity of adoption and not adoption of OFSP. This implies that market access is very important if an adoption programme has to push adoption of any improved varieties to a higher level. Although adoption of improved varieties may be boosted by the knowledge of nutritional benefits of home consumption, commercialization of the varieties is important for intensification. Targeting households with young children, especially when the main concern is increased consumption of OFSP, is also likely to increase the intensity of use. This also implies that intervention programmes that create awareness of the nutritional benefits of improved varieties to children are more likely to increase adoption intensity.The programme also underscores the importance of creating awareness of nutritional value and commercialization in enhancing adoption of traditional crops commonly viewed as inferior food crops. Finally, it is recommended that the benefits and costs of the programme should be comprehensively studied, considering financial, environmental, poverty and food security dimensions, and the cost effectiveness of using a commercial village approach.","tokenCount":"5530"}

data/part_6/0856788548.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"97b6aed1759b3f6e210431b058f8b0e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c5983634-101f-4a8b-a132-cb826a079286/retrieve","id":"1866692180"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8665447c-b337-4798-8f38-d7f2b99e4469","pagecount":"16","content":"This publication has been prepared as an output of the CGIAR Research Initiative on AgriLAC Resiliente. Any views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by the CGIAR System Organization.Na�onal and local mul�-stakeholder pla�orms are strengthened to become func�onal and sustainable in addressing development tradeoffs and genera�ng strategies for effec�ve food, land, and water transforma�on.CGIAR partners develop and scale innova�ons that contribute to the empowerment of women, youth, and other social groups in food, land, and water systems.Interna�onal NGOs and na�onal farmers/ trade associa�ons scale agrifood system innova�ons with the poten�al to increase the net farm income of smallholders and pastoralists in targeted areas.Producer associa�ons, AgriTech companies, government agencies, NGOs, and public extension services in two LAC countries are empowered by a digitally-enabled ecosystem to offer agro-advisory services to at least 180,000 farmers and other value chain actors to manage climate risk (CRM) more effec�vely and sustainably intensify (SI) produc�on and value chains.Na�onal and local governments in two LAC countries integrate low-emission strategies with development objec�ves at the agro-ecosystem or value chain level, with an expected impact of ~150,000 ha (2022 -2024).Public-private sector, Na�onal Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), and civil society actors across subna�onal agricultural innova�on systems in three LAC countries use InnovaHub learning, knowledge management, and evidence to understand how to accelerate on-farm uptake of socio-ecological-technological (SET) innova�ons by making them more gender-responsive, produc�on-friendly, and context-specific reaching, at least 15,000 people (2022)(2023)(2024).Public and private ins�tu�ons in three LAC countries use CGIAR science, evidence, and tools to inform and shape to Agrifood Systems (AFS) related policies, incen�ves, and ini�a�ves that are more transforma�ve, sustainable, mi�ga�on-comprehensive, and climate adapta�on-friendly (2024 -2030).End hunger for all and enable affordable healthy diets for the 3 billion people who do not currently have access to safe and nutri�ous food.Reduce by at least half the propor�on of men, women, and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to na�onal defini�ons.Offer rewardable opportuni�es to 267 million young people who are not in employment, educa�on, or training.Implement all Na�onal adapta�on Plans (NAP) and Na�onally Determined Contribu�ons (NDC) to the Paris Agreement.Stay within planetary and regional environmental boundaries: consump�ve water use in food produc�on of less than 2500 km3 per year (with a focus on the most stressed basins), zero net deforesta�on, nitrogen applica�on of 90 Tg per year (with redistribu�on towards low-input farming systems) and increased use efficiency; and phosphorus applica�on of 10 Tg per year.Shaping nutri�on-sensi�ve socioecologicaltechnological (SET) 'best bets' to opera�onalize local AFS transi�on to climate-resilient nutri�on pathways.Inclusive digitally-enabled agro-advisories for risk management.AFS development that meets both mi�ga�on and sustainable development objec�ves.InnovaHub networks for agrifood innova�on and scaling.Science-informed policies, investments and ins�tu�ons.Section 2: Progress on science and towardsThis is a simple, linear, and static representation of a complex, nonlinear, and dynamic reality. Feedback loops and connections between this Initiative and other Initiatives' theories of change are excluded for clarity.End of Initiative outcome AA Action Area IA Impact Area SDG Sustainable Development Goal Note: A summary of Work Package progress ratings is provided in Section 3.The CGIAR Research Initiative on AgriLAC Resiliente has laid the groundwork for achieving its EOIOs in Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Peru through agricultural innovation system networks operating at local to regional scales. AgriLAC Resiliente connects with a variety of networks through the Local Technical Agroclimatic Committees (MTA in Spanish) placed at the subnational scale, which brings together local, national, and regional actors. The Initiative's InnovaHubs increased the number of actors involved in strengthening climate resilience and ecosystem services, in addition to boosting farm productivity, from 68 to 131. The Initiative generated 122 knowledge products in 2023, 23 of them in collaboration with five CGIAR Initiatives: Digital Innovation, Climate Resilience, National Policies and Strategies, Low-Emission Food Systems, and Livestock and Climate. In 2023, these contributions resulted in publication of one book and three peer-reviewed articles: (i) A review of agronomic research on the milpa, the traditional polyculture system of Mesoamerica (EOIO 1), associated with SET innovations to enhance farmers' livelihoods; (ii) The development of a farmer decision-making mind map to inform climate services in Central America (EOIO 2), enhancing climate information services for more informed decision-making; and (iii) Examination of cultural and economic barriers and opportunities for women's participation in agricultural production systems: A case study in Guatemala (EOIO 5), which will support policy makers in developing tailored interventions using science-based recommendations.AgriLAC Resiliente is making significant progress toward achieving EOIO 1 across Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico. This Initiative is enhancing farmers' access to climate-resilient and nutrition-sensitive technologies and validating improved varieties of maize, beans, and rice customized to local conditions for over 2,200 households and close to 8,800 people. Through collaboration, the Initiative established 17 research platforms across Guatemala (2), Honduras (2), and Mexico (13) to validate climate-resilient and nutrition-sensitive technologies. Moreover, two biodiverse plots, one involving an indigenous community, were established in northern Colombia to compare agroecological practices with conventional methods. Insights gained from both the research platforms and the biodiverse plots will better inform producers' decision-making processes and help to refine and develop more tailored technological menus, as well as the MTAs to improve recommendations' technical aspects in local agroclimatic bulletins.Capacity sharing in 1,584 individuals was increased to enhance knowledge on agricultural topics, including postharvest practices to minimize grain loss and food preparation practices to preserve the nutritional value of food prepared by local communities. Two innovations were developed in 2023 aligned with EOIO 1: a user interface of e-Agrology directed to farmers as a one-stop shop where farmers can consult localized decision support for field management and Protocols for developing Food Products from Biofortified Rice. Workshops on marketing strategies resulted in development of prototype products using cocoa and biofortified rice, while knowledge exchanged during the Latin American Agronomic Research Network symposium facilitated collaboration among researchers from the region. These efforts culminated in joint publications, including a review of agronomic research in Mesoamerica and initiatives promoting resilient agricultural practices in Mexico. Toward scaling nutrition-sensitive innovations (EOIO1), significant evidence has been generated regarding the co-innovation and scaling processes of biofortified crops. Through a comprehensive case study, relevant lessons from CGIAR's Harvest Plus program have been compiled to provide insights into the enabling factors and leverage points that drove the scaling of this innovation in a regional context.The progress towards EOIO 2 underscores AgriLAC Resiliente's commitment to empowering organizations in the region to provide digitally enabled agroadvisory services. This benefits smallscale farmers and other stakeholders in managing climate risks and promoting sustainable intensification. Notably, substantial headway has been made in enhancing ETL data processes, particularly in collaboration with pivotal partner organizations such as the Meteorological Services of Guatemala and Honduras. Our collaboration with the Digital Inclusion Initiative led to the development of an e-Agrology innovation, a tailored agronomic data collection and monitoring system for Central America. In 2023, continued training and data analysis, implemented in collaboration with Work Package 4, has proven crucial for improving and effectively using e-Agrology to generate recommendations for small-scale Guatemalan farmers.AgriLAC Resiliente is enhancing information services to support farmers, with significant strides seen in Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico (EOIO 2). In Guatemala and Honduras, scientific advances have enabled mapping information needs and implementing usercentered design. These initiatives improve the usability of local agroclimatic bulletins and drive the design of better information products for small-scale producers in both countries. In Mexico, the Initiative conducted an outcome-harvesting study demonstrating the diverse transformations achieved through MTA. Scaling MTAs to 12 states in Mexico provided approximately 100,000 farmers with essential climate information. Furthermore, empirical evidence has been gathered concerning the facilitating factors and leverage points within the co-innovation and scaling processes of the MTA's network in LAC. This evidence is synthesized in a robust case study, offering vital insights to inform future scaling strategies aimed at further extending the reach of MTA's network (EOIO 2).Progress towards EOIO 3 focused on work with stakeholders in agrifood systems to integrate climate change mitigation within the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Colombia and Peru. Opportunities were identified for formulating public policies and supporting territorial peacebuilding, mitigating the effects of climate change, and improving living conditions in conflict-affected areas. Work has highlighted the primary causes of forest loss in Peru, including access to forests and demographic changes. The Initiative also characterized greenhouse gas emissions from cocoa and livestock value chains in Colombia's Caquetá Department. Strategies for improving cocoa chains in Colombia and the Guinean pig value chain in Junín, Peru, will be scaled up and validated at governmental levels. Innovative initiatives such as the Sustainable Cocoa Innovation Challenge in Colombia, the Perumin Inspira Challenge in Peru, and the \"EncontrAR\" knowledge platform have enhanced collaboration and skills among sector entrepreneurs, promoting climate action. An analysis of the relationship between child nutritional problems in Colombia and livestock revealed significant connections, offering opportunities to design strategies that both mitigate climate change and strengthen food security, particularly in high deforestation areas in Colombia and Peru.AgriLAC Resiliente InnovaHubs link various approaches and scales, developed over years with innovation system actors, to address sustainability and climate resilience in addition to productivity issues. In Guatemala and Honduras, InnovaHubs have enhanced farmer and local organization knowledge on topics such as agroclimatic data and soil conservation (EOIO 4). Drawing on past CGIAR successes in the region, including MTAs and climatesmart villages, and using a multisectoral hub approach, similar to one implemented in Mexico, AgriLAC Resiliente aims to adapt and bundle innovations to improve climate resilience, ecosystem services, and nutrition. Annual InnovaHub meetings in both countries foster innovation through collaborative learning and knowledge sharing, with 25 institutions in Guatemala and 14 in Honduras participating in 2023.In line with AgriLAC Resiliente´s commitment to bolstering local capacities and fostering innovation, a comprehensive training strategy has been implemented to empower stakeholders through the InnovaHubs framework (EOIO 4). Emphasizing practical application and knowledge exchange, this strategy ensures that local actors are equipped with the skills necessary to drive agricultural advances effectively. A significant initiative in Guatemala involved establishing a Digital Agricultural plot, supported by the Digital Innovation Initiative and the Centro Universitario de Oriente. Serving as a testing ground for advanced agricultural technologies (EOIO 4), this initiative directly benefits small-scale farmers in the dry corridor of Guatemala, providing them with access to cutting-edge tools and practices aimed at improving productivity and sustainability in their operations.In 2023, the Initiative spearheaded a series of studies in Guatemala aimed at unraveling insights into climate resilience, migration dynamics, and gender roles. These efforts included creating tools to support informed decision making. The public policy mapping helped identify opportunities and feasible applications of an Integrated Agrifood System Initiative (IASI) methodology, resulting in tailored public policy recommendations. This mapping underwent validation with stakeholders and significantly influenced deliberations at the Second National Forum on Migration and Climate Change, in Guatemala. The subnational mapping of key programs and interventions in food security and nutrition, along with studies on women's participation in agricultural activities and climate-induced emigration, reflects a strategic effort toward informed policy formulation and resource optimization in Guatemala.To engage in the policy science interface, we have supported the CAC in activating the Technical Group of Innovation, which gathers the NARS of eight countries. Together they have developed an innovation agenda that AgriLAC will support by enhancing their capacity to develop and scale agricultural innovations in the context of climate change. These initiatives signify progress towards EOIO 5. We also developed a case study about the co-innovation and scaling processes of climate-smart agriculture country profiles, aiming to inform the scaling of socio-institutional innovations and sciencepolicy engagement processes (EOIO 5).The MELIA team is assessing EOIO progress by conducting studies on AgriLAC Resiliente's impact. In Guatemala, they've worked with Work Package 5 to publish research on rural women's challenges and prospects in agriculture. They're measuring the Initiative's effects at three levels: 1) at the farmer level in Guatemala, where they've gathered initial data for future analysis due to budget limits, 2) at the stakeholder level, collecting baseline data from partners for a future social network impact evaluation in 2024, and 3) for meso-and macro-level outcomes, they have devised a qualitative evaluation and plan fieldwork in 