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data/part_1/0010880008.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ac66f223172c36e7725aa8adf18c6e6b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c80afbb5-c030-47f7-a3d1-cc326f2023c2/retrieve","id":"489323714"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"44bf0635-456f-4e6d-bf81-d1d05e599da5","pagecount":"10","content":"In 2010, Myanmar re-entered the global scene after 22 years of isolation (Jones, 2014;ADB, 2014). Since then, the country has been changing at a rapid pace as a result of ongoing political and economic reforms (Kattelus et al. 2014;IISS, 2011;International Crisis Group, 2012). These reforms are opening new opportunities for Myanmar and foreign investors and international donors have lined up to take part in Myanmar's transformation, resulting in steady economic growth 1 . One area of especially rapid growth is the hydropower sector, which is driven by high-energy demands in the region and is increasing pressure on Myanmar's water resources (IEA, 2015;Kattelus et al. 2014).While Myanmar boasts an abundance of water resources, spatial and temporal distribution is highly uneven, resulting in water scarcity and desertification in the central dry-zone, floods and salinization issues in the Ayeyarwady Delta and flash floods in the North and Western parts of Myanmar. Deforestation due to illegal logging causes erosion and sedimentation in rivers and reservoirs, the former causing problems for navigation. Myanmar's climate is strongly influenced by the Indian Monsoon circulation (Taft and Evers, 2016). Variability and a change in patterns such as intensification of pre-monsoon tropical cyclones, early termination of monsoons, the increase in average rainfall in most areas and a declining trend in other areas are expected to aggravate flood events and drought periods (Wang et al. 2013;Shrestha and Aung Ye Htut, 2016).Water management in Myanmar is scattered across ministries and departments resulting in an overlap of responsibilities in some sectors, while others remain neglected (OECD, 2014). Gaps in institutional resources affect Myanmar's capacity to implement and enforce effective laws and regulations (SEI, 2015). Water resources are managed ad hoc, with no clear long-term planning and the hierarchical structure of ministries and departments results in little or no cooperation or policy integration. Decisions have to move up and down the hierarchical ladder resulting in delays in planning and implementation (Myanmar government official, personal communication, February 2016).In the National Water Policy adopted in 2014, the government called for an Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach to face these and future problems that will arise as a direct result of the country's development (Myanmar National Water Policy, 2014). IWRM can be defined as \"a process that promotes the co-ordinated development and management of water, land and related resources to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems\" (GWP, 2009). How this concept is understood in Myanmar and what principles of IWRM are considered important is not yet clear.As part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems in the Greater Mekong, researchers proposed a framework consisting of four constructs considered important parameters that can indicate the extent of IWRM implementation in a river basin: policy integration, public participation, gender inclusion, and adaptivity. The Q-methodology was used to identify perceptions among stakeholders comprising 31 participants from union, regional, and local governments, NGOs, academics, and the private sector. Four distinguishing viewpoints and narratives emerged. Results showed that institutional arrangements and mechanisms for public participation require greater attention for successful implementation of IWRM in Myanmar.An important principle of the participatory approach to development is the incorporation of local people's knowledge into program planning (Cooke and Kothari, 2001). Participation is expected to enhance the effectiveness of water resources management (Özerol and Newig, 2008), and to involve and empower local communities. Critical scholars, such as Cleaver (1999:608) suggest that \"participation has been translated into a managerial exercise based on 'toolboxes' of procedures and techniques\" and to achieve the intrinsic value of participation, appropriate techniques are needed to ensure real involvement in decision-making. Fung (2006:66) states that appropriate techniques or \"mechanisms for public participation vary along three important dimensions: who participates, how participants communicate with one another and make decisions together, and how discussions are linked with policy or public action\". These are questions that need to be addressed to find successful mechanisms for Myanmar, where a governance system with space for participation has been absent for decades and where participation is not a matter of course.In 2014, the World Bank granted a loan of USD 100 million to the Myanmar government for the implementation of the Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBMP). The project aims to strengthen integrated, climate resilient water management in the Ayeyarwady River Basin through a multi-phased approach (AIRBMP, 2014). This project provides the opportunity for Myanmar to manage its water resources according to IWRM principles. In line with the adoption of the IWRMbased national water policy by the Myanmar government, a national water law is in preparation and Myanmar now has to determine what they value and understand as 'good' IWRM practice to translate policy into nation-wide practical plans.The WLE research project examined perceptions of four constructs underlying IWRM, policy integration, public participation, gender inclusion, and adaptivity among people responsible for the implementation of future water management plans in Myanmar.The assumption is that perceptions of these constructs are an indication of how likely it is that IWRM principles will be adopted in water management plans. Policy integration is expected to be challenging in a context where rigid hierarchical structures are the norm (UNDP, 2015) and effective public participation is expected to pose challenges. With regards to compliance with Goal 6.5 of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs), Akkerman et al. (2015) recognize that practical approaches on how to measure the extent to which water management plans follow principles of IWRM are rare.The Q-methodology is a mixed-method approach for the systematic study of beliefs, and attitudes (Work et al. 2015: Brown, 1993;Van Exel and De Graaf, 2005). Based on quantitative factor analysis, the Q-methodology does not require a large sample (Raadgever et al. 2008;Watts and Stenner, 2005) and involves the analyses of ranked statements (the Q-set) about IWRM onto a grid according to a quasi-normal distribution. To identify perceptions, semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Myanmar officials working in the water sector at national and local level along with an examination of government reports, policies, reports from NGOs and international development and financial institutions. Initially, 87 statements were developed of which 41 formed the final Q-set. The sample was composed of 12 national government officials, three regional government officials, two local government officials, four academics, six NGOs and four participants from the private sector. Approximately half the sample were women.Q-sorting of the 87 statements started with a short introduction to the research topic, an explanation of the procedure and the assurance of anonymity. The participants then received cards with the statements, which they classified as agree, disagree or neutral. The statements are then arranged from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree. The exercise concluded with an interview to explore participants' reasons for their distribution.The complete analysis (Van Dorp et al., n.d.) provides detail on viewpoints regarding the four constructs (policy integration, public participation, gender inclusion, and adaptivity). Of particular interest is the consensus among the participants on 13 statements. For example, one statement is related to policy integration: \"Data should only be available for the ministries and departments, not to the public\", was strongly rejected by all four viewpoints. Reasons mentioned by participants included statements such as: \"A country is composed of people and the government so data should not be only for the government. It has to be shared with the public. They have the right\" and \"We cannot make any research without data. \"There was also consensus on statements regarding public participation (e.g. \"Local people know the local water system and should therefore be consulted\"). Reasons given included \"In the delta area, people know when the tide will come and the water level increases. They know more than us sometimes\" and \"In the past, if the government does a project they never do public consultation. The public does not know what is planned and people cannot express their feelings because they are not consulted. They have no choice. In the future, this must change\".The consensus statements on gender reflect different viewpoints, some negative (\"Women are too busy to manage the household and should not be burdened with water management decisions\") and some more promising (\"Women and men have same chances and in Myanmar women can participate in the water management sector so they are not excluded. There isn't any rule for women to be excluded from water management\").Consensus statements indicate an awareness of potential impacts of climate change and land use changes (\"Sometimes we cannot pump groundwater for drinking water supply, I think that is due to climate change; climate change adaptations in livelihoods is part of our projects for five years. I see that there are more organizations getting involved: deforestation, urbanization and mining are important land use changes in Myanmar. There is a lot of sedimentation in the river due to mining and deforestation, and also pollution from mercury. We have to dredge a lot because of that\").Other positive signs are that participants believed that ministries should work together to reduce climate change impacts, a general consensus that planning should cover more than 10 years in the future, all water management plans should incorporate climate change scenarios, and government should inform citizens more about possible climate change impacts.The detailed analysis of viewpoint by factor (A to D) and construct is provided by Van Dorp et al. (n.d.).Further study is needed to understand perceptions of IWRM throughout all states and regions, with specific attention to ethnic minorities. Because the Q-methodology uses a small-sample size, a different method might be better suited, such as focus group discussions and structured interviews. The statements did not cover transboundary issues, which, from a current Union perspective, are minimally addressed. With increasing federalization of the country, however, transboundary issues will become of more importance in Myanmar.Policy integration and cooperation within and between ministries is limited, resulting in long decision-making processes, inefficiencies, and delays in the implementation of plans. With the new government, however, participants expect this to change quickly. The present organizational culture characterized by segregated departments and ministries makes it challenging for projects such as the Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project (AIRBMP) to adopt IWRM principles. An important aspect is the absence of data-sharing between ministries. Making policies with insufficient or unreliable data is already difficult, let alone integrating policies when information is not shared.There are discussions about whether the Ayeyarwady River Basin should have a river basin organisation, or whether a new ministry should be established for natural resources management. These institutional arrangements are important aspects of IWRM. Participants believe that regional governments should have more responsibility for decision-making. Increasing responsibilities would also change the hierarchical structure that is widely seen as an obstacle to integration. In addition, there is an urgent need for expert knowledge and capacity building. Cooperation between ministries and sharing knowledge is one key aspect of policy integration. Most government officials with water management tasks are engineers. Considering possible impacts on fish populations or local livelihoods as a result of closing off a tributary is not necessarily something they are trained to include in their calculations. Whether a more holistic approach advocated by IWRM can be successful depends to a large extent on cooperation between ministries and departments and, most of all, the sharing of knowledge and data. The results of this study show a consensus on the need to involve citizens in water management decisions. Questions remain about who should participate, and how outcomes are linked with policy or public action.The results related to gender inclusion show that women did not feel excluded from decision-making. Participants agreed with the statement that \"the man is head of the household\", suggesting that while Myanmar has a traditional family structure, men are not perceived as being more capable of making water management decisions than women. Some participants who confirmed that while women are excluded when it comes to higher positions in government, within the family they are equal.Policy integration and public participation are perceived as the two topics with the widest divergence of viewpoints among the four constructs. Seven of the 13 Q-set consensus statements concern adaptivity, suggesting this construct is perceived similarly among the participants. Statements regarding adaptivity systematically scored high, indicating that it is believed to be an important part of water management in Myanmar. All plans should incorporate climate change scenarios and the government has a major responsibility to inform its citizens about possible climate change impacts.Four distinct 'viewpoints' and related narratives were identified as part of the Q-methodology. Those holding Viewpoint One have strong beliefs about policy integration and believe that decision-making power should be more equally divided among government levels, and that only full cooperation will lead to effective and sustainable water management. Those expressing Viewpoint Two believe that decentralization is important for IWRM and emphasize the importance of the role that women play in water management. Viewpoint Three holders believe that public participation is empowering for vulnerable groups, although they also have strong opinions about gender equality. Viewpoint Four distinguishes itself from the others through the belief that future land use change is more important than climate change. People who hold this viewpoint believes this topic as important for future water management in Myanmar. Climate change receives a lot of attention, which can be partly attributed to donors' focus on climate change.The findings suggest that Myanmar water professionals are open to aspects of the IWRM approach to water management, with special interest in policy integration and cooperation and public participation. Ongoing projects such as the Ayeyarwady Integrated River Basin Management Project will provide further knowledge on the extent these ambitions can be implemented, given the current organizational structure in the water sector as well as limited experience with public participation.","tokenCount":"2274"}

data/part_1/0012049669.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"eeb45ffad9ef6a7d7e9a36766072f80f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/242e4f78-9c0e-4591-b266-abbd49714155/retrieve","id":"-1854297490"},"keywords":["Planning","training workshops","facilitation"],"sieverID":"0a2f59ad-f9ab-4443-a6bd-907990d18846","pagecount":"4","content":"Cover Field visits helped participants complete the process, providing a lot of information I was there with two other members of the PROMER project in Mozambique: like all other participants, we brought a \"success story\" with us. Following what we were told before the meeting, we were ready to \"learn how to align and refine a text.\" We had not realised that the purpose of the workshop was to learn about an approach that can help us avoid future mistakes. Perhaps if we had known, we'd have raised other questions.We were sure that we had completed what we had to do, until the tables that the facilitators shared forced us to look at what had gone wrong in our project. Guided by their step-by-step explanations, we started to focus on what had really happened -and soon saw that the tables were showing something rather different from what we had in our original texts. When we first started writing we did not consider everything we saw in the field, we never got beyond the positive things. So we left our texts aside and started new onessomehow feeling that we had wasted some time.The objectives of a capitalization process, and the materials that participants had to bring along were unclear; most participants (or their superiors) understood different things. And the first four days did not help to clarify it completely. The documents we got describing the methodology contained words that generated confusion. We could have escaped these misconceptions by avoiding terms like \"success stories\". Looking back, we should have given this workshop a different name. In a capitalization process we analyse what was planned and went well, together with all those steps which were planned and did not have positive results, leading to lessons that can be used in the future. This is why I think that words like \"learning\" and \"sharing\" should have been highlighted.Finding the time to write between the two workshops was an enormous challenge as we are all under a heavy work pressure. Some of the participants thought that it could have been better to start working individually, converting the tables we had all filled in into a first draft text during the first workshop. I have no answer to this; all I have are some scenarios to consider. But I do think that it would have been very useful for us to try to do this before the end of the first week -either individually or working in groups -and then to start the second workshop with the same exercise. We could have done this in the same way as we worked at the end of our second workshop in Maputo, when we had a \"conversation round\" which was very effective. Between the two workshops, participants could have looked for more information and improved the first drafts we made.The planning process of a new capitalization exercise should start by looking in detail at the exercise we just completed. Now, if I am to reconstruct our participation in the experience capitalization workshop in Maputo, I have to start by saying that during the first few days it was very difficult to see what we were doing, or to see what we had to do.When I came back from the workshop, I had the opportunity to share the capitalization tools we got with my colleagues at the Monitoring & Evaluation department, and also with and some technicians. These tools have made it easier for us to write \"success stories\" (all our quarterly and annual reports must include at least one of them), but to do it in a better way. We used to do it in an ambiguous way, with no structure ... but by using the tables that the facilitators recommended we are able to position ourselves, focusing on what is it that we want to do, why do we want to do it, who do we want to include -and who will be the readers of each story. The different examples that we brought from the workshop and that we shared with our colleagues really helped the whole staff to understand and to learn.Equipped with this knowledge, we promoted an \"exchange of experiences\" session between members of a cooperative of traders that had seen a lot of success in facilitating marketing links, and other traders outside the programme. These traders have serious problems with some foreigner merchants, who buy directly from the producers on their own farm. Very often, these small players work with large companies, but work without a government license. The problem is that they distort the market. Sometimes the maize has not even dried yet and they are already trying to buy it -for great discomfort of the large traders who want a long-lasting and more efficient relationship with the communities.At the same time, it may be worth considering having a five-day workshop to fit all this, or it could also be good to reduce the theoretical presentations during a four-day programme. In my view, the learning process would be more efficient if one would start with one of the cases brought to the workshop, linking the presentations made by the facilitators to it in a better way.But we can also look at the specific sessions. The individual talks we all had with the facilitators (in what we called both \"the kitchen\" or \"the bar\"), helped us to focus on our case, and to formulate the key ideas that made it worth sharing. On the other hand, the \"campfire\" session was also very useful, as it brought everybody together. This was the moment when the facilitators encouraged us to share our own ideas, and when we learned about the other projects/ programmes that were being capitalised. I am sure that this interaction made us all ready for a future exchange of ideas and information: the ice was broken.A very positive aspect of the whole process was that the facilitators were Portuguese speakers -the participants were unanimous about it. Most workshops -where large resources are invested, like in this one -are offered in English. But in English, this workshop would have never had the same impact. Since it was in our own language, we are already disseminating the lessons we drew.Facilitation has to start long before the workshop, whereas at the workshop we create together a new body of knowledge -and political impact.this mandate. The space to manoeuvre for our team is limited, as it seeks information, evaluates it and then delivers to those who have the decision-making power. Playing on less favourable outcomes is quite sensitive.Only managers can decide how they want to get the information and to whom it should be sent: dissemination as such has both a technical and a political cost. Therefore, the selection of the case to be analysed should also be taken by the project managers. This is not to say that they would be on their own. We need to include those who know what was planned at the project level, what went well, and what went wrong. But in the end, it is the project managers who have to make sure that the capitalization seeds fall in fertile soils.We recorded together how they were operating before, and how the cooperative regained control of the market. It was a practical adaptation of the capitalization tables. Both my colleagues and myself realised that to speak exclusively of one aspect at a time has a strategic, persuasive effect. The traders \"saw\" that they have had marketing problems, and recognised how, with the support of the government, they were able to work together and overcome these difficulties. Now we are already working on a report of this experience. We hope that a district manager, or perhaps someone working for the government, will read our report and realise that the situation has been controlled and that this is an approach which is worth repeating.Our own \"experiment\" with the capitalization approach showed another important point to consider when starting and facilitating such a process: the choice of participants. For me, an experience capitalization process should be run by the project coordinators, or by those who are responsible for the management of the programmes that they have to disseminate later. A monitoring officer does not have Edson Natha works in Nampula, Mozambique, for PROMER, Programa de Promoção de Mercados Rurais. His article, \"Alfabetização funcional\", was published in Portuguese in 2018. E-mail: [email protected] Above At first \"it was difficult to see what we had to do\". Now \"we are disseminating the lessons we drew\"","tokenCount":"1419"}

data/part_1/0015663248.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"10d9435d0bc0c2e0d17f7eb526027a59","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/c01f32b7-5153-47ba-be5a-3182afa2ba2e/content","id":"1590229616"},"keywords":["Ethiopia","wheats","varieties","home economics","socioeconomic environment","plant production","production factors","credit","crop management","fertilizer application","technology transfer","innovation adoption","economic analysis","research policies","extension activities","highlands AGRIS category codes: E14 Development Economics and Policies","E16 Production Economics CIMMYT Dewey decimal classification: 338.162"],"sieverID":"221ecfad-8885-4caf-a9e8-acc18f378ca6","pagecount":"36","content":"At the time this paper was drafted, Hugo Verkuijl was an associate scientist at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Wilfred Mwangi is a principal economist with CIMMYT and also Director of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya. Douglas Tanner is an agronomist with CIMMYT, also based in Ethiopia. The views expressed in this paper are the authors' and do not necessarily reflect policies of their respective institutions.Wheat is one of the major cereal crops grown in Ethiopia. In sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia ranks second to South Africa in terms of total wheat area and production. In Ethiopia, wheat ranks fourth in total cultivated area and production. Despite the significant area of wheat production in the country, the mean national wheat yield (1.3 t/ ha) is 24% below the mean yield for Africa and 48% below the global mean yield. This relatively low mean national yield may be partially attributed to the low level of adoption of improved wheat production technologies.Hence, the objectives of this study were to: assess farmers' current wheat management practices, determine the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of wheat technologies, and draw implications for research, extension and policy.Since its inception in 1966, the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR, now renamed Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO)) of Ethiopia has released a number of high yielding wheat varieties and recommended associated crop management practices. The wheat technologies promoted in Adaba and Dodola woredas included improved wheat varieties (ET-13, HAR-710, HAR-1685, andHAR-1709), fertilizer types and rates (100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea as a blanket recommendation), and weed control practices (hand weeding, 1.0 l/ha U-46 for control of broadleaf weeds).Adopters of improved varieties were younger, more educated, and had larger families and farms. Also, adopters hired more labor and owned more livestock. Nonadopters appeared to have more off-farm income than adopters, but this difference was not significant. There were no significant differences between adopters and nonadopters in terms of the number of farm implements owned (e.g., hand hoes, ox-plows, or oxen carts).During 1997, about 42% of farmers in the study area planted improved wheat varieties. About half of the adopters grew Kubsa (=HAR-1685) or Wabe (=HAR-710). For the adopters, about 65% of their total wheat area was allocated to improved wheat varieties. In Adaba, about 34% of farmers planted improved wheat varieties compared to 48% of farmers in Dodola. Moreover, the mean area under improved wheat varieties was significantly larger in Dodola (0.5 ha) than in Adaba (0.2 ha). Pavon-76 was the most popular variety, preferred by 35% of adopters and 43% of nonadopters. The next most popular variety was Kubsa, which was preferred by 28% and 20% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively. Farmers identified the following varietal traits as important: high yield, resistance to sprouting and lodging, seed color and size, and baking qualities. The main constraint to adopting improved wheat varieties was the high price of seed.Most of the adopters (55%) began land preparation in March, while the nonadopters (48%) began preparation in February. More than 80% of farmers in both groups planted wheat in June. Average seed rates were 185 kg/ha and 178 kg/ha for adopters and nonadopters, respectively, which were higher than the recommended rate of 150-175 kg/ha. Farmers preferred a higher seed rate to compensate for low soil fertility and to compete with weed infestations.Wheat and barley received priority for fertilizer application by 98% and 88% of adopters and 80% and 82% of the nonadopters, respectively. Significantly more adopters (95%) applied chemical fertilizer than nonadopters (75%). Adopters applied about 88 kg/ha of DAP and 81 kg/ha of urea, while nonadopters applied about 78 kg/ha of DAP and 60 kg/ha of urea; however, average fertilizer rates for both groups were below the recommended rate of 100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea. The main constraint to fertilizer use for both groups was its high price. Crop rotation and fallowing were two other important soil fertility management practices.According to both farmer groups, broadleaf and grassy weeds were equally important in their wheat fields.Farmers controlled weeds by hand weeding or herbicide application. About 95% and 87% of adopters controlled weeds by hand weeding and herbicides, respectively, while 93% and 61% of nonadopters used hand weeding or herbicides, respectively. According to 75% of farmers, the most problematic weed that was not controlled by existing weed control measures in wheat fields was Snowdenia polystachya. The most important diseases were \"leaf rust\" (Puccinia striiformis) and \"stem rust\" (P. graminis), while cut worms, wild animals, and army worms were the most important pests. None of the farmers attempted to control diseases and only 9% of adopters and none of the nonadopters practiced pest control. The main reason for not controlling diseases and pests was a lack of knowledge of appropriate control measures.Farmers obtained formal credit through the agricultural development offices of their respective woredas in the form of farm inputs (fertilizer, improved seed, and herbicides). About 85% of adopters and 60% of nonadopters had access to credit for the purchase of fertilizer, while 48% and 9% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, had access to credit for the purchase of improved seed. The main credit constraints for both groups were high interest rates and a lack of cash for the required 25% down payment. All adopters and 99% of nonadopters had received an extension visit. Other sources of agricultural information were farmer field days, training courses, and broadcast radio messages.The age of the farmer, the use of credit, and several varietal characteristics preferred by farmers (disease and lodging resistance and baking quality) significantly influenced the area allocated to improved wheat varieties. The marginal effect of the farmer's age on the area under improved wheat varieties was -0.01, and farmer's age decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 1.5%. The marginal effect of the use of credit on improved wheat area was 0.59, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 84.3%. The marginal effect of disease preference on improved wheat area was 0.32, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 45.2% if the varieties were perceived to be more disease resistant. However, the marginal effect of baking quality on improved wheat area was -0.21, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters decreased by 29.9%. Lodging resistance was the third significant varietal characteristic preferred by farmers. The marginal effect of lodging resistance on improved wheat area was 0.31, while the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 44.2%. The farmer's total wheat area, number of livestock, and the use of hired labor and credit significantly influenced the amount of fertilizer used. The marginal effect of a farmer's total wheat area on the mean amount of fertilizer used was -0.08, and wheat area decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 0.3%. The marginal effect of hired labor on the amount of fertilizer used was 0.25; the corresponding increase in the probability of adoption among nonadopters was 1.0%. The marginal effect of the number of livestock (TLU) owned on the amount of fertilizer used was 0.01, and TLU increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 0.04%. The marginal effect of credit on the amount of fertilizer used was 0.80, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 3.2%.Both adopters (50%) and nonadopters (53%) preferred Pavon-76, which suggests that it has traits important to farmers that should be considered in national and regional wheat breeding programs. In particular, the perceived resistance to disease and lodging of the improved wheat varieties were traits that positively influenced their adoption. However, the perceived bread baking quality negatively influenced the adoption of improved wheat seed.Hence, this trait should be given a higher priority by wheat breeding programs.The tobit analysis revealed that access to credit is an important factor affecting a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technologies. Credit in kind not only relaxes the cash constraint currently existing in most farming communities, but also facilitates the availability of inputs to farmers. Therefore, credit in the form of improved seed and fertilizer should be made available to all wheat farmers. Hired labor was also found to positively influence the adoption of improved fertilizer practices. This highlights the importance of developing labor-saving wheat production technologies to offset the cost of hired labor and expand the adoption of N fertilizer.Livestock ownership was an important factor which influenced the adoption of fertilizer. Livestock ownership is one means for farmers to minimize the risks associated with crop failure. Livestock represent the main cash source for financing crop production. Wheat is one of the major cereal crops grown in Ethiopia. In sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia ranks second to South Africa in terms of total wheat area and production. In Ethiopia, wheat ranks fourth in total crop area and production. It is grown in the highlands at altitudes ranging from 1500 to 3000 masl, situated between 6-16 o N and 35-42 o E; however, the most suitable agroecological zones for wheat production fall between 1900 and 2700 masl (Hailu Gebremariam 1991). Major wheat production areas are located in the Arsi, Bale, Shewa, Ilubabor, Western Harerghe, Sidamo, Tigray, Northern Gonder, and Gojam regions (Figure 1).Export of Ethiopian wheat flour increased until the late 1940s. After this period, due to growing domestic demand for wheat, wheat exports declined. Between 1944 and 1952, Ethiopia exported 697,652 tons of cereals and pulses with a total value of 120.7 million Birr (7 Birr = 1 US$); however, since 1957, Ethiopia has become a net grain importer. Between 1961 and 1997, total wheat area increased from 364,000 to 1,450,000 ha, while total wheat production increased from 255,000 t to 1.980,000 t. Mean grain yield increased from 0.7 t/ha in 1961 to 1.4 t/ha in 1997 (Hailu Gebremariam 1991;CSA 1997a;Payne et al. 1996). Despite the growth in wheat area and total production, Ethiopia continues to be a net wheat importer. Despite the significant area of wheat production in Ethiopia, the mean national wheat yield of 1.3 t/ ha is 24% below the mean yield for Africa and 48% below the global mean yield (Gavian and Gemechu 1996). This relatively low figure may be partially attributed to the low level of adoption of improved wheat production technologies. Hence, the objectives of this study were to assess farmers' current wheat management practices, determine the technical and socioeconomic factors affecting the adoption of wheat technologies, and draw implications for research, extension, and policy.The study area is situated in the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia-an area known for its high production potential for crops and livestock. A multi-stage purposive sampling procedure with a stratified random sampling method was used to identify the sample units (i.e., the farmers). First, peasant associations (PAs) were purposively selected based on their potential for wheat production and accessibility to vehicles. Then, members of each PA were stratified in two groups based on the gender of the household head. A systematic random sampling technique was applied within each stratum to obtain a sample of 144 farmers, consisting of 108 male and 36 female heads of households. Primary data formed the core of the study and were obtained from farmers using a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed through an informal farming system survey that provided qualitative data on farmers' practices and circumstances. Information obtained through the survey was supplemented by secondary data from Woreda Agricultural Development Offices (WADOs) and informal interactions with extension staff.The questionnaire was administered from October 1997 to January 1998.Factors influencing the adoption of new agricultural technologies can be divided into three major categories: 1) farm and farmers' associated attributes; 2) attributes associated with the technology (Adesina and Zinnah 1992;Misra et al. 1993); and 3) the farming objective (CIMMYT 1988). Factors in the first category include the farmer's education level, age, and family and farm size. The second category varies with the type of technology, e.g., the characteristics a farmer prefers in an improved wheat variety, such as high yield, disease resistance, quality of the grain for bread making, resistance to lodging, and maturity. The third category includes the influence of different farm strategies, such as commercial versus subsistence farming, on the adoption of technologies.For this study, a tobit model was used to test the factors affecting the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties or the amount of fertilizer (N kg/ha) used. A tobit model (McDonald and Moffitt 1980;Maddala 1983) that tests the factors affecting the incidence and intensity of adoption can be specified as follows:where: Y t = the proportion of land (ha) allocated to improved wheat varieties or the amount of fertilizer (N kg/ha) at a given stimulus level X t ; N = number of observations; X t = vector of independent variables; β = vector of unknown coefficients; U t = independently distributed error term assumed to be normal with zero mean and constant variance σ 2 .X t β is the index reflecting the combined effect of the independent X variables that inhibit or promote adoption. For the current study, the index level X t β was specified as follows:where: β 0 = constant;X 1 = WHEAT (area under wheat, ha); X 2 = AGE (age of the household head, yr); X 3 = EDUC (education level of household head, dummy variable); X 4 = LABOR (family labor, number of adults per household); X 5 = HLABOR (hired labor, dummy variable); X 6 = CREDIT (credit obtained by farmer for improved varieties or fertilizer, dummy variable); X 7 = TLU: Tropical livestock units (index where livestock numbers are aggregated using the following weighting factors: oxen and cows = 1.0, goats = 0.08, sheep = 0.08); X 8 = EXTEN (farmer received extension visit, dummy variable); X 9 = GENDER (sex of the household head, dummy variable); X 10 = DISEASE (farmer prefers the variety to be free of diseases, dummy variable); X 11 = BREADTST (farmer prefers the baking quality of the grain in bread; dummy variable); X 12 = LODGING (farmer prefers the variety to resist lodging; dummy variable);Formation of the model was influenced by a number of working hypotheses. It was hypothesized that a farmer's decision to adopt or reject a new technology at any time is influenced by the combined (simultaneous) effect of a number of factors related to the farmer's objectives and constraints (CIMMYT 1993). The following variables were hypothesized to influence the allocation of land to improved wheat varieties or the amount of fertilizer used.The amount of wheat area (X 1 ) is an indicator of wealth and can perhaps serve as a proxy for social status and influence within a community. It is expected to be positively associated with the decision to adopt improved wheat technology. However, a small area allocated to wheat could conceivably encourage farmers to intensify their production practices. In this case, larger farm size would be negatively related to the adoption of improved wheat technology.Farmer's age: Farmers' age (X 2 ) can either generate or erode confidence in new technology. In other words, with more experience, a farmer can become more or less risk-averse when judging new technology. This variable could thus have a positive or negative effect on a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technology.Education: Education (X 3 ) could increase the farmer's ability to obtain, process and use information relevant to the adoption of improved wheat technology. Education is thus thought to increase the probability that a farmer will adopt improved wheat technology.Household size: Large households will be able to provide the labor that might be required to implement improved wheat technologies. Thus, household size (X 4 ) is expected to increase the probability of the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Hired labor: Similarly, access to hired labor (X 5 ) is expected to be positively related to the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Credit: Farmers who have access to credit can minimize their financial constraints and therefore buy inputs more readily. Thus, it is expected that access to credit (X 6 ) increases the probability of adopting improved wheat technologies.Livestock: Ownership of livestock (X 7 ) is expected to positively influence the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Extension: Agricultural extension services provided by the OADB are the major source of agricultural information in the study area. It is hypothesized that contact with extension workers (X 8 ) will increase a farmer's likelihood of adopting improved wheat technologies.The gender of the household head (X 9 ) can positively or negatively influence the adoption of improved wheat technologies.Disease resistance: Farmers are expected to prefer wheat varieties that are disease resistant (X 10 ).The perceived quality of the grain for bread making (X 11 ) is expected to affect the adoption of improved wheat varieties.Resistance to lodging: Farmers are expected to prefer wheat varieties that are resistant to lodging (X 12 ). For example, the improved wheat varieties Kubsa and Wabe are relatively short-statured and are therefore more resistant to lodging; this is expected to have a positive effect on the adoption of these improved wheat varieties.The demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the adopters and the nonadopters of improved wheat varieties are shown in Table 2. About 69% of the adopters live in Dodola, while 33% live in Adaba. Most adopters (85%) were male. These differences in location and gender were significant at p<0.1. Most adopters (73.3%) and nonadopters (65.4%) were Muslim, while about 27% of adopters and 33% of nonadopters were Orthodox Christian. About 75% of adopters were literate compared to 56% of nonadopters (χ 2 = 3.6; p<0.1). The adopters (41.8 years) were significantly younger than the nonadopters (47.7 years) (t=2.2; p<0.05). Adopters had larger families (9 persons) than nonadopters (7.6 persons) (t=1.9; p<0.1). The average number of permanent workers did not differ between adopters (2.4) and nonadopters (2.3). There was also no difference between the average number of part-time workers hired by adopters (2.2) and nonadopters (2.4).About 66% of adopters hired labor compared to 49% of nonadopters (p<0.1); however, nonadopters hired labor for 26 person-days/year compared to 24 person-days/year for adopters (NS). The average wage for hired labor was significantly higher for nonadopters (4.9 Birr/day) compared to adopters (4.4 Birr/day) (t=1.9; p<0.1). The majority of adopters and nonadopters hired labor for wheat and barley production (Table 2), most of which was used during harvesting and weeding. About 57% of adopters and 50% of nonadopters reported that hired labor was readily available. This difference was not significant.   For both groups, the main activities for men within the household were land preparation, planting, fertilizer application, and harvesting (Table 3). Women and children were mainly involved in weeding, threshing, and grain storage.The main source of income for adopters (96.7%) and nonadopters (97.5%) was the sale of farm produce. Off-farm activities provided another important source of income for adopters (36.7%) and nonadopters (43.2%). Details of crops sold and off-farm activities are shown in Table 4. The most important cash crops for adopters were wheat (98.3%), faba beans (46.6%), and linseed (43.1%), while for nonadopters they were wheat (87.5%) and linseed (43.8%). Livestock sales (35%) were the third-most important generator of income for nonadopters. Most off-farm income was derived from trade for both adopters (32%) and nonadopters (29%). Other farm activities such as poultry and beekeeping were also important sources of off-farm income for 41% and 29% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively. Casual labor provided the third-most important off-farm activity for 9% of adopters and 29% of nonadopters.The total cultivated area for Adaba and Dodola was 25,732 ha and 25,825 ha, respectively. Table 5 shows the land holdings and land use pattern for farmers in the study area. About 98% and 93% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, grew wheat (NS). Wheat area was significantly larger for adopters (1.5 ha) than nonadopters (1.1 ha) (t=2.3; p<0.05). Barley was grown by more adopters (92%) than nonadopters (81%) (χ 2 = 3.5; p<0.1); however, the area under barley was almost equal for adopters (0.8 ha) and nonadopters (0.9 ha). Close to 50% of adopters and nonadopters grew linseed and the cultivated area was about 0.6 ha for both groups. About 44% of adopters and 34% of nonadopters grew teff (NS); however the cultivated area was significantly smaller for adopters (0.4 ha) than for nonadopters (0.5 ha) (t=2.0; p<0.1). Faba beans and field peas were grown by 38% and 31% of adopters, respectively, and about 22% and 16% of nonadopters, respectively (p<0.05). The area under faba beans was close to 0.35 ha for both groups, while the area under field peas was 0.5 ha for adopters and 0.4 ha for nonadopters (NS).Total farm size was significantly larger for adopters (3.5 ha) than for nonadopters (2.8 ha) (t=2.5; p<0.05). Likewise, adopters (3.3 ha) had a significantly larger cultivated area than nonadopters (2.6 ha) (t=2.6; p<0.01). Fifteen percent of adopters and twelve percent of nonadopters sharecropped their land, and the two groups sharecropped similar amounts of land. The area under fallow was also similar for adopters (0.8 ha) and nonadopters (0.7). Both groups owned about four parcels of land. About 94% and 97% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, received their land as an allocation from the local PA. About 8% of adopters rented or inherited their land, while 2% and 5% of  nonadopters rented or inherited their land, respectively.The average number of tropical livestock units (TLU) was significantly higher for adopters (9.2) than for nonadopters (6.2) (t=2.7; p<0.01) (Table 6). About 92% and 95% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, owned oxen. The average number of oxen owned appeared to be slightly higher for adopters (2.8) than nonadopters (2.4), but this difference was not significant. Eighty-one percent of the adopters owned cows compared to about 84% of the nonadopters. The average number of cows, Note: NS = not significant; NC = not calculated.however, was significantly higher for adopters (4.4) than nonadopters (3.3) (t=1.7; p<0.1). For adopters, about 58% and 77% owned donkeys and equines, respectively, while 63% of nonadopters owned both donkeys and equines. The average number of donkeys and equines did not differ significantly between groups. About 62% and 42% of the adopters owned sheep and goats, respectively, while 58% and 16% of nonadopters owned sheep and goats, respectively. The average number of sheep (4.6) and goats (3.8) was almost equal for both groups. About 46% of adopters and 47% of nonadopters owned horses. On average, adopters (2.1) owned more horses than nonadopters (1.5) (t=1.7; p<0.1). Thirty-nine percent of adopters and 26% of nonadopters owned other livestock (young bulls, heifers, and calves). The average number of young bulls (3.0) and heifers (3.5) owned by adopters was significantly higher than the average number of young bulls (1.7) and heifers (1.8) owned by nonadopters (p<0.1). The average number of calves did not differ significantly between adopters and nonadopters.Farmers used traditional and mechanized implements for different farm operations. The types of traditional implements used by sample farmers are shown in Table 7. The adopters appeared to own more hand hoes, ox plows, ox harrows, ox carts, and sickles than nonadopters; however, these differences were not significant. The most important constraint to farm mechanization for 68% of the adopters and 77% of the nonadopters was a lack of cash to purchase and/or hire farm implements. Other constraints included the unavailability of farm implements, land fragmentation, the nature of the terrain, and lack of knowledge. About 71% of adopters and 53% of nonadopters used mechanized farm implements (p<0.05). About 44% and 42% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, used a tractor for land preparation, while 93% and 100% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, used a combine harvester.During 1997, about 42% of farmers planted improved wheat varieties, while 58% planted only local varieties. For the adopters, about 65% of their wheat area was allocated to improved wheat varieties.The adoption of improved wheat varied across woredas. In Adaba, about 34% of farmers planted improved varieties compared to 48% of farmers in Dodola (χ 2 =2.9; p<0.1). Moreover, the average area under improved wheat was significantly larger in Dodola (0.5 ha) compared to Adaba (0.2 ha) (t=3.8; p<0.01). About 51% of adopters planted Kubsa (HAR-1685), 49% planted Wabe (HAR-710), and 8% planted Mitike (HAR-1709). During 1997, 65% of the area farmed by adopters was planted to improved wheat varieties. About 41% of adopters planted Pavon-76, 10% planted Dashen, 12% planted Israel, 8% planted K6295-4A, 5% planted ET-13, and 3% planted other local wheat varieties. The most important varieties grown by nonadopters were Pavon-76 and Dashen. About 51% of nonadopters planted Pavon-76, 27% planted Dashen, 7% planted Israel, and 10% planted other local wheat varieties.Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the total area planted to the most important wheat varieties for adopters and nonadopters from 1992 to 1997. The figures show that the area under Kubsa and Wabe increased for the adopters, while the area under Pavon-76 and Dashen increased for the nonadopters.About 95% of adopters and 75% of nonadopters indicated that they had increased their total improved wheat area over time. The main reason given by adopters (90.9%) and nonadopters (78.3%) for increasing wheat area was the high market price of wheat compared to alternative crops.  A second important reason for both adopters (54.4%) and nonadopters (39.1%) was the availability of superior improved wheat seed compared to improved seed of other crops. About 36% and 39% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, reported an increased requirement for home consumption as the reason for increasing their wheat area. Other reasons included the ease of mechanization of wheat production, and the low risk of wheat crop failure due to disease. Twenty-eight percent of adopters and 15% of nonadopters decreased the total area under local wheat varieties over time, while only 1% of both adopters and nonadopters decreased the area under improved wheat. The reasons for decreasing the total wheat area included poor quality of wheat seed, unsuitable soils for wheat production, unavailability of fertilizer, and the importance of other crops. About 5% of adopters and 17% of nonadopters did not change their amount of wheat area.Table 8 shows the sources of wheat seed and the constraints on obtaining improved seed for farmers in the study area. For the adopters, about 51% obtained seed from the extension service of the OADB, 48% purchased their wheat seed, and 15% obtained their seed from other farmers. Most nonadopters (61.6%) purchased their seed, while 18% and 16% obtained their seed from the extension service or other farmers, respectively. Most of the adopters (61.3%) who purchased wheat seed bought it at the local market, while 23% bought it from other farmers. Three percent of the adopters purchased their wheat seed from local merchants or the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE). About 55% of nonadopters purchased wheat seed at the local market, while 31% bought it from other farmers. Five percent of the nonadopters purchased their wheat seed from local merchants or Fifty percent of adopters and 53% of nonadopters preferred Pavon-76 (Table 9). The second most preferred variety was Kubsa for 39% and 26% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, followed by Wabe for 38% of adopters and 23% of nonadopters. The reasons why adopters preferred these varieties included  the basis of recommendations from research stations or extension agents. More than 90% of farmers in both groups prepared their land at a specific time because it coincided with the beginning of the rains or for traditional reasons. All farmers used the local ox plow (maresha) for land preparation. Both groups plowed their land four times with the maresha. Sometimes farmers used the maresha in combination with a tractor. About 37% of adopters and 24% of nonadopters used a tractor for land preparation. Where the ox plow was used in conjunction with a tractor, both farmer groups plowed an average of three times. About 24% of adopters and 22% of nonadopters were informed of plowing frequency by an OADB extension agent, while more than 90% of farmers plowed in the traditional way.More than 80% of farmers in both groups planted wheat in June, and about 90% of farmers reported that this decision was based on tradition or due to the beginning of the rains. Only 20% and 19% of the adopters and nonadopters, respectively, planted during June because of recommendations from OADB extension agents. The average seed rate used was 185.0 kg/ha and 178.4 kg/ha for adopters and nonadopters, respectively (NS). Only 21% of adopters and 18% of nonadopters used the seed rate (150-175 kg/ha) recommended by OADB extension agents. The main reasons for not adopting the recommended seed rate were: 1) farmers perceived the traditional seed rate to be superior, and 2) farmers used a higher seed rate to compensate for low soil fertility.Soil fertility practices of adopters and nonadopters are shown in Table 11. About 95% of adopters and 75% of nonadopters applied chemical fertilizer in 1996 and 1997 (p<0.01).During 1997, adopters used significantly more DAP (87.8 kg/ha) than nonadopters (77.6 kg/ ha) (t= 1.9; p<0.1). Also, adopters used significantly more urea (80.6 kg/ha) than nonadopters (60.4 kg/ha) (t=1.8; p<0.01). More than 90% of both groups broadcasted their fertilizer. Fertilizer was applied to an average wheat area of 1.4 ha for adopters and 1.2 ha for nonadopters. Both groups used less than the recommended rate of 100 kg/ha of DAP and 100 kg/ha of urea, even though about 81% of adopters and 62% of nonadopters were aware of the recommended rates. The main reason that adopters (80%) and nonadopters (82.5%) did not follow the recommendations was a lack of cash for the required down payment. About 93% of adopters and 86% of nonadopters were satisfied with the fertilizer packaging size (NS).Most farmers in Ethiopia have a long history of fertilizer use. In the study area, most adopters (57.9%) and nonadopters (45.7%) started using fertilizer during the Dergue regime (1974)(1975)(1976)(1977)(1978)(1979)(1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991), while about 9% of adopters and 14% of nonadopters started using fertilizer during the reign of Haile Selassie (prior to 1974). About 65% of adopters and 37% of nonadopters increased fertilizer use over time because they were convinced of the benefits and had perceived a decline in soil fertility. Fourteen percent of adopters and 12% of nonadopters decreased fertilizer use, mainly due to its high price. About 21% of adopters and 37% of nonadopters maintained a constant level of fertilizer usage.About 98% of adopters and 80% of nonadopters used the purchased fertilizer on wheat, and 88% of adopters and 82% of nonadopters used it on barley. Few farmers used fertilizer on linseed or teff.Most adopters (96.2%) bought fertilizer from an OADB extension agent, while 6% bought it at the local market. The nonadopters (81.5%) mainly bought fertilizer from an extension agent, while about 15% and 6% bought it from the local market or a local merchant, respectively. High price was the major reason given for not using fertilizer by adopters (78%) and nonadopters (88.2%). Problems associated with fertilizer use were: late delivery, reported by 55.9% of adopters and 55.9% of nonadopters; lack of credit, reported by 31% of adopters and 27% of nonadopters; and a lack of cash, reported by 35% of adopters and 32% of nonadopters. Other constraints included inadequate supply or lack of availability of fertilizer, and low market price of wheat.Crop rotation and fallowing were the most important alternative soil fertility management practices. About 72% of adopters and 63% of nonadopters practiced crop rotation. The adopters rotated wheat with barley (86.4%), linseed (55.9%), faba beans (32.2%), or field peas (25.4%), while the nonadopters rotated wheat with barley (81%), linseed (58.2%), faba beans (22.8%), and field peas (21.5%). About 53% of adopters rotated their crops once every two years, 23% rotated crops once every three years, and 23% rotated crops twice in three years. Sixty-two percent of nonadopters rotated their crops once every two years, 20% rotated crops once every three years, and 18% rotated crops twice in three years.Both adopters and nonadopters reported that broadleaf and grassy weeds were equally important in their wheat fields (Table 12). About 95% of adopters and 93% of nonadopters controlled weeds by hand, whereas 87% of adopters and 61% of nonadopters used herbicides. The average number of hand weedings was 1.7 and 1.8 for adopters and nonadopters, respectively (NS). While only 18% of adopters and 5% of nonadopters hand weeded on the basis of the OADB recommendation, 42% and 33%, respectively, were aware of the recommended weeding frequency. The main constraints to frequency of hand weeding for adopters were labor shortage (74.5%) and lack of cash to hire labor (59.6%). Similarly, the main constraints for nonadopters were labor shortage (68.2%) and lack of cash to hire labor (60.6%).The most common herbicide used was U-46. The adopters (1.0 l/ha) used significantly more U-46 than nonadopters (0.8 l/ha) (t=2.0; p<0.1). About 61% and 52% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, obtained herbicide from the agricultural development offices of the OADB, while about 30% and 47% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, obtained herbicide from the local market. About 63% of adopters and 47% of nonadopters were aware of the recommended herbicide rate. Eighty-eight percent of adopters and 79% of nonadopters obtained information on herbicide use from an OADB extension agent. Other information sources included research staff at the Sinana Research Station (4% of adopters and 17.9% of nonadopters) and other farmers (4% for both groups). The main constraints to herbicide use for adopters included a lack of sprayers (58.0%), the high rental cost of sprayers (58.0%), and high price of herbicide (44.0%). The main constraints reported by nonadopters were a lack of sprayers (68.9%), high rental cost of sprayers (60%), and high price of herbicide (55.6%).The most problematic weed that could not be adequately controlled by current weeding practices was Snowdenia polystachya, locally known as \"muja\" (reported by 75% of both adopters and nonadopters). Other problematic weeds included Avena fatua, locally known as \"sinar\" (21.2% of adopters and 26% of nonadopters), and \"shabie\" (5.8% of adopters and 13.7% of nonadopters). Table 13 summarizes disease and pest management undertaken by farmers in the study area. The most important diseases were leaf rust (Puccinia recondita), reported by 96.3% of adopters and 94.8% of nonadopters, and stem rust (Puccinia graminis), reported by 53.2% of adopters and 48.3% of nonadopters. Pavon-76, Dashen, and Wabe were the most affected wheat varieties reported by 51.2%, 27.9%, and 18.6% of adopters, respectively. For the nonadopters, Pavon-76 (56.1%) and Dashen (26.3%) were the most affected varieties. None of the farmers practiced disease control measures. A lack of knowledge of disease control was the main constraint cited by both adopters (73.9%) and nonadopters (87.5%). Also, adopters (10.9%) and nonadopters (5.4%) reported that there were no critical wheat diseases in the area. The lack of availability of chemicals was another reason for not practicing disease control, according to 15% and 11% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively.About 28% of adopters and 29% of nonadopters reported that they had no pest problems. The most important pests for adopters were cut worms (13.7%), wild animals (13.7%), and army worms (7.8%). For nonadopters, cut worms (35.3%) and aphids (8.8%) were the most important pests. Nine percent of adopters and none of the nonadopters practiced pest control measures. A lack of knowledge on how to control pests was the main constraint cited by adopters (45.7%) and nonadopters (51.2%); however, 45.7% of adopters and 16.3% of nonadopters reported that pest control was not necessary. The unavailability of chemicals was cited as a constraint on pest control by 6% of adopters and 12% of nonadopters. Other minor problems reported were a lack of money, high price of chemicals, and the complexity of chemical application.Most adopters (77%) and nonadopters (53.8%) cleaned their wheat seed and stored it separately from their grain (Table 14). Most farmers in both groups (77%) stored their wheat seed in a traditional gotera-a local container made from bamboo plastered with mud. Twenty-four percent of farmers in both groups used fertilizer bags. Rodents (rats) were the most important storage problem reported by adopters (78.9%) and nonadopters (77%). About 56% and 19% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, reported weevils as an important storage problem. Another impediment to storage was high grain moisture, reported by 8.8% of adopters and 6.8% of nonadopters. The types of credit that farmers have access to and the constraints they face in accessing formal credit are shown in Table 15. Farmers obtain formal credit through the agricultural development offices of their respective woredas in the form of farm inputs (fertilizer, improved seeds, and/or herbicides). About 85% of adopters and 60% of nonadopters received credit for fertilizer, while 48% of adopters and 9% of nonadopters received credit for improved wheat seed. Both differences were significant at p<0.01. The average amount of credit received was 660 Birr and 490 Birr for adopters and nonadopters, respectively (NS). For adopters, the decision to use credit was made jointly by the husband and wife (50.9%), or individually by the husband (41.5%) or the wife (5.7%). For nonadopters, the decision to use credit was made jointly (34%), or individually by the husband (31%) or the wife (19% Note: NS = not significant; *** = significant at p<0.01.Both adopters (42.6%) and nonadopters (38.7%) commonly received one or two visits from extension agents per month (Table 16). The gender of the extension agent was usually male (74.1% for adopters and 65.7% for nonadopters). The majority of adopters (84.4%) and nonadopters (75.5%) did not express a preference for the gender of the extension agent. About 21% of adopters and 14% of nonadopters preferred a male extension agent.The extension agent usually visited adopters (100%) and nonadopters (95.2%) as part of a group visit, while for 61% of adopters and 22% of nonadopters, the extension agent made individual visits.The extension agent contacted the male head of the household for 60.7% of adopters and 33.9% of nonadopters. For about 7% of adopters and 23% of nonadopters, the extension agent contacted the wife of the household. Extension staff contacted both spouses for 32% of adopters and 44% of nonadopters.About 39% of adopters and 6% of nonadopters were contact farmers (p<0.01). Other sources of agricultural information reported by adopters were farmer field days (83%), farmer training courses (21.3%), and radio messages (48.9%). For nonadopters, other sources of agricultural information included farmer field days (80.6%), farmer training courses (22.2%), and radio messages (47.2%).All farmers were members of a PA. The services commonly offered by a PA included handling credit in kind (seed and fertilizer) for farmers, and land allocation. About 24% of adopters and 11% of nonadopters were office bearers in their respective PA (p<0.05). Note: NS = not significant; ** = significant at p<0.05; *** = significant at p<0.01; NC = not calculated. Feder et al. (1985) defined adoption as the degree of use of a new technology in a long-run equilibrium when a farmer has all of the information about the new technology and its potential.Adoption at the farm level reflects the farmer's decision to incorporate a new technology into the production process. On the other hand, aggregate adoption is the process of spread or diffusion of a new technology within a region. Therefore, a distinction exists between adoption at the individual farm level and aggregate adoption within a targeted region. If an innovation is modified periodically, the adoption level may not reach equilibrium. This situation requires the use of econometric procedures that can capture both the rate and the process of adoption. The rate of adoption is defined as the proportion of farmers who have adopted a new technology over time. The incidence of adoption is the percentage of farmers using a technology at a specific point in time (e.g., the percentage of farmers using fertilizer). The intensity of adoption is defined as the aggregate level of adoption of a given technology (e.g., the number of hectares planted with improved seed or the amount of fertilizer applied).The results of the tobit model on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties are presented in Table 17. The tobit model was used because the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties is a continuous variable but truncated between zero and one. The use of ordinary least squares will result in biased estimates (McDonald and Moffitt 1980). In Table 17, δEY/ δX i shows the marginal effect of an explanatory variable on the expected value (mean proportion) of the dependent variable, δEY*/δX i shows changes in the intensity of adoption with respect to a unit change of an independent variable among adopters, and δF(z)/δX i is the probability of a change among nonadopters (e.g., the probability of adopting improved wheat varieties) with a unit change in the independent variable (Roncek 1992). The Wald chi-square statistic was significant at p<0.01.The farmer's age, use of credit, and several varietal characteristics preferred by farmers (disease and lodging resistance, bread baking quality) significantly influenced the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties. The marginal effect of the farmer's age on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was -0.01, and farmer's age decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 1.5%. The marginal effect of credit on improved wheat area was 0.59, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 84.3%. The majority of adopters obtained credit in kind in the form of improved seed and fertilizer through the OADB extension package. These inputs are distributed to farmers who are willing to host a demonstration plot.The varietal characteristics that were significant to farmers were the perceived resistance to disease and lodging, and baking quality. The marginal effect of disease resistance on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was 0.32, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 45.2% if the varieties were perceived to be more resistant to disease. However, the marginal effect of baking quality on improved wheat area was -0.21, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters decreased by 29.9%. Lodging resistance was the third significant varietal characteristic that farmers preferred. The improved varieties Wabe and Kubsa are shorter and hence more resistant to lodging than some of the wheat varieties previously grown, such as Enkoy and Pavon-76. The preference for lodging resistance revealed that the marginal effect of lodging resistance on improved wheat area was 0.31, while the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 44.2%.The coefficients of the tobit model used to investigate factors affecting the amount of N fertilizer used are shown in Table 18. The model is significant at the 1% level on the basis of the Wald chi-square statistic with 10 degrees of freedom. The farmer's total wheat area, the number of livestock, and the use of hired labor and credit significantly influenced the amount of fertilizer used. Wheat area decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 0.3%, and the marginal effect of a farmer's total wheat area on the mean amount of fertilizer used was -0.08.The marginal effect of hired labor on the mean amount of fertilizer was 0.25; the corresponding increase in the probability of adoption among nonadopters was 1.0%. The improved wheat technologies are labor intensive, primarily due to the recommended increase in hand weeding.Farmers that can afford to hire labor are usually in a better position to adopt these technologies. Hicks and Johnston (1974) reported that a higher labor requirement explained the nonadoption of improved rice varieties in Taiwan and that a shortage of family labor explained the nonadoption of high yielding varieties in India.The marginal effect of TLU on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.01, and TLU increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 0.04%. Livestock constitute accumulated wealth, a source of cash, and facilitate the 25% down payment required to obtain credit for inputs. Also, farmers who buy inputs on credit carry the risk of crop failure and, therefore, the risk of being unable to repay their debts. Farmers who own more livestock may be more willing to take risks since they will still be able to settle their debts in the event of a calamity.The marginal effect of credit on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.80, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 3.2%. At the time of fertilizer application (June/ July), most farmers face food shortages and use their available cash to buy food grain. Provision of credit to finance the purchase of inputs is therefore critical for successful adoption of fertilizer.Adopters of improved wheat technologies were younger, more educated, and had larger families and farms. Also, adopters hired more labor and owned more livestock. All of these differences were significant. Nonadopters tended to have more off-farm income than adopters, but this difference was not significant. There were no significant differences between adopters and nonadopters in terms of the number of farm implements owned (e.g., hand hoes, ox plows, and oxen carts).During 1997, about 42% of farmers grew improved wheat varieties. Most adopters grew Kubsa (51%) or Wabe (49%). For the adopters, about 65% of their total wheat area was allocated to improved wheat varieties. In Adaba, about 34% of farmers grew improved wheat varieties compared to 48% of farmers in Dodola. Moreover, the average area under improved wheat varieties was significantly greater in Dodola (0.5 ha) than in Adaba (0.2 ha). Adopters (55%) and nonadopters (53%) preferred Pavon-76, followed by Kubsa, which was preferred by 39% and 26% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively. Varietal traits considered important by farmers included high yield, resistance to sprouting and lodging, seed color and size, and baking quality. High price was reported as the main constraint on using improved wheat seed.Most adopters (55%) began land preparation in March, while nonadopters (48%) began in February. More than 80% of farmers in both groups planted wheat in June. The average seed rate was 185 kg/ha and 178 kg/ha for adopters and nonadopters, respectively, which are both higher than the recommended seed rate of 150-175 kg/ha. According to farmers, a higher seed rate was used to compensate for low soil fertility and to compete with weeds.Fertilizer was mainly applied to wheat and barley crops by 98% and 88% of adopters, respectively, and 80% and 82% of nonadopters, respectively. Significantly more adopters (95%) applied chemical fertilizer than nonadopters (75%). Adopters applied 88 kg/ha of DAP and 81 kg/ha of urea while nonadopters applied 78 kg/ha of DAP and 60 kg/ha of urea. However, the average fertilizer application rate for both groups was below the recommended rate (100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea). The main constraint to fertilizer use for both groups was its high price. Crop rotation and fallowing were two other important soil fertility management practices.According to both groups, broadleaf and grassy weeds were equally important in their wheat fields. Farmers controlled weeds by hand weeding or herbicide application. About 95% and 87% of adopters controlled weeds by hand weeding and herbicides, respectively, compared with 93% and 61% of the nonadopters, respectively. According to 75% of farmers, the most problematic weed that was not controlled by existing weed control measures was Snowdenia polystachya. The most important diseases were \"leaf rust\" (= P. striiformis) and \"stem rust\" (= P. graminis), while cut worms, wild animals, and army worms were the most important pests. None of the farmers practiced disease control and only 9% of adopters practiced pest control. The main reason that farmers did not attempt to control diseases and pests was a lack of knowledge of appropriate control practices.Farmers obtained formal credit through the agricultural development offices of their respective woredas in the form of farm inputs (fertilizer, improved seeds, herbicides). About 85% of adopters and 60% of nonadopters had access to credit for fertilizer, while 48% and 9% of adopters and nonadopters, respectively, had access to credit for improved seed. The main credit constraints for both groups were high interest rates and a lack of cash for the required 25% down payment to purchase inputs. All of the adopters and 99% of nonadopters had received an extension visit. Other sources of agricultural information were farmer field days, farmer training courses, and radio broadcasts.The farmer's age, use of credit, and several varietal characteristics preferred by farmers (disease and lodging resistance, bread baking quality) significantly influenced the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties. The marginal effect of the farmer's age on the mean proportion of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was -0.01, and farmer's age decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 1.5%. The marginal effect of the use of credit on improved wheat area was 0.59, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 84.3%. The marginal effect of disease resistance on improved wheat area was 0.32, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 45.2% if the varieties were perceived to be more disease resistant. However, the marginal effect of baking quality on the amount of land allocated to improved wheat varieties was -0.21, and the probability of adoption among nonadopters decreased by 29.9%. Lodging resistance was the third significant varietal characteristic that was preferred by farmers. The marginal effect of lodging resistance on improved wheat area was 0.31, while the probability of adoption among nonadopters increased by 44.2%.The farmer's total wheat area, the number of livestock, and the use of hired labor and credit significantly influenced the amount of fertilizer used. The marginal effect of a farmer's total wheat area on the mean amount of fertilizer used was -0.08, and wheat area decreased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 0.3%. The marginal effect of hired labor was 0.25; the corresponding increase in the probability of adoption among nonadopters was 1.0%. The marginal effect of TLU on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.01, and TLU increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by 0.04%. The marginal effect of credit on the mean amount of fertilizer used was 0.80, and credit increased the probability of adoption among nonadopters by only 3.2%.Pavon-76 was preferred by both adopters (50%) and nonadopters (53%). This suggests that this variety has important traits that farmers appreciate, and should be considered in the national and regional wheat breeding programs. In particular, the farmer's perception of the disease and lodging resistance of the improved wheat varieties positively influenced adoption. The perceived baking quality of the varieties negatively influenced adoption, however, and this trait should receive a higher priority in wheat breeding programs.The tobit analysis revealed that access to credit is a determining factor in a farmer's decision to adopt improved wheat technologies, and credit for the purchase of improved seeds and fertilizer should be extended to all farmers. Credit in kind would not only relax the cash constraint currently existing in most farm communities, but also improve farmers' access to inputs.Availability of hired labor is another determinant of a farmer's adoption of fertilizer, emphasizing the importance of developing labor-saving wheat technologies. This would offset the costs of hired labor and would expand the adoption of fertilizer by farmers who cannot afford hired labor.Livestock ownership was an important factor in the adoption of fertilizer. Livestock represent the main cash source to finance crop production and livestock ownership is one means by which farmers can minimize the risks associated with crop failure. Therefore, research and extension staff should increase the attention given to livestock.","tokenCount":"8511"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b5cf99b1c77ce628cc7c95a2fae3d7b4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d5b68c6e-b291-4151-99a7-04aaab439b02/retrieve","id":"-1308690154"},"keywords":["WEFE nexus","trade-offs among ES","policy uptake of NbS","Valle del Cauca","ES valuation","forests ES"],"sieverID":"f6cfb8f8-625d-49e1-9ff6-37b52b537dc1","pagecount":"17","content":"Forests play a crucial role in providing ecosystem services (ESs), critical for maintaining ecological balance and supporting human well-being through a wide range of functions. These include regulating services like carbon sequestration, habitat quality and biodiversity conservation, water regulation and soil preservation [1][2][3][4][5]. These ecosystems are integral to sustainable land use planning and decision-making due to their multifunctional role in providing critical ES and socio-economic benefits [6]. However, rapid land use changes driven by agricultural expansion, urbanization, and industrial activities-among other drivers-have significantly altered forests, leading to the degradation of these vital ecosystems and the services they provide [7]. Therefore, integrating measures to cope with these drivers along with forest management into land use planning is critical for achieving sustainable development goals and ensuring the balanced allocation of resources [8]. Forest loss and degradation are not evenly distributed across global regions. While Europe and Asia have gained forest cover during the last 10 years (0.3 and 1.2 million hectares (Mha)/year respectively), deforestation has happened mainly in the tropical regions in the global south, with net losses in Africa and South America of 3.9 and 2.6 Mha/year, respectively, between 2010 and 2020 [9]. One of the reasons forest loss continues in these regions is the different trade-offs that occur when promoting forest cover [10]. While some ESs of public nature, mainly regulating ones, might be enhanced (e.g., water quality, carbon sequestration, habitat for wild species), forest expansion can come with an opportunity cost by limiting other potentially profitable land uses and the enhancement of certain provisioning services, mostly of a private nature, such as agricultural food production [11]. This trade-off situation is particularly visible in Latin America, where forest loss trends continue [12]. Between 2000 and 2018, 68 Mha of net forest loss were registered in South America, primarily affecting tropical rainforests, which accounted for 40% of global forest loss during this period [13]. While having some of the most biodiverse forest ecosystems globally, the region also presents vast pressures on these resources driven by economic development targets and food and energy security agendas. Given its socio-economic context, the region must promote sustainable development and economic growth [14].The continuous forest loss and degradation dynamics have increased the recognition of the need to implement sustainable land management practices to preserve and enhance forests and their ES. To promote such needed sustainable land management practices, nature-based solutions (NbSs) have emerged as a promising approach, as they are \"actions to protect, conserve, restore, sustainably use and manage natural or modified terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine ecosystems, which address social, economic and environmental challenges effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being, ecosystem services and resilience and biodiversity benefits\" [15]. Thus, NbSs should leverage natural processes to address environmental challenges while providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits [16]. Forest-related NbSs include reforestation, afforestation, sustainable forest management, and agroforestry systems [17].NbSs can be framed within the Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystems (WEFE) nexus concept that, in recent years, has gained traction as a holistic framework for understanding the interconnections-either in terms of synergies or trade-offs-between these critical sectors [18]. The WEFE nexus highlights how water security is intrinsically linked to energy and food security and how ecosystem degradation can have far-reaching implications across these domains [19,20]. This concept is especially crucial for regions facing complex trade-offs between security agendas [21].Despite the growing recognition of NbSs and the WEFE nexus and agreement about their potential interlinkages (e.g., [22,23]), there remains a significant research gap in understanding the positive and negative impacts that land use changes pushing for forest-related NbSs create. While advocacy increases for NbS, such as reforestation and afforestation, due to their capacity to sequester carbon and improve water-related ES, more research is needed into the unintended trade-offs that might arise, e.g., between provisioning and regulating services supply. Such research is necessary so that NbS strategies not only achieve climate and environmental objectives, but also support socioeconomic needs [24]. This research gap has become more pronounced in the Latin American region and other developing countries, where research lags behind and remains fragmented [25]. Specifically, there is a need to assess the costs and benefits these changes generate from multiple perspectives. Furthermore, it is essential to advance the practical application of ES valuation methodologies that inform decision-making linked to policy contexts, such as the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework and climate change policies, to help direct funding for biodiversity conservation [26].This study contributes to address these knowledge gaps by conducting a biophysical and economic valuation of ESs and comparing business as usual (BAU) and forest-NbS scenarios to identify and assess possible future land use development trajectories. The study was conducted within the context of the EU Horizon2020 REXUS project (Managing REsilient neXUs Systems through participatory systems dynamics modeling; project cofounded by the European Union under the grant No. 101003632), which aimed to provide evidence on the role of NbS in facing WEFE nexus-related challenges in Europe and South America. More specifically, this research focuses on the Nima sub-basin in Colombia, a multipurpose Andean water sub-basin vital for water supply to the water, energy, and agricultural sectors in the municipality of Palmira, supporting 350,000 residents, 13 rural aqueducts and the municipal aqueduct, and two hydropower plants [27][28][29]. The sub-basin faces challenges such as deforestation, water pollution, and increased risks from climate change, necessitating the implementation of NbS. This area was set as a case study since strategic ecosystems for biodiversity conservation and hydrological cycle regulation are inside it, such as mist forests and paramo. In terms of biodiversity, the sub-basin accounts for around 566 species of faunal biodiversity, including birds, herpetofauna, and mammals [30]. Regarding water sources, the Nima River drainage network consists of 272 tributaries, covering approximately 96.65 km, providing drinking water to 13 rural communities and approximately 355,000 inhabitants of the Palmira municipality. Additionally, the area has around 127 springs and three glacial lakes [31].By comparing the BAU scenario with an alternative forest-NbS future scenario, we expect to derive potential gains and losses associated with different land use and management choices. Our research results support and inform future decision-making regarding the implementation of forest-related NbS while contributing to advancing knowledge of using ES valuation as a tool within the WEFE nexus approach to support its practical implementation. This study aligns with the growing body of research on forests as NbSs, and their role in providing multiple ESs and benefits while also considering potential trade-offs in their implementation.The Nima River sub-basin, located in the Valle del Cauca Department in the western part of Colombia, covers 16.702 hectares and includes two main landscape units: a mountainous area upstream and a flat area downstream, with elevations ranging from 1050 to 4100 m above sea level (Figure 1). The climatic characteristics of the sub-basin are determined by an annual rainfall regime ranging from 1600 to 1800 mm [32]. Its hydrology is characterized by 14 tributaries, which provide an average flow of 2 m 3 /s, captured at the intake of the Palmira municipal aqueduct [33].In terms of land use coverage in the sub-basin, the pristine paramo ecosystem and the Andean ecosystems (high mountain ecosystems) occupy 27% of the area and are home to various endemic and endangered species of fauna and flora. The main productive activity upstream is livestock farming, mainly cattle ranching, which accounts for 19% of the land use [34]. Forest plantations (Pinus sp. and Eucalyptus sp.) cover 2% of the area [35], and a mosaic of crops occupies another 3%, consisting mostly of coffee and annual crops (e.g., tomato, cilantro, green beans, onion, corn) [34]. The downstream area is surrounded by an agricultural landscape primarily composed of sugarcane plantations, covering 21% of the area [36].In the mountainous upstream area of the sub-basin, there are designated conservation zones of regional and national importance, such as the Regional Natural Park of the Nima River, the National Natural Protective Forest Reserve of Amaime, and Las Hermosas National Natural Park, where the Nima River originates [37]. In the lower area of the sub-basin, the Nima River flows into the Amaime River, one of the main tributaries of the Cauca River, the second most important river in Colombia. The sub-basin supports various economic activities across its area. In the upper part, these include commercial forestry, farming (e.g., poultry and pig farming), subsistence agriculture, and the cultivation of cash crops. Commercial crops, primarily sugar cane, dominate the lower part. These activities place pressures on essential ES, leading to significant issues, particularly related to water pollution and availability. As a result, water quality and quantity are among the primary ESs affected within the sub-basin [38].The NbSs chosen to simulate and compare with the current BAU scenario on the Nima River sub-basin were selected through a participatory process involving 30 stakeholders from different WEFE sectors within the sub-basin, such as civil society and institutional bodies, as well as private sector organizations (Table 1). The selection of diversified types of stakeholders allowed us to consult actors with decision-making power, actors that would implement the discussed solutions, and actors that can facilitate or support the implementation process. These stakeholders included farmers; regional and local governments, such as the Municipality of Palmira through the departments of Environmental Management and Agriculture, and the Government of Valle del Cauca; the Chamber of Commerce of Palmira; the regional environmental authority; the National University of Colombia; and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating within the sugarcane sector and water-related associations, such as Fundación Fondo Agua por la Vida y la Sostenibilidad (i.e., the Water Fund Foundation) and the Association of Users of the Amaime and Nima Rivers (ASOAMAIME).The participatory process, implemented within the framework of the REXUS project, employed a standardized methodology proposed by the REXUS consortium, consisting of two phases [39]. The first phase aimed at having the stakeholders select the NbS they considered capable of addressing the challenges of the sub-basin, from an initial list of solutions prioritized in the project's framework. In the second phase, a prioritization exercise of the selected NbS was conducted. During the first phase, stakeholders were given a list of 16 NbS, each accompanied by a description of its importance and the means for its implementation. The 16 NbS were selected within the framework of the REXUS project considering the two main challenges in the area. They analyzed these NbSs to determine which ones best addressed the challenges of the sub-basin. The challenges identified as of highest priority by stakeholders within the sub-basin are related to water quality and quantity regulation and maintenance. Additionally, stakeholders were encouraged to propose other NbSs they believed could address the challenges of the sub-basin that were not included in the provided list. This participatory approach yielded several stakeholder-identified solutions, which were subsequently included in the final list of NbS (see Table 6 in Section 3).In the second phase of the participatory process, stakeholders were asked to qualitatively prioritize the selected NbSs, according to their knowledge and using the following three criteria:• Effectiveness, i.e., the solution's effectiveness in achieving the goals and objectives defined to face WEFE nexus-related challenges; • Acceptability, i.e., the level of social acceptance the solution has;• Feasibility, i.e., how easily the solution can be implemented based on the stakeholders' capabilities.At the end of the prioritization exercise, stakeholders agreed to select forest landscape restoration, via afforestation and reforestation practices, as the single most relevant NbS at the local scale to face the challenges of the sub-basin. The subsequent NbS assessment, therefore, has been applied considering such NbSs as an alternative to the BAU scenario.Building on the outcomes of the stakeholder consultation process, a forest landscape restoration strategy via a hypothetical expansion of forest areas in the middle and upper parts of the sub-basin was identified as the best alternative land use scenario to the BAU.To conduct the analysis, two scenarios were defined (Figure 2):1.Baseline (BAU) Scenario-This scenario includes the current land use practices without any additional conservation measures or any change of practices. With the term \"current\", we indicate the time in which the study has been conducted, and it reflects the traditional management practices in the sub-basin. In this scenario, fragmented forests and grasslands are prevalent on the upper part of the sub-basin; 2.NbS Scenario-This scenario includes the establishment and development of dense forests of native species between the middle and upper parts of the sub-basin, incorporating the prioritized forest landscape restoration strategies. Example species include Andean trees and shrubs from low montane humid forest such as the native pepper plants (e.g., Piper cornifolium, P. lacunosum), Andean walnut (Juglans neotropica), Cecropia trees (Cecropia sp.), Alnus acuminata, Morella pubescens, and others [40].  These two scenarios were mapped using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), considering areas with high potential for Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) implementation, considering the previous identification of potential areas to reforest through this scheme by the Palmira municipality. We assessed water flow regulation, water quality and water provisioning ES for each scenario using the InVEST 3.13.0 flood risk mitigation, nutrient-delivery ration and annual water yield models, respectively [41]. Additionally, we also considered the value of food (i.e., farmed food-crop) provisioning for both scenarios. The selected ESs were chosen based on the primary challenges and main economic activities within the area. The NbS scenario has been considered as the forest was at the maturity stage, providing the full range of potential ES. To account for the time that the NbS takes to deliver the ES, we created a cashflow and estimated a net present value (NPV) for the NbS scenario, considering the annual costs of implementing the NbS (i.e., payments to landowners during ten years within the PES framework) and its expected benefits from year 11, considering a 25-year horizon. We used a discount rate of 4% following [42]. The value of the annual costs of implementing the NbS was retrieved during conversations with the Municipality of Palmira within the framework of the REXUS project. The resulting NPV was transformed into a single annuity for a terminating annual series. This step makes NbS values comparable with the BAU ones. Following the \"with and without\" principle [43,44], net ES supply was calculated as the difference between the NbS and BAU scenarios. These two scenarios were mapped using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), considering areas with high potential for Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) implementation, considering the previous identification of potential areas to reforest through this scheme by the Palmira municipality. We assessed water flow regulation, water quality and water provisioning ES for each scenario using the InVEST 3.13.0 flood risk mitigation, nutrient-delivery ration and annual water yield models, respectively [41]. Additionally, we also considered the value of food (i.e., farmed food-crop) provisioning for both scenarios. The selected ESs were chosen based on the primary challenges and main economic activities within the area. The NbS scenario has been considered as the forest was at the maturity stage, providing the full range of potential ES. To account for the time that the NbS takes to deliver the ES, we created a cashflow and estimated a net present value (NPV) for the NbS scenario, considering the annual costs of implementing the NbS (i.e., payments to landowners during ten years within the PES framework) and its expected benefits from year 11, considering a 25-year horizon. We used a discount rate of 4% following [42]. The value of the annual costs of implementing the NbS was retrieved during conversations with the Municipality of Palmira within the framework of the REXUS project. The resulting NPV was transformed into a single annuity for a terminating annual series. This step makes NbS values comparable with the BAU ones. Following the \"with and without\" principle [43,44], net ES supply was calculated as the difference between the NbS and BAU scenarios.For both BAU and NbS scenarios, four key ESs were assessed from both biophysical (Section 3.2.1) and economic (Section 3.2.2) perspectives. This evaluation allows for an understanding of the impact of land use changes on the ecosystem from the different WEFE dimensions.The assessment of ESs and the methodologies used for each of them are detailed below.Water flow regulation.Biophysical Assessment-The flood risk mitigation capacity was assessed using the InVEST 3.14.1 flood risk mitigation model, which allows one to measure the capacity of ecosystems to retain precipitation water and release it in a controlled manner, regulating drought and flood events. This model has been previously applied in economic valuation studies of NbS, where it effectively demonstrated their economic benefits to flood risk management [44,45]; Economic Valuation-The economic value of water flow regulation was estimated using the replacement cost method, which calculates the cost of alternative flood mitigation infrastructure, such as levees and retention basins, that would be required to achieve similar outcomes. The annual value of the ES was calculated as the single annuity of a finite series of annuities, based on a useful life of 60 years for the surrogate good and a discount rate of 4% [42].Input and output data for assessing and evaluating water flow regulation are reported in Table 2. Depth of rainfall (mm) 71.4 mm as the average maximum precipitation in 24 h (1989-2019), identified from [47] Soils' hydrological group raster 250 m spatial resolution raster of categorical hydrological groups from [48] Economic value Replacement cost method. Surrogate good: lamination basin. Unit cost: EUR 400/m 3 calculated from [49] and updated to 2023Retained runoff volume (m 3 ) Raster with runoff retention values (in m3) indicating the capability of each pixel to store runoff 2.Water provisioning.Biophysical Assessment-The quantity of water provided under the BAU and NbS scenarios was assessed using the InVEST 3.14.1 annual water yield model. This tool evaluates how land cover changes impact water availability throughout the year.Economic Valuation-The market price method was used to assess the economic value of water provisioning, calculating the potential revenue generated from water use for various purposed such as hydropower, agricultural, and domestic.Input and output data for assessing and evaluating water provisioning are reported in Table 3.Water purification.Biophysical Assessment-The InVEST 3.14.1 nutrient delivery ratio model was used to assess the sub-basin's capacity to filter and purify water by trapping nitrogen exports, based on the present land cover for each scenario.Economic Valuation-The economic benefits of water purification were estimated using avoided-cost methods, focusing on the expenses avoided in water treatment facilities due to the natural purification services provided by ecosystems. Input and output data for assessing and evaluating water purification are reported in Table 4. Table 3. Input and output data for the assessment and evaluation of water provisioning.Land cover map (BAU and NbS scenarios) BAU: Raster of land use/land cover (LULC) for each pixel (resolution 5 m × 5 m), based on [36] NbS: BAU map adapted with prioritized areas for a PES scheme from the municipality of Palmira Precipitation map Raster of average annual precipitation in the sub-basing, retrieved from [50] Evapotranspiration map Raster of average annual evapotranspiration in the sub-basin, retrieved from [51] Root restricting layer depth map Raster of root restricting layer depth, the soil depth at which root penetration is strongly inhibited because of physical or chemical characteristics, retrieved from [52] Plant available water content Raster of plant available water content, the fraction of water that can be stored in the soil profile that is available to plants. Value defined as 1, as per the suggestion of the InVEST model Biophysical table csv file reporting biophysical parameters for each LULC class; parameters were derived from [51,52] Economic value (EUR)Market price from water use for hydropower, agricultural, and domestic purposes; data from [53] in COP and converted to EURWater yield volume (m 3 ) Raster values with the total volume of water yield in the sub-basin (in m 3 ) Table 4. Input and output data for the assessment and evaluation of water purification.Land cover map (BAU and NbS scenarios) BAU: Raster of land use/land cover (LULC) for each pixel (resolution 5 m × 5 m), based on [36] NbS: BAU map adapted with prioritized areas for a PES scheme from the municipality of Palmira Digital Elevation Model Raster of elevation above sea level for the study area; data from [54] Nutrient Runoff Proxy Raster of average annual precipitation in the sub-basin, retrieved from [50] Biophysical table csv file reporting each LULC class in relation to its biophysical properties to N load and retention; values were derived from [55,56] Economic value Replacement cost method. Surrogate good: lamination basin. Unit cost: EUR 87.6/kg of N; data retrieved from [57] in COP and converted to EUR and updated to 2023.Total N export (kg/m 2 /year) A raster showing how much nitrogen from each pixel eventually reaches the stream for each scenario Biophysical Assessment-An Excel-based calculation was conducted to estimate changes in food production under different scenarios, considering the area of arable land and crop yield data.Economic Valuation-The economic value of food provisioning was evaluated using market prices, considering the potential revenue from different agricultural products sales.Input and output data for assessing and evaluating food provisioning are reported in Table 5.Table 5. Input and output data for the assessment and evaluation of food provisioning.Products List of agricultural products harvested in the Nima River sub-basin; data retrieved from [34] Price per kg and ton (EUR/kg and EUR/ton)The price of the product per kilogram and ton in COP retrieved from [58] and converted into EUR Farmed area in Nima (ha)The area where each product is cultivated within the Nima River sub-basin; data calculated via Q-GIS based on the land cover mapsTotal crop production in the Nima basin (ton)The total production quantity of each product, based on the harvested area and yieldThe total market value of the production from the Nima River sub-basin in EUR, calculated by multiplying the production quantity by the price per tonThis section presents the outcomes of the participatory process that selected and prioritized the most relevant NbS to conduct the ES valuation in the Nima sub-basin (Section 3.1) and the findings from such biophysical and economic valuations for both the BAU and NbS scenarios (Section 3.2).The participatory process with WEFE-relevant stakeholders focused on proposing and prioritizing NbS. As a result of this process, 11 NbSs were considered relevant to face the challenges of the sub-basin (i.e., water quality and quantity). Moreover, stakeholders proposed to add four extra measures they considered relevant. Subsequently, among the total 15 NbSs selected, stakeholders prioritized 5 of them using the criteria mentioned in the methodology section (Section 2.2). Forest landscape restoration was the final solution prioritized as the most relevant by the stakeholders (Table 6 synthesizes the process of NbS selection and prioritization, from the initial list proposed to the final NbS selected).The assessment of targeted ESs associated to both the BAU and NbS scenarios was conducted through a two-step process. First, ESs were assessed in biophysical terms (Section 3.2.1) and an economic analysis was performed to quantify the economic impacts of the two scenarios (Section 3.2.2).The biophysical assessment estimated that 233,143 m 3 of water is retained annually when comparing the BAU scenario with the NbS scenario (Table 7). This result indicates a 2.9% increase in water retention for the NbS scenario (i.e., implementing the forest landscape restoration strategy via the PES scheme). Conversely, the evaluation of water provision showed a minimal increase of 0.01% in the volume of surface water available per year, from 157.12 million m 3 /year in the BAU scenario to 157.14 million m 3 /year in the NbS scenario.   