2024. AgriLAC reached 2,207 farming households, benefiting some 8,800 people with more nutritious and climate-resilient biofortified seeds in Colombia, Guatemala, and Honduras.A menu of technologies was adapted to local conditions for maize, rice, and beans and validated in Colombia, Guatemala, and Honduras.A diagnostic study was made on establishing a rice processing plant to enhance productivity and quality for better access to markets-a prototype product was made with cocoa and a protocol for a prototype of food products was made with biofortified rice.EOIO 2: 180,000 farmers and agrifood system actors in two LAC countries are empowered by a digitally-enabled ecosystem to manage climate risk more effectively.AgriLAC Resiliente scaled information services in Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico, reaching more than 100,000 farmers.ETL processes -to change how partners manage data -are in place for partners in Guatemala and Honduras.Well-established partnerships, including i.e. deploying weather stations with some partners to target blind spots for meteorological monitoring. Building from the bottom up, many technologies and capacities will underpin the Data Hub.Data analysis with an innovative Explainable Machine Learning analytics workflow enabled the generation of the first set of recommendations for small-scale Guatemalan farmers, which will be disseminated through established delivery channels and as part of the technological menu of the Innova-Hub (with Work Packages 1 and 4).AgriLAC Resiliente developed approaches to integrate climate change mitigation efforts and those aimed at delivering SDGs in Colombia and Peru.In Peru and Colombia, we identified potential to reduce greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions from the production stage.In Colombia, sustainability strategies for cacao chains were scaled up to governmental levels and have been validated in two departments, while a roadmap for the Guinean pig value chain will be validated in Peru.AgriLAC Resiliente innovated mechanisms to share knowledge among stakeholders through a Sustainable Cocoa Innovation Challenge in Colombia and Perumin Inspira Challenge in Peru and established a knowledge platform (\"EncontrAR\").Analysis of the relationship between child nutritional problems in Colombia and livestock, to open opportunities to design strategies that simultaneously address objectives of climate-change effects mitigation and strengthened food and nutrition security, especially in areas with high deforestation rates in Colombia and Peru.Dedicated efforts fostered collaboration and innovation among stakeholders at the subnational level in Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico.Characterization studies implemented in Guatemala and Mexico to map nutrition, market access, and technical information dissemination offered insights into Innova-Hub's impact and challenges regionally. Dedicated efforts were made to disseminate agroclimatic information through MTAs in Guatemala and Mexico and to enhance the reach and usefulness of agroclimatic bulletins.Annual Innova-Hub meetings were conducted to facilitate learnings among agrifood actors in Guatemala and Honduras.EOIO 5: Three LAC countries use CGIAR science to inform and shape agrifood system-related policies, incentives, and initiatives.Newly implemented or continued studies in Guatemala produced insights into climate resilience, migration, and the dynamics of gender roles, and also generated new tools.Public policy mapping in Guatemala on food security, climate change, and migration was finalized and validated with stakeholders and informed discussions at a national forum.Subnational mapping of key programs and interventions in food security and nutrition to identify areas with possible investment gaps and saturation of interventions in Guatemala caught the attention of a group of donors; development of an interactive platform is in process.Two quantitative studies in Guatemala (one with MELIA) led to identifying and designing additional studies for Guatemala and Peru. Set of tools and methods for exploring demand condi�ons (and associated marke�ng opportuni�es) local and regional food systems informing targe�ng and scaling strategies to be used by governments, ins�tu�ons, producer organiza�ons, NGOs, and agri-sector companies.Nutri�on-sensi�ve socioecological-technological (SET) climate-smart innova�ons adapted and co-designed with Agrifood Systems (AFS) actors (farmers, processors, small-medium enterprises (SMEs)), Na�onal Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) enable local AFS in four LAC countries to effec�vely align the technical aspects of transi�on processes with the socio-ecological needs of at least 50,000 beneficiaries (2022)(2023)(2024).Nutri�on-sensi�ve socio-ecologicaltechnological (SET) climate-smart innova�ons adapted and co-designed with Agrifood Systems (AFS) actors, (farmers, processors, small-medium enterprises (SMEs)), Na�onal Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) enable local AFS in four LAC countries to effec�vely align the technical aspects of transi�on processes with the socio-ecological needs of at least 50,000 beneficiaries (2022-2024).In 2023, to facilitate farmers' access to climate-resilient and nutrition-sensitive technologies, locally adapted crop varieties such as maize, rice, and beans were validated with 2,207 households in Colombia, Guatemala, and Honduras. Seventeen research platforms (1 per Innova-Hub in Guatemala and Honduras, 5 in Chiapas, 5 in Oaxaca, and 3 in the North Pacific hub of Mexico) were implemented with local research partners to validate sustainable production technologies (output 1.1.1). Information on available climate-resilient, nutrition-sensitive technologies was summarized in technological menus for Oaxaca and Sonora and training material produced on good postharvest practices to minimize grain loss. Two biodiverse plots (one of them involving an indigenous community), were implemented in northern Colombia to compare agroecological practices to conventional methods. The results will contribute to decision-making by producers and to the technological menus (Output 1.1.1).Moreover, 1,584 people participated in AgriLAC Resiliente capacity building on topics including seed systems, agricultural practices, postharvest food processing (four training sessions), and markets (Output 1.1.2). A diagnostic study was carried out for establishing a rice processing plant, aiming to enhance productivity and quality for better access to markets. Additionally, 11 workshops were conducted to strengthen marketing strategies as part of the scaling pathway. The Work Package also developed a prototype product made with cocoa and a protocol for a biofortified rice food product prototype (Output 1.1.3). Producer associa�ons, AgriTech companies, government agencies, NGOs, and public extension services in two LAC countries are empowered by a digitally-enabled ecosystem to offer agro-advisory services to at least 180,000 farmers and other value chain actors to manage climate risk (CRM) more effec�vely and sustainably intensity (SI) produc�on and value chains.Work Package 2 progress against the theory of change AgriLAC Resiliente's Work Package 2 is driving a major digital transformation in agro-climate information service delivery and scaling in Latin America. Work Package 2 made substantial progress in all outputs, intermediary outcomes, and research questions. Related to output 2.1.1, ETL processes to fundamentally change how data are managed by Work Package 2 partners are in place for the Meteorological Service of Guatemala (INSIVUMEH), Institute for Climate Change (ICC), the Meteorological Service of Honduras (CENAOS-COPECO), and the Asociación de Organizaciones de Los Chuchumatanes (ASOCUCH). Well-established partnerships (output 2.1.2) underpin the progress. Substantial progress was also made with the World Food Program network of \"climate monitors\" and rain gauges. Notably, in the case of CENAOS-COPECO, the ETL effort has been implemented together with deploying 10 weather stations specifically targeting \"blind spots\" for meteorological monitoring. These processes have helped build, from the bottom up, many of the technologies and capacities that will underpin the Data Hub. Alongside the ETL and data management transformation efforts, a technological and partner scoping of the Data Hub has begun, delivering a clear roadmap for implementation, with initial focus in Guatemala. The roadmap includes both the technological (output 2.1.1) and the partnership (output 2.1.2) aspects to implement, deploy, and sustain the Data Hub. Continued training in collaboration with Work Package 4 has been critical for the continued improvement and use of e-Agrology. Data analysis of legacy data with an innovative Explainable Machine Learning analytics workflow has generated the first set of recommendations for small-scale Guatemalan farmers. These will be included as part of the MTAs' regional network and climate information delivery and scaling channels (bulletins, WhatsApp, AClimate) and as part of the technological menu of the Innova-Hub (in collaboration with Work Packages 1 and 4). These tools and approaches are all new additions to an already rich digital ecosystem fostered and enhanced by Work Package 2 (output 2.1.3). Lastly, information services (output 2.1.4) are being delivered at scale in Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico. In Mexico, a recent outcome harvesting study documents the various transformations produced by AgriLAC Resiliente. For Guatemala and Honduras, scientific progress has allowed a comprehensive mapping of information needs, as well as implementation of user research in both Honduras and Guatemala. These efforts are already improving the usability of agro-climate bulletins and helping to drive the design of improved information products for small-scale producers across both countries (see for example: Agroclimatic bulletins for farmers, Radio spots, and Agroclimatic bulletins). All Work Package 2 theory of change assumptions hold thus far. Na�onal and local governments in two LAC countries integrate low-emission strategies with development objec�ves at the agro-ecosystem or value chain level, with an expected impact of ~150,000 ha (2022-2024).Na�onal and local governments in two LAC countries integrate low-omission strategies with development objec�ves at the agro-ecosystem or value chain level with an expected impact of ~150,000 ha (2022)(2023)(2024).Public-private sector, Na�onal Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), and civil society actors across subna�onal agricultural innova�on systems in three LAC countries use InnovaHub learning, knowledge management, and evidence to understand how to accelerate on-farm uptake of socio-ecologicaltechnological (SET) innova�ons by making them more gender-responsive, produc�on-friendly, and context-specific reaching, at least 15,000 people (2022-2024).During 2023, we combined our efforts with agrifood system stakeholders to develop approaches that integrate climate-change mitigation efforts with those aimed at achieving relevant SDGs in Colombia and Peru. The Work Package also generated data, knowledge, and innovations to address the challenges posed by climate change in territories affected by armed conflict. This was achieved by identifying opportunities that could be enhanced through public policy formulation and implementing actions specifically aimed at contributing to territorial peacebuilding, climate-change mitigation, and improved living conditions.In Peru, access to forests, when coupled with demographic changes and the expansion of agricultural infrastructure, significantly contributes to forest loss. Enhanced accessibility to forests can expedite deforestation by amplifying human activities that directly or indirectly result in depletion of forest resources. In Colombia, we worked in the Caquetá department, where GHG emissions from cocoa and livestock value chains were characterized. In both countries, we identified the potential to reduce emissions from the value-chain production stage. This could become a reality with the help of sustainability strategies for Colombian cocoa chains, which were scaled up to governmental levels and have been validated in Caquetá and Cesar, while Guinean pig value chain was chosen for validation in Junín.We also innovated the way knowledge is transmitted among stakeholders through a Sustainable Cocoa Innovation Challenge in Colombia, Perumin Inspira Challenge in Peru, and the establishment of a knowledge platform named \"EncontrAR,\" which promotes learning and growth among sector entrepreneurs and fosters climate action. This is achieved through collaboration and the contribution of individuals with diverse skills and profiles, providing them with opportunities to improve their technical and business management skills, evaluating potential markets, analyzing financial instruments, and designing a roadmap for accessing sources of funding.Lastly, we have analyzed the relationship between child nutrition problems in Colombia and livestock, finding a significant connection for integrating climate-change mitigation objectives and SDGs. This generates big opportunities for designing effective strategies that simultaneously address climate change mitigation and food and nutrition security objectives, especially in areas in Colombia and Peru with high deforestation rates. Public-private sector, Na�onal Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES), and civil society actors across subna�onal agricultural innova�on systems in three LAC countries use InnovaHub learning, knowledge management, and evidence to understand how to accelerate on-farm uptake of socio-ecological-technological (SET) innova�ons by making them more gender-responsive, produc�on-friendly, and context-specific reaching, at least 15,000 people (2022-2024).Producer associa�ons, AgriTech companies, government agencies, NGOs, and public extension services in two LAC countries are empowered by a digitally-enabled ecosystem to offer agro-advisory services to at least 180,000 farmers and other value chain actors to manage climate risk (CRM) more effec�vely and sustainably intensity (SI) produc�on and value chains.Public and private ins�tu�ons in three LAC countries use CGIAR science, evidence, and tools to inform and shape to Agrifood Systems (AFS) related policies, incen�ves, and ini�a�ves that are more transforma�ve, sustainable, mi�ga�oncomprehensive, and climate adapta�on-friendly (2024-2030).Work Package 4's annual report on InnovaHubs documents collaborations and innovations in Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico, with intensified characterization studies in Central America. In Guatemala, emphasis is on nutrition and market access, while in Mexico, an infographic guide details InnovaHubs' regional impact. Communication and outreach are critical for scaling innovations and fostering stakeholder engagement through in-field achievements (output 4.1.1).A targeted training strategy bolsters local stakeholder capacities within InnovaHubs, fostering communities of practice among professionals, extensionists, farmers, and scientists to exchange knowledge and best practices (output 4.1.2). The dissemination of agroclimatic information via the MTAs' network in Guatemala and Mexico aims to improve accessibility and comprehension among farmers, aiming to enhance the reach and usefulness of agroclimatic bulletins.Local partners in InnovaHubs provide technical support for farmers through co-learning spaces and extension areas, facilitating the adoption of field recommendations for improved agriculture practices. Furthermore, in Oaxaca, Mexico, the agriculture ministry aligns interventions with InnovaHubs, resulting in over 20,000 registered farmers' fields with researcher support (Output 4.1.3 and Output 4.1.4). A Digital Agricultural plot was established in Guatemala in partnership with the Digital Innovation Initiative, serving as a testing ground for advanced agricultural technologies, benefiting small-scale farmers in the dry corridor (Output 4.1.4).Annual InnovaHub meetings in Guatemala and Honduras facilitated knowledge exchange among agrifood actors, fostering innovation through collaborative learning and adaptation to local contexts. In November 2023, the second round of these meetings occurred in diverse locations across Guatemala and Honduras, gathering 25 and 14 institutions respectively. These gatherings identified local needs and research priorities, strengthening positive impacts, and advancing innovation network management. Agrifood actors collaborate to support capacity development in each InnovaHub's operational space, promoting regional agricultural advancement (Output 4.1.5).Engagement strategy with strategic Na�onal and Regional partners and stakeholders to support AgriLAC's outcomes achievement including scaling and impact-oriented efforts.Comprehensive assessment of migra�on drivers, including socioeconomic, environmental, security, and cultural factors that force or push people to relocate. Integrated Agrifood System Ini�a�ve (IASI) strategies plan to recommend strategies, ac�ons, and quan�ta�ve, SDG-aligned targets with high likelihood of suppor�ve public and private investment.Assessments of Women and youth agricultural prac�ces and adop�on of new technologies given their specific constraints and informa�onal needs while considering their skills, knowledge and aspira�ons.Monitoring and targe�ng tool mapping key interven�ons and actors combined with a comprehensive profile at the subna�onal level to iden�ty opportuni�es to improve investments in agrifood systems.Public and private ins�tu�ons in three LAC countries, use CGIAR science, evidence, and tools to inform and shape to Agrifood Systems (AFS)-related policies, incen�ves, and ini�a�ves that are more transforma�ve, sustainable, mi�ga�on-comprehensive, and climate adapta�on-friendly (2024)(2025)(2026)(2027)(2028)(2029)(2030).Public and private ins�tu�ons in three LAC countries use CGIAR science, evidence, and tools to inform and shape to Agrifood Systems (AFS) related policies, incen�ves, and ini�a�ves that are more transforma�ve, sustainable, mi�ga�on-comprehensive, and climate adapta�on-friendly (2024-2030).In 2023, the Work Package 5 conducted and continued several studies in Guatemala focused on producing insights into climate resilience, migration, and the dynamics of gender roles, and creating tools.Work Package 5 finalized the public policy mapping in Guatemala on food security, climate change, and migration. This identified opportunities and the most feasible applications of the IASI methodology that should lead to customized public policy recommendations. This document underwent a validation process with stakeholders and informed the discussions at the Second National Forum on Migration and Climate Change in Guatemala (output 5.1.4).In addition, Work Package 5 achieved its goal of engaging with AgriLAC Resiliente partners by facilitating consultations at InnovaHubs' annual meetings in Guatemala and Honduras organized by Work Package 4. The consultations aimed to align the Initiative's objectives with partners' needs using a bottom-up approach. (output 5.1.4).The subnational mapping of key programs and interventions in food security and nutrition to identify areas with possible investment gaps and saturation of interventions caught the attention of a group of 13 donors in Guatemala and a related exercise is being performed with them, including developing an interactive platform. This will help to better coordinate and complement efforts between stakeholders and streamline effective use of resources for implementating food security and nutrition actions and programs across the country (output 5.1.3).Two quantitative studies were finalized in Guatemala: i) Cultural and economic barriers and opportunities for the participation of women in agricultural and livestock activities (a collaboration with MELIA published in a special issue and presented at various forums, The team optimized available (reduced) resources to collaboratively deliver a streamlined research approach that developed nutrition-sensitive and climate-smart technologies. This was done with local agrifood system actors in four countries. Working together in a research network is enhancing local capacities from production to market access. It is forming the base of innovation and adaptation in the InnovaHubs (Work Package 4).Progress was made according to plans, with all theory of change assumptions still holding. All four major Work Package 2 outputs are on track, namely, Data Hubs and data architecture modernization, new partnerships and partnership models, a climate risk management toolkit, and improved information services for farmers and small-and mediumsized agricultural enterprises (Ag. SMEs). In particular, we highlight the data management and analysis transformation in INSIVUMEH, ICC, and CENAOS-COPECO, as well as several farmer organizations, and the continued delivery of agroadvisories that stem from MTAs and are scaled through digital channels.The annual progress in Peru and Colombia is largely aligned with the Plan of Results and Budget and the theory of change of Work Package 3. This is evidenced by the development of low-emission sustainable development strategies that integrate the SDGs and help foster the participation of local stakeholders. Progress has also been made in developing instruments to promote markets for investments in climate change mitigation at the value chain level. Planned outputs have been developed, such as those associated with the methodological framework, digital innovations, and science-and market-based solutions.InnovaHubs in Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico have been consolidated and established. They form the operational base for the subnational actors, including farmers and their associations, local governments, and civil society to operate around a common goal, which includes establishing field infrastructures. Here, technicians and farmers work together to implement and validate best-bet recommendations related to agronomy and climate advisory and digital extension services, as well as local action towards social inclusion. Capacity development schemes are being implemented around this infrastructure and integrate the MTAs' experiences but at a local agroecology scale. Within these, local actors connect and exchange experiences to establish collaborative plans and priorities.Work Package 5 successfully met its objectives for 2023, completing all the planned studies on climate change, migration, and gender, as well as conducting a comprehensive national mapping of public policies in Guatemala. Additionally, Work Package 5 effectively engaged with InnovaHub partners, providing valuable information to support decision-making processes following a bottom-up approach. The subnational mapping exercise of interventions has garnered interest from key stakeholders in the country, significantly contributing to the achievement of the Initiative's outcomes. Overall, the Work Package is on track and all major theory of change assumptions remain valid.  37), as outlined in Figure 1 above. Notably, within the outputs category, there was a significant uptick in the production of knowledge products (125 more than in 2022) and in capacity sharing for development (145 more than in 2022). Moreover, 5 additional innovations were developed in 2023. In the outcomes category, 21 more CGIAR innovations were used in 2023 than in 2022 and 5 new policy changes were documented.Not targeted: The result did not target any of the Impact Area objec�ves.The result has made a significant contribu�on to any of the Impact Area objec�ves, even though the objec�ve(s) is not the principal focus of the result.The result is principally about mee�ng any of the Impact Area objec�ves, and this is fundamental in its design and expected results. The result would not have been undertaken without this objec�ve. The chart above reflects how results of AgriLAC Resiliente reported in 2022 and 2023 have significantly contributed to the five CGIAR impact areas, primarily in Climate change adaptation and mitigation (155), Nutrition, health and food security (36), Gender equality, youth, and social inclusion (25), Environmental health and biodiversity ( 16), and Poverty reduction, livelihoods, and jobs (5).Keywords within the Initiative's knowledge products c l i m a t e c h a n g e AgriLAC's results notably contribute to SDGs, particularly in addressing No Poverty (SDG1), Climate Action (SDG13), and Gender Equality (SDG5), with over 300 contributions each, while also aligning with broader aims to combat hunger, promote sustainable land use, and foster inclusive economic growth. Over the past two years, AgriLAC Resiliente has produced a diverse range of knowledge products, including 70 reports, 11 briefs, 9 journal articles, 6 manuals, 5 working papers, 5 case studies, 3 posters, 2 books, and 1 dataset. These resources serve as valuable repositories of insights into agricultural resilience. Moreover, it has also developed 37 dissemination products, such as presentations, blog posts, videos, audio recordings, brochures, press items, infographics, and newsletters.The innova�on is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled condi�onsThe innova�on is tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under uncontrolled condi�onsThe innova�on is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under semi-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on is validated for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on is being tested for its ability to achieve a specific impact under fully-controlled condi�onsThe innova�on's key concepts have been validated for their ability to achieve a specific impact F���������� The innova�on's key concepts are being formulated or designedThe innova�on's basic principles are being researched for their ability to achieve a specific impactThe innova�on is at idea stage AgriLAC has developed 14 innovations, comprising 7 technological, 6 capacity development, and 1 policy, organizational, or institutional innovation. These innovations span incremental (10), disruptive (3), and radical (1) categories. Incremental innovations denote existing innovations undergoing constant progress and improvement, built upon previous CGIAR work in the region. Disruptive innovations introduce new concepts necessitating significant reconfiguration of farming, market, and policy/business models. Radical innovations introduce entirely new products, systems, or services without necessitating major reconfiguration of existing models. Data here represents an overview of reported results in 2022 and 2023. One result can impact multiple countries and can therefore be represented multiple times.AgriLAC Resiliente strengthened the agricultural, climate resilience and market capacities of 4,833 individuals across Latin America and the Caribbean, collaborating with 64 partners (Figure 6 The AgriLAC Resiliente external partner network responds to the systemic and on-demand approach of the Initiative. This network of partners has strong experience and capacities at different levels throughout the Latin America and the Caribbean agrifood system. AgriLAC Resiliente's external partners have been selected based on their previous and current successful collaborations and partnerships with CGIAR as well as their expertise and skills, farmer outreach and delivery capabilities, and capacity to influence public policy.The extensive external partner network boasts an impressive array of over 150 organizations strategically distributed throughout the region. AgriLAC Resiliente has collaborated with government institutions to strengthen their institutional capacities and respond to the demands of public policy with science-driven initiatives (EOIO 2, EOIO 3, EOIO 5). Key collaborations include the ministries of agriculture in Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico, as well as the meteorological services in Guatemala and Honduras. These partnerships are essential to ensure that agricultural policies and strategies are backed by robust scientific evidence and implemented effectively to promote sustainable development in the region. Less resultsConnections are sized by the number of reported results. Collaborations where only one result was reported with a linkage between two Initiatives are excluded.Source: Data extracted from the CGIAR Results Dashboard on 7 March 2024.Portfolio linkages and AgriLAC Resiliente's impact pathways With Climate Resilience, we generated knowledge products related to agroclimatic information through the work of the MTAs, together with the Livestock and Climate Initiative. The information generated by the MTAs increasingly allows more people (especially farmers) access to agroclimatic data, enabling them to make informed and timely field decisions. This information has been disseminated through different mechanisms, such as radio adverts, characterized by their reach to remote rural areas with easily understandable messages, thanks to the comprehensive approach inherent in the human-centered design methodology, WhatsApp, and technicians using this information when supporting farmers.From our collaboration with the Low-Emission Food Systems and National Policies and Strategies Initiatives, we generated knowledge product tools addressing deforestation. This has been through assessing and designing instruments that enabled the construction of two strategies for the sustainability of the cocoa value chain in Cesar and Caquetá in Colombia. These were complemented by a financial analysis of the potential of carbon markets for cocoa production systems, leading to the design of a mixed financial mechanism and evaluation of its potential.These partnerships have been key to promoting the use of innovations, which include biofortified seeds and climate information services among other innovations. Some of the innovations we generated, together with the Digital Innovation Initiative, include the in situ monitoring system in the dry corridor of Guatemala, which provides precise information about climate and soil to enable producers to overcome their unique challenges.Several results were achieved through the contribution from non-pooled projects. With the Fortalecimiento de Resiliencia de la Producción de Maíz en Guatemala project (International Cooperation and Development Fund), we were able to develop an R package to provide users with convenient access to a wide range of agroclimatic forecasts offered in the AClimate platform. With the ProResiliencia project (European Union funder), we continued the use of Participatory Integrated Climate Services for Agriculture (PICSA). This is a knowledge product that proposes an approach of agricultural extension and climate services. This product helps farmers to formulate plans and decisions adapted to individual farmer contexts according to their production system. This highlights the importance of collaborating with other components of CGIAR portfolio, to increase our reach and impact.Section 7: Adaptive managementModify EOIO 2 by increasing the number of countries from two to three.EOIO 2: Producer associations, AgriTech companies, government agencies, NGOs, and public extension services in three LAC countries are empowered by a digitally enabled ecosystem to offer agro-advisory services to at least 180.000 farmers and other value chain actors to manage climate risk more effectively and sustainably intensify production and value chains.The adjustments stem from the scaling efforts undertaken by the Agriculture Secretariat (SADER) in Mexico. These efforts have enabled Work Package 2 to leverage the MTAs and the InnovaHub network of agroclimatic information services, thereby gaining deeper insights into the network and collaborating with partners to improve the delivery of agroclimatic services. Furthermore, the adjustments align with a more precise identification of the capacities of organizations capable of participating in digital agriculture initiatives.Modify EOIO 3 by adjusting the narrative to incorporate two strategies instead of two countries.Two national or local governments or key stakeholders in LAC countries integrate low-emission strategies with development objectives at the agro-ecosystem or value chain level, with an expected impact of around 150,000 ha.We are giving more emphasis to the number of strategies than the number of countries. These changes are proposed in the context of budgetary changes, and our capacity to align bilateral funding toward accomplishing the outcome.Modify EOIO 5 by decreasing the number of countries from three to two.Public and private