Water quality assessment indicates a 4.7% reduction in nitrogen pollutants (kg/year) when transitioning from the BAU scenario to the NbS scenario. This result highlights the potential positive impact of forest landscape restoration in lowering water pollution levels. On the other hand, the food production service showed a reduction in the NbS scenario concerning the BAU one since part of the forest landscape restoration strategy was simulated in current agricultural lands. The biophysical assessment estimated total crop production to be 474,250.11 ton/year under the BAU scenario and 470,506.34 ton/year under the NbS scenario. These results imply a 3743.77 ton/year reduction, equivalent to a decrease of nearly 0.8% in service provision.The economic valuation exercise estimates significant differences between the BAU and NbS scenarios. The values reported consist of single annuities of terminating annual series for both scenarios calculated based on a 25-year horizon (Table 8). Water flow regulation emerges as the ES with the most substantial increase under the NbS scenario, showing an increase of EUR 11.39 million/year compared to the BAU scenario, with a total value of EUR 155.64 million/year. The water provisioning service displays a comparative minimal difference between the two scenarios, yielding an increase of EUR 19,729.43/year in the NbS scenario over the BAU, with total values of EUR 370,701.26/year and EUR 350,971.83/year, respectively. This marginal difference aligns with the minor variation observed from the biophysical assessment. Regarding the water purification service, the estimated avoided costs for water purification show a moderate decrease under the NbS scenario, which reflects the positive effect of the NbS for this service. The economic benefit is estimated at EUR 265,779.96/year in terms of avoided costs with respect to the BAU scenario. On the other hand, the food provisioning service shows a decrease in the NbS scenario. The economic valuation indicates a reduction of EUR 3,212,923.70/year compared to the BAU scenario, contrary to the other services. This economic decrease corresponds with the reduction observed in the biophysical assessment of this service.These assessments estimate that the NbS scenario results in a net positive economic impact of EUR 8,463,673.93/year across all evaluated ESs.The biophysical and economic valuation results of this study provide valuable insights into the potential impacts of implementing NbSs in the Nima sub-basin in Colombia with a WEFE nexus approach. Our estimations show that the forest-based NbS scenario results in a net positive economic impact of EUR 8.46 million/year across all evaluated ESs. This finding aligns with other studies that have shown the economic benefits of NbSs, such as [59], who report significant economic advantages of forest-NbSs through the supply of multiple ESs, among which are water flow regulation and water quality. Other studies like [60] report a significant increase in carbon sequestration through forest conservation and restoration. We observed reduced food provision at the expense of increased water flow regulation and purification. Interestingly, our results show a slight increase (0.01%) in annual water quantity, differing from some studies that suggest forest restoration might reduce overall water availability in a basin [61] and, in more general terms, suggest a strong relationship between forest cover and change in runoff patterns, e.g., [62]. On the other hand, our findings are consistent with those of [63], who found that reforestation measures can reduce peak flows and stormflows associated with soil degradation; however, they did not report evidence that this also produced a corresponding increase in low flows. Although the dominant paradigm indicates trade-offs between forest cover and water yield, particularly in terms of groundwater recharge, [64] identified several caveats and biases. While these inconsistent findings may advocate for more specific studies, they may also suggest that some issues arose in feeding or calibrating relevant InVEST models.Our study contributes to addressing knowledge gaps about forest-NbS scenarios in multipurpose water basins, which are critical for water supply to various sectors. This approach serves as an instrument for considering different elements of the WEFE nexus, highlighting potential synergies and trade-offs across sectors. For instance, the reduction in food provision indicated by our valuation might raise concerns among some stakeholders (e.g., farmers) in the municipality of Palmira, mainly if restoration is applied to the entire middle and upper zones of the sub-basin where agriculture is relevant for local livelihoods [65].The participatory process employed in this study plays a crucial role in legitimizing the results and enhancing their potential for integration into decision-making processes. This approach coincides with the growing recognition of the importance of stakeholder engagement in ES assessment and valuation, aligning theoretical models with the interests of local governments and other stakeholders [66,67]. In this way, our findings can significantly contribute to decision-making related to agricultural conversion projects in strategic zones of the Nima River sub-basin, potentially enabling these projects to be integrated into the implemented PES program.The potential effectiveness of this exercise in promoting PES schemes for forest landscape restoration is significant. By quantifying the economic value of ES under different scenarios, our study provides a strong foundation for justifying investments in NbSs. This approach is similar to that used by [68] in their analysis of PES schemes in Costa Rica, where economic valuation played a crucial role in program design and implementation. Our findings, showing increases in water flow regulation and water purification services, align with other successful PES cases in Latin America, such as the Water Funds in Ecuador and Colombia [69]. Globally, our results contribute to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of economic valuation in PES scheme development, as seen in cases from Vietnam [70] and Tanzania [71].Despite the valuable insights provided by this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. Data availability was a significant constraint, necessitating reliance on global sources that might not be accurately calibrated to the study area. This limitation is common in ecosystem service valuation studies, as noted by [2]. Additionally, our analysis focused on a subset of forest ES, potentially underestimating the total value of NbS implementation. For instance, carbon sequestration could significantly increase the estimated benefits, as [72] demonstrated in their global forest carbon assessment. Forests also provide other significant regulating services, such as moisture recycling and temperature regulation, which might influence other land cover responses (e.g., agriculture). The study by [73] reported that nearly 50% of precipitation in certain regions is regulated by vegetation, and studies by [74,75] demonstrated how forests effectively contribute to global and local cooling by driving evapotranspiration, creating cloud cover, and influencing surface albedo. These ESs provided by forests play a critical role in sustaining agricultural productivity downwind from forested areas. Similarly, ESs that might reveal additional economic advantages from forest conservation and restoration are pollination and biological control services, as [76] showed in their study on coffee production in Costa Rica.Despite these limitations, this study can provide substantial policy implications for land use planning and ES management. Our findings support the mobilization of Target 19 of the Global Biodiversity Framework, which aims to increase financial resources for biodiversity conservation. This study provides a strong argument for integrating ecosystem service valuation into land planning processes by demonstrating the economic value of NbSs. This narrative aligns with the recommendations of [77], who argue for mainstream-ing natural capital approaches in decision-making. Furthermore, our results can inform the development of more comprehensive PES schemes and support the implementation of NbSs at larger scales, contributing to both local sustainable development and global conservation goals.We conducted a biophysical and economic valuation of ES to compare BAU and forest-NbS scenarios to estimate potential benefits and trade-offs of land use development trajectories with a WEFE nexus approach in a multipurpose Andean water sub-basin in Western Colombia. Our estimations show that the forest-based NbS scenario results in significant net positive economic impacts across all evaluated ESs, yet highlights relevant trade-offs between ESs (e.g., food provisioning). From a public policy perspective, such a scenario looks fully consistent with the rationale behind policy tools and-in particularmarket-based instruments to support ES delivery. Indeed, the NbS scenario would support the provision of a set of public goods, benefiting local communities as a whole, at the (partial) expense of private goods (food). The estimated gap in terms of benefits gained under the NbS scenario provides robust justification for the NbS development from a public investment angle, as it demonstrates it would be possible to support farmers in partly shifting land use and management practices towards solutions benefiting society at large, including beyond the targeted area. In fact, the benefits gained under the NbS scenario, in terms of water flow regulation, water quality, and water quantity, could contribute to reducing the main water-related challenges affecting farmers in the upper part of the sub-basin.The study builds on a participatory process involving stakeholders from different WEFE sectors within the sub-basin, who prioritized and selected the NbS scenario to compare against the BAU one, enhancing community participation and the potential integration of this exercise into potential decision-making processes. ESs for both scenarios were assessed from both biophysical and economic perspectives, considering ES representing different WEFE dimensions.Our study supports the growing body of literature on the economic benefits of forest-NbSs, and can provide policy implications for land use planning and ecosystem services management. Specifically, our findings could support the mobilization of important global environmental goals, such as Target 19 of the Global Biodiversity Framework. Our results can inform the development of PES schemes and support the implementation of NbSs at larger scales, contributing to both local sustainable development and global conservation goals. The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.We would like to thank all the stakeholders from the workshops held for the REXUS Nima pilot site for their valuable contributions to this research. We extend our special gratitude to the Dirección de Gestión de Medio Ambiente de Palmira for providing essential information about the Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) in Palmira. Their support has been instrumental in completing this study. A special thanks to Luisa Fernanda Eusse-Villa for supporting the creation of Figures 1 and 2.","tokenCount":"5538"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a55f4737a0c9aeee67e5284bd8d6c1e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9407014a-64b0-4b34-a640-a261c2e35d8d/retrieve","id":"1326904473"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8967976f-b7d5-4ed7-922a-d58b6d2e3f0a","pagecount":"11","content":"ISBN 978 94 6022 433 1M aking silage is a good way to feed animals in the dry season in Uganda.The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish is doing a lot of research on this and is hoping to promote it widely. But will it work somewhere else -in Kenya, say, or Zambia? Doing a set of experimental trials in many locations is expensive and timeconsuming. So scientists try to choose where they target their innovations by looking at aspects like the climate, soils, and socio-economic characteristics such as poverty and market access. Maps can be used to show where a particular technology looks promising.Gender can be a critical influence on the success of a particular intervention. A technology that works well in one place might fail completely in another because of different gender contexts. Stall-feeding, for example, takes a lot of time. It works well if women have sufficient time to collect and chop the feed. It is likely to fail in locations where women already have a high labour burden from their farming and household responsibilities. They will probably prefer to leave their animals out to graze even though this is less productive in terms of milk or meat output.But how to get gender relations and constraints into this targeting? We need a set of maps that show various aspects of gender so we can judge where contexts are similar, and where they differ.To create such maps, we followed four steps:We first decided what types of information to include in the map.1. We selected a large number of variables to reflect this information.2. We built a new set of indicators, or factors, that summarize these variables.3. We created a set of maps showing these factors.We needed a framework that could reflect a whole range of transactions in agricultural value chains. The New Institutional Economics framework (Williamson, 2000) captures four levels: informal institutions, formal institutions, governance and resource allocations. For each of these levels, we identified the corresponding gender concepts. Informal institutions, for example, relate to gender norms such as inheritances being reserved to men (the first column in Table 5.1). We then chose a set of gender indicators to reflect how these gender concepts relate to value chains (the second column in the table ).   Women have low decision-making power in their households, earn less than their partners, don't take decisions about money, yet have access to radio and TV. They live in countries that protect them against violence.We wanted to compare across countries and if possible among regions within countries. We needed a large, existing dataset to make this possible. For levels 1 and 2 (formal and informal institutions), we used country-level data from the OECD social institution and gender index (SIGI) database, covering 160 countries. We selected five variables: laws on domestic violence, women's secure access to land, women's secure access to non-land assets, women's access to financial services, and women's access to public space. Each of these variables can take on a score from 0 to 1, where 0 means no discrimination, and 1 means legal discrimination. A score between 0 and 1 depends on experts' opinions on the extent of discrimination through customary law (bringing in the informal institutions).For levels 3 (governance) and 4 (resource allocation), we used data from the Demographic Health Survey (DHS), which covers 90 countries in the developing world. These are individual-level data that cover a wide range of issues: ranging from educational level and access to information to decision-making within the household and ownership of assets. These data come from standardized interviews with a representative samples of women in each region within each country.The OECD data are at a national level, while the DHS data are at an individual level. To use both in the same analysis, we had to make them compatible. We did this by assigning the OECD scores for the country to each individual in the DHS dataset.The third step was to reduce our 20+ variables into a more manageable number. We did this by using factor analysis -a statistical technique that combines variables that are correlated with each other and identifies a set of factors that reflect the underlying meaning of the data.We discovered that the data for countries in Africa and Asia were rather different, so we did separate factor analyses for the two continents. We focus here on Africa. Our analysis identified six factors; Table 5.2 shows these, the variables that contribute to each factor, and how we interpreted each one.To produce maps from the factors, we aggregated the individual-level factors by grouping together women living in the same subnational region. We then plotted these data on a map of Africa. The left-hand map of Figure 5.2 shows that women in Zambia are subject to strong discrimination in terms of laws and customs compared to, say, Uganda. But Zambian women have more decision-making power within their households than do their sisters in Uganda.To return to the question at the start of this section: if we are considering transferring a silage-making technique from Uganda to Zambia, we need to be careful: it may not work because women in Zambia do not own land. On the other hand, it might work because they have more power in their households and may be able to persuade their husbands to try out the new idea.A serious researcher is obviously not going to make decisions just based on a set of such maps. She will also consult with specialists who know the area, look at other datasets and read the literature, before conducting small-scale trials in the new location. But the maps do provide useful information: they give a first indication for possible areas to consider -opportunities -and, they alert the researcher to potential problems. Another choice concerns how to measure indicators and how to treat missing data. An example: a woman's family may not own land because it is too poor. Or the family may own a lot of land, but it is not in the woman's name. In both cases she owns no land, but her situation is clearly different. We need to decide how to deal with this when selecting our variables. For the presented maps, we decided to use women's ownership of land and non-land asset regardless of their family situation, measuring the power a woman has over critical assets needed contribute to the value chain development.All this means that a set of maps may be useful for one purpose but not for another. We can transfer the approach, but may need to generate new maps for different research topics. That may take time and require some recoding of the computer program that generates the maps. Part 1 Gender-integrated methodologies and systems analysisWe have shown it is possible to map gender in a meaningful way and to compare contexts within and between countries. Two issues remain: Do the maps reflect reality on the ground? Validation is often a challenge for global maps. The Livestock and Fish programme has a lot of qualitative data that can be used to validate these maps. More case studies and detailed analysis are needed to understand better how accurate and useful the current maps are.What is the added value of gender context maps for targeting? The maps have not yet been tested for targeting research or development activities. We do not yet have any evidence that they will be useful. We need to test them in targeting actual research activities and seeing if they provide any new recommendations. If they do -and if the recommendations are valid -then we can be confident that we have created a useful product.The project speaks to the gender integrated research agenda because the gender maps can be used to identify the gender characteristics of contexts to interventions. Gender characteristics are considered an important aspect of contexts that affect the uptake of technological and institutional innovations and solutions. Identifying these factors, and also identifying how contexts correspond or differ from other contexts on gender characteristics is helpful to see which innovations can be scaled out where, and what gender considerations merit consideration in implementing these innovations.In terms of gender integration, this project:• Uses sex-disaggregated data, and especially data in existing datasets that is collected from women ","tokenCount":"1373"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f77b550e78d328d802af9fd5bb34ec13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7814d19-5845-4043-86d1-59451512deb6/retrieve","id":"170761710"},"keywords":["agricultural incentives","GHG","nominal rate of assistance","nominal rate of protection","value chain JEL codes: Q11","055","L1"],"sieverID":"a43e50fc-215a-446e-aa64-1991d86cca42","pagecount":"87","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for countryled development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.Establishing an Agricultural Incentives database was the key element of this research program. This allowed us to bring together and harmonize data collected by four key international organizations-FAO, the Inter-American Development Bank, the OECD and the World Bank-and to make them widely available on a dedicated website hosted by IFPRI. Doing so increased the geographic coverage of data from 27 country/regions (including the EU) covered by the OECD to 62 country/regions, including many where agricultural support measures strongly affect poverty.The Ag-incentives data are important both in their own right and as a platform for further research by both IFPRI team members and external researchers. Because the Ag-Incentives data are compatible with the now-dated collection of data from the World Bank's Distortions to AgriculturalIncentives database, they have allowed construction of consistent data series from 1981 to 2020 in recent work and could potentially allow extension of the data back to 1955 in some cases. These long data series are particularly important because the pattern of agricultural support changes as countries develop, with countries typically moving from taxing agriculture in developing and under-developed countries to supporting it in developed countries. The new, extended data series include both support from subsidies as well as from market price support provided by trade distortions, allowing us to provide a much more complete picture of support as richer countries tend to provide much more of their support through subsidies than developing and under-developed countries.Within the IFPRI team, the Ag Incentives data provided a basis for a wide range of research on key topics. An important series of PIM supported studies focused on agricultural incentives and value chain development. These studies examined value chains in Ethiopia, India, Nigeria and Tanzania,showcasing the importance of the overall policy framework for key commodities. A related set of studies used gender-differentiated protection indicators to assess impacts on women.Another important strand of work under this theme is on the critical topic of repurposing agricultural support. While there are major concerns about the adverse impacts of current support, there appear to be few concrete plans for reform in a way that will address these concerns. Recent IFPRI-World Bank work has revealed various simpler approaches to reform widely advocated policies-such as removing support from livestock, making support uniform across commodities, or abolishing all support-would not generate the transformational reductions in emissions needed to limit global warming. Another popular approach to reform-by using conditionality to induce farmers to produce with lower emissions-faces the limitation that by lowering productivity, it is likely to require an increase in agricultural land use, and hence emissions from land use change. This research shows that a much deeperAgricultural policy measures affect commodities at farm as well as the entire agri-food value chain of a commodity. These impacts are important as farmers in developing countries have increasingly become more market oriented, with smallholder farmers selling substantial shares of their farm output (Rapsomanikis, 2015) and relying on markets, both to generate income and to meet food needs (Sibhatu and Qaim, 2017). To understand the full implications of agricultural policies, it is necessary to correctly measure the extent to which policies distort market prices of commodities along the value chain, and to understand the implications of protection provided to other sectors, protection that affects agricultural incentives indirectly both through impacts on prices of intermediates and through real exchange rate impacts.The functioning and performance of agricultural value chains are particularly important for the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in developing countries. In developing countries, especially in lowermiddle income countries, agriculture provides an important share of employment and a smaller, but still important, share of GDP. To support development and to respond to political-economy pressures, governments often intervene with trade policies or price support for specific agricultural commodities or products.In addition to domestic value chains, global value chains are growing in importance. Bulk agricultural products account for under a quarter of global agricultural trade, with processed, semiprocessed products and horticultural products accounting for the remaining 75 percent. In Africa, horticultural products, involving complex supply chains, accounted for 22 percent of agricultural exports and processed and semi-processed products 43 percent (Fukase and Martin, 2018).In this Discussion Paper, we draw lessons from various studies that were supported by CGIAR Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) program on agricultural incentives, including i) the links between agricultural incentives and value chain development, and ii) links between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes.The first objective of this Report is to place the global Ag-Incentives database and other studies that rely on it into a broader perspective of agricultural and value chain development. The Report links this work to the ongoing discussions on repurposing of agricultural support. We also discuss achievements of the Ag-Incentives Consortium through multi-institutional collaboration among key stakeholders, such as policy makers, researchers, and market participants. We also point out the important role of this initiative as a foundation for many other studies that contribute to the positive changes sought by PIM.One of the most critical contributions of the studies supported by PIM is to highlight the necessity to look beyond impacts at the single node of an agricultural value chain. Thus, the second objective of this Discussion Paper is to highlight the contributions of studies that link agricultural policy analysis to value chain analysis. This will include discussion of studies that build on the Ag-Incentives framework and value chain analysis. These include studies of repurposing agricultural incentives to achieve environmental goals; studies of the process of transformation as economies develop; and studies that examine ways to combine multiple interventions to address multiple goals.We discuss in some depth methodological contributions to the literature on linking nominal rate of protection (NRP) analysis to value chain analysis. For this, we draw from a study on Indian value chains, which proposed a new methodology to extend the NRP approach that is estimated for commodities to a value chain framework. Second, we will discuss NRPs and policy impacts along value chains in three developing countries: small ruminants in Ethiopia, palm oil and cacao in Nigeria, and maize and groundnuts in Tanzania. Finally, we will discuss gender dimensions of agricultural policy and its impact by drawing from gender-differentiated NRP indicators computed for Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda.The third objective of this Discussion Paper is to propose a framework which enables further scientific use of the Ag-Incentives database and the underlying methodology for research and policy analysis. This is intended to help future researchers move beyond policy measurement to other research topics such as meta-analyses of distortions and disincentives. This section of the report discusses the organization and achievements of the Ag-Incentives Consortium whose data are fundamental to analysis of the impacts of agricultural support on value chains. It also examines a series of studies that use this work to investigate key questions such as the impacts of changes in support on global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.Many governments intervene in agricultural markets to accomplish a variety of goals, such as keeping food prices low for consumers, raising farm incomes, and/or reducing food price volatility. These policies may generate overlapping and opposing outcomes along the agricultural value chain, by protecting one part of the value chain and taxing another. Policy interventions, particularly those in large countries, can also have large impacts on world prices of commodities. In this context, it is important to have continuous and accurate measurement of agricultural incentives for a wide range of agricultural commodities.Frequently, the means used to provide protection or taxation of agriculture are non-transparent, making it difficult for participants in policy debates-especially those in partner countries-even to be confident whether agriculture is being protected or taxed. Continuous monitoring and measurement of agricultural incentives in many countries helps provide timely information on impacts both on key stakeholder groups, such as the poor, within countries and on world markets. Reliable information helps governments make necessary policy adjustments in response to a wide range of shocks.To provide an agreed database on agricultural incentive measures within the group of rich industrial countries, the OECD has been preparing standardized estimates of agricultural incentive measures since the 1980s. Over time, the coverage of this effort has been extended to include some of the developing countries with the largest impacts on world markets. Two major one-off studies from the World Bank provided measures of these distortions for a range of developing countries. The seminal Krueger, Schiff and Valdés (1988) study covered 18 countries while the Anderson (2009) study covered a total of 75 countries, with around 40 developing countries in addition to the high-income countries covered by OECD. In terms of institutional efforts, OECD annually updates the Producer Support Estimate (PSE) database for OECD countries and selected emerging economies (see OECD 2020). The IDB's Agrimonitor program 1 uses the OECD methodology and covers close to twenty countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. FAO-MAFAP publishes similar estimates for 15 countries, mostly in Africa (Pernechele, Balié, and Ghins, 2018). Results from studies of agricultural incentives in South Asia initiated by the World Bank are also included in the database (Ejaz and Ahmed, 2017;Weerahewa, 2017).The wide scope of databases with slightly different methodologies and terminology makes it difficult for stakeholders to interpret the impacts of policies on market incentives for the countries applying the measures, for their trading partners, and for world market outcomes. A comprehensive and long-term database helps analysts and policy makers to compare and interpret the impacts of policies across commodities, countries, and over time, while avoiding duplication of effort. To measure agricultural incentives, different methodologies are used in the literature. These methodologies fall into two categories: (i) direct measurement of policies, and (ii) inferring the stance of policy by examining the impacts of policies on the gaps between prices. Direct measurement of policies works well if the policies are transparent measures such as tariffs, whose impact can be specified with a summary measure such as a percentage rate. Unfortunately, many agricultural price distortions arise from measures such as product licenses, import quotas, tariff-rate-quotas, or export bans. Sometimes multiple measures apply to the same product either at one time or at different points in time. To deal with the problems of multiple instruments, and the non-transparent impacts of quantitative restrictions, the main approach to measuring agricultural distortions (since Josling, 1973) has been to estimate the combined impact of all relevant measures using the gap between the internal and external prices of the good.Dividing this price gap by the external reference price converts it into a nominal rate of protection (NRP)that is comparable to an ad valorem tariff. For this measure to be a valid representation of the effects of policies, great care must be taken to ensure that the products outside and inside the country are comparable in terms of quality, location, and other key product attributes at a point of competition between domestic and traded goods.Once this NRP has been calculated, it can be converted-by adjusting for transport and other costs-into an estimate of the impact of distortions on prices at other points in the value chain, such as at the farmgate. The impacts of domestic support measures such as output or input subsidies can also be added to it to obtain a total measure of the impact on incentives.To capture the net effect of policies, the NRP measures the impact of policies on domestic prices relative to the reference prices that would have applied had there been no interventions.The NRP methodology is based on the law of one price, which requires that the domestic and the border prices refer to comparable commodities. A reference price at the farmgate is computed and used to estimate the NRP by comparing it with the farmgate price that is distorted. This price difference, expressed as a percentage, is the NRP. Positive NRPs indicate that producers receive prices above prevailing international prices, meaning that policies have subsidized the producers. Negative NRPs indicate that producers receive prices below international prices, meaning policies have taxed producers.An estimate of the monetary value of market price support (MPS), is also provided in the Ag-Incentives database. MPS is computed as:Another important indicator used in the literature is the Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA). The NRA is an extension of the NRP that includes policies such as subsidies (spending) to inputs and outputs in addition to the price gap measured by the NRP. The total NRA to farm output can be decomposed into support provided by border price support (the NRP), support provided by domestic policies such as subsidies on outputs and inputs, which, when summed together, generate the total NRA. The total NRA may be decomposed into support to inputs and to output.The  Where only market price support is provided, or only market price support is being considered, equations (4) and ( 5) can be used to compare the PSE and the NRP.The PSE-type measures have a useful interpretation as the share of producer income that is provided by the distortions under consideration. The NRP/NRA measures have a useful interpretation as the tariff rate that would be equivalent to the measures applying to the commodity. For small rates of intervention, the two measures are similar, with a 5 percent NRP translating into a PSE of 4.76 percent.However, for large rates of distortion, the gap between the two becomes quite large, with a 50 percent NRP translating into a PSE of 33 percent. Both these measures are useful, although for different questions, and it is important to recall that they can readily be inter-converted.The Effective Rate of Protection (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41), introduced by Corden (1966) and Balassa (1965), is an indicator for analyzing the impacts of trade distortions on value added at different points in the value chain. Corden (1966) defines the \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41 as the percentage increase in domestic value added per unit in an economic activity due to current tariff structure relative to a situation in absence of tariffs. This measure is particularly important for activities that involve substantial use of intermediate inputs, such as processing activities and manufacturing, where differences between protection to inputs and outputs may make it difficult to be sure whether an activity is, on balance, protected or taxed, and where the incentive or disincentives to output from seemingly modest rates of intervention may be very large. Calculation of ERPs requires information on the NRPs for both inputs and outputs. This measure is rarely used for agriculture but is very important for manufacturing sectors where intermediate inputs are generally a larger share of output value and many intermediate commodity prices may be distorted.The global Ag-Incentives database provides an NRP indicator, using a consistent methodology, drawing on all the available IO databases. Based on this harmonization and consolidation effort, the Ag-Incentives website was launched in 2017 to release the harmonized database. The audience for the website is many stakeholders, including journalists, academics, policy makers, researchers and nongovernment organizations (NGOs). By drawing together comparable data, the Ag-Incentives database can be used to analyze the impact of agricultural policies on the welfare of farmers and consumers globally.Nominal Rate of Assistance (NRA) measures that include both the market price support represented in the NRP and other support measures such as subsidies to output, input and factors have been computed and are scheduled for release in 2022. Major work has also been undertaken to extend the duration of many NRP series back to the mid-1950s by harmonizing the data in the Ag-Incentives database with the time series from 1955 to 2005 generated by the Anderson (2009) Distortions to Agricultural Incentives project at the World Bank.Table 1 shows the country and commodity coverage of NRPs in the database as of late 2021.There is some overlap across geographical and sector coverage across IO databases. Thus, the Consortium maintains the mandate and the independence of each IO, while creating a collaborative approach and recognizing Intellectual Property Rights. To understand the full implications of agricultural policies, it is necessary to correctly measure and interpret policy distortions to agricultural incentives. In this section, we will provide a brief survey of these interventions in global agricultural markets by systematically reviewing estimates of policy induced distortions to agricultural incentives. We use the Ag-Incentives Consortium 2 database to assess these policy distortions. The database combines data from multiple International Organizations (IO) and uses the NRP methodology based on data from each of the IOs.  One useful perspective is provided by comparison of the weighted average NRP for the agricultural sector globally with global food price indices such as the FAO Food Price index. Figure 2 shows that the average protection rate responded strongly to the food price crisis of 2008 and 2011. In both years, world food prices increased, and average NRPs decreased substantially as governments sought to insulate consumers from higher global market prices.While this insulation approach might appear to each individual country to make sense -taking the changes in world prices as given -these reductions in protection increase the demand for food within the insulating countries and reduce the incentive to produce. This, in turn, raises world prices, reducing the effectiveness of each country's attempt to stabilize its domestic prices (Anderson, Ivanic, and Martin, 2014). Martin and Anderson (2012) offer an analogy with the situation where every member of a crowd rises in a stadium to get a better view of the game-thereby wiping out the improvement in view that they all seek.Anderson, Martin and Ivanic (2017) offer another analogy by noting that that, if all countries reduced their protection by the same amount -such as the observed average decline in protection -the increase in the world price would completely offset the reduction in their protection, causing their domestic prices to rise in line with the original increase in world prices, and rendering their interventions collectively ineffective. However, countries differ in the extent to which they try to offset the impact of higher world prices. In this context, the only way that an individual country can effectively stabilize its domestic price is by reducing its protection by more than the average. Clearly, however, not all countries Oilseeds and products Other TOTAL can reduce their protection by more than the average amount, any more than all children in a class can be above average.A further possibility is that countries may focus on food availability, as argued by Sen (1981), likely at least in part because of confusion between food self-sufficiency and food security. This results in NRPs that depend on the volume of domestic production, with poor harvests resulting in higher rates of protection, and good harvests in low rates of protection, with price stabilization efforts frequently resulting in greater price instability (Jayne 2012, p144). If elasticities of demand for food are near unity, this may stabilize farm incomes, while destabilizing consumer costs (Newbery and Stiglitz 1984). If elasticities of demand for food are less than unity, as seems likely, such a policy will destabilize both producer revenues and consumer costs. Koo, Mamun and Martin (2021) analyze a case where food policies based on availability exacerbate the costs of adverse output shocks to farmers who are net sellers, and increase poverty. This type of policy is perhaps worse than price insulation in that it destabilizes both domestic prices and -by blocking the country's responses to changes in world prices -world prices as well.Analysis aimed at assessing the effectiveness of agricultural trade policies requires information on agricultural protection rates over time. This is the case whether the objective is to assess the effectiveness of an individual, small country's policies in stabilizing domestic prices; to assess the effectiveness countries' collective action on the stability of world prices (Ivanic and Martin 2014) or the impacts of food self-sufficiency policies on both domestic and external price instability. The Ag Incentives database provides essential information for analyzing the impacts of current food price policies and for designing and testing the impacts of improved policies.  In the next step, let's look at trends of agricultural incentives across different agricultural products. High Income countries protect their Animal products sector over the study period at high rates, whereas Middle Income countries increase their protection from negligible amounts in 2005 to 10% in 2018 (Figure 4). Low Income countries, on the other hand, tax the Animal products sector at very high rates, with considerable volatility seen in the negative NRP values. Oilseeds show quite high variation, although some of this volatility may reflect changes in the countries included in this relatively small sample of countries where estimates of support to oilseeds are available.To the extent that these fluctuations in NRPs reflect actual changes in protection, they raise important policy questions for which the Ag Incentives data permit thorough analysis. When we compare NRPs for the agricultural sector across regions in Figure 7, we see the high taxation rate in Africa, although this rate of taxation has declined over time. This is partly due to governments in the region following cheap food policies for products such as maize and partly due to export taxation on cash crops such as coffee and tea being an important source of government revenue.Europe's protection of agriculture declines over the period, whereas Asia's protection rate first decreases and then increases. Northern America has low but consistently positive NRP. The Latin America and Caribbean region oscillates between protection and taxation, but at low average rates. The NRP series averages 10 percent over the study period, while the NRA averages 16.8 percent.This gap roughly matches the 6.4 to 9.3 percent ratio seen in the first period and the 15 to 21 percent ratio seen at the end. However, this gap varied considerably during the period. In 1973-74, it appears that direct support to farmers declined considerably-perhaps because policy makers felt that farmers needed less support in this period of very high prices. The gap widened considerably between 1980 and 1984, as governments increased their direct support to farmers while the NRP remained low. These relationships between the NRP and the NRA point to complex dynamics of the type considered by Ivanic and Martin (2014) between domestic and world market prices.An important step is to have measures of agricultural incentives over an extended period. This is because the rate and form of protection frequently change as countries develop (Anderson 1995). Key  1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016 NRA NRP domestic subsidies and show, for instance, the dramatic decline in the reliance of the European Union on market price support between 1988 and 2007. They also show the dramatic turnaround in China from taxing agriculture in the early 1980s to an average of around 20 percent support after 2012.The Ag Incentives consortium itself provides important information for policy makers. But perhaps its most important contributions to PIM goals arise from the research that builds on it. Measures of the direct impacts of agricultural policies are important both in their own right and as inputs into model-based analysis examining the implications of policy reform. In recent years, a key policy issue has been the implications of repurposing agricultural support to improve both economic and environmental outcomes. The first study considered (Mamun, Martin, and Tokgoz, 2021) examines whether agricultural incentives are biased towards emission-intensive products. The second study, Laborde et al. (2021), examines the implications of repurposing agricultural incentives on emissions from production, while a third study by Gautam et al. (2022) examines the implications of reform taking into account emissions from both production and land use change. All of these studies deal with situations where policy makers have multiple objectives. To examine this problem in more detail, we turn to a study by Martin, Ivanic, and Mamun (2022) of policy formulation when policymakers have multiple objectives, such as economic efficiency and environmental outcomes or economic growth and poverty reduction.Agricultural production and land use change contributed to nearly 20 percent of GHG emissions globally in 2017 (FAOSTAT, 2021), the second largest contributor as a sector. Since agriculture and land use change are important sources of GHG emissions, it is crucial to address this issue if any meaningful contribution to addressing climate change is to be achieved. Thus, the environmental implications of agricultural production and agricultural policy framework are important in the climate change debate.If agricultural support is directed at commodities that are emission intensive, agricultural support might indirectly increase emissions by increasing the output of these commodities. Especially subsidies that have a direct positive impact on production would increase GHG emissions if given to commodities with higher emission intensities relative to the other countries producing the same commodity. For example, if rice production has higher GHG emissions per kg of output in Country A than in Country B, and if County A provides coupled subsidies to rice farmers, the impact on global GHG emissions is likely to be positive. Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) utilize the OECD PSE (2018) database and Tubiello (2019) to compare emission intensities of agricultural commodities and agricultural support for these commodities, grouped into OECD countries (mostly developed countries) and non-OECD countries (emerging economies). These two groups of countries differ widely in terms of support levels and support types as discussed in section 2.1 above. A particular challenge in designing policies to reduce emissions from agriculture arises because most of them are \"process\" emissions that do not respond directly to changes in incentives. This difference from emissions arising from combustion of fuels means that price policies do not affect the choice of production technique in the way that a carbon tax brings about substitution between fuels and reductions in fuel use per unit of output. In this situation, changes in agricultural support levels can influence emissions only by changing output levels.What matters for commodity output levels is primarily the extent to which support changes the incentive to produce particular outputs. While relatively commodity-neutral incentives such as fertilizer or capital subsidies affect overall agricultural output, the elasticities of aggregate agricultural supply response are generally low relative to those for individual commodities-where output can be changed both by augmenting inputs and by transferring land between activities. For this reason, the authors focus on agricultural support that can be associated with particular commodities, captured in the Single Commodity Transfer (SCT), which includes MPS for that commodity and that part of budget support (such as output subsidies) that can be identified with the particular commodity. It therefore excludes support such as fertilizer or other input subsidies that cannot generally be allocated to production of a specific commodity.Figure 9 below shows this commodity-specific support as a percentage of the value of production at reference prices in OECD and non-OECD countries using data from the OECD PSE database (2018).The highest support rate is for rice, followed by sugar, and beef and veal for OECD countries. For non-OECD countries, rapeseed, rice, sugar, and wheat have high rates of support. In both groups, there is wide variation in support rates across commodities. based on their methodology now available at FAOSTAT (Tubiello, 2019). Table 3 below presents average emission intensity by commodity and emission shares by commodity for OECD and non-OECD country groups in 2015. An important feature is the high emission intensity of ruminant meat in both OECD and non-OECD countries. There are significant differences in emission intensities between OECD and non-OECD countries: the emission intensity is twice as high in non-OECD countries for beef and veal; and more than twice as high in non-OECD countries for milk. When border measures in OECD countries increases output of beef and veal in OECD countries, there is an adverse output effect on emissions in the rich countries, but the associated reduction in global demand helps lower world prices and hence reduce the incentive to produce the good.Figure 9 above shows that beef and veal received approximately 18 percent support in OECD countries and 8 percent in non-OECD countries. Other livestock commodities, such as pig meat, also have higher emission intensity relative to other commodities in both groups of countries. Pig meat receives 11 percent support in OECD and 12 percent support in non-OECD countries. Another feature is the higher emission intensity of rice in OECD and non-OECD group relative to \"other cereals\".To the extent that market price support in OECD countries stimulates output in those countries while depressing output in other countries, it is important to examine differences in the emission intensity of production in each region. When we look at the share of emissions coming from specific agricultural commodities, ruminant meats contribute nearly half of emissions (Table 3) in both OECD and non-OECD countries. Milk has the same share of GHG emissions in both country groups, approximately 18 percent.One striking difference is the much higher share of rice in GHG emissions in non-OECD countries relative to OECD countries. Figure 9 shows that in OECD countries, support for rice is around 113 percent and in non-OECD countries it is around 33 percent. The share of emissions from rice production is about five times higher in non-OECD countries than in OECD countries. Considering the gaps in emission intensities between two groups of countries, one question to ask is what would happen if developing countries produced and consumed higher shares of milk and bovine meat, like OECD countries, but with the same emission intensity they currently have. Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) compute that the total emissions from current OECD output mix with the current emission intensities of non-OECD countries would increase total emissions from developing countries by 78 percent. With increasing incomes in developing countries, this answer generates concerns about the future of GHG emissions from agriculture. It should be noted that we are not considering trade, such as the import of dairy and livestock products by developing countries with high emission intensities from developed countries with low emission intensities.Emission intensities are not constant over time but tend to decline with improvements in productivity. Developing countries tend to have greater potential to increase productivity since they are further away from their production possibility frontier. Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) compute annual changes in emission intensity by commodity for both country groups (Table 4). For both country groups emission intensities are declining over time. Furthermore, for almost all commodities, emission intensities are declining faster in developing countries. A key question is whether the current structure of agricultural support is GHG unfriendly or not, i.e., \"does the current support encourage output of emission-intensive commodities relative to others?\" Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021) attempt to answer this question by comparing rate of support for these commodities relative to other commodities. They compute this ratio as:where \uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43 is the proportional support rate on emission intensive commodities (ruminant meats, milk, rice, other cereals, pig meat, poultry meat, eggs) and \uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC60 \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43 is the support rate on other commodities.  We see that in the early 1990's, globally the direct impact of agricultural incentives favored lower emission-intensive goods, with the ratio being only 0.85. For OECD countries, we observe the same, i.e. the ratio is below 1 in the study period, with variation over time, and ending at 0.90. In non-OECD countries, the ratio increases starting in 2007, and reaching above 1 over time. This shows that agricultural support in non-OECD countries has changed, favoring output of emission-intensive goods relative to others. One thing to note in this discussion is the nature of support. The trend of the ratio for non-OECD countries may overestimate the full impact on GHG emissions since most of the support was through MPS that raised consumer prices. Higher prices likely have reduced demand for those goods in countries with trade barriers while they reduced output in countries without such protection and facing depressed world prices.Countries spend significant resources on agricultural subsidies every year; the 51 countries covered by OECD's agricultural policy monitoring provided $483 billion per year in subsidies to farmers in 2015-17. At the same time, the effectiveness of this support has been in question for decades. The Ag-Incentives Consortium, supported by PIM, has played a critical role in this debate. It has brought together the findings from the organizations active in this field in order to develop a global view of agricultural incentives. Through this work, CGIAR PIM has contributed to better measurement of how agricultural policies are influencing market prices and incentives.The work of the Ag-Incentives Consortium is crucial since agricultural incentives change over time due to changes in policy environment and movements of agricultural prices in world markets.Regular estimation and analysis of agricultural incentives is necessary for meaningful discussion of policy reform. At the same time, the joint of impact of countries' policies influences the level of world prices. Thus, a meaningful policy reform debate needs to consider not only the country's own policy space, but also the impact of policies of countries with large share of the world trade and production. This policy reform debate is especially important due to ongoing debate on the impact of agricultural policy on environmental outcomes, especially GHG emissions.Countries allocate significant financial resources to agricultural resources. These resources are allocated either as coupled subsidies (direct subsidies on output or as subsidies on inputs that create incentives to increase output of specific goods) or as decoupled subsidies (that avoid altering incentives to change output levels but provide direct income support to farmers). Countries also support farmers through other policies such as trade or border measures (tariffs, licenses, or quotas that provide MPS by raising the domestic price relative to world price).In addition to the support measures discussed above, governments also attempt to improve the enabling environment for agriculture, by providing public goods, such as research and development and rural infrastructure. Governments also intervene in many ways that indirectly affect agriculture, such as by imposing mandates for use of biofuels and improving the poor people's access to food through social safety net programs.At the same time, the effectiveness of this agricultural support has been in doubt for decades. One study (supported by the FOLU Coalition) that relied on the Ag-Incentives database discussed the reform of agricultural support for improving environmental outcomes in developed and developing countries (Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz, 2021). The following discussion is based on the findings of Mamun, Martin, Tokgoz (2021).If we evaluate agricultural support policies based on how much they distort trade, market price support is the most distorting followed by coupled subsidies, and decoupled subsidies being the least distorting. If we evaluate agricultural support policies in the context of environmental impact, the ranking is different. Any given amount of support provided to producers by market access barriers has, other things equal, a smaller impact on global output and emissions than the same amount of support provided by subsidies. This is because the market price support, while increasing the incentive to produce in the part of the world receiving subsidies, reduces global demand for the product by raising its cost to consumers.Differences in emission intensities across regions also influence the outcome. For example, reduction of MPS in a developed country with low emission intensity may shift production to developing countries that have higher emissions per unit of output and thus increase overall GHG emissions.Emissions from agriculture and land use change have contributed to an increase in GHG emissions over the years (Tokgoz and Laborde. 2014). Thus, the impact of agricultural support on agricultural production is crucial in climate change debate as well. Any re-purposing debate of agricultural support needs to consider both the trade impact and the environmental impact (GHG emissions, water use, etc.).When discussing re-purposing of agricultural support, it is crucial to evaluate the financial burden. Agricultural support such as coupled and decoupled subsidies need to be funded directly, and thus they are under greater scrutiny. Measures directed towards market price support do not need to be funded and thus avoid this scrutiny. This makes trade and border measures appealing to importing countries that obtain tariff revenues or exporting countries that benefit from export tax as government revenue.When evaluating future of agricultural support, we begin the discussion with a brief review of recent trends. Agricultural support has been transformed in both developed and developing countries over the last decades. In High Income countries, there has been a strong move to decoupled subsidies away from MPS and coupled subsidies, as seen in the decline in average NRPs of High-Income countries in   Another form of agricultural support is spending on activities such as agricultural research and development and rural infrastructure. Agricultural R&D has been effective in increasing productivity in both developing and developed countries (Alston, et al., 2020). The OECD PSE database shows that for OECD and non-OECD countries, investment in these public goods is a relatively small share of total support. In the OECD countries, they average around 12 percent of total support (OECD, 2018), with the largest allocations going to infrastructure and research and knowledge generation. In the non-OECD countries, this type of support averaged around 16 percent of total support, with the largest amount spent on public stockholding and most of the remainder on infrastructure and knowledge generation.There are many paths to increasing productivity, such as use of more productive inputs, investments in mechanization and irrigation, better land management, agricultural R&D, and increases in cropping intensity (Laborde, et al. 2016;Poudel et al. 2012;ERS 2011). Governments can invest in these channels, especially research and development where the returns per dollar spent are likely $10 or more (Alston, 2018).Although agricultural support has been changing over time both in terms of form and spending amount, there are still calls for agricultural policy reform due to the challenges being faced globally: climate change, poverty, and nutritional issues. However, whether nationally or globally, any reform of agricultural support will face challenges since current beneficiaries would be the most vocal to oppose reform. To be successful, reformers need to make a careful strategic decision about the breadth of the policy agenda, including measures that would generate benefits to key interest groups. Incentive Program in the USA (Engel and Muller, 2015).A major limitation of these approaches is that they likely reduce productivity as well as emissions. While proponents of particular approaches to reducing emissions -such as organic farmingfrequently argue that their favored approach is more productive than technologies in current use, the need for conditionality to induce use of this approach suggests that producers are not convinced. Literature surveys of productivity in organic farming, for instance, suggest to a non-trivial loss in productivity associated with its use (Ponisio et al. 2014;Seurfert, Ramankutty, and Foley 2014). If farmers are induced to use less productive approaches by conditionality, this will lower the productivity of agriculture and require additional agricultural land use. Gautam et al. (2022) conclude that this approach can, on net, reduce emissions, despite the increase in emissions associated with increased agricultural land use, but that this comes at substantial costs in terms of national income, farm income and higher costs of healthy foods to consumers.The Gautam et al. (2022) study built a new database of agricultural support drawing on all the information in the Ag-Incentives database and selected additional information, such as estimates of domestic support based on the literature. Importantly, it also added emissions from land use change, to get a more comprehensive assessment of the impacts of changes in emissions from reform of support policies.It concluded that the most promising approach to achieving both economic and sustainability goals appears to be to invest in R&D designed to both reduce emissions and raise productivity. Approaches of this type have a double environmental dividend-reducing both emissions from production and emissions from land use change. They also raise national income and lower the costs of health diets. It is desirable that they be accompanied by programs to increase the mobility of labor out of agriculture to avoid depressing returns to agricultural workers. While higher productivity reduces the effect of lower emission intensities on total emissions by increasing demand for, and output of, food, this is offset by the reduction in land use change. A 30 percent increase in productivity coupled with a reduction in emission intensities of 30 percent ends up achieving almost a 40 percent reduction in total emissions.An IFPRI/ International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) project on agricultural transformations in Africa and Asia has built on the ag-incentives data to create policy taxonomies for agricultural transformation (Baliño et al 2019a). These identify how policies affect the transformation process and seek policy improvements. This framework was used in a major report that examines the performance of 117 countries over 45 years to understand which agricultural policies have succeed or failed (McDougal et al 2018). Without the fundamental data from the Ag Incentives database, it would not have been possible to provide such a comprehensive assessment. The Ag Incentives data have alsoprovided key inputs into a study on progress towards ending hunger and malnutrition that charts the progress that the world has made in improving food security and nutrition over the past 25 years, while documenting that the world remains far from ending hunger and all forms of malnutrition (Laborde,).An important FAO-UNDP-UNDP (2021) report examining possibilities for repurposing agricultural support to transform food systems builds extremely heavily on Ag Incentives data and IFPRI's modeling work. This report examines a wide range of impacts of agricultural support, such as impacts on the farm sector, nature, climate, nutrition, health and equity. On the basis of that analysis, it proposes a systematic and empirical approach to repurposing agricultural support for better outcomes more consistent with the objectives pursued by PIM.The A successful policy reform of agricultural support mechanisms needs to combine economic analysis focused on identifying policy challenges and building coalitions for achieving reforms. This highlights the need for a global Ag-Incentives database that brings together International Organizations:we need proper measurement of policy impact and distortions to agricultural incentives for meaningful policy reform. Economic analysis is useful to help organize the information about policy proposals and answers. While theory is important in guiding how we organize our information and structure models, many important policy questions cannot be answered without empirical analysis. Quantitative techniques allow us to see the impacts of policy interventions on tangible outcomes: income, GHG emissions, prices, poverty rates, etc. Therefore, both a public database like Ag-Incentives and modelling analysis based on this database are necessary to help aid the process of policy reform.PIM also supported other studies relevant to measurement of agricultural incentives in developing countries. These studies focused on measurement of agricultural incentives with a value chain perspective. These studies included analysis of Ethiopian sheep and goats value chains, Nigerian palm oil and cacao value chains, Tanzanian maize and groundnut value chains, and Indian oilseeds and biofuels value chains. These four developing country studies provide examples of how to utilize NRP methodology for future analysis in other countries and other value chains, which will be useful for other researchers in the One CGIAR system.Much recent policy work seeks to identify combinations of policies to achieve multiple goals. This is a new challenge since economists have historically tended to focus solely on economic efficiency, leaving policy makers to make decisions about acceptable equity and sustainable goals with little guidance from economists. Since achieving multiple goals requires the use of multiple instruments (Tinbergen, 1952), it poses challenges about how to choose the best policy options.One popular and very useful approach is to identify some key instruments and to assess their impacts on multiple goals. The radar chart used by Laborde, Bizikova, and Smaller (2020) for sub-targets under Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 2 is a very popular way to convey this type of information for reform of a particular, popular form of support to agriculture (Figure 12). One potential approach to achieving a range of goals is to build on the theory of quantitative economic policy. We know from this theory that achieving multiple goals requires multiple instruments.However, theory provides little guidance on how we might identify optimal policies in this situation. The approach to prioritizing policies outlined in Martin, Ivanic and Mamun (2022) can be used to target multiple goals and to identify both which policies should be used and the settings of these policy instruments.This approach begins by specifying an objective function that values the multiple objectives. This builds on the approach of Theil (1964) but drops the focus on punishing deviations from targets. Rather, it sets goals such as raising national income, reducing poverty, reducing global GHG emissions and improving gender equity. The proposed programming approach then uses non-linear programming to explore the extent to which the objectives can be achieved and to identify the optimal settings of the available policy instruments. Some problems, such as setting of tax or tariff rates, are problems of unconstrained optimization. Others such as allocating scarce investment resources are constrained optimization problems. The Martin, Ivanic and Mamun ( 2022) study provides two illustrative examples:the first involves setting optimal taxes on GHG emissions with both an efficiency and a sustainability objective. The second involves allocating scarce R&D resources to raise income and reduce poverty in Ethiopia. The policy recommendations in both cases take into account the existing distortions in the economy, knowledge of which is provided by data from the Ag-Incentives Consortium.4.1 Policy-Induced Market Distortions along Agricultural Value Chains Global and regional value chains have been expanding in the last decades. This expansion can be attributed to many factors such as lower transaction and transportation costs in international trade, increasing speed of globalization, and a surge of regional trade agreements. Value chains are defined as full range of activities by firms to bring a product to market from origin to final use (OECD, 2013).Although most value chain expansion is in the industrial and the services sectors, global and domestic agricultural value chains are also expanding.The functioning and performance of agricultural value chains are important particularly for smallholder farmers in developing countries. For example, in Africa, 55% of jobs are in agriculture, which is the source of more than 70% of the earnings of the poor (World Bank, 2020). Therefore, governments intervene in agricultural value chains especially as part of their economic transformation plans in countries where agriculture comprises a significant share of the GDP.Any policy measure has repercussions not only for the targeted commodity but also throughout the value chain of the commodity. To understand the implications of agriculture or trade policies for producers, processors, and consumers, it is necessary to correctly define and measure distortions to agricultural incentives along the entire value chain. Any policy distortion will affect the different value chain actors in different ways. A comprehensive analysis would allow design of effective policies and minimize unintended consequences.Oilseed complex allows the test of this new methodology where agricultural commodity (rapeseed, groundnut) is tradable. Ethanol-molasses value chain allows use of the methodology when a new value chain is created through policy. Molasses-sugar complex allows test of a case where by-product, molasses, is created when a product, sugar, is generated through processing of an agricultural commodity, sugarcane. 'Meal + oil' complex is an example when new products are created through processing. Togive an example of the methodology, the formula for VCNRP for \"meal + oil\" value chain is as follows:where 'share' denotes share of seed/nut that is crushed from total production. IP denotes international reference price. DP denotes domestic price.The formula for VCNRP for \"meal + oil + seed\" value chain is as follows:VCNRP integrates the NRP of the raw commodity with the NRP of the downstream products, allowing us to see an aggregate measure of all policy impacts on the commodities and products in the value chain, normalized at the farmgate.Results show that farmers are subsidized. Both sugarcane farmers and sugar processors are subsidized, but sugar processors are subsidized at higher rates (Figure 13), showing that gains are not evenly distributed across value chain actors. Molasses value chain and ethanol value chain are taxed in India, but that taxation is lower for ethanol than for molasses. Value chain NRP for 'ethanol + molasses + inputs' are positive and high at sugar and sugarcane level, indicating net subsidization of the overall chain, but this is due to high subsidization of sugar and sugarcane producers, exceeding the taxation of molasses and ethanol.Groundnut and rapeseed producers have been subsidized by the government, as seen in positive NRPs (Figure 14). VCNRP for 'oil + meal' is also high and positive for rapeseed and groundnut complex.This shows that the oilseed crushing industry producing meal and oil is subsidized enough by domestic agricultural policy that despite rapeseeds and groundnuts being purchased at higher prices, the net impact of policies at state and national levels are positive.When comparing NRPs across these value chains, it can be observed that there is increasing protection along the value chain from commodity to product for the oilseeds sector (i.e., higher NRPs for meal and oils relative to NRPs for seeds and nuts). The picture is less clear for the sugarcane value chain.Sugar NRP is higher than sugarcane NRP, but the molasses and ethanol value chain NRP is negative.Thus, the segment of the value chain that the Indian government protects (farmers or processors) varies based on the type of value chain.  A study by Kassie et al. (2019) assessed the sources and magnitude of distortions to agricultural incentives along the small ruminant value chains in Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, small ruminants account for the largest share of total livestock population, second only to cattle. For instance, in 2014/15, excluding pastoralist holdings, there were 29.3 million sheep and 29.1 million goats in the country (CSA, 2015).Similarly, among livestock keepers surveyed in 2013/14, 47.4 percent and 34.9 percent of them owned sheep and goats, respectively (CSA and World Bank, 2015). Small ruminants provide both economic and socio-cultural benefits to the smallholder and poor farmers in the country. They mainly serve as a source of income, meat, milk, manure, and as a store of capital. Moreover, they help mitigate risk from unforeseen environmental shocks, such as droughts and flood (Kassie et al., 2019).Rural farmers keep small ruminants essentially for cash income generation to sustain their meagre-resource based livelihoods. According to CSA ( 2013), the proportion of total sheep and goats sold in the year 2012 was 23.5% and 16.7%, while the proportion of slaughtered was 12% and 7.3%, respectively. However, problems related to market information, market infrastructure, propensity to market orientation, and seasonal price fluctuations have been identified to be among the most important constraints that affect the production and marketing of small ruminants in developing countries like Ethiopia (Dereje et al., 2014, Kocho et al., 2011, Abebe et al., 2013, Ayele et al., 2006, Addis and Ginda, 2015, Eshetu and Abraham, 2016, Asegede et al., 2015).The livestock markets in rural Ethiopia are dominated by a few powerful buyers in rural areas undermining prices received by the numerous, but poor smallholder farmers (Kassie et al., 2016).Similarly, Ethiopian live animal exporting is entangled with inconsistent and rigid taxing system.Different regional governments have different taxing systems for live animals. Taxes on live animals are mainly levied in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) and Oromia Regions. This tends to discourage smallholder farmers from supplying their animals to the formal markets and drives them to illicit trading. Ultimately, the supply of animals will be limited. Taxes on live animals at the port are also critical for livestock exporters. The exporters are always complaining about unnecessary taxes imposed on their exports reducing their competitiveness and hence their profitability. Exporters have indicated that the high taxes are forcing them to close their businesses (Molla, 2004).This study on Ethiopian value chains aimed at identifying whether and where the different local and national policies in the country generate distortions to small ruminant producers. The authors also attempted to separate policy induced distortions from market inefficiencies along the value chain.Methodologically, the study estimated NRPs and price gaps at different nodes of the small ruminant value chain. A positive price gap indicates that the policy environment generates incentives (support) to producers or sellers at point of competition [Addis Ababa retail market]. On the other hand, a negative price gap means that the policy environment generates disincentives (taxes) to producers or sellers of small ruminants at point of competition.The study considered four scenarios in the analysis. Under all scenarios, the observed and adjusted price gaps at farmgate and point of competition relative to a comparable reference price for both sheep and goats are negative on the national level and indicate a strong deviation of producer and retailer prices from the comparable reference prices over the studied five-year period (2010-2015) (Figure 15). This means farmers and retailers received prices lower than what they would have received from export markets or international markets due to policy distortions. Furthermore, price gaps for farmers are getting higher over time, although retailers see some improvements in some years of the study. Source: Authors' calculationThe NRPs at farmgate level are negative in all districts under all scenarios. There is some variation of NRPs across districts, showing that some differences over location in policy effects. The access costs generated by the farm survey used in the study also varied across districts showing that market structure and performance are different from market to market.The consistently negative NRP results clearly show that the restrictive policies of the government have negatively impacted the farm households, reducing the prices farmers would have received in a nonpolicy distorted market. Overall, producer NRPs were lower than retail point NRPs, implying that farmers are at a greater disadvantage, although both retailers and producers are receiving disincentives to their activities. If there is such a high gap between retail and farm gate prices, a logical question will be to what extent this pie is shared along the value chain by traders, marketers, and sellers, as this is not going to the producers.It is difficult to separate policy impact from market and value chain inefficiencies, although effort has been done to do so by using market access cost data. It can still be noted that market inefficiencies are due to government policy to a certain extent. The producers and retail traders received price penalization because of the low number of small ruminants traded and the few market opportunities. The fact that farmers and retailers are operating within a market with heavy disincentive entails a serious revision of the grass roots level institutions and policies that increase the burden on farmers and traders.Therefore, it important to emphasize that the sector needs less illicit and explicit taxing and more of a support. The physical and informational disconnection to the market of the smallholder small ruminant keepers in Ethiopia has destined farmers to take prices than being part of the price discovery process. The results imply that there is a need for a deliberate effort to empower farmers through various means, for instance access to information and structured collective action. Market infrastructure development that includes access to financial services would certainly reduce the disincentive farmers are living with.Agriculture is the largest sector in the Nigerian economy, employing around two-thirds of the country's workforce (FAO, 2013). However, over the past 20 years, Nigeria's value-added per capita in agriculture has risen quite slowly (FAO, 2013). Therefore, the Nigerian government has placed renewed focus on supporting agricultural development through a variety of programs, such as the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (FMARD, 2013) and its successor, the Agriculture Promotion Policy 2016-2020 (FMARD, 2016). These policy reforms attempt to support agribusiness that can foster food security, generate exports, and provide sustainable income and job growth. One of the approaches to reach these goals is to prioritize production of rice, wheat, maize, soybeans, and tomatoes as well as export crops such as cacao beans, cassava, oil palm, sesame, and gum Arabic. Furthermore, value chain development is identified as a priority with input supply, production, storage, processing/utilization, marketing, and consumption issues particularly identified (FMARD, 2016).Since Nigerian agricultural value chains have been targeted by a number of policy decisions, it is necessary to understand the implications of these policies on all value chain agents, especially smallholder farmers. Tokgoz et al. (2020) analyzes the import-oriented palm oil value chain and the export-oriented cacao value chain, estimating the price distortions from policies and their implications for production incentives in Nigeria. They utilize NRP methodology at farmgate and border nodes of the value chain. NRPs at the farmgate are computed for palm oil and cacao beans at the regional level in Nigeria. These two value chains were chosen since they form an important share of Nigeria's agricultural sector, affecting a large number of smallholder producers.NRPs for palm oil at the farmgate for the main producing regions in Nigeria are presented in Figure 16. Due to protective trade policy and other domestic policy initiatives, the NRPs at the farmgate are positive and high. Farmgate NRPs vary widely across regions which may be partially because of the impact of regional/state-level policies that contribute to variations in the prices that producers receive.Furthermore, local conditions matter for price transmission including variation in transaction costs, quality premiums, or mark-ups captured by traders (Hatzenbuehler, Abbott, and Abdoulaye, 2017), which may explain a portion of the regional heterogeneity in farmgate NRPs. The differences in farmgate NRPs between two years are significant in value. Producers receive higher prices relative to world prices in 2012/13 than in 2010/11, despite the lower world prices in 2012/13. These results provide some evidence that producers in Nigeria were insulated from palm oil price shocks in international markets. While it is difficult to estimate the exact impact of policies, it appears that protection for producers has increased over time with domestic support policies. Nigeria imposes import tariffs for palm oil, which increases the price of palm oil entering Nigeria, negatively affecting consumers, but assisting producers (Figure 17). The NRPs at the farmgate are higher than NRPs at the border in both years, showing that domestic agricultural policies have further supported producers in addition to trade policies, by increasing the farmgate price. understand the impact of policies on supply and demand. They find that palm oil production was, on average, 11% higher in study period because of policy framework. They also find that palm oil imports were 53% lower because of higher prices of palm oil entering Nigeria. This shows the negative consequences for the consumers through lower available palm oil in the market as well as higher palm oil price they pay.The study also estimates NRPs for the cacao value chain commodities at the border. Figure 18 shows NRPs at the border for these 4 commodities as negative for all years, although Nigeria is a net exporter of all commodities in the period of analysis. These results show that exporters are receiving lower prices than the prices prevailing in international markets, i.e. there are disincentives in Nigeria's export market for cacao despite the lack of export taxes and export quotas or export bans. The negative NRPs at the border for cacao beans and cocoa products may also be due to a quality gap, the export market structure, and the concentration of buyers in global markets.  showing disincentives in the cacao beans export market reverberate through the domestic market despite domestic support policies. Farmgate prices in 2012/13 were lower than prices in 2010/11, which mirrors the trends in international markets and Nigerian export prices. This demonstrates that cacao bean producers are not insulated from shocks in international markets. NRPs at the farmgate for cacao beans are lower than NRPs at the border, showing that domestic agricultural policies have generated additional disincentives for producers. While support policies exist for cacao bean producers in Nigeria, they do not appear to be sufficient to protect producers from the disincentives in the cacao bean export market, which reverberates through the domestic market and farmgate prices. Some variation exists across regions for NRPs: South producers have much lower NRPs than South West producers. These differences across regions may be partly due to the impact of regional/state-level policy frameworks that are reflected in different farmgate prices that producers receive. It should be noted that findings of Hatzenbuehler, Abbott, and Abdoulaye (2017) regarding how local conditions matter for price transmission may explain a portion of the regional heterogeneity in farmgate NRPs as well.-80%  Market Price Support for cacao beans is estimated at -38,536 million Naira, on average, in the study period showing the decline in revenue of producers at the farmgate due to domestic agricultural policy. Thus, there were no transfers from consumers and taxpayers to producers arising from policy measures. The study also estimated that cacao bean production was 6% lower because of policy distortions, using elasticities from the literature and the estimated NRPs. Cacao bean exports were estimated to be 7% lower, on average, because of policy induced distortions in the export market. Resultsshow that cocoa paste exports were 17% lower, cocoa butter exports were 3% lower, and cocoa powder exports were 11% lower, due to policy distortions.The livelihoods of many smallholder farmers in Tanzania depend upon maize and groundnuts.The value chains for these crops have the potential to expand and contribute to agricultural development through clear policy mechanisms. In order to identify and implement efficient and targeted policies, it is important to measure policy distortions to agricultural incentives along the value chains of these two crops. In this vein, Majeed et al. (2018) measures the impact of agricultural and trade policies using NRP application of import tariffs. When Tanzania is a net exporter (2007/08, 2011/12, 2012/13), the NRPs are -57 percent, 47 percent, and -31 percent, respectively; this demonstrates disincentives in the maize export market in two out of three years. Thus, it appears that Tanzania's border NRPs and trade status imply an anti-trade bias; when maize is imported, it faces an import tariff (hence the positive NRPs in most years during which maize imported) and when it is exported, it is often taxed (hence the negative NRPs in most years during which maize is exported).For maize flour, Tanzania is a net importer for the 2006/07, 2007/08, and 2008/09 crop years and a net exporter for the rest of the period. All border NRPs in our period of analysis are negative (Figure 21). For years during which Tanzania is a net exporter, the negative border NRP is expected and in line with maize value chain underdevelopment. However, the negative NRPs in years during which Tanzania is a net importer are surprising.NRPs at the farmgate for the main producing regions in Tanzania, using the regional farmgate price data, are also computed. Figure 21 shows these NRPs for white maize in Long Rainy Season regions, and Figure 22 shows these NRPs for Short Rainy Season regions. For regions with LRS and SRS, the NRPs are mostly negative. For 2008/09 and 2010/11, Tanzania is a net importer of maize with positive NRPs at the border. However, for these years, farmgate NRPs for most regions and on average are negative. For 2011/12, Tanzania is a net exporter, with negative border and farmgate NRPs. This shows that disincentives in the export market are reverberating through the domestic market.The NRPs differ widely across regions which may be due to i) the impact of regional/state-level policy framework, ii) other market inefficiencies that lead to variation in the prices that farmers receive, and iii) price transmission issues.   for groundnut and groundnut oil, and farmgate for groundnut. Figure 23 shows NRPs at the border for both commodities, where Tanzania's trade status changes between net importer and net exporter within the analysis period. For groundnuts, NRPs are negative at the border for all years, regardless of whether Tanzania is a net importer or net exporter. When Tanzania is a net exporter from 2006/07 through 2012/13, the NRPs range between -72% and -35%. When Tanzania is a net importer in 2013/14 and 2014/15, the NRPs are -70% and -66%, respectively. The negative border NRPs during net exporting years show there are disincentives in the groundnut export market, despite the existence of minimal to no export taxes for groundnuts. The negative NRPs in net importer years show that Tanzania paid less than world market prices for groundnut imports. Import tariffs show preferential tariffs for East African Community (EAC) countries with which Tanzania trades with. Thus, negative NRPs in net importer years can be because of that.For groundnut oil, Tanzania was a net importer for the 2007/08 crop year and a net exporter for the rest of the analysis period. All NRPs in period of analysis are negative. For years during which Tanzania is a net exporter, the border NRPs are as expected and in line with underdevelopment of the groundnut oil markets. Tanzania has not yet developed the processing and marketing stages of the groundnut value chain, and inefficiencies in the value chain create disincentives in export markets. When Tanzania imports, it imports from neighbouring countries and thus pays a lower price than international market prices. This is in line with preferential tariffs for EAC countries.The study also computed NRPs at the farmgate for the main producing regions in Tanzania.Figure 24 shows these NRPs for groundnuts in all Long Rainy Season regions for three years (2008/09, 2010/11, 2012/13). For the three years for which we compute NRPs at the farmgate, Tanzania is a net exporter of groundnuts. For all regions and years, the NRPs are negative, showing that disincentives in the groundnut export market reverberate through the domestic market and affect farmers negatively despite numerous agricultural policies meant to support the farmers.NRPs vary across regions even though we include market access costs between farmgate and wholesale markets for each region individually. Therefore, the different NRPs across regions may show the impact of regional/state-level policy framework or other market inefficiencies leading to variation in prices that farmers receive.  The findings are important to consider given the renewed pressure for protectionist trade policies as these policies may have wide-reaching and unintended consequences. Further research on the value chain participants and processing channels is needed to identify opportunities for increasing efficiencies in processing and value addition across these two value chains. As countries move through the transformation process from subsistence agriculture to modern agricultural sectors well integrated into the economy, value chain analysis will be increasingly important. As this process proceeds, consumer demands become much more diversified, as does the production mix and more and more food markets involve long and complex value chains. In this situation, there are increasing risks that policies will inadvertently create very serious distortions-such as missing links that prevent or choke off activities that could help both to diversify diets and to increase incomes both on farm and along value chains.The existing literature on agricultural incentives methodology and the institutional databases publishing estimates of agricultural incentives have not focused on understanding the implications of policy space from a gender perspective. Female farmers are important stakeholders in production, especially in developing countries that are dominated by smallholder production practices. Since the main goals of agricultural policies in developing countries include attaining food security and reducing poverty, adding a gender dimension to policy analysis is very important, since the role of women in attaining these goals is well-established.Through three studies, in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda, Laborde and Lallemant (2016, 2017a, 2017b) attempt to understand the implications of agricultural and trade policies for gender outcomes. To do this, they combine two data sets: i) Ag-Incentives data for NRPs in these three countries, and ii) gender data at the farm and household level (based on surveys). They propose a new methodology for a genderdifferentiated NRP indicator and apply this methodology to Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda agricultural sector data. The three studies also present share of value of production controlled by male and female farmers.The three studies attempt to answer the question \"Do price distorting policies have biased outcomes based on gender?\" Since analysis on how gender roles and biases interact with the transmission and outcome of agricultural policies is very limited, these studies provide a starting point for a discussion on understanding the differentiated impacts of policies on both genders. Klasen and Lamanna (2009) note that there is a positive relationship between smaller gender gaps and economic development based on the literature review they have conducted (theoretical and empirical). Since women are participants in value chains both as consumers and as producers, it is imperative that any policy analysis along the value chain should bring in gender perspectives, data availability permitted.To design a new gender-differentiated price incentive indicator, Laborde and Lallemant (2016, 2017a, 2017b) rely on Nominal Rate of Protection methodology of Krueger, Schiff, and Valdes (1988).NRPs are computed for a commodity in a country. To add a gender dimension to NRP analysis, they ask \"are men and women in a country specialized in different agricultural commodities?\" If this is the case, then any policy framework impacting an agricultural commodity will have different impacts on the male and female farmers since policies vary significantly from one commodity to another.In combining NRP and household survey data sources, gender specific production patterns, including the control of outputs, they compute gender-differentiated NRPs as follows:\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41\uD835\uDC41  Another indicator that may show specialization of women is the distribution of area for by source of control of output. Figure 27 shows that women control area for other cereals, roots & tubers, and beans.Men control cattle, cotton, and sugarcane area. They also look at the share of product quantity by the source of control of output. Consistent with Figure 27 above, Roots and Tubers, beans and other cereals are the crop groups for which the largest share of production is controlled by women. We can also see that cash crops such as coffee, sugarcane, and tea are the crops whose production is strongly dominated by men (Figure 28). Using the survey data, they identify the crops important for women's employment and income.They note that female farmers are weakly involved in the production of key export crops and livestock products, and they are more focused on staple commodities. Since the latter category is affected by a Applying the methodology in equation ( 7), gender-specific NRP results for Uganda are given in Figure 29. NRPs are for women, men, total categories for control. In this Figure, control shares are used as weights, i.e., how much of final product is controlled by men, women, and a total. Since it appears that female and male labor are relatively balanced for certain key crops, the authors do not find significant discrepancies between the NRPs associated with female managed crops and NRPs associated with male managed crops. In 2006In , 2009In , 2010, taxation was higher for commodities controlled by women. In 2005In , 2007In , 2008, support for commodities controlled by men are higher. In 2011In , 2012In , 2013, taxation for commodities controlled by women are lower. For more specific analysis, they rely on LSMS-ISA Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey Wave 3.They use data on 3,303 households for gender differentiated production pattern data. Below Figure 32 shows the value of production by \"decider\" category. The authors observe that Ethiopia has teff, oilseeds, and livestock as among the top ten highest value of production commodities, which are also dominated by male farmers. The authors also note that in this Figure that some products such as coffee have lower values of production than might be expected. While these crops are important on the national level, and are represented in Ag-Incentives dataset, these products are poorly represented in the household survey sample, which may be due to a scale issue. These types of crops are part of large-scale industrial productions while this household level survey is biased towards smallholders and smaller scale productions.Figure 33 below shows the distribution of the value of production by crop and gender. It can be observed that smaller livestock (poultry, small ruminants) are largely controlled by women. However, important exported goods such as larger livestock, cereals and coffee are mostly controlled by men. This implies a potential specialization of men and women on these particular products. consortium are largely controlled by men. Household survey data shows that women are weakly involved in the production of key export and cash crops. Since the latter category is affected by a positive NRP, a bias in terms of average NRP faced by male and female farmers can be expected.The study on Malawi shows the trends in policy support to farmers. As seen in Figure 34, NRP has changed from positive to negative for groundnuts. Support for tobacco and cotton has increased in some years. Export commodities such as tea and sugar are taxed. Staple crops like maize are supported.  