institutions in two LAC countries use CGIAR science, evidence, and tools to inform and shape agrifood system-related policies, incentives, and initiatives that are more transformative, sustainable, mitigation-comprehensive, and climate adaptation-friendly (2024-2030).The adjustment in the EOIO stems from budget reallocations, which necessitated prioritizing specific activities within certain countries, and the time needed to produce essential outputs such as knowledge products, instruments, and tools. These outputs play a crucial role in informing local stakeholders and have the potential to shape initiatives and policies in the designated countries.Cacao training on harvest and post-harvest processes, San Vicente Chucurí, Colombia. Credit: Juan Pablo Marín.Section 8: Key result story  For many years, the states of Cesar and Caquetá in Colombia have suffered severely from armed violence. This has led to forced displacement and a slowdown in various economic activities, with coordination between public and private entities and farmers' associations to implement effective development plans in the cocoa value chain hindered.A sustainable land use system (SLUS) project and CGIAR's AgriLAC Resiliente and Low-Emission Food Systems Initiatives have worked together to i) consolidate and empower communities through cocoa committees; ii) coordinate interinstitutional interactions, and iii) formalize processes to position cocoa cultivation as an alternative way to reforest and restore degraded landscapes. These activities have supported land restitution and formalization, forest conservation, and the development of sustainable business models based on cocoa cultivation to increase carbon storage and improve rural livelihoods.Establishing close coordination between the key local and national actors in Colombia's cocoa sector was an imperative. The Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of the Environment, the Departmental Secretariats, the National Cocoa Council, the cocoa industry, research institutions, marketers and producers continue to work together to further scale and improve the value chain with a clear and sustainable strategic plan. In it, work continues to expand training in low-emissions practices, with a focus on sustainable land use systems such as cocoa agroforestry and silvopastoral production-systems that can enhance people's livelihoods while protecting their environments.This process aims to reconcile climate-change mitigation objectives with development objectives, integrating i) the territorial approach, focused on local decisions on land use, and ii) the market approach, which considers the dynamics of the value chain and consumer decisions in sustainable food systems. This approach will continue to add the participation of more actors with compatible business models. In turn this will overcome identified farm-and value-chainlevel barriers, in addition to measuring the contribution to climatechange mitigation and peacebuilding in the country.Promoting sustainable cocoa involves increasing its production and ensuring that it is done efficiently and sustainably. This includes expanding distribution channels for certified plant material, which guarantees not only crop quality but also its long-term sustainability. Furthermore, the exchange of technical knowledge and institutional strengthening is crucial for identifying and prioritizing needs and establishing specific actions that contribute to the sustainable development of the region, thus fostering local economic growth and improving the livelihoods of cocoa farmers. By strengthening the coordination among actors in the production chain, a solid foundation is created that facilitates continuous strengthening and effective management. This strategic collaboration not only benefits farmers by improving their practices and increasing their productivity but also promotes sustainable practices and more responsible management of natural resources.Thus, the sustainable development of crops and rural communities depends to a large extent on the promotion of economic activities such as cocoa cultivation carried out in productive and environmentally friendly ways. This requires not only efficient crop management but also institutional measures that strengthen infrastructure and generate equitable opportunities for all involved. By prioritizing sustainability and equity in rural development, we can build a more prosperous and harmonious future for communities, where agriculture and environmental conservation go hand in hand.Cocoa has become an opportunity to generate income, to put down roots, and to start over-with more knowledge, more care for the environment, more sense of belonging and more trust in farmers, including those who were displaced by violence. ","tokenCount":"7163"}

data/part_6/0882612921.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1e0eaba600627fae94135c73ef9e2cb5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fc621161-b58f-41cc-8375-02cdc68db2fd/retrieve","id":"-1279977896"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0539e3d7-8764-4709-9013-46be1e99ae82","pagecount":"32","content":"6. The Casamance is characterized by forests and savannah with trees (CIRAD, 2015). Its agricultural production includes mainly rain-fed rice along with diverse other crops. With a total surface area of 28,324 km2, it is divided into three zones-lower, middle, and upper. The region faces challenges such as lowland soil acidification, water erosion, a loss of forest diversity, increased soil salinization, iron toxicity, and acute mangrove degradation (Alessandro et al., 2015).FIGURE 1: Agro-ecological zones of Senegal (left), cropped areas (center), and areas with pastures (right). Data for the left panel were adapted from the Directorate of Water, Forests and Hunting Conservation, and the center and right panels were taken from Ramankutty et al., 2008. - -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------FIGURE 2: Current crop suitability in Senegal - --------------------------------------------------------------------FIGURE 3: Changes in suitability for selected value chains by the 2050s for RCP 4.5. 1.0 denotes increasing suitability and -1.0 a loss in suitability. ---------------------------------------------FIGURE 4: Spatial distribution of natural hazards across Senegal - ---------------------------------------  -----------------------FIGURE 8: Vulnerability difference between RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 for 2050s --------------------------FIGURE 9: Contribution of different agricultural value chains to overall climate change vulnerability by the 2050s for RCP 4.5. Supplementary Figure S4 in the Annex show results for RCP 8.5 by the 2050s.-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------FIGURE S1. Crop suitability of the nine value chains by the 2050s for RCP 4.5 -----------------------  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TABLES TABLE 1: Key natural hazards in Senegal - --------------------------------------------------------------------------TABLE 2: Adaptive capacity variables used in the vulnerability assessment for Senegal --------viiThe Adaptation and Valorization of Entrepreneurship in Irrigated Agriculture (AVENIR) project aims to improve the socioeconomic well-being and resilience of farming households in the regions of Sedhiou and Tambacounda, Senegal. The project focuses on smallholder-irrigated systems through promotion of climate-adapted irrigation and agricultural practices, particularly for women and young people. AVENIR seeks to promote crop diversification through the integration of rice, agroforestry, and horticulture. In Goudiry and Tambacounda Departments within Tambacounda Region, the project focuses on rice, baobab and horticulture value chains. In Bounkiling and Goudomp departments within Sédhiou Region, the project focuses on rice, mango, cashew, and horticulture value chains. Among the important associated crops prioritized in the two regions are ditakh (Detarium senegalense), madd (Saba senegalensis), onion, okra, and pepper.The vulnerability assessment for the selected crops in Senegal is based on the interaction of sensitivity to change, exposure, and adaptive capacity. We use the conceptual framework of climate-related risk from the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II (WGII) to examine the impacts that climate change is likely to have on agriculture and food security. The ultimate purpose of this study is to assess if the future climate has a neutral (no change), negative (decreasing), or positive (increasing) impact on crop productivity, and to identify regions of concern and opportunities for climate change adaptation. We used the Maxent ecological models under intermediate and high-emission climate scenarios -Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 4.5 and 8.5, respectively -to assess the sensitivity of nine crops to climate change: rice, baobab, cashew, mango, okra, onion, pepper, madd and ditakh. To produce a crop-specific vulnerability index and a final accumulative score, we combined the components of vulnerability using equal weighting. We have also mapped the hotspots of climate change vulnerability and identified the underlying driving indicators. For example, we found that the south, east, and southeastern regions are most vulnerable, especially Tambacounda, Kaffrine, Sedhiou, Kolda, and Kedougou regions. There is a high vulnerability for baobab trees and cashew to the north, as well as cashews, ditakh, okra, onions, and rice to the northeast. This study highlights how the adaptive capacity of the farming population can be enhanced by augmenting access to education and health services, improving nutrition, and developing infrastructure for marketing, transportation, and irrigation.Senegal is in western Africa on the Atlantic Coast between the latitudes of 12°30° and 16°30°N and the longitudes of 11°30° and 17°30°W. The southern region of Senegal has a sub-tropical climate, while the northern region lies in a sub-tropical, semi-arid belt called the Sahel (Mcsweeney et al., 2008). Rainfall is mainly controlled by the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (Lucio, 2012). The movement of the ITCZ determines the onset and duration of the rainy season (Salack et al., 2011). For example, the south has more rainy days and a longer rainy season than the drier north.Temperatures in Senegal exhibit an east-to-west gradient, such that inland temperatures are normally higher than along the coastline, with the highest temperatures occurring in the northeastern parts of the country (Fall et al., 2006). Matam region located in the northeast, for instance, experiences a maximum temperature of above 40°C in the hottest month of May. The coastal regions, on the other hand, experience cooler temperatures between 25°C to 28°C (Mcsweeney et al., 2008). In the cooler seasons, average temperatures can fall below 25°C at the coast but still climb to 30°C in the east (Fall et al., 2006).Rainfall begins in the southeast around May or June, and spreads northwest throughout the summer months through September (Marteau et al., 2009). August accumulates the highest amount of rainfall (Camberlin and Diop, 2003). The dry season, on the other hand, lasts for about six months in the south and eight months in the north. The highest seasonal rainfall is received in the southern parts of the country, measuring approximately 1000 mm, while the northern parts receive less than 400 mm (USAID, 2017(USAID, , 2015)). The rainy season ceases with the migration of the ITCZ to the south around October (Nicholson, 2018).The agricultural sector of Senegal contributes about 17% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP), employing more than 70% of the workforce (World Bank, 2018). Senegal is one of the most stable and promising countries in West Africa with great potential to increase its agriculture-led economic growth (USAID, 2015). However, a large portion of Senegal's landmass lies within the Sahel, which is arid and highly prone to droughts (Mcsweeney et al., 2008). This location makes rain-fed agricultural production highly variable, a situation that climate change is exacerbating (D ' Alessandro et al., 2015).Senegal is divided into six agro-ecological zones (Figure 1) based on biophysical and socioeconomic characteristics (Alessandro et al., 2015;CIRAD, 2015). Moving from north to south, these are the following:1. The Senegal River Valley characterized by alluvial plains and sandy uplands with irrigated rice production; it covers a surface area of 9,658 km 2 . Most agricultural production occurs with irrigation (Alessandro et al., 2015). Although salinity is a problem in some areas, much of the land has high fertility levels because of regular flooding and siltation.2. The Niayes on the Atlantic coast features a temperate climate and produces fruits and vegetables (CIRAD, 2015). This 100km -280km strip occupies 2,759 km 2 . Niayes is a densely populated area and faces challenges including soil and water salinity and coastal erosion (Alessandro et al., 2015).3. The sylvo-pastoral zone of north-central Senegal supports extensive livestock production and covers 55,561 km 2 (CIRAD, 2015).4. The Groundnut Basin of south-central Senegal is a zone of savannah dominated by groundnut and millet production (CIRAD, 2015). It covers an area of 46,367 km 2 and is densely populated. Ecosystem degradation and depletion of land resources, mainly soil fertility and timber resources, affect the area (Alessandro et al., 2015). Because of upland soil acidification and lowland salinity, soil regeneration has declined.5. Eastern Senegal is characterized by savannah with trees. Its agricultural production involves primarily cotton and livestock. It covers an area of 56 529km 2 (Tappan et al., 2004) and is subject to rampant rural poverty because of extreme population pressure on natural resources, despite its robust agropastoral potential (Alessandro et al., 2015).La Casamance est caractérisée par des forêts et des savanes arborées (CIRAD, 2015). Sa production agricole comprend principalement le riz pluvial ainsi que diverses autres cultures. Avec une superficie totale de 28 324 km2, elle est divisée en trois zones -basse, moyenne et haute. La région est confrontée à des défis tels que l'acidification des sols au niveau des zones basses, l'érosion de l'eau, la perte de la diversité forestière, la salinisation accrue des sols, la toxicité ferreuse et la dégradation aiguë des mangroves (Alessandro et al., 2015). The topography of Senegal is generally flat with rolling sandy plains but rises to hills in the southeast.Most areas have elevations of less than 100 m above sea level. Senegal encompasses over 19 million ha of land, of which only about 20% or 3.9 million ha are suitable for arable crops. The rest comprises undeveloped bush and arid areas used for livestock grazing (Alessandro et al., 2015). Around 40% of the arable land is constantly cultivated, although 10% receives less than 500 mm of rainfall per year, which limits crop production. Only 10% of the cultivated land is under irrigation, mainly along the Senegal River and in the Casamance (Peterson et al., 2006). This challenge aligns with the goal of the AVENIR project, which aims to improve access for irrigation technologies and improve the governance and management of water resources, working with government, civic groups, and market actors in Sédhiou and Tambacounda regions.Population increases have led to land pressure (Place and Otsuka, 2000), which in turn has brought about soil degradation and declining soil fertility due to many years of unsuitable agricultural practices such as tillage practices, mono-cropping, and incorrect use of chemical inputs (Doso Jnr, 2014;Sow et al., 2015). Soils in most areas have low percentages of clay and organic matter and therefore low cation exchange capacities, resulting in increased vulnerability to nutrient depletion (Mahé et al., 2002;Matlon, 1987).Millet, rice, maize, and sorghum are the major food crops grown in Senegal. Other crops such as groundnuts, sugarcane and cotton are important cash crops. A wide variety of fruits and vegetables are grown for local and export markets. Cowpeas and cotton are also cultivated. Because food production does not meet domestic demand, the country imports rice and wheat (Diagne et al., 2013). Senegal exports