In this chapter we propose some future research approaches that build on past work that is summarized in this Report. Specifically, we illustrate a few approaches to move from policy measurement to other research areas that are linked to the Impact Areas of One CGIAR.Value chain innovations and resulting developments could improve rural livelihoods in at least three ways, i.e., through enabling access to inputs and markets, establishing efficiency premium for poor suppliers, and employment opportunities for poor households where the benefits could be very important to the poorest and women (Maertens and Swinnen, 2012).Poorly organized and/or distorted value chains would, however, undermine the opportunities that the poor actors would otherwise exploit. The studies summarized in this Discussion Paper have shown the The value chain framework is important for understanding the gravity of the problems that value chain actors face in developing countries as node level studies rarely show the whole picture. Efforts to eradicate or alleviate poverty need to consider the value chain approach not only because other actors are as important but also farmers/producers are increasingly engaging in downstream activities mainly due to growing market orientation and integration into global agrifood value chains.Transformations of domestic agricultural value chains require development of the different components of the entire agricultural system. Services and infrastructure need to be in place to improve production, marketing, and consumption. The incentive system needs to be designed to ensure smooth transactions and equitable distribution of margins.What is not clear is the impact the distortions have on the welfare of the rural communities who are entirely dependent on agriculture. Similarly, the potential impact of abating distortions on the improvement of livelihoods is not known either. Therefore, it is important to understand the causes and intensity of distortions (not only policy distortions but also inefficiencies caused by the weak integration of markets). However, it is more important to assess the impacts of the distortions or lack thereof along the key agricultural value chains in each economy.There are well established methods to assess the extent of distortions in agricultural value chains (Tokgoz and Majeed, 2019). There is also a set of tools to assess impact of distortions on food insecurity, poverty, and unemployment (Laborde et al., 2016;Martin et al., 2021). It is worth noting that models to be adapted or developed will have to be context specific as the markets and actors along the value chains are different both across location, time, and commodity.In Chapter 5 \"Agricultural Incentives and Gender\", this Discussion Paper summarized PIM supported work on gender dimensions of agricultural policy for three African countries. The three studies used a new methodology developed by Laborde and Lallemant (2016, 2017a, 2017b) to generate genderdifferentiated NRP indicators. The author(s) applied this methodology to show i) how agricultural policy affects different commodities differently, ii) how agricultural commodity production can be controlled by men or women at different levels, and iii) how agricultural policy supporting or taxing a commodity will have different implications for female and male farmers in a country depending on the share of control they have over the production of that commodity.These PIM supported studies are very important since women are participants in agricultural value chains both as consumers and producers, and thus it is essential that any policy analysis should bring gender perspectives, subject to data availability. The studies also pave a path forward for this analysis to be extended to other countries since they provide a new methodology and a description of how publicly available datasets were used to conduct the analysis.To do this work, the authors combine two data sets: i) The Ag-Incentives data set for NRPs, and ii) gender-differentiated data at the farm and household level (based on surveys). Thus, for this type of research to continue, combinations of two types of datasets are necessary. World Bank's LSMS-ISA household surveys 3 are available for various years for eight partner countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda). Furthermore, GlobalAgricultural Research Data Innovation Acceleration Network (GARDIAN) 4 is CGIAR's metadata repository, including approximately 182,000 publications and 28,000 datasets from more than 30 institutional publications as well as data repositories across all 13 CGIAR Centers and 11 genebanks, and institutional partners. Both sources provide a wide array of household survey data that can be used to extend this effort by Laborde and Lallemant.Female farmers' power over production and sale decisions differs across different commodities in the three countries under analysis. The authors utilize household survey data to compute the share of value of production controlled by male and female farmers. The authors also use the labor share between male and female farmers to allocate the production in each parcel, and the control share between male and female farmers. This way they clearly identify which commodity is predominantly controlled by which gender. This allows the authors to differentiate the impacts of policy framework on female and male farmers in those cases where the policy can be mapped to a specific commodity.The studies also illustrate the importance of data availability to conduct this type of analysis.They find that some commodities are important on the national level, and are represented in the Ag-Incentives dataset. However, these products are poorly represented in the household surveys. This may be due to a scale issue where certain commodities are part of large-scale industrial productions while household level surveys are geared towards smallholders and smaller scale productions.Furthermore, a challenge faced by authors is that some important products for female farmers are not included in the set of commodities monitored at the country level by the Ag-Incentives database. In the case of Ethiopia, the authors observe that crops that are represented in the Ag-Incentives Consortium are largely controlled by men. Household survey data show that women are weakly involved in the production of key export and cash crops.  One critical future research topic that can be conducted using the Ag-Incentives database is the link between agricultural support measures and environmental indicators. Section 3 discussed studies that used the Ag-Incentives database to analyze the link between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes. Another critical environmental concern is water risks in an era of climate change. Agriculture both contributes to and faces water risks globally. OECD (2017b) identifies Northeast China, Southwest United States and Northwest India as the top three water risk hotspot countries for agricultural production.These three countries each constitute a significant share of global agricultural production. Figure 39 shows agricultural sector NRPs for China, India, USA, and a global average. China supports its agricultural sector, above the global average, whereas USA. support for agricultural sector is slightly below global average. India taxes its agricultural sector overall. India constitutes an interesting case study on the link between agricultural support measures and environmental indicators. OECD (2017b) identifies India as being one of three hot spots for water risks.There are ongoing policy efforts to reduce water risks in India such as pilot programs that decouple agriculture subsidies from inputs, such as irrigation (OECD, 2017a), and the Water Conservation Fee for use for drinking, domestic, and commercial purposes. These efforts are essential given the size of Indian agricultural sector, which suffers from groundwater depletion and deteriorating water quality.Figure 39 shows that Indian agricultural sector is overall taxed; however, wide variation exists across sectors and across state lines since agricultural policy is a state matter in India. India's groundwater use, largely driven by agriculture irrigation, is particularly concerning in key agricultural regions such as Northwest. The Northwest region (Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat), which is predominantly cereal-producing, is facing groundwater-related agriculture risks (water table, water quality) relative to the more  , 2017a). Agricultural policies at federal and state level encouraged cereal production in this region, which in turn led to overuse of water and groundwater depletion, since wheat and rice are two crops that use a lot of water. Energy subsidies also allowed farmers to irrigate even when a lower water table requires more energy to pump water to surface level.Farmers, thus, have few incentives to use less water-intensive cropping methods or invest in water-saving technologies because of the policy framework (OECD, 2017a). In this context, OECD (2017a) lists redirection of agricultural support policies from water and other inputs towards supporting increased innovation, sustainability and productivity on farms and providing support to low-income households among resource-poor farms as one its policy recommendations. OECD (2017b) notes that existing policies such as energy subsidies and the promotion of solar pumps need to be overhauled in Northwest India. One interesting possibility with solar power is to integrate the solar energy into the grid by providing feed-in tariffs. Not only does this opportunity to generate revenue help raise farmers' incomes, but it raises the opportunity cost of using the electricity to pump water, reducing pressure on aquifers.These examples show how the Ag-Incentives database can be used to explore the link among agricultural policy, agricultural production, and water use in agriculture. Continuation of Ag-Incentives database work would show how agricultural (dis)incentives impact crop production in terms of volume and location on a global, regional, and national basis. This, in turn, would allow for a more comprehensive analysis of issues pertaining to agriculture and water, especially in this era of climate change. One example is agricultural (dis)incentives pertaining to rice. Figure 40 shows average global NRP for the agricultural sector and for rice. Rice is a water-intensive crop, and as seen in Figure 40, is supported on average globally. Figure 41 shows NRPs for cereals for the three water hot spots as well as global averages since cereals require relatively more water for production and are staple crops. As seen above, China supports rice and wheat, USA does not provide support for rice and wheat, and India generally taxes rice and wheat. Globally both crops are supported.The Ag-Incentives database provides an organized starting point to start research on these issues.Resulting production patterns due to agricultural support may favor staple crops that will impact how much natural resources are needed (such as India favoring rice and wheat production in water constrained locations). Having a consolidated database that relies on multi-institutional databases with a global coverage would help future research efforts, particularly when agricultural support measures are linked to modelling efforts for more detailed analysis. Work to date in this area, summarized in section 2.4, provides important insights into the implications of reforming agricultural subsidies for environmental outcomes. This required development of databases both of agricultural incentives and of greenhouse gases and a modeling framework able to analyze the implications of reform at global, national and household level. One key finding from the baseline analysis is that emissions will rise substantially if policies are not reformed. Another is that simple rearrangement of current policies-up to and including abolition of current policies-would not be enough to bring about the extent of GHG reduction needed to contribute fully to GHG abatement. What appears to be needed is more comprehensive reform that targets reductions in emissions. Policies that dedicate a portion of support to R&D that reduces emissions-particularly from ruminants-and raises productivity seem likely to be needed to bring about that outcome. Such policies would generate strongly favorable outcomes not only for the environment but also, by reducing the cost of healthy diets and reducing the pressure of agricultural demand for land.Many more questions can be addressed by building on the modeling frameworks developed for these studies. One key question that has not yet been addressed is the time profile of emissions. Most agricultural emissions are from methane, which is much more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide but lasts a shorter time in the atmosphere. Reducing methane emissions could be a very valuable first step towards reducing the global warming impact of overall emissions.Another unexplored area is the implications of Border Carbon Adjustments as a companion to carbon taxes or other policies designed to reduce GHG emissions. Much of the motivation for this type of policy comes from political-economy considerations-it may be politically easier to implement such a measure than a standard carbon tax. Exploratory analysis by Martin (2021) suggests that there may also be an efficiency gain as a result of switching from a tax on emission to a tax on use of goods or activities that are emission-intensive. Certainly, the agricultural sector will likely be affected even if it is not directly included, because current proposals include taxes on nitrogen fertilizers.Governments intervene in the agricultural sector to achieve multiple goals. The explicit goals of interventions include achieving food and nutrition security, protecting the livelihoods of farmers, and aiding the rural economy, but the particular interventions used are typically heavily guided by policy makers' need to generate and retain political support (Anderson, 1995). Particularly in developing countries, the agricultural sector is still important as a source of income and, especially, of employment.Furthermore, any agricultural policy measure impacts all economic agents along the value chain of the commodity that is targeted. In this context, it is necessary to correctly measure the extent to which policies distort market prices of the commodities chain, and to understand the implications of protection provided to other sectors, that affects agricultural incentives through real exchange rate impacts.This Discussion Paper summarizes and draws lessons from multiple studies that were supported by CGIAR Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) program on agricultural incentives. PIM-supported studies include i) the Ag-Incentives database that is a global public good in coordination with the International Organizations, ii) studies that explore the links between agricultural incentives and value chain development in developing countries, iii) studies that explore the link between gender and agricultural incentives, and iv) studies that explore the links between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes.The global Ag-Incentives database was the starting point of these efforts since it generated a harmonized and consolidated database of measurement of distortions to agricultural incentives based on OECD, FAO-MAFAP, IDB, and World Bank efforts. The Ag-Incentives Consortium, of which PIM was a part of, enabled the continuing effort of the publicly available database. This multi-institutional collaboration provided a reliable database that can be utilized by various stakeholders, including policy makers, researchers, and market participants.PIM also supported studies that brought forward a broader perspective of agricultural incentives and value chain development. These studies particularly focused on value chains in developing countries:Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, and Tanzania. These studies estimated distortions to agricultural incentives along the value chains of the selected commodities and showed the importance of the overall policy framework for value chain development.Another set of studies linked the Ag-Incentives database to the ongoing discussion on repurposing of agricultural support. These studies also explored the link between agricultural incentives and environmental outcomes. PIM also supported studies that examined gender dimensions of agricultural policy by drawing from gender-differentiated NRP indicators computed for Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda. These studies provide a roadmap and methodological tools for future research. Researchers","tokenCount":"14605"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"afde7802b3d0bef21cdd693ffe03496b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8e132058-0b97-4a48-9fdd-79c36bfd4db7/retrieve","id":"457333082"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"07f1cf70-a447-47b7-86f4-d010a9730e58","pagecount":"52","content":"The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) is a joint international institution of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States and the European Union (EU). CTA operates under the framework of the Cotonou Agreement and is funded by the EU. For more information on CTA, visit www.cta.int ABOUT CTA DISCUSSION PAPERS CTA Discussion Papers are commissioned reviews of information on topics related to the Centre's work. They are intended to inform future work by CTA and its partners and to stimulate further discussion.This study was commissioned by the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA) to assess the financial behaviour of cassava farmers in Ghana and Nigeria, in relation to their usage of cash and their interest in mobile payments for their farm products as a gateway to other digital finance products. Data from smallholder farmers were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) and surveys carried out in the cassava producing regions of Ashanti, Brong-Ahafo and Volta in Ghana, and the communities of Oleh, Olicha and Ozoro in Nigeria.The demographics of the cassava farmers who responded to surveys in Ghana and Nigeria are as follows:• Most farmers are women -52.6% in Ghana and 55% in Nigeria. • Most farmers are over the age of 30 -88% in Ghana and 82.2% in Nigeria. • Most are subsistence farmers -65.7% in Ghana and 98.1% in Nigeria -where cassava is their primary source of income. • There are considerable differences between the two countries in terms of the level of education of cassava farmers. In Ghana, 40.2% of farmers had not completed primary school, while in Nigeria, only 11% had not completed a primary education.In both countries, most land used for cassava cultivation is either leased or family owned (titled or non-titled). In Ghana, cassava farmers frequently grow other crops to mitigate losses associated with low cassava yields. However, in Nigeria, very few other crops are grown by cassava farmers. Instead, they mitigate against potential crop failures by diversifying their income sources -a retail business (kiosk), for example.Cash transactions dominate the entire cassava value chain in both Ghana and Nigeriafarmers receive payments for their produce in cash and pay their expenses in cash. Three quarters or more of cassava farmers in both Ghana and Nigeria are in the habit of saving, whether formally with a financial institution or informally by way of home storage, Susu collectors or Savings and Credit Cooperatives.The main priorities for saving are paying school fees, maintain the farm and pay for agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilisers. Farmers who are not saving are primarily not doing so because they don't have the money.Despite high ownership of mobile phones among cassava farmers in both countries (83.6% in Ghana and 95.6% in Nigeria), mobile money uptake is much higher in Ghana where 52.8% of cassava farmers use the service, compared with only 4% in Nigeria.Both the education level and technical knowhow of Nigerian farmers are higher than that of farmers in Ghana, suggesting that these are not significant barriers to uptake of mobile money services, suggesting another reason for the low uptake in Nigeria. It is possible that greater awareness of mobile money services, through radio and word of mouth, in Ghana compared with Nigeria (60% versus 40%, respectively) might at least in part explain the greater uptake and willingness to use mobile phones for financial transactions in Ghana.In both Ghana and Nigeria, cassava farmers perceive mobile payments to be convenient, fast, safe and affordable, but expressed concerns about their technical know-how, delays in conducting a transaction due to unreliable network connectivity and the risk of phone loss or theft.The study therefore offers the following recommendations:• Interventions are needed to encourage youth into cassava farming. • Campaigns to increase awareness of mobile money are needed to improve uptake. • Mobile money operators should collaborate with agribusiness to strengthen their agent and merchant networks where farmers live and work. • Education programmes on mobile money use will improve farmers' capacity, confidence and trust in these services. • Providing incentives will increase uptake of mobile money services.Cassava production in Ghana is dominated by an adult population of farmers who are above 30 yearsof registered mobile money users do not do any transactions on the platform 14.8%  (FAO and IFAD, 2005). The majority of this dramatic growth in production was driven by Ghana and Nigeria, Africa's second and first largest producers of cassava, respectively. Increases in both the planted area and in yields have been credited for increased production.In Ghana, cassava is one of the most commonly grown roots and tubers and has recently been declared as 'Crop of the Decade' by the African Union according to an article by the Business and Financial Times (2016). Cassava constitutes about 22% of Ghana's agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) (Otoo, 1998). Data from the Statistics and Research Information Directorate of Ghana's Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2013) reveal that production of cassava in Ghana has increased by approximately 33%, from 9,731,000 metric tonnes (t) in 2002 to 14,547,000 t in 2012. This growth has been attributed to the increase of land under cultivation (WAAPP, 2009;Kleih et al., 2013). Cassava's contribution to Ghana's economy is now greater than any other crop, including cocoa which is acclaimed to be the backbone of Ghana's economy (WAAPP, 2009).In Nigeria, cassava is considered a 'poor man's crop'. Almost all farmers receive cash payments for their crop. Unlike cassava farmers in Ghana, Nigerian farmers do not produce many other crops and yet only 15% of Nigerian farmers invest in fertilisers to help improve their cassava yields. Nevertheless, even though it is a subsistence crop with a fragmented value chain, Nigeria is the leading producer of cassava worldwide. Unfortunately, the industrialisation of cassava in Nigeria is constrained by private sector wheat importers who consider cassava's potential substitution of wheat to be a threat.The significant role of agriculture in nation building all over the world cannot be overemphasised. Attitudes, practices and knowledge around money vary widely between countries, and the specific value chain a farmer participates in will strongly influence their financial options and behaviours. This study considers what lessons might be learned from the cassava value chain in the context of CTA's interest in the potentials of:• digital financial services for agriculture, such as mobile payments for farmers' products • other payment streams for financial inclusion of farmers • index based insurance services • digital services to support access to loans and credits.This research provides a comprehensive market study of cash usage behavioural practices and financial literacy among cassava farmers in Ghana and Nigeria. Specifically, this study:• analyses the demographic profile of targeted farmers in Ghana and Nigeria within the cassava growing regions • maps the production and marketing of cash payment flows • analyses the current usage of mobile money among targeted farmers • analyses the experience of targeted farmers with mobile money and its potential for adoption.This study provides a common framework and approach for how cash usage behaviour (CUBeR) can be assessed for farmers not only in cassava, but more broadly for farmers in other value chains in ACP.This comprehensive market study used a mixed method approach of qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. The study in Ghana focused on cassava farmers from the three leading crop producing regions: Ashanti, Brong Ahafo and Volta. In Nigeria, the study focused on cassava farmers in the communities of Oleh, Olicha and Ozoro.Emphasis was placed on the farmers who sell their produce to processors.The data collection was carried out in four phases:As well as the FGDs, a total of 909 cassava farmers were interviewed directly -460 in Ghana and 449 in Nigeria. Representative sample sizes were estimated using methods described in Annex 1. In Ghana, surveys were conducted using an approved survey instrument that was deployed on Farmerline's Mergdata electronic survey platform. The Farmerline's Mergdata platform was also used in Nigeria, but was implemented by FLV Logistics. To capture the survey data, enumerators in Ghana and Nigeria were trained on Mergdata as well as on the use of the mobile devices on which the Mergdata application was installed. Captured data were synchronised with the platform and then exported to Excel (SPSS was also used) for further analysis.In order to capture preliminary data to inform the FGDs and individual surveys, the Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD)/Voice functionality of Farmerline's Mergdata platform was used to survey over 2,000 farmers in Ghana. In Nigeria, the citizen engagement platform Kryout, provided by Kowree, placed calls to 500 farmers and received 328 phone replies. The results of these direct-to-farmer surveys informed the subsequent design of Phase III and Phase IV instruments.In addition to secondary data collection, primary data collection was carried out with key informants by the team lead, LHB Associates, using an illustrative open-ended question set. Interviews were conducted with key experts from NGOs, private sector, academia, commodity buyers, financial institutions, service providers, regulators, Ministry of Agriculture and other stakeholders involved in agriculture in general as well as cassava specifically.In Ghana, six FGDs were organised across the three study areas (two per study area) with eight farmers participating in each group. Farmers were randomly selected from a pool of farmers in each community who farm cassava as a main crop and sell to processors. The FGDs were conducted in 2016, between 31 August and 5 September. In Nigeria, the six FGDs -two in each of the three communities -each had six farmers participate. The research teams used an approved focus group discussion guide to lead discussions and collect data from the 48 farmers in Ghana and 36 farmers in Nigeria.PHASE 3Interviews with key informants, combined with secondary data, provided insights into current and ongoing activities happening in Ghana to increase uptake of mobile payments. Vodafone in Ghana is implementing a grant from the GSMA's mAgri Programme -an initiative that the trade body set up to improve productivity and profitability of smallholder farmers. Tigo continues to implement Rice Mobile Finance (RiMFin), an initiative that pays rice farmers in the Volta region using Tigo Cash, with Wienco Inc., even though funding support from VISA expired in 2014. Tigo is also the partner in a US$433,000 (€367,000) initiative from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to introduce mobile payments in cocoa, dried fruit and palm oil. The World Bank and the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) are currently in discussions with Cargill and are providing technical assistance to Olam to digitise their cash payments to their cocoa and cashew farmers.The World Cocoa Foundation has already conducted similar cash usage behaviour research for the cocoa value chain in Ghana.It is useful to compare some of the high level findings from their October 2015 study with data collected for this report:• 94% of cocoa farmers have a mobile phone versus 84% of cassava farmers • 92% of cocoa farmers are willing to use mobile money versus 71% of cassava farmers • 30% of cocoa farmers have a bank account versus 47% of cassava farmers • 15% of cocoa farmers have a mobile wallet versus 63% of cassava farmers.The results between the cocoa research in 2015 and this cassava CUBeR might be explained by the difference in time and/or as differences between the value chains.Meanwhile, cassava processors state that government support for cassava in Ghana is \"non-existent\" and that \"flour millers don't want cassava\" and \"high quality cassava flour has never been produced\". Cassava is consumed primarily as a starch. Mobile payments were perceived by cassava processors to be beneficial for the supply chain as well as farmers.Figure The other benefits of mobile money identified by participants are that it is fast, secure and easy. The challenges participants identified with mobile money are:• low community education about usage • inadequate number of mobile money agents • occasional transaction delays • high mobile money fees.Over half of farmers who participated in FGDs mentioned that they save for needs such as building works, health, motor vehicles, school fees and funerals. As for the types of services that they pay for within the community, most mentioned agricultural inputs, such as fertilisers, as well as school fees, utility bills and daily groceries. Almost all of these payments are made with cash.Cultivation of cassava is a labour intensive process and therefore the age of farmers can be important. Of the 453 farmers that provided their age, the majority of respondents (47.6%) were above the age of 45 while the least predominant age group (11.1%) was 18-30 year-olds (Figure 3). This implies that young adults are not as involved in cassava production in Ghana. This is consistent with the findings of the West African Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) ( 2009) that the sector is dominated by old-and middle-aged farmers.Of the 460 farmers interviewed, 218 were men and 242 were women. The study revealed that farmers who sell their produce to processors were mostly women representing 52.6% of the sample population (Figure 2). Education plays an important role in farmer acceptance and adoption of new technologies. Among cassava farmers surveyed, 26.7% (123) had completed primary school, 26.1% (120) had no schooling at all, and 14.1% (65) had started but not completed primary school.The household size ranges from 1 to 20 people with a mean of 6 (±2.7). The main source of income for most cassava farmers is from subsistence/small-scale farming (65.7%) followed by commercial or large-scale farming (16.5%). The remaining 17.8% of surveyed farmers had other main sources of income, including trading, private and public sector jobs, pension benefits, money from relatives, rent and returns on investment (Figure 5).Among cassava farmers whose main income source is subsistence/small-scale farming, the majority (42%) reported a monthly income range of GH¢251-1,000 (€48-193) and 34% reported a range of GH¢250 (€48) or less (Figure 6). At the extreme ends of the spectrum, 7% reported no income, while 5% reported a monthly income of GH¢3001 (€579) or more.The status of land ownership varied widely among the farmers. The two main ownership classifications are leasing (32%) and titled family ownership (28%) as presented in Figure 7. Production and marketing cash flows of cassava farmersThe survey results show that in addition to cassava production, farmers cultivate other crops, such as (in order of frequency) maize, plantain, vegetables, yam, leguminous plants, cocoyam and cocoa. This mixed cropping approach increases the resilience of farmers, enabling them to smooth out their incomes when one or more crops decline in yield or fail entirely.The surveys reveal that 46.3% (213) of cassava farmers sell their produce to traders, 38% (175) sell to processors, 10.2% (47) sell to exporters and 15% (69) sell to their lead farmers (Figure 8). Adade Gari Processors, Caltech Ventures Limited, Josema Gari Processing and Krobo Gari Processors were among the processors that farmers mentioned selling to. Finally, the traders the surveyed farmers sell to include Green Acres Farm, poultry farmers, market women (especially from Mampong and Kumasi cities), Agricfo, and chop bars and fufu sellers, which are operators of canteen-like businesses.The majority of farmers (90%) receive sales payments twice a year while the remaining 10% get paid only once a year. Most farmers (76%) make sales individually, compared with 8% who sell through a farmer cooperative. Two hundred and seventy-seven (60.2%) farmers negotiate the sale of their products at their homes while 169 farmers (36.7%) sell their cassava tubers on the farm (Figure 9). The overwhelming majority of farmers (91.5%) receive payments in cash, 8.3% receive payments in cheque and 0.3% via bank transfer (Figure 10).  Among all the surveyed farmers, 88% have a family member who owns a mobile phone. This seems to explain why 71.8% of farmers do not share their mobile phone with other family members. The study also revealed that one in every three farmers (34.2%) have multiple SIM cards.In addition to 88% of farming households owning more than one phone, when asked why they do not share their mobile phone with family members, 53% indicated other reasons most of which are personal. This lends some credence to the fact that the mobile phone is a very personal device.Of the farmers who do not share their phone with family members, 15% indicated this was due to a lack of knowledge within the household about operation of a phone, 12% said replacing a phone is expensive and 10% said airtime charges are expensive (Figure 13).The survey revealed that on average, farmers spent about GH¢25.00 (€4.83) on airtime purchases monthly. Other than airtime sellers, the most common place for airtime purchase is the neighbourhood grocery/corner store.Figure 14 shows that 87.3% of the surveyed farmers are able to use their mobile phones to make and receive calls and 73.2% can use their phones to check their airtime balance. However, only 55% and 67.6% of surveyed farmers know how to receive and send SMS/ texts, respectively. It is possible that the low understanding of SMS/text functions is related to the level of education completed by the farmer (Figure 4), but as this correlation was not specifically looked at in this study, this cannot be confirmed.Of the total farmers surveyed, only 65 (14.1%) responded yes to having access to the internet on their mobile phones. Among those 65 with internet access, only 45 farmers (69.2%) know how to operate the internet on their mobile phones.  The majority (80%) of farmers interviewed generally rated their mobile network operator's service to be good, very good or excellent (Figure 17).  Savings among cassava farmersThe majority of respondents (52.6%) save their incomes through traditional methods.Among cassava farmers, traditional methods include keeping money in the house (under pillows, in cupboards, etc.), Susu 1 collectors and Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs), or even saving with their relatives, friends or farmer groups (Figure 18). A very small proportion of the cassava farmers (1%) actually save by purchasing property (livestock, gold) or other household assets.The remaining 47% of farmers interviewed save money with at least one financial institution. The main reasons farmers save are to:• pay school fees for their children • buy farm and agriculture inputs or do farm maintenance • meet emergencies, such as health, funerals and natural calamities (Figure 19).The main reasons farmers do not save with financial institutions are:• they have no money • financial institutions are too far away and expensive • they do not have the required documentation to open an account at a financial institution (Figure 20).In addition, there were eight farmers who stated that they do not trust financial institutions.1 Susu is a traditional savings method, often described as a savings club, where members pay each month to the 'susu' who rotates each month among the members. The main transactions made by cassava farmers who keep their money in financial institutions include cash deposits and withdrawals, receiving salary or payments from buyers, and receiving benefits and/or insurance payments. The majority of farmers interviewed reported depositing money into their account one to three times every six months. Very few farmers reported depositing money four or more times per month (Figure 22). Mobile money is the most frequently used e-payment method used by 343 of the 460 farmers surveyed (74.6%), followed by bank transfer via bank branch (3%), cheque and other (each 2%) as shown in Figure 23.Mobile money agents were the most popular method for registering for mobile money (30.7%) followed by registration at a bank branch or mobile operator's office in a big town (7%), as shown in Figure 24. The cassava farmers that use mobile money do so primarily for sending and receiving money. A few others save on the service, receive payments from customers and purchase airtime, while 68 farmers (14.8%) do not use mobile money for any reason (Figure 25). In terms of branded mobile wallet usage for sending and receiving money, the farmers interviewed used the following providers in descending order of popularity: MTN (47.8%), Vodafone (8.7%), Tigo (4.6%) and Airtel (3.3%).More than 3 months ago More than 2 months but less than 3 months ago More than 1 month but less than 2 months ago More than 1 week but less than 1 month agoIn the past week Twenty-eight percent (130 farmers) had used mobile money for a financial transaction within the past month, followed by 22% (103 farmers) who used the service more than three months ago for a transaction.Of the 343 farmers that use mobile money most frequently, the majority of farmers (57.4%) can reach a cash-in/cash-out agent in less than five minutes. Another 28.9% (99 farmers) can reach an agent within five to 30 minutes.According to the farmers, their three top reasons for using mobile money are because it is:• easily available/accessible • convenient • secure.Figure 28 reveals the monthly outflows for farmers. These data show that education, food, agricultural inputs and electricity are the largest expenses. About 70% of farmers (321) pay for these expenses in cash, and most of these expenses are incurred monthly (Figure 29).  Figure 30 reveals that the majority of mobile money sending and receiving occurs once a month. Further, most of those monthly transactions are to receive money. The average that most farmers send is GH¢100 (€19.30) and the average they receive is GH¢200 (€38.60). With regards to incentives to promote mobile money usage, farmers prefer airtime bonuses as well as gift items such as mobile phones, branded T-shirts and cash back as e-float (Figure 31). Mobile money in Nigeria began seven years ago but unlike Ghana and most of the rest of Africa it is not led by the mobile network operators (MNOs). Nigeria is the largest country in Africa and the financial exclusion of the rural population is of significant policy concern. In pursuit of the financial inclusionary benefits of mobile money the Central Bank has licensed 21+ MMOs that can be either banks or other third-party providers. Unfortunately, mobile money uptake, in urban as well as in rural areas, has been modest. This is believed to be because MNOs have confined their operations to the same urban customer base served by banks. Many believe the Central Bank's departure from the MNO-led model does not leverage the potential of the MNOs nationwide customer base.While mobile money has had slow uptake to date given the size of the country and its significant diaspora population there are some compelling dynamics that indicate there will soon be mobile money uptake. Nigeria is the fifth largest receiver of remittances globally (Chinedu, 2017) which amounts to US$21 billion (€19.4 billion) annually (Wall Street Journal, 2015). Mobile money international remittances reduce the cost of traditional money transfer (Western Union, MoneyGram, etc.) by more than 50% (GSMA, 2016).According to the Vice Chairman of the Nigerian Communications Commission there needs to be \"a mobile money kiosk located in every street especially in rural areas where the need is the greatest\" (Ezeh, 2016). This study considers the potential for mobile money uptake in the cassava value chain for which there is some room for optimism. Observations from the FGDs have been selectively integrated throughout the following narrative.Figure 32. Locations of FGDs in NigeriaOf the 449 farmers surveyed, 202 (45%) were men and 247 (55%) were women.As shown in Figure 34, most farmers (42.9%) belong to the middle age group (31-45 years), followed closely by the 45+ age group (39.3%). Only 17.8% of farmers are young adults (18-30 years).Among the cassava farmers 62.1% ( 279) have exceeded a level of education beyond primary school (Figure 35). This indicates a level of literacy that bodes well for the potential uptake of mobile crop payments given that illiteracy is a key barrier.  Consistent with the National Population Commission statistics on average household size in Nigeria, the average cassava farming household size is five. One-fifth of the cassava farming households (20%) have 10-20 inhabitants. In most of these cases, the inhabitants include farm labourers and other workers who also reside in the household. These large households also present high cash payment streams that can be migrated to mobile payments.In Nigeria, the overwhelming majority (440 or 98.1%) of cassava producers are subsistence farmers with the balance being commercial/ large scale farmers. Across all age groups, respondents are engaged in a range of other occupations in both formal and informal sectors. The majority of respondents are engaged in more than one income-generating activity. There were 397 farmers (88.6%) that earned ₦60,000 (€141.18) or less per month. This is combined income from all farm and off-farm sources.Of the population of farmers that had more than one source of income, 58.3% of them maintained a kiosk for petty trading.Discussions within the focus groups revealed that the other income sources are varied: The majority (66%) of farmers sell to local collector and export buyers (Figure 39). Another 31.8% of farmers sell to major collectors/traders. There seems to be no established market relationships because farmers sell to the buyers that happen to be in their community at harvest time. In addition, prices are individually negotiated for each transaction, and there is likely to be market price information asymmetry between the buyer and seller. This fragmented nature of cassava marketing can be a challenge for promoting uptake of mobile payments by one or more buyers to individual farmers. Nevertheless, an innovative buyer can secure strategic advantage by embracing the potential of mobile money solutions to streamline their supply chain management. This robust volume of farming household income presents additional value proposition for the integration of a cassava mobile payments scheme.The majority of farmers (65.4%) sell their produce at the local marketplace (Figure 40). Seventy-nine farmers (17.8%) negotiate pricing and sell their produce at their home while 62 farmers (13.9% do so at their farm.Four hundred and thirty (95.8%) of the 449 farmers surveyed own a mobile phone. Of these farmers, 229 (53.3%) are women and 201 (46.7%) are men. A contributing factor to this high rate of mobile phone ownership might be the high rate of literacy indicated by the 89% of farmers (400) who have completed primary school (Figure 35). This high rate of mobile phone ownership (and literacy) bodes well for potential mobile money uptake within the cassava value chain in Nigeria.  While the primary purpose of the mobile phone is for voice communication, about 68% (292) of the farmers who own a phone know how to receive an SMS/text message. However, only 57.9% (249) of farmers know the more complicated keystrokes necessary for sending SMS/text messages. A total of 192 farmers (42.8%) expressed willingness to use their mobile phone for financial transactions. This included the potential for receiving mobile payments for the sale of their cassava as well as sending/ receiving money for other purposes, such as making bill payments. This rate is lower than this study's finding in Ghana of 71.1%, which might be due to the lower levels of mobile money uptake and trust in financial service providers in Nigeria. Some other mobile phone services that farmers would consider include receiving information about market pricing, availability of fertiliser and harvest timing. This willingness of farmers to use mobile money could be leveraged by cassava buyers to transition them to mobile crop payments. The practice of saving is a well-developed discipline among cassava farmers in Nigeria. A total of 375 (83.4%) farmers save money formally with financial institutions and/or informally through traditional means (home, groups, collectors/agents). As stated by a young FGD participant \"anyone that has a vision will save\" (female, 18-30 years). As portrayed during FGDs their savings habits enable them to achieve four objectives: parental responsibilities, controlled spending, new/existing investments and increased self-confidence/security. Some of the comments made at FGDs include:The mobile network operator MTN serves 61% (274) of the Nigerian farmers surveyed. The next most prominent MNO is Globacom serving 26% (116) of farmers. Farmers typically use multiple SIM cards but MTN is perceived to have the higher quality network service. -Male, 45 years + Saving (especially for a predetermined goal) is considered necessary to curb excessive spending, thus ensuring financial discipline.Saved funds can be invested in new business opportunities or ploughed into existing ones for further expansion.Having some savings gives some level of self-confidence and sense of security. Of the 375 farmers who save formally and/ or informally, 51% (191) of them save with a formal financial institution. During the FGDs it was revealed that those who save with a financial institution do so because it is safe and they earn interest. It also makes them eligible for loans. As stated by one FGD participant:For safe keeping of our money. And to earn interest.\"Of the 375 farmers who save, there are 184 farmers (49%) who only save informally. Over 100 of these farmers (60%) primarily save in and/or around their house (i.e. under a mattress, inside a cupboard). This is most prominently followed by savings channels with SACCOs (14.4%) and farming cooperatives (10.9%). SACCO and cooperative saving deposits are made on a daily, weekly or monthly basis within a group savings/lending context. Deposits are also made with collectors/agents (5.5%) that visit the household on a daily or weekly basis and then return the collected money, less the agent's fee, to the saver after an agreed to period of time.The top three saving priorities for the cassava farmers surveyed were: their children's education (22.6% of farmers), a fund for emergencies (20%), and meeting daily needs (19%) (Figure 50). Farm-related activities, such as revitalising crops, purchasing agricultural inputs or land for farming, were mentioned as priorities by nearly 28% of farmers (combined total).  In-house under the mattress, inside cupboards, etc. 60%The 258 farmers (57.5%) who do not save with a financial institution or who do not save at all were asked why they do not save with a financial institution. The most significant reason, cited by 30% of those farmers, was they did not have enough money to save (Figure 51). Another 21% of those farmers said they do not have the requisite documentation to open an account, followed by 16% of farmers who felt the bank fees were too expensive. Of the 191 farmers that save with a formal financial institution, 107 farmers (56%) prefer to do their deposit and withdrawal transactions inside the financial institution.Another 72 farmers (38%) prefer to conduct their transactions at an automated teller machine (ATM).Most farmers (33.7%) using a formal financial institution make five or more deposits in a six-month time period (Figure 53). In spite of the mobile money usage, and aligned with discussion from the focus groups, 40% of farmers believed the most important benefit of mobile money is either reduced transport cost (20%) or time savings (20%) (Figure 58). Meanwhile, the most significant concern about using mobile money for 32% of farmers was the risk of losing their phone (Figure 59). This was closely followed by 30% of farmers who believed they did not have the technical skills to use mobile money on their phone. These concerns were echoed during the FGDs, where concerns were expressed about the safety and security of the mobile money    For 287 farmers (64%), cash is their primary mode of payment for basic household expenses. The use of credit is considered by 126 farmers (28%) to be their primary mode of payment. Both of these payment behaviours present transaction flows that can be migrated to mobile payments.Most household bills are paid monthly (52%), while 14.3% are paid daily, 11.4% weekly and 7.2% every two weeks (Figure 64). Weekly, daily and bi-weekly payment frequencies are more suitable from a mobile money perspective, compared to monthly or annual bill payments.Figure 65 reveals that respondents make 48% of their payments at the point of purchase for products and services, while 40% make payments at the household/farm, for services such as farm labour, as well as repair, construction and other manual labour.Relatively few farmers use the bank branch (11%) and utility office (1%) to make cash payments, probably due to the inconvience and cost in terms of transport and time. Approximately 96% of farmers need 30 minutes or less to reach a location where they can access (deposit or withdraw) funds and travel less than 5 km to get there (Figure 66). The introduction of mobile crop payments, together with an infrastructure of cash-in/ cash-out agents and merchants conveniently located where farmers live and work, will be of significant benefit to farmers. During the FGDs farmers stated that they send and receive money to and from spouses, friends, relations, business partners and customers. They do so through both formal and informal means. This applies regardless of whether the transfers are local or international. For international transfers, they do so formally through international money transfer operators like Western Union, and informally by hand delivery through friends and relatives. For local transfers they do so formally through their bank accounts and by direct deposit into the recipient's bank account, as well as informally by hand delivery through friends and relatives, recharge cards, inter/intra state bus services or known drivers.Sending and receiving money is done monthly by the majority of farmers.  In terms of sending remittances, 346 farmers (77%) send ₦10,000 (€23.53) or less and the average amount sent for all farmers is ₦4,696 (€11.04) (Figure 70). The average amount of remittances that farmers receive, ₦9,316  Cassava farmers and their customers• The ratio of male to female farmers engaged with the production of cassava is about the same in Ghana and Nigeria.• In both countries, 80-90% of cassava farmers are above the age of 30.• In Ghana, only 33.1% of cassava farmers have more than a primary school education, though 52.8% use mobile money. This contrasts with Nigeria where 62.1% of cassava farmers have more than a primary school education, but only 4% use mobile money.• The average farming household size in both countries is between five and six people.• Cassava is the main source of income for the majority of smallscale farmers in both countries. In Ghana and Nigeria, 80-90% of farmers earn €215 or less monthly.• To mitigate the risk of low cassava yields, farmers in Ghana cultivate other crops, such as maize. In Nigeria, however, farmers diversify their income portfolio, owning a retail trade such as a kiosk as well as farming.• In both countries, most land used for cassava cultivation is either leased or family owned (titled or non-titled).• The main customers of the cassava farmers who participated in the study are traders and processors who individually negotiate prices with farmers at their homes or at the farm gate. This points to some level of personal relationship between farmers and customers.• Cash transactions dominate the entire cassava value chain -farmers receive payments for their produce in cash and pay their expenses in cash.• Three quarters or more of cassava farmers in Ghana and Nigeria are in the habit of saving, whether formally with a financial institution or informally by way of home storage, Susu collectors or SACCOs.• The main priorities for saving are paying school fees, maintain the farm and pay for agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilisers.• Farmers who are not saving are primarily not doing so because they don't have the money.• Mobile phone ownership among farmers is 83.6% in Ghana and 95.6% in Nigeria.Phones are perceived to be a personal tool, which farmers will typically not share with other family members.• In both countries, mobile phones are primarily used for making and receiving calls and more people can receive text messages than can send them.• Six out of ten farmers in Ghana have heard of mobile money through radio and word of mouth, but only four out of ten farmers in Nigeria have heard of mobile money.• Mobile money usage is much higher in Ghana (52.8%) than in Nigeria (4%), despite farmers having a higher education level and text messaging competency in Nigeria. This suggests that education and technical knowhow aren't necessarily the main barriers to mobile money uptake.In Ghana, the most commonly known and used e-commerce method was mobile money, whereas in Nigeria it was ATM.• In both countries, mobile money was primarily used for sending and receiving money.• More farmers in Ghana (71.1%) expressed a willingness to use their mobile phones for financial transactions than did farmers in Nigeria (42.8%).• Farmers perceive mobile payments to be convenient, fast, safe and affordable, but expressed concerns about their technical know-how, delays in conducting a transaction due to unreliable network connectivity and the risk of phone loss or theft.• In both countries, airtime bonuses, gift items (such as mobile phones and branded T-shirts) and cash back e-floats were noted by cassava farmers as the most preferred incentives for using mobile money services.The cassava value-chain is dominated by smallholder farmers and the following recommendations are proposed to drive further uptake of mobile money services:• Interventions are needed to encourage youth into cassava farming. Given the aging population of cassava farmers in both countries, more youth need to be encouraged into the industry. Youth are also more likely to take up technologies such as mobile money services.• Campaigns to increase awareness of mobile money are needed. More cassava farmers are using mobile money in Ghana than in Nigeria, despite a higher level of education and technical know-how among Nigerian farmers. Awareness of the technology, however, through radio, television and word of mouth was higher in Ghana, suggesting that awareness is critical to uptake.• Mobile money operators should collaborate with agribusiness to strengthen their agent and merchant networks where farmers live and work. Agents should be equipped to train farmers who interact with them in order to improve their understanding and use of mobile money services. In addition, agent liquidity is critical if farmers are to find mobile money services more attractive.• Education programmes on mobile money use are needed. Educating farmers about the features and benefits of mobile money will build their capacity, confidence and trust in using these services.• Provide incentives for using mobile money services. The cassava farmers interviewed in both countries agreed that incentives would entice them to use these services.","tokenCount":"6309"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ed2b765587942825d2fdbb23d2988632","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/84fa2882-d800-4911-89c3-eb10b1cb3d02/retrieve","id":"-397256789"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"87c99933-908c-4123-bdd0-289e8cf72f5c","pagecount":"14","content":"This section provides:  Synthesis of progress and challenges in implementing the CRP, including their significance for the IDOs that characterize the CRP and a brief description of any noteworthy reorientation in the CRP. Synthesis of the two most significant achievements/success stories in the year (gender disaggregated where pertinent), with references to associated evidence and website links for more details. Overall financial summary: actual total spending (from all sources, including bilateral and Window 3) and percentage expended on gender research, compared to expected budget.CRPs produce two main categories of reports 1 :(i) Detailed documentation on progress at research theme/location/component and subcomponent level to CRP leadership. This information is the foundation that establishes the credibility of the reports in category (ii). It is prepared by CRP staff and submitted to the CRP leadership and is an important reference for (ii).(ii) Annual performance monitoring report at CRP level, from CRP Director and Lead Center to Consortium Office.The template provided in this document refers to the report in category (ii) whilst its supporting data refers to the information in category (i). Report (ii) is submitted by the CRP Director to the CSO by March 10, 2015 and covers progress during calendar year 2014. Its maximum expected length is 10 pages (plus annexes).The CRP report provides a strategic overview of where the program stands in terms of progress towards its targets. It focuses on outputs and outcomes and if relevant explains changes in future directions. It covers results achieved, regardless of sources of funds used to produce the results (i.e. windows 1, 2, 3 where relevant and bilateral). Different measures of progress have to be monitored over the life cycle of a CRP through different instruments. A given CRP is therefore expected to report every year on those items mentioned below that are relevant to its position in its own life cycle.Verification of the reliability of the information provided will occur through:-the external evaluation of the CRPs, commissioned by the Independent Evaluation Arrangement and the leadership of the CRPs; -the external evaluation of the performance monitoring and reporting system commissioned by the CO at regular intervals (2-3 years) -the peer review of the individual CRP reports will continue to take place, including by the CO -all supporting documents and data bases (report (i) mentioned above) will be available through web links.Describe partnership building achievements (if any new ones since last year) and associated strategic partnership issues, including public-private partnerships where relevant. Include a brief description of mechanisms designed to align CRP with priorities in national, regional bodies etc... Include a brief analysis of new strategic interactions with other CRPs and their effectiveness. Include a brief commentary on how different key partners are using the CRP's outputs and outcomes.Provide a summary and highlights of training and its outputs and outcomes. Use indicators from Table 1, as appropriate.List the three major risks that may hinder the expected delivery of results by the CRP and describe the mitigation actions taken to manage these risks.Analysis of variance from what was planned:i. Estimate the overall level of confidence/uncertainty of the indicators provided in Table 1.ii. Description, if relevant, of research avenues that did not produce expected results, and description of actions taken by the CRP, such as new research directions pursued and their expected outputs and outcomes.iii. Lessons learned by the CRP from its monitoring of the indicators and from its qualitative analyses of progress.There are 9 financial reports:1. Report L101 The templates for CRP financial reporting by CRP Directors and Lead Centers are attached as Appendix 3.Note that there is also a requirement for interim financial reports -the first four reports are also submitted to the Consortium at the half-year stage, and Report L401 is required quarterly.Explanatory notes on the financial reports:1 -Report L101 -Annual CRP Budget Summary -by CG Participant and Theme Annual report of income & expenditure compared to the approved Finplan, from all the various funding sources. The information is obtained by the Lead Center from the CG Participants, and the Lead Center consolidates the reports from the participating centers, so that the summary report is available at either Center-level or Theme-level.Report of income & expenditure to date on a cumulative base, from all the various funding sources, and compares that to the CRP total budget (also called \"Whole of Life\" budget) as per the PIA. The information is obtained by the Lead Center from the CG Participants, and the Lead Center consolidates the reports from the participating centers, so that the summary report is available at either Center-level or Theme-level.Provides a comparison of annual actual expenditure against the approved Finplan budget of the CRP, by natural classification, by CGIAR center. It ensures there is a realistic balance between the various components, and in particular provides information on funds flowing to partners outside the CGIAR. The report has data from each CG Center, and the information is for all the various funding sources. The information in this report is also reported in the annual financial statements of each center.Information on Bilateral Grants/Donors is needed so that their contributions to individual CRP's can be monitored. This will help with forecasting cash flow requirements. The report has data from each CG Center, and sets out expenditure to date on a cumulative base, from each individual donor. Amounts should be in accordance with L101 figures, for each center.This report provides an indicator on the extent of partner participation in the CRPs. It provides the name of the institute and country alongside the amount of expenditure.This report provides a summary of CRP cashflows, from the CO to Lead Centers and onto partners, during a financial year. This also reports intercenter receivables/payables at period end, and these balances need to be confirmed with relevant participating centers. This report is required to assist cash forecasting, and hence is requested quarterly.In addition to the \"themes\", there are two \"cross-cutting areas\" which should be reported separately:Area 1 -CRP Strategy, Management and Coordination Area 2 -Implementation of Gender Strategy Note that more cross-cutting areas may be recognized in the future, but for 2012 lead centers are requested to provide financial data only on two.The CRP Lead Centers are responsible for consolidation of each CRP financial report, and submission to the CO. The Participating Centers are responsible for submission of their CRP financial information to the Lead Centers, and ensuring that all inter-center amounts receivable/payable are in agreement with counterpart centers. Sex-disaggregated social data collected and used to diagnose important gender-related constraints in at least one of the CRP's main target populationsThe CRP has defined and collected baseline data on the main dimensions of gender inequality in the CRP's main target populations relevant to its expected outcomes (IDOs)And CRP targets changes in levels of gender inequality to which the CRP is or plans to contribute, with related numbers of men and women beneficiaries in main target populations 2. Institutional architecture for integration of gender is in place -CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS.-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research -CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS and funds allocated to support their interaction.-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research And A CRP plan approved for capacity development in gender analysis CRP scientists and managers with responsibility for gender in the CRP's outputs are appointed, have written TORS and funds allocated to support their interaction.-Procedures defined to report use of available diagnostic or baseline knowledge on gender routinely for assessment of the gender equality implications of the CRP's flagship research products as per the Gender Strategy -CRP M&E system has protocol for tracking progress on integration of gender in research And A CRP plan approved for capacity development in gender analysisThe CRP uses feedback provided by its M&E system to improve its integration of gender into research","tokenCount":"1390"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ee12a342c19bf683522d62a27c47ab2a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2573f96a-296b-4df0-aab9-f41bb61b3f98/retrieve","id":"-1445215204"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"ae003a7e-3c29-4569-8b67-05e1cebb085e","pagecount":"23","content":"Las leguminosas forrajeras forman uno de los grupos de plantas más numerosos y esparcidos en el globo terrestre; se encuentran en regiones se climas variados y condiciones ecolóeícas diversas hasta 3,000 msnm.La técnica de propagación por estacas consiste en separar los tallos de la planta madre y colocarlos en condiciones ambientales favorables para inducirlos a formar rafees y nuevos tallos para producir una nueva planta.La cécnica de propagación por estacas requiere ciertos cuidados técnicos especialmente en el corte de las estacas ya que este hecho se considera como uno de los éxitos en la propagación.Otro hecho importante es conocer algunos aspectos básicos sobre las formas y las estructuras del crecimiento en las leguminosas las cuales se pueden aprovechar para obtener mayor cantidad de estacas por planta, teniendo en cuenta que las plantas originarias sean sanas y de estructura fuerte y madura.Los medios a utilizar para la propagación del material forrajero pueden ser diferentes tales como : arena tipo cuarzo, perlita (perlite), vermiculita (vermiculite), suelo, agua, los 2.cuales han dado muy buenos resultados en la propagación de leguminosas como Zornia. Stylosanthes. Desmodium. Centrosema.Estos medios a utilizar deben ser suf : ~ientemente firmes y densos para mantener las estacas en su sitio durante el enraizamiento; deben retener la suficiente humedad relativa en forma pareja y porosa de modo que el exceso de agua escurra y permita una aereación adecuada.Se debe tener en cuenta que estos medios estén libres de nemátodos. malezas y otros organismos patógenos nocivos que pueden afectar las estacas.A continuación se detallan algunos de los medios de propagación de las especies forrajeras:Generalmente se emplea arena de cuarzo que es e n forma predominante un complejo de silice. La arena más conveniente para el enraizamiento de leguminosas forrajeras es la que en albañileria se emplea para enlucidos. Se puede utilizar sola o mezclada con perlita pues ha demostrado que en ambos casos resulta muy satisfactorio su empleo.Es un material volcánico de color blanco que se extrae de los derrames de lava y después de ser tratado en hornos a grandes temperaturas se forma en granos pequeños, esponjosos y porosos que retienen agua en una proporción de 3 a 4 veces su peso. Esencialmente es neutro, con un pH de 7.0 a 7.5 pero sin capacidad de amortiguamiento; no contiene nutrientes y sostiene muy bien las estacas. Cuando se lava en una solución de agua y ácido sulfúrico se puede utilizar varias veces.Es de observar que la perlita se puede utilizar sola o mezclada en partes iguales con la vermiculita.Cuando se utiliza el suelo como medio de propagación es conveniente tener en cuenta: l. Seleccionar suelo que tenga una textura muy bien definida.Que esté l{bre de malezas, semillas y hongos nocivos para las estacas, muchas veces es conveniente esterilizar con vapor, bromuro de metilo, formol o en hornos a temperatura entre 50 y 60°C.4.Debe mezclarse el suelo con arena en relación a 2 partes de suelo por 1 de arena para garantizar mejores resultados de enraizamiento pues es conveniente el drenaje en este tipo de propagación.El agua es otro medio de gran importancia en la propagación Los sitios de propagación son fundamentales en la técnica de propagación por estacas, ya que la temperatura y la aireación del lugar debe tener temperaturas promedios de 20°C a 35°C. Los invernaderos son los sitios más favorables para las estacas por estar más protegidas de las inclemencias del tiempo.Son las bases o estructuras donde se colocarán los medios de propagación. Pueden ser: cámaras, recámaras, bandejas de plástico tipo Jiffy, bandejas de eternit, etc.En la Figura 2 se indica la cámara y la recámara como bases en una mesa de forma rectangular con una medida de aproximadamente 2.20 m de largo por 1.10 de ancho. En los cuatro lados u orillas de la mesa de encuentran las láminas de eternit de 20 cm de altura, que sirven de contención a los medios que se utilizarán tales como piedrita, arena, perlita o vermi.culita.Este tipo de instalación es ideal cuando se tienen sistemas de riego en forma de niebla pues se mantiene la temperatura adecuada.6. Recámara totalmente forrada en plástico cOn riego en forma de niebla.La Figura 3 muestra otra cámara de propagación que es muy práctica; tiene las mismas medidas que la de la Figura 2 pero no está cubierta en plástico. Tiene solamente 70 cm y se le pueden adaptar sistemas de riego en forma de lluvia, utilizando una manguera conectada a un tubo PVC de 1\" con boquillas especiales en este tipo de propagación (Yigura 4).A los dos tipos de cámara que hemos descrito anteriormente se les puede adaptar calor que consiste en conectar cables eléctricos mediante alambre de hierro galvanizado en la base de los medios.Este sistema se considera ideal para las épocas frias.f --------220 cm ---------1 Figura 3. cámara de propagación sencilla con riego en forma de lluvia fina.  2. Se llenan dos vasos de precipitación (beakers) con 500 cc de agua esterilizada o deionizada.3. Se prepara una solución (estimulante enraizador) y se vierte en un vaso de precipitación 100 cc en un gramo de ácido indolbutirico . (Figura 7).   En el enraizamiento de leguminosas forrajeras es muy importante mantener una humedad adecuada para reducir al minimo la pérdida de agua por las hojas, una práctica común especialmente en épocas secas es asperjar las hojas con frecuencia aunque se emplee más tiempo. Se pueden hacer varias asper siones ligeras de agua durante el dia con intervalos largos cuando no se tienen equipos de riego automático.Aunque durante la formación de las rafces es importante la alta humedad en la estructura de propagación, también es necesario que se proporcione un drenaje adecuado de tal modo que escurra el exceso de agua y el medio de enraizamiento no quede húmedo en exceso.También es importante mantener buenas condiciones sanitarias en las cámaras, procurando también que las hojas que caen deben ser retiradas; igualmente debe hacerse con las estacas que estén muertas .Si en las estacas aparecen insectos tales como áfidos, arañita roja, chinches y otros, es necesario aplicar medidas de control por medio de insecticidas, acaricidas . y fungi~ cidas.Al retirar las estacas ya enraizadas debe tenerse mucho cuidado pues al hacerse en forma brusca se podría perder gran parte de las raíces que ya están formadas.20 .","tokenCount":"1040"}

data/part_1/0149971387.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"76f629f1f56f677aa22c51111df19dbc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9bed1303-b31e-4f07-aeac-a692e63ae45a/content","id":"-1150685500"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b6766269-85d4-4d44-a3ea-d22a28704c83","pagecount":"20","content":"kernel number and kernel weight were weak. Stg expression was largely dependent on rate of senescence which was related to the pattern of the greenness decay curve and the initial NDVI. QTL analyses revealed a total of 44 loci across environments linked to Stg and related traits, distributed across the genome, with the strongest and most repeatable effects detected on chromosomes 1B, 2A, 2B, 4A, 4B and 7D. Of these, some were common with regions controlling phenology but independent regions were also identified. The co-location of QTL for Stg and performance traits in this study confirms that the staygreen phenotype is a useful trait for productivity enhancement in hot-irrigated environments.The staygreen attribute, defined as \"heritable delayed foliar senescence\" (Thomas and Stoddart 1975) is considered as a selection criterion for crop improvement to extend grainfilling duration and ensure that grain size is not limited by lack of post-anthess assimilates. For many years the staygreen character has been empirically included in visual selection of breeding lines (Thomas and Ougham 2014) but its genetic basis is not well understood.The visible symptom of a staygreen phenotype is the persistence of greenness, which actually represents only one of many processes involved in delayed leaf senescence. The permanence of the pigment can be due to disabled chlorophyll catabolism or modification of the chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a ratio (Thomas and Howarth 2000). Complex hormonal controls are involved in leaf senescence, where cytokinins are the main inhibitors; plant treatment with cytokinins has resulted in staygreen phenotypes of tobacco and Arabidopsis (Gan and Amasino 1995). Five types of staygreen have been distinguished (Thomas and Howarth 2000), which broadly can be grouped as cosmetic staygreen or functional staygreen. As their names indicate, in the first type of staygreen the tissue looks green even when photosynthetic activity has been decreased or stopped in contrast to the functional staygreen (Thomas and Ougham 2014). The latter is obviously the target of plant breeding. Staygreen has been associated with drought and heat tolerance (Kumari et al. 2007); for example in sorghum, grain yield is positively associated with staygreen under water limited conditions (Rosenow et al. 1983;Borrell and Douglas 1996). Similarly to drought environments, under heat stressed conditions the staygreen attribute seems to be advantageous. Genotypes that exhibit delayed loss of greenness after anthesis show superior agronomic performance (Kumari et al. 2007;Borrell and Douglas 1996;Borrell et al. 2000). The latter is because staygreen indicates higher photosynthetic assimilation in the late stages of plant development which contributes to increase crop yield; the reason can be an extended photosynthetic active phase or higher photosynthetic rate due greater retention of leaf nitrogen content (Harris et al. 2007). However, it is not yet clear if the physiological and genetic basis for delayed loss of greenness under heat are similar to drought. Mechanisms related to the staygreen phenotype conferring heat adaption may be for example, the conservation of nitrogen through reduction of plant size (including leaves, stems and roots) and modification of water uptake patterns as found under water limited conditions (Borrell et al. 2014a;Mace et al. 2012), but this needs to be confirmed. Sorghum plant with reduced leaf size and decreased tillering have proven to result in genotypes using a conservative strategy to reduce the use of soil water before anthesis for use during grainfilling when water is a limitation. Apparently the staygreen genes affect the expression of genes controlling hormones influencing plant growth (Borrell et al. 2014a). Neverthless, sorghum has shown correlations between staygreen and yield in environments yielding >6 t ha −1 (Jordan et al. 2012).Genetic variability for staygreen has been identified and exploited in maize, oat, rice, wheat, fescue, soybean, pea, tomato, pepper, fruits, trees and other species (Barry et al. 2008;Armstead et al. 2006;Duvick et al. 2004;Thomas and Smart 1993;Thomas and Stoddart 1975). A number of studies have modelled the staygreen attribute as an indicator of photosynthetic activity. Deeper understanding of the dynamics and mechanisms affecting staygreen under high temperature environments are required to successfully exploit this attribute and improve plant adaptation to heat stress. Modelling canopy greenness dynamics over the whole crop cycle can help with this, while having obvious application in determining the best time for screening by identifying at what growth stage(s) differences in greenness are best associated with yield and show the best resolution. The factors affecting staygreen under high temperature conditions are unclear but a better understanding of canopy greenness dynamics are expected to (a) provide information about canopy activity at different time-points during the crop cycle which may be under independent genetic control, and (b) demonstrate when differences in greenness are best expressed in order to refine screening protocols.Elevated temperatures and high irradiance promote the generation of reactive oxygen (ROS) species which can lead to cell damage and further accelerate loss of green biomass (McDonald and Vanlerberghe 2004;Christiansen 1978). In this regard, it seems that the staygreen genotypes have the ability to cope with the negative effect of heat stress either by minimizing the production and accumulation of ROS through the pigments such as xanthophylls and carotenes that protect the chloroplasts by dissipating excess of radiation energy, reducing damage to the photosynthetic apparatus (Hopkins and Hüner 2009;Suzuki and Mittler 2006;Zhao and Tan 2005). It is interesting that staygreen is frequently reported for leaf greenness while other organs that also contribute to total plant photosynthesis such stems and spikes are not always considered. CO 2 absorbed by spikes represents at least 20 % of flag leaf CO 2 captured in wheat (Teare et al. 1972) and estimates indicate that the spikes' contribution to grain yield is variable depending of the conditions but can reach up to the 70 % in wheat and barley grown under stress (Maydup et al. 2010;Araus et al. 1993;Biscoe et al. 1973;Thorne 1963). Accurate quantification of individual leaf greenness (Harris et al. 2007) can be performed with the SPAD meter, and visual scoring, though more subjective, has been used to estimate greenness for decades (Kumar et al. 2010). The GreenSeeker spectral sensor offers an integrative high throughput approach to precision quantification of staygreen; it measures total canopy variation in green area including leaves, stems and spikes and permits screening of a large number of samples in a relatively short time (Lopes and Reynolds 2012); this enables potential application in large scale phenotyping including for QTL mapping. The current study applies this novel methodology measuring normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI) during the crop cycle so that the pattern of greenness decline could be determined. A number of NDVI-based staygreen related traits can be derived to enhance understanding of the mechanisms affecting plant's greenness persistence; these include the proportion of plant greenness lost mid grainfilling (Gdecay); the estimation of the velocity of greenness loss (RS) which together with the type of NDVI curve can provide information about how fast are lost the plant greenness and photosynthetic activity; and the estimate of total green biomass (StgAUC and TotalAUC), parameters determining light interception. It is hypothesized that StgAUC and TotalAUC can reflect the accumulated plant greenness during a given period of time and that high values for these two traits are favorable for plant performance due to an increase in plant's green area available for capturing radiation (Cossani and Reynolds 2012). The quantification of the staygreen attribute and other related traits in a wheat mapping population allows the identification of genetic loci controlling staygreen which can provide the tools to enable MAS to accelerate and improve efficiency of plant breeding. QTL mapping for staygreen has been performed for several species including Lolium (Thorogood et al. 1999), pearl millet (Howarth et al. 1994), wheat (Kumar et al. 2010;Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010), maize (Zheng et al. 2009) and sorghum (Harris et al. 2007;Tao et al. 2000).It has been estimated that wheat yield is reduced 3-5 % per 1 °C increased above 15 °C during the grainfilling period (Gibson and Paulsen 1999). High temperatures result in accelerated plant growth, reduced plant size and shortened cycle, limiting the amount of light intercepted. In that sense, extending the grainfilling duration through delayed greenness loss seems to be especially advantageous in heat stressed environment. The exact profile of the staygreen attribute as a heat adaptive-trait still needs to be clarified but in the current study it is proposed that plant greenness during grainfilling is lost following different patterns and that these patterns can be modelled following linear and non-linear regression models. Finally it is anticipated that genotypic differences for the Stg trait and related parameters exist and that this trait can be mapped for QTL to provide new avenues in the understanding of mechanisms controlling plant staygreen and its association with yield and other physiological traits.The specific objectives of this study were (1) to model plant senescence patterns of Seri/Babax RIL grown under heat-stressed, irrigated conditions, (2) to calculate a measure of staygreen (Stg) at physiological maturity using a linear regression model, and (3) to identify QTL linked to this character and additional traits associated with heat tolerance.The population consisted of 167 RIL derived from crosses between two of CIMMYT's elite lines: Seri M82 (herein called Seri) derived from a 'Veery' cross (KVZ/BUHO// KAL/BB) and a sister line of the elite variety Baviacora M92 'Babax' (BOW/NAC//VEE/3/BJY/COC). Both parents exhibit drought tolerance and high yield potential (Olivares-Villegas et al. 2007) while the population is characterized by a restricted range of height and phenology and does not segregate for major height, vernalization or photoperiod response genes (Pinto et al. 2010).Five heat-stressed, irrigated trials were conducted during the seasons 2005, 2006, 2010, 2011 and 2013 in the Yaqui Valley, Northwest México; the site is a high radiation, irrigated environment. In 2005In , 2006 and 2010 the trials were sown in February and in 2011 and 2013 the trials were sown in March. Based on the mean temperature at particular developmental stages, the trials were classified as: moderately hot (M), hot (H) or intensely hot (I) and are named with these letters followed by the last two digits of the sowing and harvest year (Table 1). Field experiments consisted of plots of one raised bed of 80 × 100 cm with two rows per bed; all the experiments were sown in two-replicate alpha-lattice designs. Sowing seed density was 15 gm −2 in the February and March trials. All trials were fully irrigated when ~50 % of available soil moisture was depleted in the 0-1 m soil profile.Physiological and agronomical traits were recorded in the five trials according to standard procedures detailed elsewhere (Reynolds et al. 2001). These included: repeated measurements during the vegetative (v) and grainfilling stages (g) for the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), flag leaf chlorophyll (Chl) and canopy temperature (CT); individual measurements were averaged for these traits and a single value is presented. Also recorded were the number of days to reach heading (heading) and physiological maturity (maturity), plant height (height), grain yield, kernel number (KN), grain weight (TGW) and the grainfilling rate [GFR = yield/(days to maturity − days to heading)]. NDVI was measured by canopy reflectance with a GreenSeeker (Optical Sensor Unit, 2002 NTech Industries, Inc., Ukiah, CA, USA). The chlorophyll of the flag leaf was assessed using a portable chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502 Minolta, Spectrum Technologies Inc., Plainfield, IL, USA) and the CT was recorded using an infrared thermometer (Mikron M90 series) 2-3 times per week avoiding cloudy and windy days according to the protocol described in Reynolds et al. (2001).Staygreen (Stg) was calculated using linear regression analyses of NDVI readings from heading until shortly after maturity according to Lopes and Reynolds (2012), given that anthesis under heat stress occurs very shortly after heading. The regression equation for each experimental plot was obtained by plotting NDVI during grain filling (NDVIg) against days after heading; Stg was calculated by substituting the maturity day in the equation. Stg is a unitless trait given that it is based on a NDVI ratio. The rate of senescence (RS) for each genotype was calculated from the slope of the NDVIg decline against thermal time (°C) using a linear regression equation (Fig. 1). Greenness decay (Gdecay) was calculated as the percentage of NDVI decline in the first half of the grainfilling stage (in number of days after heading). Staygreen-area (StgAUC) and Total area (TotalAUC) were calculated as the area under the curve with starting points at maximum NDVI (for StgAUC) or at crop establishment (TotalAUC) and using the corresponding thermal time for each case. Stg and staygreen related traits (RS, Gdecay, StgAUC, TotalAUC) were estimated only in three environments: M10, H05 and I13, due to insufficient NDVI data in H11 and I06.The modelling of NDVI curves across the crop development period and during staygreen decay in the grainfilling phase were performed in R 3.1.0 (http://www.R-project. org/) applying a sigmoidal function. In the M10 environment NDVIv (NDVI during the vegetative stage) was not recorded before 500 degree-days (dd, °C d) but in order to draw an NDVI trend for the whole cycle, this gap was filled using NDVI from H05 trial, given that comparable values were expected because NDVI for both trials performed similarly after 500 dd. (dotted line, Fig. 4). This assumption had no effect on the calculated Stg values orStg related traits, except on TotalAUC, since only the later included these inferred NDVI values. For this analysis, a non-linear model was developed by combining two sigmoidal functions as given by the following equation:where TT is the thermal time (i.e. °C days), is the simulated NDVI at TT, NDVI max is the season maximum NDVI parameter, r exp is a canopy expansion rate parameter, i exp is a canopy expansion inflection point parameter, r sen is a canopy senescence rate parameter, and i sen is the inflection point of canopy senescence. Each genotype was individually modelled for NDVIg after heading following linear and non-linear models using the equations: Linear model:Non-linear models:The best fitted model was selected based in the Bayesian information criterion (BIC).Adjusted means were obtained in SAS v9.0 using ANOVA mixed models to obtain the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUPs); spatial adjustment was included in the analysis by adding the effect of row and column according to the location of each plot in the field. Pearson's phenotypic correlations (r P ) were calculated using the formula of Roff (1995) from the adjusted means. The QTL mapping analyses were performed in GenStat 15th edition in a Composite Interval mapping procedure using a threshold LOD value of 2 to identify all QTL candidates and LOD > 3.5 for defining consistent QTL. QTL mapping was performed individually by trial and by trait, and also for each trait combined across environments.The Seri/Babax population map used here in was previously constructed and consisted of 475 markers: 118 SSR (Single Sequence Repeat), 212 AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), and 145 DArT (Diversity Array Technology) markers distributed over 20 chromosomes, only the chromosome 3D is missing (McIntyre et al. 2010). Previous QTL mapping studies have been reported using earlier versions of this map (Pinto et al. 2010;Lopes and Reynolds 2012). (TT−i sen)  ,NDVI TT = aTT 2 + bTT + cCurve type 3. normalized difference vegetative index during grainfilling i thermal time with maximum NDVIg, j thermal time with minimum recorded NDVIg; RS was calculated as the linear slope from i to j for all the genotypes, Stg staygreen, residual greenness remaining at physiological maturity calculated using a linear regression for each genotypesThe adjusted means and basic statistics for all traits calculated across the four trials for parents and RILs are presented on Table 2. The two parents showed similar expression for Stg, phenology and other traits while a much wider range was observed in the RIL. The rate of senescence (RS) for both parents averaged across environments indicated that the NDVIg decreased by about 8 SPADunits each degree day (°C), similarly to the estimated population mean. Gdecay across environments ranged from 18 to 44 % and averaged 31.2 % for the RILs. Heading time was found to be relatively constant across parents and RILs, with a range of 13 days observed across environments. Pearson's correlations showed that trial associations were positive and significant for yield (Fig. 2). Staygreen (Stg) was found to not well associated (p > 0.05) across the three environments (Fig. 3) varying from 0.12 to 0.38 but Stg showed consistent and positive correlation with kernel number (KN), thousand grain weight (TGW) and yield (Supplementary Fig. 1). The correlation between Stg and TGW was the weakest on average (Table 3), although it was still significant (p < 0.05). The distribution of the Stg trait showed that it varied across environments, ranging from 0.2 to 0.4, 0.05 to 0.3 and 0.14 to 0.27 for the M10, H05 and I13 trials, respectively (Supplementary Fig. 2). The highest values were observed in M10 which experienced lower heat stress compared with H05 and I13. Unexpectedly, the lowest Stg values were found in H05 and not in I13, but the variability for this trait was reduced under intense heat stress in I13. The rate of senescence for the parents by environment is presented in Supplementary Fig. 3.Individual measurements of NDVIv and NDVIg were plotted against thermal time and by regression analyses a single curve was fitted for the whole population for each environment. The performance of the NDVI trait across the cycle showed similar patterns in H05 and M10; major differences were observed in the NDVI pattern of the highest stressed environment, I13 (Fig. 4). Maximum NDVI was about 0.80 in M10 and 0.75 in H05, contrasting with I13 where the maximum NDVI was only 0.6. These maximum values were reached at about 750 degree-days in all environments. 1 3During grain filling, Seri showed lower initial NDVIg values than Babax at the same thermal time in the three environments (Supplementary Fig. 4). However, the decline in greenness in Seri was slower than the decline in Babax resulting in only marginally lower Stg for Seri. When modelling each mapping line separately, the 169 genotypes were observed to fit one of three types of curves best (Fig. 5). In the I13 environment, higher variation for type of curve was observed, given that the proportion of genotypes that fitted better to a linear curve (55 %) was close to the proportion of genotypes that fitted better to a parabolic curve (45 %). But when the heat stress was lower the diversity was reduced. In H05, 96 % of the population fitted a parabola best (curve type 2 and 3) and only 4 % fitted a linear model (curve type 1); while in M10 all the genotypes fitted a parabolic (curve type 2) curve best (data not shown). To investigate relation between trait performance and NDVIg curve types, a subset of 53 genotypes with restricted range of phenology (average difference in heading date between groups was restricted to 1 day) was selected from the I13 environment in order to balance the number of genotypes included on each group. This environment was chosen because it exhibited a larger diversity for type of curve compared to M10 and H05. In an ANOVA, curve type was significantly related to yield (Table 4). Significant differences were found between genotype groups with different curve types, for yield, yield components and physiological traits (Table 4). The curve type with largest StgAUC, curve type 2, was associated with higher yield, KN, TGW, NDVIg, GFR and GFD. Significant differences were also detected for phenology and plant height, even though differences in heading time between groups were restricted.The QTL mapping analysis was performed for 19 traits by single and by combined environments resulting in a total of 98 analyses (Trait × Environment combinations). A total of 193 QTL were identified with LOD > 2. Of these, 44 QTL were linked to Stg and staygreen associated traits, 37 QTL were associated with yield and yield components and the rest were related to other physiological parameters and phenology. Average LOD scores for all QTL associated with Stg and related traits, yield and yield components and with physiological traits were 3.5, 4.1 and 4.0, respectively. Across all QTL, for all traits and environments, the highest LOD score and the maximum phenotypic variance explained was 18.4 and 36.4 %, respectively, which was for a QTL on 1B for NDVIv. Additionally, 13 linkage groups contained two QTL located >30 cM apart for the same trait. A summary of results is presented as a matrix in Table 5. More detail about QTL with LOD > 3.5 is presented on Table 6; this table shows the related marker(s), maximum variances, size of effects as well as the increasing allele for each QTL. Except for H05, the maximum variances explained in all environments were found for QTL related to traits other than yield.QTL for Stg were located on chromosomes 2A, 4B, 4D, 6A and 7D. The largest phenotypic variance (15 %) was for a locus on 7D. This was also the most repeatable Stg QTL detected (two of three environments plus the combined analysis). Stg related traits such as RS, StgAUC, TotalAUC and Gdecay gave 9, 8, 11 and 11 QTL, respectively. The 4B and 7D loci seemed to be the main genomic regions controlling Stg related traits, given that those QTL were identified for multiple environments and traits (Table 5). A QTL on 1B explained around 10 % of the phenotypic variance for both RS and Gdecay. On 2B a QTL was detected for RS, TotalAUC, StgAUC and also for Gdecay where the greatest variance explained was about 10 % (for Gdecay). Most of the QTL for StgAUC and TotalAUC had LOD values greater than 3.5. QTL on 5B explained 11.3 % of the variance for TotalAUC and 7.3 % of variance for StgAUC (Table 6). For StgAUC the maximum phenotypic variance, 10.5 %, was explained by a QTL on 2A (Table 5). Considering all the environments, alleles from both parents contributed equally to Stg across the genome (Table 6).A number of QTL associated with agronomic and physiological traits were found co-located (linked to markers <30 cM) with QTL for Stg and staygreen related traits (Table 5). Figure 6 shows a Venn diagram summarizing these genetic overlaps. The 1B, 3B, 4A, 4B and 6B genomic regions appeared to be the most important ones controlling yield and yield components based on repeatability and significance (Table 5). Yield QTL co-located with QTL for Stg and staygreen related traits on 1B, 2A, 2B, 3B, 4A, 4B, 5A, 5B, 6B and 7A, and the QTL on 1B, explained the greatest variances for yield (linked to markers at 61.71-65.36 cM), KN (60.73-66.35 cM) and GFR (61.81-66.35 cM) (Table 6). This yield QTL on 1B appeared in three of five environments plus in the combined analysis, and was also found at or near QTL for RS, TotalAUC and Gdecay. The strongest effects for yield (16.5 g/m 2 ) were found on 1B and 4A. For TGW, a QTL on 1A explained close to 12 % of variance and had an additive effect of almost 1 g in the M10 and I06 environments. QTL for StgAUC and TotalAUC were also found on chromosome 1A but >30 cM distant from the QTL for TGW. In total, 28 QTL were identified for NDVI, 12 for NDVIv and 16 for NDVIg; most of these QTL showed LOD > 3.5. On 1B, a major QTL for early ground cover, defined by NDVIv, was found in the same  region as QTL for RS, TotalAUC and Gdecay; for all the traits the QTL were linked to markers found between 59.7 and 64.2 cM (Table 6), indicating co-location. This NDVIv QTL on 1B explained more than 36 % of phenotypic variance for the trait. On the other hand the maximum variance for NDVIg (12 %) was explained by a QTL on 7D (linked to one marker on 2.73 cM) which co-located with QTL for Stg, RS and Gdecay (linked to markers at 2.73-11.1 cM).On chromosomes 1B, 2B and 3B, there was co-location of chlorophyll content QTL (LOD > 3.5), defined by Chlv and Chlg, with Stg QTL related traits; in these three regions the Sgt and Chl QTL were associated with closely linked markers (at ~60, 40 and 113 cM for 1B, 2B and 3B, respectively). Almost 12 % of variance for Chlv was explained by a QTL on 6A, while a QTL on 3B explained about 14 % of the variance for Chlg. Eight QTL were detected for CTv and eight for CTg. Average LOD scores for all QTL related to canopy temperature was 4.2. For CTg the maximum variance was 15 %, explained by a QTL on 7D (at 2.73 cM), which was co-located with a number of QTL for Stg and related traits (at 2.73-11.1 cM). Additionally, the 4A region showed two regions affecting both CTg and yield, the first being located close to 13 cM and the other at around the 111 cM. The maximum variance explained for CTv was for loci on 1B and 4A, each explaining 17 % of the variance. Opposite to the 1B QTL, the QTL on 4A was repeatedly detected for CTv and CTg and in all environments, excepted in H11. The two CTv QTL on 1B and 4A co-located with QTL for yield showing the strongest effects for the trait, but did not co-locate with Stg QTL. The QTL detected for CTv at ~61 cM on 1B also controlled RS. The QTL for CTv and CTg on chromosome 4A co-located with QTL for RS, StgAUC and Tota-lAUC; only the QTL for RS seems to be different, given the large distances between QTL; The CTv and CTg QTL were found at 13-15 cM while the QTL for RS was located at 72 cM. QTL for Gdecay coincided with QTL for CTv and CTg on 1B, 2B, 3B, 4A and 7D, and in all cases the linked markers were closely located, indicating that it was the same QTL. Plant height was mainly controlled by loci on 3A, 4B and 5B. The strongest QTL for plant height was found on 3A, explained about 8 % of phenotypic variance for the trait and had an additive effect of 1.3 cm. This QTL on 3A was not co-located with any QTL for Stg or related traits of LOD > 3.5, or for yield or yield components. However the height QTL on 4B and 5B co-located with QTL for Stg, TotalAUC, StgAUC, Gdecay, yield, TGW and KN.Plant phenology QTL (date of heading and maturity) were positioned across the Seri/Babax genome but with small individual effects (<1.5 days, see Table 6). A QTL on 7D explained the highest variances for both heading and maturity. Based on repeatability and significance it seems that plant phenology was mainly controlled by the 2B, 5D and 7D genomic regions. The consistent QTL (LOD > 3.5) on 2B, 4A and 7D co-located with consistent QTL for Stg and all related traits. QTL for all these traits were found linked to markers at 26.8-40.9 cM on 2B, at 12.92-23.65 cM on 4A and on 2.73-11.7 cM on 7D. The phenology QTL on 5D did not co-locate with any QTL for Stg or related traits. Considering all the environments, alleles from both parents contributed equally to Stg across the genome (Table 6). QTL for Stg, StgAUC and TotalAUC mostly had Babax contributing the increasing allele i.e., these alleles favoured higher areas under the NDVI curve during the whole crop cycle (TotalAUC) and also during the greenness decay phase (StgAUC). Regarding yield, TGW and KN these traits were increased by alleles from both parents across the genome; however, Babax alleles tended to contribute the highest positive effects at loci explaining the maximum variances. Similarly, both parents contributed to increases in NDVI during both the vegetative and the grainfilling stages, depending on the locus. On the other hand, increases in canopy temperature were largely contributed by Seri alleles.Understanding the staygreen mechanism in the Seri/ Babax population-association with yield and plant performanceThe staygreen phenotype has been associated with improved performance of several species under heat stress (Reynolds et al. 2000;Kumari et al. 2013) and in the current study there was a positive and significant association of Stg with yield and yield components (Table 3). However in order to properly exploit the potential of the staygreen trait, a clearer understanding of the underlying mechanisms