cotton, groundnuts, and horticultural products, mainly green beans, tomatoes, cashew and mangoes (D 'Alessandro et al., 2015).Crop production in Senegal falls into several categories: subsistence smallholders, commercial smallholders, and pure commercial producers (D' Alessandro et al., 2015). Subsistence smallholders produce food mainly for consumption with occasional surplus for sale, while commercial smallholders produce cash crops for sale and some food crops for their own consumption. About 90% of the rural population of Senegal are involved in livestock production, which accounts for 30% of the country's GDP (Diagne et al., 2013). Livestock includes cattle, goats, sheep, and poultry farming. The cattle provide plowing power which is used in cropped lands (D' Alessandro et al., 2015).Senegal is highly vulnerable to risks associated with climate change (USAID, 2017). Years of erratic rainfall patterns and rising sea level has led to increased soil erosion, agricultural soil salinization, and the destruction of infrastructure. Droughts and floods associated with climate change have increased the country's vulnerability to food security (Fall, 2020). In the Senegal River Valley, the Niayes, and the Casamance, agriculture and fisheries are some of the main economic activities, and they are highly vulnerable to reductions in rainfall, coastal erosion, salt water intrusion, and flooding (Fall, 2020).The methodology used to prepare this report hinges on the conceptual framework of climate-related risk from the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II to explore the potential consequences of climate change for agriculture and food security (Adger, 2006;O'brien et al., 2007;Sharma and Ravindranath, 2019). The IPCC defines vulnerability as \"the extent to which a natural or social system is susceptible to sustaining damage from climate change impacts, and is a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity\". The impact of climate change on agriculture and livelihoods therefore can be conceptualized as the aggregation of these components (Foden et al., 2013).Exposure refers to the amount of climate variation to which a system could be subjected by hazards. Sensitivity, meanwhile, is the degree to which the system could be affected by that exposure. Finally, adaptive capacity is the ability to adjust, cope with, or benefit from expected climate variations. The analysis was implemented by obtaining indicators relevant to Senegal for each dimension of vulnerability. These indicators were then aggregated as shown in equation 1 below to compute the vulnerability of each crop and administrative unit or arrondissement.In the vulnerability framework we use here, the vulnerability of each crop is calculated using crop-specific sensitivities, exposure to natural hazards, and a series of indicators of adaptive capacity (equation 1), and the results are then summed up to obtain overall vulnerability (Parker et al. 2019). Where i denotes each crop; Growing area refers to the extent of suitable area for the crop i; Total area pertains to all crops; S i is the sensitivity of the value chain i; Ei represents the exposure of each crop; and AC is the adaptive capacity.Sensitivity index, Si, was determined by computing the difference between the future and current crop suitability followed by normalizing the values to a scale ranging from -1 and 1. Exposure indices, Ei was determined by obtaining the variables representing the value chains exposure such as aridity, flood etc. and extracting the values for each arrondissement. The resulting values were then normalized to a scale ranging from 0 and 1. Adaptive capacity, AC on the other hand was determined by obtaining the variables that enhance the adaptive capacity of Senegal such as literacy rate, health, poverty etc. and extracting the values for each arrondissement. The resulting values were also normalized to a scale ranging from 0 and 1. Crop suitability was modelled for nine selected crops: baobab, cashew, ditakh, madd, mango, onion, okra, pepper, and rice, using the Maxent suitability model package in R Statistical software (Figure 2). These crops were selected from a value chain study conducted for the AVENIR project in February to March 2020, which identified these as the most promising crops for socio-economic progress in the regions of Tambacounda and Sedhiou. To obtain one index for each variable in the equation e.g., one index for AC in calculating total vulnerability for a specific crop, all indices were added and normalized to a scale between 0 and 1.Crop suitability determines the effectiveness of a specific area for the production of a particular crop within a defined system of agricultural production based on agro-climatic conditions related to temperature and moisture, and on agro-edaphic conditions pertaining to soils and landforms (Kassam et al., 2012;Nisar Ahamed et al., 2000).We carry out a Maxent suitability model using available crop presence data and gridded climate data for current and future scenarios pertaining to the 2050s, and for two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs): RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. The RCPs describe various climate futures whose likelihood of occurring depends upon the volume of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted over the years. RCP 4.5 is an intermediate scenario premised on the employment of a range of technologies and strategies for reducing GHG emissions. RCP 8.5 is a high-end scenario characterized by increasing GHG emissions over time. Our value chain presence data were derived from two sources; the Global Biodiversity Information Facility public database (http://www.gbif.org) as well as on farm observations of value chain presence obtained from local extension officers. The variables we use include climate data with bio-climatic variables relating to temperature in addition to slope, soil texture, soil pH, and waterlogging. We obtained current climate data from WorldClim 2.0 (Fick and Hijmans, 2017), whereas we downloaded future climate data from CCAFS-Climate (Navarro-Racines et al., 2020). We calculated slope data from a digital elevation model obtained from the United States Geological Survey's Earth Explorer and determined soil texture and pH from the International Soil Reference and Information Centre World Soil Information database. Finally, information on waterlogging is obtained from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (Fischer et al., 2008).We present this information in two ways: (1) the current (baseline) magnitude of suitability; (2) the magnitude of change under future climate projections. The magnitude of change reflects whether crop suitability will increase or decrease relative to the baseline period. In the following section, we show agreement maps that rank the current suitability from zero, meaning areas are projected to be climatically unsuitable for production of the crop, to one, where the area presents greatest climatic conditions suitable for crop production.The current suitability of the selected crops in the project areas, show that, cashew, ditakh, madd, mango, and rice have overall high suitability under current climate in Sedhiou, while pepper will have moderate to high suitability. In Tambacounda, pepper has moderate suitability. Baobab, onion and rice show high suitability to the northeastern areas bordering Mali, and low suitability in other areas of the region. Madd shows high suitability in the southern part. Rice in Tambacounda is suitable along the Senegal River to the east as well as to the south near Kolda region. Okra shows low suitability in both regions. Baobab and onion show very low suitability in Sédhiou while ditakh and cashew show low suitability in Tambacounda. Sensitivity expresses the relationship between human-induced emissions and the temperature changes that will result from these emissions. It is the amount of warming caused by increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) (Hawkins and Forster, 2019). Frequently, sensitivity is defined as the change in temperature resulting from a doubling of the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. In this case, we calculated sensitivity using crop suitability such that we understood sensitivity as the change in suitability. Therefore, we computed the difference between the future and current crop suitability.We analyzed the sensitivity of all crops under future climate projections for 2050s under RCP 4.5 (Figure 3). All the selected crops experience some degree of sensitivity, either an increase or decrease. Increasing sensitivity infers that climate change will affect productivity patterns for the crop. The change in suitability maps range from -1 meaning areas with 100 percent crop suitability loss, to +1 representing areas where there are 100% suitability increases. By the 2050s under RCP 4.5, cashew, pepper, and rice are the most sensitive crops, while baobab, mango, okra and onion are least sensitive. In this scenario, increasing suitability is strongly exhibited by baobab and okra in most areas of Senegal, cashew and ditakh towards central Senegal and madd to the southeast and central Senegal. The suitability of onion along the Senegal river valley and in the Casamance especially Kolda region is seen to increase with the suitability decreasing to the west of the country. Decreasing suitability is likely for rice along the Senegal River valley as well as in Sédhiou with increase in suitability in the Casamance areas shifting to Kolda region to the east of Sédhiou. There is a decreasing suitability for pepper in the Casamance, Tambacounda, Kedougou and the western part of the country with an increasing suitability in the central areas.Changes in suitability for selected value chains by the 2050s for RCP 4.5. 1.0 denotes increasing suitability and -1.0 a loss in suitability.For the AVENIR project areas, there is a likelihood for a decreasing suitability in rice, pepper, madd, cashew and ditakh in Sédhiou with an increasing suitability for mango to the north and okra. Pockets of increasing suitability for Cashew and ditakh are seen across the region. Although baobab is not currently suitable in this region, further reduction in suitability is exhibited in this scenario. In Tambacounda, there is a likelihood for an increase in suitability in okra, baobab to the east, cashew and ditakh to the west and east and mango and onion to the east which could lead to an increase in production by 2050 for RCP 4.5. Cashew and ditakh however, show decreasing suitability in central Tambacounda while madd, pepper and rice show a high decrease in suitability by 2050 for RCP4.5.Results for RCP 8.5 for 2050s are shown in the supplementary figures in the Annex. The results show an increasing suitability for baobab and okra with increases in the suitability of cashew, ditakh, and madd towards the east. The suitability of mango, okra and onion shifts towards the north of Senegal, while pepper suitability increases towards central, east and south eastern parts of the country. The suitability of rice on the other hand, decreases along the Senegal river valley but increases towards the central parts of the country and in the Casamance and more so in Sédhiou. This shows a high probability of these value chains shifting form the current production areas which might lead to a decrease in production in the areas currently under production and consequently food insecurity. This calls for production consideration of these new areas.Senegal remains vulnerable to climatic shocks including natural hazards that are predicted to increase in magnitude and extent because of climate variability (Simonet and Jobbins, 2016).These hazards include droughts and floods, which recur seasonally, affecting livelihoods. Increasing precipitation and rising sea level pose a great risk to people living in coastal, urban areas, who account for approximately 67% of Senegal's population (Croitoru et al., 2019;USAID, 2011). Variation in the start of the growing season, meanwhile, increases the vulnerability of farmers who lack access to irrigation because they are unable to schedule the timing of cropping activities such as planting and harvesting. In assessing vulnerability, we mapped natural hazards as shown in Table 1 below.Droughts experienced in the 1970s and 1980s contributed to food insecurity in Senegal and the Sahel in general (USAID, 2017). Recent drought events in 2000 led to a 74% decline in groundnut revenues and diminished revenues for millet and sorghum by 60% (World Bank, 2011). More droughts occurred in 2002, affecting 284,000 people;in 2006/2007;and2011, affecting 806,000 people (WFP, 2013). Droughts in 2014, 2017, and in 2018 impacted 245,000 people (Bhaga et al., 2020).Floods, on the other hand, have become frequent due to increasing heavy rainfall events (USAID, 2017). Between 2000 and 2012, damages resulting from floods occurred in at least 8 years. In 2002, 179,000 people were affected;in 2008, 250,000 people;andin 2009, 360,000 people (WFP, 2013). The 2012 floods along the Senegal River and in low-lying areas of Greater Dakar affected over 265,000 people, exacerbating the flood-induced food security crisis of 2011/2012 (WFP, 2012). More recently, 2020 received higher-than-normal rainfall that led to flooding (ReliefWeb, 2020). In the absence of mitigation practices, consecutive floods and droughts can cause severe land degradation, worsening the crisis of food insecurity. Land degradation in Senegal is linked to the salinization of agricultural land, especially of rice paddies; water erosion that causes stripping and gullying; and to wind erosion that removes the surface layer of soils and destroys its potential for production (Sow et al., 2016).We extracted the data in raster format as an average for each arrondissement of Senegal and then normalized to a scale from 0 to 1. Senegal is subdivided into regions, which are further subdivided into departments and arrondissements. For each arrondissement, this data was later used to calculate vulnerability by applying equation 1. Figure 4 shows the spatial distribution of the six natural hazards considered: aridity, erosion, fire, flood, salinization, and waterlogging. Aridity affects the northern areas of Senegal, fire the southeastern areas, and erosion the central areas. Flooding and salinization are particularly impactful in the southwestern areas of Ziguinchor and Sedhiou and in areas close to the coast. Waterlogging is mostly experienced in the southern areas of Senegal, such as the Casamance, which also receives high levels of rainfall. Exposure to arid conditions is particularly acute in the north and less severe in the south.We calculated changes in temperature for the four scenarios to show the rate at which temperatures in Senegal are projected to increase (Figure 5). By the 2050s for RCP 4.5, temperatures are projected to increase slightly in eastern and southeastern Senegal, with the highest increase in Tambacounda Region. In some parts of Thiès and Louga Regions, temperatures will remain similar to the present conditions. Even greater temperature changes are projected under RCP 8.5 for the 2050s, particularly for the east, south, and southeastern areas of Senegal. Some arrondissements in Tambacounda Region will experience the greatest increases in temperature. Changes in temperature signify heat stress, which negatively impacts agriculture, particularly for livestock. Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of a system to prepare for climate stresses and changes in advance (Smit et al., 2003) or the ability to adjust and respond to the effects caused by climate change (IPCC, 2014). Increased adaptive capacity means better opportunities for systems to manage climate impacts of varying magnitudes (IPCC, 2012). For this vulnerability analysis, we gathered geospatial data on the variables that enhance adaptive capacity in Senegal (Table 2). We then normalized these variables so that 0 indicates lack of adaptive capacity and 1 corresponds to absolute adaptive capacity. For example, poverty was reciprocated so that a higher value shows low adaptive capacity.Variable DescriptionObtained by counting the total number of crops that are growing in each arrondissement. Crop distribution areas were taken from MapSPAM (You et al., 2017).The percentage of the population in each age group that can read and write. The adult literacy rate was obtained from the proportion of adults who had accessed primary education.The ratio of the number of children aged 0-14 years and older persons aged 65 years or above, to the working-age population between 15 and 64 years old (UN, 2006).Access to health care Distance to health care facilities (Maina et al., 2019).The institutional capital index relates to the \"governance index\", \"conflictuality index\", and \"environmental management index\" of an institution (ClimAfrica, 2014).Travel time to major cities is used as a measure of the accessibility to markets.The proportion of the population living in households below the international poverty line, where the average daily consumption or income per person is less than $1.25 a day measured at 2005 international prices adjusted for purchasing power parity.The percentage of children under 5 years old whose standard score (z-score) falls below -2 standard deviations from the median height-for-age according to the World Health Organization (WHO) Child Growth Standards.The percentage of children under 5 years old whose standard score (z-score) falls below -2 standard deviations from the median weight-for-height according to the WHO Child Growth Standards.The percentage of children under 5 years old whose standard score (z-score) falls above +2 standard deviations from the median weight-for-age according to the WHO Child Growth Standards.Technological capacity A combination of two underlying indexes: the \"household technology index\" and the \"infrastructure index\". Technological capacity is linked with the diffusion of basic life technology and infrastructure, is linked to transportation networks.Distance to the nearest water body. This variable represents access to irrigation and water for household consumption.Under-5 mortality Refers to the probability of dying between birth and exactly five years of age, expressed per 1,000 live births.Percentage of the population living with HIV per 1000 people.People experiencing insufficient food consumption. This variable is expressed as poor or borderline food consumption, according to the Food Consumption Score.Areas considered to have high potential for irrigation by their closeness to water sources, and areas with soils containing more clay are also more suitable for irrigation because clay improves soil's water holding capacity.Under-5 mortality from malaria infections.Access to electrical energy (Falchetta et al., 2019).Residual water irrigation potential Areas where water is predicted to remain on the soil longer after rainfall. This variable is estimated using data such as slope and soil's water-holding capacity, clay, and organic carbon content.Soil fertility Soil fertility index (Lu et al., 2002).Phone access Number of households owning a mobile phone.The indicators of adaptive capacity represented here varied greatly across Senegal's various regions and arrondissements. For instance, some arrondissements had very low adaptive capacity associated with poverty, but high adaptive capacity associated with crop diversification and access to hospitals, markets, and irrigable areas. Rates of stunting, underweight children, wasting, malaria, and poverty are generally high in the western parts of the country. In addition, access to health care, water, markets, and soil fertility are low in western areas. These variables improve in the east and toward Dakar. Regions around Dakar and Ziguinchor have lower rates of stunting, underweight children, and wasting, and better access to health care, water, and markets. These regions are also characterized by low poverty rates and higher levels of soil fertility. In comparison to western Senegal, eastern regions face high rates of HIV prevalence and low access to electricity (Figures 6a and 6b). By applying equation 1 using all the indicators for sensitivity, exposure, and adaptive capacity, we computed the vulnerability of the Senegalese agricultural sector to climate change. Our analysis focused on the future climate for RCP 4.5, an intermediate scenario that assumes partial implementation of the Paris Agreement, and RCP 8.5, the business-as-usual scenario, for the 2050s.Overall crop vulnerability in the 2050s under RCP 4.5 is greatest in the regions of Kaffrine, Tambacounda, Sedhiou, Kolda, and Kedougou, which are mainly in the central, southern, and southeastern parts of Senegal. There are also other specific arrondissements with high vulnerability elsewhere across the country (Figure 7a). On the other hand, vulnerability is lowest in areas near Dakar and Thiès. Some areas in the north, especially in the regions of Thiès and Louga, have lower vulnerability to climate change, probably because of the ease of access to markets, high technological and institutional capacity.For RCP 8.5 in the 2050s, vulnerability to climate change increases as compared to RCP 4.5 (Figure 7b) but remains higher in the regions of Kaffrine, Tambacounda, Sedhiou, Kolda, and Kedougou. Under RCP 8.5 for the 2050s, climate change will lead to increased vulnerability especially in the northeastern areas of Senegal on top of the areas that already have high vulnerability (Figure 7b). Vulnerability comparison between RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 show an increase in vulnerability for all regions of Senegal for RCP8.5 compared to RCP4.5 (Figure 8). This shows that in the RCP 8.5, which is an unlikely high-risk future, Senegal regions will be more vulnerable to the effects of climate change compared to RCP 4.5, which gives a more optimistic future. The highest increase in vulnerability is exhibited in the arrondissements of Sédhiou except one to the north while the lowest is seen in most arrondissements of Kedougou and Tambacounda. Other regions with lower increase in vulnerability include Zinguinchor, Kaolack, Fatick and Thiés.FIGURE 8: Vulnerability difference between RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 for 2050sIn the areas of greatest vulnerability, that is, the central, southern, and southeastern parts of Senegal, most of the crops under analysis faced a significant reduction in suitability. These areas also experience heightened poverty rates, limited access to health facilities, high rates of stunted, wasted, and underweight children, and elevated malaria mortality. In additions, these areas have limited access to markets, depressed literacy rates, significant food insecurity, and low technological capacity. However, these areas also promise the greatest opportunity for farming using irrigation and residual soil moisture.All nine crops under analysis are most vulnerable towards southeastern Senegal, in the regions of Tambacounda, Kaffrine, Sedhiou, Kolda, and Kedougou but with madd exhibiting a lower value of vulnerability compared to other value chains. In the north, baobab trees are slightly vulnerable. Okra is slightly vulnerable to the northwest; onion to the northeast and rice to the northeast along the Senegal river valley. Mangoes, madd and pepper are the least vulnerable crops in Senegal (Figure 9). This situation is attributed to heightened climatic variations in the east and south of Senegal that leads to overall declines in crop suitability. More than 70% of Senegal's population depend on agriculture, especially in the rural areas. With increasing youth populations, it is essential to empower young people with technical skills for profitable entrepreneurship and employment opportunities in agricultural value chains. The lack of economic opportunities is a key driver for outmigration in Senegal. Despite having about 1.5 million hectares of cultivated land and the potential to irrigate up to 240,000 hectares, at present the country irrigates only 10 percent of the cultivated area.The vulnerability assessment for the selected crops in Senegal is based on their sensitivity to climate change, exposure, and adaptive capacities. We identified drought, soil erosion, flooding, fires, salinization and waterlogging as the main natural hazards representing exposure to climate change in Senegal.The adaptive capacity of the farming population can be enhanced by boosting literacy rates; increasing access to educational institutions and health facilities; improving nutrition outcomes to reduce the rates of stunted, wasted, and underweight children; and developing marketing, transportation, and irrigation infrastructure. Priority areas for ameliorating crop vulnerability include the eastern, southern, and southeastern areas of Senegal, which encompass Kaffrine, Tambacounda, Sedhiou, Zinguinchor, Diourbel, Fatick, Kolda, and Kedougou Regions.Under climate change, there will be a decline in crop suitability for all the nine value chains especially in the regions to the south and the southeast of Senegal. There is also a notable shift in suitability for cashews, ditakh and madd towards the east and okra and onions towards the north. Various climate smart interventions will therefore be of most importance to reduce the effects of climate change on the selected value chains. Adoption of practices such as reforestation as well as technologies that increase crop cover and reduces erosion could enhance soil water retention. Other opportunities include irrigation and the harvesting of flood waters for cultivation.Agricultural interventions for improved nutrition including diversifying crops for healthier diets, increasing production for food and nutrition security and communication strategies to promote positive changes in knowledge, attitudes, norms, beliefs and behaviors will enhance the ability to adjust, cope or benefit from the expected climate variations across the country. ","tokenCount":"5569"}

data/part_6/0885203322.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"534803905f29e75cd82ac0c9ecdb8f3e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2fd4b539-8fb3-437d-91ff-93ebd9c81567/content","id":"497519225"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d7ce8cea-82ea-4b5c-8127-f7efc160b3e4","pagecount":"15","content":"Genomic prediction models have been commonly used in plant breeding but only in reduced datasets comprising a few hundred genotyped individuals. However, pedigree information for an entire breeding population is frequently available, as are historical data on the performance of a large number of selection candidates. The single-step method extends the genomic relationship information from genotyped individuals to pedigree information from a larger number of phenotyped individuals in order to combine relationship information on all members of the breeding population. Furthermore, genomic prediction models that incorporate genotype ´ environment interactions (G ´ E) have produced substantial increases in prediction accuracy compared with single-environment genomic prediction models. Our main objective was to show how to use single-step genomic and pedigree models to assess the prediction accuracy of 58,798 CIMMYT wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) lines evaluated in several simulated environments in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, and to predict the grain yield performance of some of them in several sites in South Asia (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) using a reaction norm model that incorporated G ´ E. Another objective was to describe the statistical and computational challenges encountered when developing the pedigree and single-step models in such large datasets. Results indicate that the genomic prediction accuracy achieved by models using pedigree only, markers only, or both pedigree and markers to predict various environments in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh is higher (0.25-0.38) than prediction accuracy of models that use only phenotypic prediction (0.20) or do not include the G ´ E term.G lobal wheat production is increasing by less than 1% annually and recently, wheat yields have stagnated in many regions of South Asia (Ray et al., 2012). In South Asia, the wheat crop is already being grown under high temperature conditions; however, because of climate change, temperatures could increase well beyond the optimal for growing wheat, which would further reducegrain yield. As a result, South Asian countries may not be able to meet the region's already growing demand for wheat grain.Well-managed crop improvement programs are necessary to increase food production in different parts of the world. Several molecular marker methods have proven their relevance in different cereal crops. Genomic selection (GS) is becoming a standard approach to achieving genetic progress in plants because it reduces the generation interval by reducing the need to have progeny field-tested every cycle. Breeding values can be predicted as the sum of the effects of all markers by regressing the values of the phenotypes on all markers (Meuwissen et al., 2001). Several authors have successfully implemented GS in plant breeding with intermediate to high density marker coverage for traits such as grain yield, biomass yield, resistance to several diseases, and flowering evaluated under different environmental conditions. Studies have demonstrated that some of the factors determining prediction accuracy in GS are the heritability of the trait, the number of markers, the size of the training population, the relationship between the training and the testing sets, and G ´ E (de los Campos et al., 2009;Crossa et al., 2010Crossa et al., , 2011;;Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2012;Burgueño et al., 2012;Hickey et al., 2012;González-Camacho et al., 2012;Riedelsheimer et al., 2012;Weber et al., 2012). Furthermore, including highdensity marker platforms with G ´ E interactions adds power to GS models (Burgueño et al., 2012;Jarquín et al., 2014;López-Cruz et al., 2015;Heslot et al., 2012).Recently, genomic predictions have been extensively studied in bread wheat using elite germplasm sets (de los Campos et al., 2009Campos et al., , 2010;;Crossa et al., 2010;González-Camacho et al., 2012;Heslot et al., 2012;Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2012;López-Cruz et al., 2015). The results have proven that the use of dense molecular markers coupled with pedigree information increases the prediction accuracy of unobserved phenotypes. One of the problems usually encountered by GS in animal and plant breeding is that the number of evaluated lines exceeds the number of genotyped lines, because of the genotypic costs. Nejati-Javaremi et al. (1997) were the first to propose incorporating genotypic information for predicting the breeding values of animals in a similar manner to the way pedigree information is used in the best linear unbiased predictor method. When the pedigrees of all phenotyped individuals were available but only some were genotyped, dairy cattle researchers (Misztal et al., 2009;Legarra et al., 2009;Aguilar et al., 2010Aguilar et al., , 2011;;Christensen et al., 2012) derived a unified (single-step) computation approach for Genomic Best Linear Unbiased Predictor (ssGBLUP) for combining phenotypic, pedigree, and genomic information based on Henderson's (1975Henderson's ( , 1976) ) standard mixed model equations. These authors augmented a pedigree-based relationship matrix (Matrix A) with contributions from a genomic relationship matrix (Matrix G) of the genotyped individuals. They showed how to modify the original Matrix A to obtain Matrix H, which includes not only the pedigreebased relationship matrix but also a matrix that contains the differences between genomic-based and pedigreebased matrices. These authors also developed efficient computer algorithms for inverting Matrix H computed from large numbers (millions) of animals in the data.Although augmenting Matrix A by using only a fraction of the individuals that were genotyped would reduce genotyping costs, the ssGBLUP method has not been extensively applied in plant breeding. Just recently, Ashraf et al. (2016) were the first to investigate the impact on prediction accuracy when some wheat lines were not genotyped and only pedigree and phenotype information was available; the authors concluded that the ssGBLUP method for deriving Matrix H can provide higher prediction accuracy than either genomic or pedigree-based prediction. In plants, the ssGBLUP approach proposed by Ashraf et al. (2016) has been used with a limited number of lines. The approach has not been tested on large datasets [e.g., CIMMYT's Global Wheat Program (GWP), which generates thousands of new breeding lines that are candidates for field evaluation every cropping cycle]. Applying GS in the GWP is economically feasible (i) when advancing breeding lines in the first preliminary yield trials to predict the performance of the selected lines in multienvironment trials or (ii) for predicting a selected set of lines in different international target environments using the parents evaluated in Mexico and the progeny to be predicted in international environments such as those in South Asia as a training set.In recent years, the GWP aimed to form a large reference dataset comprising 58,798 breeding lines, including the lines' phenotypic and pedigree data from the last seven cropping cycles in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, and South Asia. This large reference set contains complete phenotypic data and pedigree information; however, only 29,484 of the lines have been genotyped. Therefore, an H matrix that combines wheat lines that have molecular markers only with those that have pedigree and phenotype must be generated.The main objectives of this study were (i) to use the large reference set for predicting the performance of wheat lines in several environments in South Asia; and (ii) to perform predictions using phenotypic, pedigree, and genomic information to evaluate the wheat lines genetically using a single-step model that combines pedigree and marker information into a unified H matrix. Here, we used information for genotyped and nongenotyped individuals combined by applying the method proposed by Legarra et al. (2009) and Aguilar et al. (2010). Prediction accuracy was studied using a G ´ E interaction multiplicative model (the reaction norm model of Jarquín et al., 2014) with pedigree information (Matrix A), genomic information (Matrix G), or both (Matrix H) and comparing its prediction accuracy results with those of a genomic model that does not include the G ´ E interaction. This reaction norm model uses highly random dimensional matrices for the genomic and pedigree matrices. We also describe the statistical and computational challenges encountered when developing the pedigree and single-step models in such large datasets.The dataset included a total of 58,798 wheat lines that were evaluated at the Norman E. Borlaug Experiment Research Station in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, under various field management conditions (optimal, drought, late heat, severe drought, and early heat) during seven cycles (2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016). Some of the lines were also evaluated under the same conditions in South Asia (Jalbapur, Ludhiana, and Pusa in India; Faisalabad in Pakistan; and Jamalpur in Bangladesh) during 2013 to 2016. The original data from each year comprise a large number of trials, each established using an a-lattice design with three replicates. The field management conditions under which each trial was established in each year are described in Table 1. The condition-location combinations will be referred to as environments. Table 2 shows the number of lines evaluated in each environment.The basic model fitted to each of the 12 environments described in Table 2 comprises the random effects of the trials, the random effects of the replicates within trials, the random effects of the incomplete blocks within trials and replicates, and the random effects of the breeding lines.A pedigree relationship matrix (A) for the 58,798 individuals was computed using a modified version of the software 'pedigreemm' (Bates and Vazquez, 2009) that accounts for self-pollination; the latest version of the routines can be found at https://github.com/Rpedigree/ pedigreeR (accessed 5 Apr. 2017). Given the dimensions of A, it is difficult to hold it in random access memory (RAM) and compute it. Appendix A shows the small R script (R Core Team, 2016) that was used to obtain and store the relationship matrix. It uses results from partitioned matrices to obtain the results and speed up the computations; R was recompiled from the source and linked with OpenBLAS [http://www.openblas.net (accessed 5 Apr. 2017)]. For further details on the computations, see Appendix A. In total, 29,484 individuals were genotyped using genotyping-by-sequencing (e.g., Elshire et al., 2011). We kept all the single nucleotide polymorphism markers and imputed the missing values using observed data. Markers with a minor allele frequency of less than 0.05 were removed; after this process, 9045 markers were available for prediction.Recently, Jarquín et al. (2014) and López-Cruz et al. (2015) proposed statistical models for performing genomic predictions taking G ´ E into account. The models were originally developed to incorporate genetic information from molecular markers and, in the case of Jarquín's model, it is also possible to incorporate environmental covariates. Jarquín's model has also shown to be useful when the genetic information is obtained from a pedigree (Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2015). Here, we describe Jarquín's model based on genomic and pedigree information. To speed up the computations and make them feasible, we reparametrized the original model by using very well-known results from Cholesky decomposition and mixed models (e.g., Henderson, 1976;Harville and Callanan, 1989).The parametric G ´ E interaction model takes the main effect of environments (E), the main effect of genotypes and the interaction between genotypes and the environment into account. In matrix notation, the model can be written as: ~( , ( )#( )) MN u 0 Z GZ Z Z , where # denotes the Hadamard product (cell by cell) of the two matrices in parentheses (see Jarquín et al., 2014;Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2015). Finally, we assume that the residuals are distributed as follows:e MN e 0 I , where e is the residual error; MN is the multivariate normal, and I is the identity matrix.Since A is positive definite and symmetric, it can be factored asA LL by using Cholesky decomposition where Matrix L is a lower triangular matrix with positive diagonal entries and is usually named the Cholesky factor. Therefore, from Eq. [1]:where s * 2 1 u ~( , ) MN u 0 I . Furthermore, it is not necessary to calculate the Z g L product because for each row of the resulting matrix, we just need to copy the k th row of L, where k is the column in the i th row of Z g that is different from zero (i.e., Z g (i, k) = 1). The matrixZ Z is a block diagonal; blocks different from zero correspond to matrices with ones:) is a square matrix with ones whose dimensions correspond to the number of genotypes evaluated in environment j. Since# Z AZ Z Z , we just need to compute the corresponding block elements in the diagonal ofThe block diagonal elements of  A can be computed as follows:where , jj A corresponds to the relationship matrix for individuals evaluated in environment j. From Eq. [3] and Eq. [5] and by using Cholesky decomposition, the term# Z AZ Z Z can be obtained as follows:( ))whereTherefore, from Eq. [6], we obtain: Therefore, using the results from Eq. [2] and Eq. [7], Model 1 can be written as:Equation [1] and Eq. [8] are equivalent, but Eq. [8] has at least two advantages over Eq. [1]: (i) it avoids many matrix products and (ii) it can be implemented relatively easily using the well-known Gibbs sampler (Geman and Geman, 1984) in the Bayesian framework.Let W be a ǵ p matrix of standardized markers, where g is the number of genotyped individuals and p is the number of markers; letbe the genomic relationship matrix (López-Cruz et al., 2015). A model similar to Eq. [8] can be obtained by replacing A with G.Model 3: G ´ E Interaction Using Molecular Markers and Pedigree (Single-Step Approach)In this model, the information for genotyped and nongenotyped individuals is combined using the approach proposed by Legarra et al. (2009) and Aguilar et al. (2010). A relationship matrix that includes full pedigree and genomic information is given as:where the matrix is divided according to whether the individuals have been genotyped or not. Submatrices gg nn , A A , and gn A are submatrices of A containing the relationships among genotyped individuals, among nongenotyped individuals and between genotyped and nongenotyped individuals, respectively (Legarra et al., 2009;Christensen et al., 2012). G a is an adjusted relationship matrix obtained from the genomic relationship matrix given by López-where b and a are obtained by solving the following system of equations:where G a is a rescaled matrix such that: (i) the average of the diagonal elements is equal to the average of the diagonal elements of A gg , and (ii) the average of all the elements is equal to the average elements of A gg . See Christensen et al. (2012) for further details. Note that in this formulation based on H (and not its inverse), H does not need to be full rank.The Appendix shows the R code that allowed us to build Matrix H. A parametric G ´ E interaction model takes the effect of the environments, the main effect of genotypes and the G ´ E interaction into account. A model that uses information obtained from markers and pedigree can be obtained by replacing the A matrix in Model 1 with the Matrix H described above (Eq. [8]).Note that models that do not include the G ´ E term can be derived from Model 1 to Model 3 just by removing the corresponding random G ´ E term. For example, by removing the term u 2 representing the effect of G ´ E from Model 1 (Eq. [8]), it becomesIn this case, the resulting models are equivalent to the cross-environment genomic best linear unbiased predictor model of López-Cruz et al. (2015). We include models without the G ´ E term to compare the prediction accuracy of models with and without G ´ E interactions. The singleenvironment model was not included because all the wheat lines included in the prediction of South Asian environments had complete pedigree and markers, and thus developing Matrix H for the single-step model did not make sense.The main interest of breeders is to predict the performance of nonevaluated lines in South Asian sites (Jalbapur, Ludhiana, and Pusa in India; Faisalabad in Pakistan; and Jamalpur in Bangladesh). To mimic that situation, we designed a cross-validation scheme where we fitted the G ´ E models (Models 1-3) as well as models without G ´ E using all available records under drought, late heat, optimal, and severe drought conditions obtained in Ciudad Obregon (Mexico), and 20% of available records in each of the South Asian sites assigned at random as the training set. In the prediction process, 80% of lines in the corresponding sites in the South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) were predicted using the rest of the records. A total of 20 random partitions (such as the ones described above) were generated.The models' predictive abilities were compared by using Pearson's correlation coefficient. The models that used the A and H matrices included the phenotypic information of the 58,798 wheat lines, whereas the model that was based on markers only included information for 29,484 wheat lines that correspond to the individuals that were genotyped. The genotyped individuals were a subset of the individuals with pedigree information; therefore, lines in the testing set had pedigree and marker information. The numbers of individuals in the testing sets in South Asian sites were shown in Table 3, so in each random partition, the same individuals are predicted with three different models based on the A, G, and H matrices.The models described above were fitted using a modified version of the BGLR package (de los Campos and Pérez-Rodríguez, 2015). The package was modified to accept big.matrix objects created using the bigmemory package as input (Kane et al., 2013). The bigmemory package was used to handle the huge matrices that had to be used during the analysis and also to take advantage of what in computer science is known as \"shared memory\". Once loaded into RAM memory, the data can be accessed from several processors, making it possible to perform a crossvalidation relatively easily.Figure 1 shows a boxplot of grain yield per location and median yield per location. From the plot, it can be seen that the optimal conditions had the highest grain yield, whereas the late heat and severe drought conditions had the worst grain yield. Yields in South Asian environments, especially in Pakistan and Bangladesh, were usually lower than those in Mexican environments. Table 4 shows the number of lines evaluated in each environment and the number of lines in common between pairs of environments. It also shows sample correlations for grain yield for each pair of environments. The number of lines evaluated in common between pairs of environments ranged from 537 to 4735. The phenotypic sample correlation ranged from -0.05 to 0.53, which suggests large G ´ E effects.Figure 2 displays the distribution of the diagonal entries for Matrices A, H, and G. Note that in the A matrix, the diagonal entries are around ~1.5; in this case, ( ), where i F is the inbreeding coefficient of the i th individual. The diagonal entries of Matrix G are around 1.0, reflecting the fact that the markers were centered and standardized. The diagonal entries of Matrix H are around 1.5, which stems from standarding G to be on the same scale as A.Table 4 shows the phenotypic correlations between pairs of environments. For example, the phenotypic correlation of the 4062 wheat lines in common between the environment with the bed planting with five irrigations at Obregon and the bed planting with two irrigations at Obregon is 0.156, whereas the phenotypic correlation of the 1537 wheat lines in common between the bed planting with five irrigations at Obregon and standard management conditions at Pusa, India, is 0.210. In general, the phenotypic correlations were not high, ranging from -0.051 to 0.481.  Table 5 shows the average Pearson's correlations between observed and predicted phenotypes and their corresponding SD for the model without G ´ E. The average correlations come from 20 random partitions with all the data records available in Mexico and 20% of the data available in South Asia. Note that these are the predictions for 80% of the entries included in the six South Asian environments. The prediction accuracies are relatively low, with those based on pedigree being slightly higher than those based on markers or on both pedigree and markers.Table 6 shows the average Pearson's correlations between the observed and predicted phenotypes and the corresponding standard obtained using the same cross-validation scheme described above but including the G ´ E Table 5. Correlations (plus SD in parentheses) between predicted and observed values obtained by using the cross-validation where all the wheat lines from Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, plus 20% of the wheat lines in each of the environments in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh were used in the training set to predict 80% of the lines in the corresponding environments in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh for models without genotype ´ environment effects (G ´ E).  