for the staygreen phenotype in the context of the cumulative effect of traits contributing to yield maintenance in stressed environments is needed. The current study found Stg to be positively associated with high yield, TGW, GFD, KN, and low CT. While heat stress conditions can reduce the grain number due to seed abortion or reduced grain set (Hays et al. 2007;Tashiro and Wardlaw 1990) crop productivity is also related to longer grainfilling periods and faster grainfilling rates, so it is expected that under heat stress, staygreen traits and green tissue area contribute to heavier grains (Kumari et al. 2013). Canopy temperature depression has also been found to be positively and strongly correlated with staygreen traits suggesting a possible link with root development patterns in bread wheat (Christopher et al. 2008;Kumari et al. 2013), as found in sorghum staygreen genotypes (Borrell et al. 2014a). Herein, the canopy temperature during the vegetative stage (CTv) was also found to be associated with RS and with NDVIv (Supplementary Table 1) further supporting the hypothesis that the RS staygreen attribute in wheat is primarily a consequence of the initial amount of greenness (total biomass    1A   For each QTL all linked markers with LOD > 3.5 are listed. Only the environment where the maximum variance explained was detected for a given QTL is indicated together with its corresponding effect and allele contributing to increase the trait. For QTL with more than one listed marker the first is the marker related to the maximum R 2 Chromosomes with two QTL for the same trait since distances between associated markers was >30 cM and chlorophyll) potentially available for filling the grains. This was supported by the fact that genotypes with cooler CTv tended to have higher initial greenness and biomass (NDVIv) and faster rates of senescence during grain filling. NDVI is an integrative measure of chlorophyll and total plant biomass, confirmed by a significant positive correlation between NDVIg and Chlg and height (Supplementary Table 1). The absolute rate of senescence (RS) was positively correlated with yield in the Seri/Babax population (Table 3), showing that genotypes with higher yields tended to lose chlorophyll faster. Higher absolute RS was also observed in genotypes with higher NDVIv, StgAUC and TotalAUC (Supplementary Table 1) showing that despite higher rates of NDVI decay during grain filling in these genotypes, the total amount of initial NDVIg was higher allowing for higher amounts of photosynthesis per unit degree day to fill grains. Interestingly, higher RS did not result in a faster arrival to maturity (associations of RS with days to maturity were not significant). This suggests that among the Seri/Babax progeny, genotypes with a staygreen phenotype were characterized by a high initial greenness, high StgAUC and TotalAUC and high RS, while attaining maturity within a similar timeframe, compared to non staygreen genotypes. In most species studied so far, a very conservative response has been observed for the staygreen phenotype with low RS and delayed onset of senescence (Thomas and Ougham 2014). However, the wheat Seri/Babax population grown in warm and irrigated environments showed a pattern of staygreen where higher initial greenness is lost at a higher rate without really accelerating time to maturity (Supplementary Table 1, NDVIv and Maturity, r P = 0.13, p = 0.089). Nonetheless, analysis across all environments showed low heritability for Stg especially for RS, similarly to results reported by Lopes and Reynolds (2012) in one staygreen study performed in the same population. Moderate and high heritability was found for physiological and agronomic traits (Table 2).Interpretation of staygreen would be most straightforward when dynamic traits fit a linear model. However during the grainfilling phase plant greenness decay patterns sometimes fitted non-linear models best. Non-linear regression curves have been previously used to describe the percent of greenness retained during grainfilling (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010). Additionally, a number of genotypes from the Seri/Babax population were found to fit best a parabolic model in the M10, H05 and I13 environments. Parabolic curves were observed in two of the 3 years in which the Stg attribute was analyzed. Interestingly, the tendency to follow a particular pattern was related to heat stress intensity. Furthermore, the same genotype could fit different curves, depending of the environment, suggesting high G × E for staygreen traits, as reported in previous studies (Bogard et al. 2011;Kumar et al. 2010). According to our modelling results the best time to screen staygreen parameters under heat-stressed, irrigated environments is around mid grainfilling (1200-1550 dae), given that in this period was observed highest resolution in the greenness canopy dynamics between genotypes (Fig. 4, 5). The latter was supported by co-location of QTL for yield and performance traits with QTL for Gdecay; this parameter estimates the percentage of greenness lost (from the maximum) at mid grainfilling and Table 5 showed that the main region controlling Gdecay, RS, yield, KN and GFR was 1B; several additional regions of minor effect were also found in common between these traits. Notwithstanding, for a completer understanding of the canopy dynamics it is suggested to start NDVI recordings when the maximum is reached (in these study it was around the about 750 degree-days) and extend the measurements after physiological maturity. The largest genetic diversity for type of curve was observed in the I13 environment which experienced the highest temperatures; in this environment linear and non-linear models applied to an almost equal proportion of genotypes. Lower diversity for the type of curve was observed in the H05 environment in which heat stress was moderate and in which only 4 % of the population fitted a linear model (curve type 1). In M10, which was the least heat stressed environment, the whole population fitted a non-linear model best (data not shown).A curve type 2 (see Fig. 5) during the decay phase resulted in larger area under the greenness curve (StgAUC) which would have allowed more photosynthesis, thus explaining the association of this curve type with higher grain yields (Table 4) (Kumari et al. 2013). By contrast, the lower StgAUC observed for curve type 3 resulted in lower photosynthetic area and genotypes with reduced grain number (KN) (Table 4). The classification of staygreen into four functional types is highly descriptive but in reality it is quite hard to classify a genotype into one or another group because the staygreen phenotype often results from a combination of two or more types (Thomas and Howarth 2000). Additionally, it is important to take into account that the Stg and RS traits by themselves cannot completely describe the staygreen attribute given the high relevance of the initial greenness value, as observed in the current study.Heat tolerance is a complex trait influenced by different component traits. Increasing temperatures accelerate plant development and decrease the length and amount of green biomass (through decreased organ size and plant height).The main chromosome regions controlling staygreen related traits in this wheat population were generally colocated with regions controlling agronomic and physiological attributes. Different staygreen traits were calculated and QTL mapped, including the residual greenness at maturity (Stg), the rate of senescence (RS), the green area under the curve (StgAUC) and the percentage of greenness lost at mid grainfilling (Gdecay)-all estimated from NDVI decay curves. The maximum phenotypic variance for any staygreen related QTL was detected on chromosome 7D associated with Stg; this locus has been previously described as associated with permanence of greenness under high temperatures (Vijayalakshmi et al. 2010;Kumar et al. 2010).In the current study, this Stg QTL on 7D co-located with a QTL for NDVIg, CTg (Table 5) and days to heading. Kumari et al. (2013) reported that staygreen in bread wheat was associated with high canopy temperature depression (CTD) such that the warmer plants tended to be non staygreen. There is evidence in sorghum that staygreen genes overlap with root architecture genes (Mace et al. 2012), for example, QTL for root nodal angle have been found to be co-located with Stg QTL including the Stg4 QTL associated with biomass partitioning between root and shoot (Borrell et al. 2014b). In the present study, the 7D region also controlled Gdecay and StgAUC as well as CTg, with the Seri allele being positive. Gdecay and CTg were positively correlated in the Seri/Babax population indicating that cooler genotypes tended to lose a smaller percentage of greenness in the first half of the grainfilling period. Gdecay and CTg controlled by the QTL on 7D seemed to be affected by plant phenology (Lopes et al. 2013) given the co-location of a main QTL for heading and maturity here (Table 5), but there was no effect of phenology in the 4A region where a consistent QTL was identified for Gdecay and CTg. The highest phenotypic variability explained for Gdecay (11.1 %) and RS (10.6 %) was detected on the 1B chromosome. Chromosome 1B has been reported to control a number of performance traits. Yang et al. (2002) found a QTL for grain filling duration on the short arm of chromosomes 1B which co-located with a number of QTL for Stg related traits from this study. Moreover, this QTL on chromosome 1B was co-located with yield, Chlg, NDVIv, CTv, Gdecay and KN. The 1B region also has been associated with SPAD chlorophyll content (Talukder et al. 2014) and Pinto et al. (2010) reported several QTL on 1B for canopy temperature, yield, and chlorophyll content at the grain filling stage in the Seri/Babax population. Common QTL for Stg related traits, yield, yield components and physiological characters indicate a common genetic basis for these attributes. The strongest QTL for yield detected in the current study was found on chromosome 1B and interestingly, it co-located with a QTL for green leaf duration detected in a previous study of spring wheat grown under heat stress in greenhouse experiments (Naruoka et al. 2012). The calculation and mapping of diverse staygreen associated parameters across the crop cycle allowed to determine if these parameters are under independent genetic controls in the Seri/Babax population. Our study showed that the strongest regions controlling StAUC and TotalAUC are different from those with largest effects for Stg, Gdecay and RS which suggest independent genetic controls for these traits. However, co-location of QTL for these parameters were also identified across the wheat genome which indicate minor overlapping of genes. In conjunction it seems that the mapping of diverse parameters associated to the staygreen attribute contribute with additional and valuable information that could be lost if the investigation is limited to the staygreen (Stg) study per se. For example, the 1B region was found to contain main genetic controls for yield and other agronomic traits and QTL for RS, TotalAUC and StgAUC were identified on 1B but not for Stg (Table 5).In agreement with our results (Table 5), Naruoka et al. (2012) found that the 4A and 3B chromosomes controlled green leaf duration in spring wheat grown under heat and also drought stress; in the Seri/Babax population the 4A and 3B chromosomes seemed to contain genes driving StgAUC, RS and Gdecay. These two genomic regions also showed QTL for yield, yield components, NDVI, GFR, chlorophyll content and canopy temperature which coincided with results from Pinto et al. (2010). During leaf senescence the mechanisms that protect the chlorophyll molecule from photodamage fail and result in leaf yellowing (Thomas and Howarth 2000). In some species, the staygreen phenotype can be conferred by genetic deletions of the locus encoding phaeophorbide a oxygenase (PaO), the main regulatory enzyme for chlorophyll catabolism (Vicentini et al. 1995;Roca et al. 2004;Thomas and Howarth 2000). However, the genetic basis of the staygreen phenotype is complex and differs from one species to another. Multiple staygreen genes (SGR) have been identified in several species, but the number of staygreen genes varies between species and homologos genes do not always result in increased greenness persistence. This may be because staygreen genes may also have different functions from one species to another; an example of this is in Arabidopsis where over-expression of the SGR2 gene results in a staygreen phenotype whereas over-expression of the SGR1 gene promotes leaf yellowing (Sakuraba et al. 2015). The physiological and biochemical mechanisms by which the staygreen genes affect chlorophyll degradation are unclear but various studies seem to indicate the involvement of a multi-protein complex containing chlorophyll catabolic enzymes (CCEs), the product of the staygreen gene 1 (SGR1) and light-harvesting complex subunits of photosystem II (LHCII). Apparently, this complex channels phototoxic Chl intermediates during chlorophyll catabolism (Sakuraba et al. 2012).Studies have shown that the staygreen phenotype includes a genetic component affected by the phenological clock of the plant and a second component un-related to plant developmental stage. In the current study consistent QTL for staygreen related traits on 2A, 2D, 5B, 6B and 7A were not co-located with phenology QTL; while consistent QTL for staygreen related traits and consistent QTL for heading and maturity co-located on 2B, 4A, 4D and 7D. In general terms, earliness in the Seri/Babax population was associated with longer GFD. Overlapping genomic regions for plant phenology and staygreen attributes suggest common genes controlling these traits. In Festuca pratensis, staygreen independent from phenology has been reported as a recessive character generated by changes in a gene regulating the pathway of chlorophyll degradation (Vicentini et al. 1995); Lolium and Festuca staygreen mutants show expression of the PaO enzyme but with reduced activity (Vicentini et al. 1995;Roca et al. 2004). However, the underlying mechanism associated with the staygreen character seems to vary (Thomas and Howarth 2000). In soybean for example, staygreen can be the result of a cytoplasmic mutation, CytG, which makes the chlorophyll b structure more stable (Guiamét et al. 1991). The staygreen of these mutants may be classified as Type C or cosmetic staygreen (Sakuraba et al. 2015;Thomas and Howarth 2000) which is characterized by the permanence of the greenness, but with unaffected loss of photosynthetic function. Mutant lines have also been used to study staygreen in rice (Cha et al. 2002), wheat (Spano et al. 2003;Thomas et al. 2002;Rampino et al. 2006;Tian et al. 2012), Arabidopsis (Grbic and Bleecker 1995) and Festuca (Hauck et al. 1997). However, if the genetic lesion resulting in plant greenness persistence is also associated with improved plant performance, the staygreen is classified as functional staygreen. An example of functional staygreen is in sorghum where some genotypes remain green and give higher grain weights than the non staygreen genotypes (Duncan et al. 1981;Borrell et al. 2000). In the Seri/Babax population functional staygreen may be controlled by chromosomes where common QTL for Stg, yield and yield components were detected, such as 4B. On the contrary, the staygreen phenotype was unlinked to yield improvement on chromosome 7D suggesting that the locus controlled the cosmetic persistence of greenness.The staygreen character is a complex trait; its expression is environment dependent suggesting high G × E interaction (Christopher et al. 2008;Bogard et al. 2011). For example, in sorghum the staygreen attribute is only observed under drought conditions (van Oosterom et al. 1996). In the current study, it was observed that the greenness decay pattern of particular genotypes varied with the growth conditions, resulting in different types of fitted curves (Fig. 5) when grown under moderate, hot or intense heat stress.Results from this study showed the staygreen attribute to be positively and significantly associated with yield and yield components in bread wheat grown under heat-stressed, irrigated conditions. The NDVI decay trend during grainfilling showed genotypic differences within the Seri/Babax population, and that the type of curve followed during greenness decay was strongly associated with general plant performance parameters. However, the type-curve for greenness decay is highly environment dependent. The association of the Stg character, the rate of senescence and all staygreen related traits with stress tolerance is supported by results showing that the same genomic regions have an effect on yield, grain weight, kernel number, canopy temperature, NDVI and also the length and rate of grainfilling. The staygreen character is clearly complex genetically with environmental influences that require further exploration.Author contribution statement R Suzuky Pinto conducted field experiments, performed data analysis and led the write-up; Marta S. Lopes conducted field experiments, performed data analysis and provided useful advice for data interpretation; Nicholas C. Collins contributed to data interpretation and preparation of the manuscript; Matthew P. Reynolds designed the experiments and participated in 1 3 all aspects of data analysis, interpretation and writing of the manuscript.","tokenCount":"7414"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"26880ba80dff037e1ccc6575135c2187","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fb81c3d9-abd1-461e-bbd3-8ccfca3cb79b/retrieve","id":"-913147150"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"10ff47ff-3415-400c-8650-c2e425ed6b48","pagecount":"52","content":"The Making Rangelands Secure Learning Initiative was established by a group of organisations (International Land Coalition (ILC), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralim IUCN-WISP, PROCASUR, and RECONCILE) seeking to improve security of rights to rangelands. The Initiative aims to identify and communicate good practice on making rangelands secure for local rangeland users. This is becoming increasingly challenging as diff erent actors compete for land and resources, and new pressures grow. The Initiative is working with national and local governments, development agencies, NGOs, and CSOs, together with local communities to share experiences, processes, approaches, and activities between East Africa, the Horn of Africa, and beyond. Innovative tools and processes are used for sharing information and experiences, including a Learning Route through Kenya and Tanzania hosted by local communities and organisations.Plotting progress: integrated planning in the rangelands of Kenya, Ethiopia, and UgandaFebruary 2014The Regional Learning and Advocacy Programme (REGLAP) for Vulnerable Dryland Communities is a consortium that promotes lesson learning and good practice documentation on strengthening dryland resilience in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda and advocates to governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders for improved policy and practice. The REGLAP programme has been operating since June 2008 and is funded by ECHO. It is now in its fourth phase, which will operate from January 2012 to December 2013. Regional Learning Groups focus on key issues for disaster risk reduction (DRR) in the drylands to develop good practice models and guidance and to strengthen the evidence base for the promotion of dryland resilience. These are: 1. Community-managed approaches to DRR: CMDRR, cross-border approaches, conflict-sensitive programming, participatory rangeland management (PRM); 2.Water development for DRR: developing and promoting good practice models for integrated water planning; 3. Strengthening the evidence base for DDR advocacy: analysing available research, promoting/filling research gaps to obtain clearer and shared understanding of resilience in the drylands, promoting joint messaging. Country Advocacy Groups advocate on the key constraints to resilience building for the drylands to governments and other key actors.In 2014, following a strategic review and planning exercise REGLAP changed its name to the Dryland Learning and Capacity Building Initiative (DLCI) and became an independent resource and facilitation organisation registered in Kenya.Development means growth, evolution, and progress. In a local context its meaning includes the process of improving the quality of life of the community, enhancing opportunities, and maximising choices.Drylands are areas with low rates of precipitation and high rates of evapotranspiration and which therefore experience water stress on a seasonal or constant basis. Drylands include true deserts as well as semi-arid regions, and occupy roughly 25-32% of the terrestrial area of the planet. Drylands are social, political, economic, cultural, and ecological systems.Land grabbing consists of \"acquisitions or concessions that are one or more of the following: (i) in violation of human rights, particularly the equal rights of women; (ii) not based on free, prior and informed consent of the affected land-users; (iii) not based on a thorough assessment, or are in disregard of social, economic and environmental impacts, including the way they are gendered; (iv) not based on transparent contracts that specify clear and binding commitments about activities, employment and benefits sharing, and; (v) not based on effective democratic planning, independent oversight and meaningful participation\". Source: International Land Coalition, Tirana Declaration, 2011. http://www.landcoalition.org/about-us/aom2011/tirana-declaration Integrated means to combine parts as a whole; to consider the aspects of an issue at the same time; to look at all the circumstances that might affect a project or plan in a holistic manner; and coordination of all stakeholders, sectors, and actors.Integrated land use planning is the integration of different perspectives, needs, and restrictions in land use planning. The integration can be vertical, i.e. national, regional, and local levels, and also horizontal within government organs.Land use planning is \"the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land use options. Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land uses that will best meet the needs of the people while safeguarding resources for the future\" (FAO 2003. Participatory land use planning is an iterative process based on dialogue amongst all stakeholders. The objective of participatory land use planning is to achieve sustainable land use, i.e. a type of land use which is socially just and desirable, economically viable, environmentally sound, and culturally and technically compatible. It sets in motion social processes of decision-making and consensus building concerning the use and protection of private, communal, or public land (GTZ 1999).Planning means arranging things or projects in a structured manner with a particular outcome or vision in mind. Planning documents should indicate the way to proceed to achieve that end. Planning is a tool used by institutions to bring about change in an orderly and manageable way.Zoning involves land use restrictions enacted via an ordinance to create districts or zones that establish permitted and special land uses within those zones. Land uses in each district are commonly regulated according to such characteristics as type of use (such as residential, commercial, and industrial), density, structure height, lot size, and structure placement, among others. Land use regulations specify for each class of zone which activities are 1) permitted, 2) prohibited, or 3) permitted conditionally if a special permit is obtained. One aspect of the theory behind zoning is that by locating similar land uses together, negative externalities can be limited.Ill advised, uncoordinated, and badly planned interventions have been blamed for continuing poverty and food insecurity in rangelands. Water interventions in particular have had negative impacts. Not only have these interventions failed to improve the livelihoods of people living there, but in many cases they have served to undermine them and the environment on which they depend. Rangeland development interventions have been sectoral in their approach.Development planners have been locked into manipulating one or two key components of rangelands, such as water, without properly taking into account the interconnections between water and grasslands, as well as the wider context in which communities live.Planning for development in rangelands, including land use planning, holds particular challenges and can impose unusual constraints on routine activities. Rangeland planners must address a number of challenges: the sheer size of administrative units with sparsely distributed populations and variable, patchy resources; the independent nature of pastoral and huntergatherer cultures; high levels of environmental variability; and the complexities of managing semi-natural ecosystems. Planners must also confront the additional challenge of managing the interface between high-and low-potential areas that are functionally interdependent. On a temporal basis too, the seasonal and flexible dynamics of pastoral systems rarely fit with the more constrained and rigid administrative, government yearly cycles of planning or finances.Group rights (ownership, access, and use) of resources provide particular challenges for land use planners. Further, there have been significant changes in society that have redefined the way in which individuals interact with each other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources.In response to these issues and challenges, this paper draws together and reviews current and recent experience in planning processes in the rangelands of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Key lessons are drawn out from two types of intervention -those led by government and those led by NGOs. These form the basis of a set of recommendations for different actors.In recent years, there has been a great improvement in the policy and legislative environment of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda, supporting more integrated planning in rangelands. The shift from a centralised approach to a decentralised and devolved policy and legislative environment has opened up opportunities for multi-sector, multi-stakeholder, integrated planning with the participation of land users. However, there is a lack of real commitment to devolve power, including decision-making power, from central to lower government bodies as well as to community organisations. There is also a lack of financial resources and of skilled and knowledgeable personnel who understand how rangelands and the livelihoods that depend upon them function and can grow. Decision-making processes favour sedentary populations over more mobile ones.Other policies and legislation offer mixed support for rangelands and their communities. In practice many policies and pieces of legislation fall far short of fully supporting rangelands, the production systems that work there, and the communities that depend upon them. Policies give mixed and conflicting messages. A key factor in the increased vulnerability of communities living in rangelands is their lack of secure tenure and control over land use changes taking place. Pastoralism as a land use system is given little legitimacy in decisionmaking processes, hence pastoralists still tend to be excluded from decision-making over use of land and the implementation of these decisions.Government departments, aid agencies, and organisations often focus on a particular sector, with patchy and inconsistent integration and coordination. Interventions tend to take place within the boundaries of small government administrative units, which in fact cover only a minor part of the greater rangeland. Government and donors still tend to operate with a supply focus rather than according to community needs -i.e. demand. Government capacities are often limited by a lack of resources and skills.None of the three countries examined in this review has a full country-wide land use plan. The piloting of new processes, mechanisms, and activities by an NGO or development agency can reduce risks for the land user. Case studies described here have introduced new ideas, processes, and approaches. Those that have been embedded in or worked closely with government have greater opportunities for scaling up good practice than those that have not. Collaboration with research institutions and well networked development agencies can also be important in this regard.Good policies can only create the environment for community empowerment and ownership -they cannot guarantee it. Though the importance of community participation is recognised and positive steps have been taken to mainstream participatory approaches, full inclusion is often not achieved. Fair, prior and informed consent is often missing from government decisions for large infrastructure projects. Pastoralists in particular feel that their views and needs are not incorporated into planning processes. Good facilitators are hard to come by and it is difficult to engage and retain trainers. Dependency of communities has been created by too much reliance on external technology. Regular dialogue and consensus building is vital for community mobilisation. For an action of the magnitude that many planning processes are to succeed, the issue in question must be salient, credible, and legitimate in the eyes of community members .Where community participation is a priority, women have taken an active role in the land use and development planning processes described in this paper. However, the more complex gender issues (the balance of power, access to information and education, and control of resources) tend to be sidelined or added on as an afterthought. Women need an incentive in order to be willing to actively participate in meetings or activities -and often this is missing.Changes in society such as more educated youth, exposure to different lifestyles, and more individualised values have redefined the way in which people interact with each other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources. Increasingly, customary institutions are left with little power, while those that have power have no presence on the ground. Attempts have been made to fill this governance and management vacuum, with varying degrees of success.Hybrid governance structures incorporating both government and community institutions may be appropriate but require significant support, including capacity building.Planning at a large scale is challenging. Programmes such as river basin development have often been over-ambitious and inflexible and have tried to adopt a blueprint approach, resulting in limited success. Interventions that provide opportunities for reflection, feedback, and adaptations are better positioned to cope with new challenges and problems (identified and solved in a participatory manner), and therefore are more likely to be sustainable in the long term. Planning is not an event but a process to be invested in.The majority of rangelands have a major comparative advantage over other land types in terms of land use systems, including livestock, tourism, and renewable energy. They are strategically located as the bridgehead to new markets beyond country borders. Increasingly, large infrastructural investments are being established in these areas, including the Lamu Port and Lamu Southern Sudan-Ethiopia Transport Corridor (LAPSSET) and related developments.However, if the opportunities created by these investments are to be fully realised, their planning needs to fully account for and incorporate linkages to and likely impacts on the wider drylands area and the communities living there.From central government to local, there are new opportunities for more integrated planning and implementation that respond to the unique constraints and attributes of rangelands and particularly mobile pastoralism, and that can be sustained in the longer term. New bodies focused on drylands and arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL), along with knowledge sharing and discussion platforms, provide opportunities for more appropriate support for livestock production systems.As a result of stronger devolution processes, mid-level layers of government will find it difficult to avoid land use planning and/or ignore existing land use plans in the future. Land security is an important aspect supporting investments in land and related decision-making processes. Across Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia, opportunities exist for strengthening land tenure in rangelands, and resources and support are available for this. All three countries have recognised the need for a country-wide land use plan and are taking steps to produce plans at national and other levels. This requires significant support from development actors.Aid activities and support in drylands are moving from majority humanitarian-or food securityfocused responses to ones based on longer-term development. The new (for many) focus on \"resilience building\" provides a rationale and opportunity for supporting and incorporating systems-based and non-linear approaches to development that are better suited to rangelands than simple, linear, cause-and-effect approaches. The focus on \"resilience\" has provided opportunities for natural science to be brought back into the development narrative. The commitment of all three countries to the IGAD Drought Disaster Resilience and Sustainability Initiative (IDDRSI) process, which has resilience building at its core, and the production of country programme papers to end drought emergencies are reflections of this.New approaches to planning and in particular those that work with both government and communities to plan beyond small administrative boundaries, such as river basin planning, watershed management, ecosystem management, and participatory rangeland management (PRM), are providing increasing evidence that planning at scale has benefits. However, planning at scale should not result in a disconnect between decision-makers and land users -the two need to work together for positive results.Both governments and NGOs are seeking to build capacity for planning at different levels.There are increasing opportunities for investments from the private sector (e.g. commercial investors, water service delivery companies) or through carbon offsetting, and from donors (including the Global Alliance supporting the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD)'s DDRSI process). Rewards (financial or non-financial) for environmental services and for voluntary and regulatory arrangements are also a relatively new source of funding, while also supporting a change in behaviour towards sustainable and adapted management of these ecosystems. The development of contingency funds for drought (and, for example, crisis modifiers) provides an opportunity for readily available funds that can be mobilised for effective quick response to crises such as droughts. This is a good example of how funds can be devolved to local authorities to better respond to local situations and needs.NGOs today are better placed and committed to planning and working together than they have been in the past. Some donors have encouraged this through calls for collaborative projects. However, beyond these projects much can be done to improve joint planning, sharing of and more efficient use of resources, and harmonisation of approaches. Experience in the region has shown the value of conservation and research organisations, working with development organisations. With more decision-making power at lower levels, there should be greater opportunity for coordination -however, where it is necessary to work across lower-level administrative boundaries, coordination bodies will be required to manage this.In rangelands there is a much stronger case for governance structures to cut across administrative boundaries in order to reflect the reality of resource use and mobility. In this case a \"nested\" governance structure can hold more relevance with governing institutions in place and functioning for each different layer or unit of resource use (as the structure decreases in size of numbers of uses and area, from a landscape or rangeland to a well or tree). In a well functioning rangeland society there will be structures set up to govern these different resource units, and it is these units and their structures that traditionally form the basis of rangelands planning. As such, they should also form the basis of more formalised planning processes.For sustainable development Global commitment to integrated development planning and decision-making was reconfirmed at the Rio+20 Summit in June 2012 and as part of the document \"The Future We Want\". 1 This affirmed the belief that sustainable development can only be achieved through the integration of economic, social, and ecological systems as interdependent but open entities that continuously interact and influence one other. In the quest to achieve national development goals, including the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), there is increasing recognition that this can happen only when the goals are translated into actions at the sub-national level and through the active participation of local actors.This in turn has brought about renewed attention to planning for local development. With sustainable development in mind, planning methodologies have been adopted as the means through which states should intervene to address imbalances of power and market failure in order to ensure democratic, well informed, and rational decision-making in the pursuit of economic, social, and ecological goals. The participation of local populations has been increasingly promoted, and to some extent this has been reflected in national development planning processes. The development of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) is an example where community consultations (albeit limited) have taken place at the beginning of the process.With specific attention to drylands, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) emphasises the importance of participatory integrated development plans and the integration of strategies for poverty eradication into efforts to combat desertification and the effects of drought. 2 Here the balance between conservation and management of natural resources and the promotion of economic and social stability of local (indigenous and other) peoples is promoted. This parallels the growing scholarly literature emphasising the interconnectedness of environmental sustainability and socio-economic equity and justice (Orenstein et al. 2011). All of these developments have provided an increasing number of reasons for getting planning in drylands (in particular) right.Poor planning in the past Ill advised, uncoordinated, and badly planned interventions have contributed to the continuing poverty and food insecurity in dryland areas and, more specifically, in rangelands.Water interventions in particular have had negative impacts. The prolific development of water points (e.g. in northern Kenya or eastern Ethiopia) by NGOs, development agencies, and governments has contributed to sedentarisation and privatisation of resources, resulting in conflicts between land users, environmental degradation, and increased vulnerability and poverty for many (Gomes 2006). In Wajir district in Kenya, for example, in the 1940s there were four major dry season water points managed communally; today there are over 75 -many managed by non-customary groups who charge for use. Somali pastoralists claim they have lost 75% of the most palatable pastures as a result of the proliferation of mechanised boreholes. Similar experiences are found in parts of Uganda (Powell 2010). Not only have these interventions failed to improve the livelihoods of people living there, but in many cases they have served to destroy them and the environment on which they depend.Rangeland development interventions have been sectoral in their approach. For example, the large rangeland development schemes established in Ethiopia 3 in the 1970s failed to meet their objectives because \"planning\" was undertaken with a lack of understanding of the pastoral production system, and imposed technology-based solutions. There was a failure to incorporate indigenous knowledge, practices, goals, and strategies of pastoral communities, who were not included in the planning process (Zerfu et al. 2010;Homan et al. 2004).properly taking into account the interconnections between the different components of rangelands and the wider context in which rangeland communities live. Planning has taken place within the boundaries of small government administrative units, which in fact cover only a minor part of the greater rangeland. Across the majority of rangelands, government and donors still operate with a supply focus rather than according to the needs of communities -i.e. demand. Interventionist strategies (e.g. rigid stocking quotas) have consistently failed to deliver improvements to the environmental condition and the livelihoods of the people who depend on it (Laris 2002). Government and local elites can appropriate and influence these processes for their own ends (Gomes 2006).Planning for development in rangelands, including land use planning, holds some particular challenges and can impose unusual constraints on routine administrative activities. The overall per hectare productivity of East African arid and semi-arid (ASAL) rangelands is generally low, so the cost of their management must be as well. Despite a modest revenue base, rangeland administration must address a number of other challenges -the sheer size of administrative units, with sparsely distributed populations and variable, patchy resources; the independent nature of pastoral and hunter-gatherer cultures; the high levels of environmental variability; and the complexities of managing semi-natural ecosystems.Planners must also confront the additional challenge of managing the interface between high-and low-potential areas that are functionally interdependent. Across East Africa, the loss of pastoral access and the alienation of this land to other uses is a widespread occurrence. More and more, these landscapes are becoming fragmented, dissected into a patchwork of agricultural and pastoral land uses (Flintan 2011). The economic performance of pastoralism, its capacity to support human populations and to ride out droughts, depends on continued access to key assets, especially river valley lands (Galvin et al. 2008).On a temporal basis too, the seasonal and/or flexible dynamics of pastoral systems rarely fit with the more constrained and rigid administrative, government yearly cycles of planning, finances, and so on. System component interactions contribute to a dryland system that is difficult to predict and inappropriate to generalise about. Dryland farming is a highly risky enterprise. Pastoralism is a land use system more suited to drylands: it considers ecological, social, and economic systems, and is practised in an integrative way (Flintan et al. 2013).Group rights (ownership, access, and/or use) of resources provide particular challenges for development planners. As a result, governments try to individualise these rights or ignore them (hoping that if they do this for long enough they will break down and disappear).Trends show that, in many communities, what were previously group rights are breaking down and becoming more individualised. Further, there have been significant changes in society that redefine the way in which individuals interact with one other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources. Where land and resource tenure is unclear, poor land use has increased (Gomes 2006).Migration into drylands by non-locals, as well as out-migration by youth in particular, are also becoming more common. The introduction of modern or statutory frameworks for governance at local levels has further undermined the effectiveness of traditional institutions. This has created a situation where traditional institutions still exist on the ground but have little power, while those institutions that have power have no presence on the ground. It is this reality that creates the open access problem with regards to natural resources, which are then exploited without any regulation, leading to degradation and decline (Odhiambo 2012).In response to these issues and challenges, this paper draws together and reviews current and recent experience in planning processes in the rangelands of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. Some \"good practice\" examples are provided -these focus firstly on government-led processes (Section 2) and secondly on NGO-led processes (Section 3). Key lessons from these examples are drawn out, including strengths and weaknesses, in Section 4. Opportunities and principles for future interventions and support are highlighted and provide the basis for a set of recommendations.This document is a shorter version of Plotting Progress: Development Planning in the Drylands of Kenya, Ethiopia and Uganda (Flintan 2013). Available at: http://www.disasterriskreduction. net/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/Plotting%20progress_Flintan_2013_FINAL.pdf Experiences shared and lessons learned: government-led InitiativesThe policy and legislative environments of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda supporting more integrated planning in drylands, and more specifically rangelands, have improved greatly in recent years. The shift from a centralised approach to a decentralised and then a devolved policy and legislative environment has opened up opportunities for multi-sector, multistakeholder, integrated planning with the participation of land users. In Ethiopia, the woreda (district) is seen to be the centre of socio-economic development, providing opportunities to tackle poverty at the grassroots level. As a result of the 2010 Constitution in Kenya, local governance systems are being realigned, empowering county-level elected government to define and implement local development priorities. In Uganda, the responsibility for local planning, budgeting, and implementation lies primarily with the district/municipality and sub-county/town council level of government. However, despite these structures, there is a lack of real commitment to devolve power, including decision-making power, from central to regional and lower-level government bodies, as well as a lack of financial resources and of skilled and knowledgeable personnel who understand how drylands and the livelihoods that depend upon them function and can grow. There is also the danger that more powerful individuals at the local level will take up new opportunities for participation in decision-making processes, while those who have less power or accessibility to decision-making bodies will miss out. In rangelands this situation favours sedentary populations over more mobile ones.Other policies and legislation offer mixed support for drylands and their communities. Though the principles for integrated planning are supported -participation of communities (land users) and other stakeholders, rights to information and knowledge, rights not to be removed from one's land without compensation, equitable development -their implementation falls far short of supporting drylands, the production systems that work there, and the communities that depend upon them. Policies also give mixed and conflicting messages.Though good sector-focused policies, legislation, and development strategies exist, such as for agriculture, few specifically tackle the needs and challenges of drylands. As a result, interventions are often inappropriate for the unpredictable, variable, and often harsh dryland environments and the populations whose livelihoods depend upon them. Interventions focus on one component of drylands at a time, such as water, and fail to incorporate or account for the inter-related nature of all components or to plan at a scale that reflects this interconnectedness. Governments, aid agencies, and organisations are often sector-based, with patchy and inconsistent integration and coordinationThe establishment of the Ministry of State for Development of Northern Kenya and Other Arid Lands (MDNKOAL) in 2008 provided the opportunity for a geographically focused, multisectoral, and integrated approach to development in Kenya's ASALs. Following elections in March 2013, the structure of the government has changed and the MDNKOAL has been disbanded. However, in view of these likely changes, in 2010 the ASAL Secretariat was established by the Ministry as a permanent and specialised institution that will champion and coordinate development in the ASALs in the long term -as anticipated it will take on the majority of the MDNKOAL's roles and responsibilities.In Ethiopia, the establishment of the Directorate for Equitable Development in Emerging Regions 4 in the Ministry of Federal Affairs (MOFA) has been an example of the recognition by government that pastoral regions require a targeted and different approach from development in highland areas: it is also the federal organisation responsible for a large programme of resettlement of pastoralists. Earlier this year a State Minister of Livestock was appointed in the Ministry of Agriculture to lead livestock development in the country; this highlights the value assigned to livestock in Ethiopia's future economy by the national government.In Uganda, a Rangeland Policy and a Pastoral Code have been in draft for several yearscurrently both are under review. Platforms such as the Karamoja National Working Group (KNWG), which sits in the Office of the Prime Minister, provide opportunities for coordination between different ministries, key development partners, the private sector, and CSOs.Key factors in the increased vulnerability of communities living in rangelands are their lack of security of tenure and lack of control over land use changes that are taking place. There remains little recognition of the benefits and opportunities of pastoral-based livelihoods despite increasing evidence, and in particular in the face of climate change. Where land administration and land use laws exist, they have been crafted with mainly sedentary highland farming areas in mind; hence they have only limited applicability to pastoral areas, which are predominantly characterised by communal land tenure systems (group rights). The lack of legitimacy given to pastoralism as a land use system means that pastoralists tend to be excluded from the design and planning of land-related decisions, plans, and their implementation.None of the three countries examined in this review has a full country-wide land use plan. The existing institutional framework and manpower at all government levels is not yet commensurate with the task of undertaking land use planning at this scale. Some land use planning is being carried out in certain areas (see for example Box 1), but in most cases decisions about land use and development are carried out in a piecemeal fashion focusing on relatively small units of land and resources. \"Enclave development\" occurs where highproductivity areas close to rivers are removed from the pastoral system by governments and made available to investors 5 (Behnke and Kerven 2013). This tends to occur without assessing the appropriateness of the intervention in relation to the environment and resource distribution of the area. Similarities between some recently developed rangeland development projects and failed rangeland development projects of the 1970s are of concern.Box 1: Land use planning and water development in Borana zone, Oromia Region, EthiopiaBased on the principle of a \"Land Use Guided Development Corridor Approach for Sustainable Development\" (see National Regional State of Oromia 2010), Oromia region is at the forefront of planning at a regional level. 