term. The predictive ability of models based on pedigree, markers, and pedigree + markers is about the same, with pedigree prediction accuracy being higher than genomic and pedigree + genomic prediction accuracy in four environments (delayed planting at Faisalabad, standard management at Faisalabad, standard management at Jamalpur, and standard conditions at Pusa). Ludhiana and Faisalabad under standard management conditions (0.3785, 0.2455, respectively) were the best predictive models for the genomic and pedigree + genomic model, respectively.Figure 3a-c shows scatterplots of the predictive correlations for each of the 20 cross-validations across the six environments in South Asia. Figure 3a depicts the correlations between predicted values based on markers (Matrix G) versus those based on Matrix H and shows that the prediction accuracy based on Matrix G was superior to that obtained based on H. Figure 3b displays the correlation based on markers (Matrix G) versus that obtained based on pedigree (Matrix A), where the prediction based on pedigree seems slightly better than that based on Matrix H (Fig. 3c).Table 7 shows the percentage of change in the prediction accuracy of models with and without G ´ E. The percentage of change was calculated as:where G×E r is the Pearson's correlation for a model with the G ´ E term and no G×E r is the Pearson's correlation for a model without the G ´ E term. From the results in Table 7, it is clear that models that include the G ´ E term predict better than those that do not include G ´ E. For example, the G ´ E model using Matrix H gave a 66% increase in prediction accuracy compared with the model using Matrix H but without G ´ E.Figure 4 presents a bar plot of correlations for each predicted environment in South Asia using the H matrix. Black bars represent the mean of the weighted phenotypic correlation of a given environment and the rest of the environments in Table 4. The phenotypic correlation for environment j in South Asia can be obtained as follows:where = ¼ 1, ,6 j (environments in South Asia) andrepresents the set of environments in South Asia and Mexico excluding environment j, n jk corresponds to the number of lines in common between environments j and k, = å j jk k n n , and r jk is the phenotypic correlation between environments j and k. As an example, Table 8 presents the information needed to compute the weighted correlation for the environment with delayed planting at Faisalabad; the columns present the information needed to compute the weighted correlation (note that this information was obtained from Table 4). The rest of the correlations were obtained by using the approach described above. The gray bars represent the means of the correlations between the observed and predicted values obtained from cross-validations. Note that in general, the G ´ E models gave good predictions, usually better than those from the phenotypic correlations.Although we predicted 80% of the records in each of the South Asian environments, the correlations are higher than the phenotypical correlations between a given environment and the rest of the environments.In wheat breeding, the cost of genotyping thousands of plants in segregating populations or in advanced generations makes the application of GS unfeasible. One possibility for solving this problem would be to augment the numerical relationship Matrix (A) of all individuals with the genomic relationship matrix (G) of the genotyped individuals and to perform predictions based on the resulting complete Matrix H, which would allow us to predict nongenotyped individuals in the testing set. Augmenting Matrix A by using only a fraction of the genotyped individuals would reduce genotyping costs. Furthermore, as described by Christensen et al. (2012), the single-step method allows the genomic relationship matrix of genotyped individuals to be extended using pedigree information to a combined relationship Matrix H of all individual plants or lines. This allows one to use all phenotypic data and not merely data from phenotypes that have pedigree and marker information; this extra phenotypic information should also enhance prediction Table 7. Comparison of the predictive ability of models with and without genotype ´ environment effects (G ´ E).-----------% change † -------   6 using Matrix H. Black bars represent the weighted mean of the phenotypic correlation of a given environment and the rest of environments in Table 4; for example, for DPL_FAS, the weighted correlation can be obtained by using the data shown in Table 8. FAS, Faisalabad, Pakistan; JAM, Jamalpur, Bangladesh; JBL, Jabalpur, India; LDH, Ludhiana, India; OBR, Obregon, Mexico; PUS, Pusa, India; STN, standard management conditions; DLP, delayed planting conditions.accuracy. This makes the models and methods developed by Misztal et al. (2009), Legarra et al. (2009) and Aguilar et al. (2010;2011) very attractive for predicting unobserved and nongenotyped plants.In a recent article, Fernando et al. (2014) proposed a single-step Bayesian regression strategy that allows the use of all genotyped and nongenotyped individuals by means of imputed marker covariates for nongenotyped individuals. The advantage of the Bayesian approach over the single-step best linear unbiased predictor is that it does not require one to compute the inverse of G. However, this model has not yet been applied to realistic datasets.The single-step approach of Misztal et al. (2009), Legarra et al. (2009) and Aguilar et al. (2010;2011) was used in dairy cattle studies and first applied to plant breeding data by Ashraf et al. (2016) in a set of 1176 genotyped CIMMYT wheat lines and 11,131 nongenotyped wheat lines tested in five environments in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, during the 2012-2013 cycle. We developed optimized weighting factors for Matrix H and applied a multivariate method for assessing G ´ E and found that the prediction accuracy of the single-step H matrix was higher than the accuracies achieved using the A and G matrices. The present study used seven selection cycles of CIMMYT wheat breeding with a total of 58,798 wheat lines evaluated in Ciudad Obregon and predicted several wheat lines in South Asian environments (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh).From the results in Table 5 to Table 7, it is clear that models that include the G ´ E term predict the environments in South Asia better than models that do not include the G ´ E term. The gain in the prediction accuracy of models that include G ´ E ranges from 16 to 90% with an average of 40%. However, models that do not incorporate G ´ E but use pedigree or high-density molecular markers, or both are still superior in terms of prediction accuracy than those that use phenotypic data only.In this study, we assessed the prediction accuracy of a large number of wheat lines evaluated in several environments and years in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, and predicted lines in several South Asian environments. For Ludhiana, Pusa, and Jabalpur, about 1227 wheat lines were predicted on the basis of the performance of these lines in six environments in Ciudad Obregon plus the performance of about 57,000 wheat lines related to those to be predicted (1227) and evaluated in previous years in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico.Prediction accuracy was the correlation between the predicted values of the lines in Ciudad Obregon plus a low proportion of them (20%) in six environments in South Asia using three G ´ E models (those using Matrices A, G, and H) with the observed values of 80% of the lines in the six environments in South Asia (which were not phenotyped). The correlations for all the environments were around 0.25 to 0.27, except for Ludhiana in India, which showed higher prediction accuracy (0.36-0.37). These genomic prediction accuracies were higher than the prediction accuracies computed from the common phenotypic correlations between all pairs of environments. These results indicated that the prediction accuracy with which breeders make selections in Ciudad Obregon, Mexico, is lower than the accuracy they could obtain by performing genomic selection and prediction. Although wheat breeders expect that lines selected in Ciudad Obregon will perform well in South Asian environments, the results of this study should prompt them to increase research on genomic selection in Ciudad Obregon (a very stable site with high radiation) of candidates for selection that will perform well in several environments in different South Asian countries (India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh).The prediction accuracy of models with Matrices A, G, and H for models with or without G ´ E did not change much. This is an important result that allows, through the use of Matrix H, one to use all phenotypic data to predict the genetic values of the unobserved wheat lines, thereby avoiding having to use only a subset of the phenotypes of lines with pedigree data n 1 = 15,448 r 1 = 0.18 † k = 1,…,11 represents the environments, r 1 represents the weighted phenotypic correlation for Environment 1 in South Asia (i.e. Faisalabad), and n 1 is the total of the column labeled as n jk . ‡ FAS, Faisalabad, Pakistan; JAM, Jamalpur, Bangladesh; JBL, Jabalpur, India; LDH, Ludhiana, India; PUS, Pusa, India; STN, standard management conditions; DLP, delayed planting; B5I, bed planting and five irrigations; B2I, bed planting and two irrigations; MEL, Melgas flat planting; DRB, bed planting and drip irrigation; EHT, early heat; LHT, late heat and another subset of phenotype data from lines with marker data only. The single-step method for computing Matrix H allows the inclusion of both components of the breeding value to be predicted: the parental average or between-family variability captured by the pedigree and the Mendelian sample component (or with family variability) accounted for the by markers.Big Data Used to Derive Pedigree and Combine it with Markers into the Single-Step Prediction Method with a G ´ E Model So far, no studies using plant breeding data on more than 50,000 lines have been reported in the GS literature. This is the first study to show that large training populations can provide genomic predictions that are more precise than phenotypic predictions. This is the first time that the theory used to develop and implement the pedigree system for such a large number of lines has been reported in plant breeding. Although the models used for prediction are now well known, from the computational and statistical points of view, it is necessary to develop algorithms and data structures that allow researchers to handle the data and fit the models efficiently.In this study, we used the G ´ E reaction norm model on a large dataset in conjunction with pedigree, markers, or both, in GS and prediction. We compared models including and excluding G ´ E. In the genomic prediction literature, there are plenty of examples where including those interactions significantly improved the prediction accuracy of untested individuals. The single-step method that combines the use of pedigree and markers through Matrix H allows the use of all the available information. Also, the reaction norm G ´ E model allows us to swap information among positively correlated environments, although the predictive power of the model was similar to that of the model that included markers only. Ashraf et al. (2016) used the single-step H approach on a set of 11,131 nongenotyped and 1176 genotyped wheat lines.Animal breeders make extensive use of the fact that the relationship Matrix A has a very sparse inverse that can be computed directly from the pedigree, if all individuals (including those with no phenotype) are included (Henderson, 1976(Henderson, , 1977)). This results in a sparse -1 H structure as well (Aguilar et al., 2010;Christensen and Lund, 2010), with a storage cost that is quadratic in the number of genotyped individuals but is only linear in the number of nongenotyped individuals. These sparse inverses exist for any level of autopolyploid species (Kerr et al., 2012) and could potentially be used for prediction with large data sets. However, this would preclude the use of Cholesky decomposition as used in Eq. [8].This study shows how to solve statistical and computational challenges when incorporating and combining high-dimensional pedigree and genomic matrices into a single-step model for predicting unobserved individuals in other environments. We found that the genomic prediction of genotyped and nongenotyped wheat lines produces higher prediction accuracy than that of lines predicted from phenotypic data. The results provide evidence that the single-step approach that combines pedigree and marker information is useful for reducing genotyping costs while maintaining the prediction accuracy of unobserved individuals at relatively intermediate levels. The incorporation of G ´ E models using a combination of pedigree and genomic information is another way of increasing the prediction accuracy of unobserved candidates for selection and offers plant breeders an important alternative for predicting germplasm evaluated under different environmental conditions.This script computes relationship Matrix A. Inputs:(1) A text file with pedigree information for the individuals that we are interested in. The file should have three columns separated by tabs, ID (the identification number of the individual), Sire (male parent), and Dam (female parent).(2) A text file with the individuals that we are interested in.Output: The relationship matrix.To speed up the computations, we used dense partitioned matrixes and linked R with OpenBLAS (http://www. openblas.net, accessed 5 Apr. 2017). At the end of the process, the relationship matrix was also stored as a partitioned matrix on hard disk in binary R format (RData). Below, we detail the steps used to build the matrix.Step colnames(a)=c(\"Mparent\",\"FParent\",\"ID\") a=a[!duplicated(a),] cat(\"nrow=\",nrow(a),\"\\n\") cat(\"selfing=\",sum(a[,1]==a[,2]),\"\\n\") #Read the ids of individuals with phenotypic records ids=scan(\"GIDsForUSAIDprediction_20160406.csv\") ids=as.character(ids) pede=editPed(sire=a$MParent,dam=a$FParent,label=a$I D,verbose=TRUE) ped=with(pede, pedigree(label=label, sire=sire, dam=dam))Now use the relfactor function for the pedigree, that is:where X full is an upper triangular, sparse (right) Cholesky factor of the relationship matrix. In this case, X full is a matrix with n = 177,376 rows and the same number of columns. The code for obtaining the relfactor is given below.Xfull=relfactor(ped)We do not need A full ; we just need a subset of this matrix with the 58,798 individuals so we can take a subset of 58,798 columns from X full . The columns correspond to the individuals that we are interested in. Let X be the resulting matrix; we then have = A X'X , where X has n = 177,376 rows and p = 58,798 columns. The R code for obtaining this matrix is shown below.Step 2: Partition the Relationship Factor Since X is a huge matrix, it is very difficult to obtain A directly; furthermore, since X is sparse, the product cannot be parallelized easily. We then partitioned X into several submatrices and saved the submatrices as binary files that can later be retrieved in order to obtain the product. For example: where X ij is a submatrix obtained from X.The R code below was used to partition matrix X into five submatrices and save the results to binary files. ) cat(\"Submatrix: \",i,\" \",j,\"\\n\"); cat(\"from_row: \",from_row,\"\\n\"); cat(\"to_row: \",to_row,\"\\n\"); cat(\"from_column: \",from_column,\"\\n\"); #Conventional matrix object so that we can use #optimized dense matrix products Xij=as.matrix(X[from_row:to_row,from_column:to_ column]) save(Xij,file=paste(\"X_\",i,j,\".RData\",sep=\"\")) } }Step 3: Compute the Relationship Matrix using the Partitioned Matrices from Step 2 Given the partition of the relationship factor, we can compute the Matrix A as follows:where: A X X X X X X X X X X ,[A4]Note that now we need to calculate several products of matrices. There are optimized libraries that can be used for this task. For example, in R, we can recompile the program so that we can use OpenBLAS. Details are given at http://www.openblas.net/ (accessed 5 Apr. 2017) and http://www.rochester.edu/college/psc/thestarlab/help/ moreclus/BLAS.pdf (accessed 5 Apr. 2017). We recompiled R version 3.2.3 (R Core Team, 2016) in order to use OpenBLAS so it can perform matrix operations in parallel. The next fragment of code obtains Matrix A 11 using the partitioned matrices. rm(list=ls()) n_submatrix=5 A11=matrix(0,nrow=25000,ncol=25000) for(i in 1:n_submatrix) { cat(\"i=\",i,\"\\n\") load(paste(\"X_\",i,\"1.RData\",sep=\"\")) A11=A11+crossprod(Xij); } save(A11,file=\"A11.RData\")The rest of the matrices can be obtained similarly. With this approach and by using eight cores for the matrix product, we obtained the 58,798 ´ 58,798 Matrix A in less than 3 hr in the CIMMYT-BSU server, which has 12 Intel Xeon Cores (Intel, Santa Clara, CA) @ 3.47 GHz and ~ 48 Gb of RAM.The script presented below computes the relationship Matrix H that includes full pedigree and genomic information (see equation 4 in Legarra et al., 2009). It adjusts the elements of genomic relationship Matrix G, so that the entries of the relationship Matrix A share the same scale (Christensen et al., 2012). Inputs: 1) Matrices A and G. The row and column names of both matrices include the identification numbers of the individuals.Output:1) Matrix H. ","tokenCount":"6130"}