6 The Oromia Bureau of Land and Environment is preparing a regional master land use plan (at a scale of 1:50,000) which covers 45% of the region's total area, with fieldwork carried out by the Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (OWWDSE), a public enterprise (ESCNCC 2011). Large parts of Borana zone are already covered by the plan: in order to generate information for this, a detailed land use planning (LUP) study commenced five years ago. There are three main sub-basins of Borana zone, which form the basis of the planning: the Rift Valley-Lakes, the Dawa, and Laga Sure-Laga Wata (the latter two areas containing significant numbers of pastoralists). Based on detailed studies of local ecology, hydrology, socio-economics, etc., land use suitability has been identified for livestock and agriculture. In Laga Sure-Laga Wata, for example, 85% of the basin has been identified as being suitable for livestock production (with some areas requiring rehabilitation of grasslands including bush clearing), and only 9% suitable for agriculture (see study report and Proposed Land Use Plan for the basin -OWWDSE 2010). Different stakeholders were consulted in the development of the land use plan; however, it is not clear who these were and how they were involved.The plans are used as the basis for spatial/area \"integrated land use planning projects\". In southern Oromia there are two such projects under way, in Borana and Genale Dawa. In Borana, a water supply project has been developed across the zone, which will provide water for both domestic and livestock uses. Based on MDG goals, water should be available within a 3km round trip in rural areas. Supply of water for livestock will be based on the calculation that cattle (with sheep) require 4 hectares (ha) of land and 15 litres of water per capita per day (l/c/d), and should not be more than 5km from a water point. Camels (with goats) require 6 ha of land and 20 l/c/d and should not be more than 7.5km from a water point.Figure 1 shows the plans for the whole zone, including the supply network (circles depict the radius serviced by each well according to the above calculations). The initial design was for 2,000km of pipeline, but it is now anticipated that 3,727km of piping will be put down and 5 Such as the Awash River Basin, Afar region (with up to 172,448 ha already under development) and the Omo River Basin, SNNPR, both in Ethiopia. Large government schemes are also found in these areas, including the Fentale Irrigation Development project on the Awash, and the 245,000 ha South Omo sugar plantations, linked to the development of the Gibe III Dam. Some of these developments, and particularly those implemented by the State, do make some provisions for local communities, such as resettlement and outgrower schemes.6 Other regions are in the early stages of developing land use plans. For example, in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia, the Environmental Protection, Land Administration and Use Authority is preparing LUP manuals. However, because of finance and manpower shortages, little activity is taking place. reservoirs and water points established. The pipeline is partially operational but is lacking proper arrangements for management (Alemayehu 2012). To date, 277km of pipe has been laid. Little if any community consultation was carried out in project planning. It is anticipated that NGOs will provide support for establishing community management structures and for network operation and maintenance (Mesele 2010). Based on the new supply network, rangeland development projects are being piloted -for example, the Dembel-Ayisha Dewelle water supply and rangeland development project for sheep farming (see Figure 7). The Water Act prescribes Catchment Management Strategies as the tool for the use and management of water resources, and requires that they should be developed for each of the major river basins in Kenya -with overall responsibility held by the Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA). Regional offices of the WRMA are being set up based on catchments -there is one in Nanyuki to serve the whole of northern Kenya. Implementation of integrated water resource management (IWRM) at catchment level is achieved through the establishment of Catchment Area Advisory Committees (CAACs). Sub-regional offices are being established to manage sub-catchments. At the grassroots level, stakeholders engage through Water Resource Users Associations (WRUAs), which also provide a forum for cooperative management of water resources and conflict resolution. This provides the opportunity for hydrological boundaries to be used as the boundary for decision-making, rather than administrative boundaries.Six River Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs) have been created under the Ministry of Regional Development Authorities (MORDA). These include the Tana and Athi River Basin Development Authority (TARDA) (which covers 138,000 sq km), the Ewaso Ng'iro North River Basin Development Authority 7 (ENNDA) (209,576 sq km), and the Ewaso Ng'iro South River Basin Development Authority (ENSDA) (47,000 sq km), all of which include substantial areas of drylands.In an attempt to improve regional development coordination, the six RBDAs have been shifted to various ministries depending on their major projects at the time; for example, at one time TARDA was under the Ministry of Energy while ENNDA and ENSDA were under the Ministry of Agriculture (and Rural Development). There has been a lack of coordination between the Ministry and the RBDAs and a lack of planners and development managers trained in requisite skills in regional policy analysis, regional planning methodology, and implementation and monitoring, 7 ENNDA, for example, encompasses 28 administrative districts: Moyale, Chalbi, Marsabit, Laisamis, Isiolo, Garbatulla, Wajir East, Wajir West, Wajir South, Wajir North, Garissa, Fafi, Ladgera, Mandera East, Mandera West, Mandera Central, Samburu East, Samburu Central, Samburu West, Laikipia East, Laikipia North, Laikipia West, Meru Central, Imenti North, Tigania, Igembe, Nyandarua North, and Nyeri North.Reconciling different land uses such as agriculture and pastoralism is difficult and requires a multi-sectoral approach which has affected the preparation of regional plans. 8 Limited resources and the absence of a policy framework have been further challenges (Orege undated). There are also other conflicting roles and responsibilities. The Physical Planning Department (PPD) of the Ministry of Lands is charged with responsibility for preparing Regional Physical Development Plans (RPDPs) under the Physical Planning Act (PPA) 1996. Under the Act, the PPD is legally bound to prepare an integrated regional development plan for areas such as Ewaso Ng'iro North River Basin, without collaboration or structured partnership with ENNDA. However, according to ENNDA Act Cap 448 (1989), ENNDA is responsible for planning and management in the Basin, to ensure proper utilisation of natural resource and environmental protection (ENNDA undated).The mandate of the RBDAs 9 is to formulate integrated multi-sectoral development within their areas of jurisdiction through implementation of integrated programmes and projects such as provision of hydropower, flood control, and water supply for irrigation, domestic, and industrial use, together with environmental conservation, as well as to contribute to the formulation and implementation of integrated regional plans and to MORDA's strategic plan.Neighbouring RBDAs are also expected to harmonise their plans and to produce them in consultation with other stakeholders. In addition, RBDAs are expected to collect, store, and share information, establish mechanisms for empowering local communities to participate in development activities, and share benefits equitably between them. For example, the strategic plan of ENSDA (2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012) includes, amongst other things, the Ewaso Ng'iro South Integrated Regional Development Plan (IRDP) project to guide and coordinate development interventions in the region; a community drought preparedness project; the establishment of the ENSDA Regional Data Centre; a conflict mitigation and management project for Mara community natural resources; institutional capacity development; regional coordination and monitoring and evaluation (M&E); and the Lower Ewasa Ng'iro South multi-purpose project \"to transform the arid lands to vibrant economic use\". It is anticipated that the money to fund these projects will come from the Government of Kenya (GOK) and donors (ENSDA 2008).Programmes such as the Medium Term ASAL Programme (MTAP), developed by the MNKDOAL, seek to improve coordination and the participation of communities. WRUA development cycles will be adapted for ASAL areas and implemented in 18 sub-catchments in the six priority counties, leading to improved water delivery. The Water Service Trust Fund (WSTF) is a multi-donor basket fund for water catchment strategies (Halakhe 2012;MTAP 2012).In is commissioning the preparation of Master Plans for the 12 major river basins, most of which have now been completed. The River Basin Master Plans are supposed to be used by different federal and regional government ministries and agencies as a base on which to integrate their own strategic plans. However, some regional governments are carrying out their own plans. As detailed in Box 1 Oromia government is in the process of preparing integrated land use plans for various site-specific purposes where the planning sites are within a river basin, as part of a region-wide land use plan but separately from the River Basin Master Plan.This magnifies the problem of coordination and cooperation among different government ministries and agencies (ECSNCC 2010).The Fentale Irrigation Scheme was a pilot for the development of later schemes and progammes.It is now held up by the government as a flagship for good development. The scheme has led to the resettlement of 4,500 Kereyu pastoralist households (out of an anticipated 22,000), and will cost an estimated ETB 467 million. The Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (OWWSDE) was contracted to develop the scheme. Irrigated agriculture is being introduced across 16,000 ha of the 18,000 ha project area, though to date only 25% has been developed. A scoping mission to the area in January 2012 suggested that, although access to water has been improved, communities have received little training in crop production and fear that the 0.75 ha allocated to each household will not be enough for future use. Water users' associations have been established but are not strong and do not function properly; project staff are limited by lack of resources in terms of transport and skills; there is little feeling of \"ownership\" over the scheme and in some cases water pipes have been stolen; and there is a lack of potable water and health clinics for settlement areas. Uncontrolled use of irrigation is likely to result in problems of salinity in five years or so. Most households still keep livestock, but the promised grazing close to home has not materialised. Information to support decision-making is collected through evaluation of groundwater potential and the region's land potential. A land use planning study will take place, together with an integrated approach that will incr ease focus on issues such as dealing with invasive species, natural resource management (NRM), improving livestock production, and marketing. The programme has already settled communities voluntarily on tens of thousands of hectares in riverine areas along the Wabi Shebele, Genale, Dawa, and Web Rivers. Regional coordination offices are being established to manage the projects on the ground. Capacity building of woreda and regional government staff on planning and matters such as drilling supervision, and awareness creation on the usefulness of integrated basin development, are being carried out (Bantero 2012).SLM is a priority for Uganda and the government with partners, is in the process of developing a country-wide programme. This will be aligned with the investment plans of the agriculture and environmental sectors. The process was initiated in 2006 with a national workshop on SLM in order to develop stronger partnerships, increase resource mobilisation, transfer appropriate technology, and promote inter-sectoral coordination, integrated approaches, and cost-effective SLM is also a priority for Ethiopia, as most recently defined in the Ethiopia Strategic Investment Framework (ESIF) for Sustainable Land Management (2008). The ESIF-SLM sets key priorities for SLM-related investments, improving the policy, legal, institutional, and financial environments, and defines a strategy for scaling up SLM best practices and the approach and mechanisms for coordination, consultation, participation, and M&E. It aims to address the interlinked problems of poverty, vulnerability, and land degradation at the rural community level. The ESIF-SLM states (p.39) that \"narrow sector based projects have limited success in addressing the multi-dimensional problem of land degradation. Hence the need is for a comprehensive and integrated approach involving public and private partnerships between different sectoral agencies and other stakeholders\" (FDRE-MOA 2011). The ESIF-SLM is one of the first government initiatives in Ethiopia to recognise land degradation as \"a multi-dimensional problem, which the piecemeal efforts of different agencies in the past failed to tackle\" (ibid).The SLM implementing committees are organised at federal, regional, woreda, and community levels. The total project cost of SLM, including contingencies, is USD 37.79 million, of which a loan from the International Development Association (IDA) accounts for USD 20 million, the GEF USD 9 million, and the Government of Ethiopia (GOE) USD 8.79 million. To avoid duplication and to promote synergies, an SLM platform has been established to coordinate all SLM investments in Ethiopia. This mechanism comprises a national inter-agency steering committee chaired by the State Minister of the MOA (the Natural Resource Management Sector, or NRMS); a national technical committee that comprises representatives of government, civil society, and development agencies; and an SLM Support Unit in the MOA to provide administrative and technical support to the steering committee and the technical committee.Similar SLM platforms are replicated at regional level. Following the successes of watershed planning and management to date (see Flintan 2013), the SLM Support Unit is leading the implementation of the approach across 35 watersheds in (though not exclusive to) highland areas. 10 The selected watersheds are a sub-set of a much larger plan of the MOA to support SLM activities in 177 priority watersheds across the country. The project has significant capacity-building components for communities and local government (for more details, see FDRE-MOA 2011).10 These watersheds, each with an average size of about 10,000 ha, comprise 15-20 sub-watersheds. The project is expected to cover a total area of about 605,271 ha, benefiting around 1 million people (with funding from the World Bank/GEF, Germany's Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (KfW), and the Finnish government).The piloting of new processes, mechanisms, and activities by an NGO or development agency can reduce risks for the land user. This is of particular value where the risk is large. Several of the case studies here have introduced new ideas, processes, and approaches -and those that have been embedded in and/or worked closely with government have been particularly successful in scaling up good practice. Collaboration with research institutions and well networked development agencies can be important in this regard. A major constraint for planning is a lack of information and poorly developed information sharing systems.Communities in particular do not have access to information related to land use change or development planning.Here, two initiatives with potential for sustainable scaling-up are highlighted. Other examples are found in the larger document on which this issue paper is based (Flintan 2013).Land Use Master Plan in Kitengela, Kenya Since 1998 the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF) has used conservation enterprises 11 as one among several strategic interventions for conserving wildlife to ensure that positive conservation and livelihood outcomes result at the landscape level. In general these activities take place on community land, where there is also a high conservation value. Commonly, land use plans have been developed to zone the community land into different areas of interest and use, and these have proved relatively successful in their implementation. However, in Kitengela, south of Nairobi, a much larger land use plan was produced in collaboration with the District Council, which has proved to be the first community-led land use plan approved by the GOK. RANGELANDS allowed for greater understanding of resource, zoning, and planning issues that affect Maasai pastoralists. Dialogue facilitated by this project led to agreement that a comprehensive and holistic LUP process that sought to protect and facilitate co-existence between the area's livestock and wildlife was required. This developed into a programme, headed by AWF and funded by USAID, to develop a Land Use Master Plan (LUMP) for the Kitengela (Kaputiei) area.The process of producing the plan is described in detail in Fitzgerald and Nkedianye In addition, the process had the support of a number of different individuals, organisations, and donors who were committed to seeing it through to the end. A Land Forum was established to coordinate this. The organisations involved provided different and complementary skills. These \"outside\" interest groups shared the vision of the local communities -halting fragmentation of land and a better securing of rights. Those organisations involved that were research-oriented, such as ILRI, saw the process as \"a 'continual engagement model' creating 'research-action arenas' in order to better integrate knowledge from policy makers, communities and researchers … [and] the creation of a core boundary-spanning team, including community facilitators, a policy facilitator, and trans-disciplinary researchers, responsible for linking with a wide range of actors from local to global scales… This model focused on the creation of hybrid scientific-local knowledge highly relevant to community and policy maker needs\" (Reid et al. 2009).The LUMP was prepared within the legal framework of the Physical Planning Act Cap. 286, which empowers local authorities to control, guide, and prohibit developments, while recognising individual stakeholders and community participation in spatial plan-making processes. The LUMP includes a zonation plan for the region. This limits sub-divisions in the various zones and outlines the permitted expansion zones for urban areas, to stop the increasing encroachment of human settlement on prime agricultural and pasture areas and reduces fragmentation risks. The LUMP designates areas for livestock and wildlife as well as for urban development, and includes restrictions on various land uses in each zone. It balances different land uses and demonstrates that wildlife, pastoralism, and development can co-exist by means of a coordinated plan.Participation in this process gave pastoralists and other land users increased awareness on land matters and greater strength in and power over decision-making processes. Radio broadcasts in Maa were used to ensure that everyone, including community members who were illiterate, understood the planned LUMP and participated in discussions. By March 2010 an estimated 2,500 households had been reached through 13 radio programmes. AWF also provided capacity support to local landowner associations in land management, governance, and financial management.After considerable pressure from the community and the KPF through lobbying, letter writing, and personal meetings, in June 2010 the Olkejuado CC adopted the LUMP. This made it the first community-initiated land use plan to be approved by the Kenyan government (the Ministry of Lands) and the first local land use plan for wildlife conservation areas in Kenya.The implementation of the LUMP, as per Kenya's planning laws, needs to be led by the local authority, in this case the CC of Olkejuado. The council's lack of participation in the development and launch of the LUMP, however, suggests a lack of interest and ability to implement the plan.One of the key challenges is oversight over a broad geographical area. Sub-division and land sales are happening at a pace that is difficult for local authorities to keep track of. There are Urban sprawl and the expanding industrial zone in the Kitengela area conflicts with livestock production in the area also a number of parcels of land with \"unknown\" owners, making any regulation of land use extremely difficult. The land control boards play a critical role in supporting land use plans as these bodies review and approve sub-division. The Isinya Land Board has requested that the LUMP's spatial maps be used for the approval or rejection of requested sub-divisions.Planning needs to be built on trusted and broad community representation if it is to receive general acceptance. The employment of staff from the local area helped the process to succeed: they better understood and steered it through the asymmetries of power at the local level. The communities across the project area were engaged throughout the process. The varied layers of community groups, landowner associations, and the Land Forum present a workable model that will help other regions to ensure community awareness. Tools such as radio programmes are cost-effective ways of reaching the community (Fitzgerald and Nkedianye forthcoming).The adoption of the LUMP (see Figure 4) comes at a time when Kenya is undergoing structural revisions because of a new Constitution and new policies. Though these revisions strengthen the rationale for and role of land use plans as part of the devolution process, it is not clear exactly how the new structures will influence implementation. 12   Pastoral communities have weak security of access to resources and land in Ethiopia, with no formal land tenure system defined for the majority of pastoral areas (Afar region being the exception). In an effort to offer a model for better securing of rights to resources, Save the Children USA developed a participatory rangeland management (PRM) approach (Flintan and Cullis 2010) drawing from and building on the well accepted participatory forest management (PFM) approach now being mainstreamed throughout the country.PRM is made up of three key stages (see Figure 5). An appropriate unit for rangeland management (such as a traditional grazing area) is defined with the community and other stakeholders. Rangeland resources are identified and an appropriate community association or institution is strengthened or set up. A rangeland management plan is developed based on an in-depth rangeland inventory and community action planning. Access to resources is made more secure through the drawing up of a legally binding rangeland management agreement between the community and local government, with rules and regulations (bylaws) defined, based on the rangeland management plan.Participatory rangeland management provides opportunities for rangeland users to be part of planning processes Currently PRM is being piloted in Bale zone, Oromia region by FARM Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia.The pilot kebele have been divided into blocks encompassing at least 80 households of between 6,000 ha and 22,000 ha per block depending on population density, the terrain and resources found there. These blocks form the starting point for data collection (rangeland inventory) and establishing management. The project aims to support the development of rangeland management agreements between communities and local government for management and use of the rangeland resources. It is anticipated that disaster risk management (DRM) and climate change adaptation (CCA) aspects will be incorporated into these agreements. To date, there are three dheeda 13 stakeholder action plans. However, neither of these approaches has yet produced a formal agreement to secure rights to resources between local rangeland users and local government, though it is hoped that at least one PNRM agreement will be achieved over the next few months.These approaches provide opportunities for landscape users and other stakeholders to be fully engaged in the planning and implementation of processes and activities related to landscape access and management at the local level. Indigenous knowledge, experience, and institutions are starting points for cooperation and learning. PNRM uses this as the foundation for analysis, planning, and decision-making -it provides room for different stakeholders to come together, discuss, identify challenges and analyse their causes, produce a common vision for development, negotiate, and agree on short-and long-term plans and roles for their implementation. It puts greater emphasis on community stakeholders to solve their problems and to implement solutions that work for them and the given context, without depending on external resources and \"expertise\". It is an approach based on longer-term facilitation of change processes, rather than being a short-term, event-focused approach.PRM provides an opportunity for planning and decision-making in a holistic and integrated manner, bringing different stakeholders together and providing space for a joint planning process. This occurs at a scale that is appropriate for local production and management systems. Development based on the sustainable use and management of resources has a greater chance of being successful in the long term. Implementation too demands an integrated approach that is led by local communities but involves other actors, including the private sector. The production of a management plan is not only a valuable process in its own right but also provides strategic direction for those involved.The approach is both transformative and participatory: the processes and structures developed are as important as the tools used during these processes or the improved techniques applied and activities implemented during the realisation of action plans. The right approach may not be identified immediately and adaptation or realignment may be required as the process develops.If the right structures, processes, and institutions are in place, then it is more likely that decisions made and solutions identified will be appropriate for a given context. This is likely to differ in situations where customary institutions are strong and in those where they are weak.Where customary institutions are weak, it may be necessary to support the development of new or adapted institutions that can develop the necessary skills and assume the appropriate authority to make required decisions. Where customary institutions exist, modern or statutory frameworks should not undermine their authority. Otherwise a situation will be created where customary authorities operate on the ground but have little or no power, while those institutions that have power have no presence or mandate on the ground.State authorities are best positioned for coordinating planning processes in rangelands. Those initiatives reviewed in this document that have worked closely with government and/or are well embedded in government structures at different levels have proved to be more sustainable than those that are not. Working with or through government strengthens the likelihood of processes and approaches being incorporated into future interventions. If a project or pilot works in an isolated manner its impact is likely to be less than if it works with partners who can take forward the lessons learned. Being part of an iterative learning process helps those involved to understand how processes evolve, how problems can be overcome, and how positive outcomes can be optimised.Experience has shown that some preconditions are required in order to conduct participatory land use planning activities successfully in a country or region. These are: » Freedom of assembly, opinion, and expression; » Existing need and demand for land use planning; » Political will to define land uses in a transparent and participatory way;» Willingness of all stakeholders to discuss together the optimum sustainable use of land and other resources -including high-ranking politicians, public authorities, and private investors;» Legal security and rule of law to ensure that all parties stick to the land use plan;» Integration of land use planning into official institutions and structures, resulting in legally binding land use plans (Wehrman 2011).In the three countries reviewed here, there is a significant way to go before these preconditions are fully realised. Land users are normally not included in land use planning decision-making processes. Not only is this a matter of poor representation processes; it is also because land users have little incentive to invest time and resources in such processes if they do not have secure access to the land. River basin and watershed planning are positive initiatives and go some way to addressing these gaps; however, firstly they may not take a systems approach to planning and, secondly, little thought has gone into adapting them appropriately to the specific characteristics of rangelands.Unless appropriate integrated and rangelands-specific planning takes place, the drive to focus on the development of rangelands with \"water as an entry point\" risks a return to the development interventions of the 1970s that have been criticised for failing to achieve their objectives and for destroying pastoral systems and societies (see Box 2). Rather, water needs to be considered as one component of many in the inter-related systems of drylands, and its relationships with and impact on other components need to be accounted for. Restricted and inflexible concepts such as carrying capacities also need to be considered with this in mind. Figure 6 shows the wells built as a result of the Arero Rangeland Development Project in the early 1970s, where an area east of Yabello town was demarcated into grazing blocks of 5x5 miles, with four blocks (i.e. 100 square miles) forming a grazing unit. Two ponds were constructed in each grazing unit. The plan was that a restricted number of livestock would occupy a grazing unit for three months in the dry season, using a rotational system to improve livestock productivity.Under this project, 16 ponds were constructed between 1970 and 1974, each with a capacity of between 10,000 and 60,000 cubic metres.Figure 7 shows one of several projects planned in relation to the water supply project currently being implemented in Borana. This water project will provide water for both domestic and livestock use. Based on MDG goals, water should be available within a 3km round trip in rural areas. Supply of water for livestock is based on the calculation that cattle (with sheep) require 4 ha of land, 15 l/c/d of water and should not be more than 5km from a water point. Camels (with goats) require 6 ha of land and 20 l/c/d, and should not be more than 7.5km from a water point.In both cases the rigid, pre-calculated use of the land based on perceived water requirements sits uneasily with the flexible and adaptive nature of resilient rangeland (including pastoral) systems. Though the importance of community participation is recognised and positive steps have been taken to mainstream participatory approaches, full inclusion is often not achieved. There is still a disconnect between decisions made in government offices and community planning on the ground. Rarely is there free, prior and informed consent of rangeland users for large infrastructure projects, even though these may have a fundamental impact on their livelihoods. \"Participation\" of communities tends to be through consultation rather than as partners who should in fact be leading the process at the local level. Pastoralists in particular feel that their views and needs are not incorporated into development planning. Good facilitators are hard to come by and it is difficult to retain and engage trainers without good incentives. Dependency of communities has been created by too much reliance on external technology. Regular dialogue and consensus building are vital for community mobilisation. For an action to succeed of the magnitude that many planning processes are, the issue in question must be salient, credible, and legitimate in the eyes of community members.Where community participation is a priority, women have taken an active role in the land use and development planning processes. However, the more complex addressing of gender issues (the balance of power, access to information and education, and control of resources) tends to be sidelined or added on as an afterthought. Women need to feel valued and to have an incentive in order to be willing to actively participate in meetings or activities.Changes in society such as more educated youth, exposure to different lifestyles, and more individualised values have redefined the way in which people interact with each other and with communities, with significant implications for the place of traditional norms and institutions in controlling access to and use of natural resources. Increasingly, customary institutions are left with little power, while those that have power have no presence on the ground. It is thus important to fill this governance and management vacuum in the most appropriate manner, and attempts have been made in the case studies here, with varying degrees of success. Hybrid governance structures incorporating both government and community institutions may be appropriate but these require significant support, including capacity building. Integrated large-scale planning is challenging. Programmes such as river basin development have often been over-ambitious and inflexible and have tried to adopt a blueprint approach, resulting in limited success. Interventions that provide opportunities for reflection, feedback, and adaptation are better positioned to cope with new challenges and problems (identified and solved in a participatory manner), and therefore are more likely to be sustainable in the long term. Projects and programmes must be based on realistic goals that are attainable within their lifespans and with the resources available. Planning is not an event but a process to be invested in.Planning and development of livestock watering points in drylands needs to be carried out in an integrated and participatory manner There has been inadequate M&E (and in particular independent evaluations) of interventions and insufficient follow-up to training. Where M&E has taken place, it has focused on tangible outputs rather than on important processes, such as who takes part, how and why they take part, or why something is working and another thing is not. There are weak linkages with informal and iterative learning processes. Participatory M&E systems may be supported but are lacking in design and implementation .The majority of drylands can have a major comparative advantage over non-dryland areas in livestock, tourism, renewable energy, and other uses. They are strategically located as the bridgehead to new markets beyond country borders. Large infrastructure investments are being established, including the LAPSSET corridor and related developments. However, if the opportunities created by these are to be realised, their planning needs to fully account for and incorporate their linkages to and likely impacts on the wider drylands area and the communities living there.From central government to local, there are new opportunities for more integrated planning and implementation that respond to the unique constraints and attributes of drylands and more specifically rangelands, and that can be sustained in the longer term. New drylands and ASAL-focused bodies and platforms provide opportunities for better and more appropriate support for livestock production systems. Tenure security and its enforcement, DRR, and the building of resilience of drylands and dryland communities all need to be considered in efforts to improve planning in rangelands.As a result of stronger devolution processes, mid-level layers of government will find it difficult to avoid land use planning and/or ignore existing land use plans. The success of good practice examples highlighted in this review opens the door for scaling up and replication. Tenure security for many inhabitants of rangelands is still a problem. This requires urgent attention, in particular in the face of the appropriation and in some cases \"grabbing\" of land, and increasing land use changes (both externally and internally driven). Across Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia opportunities exist for strengthening land tenure in rangelands, and resources and support are available for this. The lack of land use plans across the three countries has proved to be a debilitating factor for good integrated rangelands planning: all three countries have recognised this and have taken steps to produce plans at both national and other levels. This requires significant support from donors and NGOs.In all three countries, aid activities and support in drylands are moving from a majority humanitarian or food security-focused response to responses based on longer-term development. The new (for many) focus on \"resilience building\" provides a rationale and opportunities for focusing on and incorporating systems-based and non-linear approaches to development that are better suited to drylands than simple, linear, cause-and-effect approaches. It also provides opportunities for natural science to be brought back into the development narrative. The commitment of all three countries to the IDDRSI process, which has resilience building at its core, and the production of country programme papers to end drought emergencies, are reflections of this. New approaches to planning and in particular those that work with both government and communities to plan at scale, such as river basin planning, watershed management, ecosystem management, and PRM, are providing an increasing evidence base and proof that planning at scale is beneficial for both the environment and for societies. Where NGOs are trying to influence policy and legislative change, it is important to collaborate and provide a united front for advocacy and lobbying.Both government and NGOs are seeking to build capacity at different levels. There are increasing opportunities for investments from the private sector (e.g. commercial investors, water service delivery companies) or through carbon offsetting, and from donors (including the Global Alliance supporting IGAD's DDRSI process). There are also a number of integrated pastoral-focused programmes that have been established in recent months. Rewards (financial or non-financial) for environmental services and for voluntary and regulatory arrangements are also a relatively new source of funding, while also supporting a change in behaviour towards sustainable and adapted management of these ecosystems. The development of contingency funds for drought (and, for example, crisis modifiers) provide opportunities for readily available funds that can be mobilised quickly in order to respond effectively to crises such as droughts. This is a good example of how funds can be devolved to local authorities to better respond to local situations and needs.NGOs today are better placed and committed to working together than they have been in the past. Some donors have encouraged this, and such collaboration provides excellent opportunities for working and planning together. However, beyond these collaborative projects, NGOs still tend to work in \"silos\", and much can be done to improve joint planning, sharing of and more efficient use of resources, and \"harmonisation\" of approaches. Experience in the region has shown the value of conservation and research organisations working with development organisations. And with more decision-making power at lower levels, there should be more opportunity for coordination; however, where it is necessary to work across lower-level administrative boundaries, coordination bodies will be required to manage this (likely at higher levels). Over the past two decades, the number of regional and cross-continental bodies and initiatives has increased in order to provide a stronger, united, collaborative foundation for economic growth, pastoralism, NRM, and so on. These include the African Union, the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), and NEPAD, including the Land Policy Initiative and the Pastoralism Framework; the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); CAADP; the East Africa Community (EAC); and the Nile Basin Initiative. These bodies provide different integration and coordination roles. The IDDRSI also provides an opportunity for cross-regional development coordination and drought response.Inclusion and participation are espoused across the constitutions, policies, and legislative framework in all the countries covered in this review. Communities are better placed to demand their role in decision-making and planning. However, in practice higher levels of participation of local rangeland users are still elusive. In general there is recognition of the value of indigenous knowledge and its incorporation into decision-making, and there is increasing evidence to support this. External actors such as NGOs can play a facilitating role in assisting communities to define their agendas, organise for advocacy, and engage with other stakeholders.In rangelands there is a much stronger case for governance structures to cut across administrative boundaries in order to reflect the reality of resource use and mobility. In this case a \"nested\" governance structure can hold more relevance, with governing institutions in place and functioning for each different layer of resource use (as it decreases in terms of numbers of uses and area from a landscape or rangeland to a well or tree). In a well functioning rangeland society there will be structures set up to govern these different resource units. And it is these units and their structures that traditionally form the basis of rangelands planning. As such, they should also form the basis of more formalised rangeland planning processes, including those led by government (and NGOs). The timing of planning in rangeland communities may also be different from government (and NGO) planning cycles.This demands a much more flexible planning timeframe. In Kenya the collapse of traditional authority is the main motivation for the establishment of WRUAs and other organisations for the management of natural resources, which derive their authority and legitimacy from statutory instruments and depend for enforcement of their rules on the formal machinery of law and order. WRUAs are different from traditional institutions in that they are made up of men, women, and youth and no preference is given to elders. Leaders of WRUAs are instead young people who have education and capacity to engage with government and other modern frameworks. However, it is recognised that for positive societal transformation the inclusion of elders is still important, and in some cases efforts are being made to ensure that elders are part of the WRUA membership and leadership (Odhiambo 2012).The sustained disruption of inter-related ecosystem and social processes in rangelands due to inappropriate development interventions and poor planning, together with protracted crises exacerbated by climate change and intermittent disasters, threatens the capacity of these systems to sustainably support food security and livelihoods in the future. There remains a bias in development policies and their implementation against rangelands, whose particular characteristics and requirements are not considered.Where good policies, legislation, and development strategies exist for rangelands, their implementation can be poor, aggravated by the lack of resources and poor capacities of local-level government in particular to implement them. Capacity building is crucial to enable institutional bodies and individual actors to achieve competence in implementing new measures. Finally, it is vital that funding and budgetary allocations are brought into line with the contribution that arid and semi-arid lands make both to national economies and to global well-being, and that they are adequate to support the often lengthy, complex, and in-depth processes of planning in drylands that are required.It is evident from this review that a number of initiatives are under way that have the potential to support the sustainable management of resources and improve the livelihoods of rangeland communities in the arid and semi-arid lands of the greater Horn of Africa. Though many of the initiatives are in their early stages, lessons have been learned that should form the basis for future development. A set of principles for rangelands planning is given in Box 3, and key recommendations are made below. » Systems approach, including environmental and livelihood concerns, plus influence of \"external\" factors.» Embedded in government systems, structures, and policies.» People-centred, demand-driven, community-owned.» Inclusiveness (particularly including mobile pastoralists).» Governance clear (roles/responsibilities) and functioning (including conflict resolution): potentially a \"nested\" governance approach.» Capacity building a priority (including problem-solving, knowledge management/ access, communication).» Transformative and iterative learning processes and innovation.» DRR and CCA mainstreamed.» Scal able and sustainable.Recommendations for improving integrated rangelands planning in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda For governments » Establish, strengthen, and enforce policies, legislation, structures, and mechanisms for development planning in the rangelands that provide for a more devolved, integrated, participatory, flexible, and adaptive approach that better reflects realities on the ground.A \"systems approach\" to development planning is appropriate.» Establish, strengthen, and enforce policies and legislation that protect the rights of local rangeland users to their land and resources.» Invest in the building of capacity of local government authorities in order to better understand the characteristics and requirements of rangeland environments and communities, and to support their transformation into more sustainable and productive entities, as appropriate.» Ensure that coordination mechanisms and structures are functioning and well resourced, in order to support multi-sector integrated planning.» Develop comprehensive land use plans for the country, with input from rangeland communities. Land use plans should also be developed for regions, counties, or zones as appropriate.» Work with the commercial sector and facilitate its greater involvement in development planning processes, in order to more effectively develop the provision of services that are well managed by communities.For donors » Fund development planning in the drylands and more specifically rangelands as a priority -at regional, national, or local levels. This can be government-, NGO-, or communityled. In all cases the involvement of government and community should be central, and linkages built up between the two. The capacities of both these actors (to lead and/or take part in planning processes) also need to be built up.» Provide longer-term and flexible funding that can better support the complex, multisectoral, multi-actor, often dynamic and protracted processes of planning in rangelands.Positive change can only be achieved if the appropriate finances are secured.» Fund the development of country-wide land use plans together with regional, county, or zonal plans as appropriate. This is likely to involve providing funds for the building up of the capacity of governmental experts to undertake land use planning and related activities.» Fund the piloting of different planning and management initiatives that contribute to the collection and sharing of good practice in order to influence better planning processes at government and community levels.» Fund the development of improved knowledge management systems that contain upto-date and appropriate information for development planning in rangelands, which is accessible and updated on a regular basis.» Use funding to leverage coordination and collaboration between different groups of development actors in order to develop better development planning and implementation.For NGOs and development agencies » Improve and develop processes and interventions that take a systems approach to development and environmental management, such as resilience-building. » Build the capacity of their own staff so that they better understand dryland/rangeland systems and are able to plan and develop appropriate activities that support them.Building skills such as conflict resolution, facilitating negotiation and consensus building, and participatory research and planning is also important.» Plan and implement programmes and activities at a scale appropriate for rangelands; this should follow the \"nested\" governance and management systems that exist in rangelands.» Pilot different planning and management initiatives that contribute to the collection and sharing of good practice in order to influence better planning processes at government and community levels. This should be done in conjunction with research-focused organisations and local government, and with independent evaluations carried out.» Assist governments in building the capacity of their staff in land administration, land use planning, integrated development planning (of which land use planning should be a part), institution building, and participatory approaches.» Improve collaboration and coordination of activities and information sharing with other NGOs, governments, and communities. Conservation organisations can provide expertise and experience in land use planning, and should be included in planning processes.For research organisations » As a priority, work with other research organisations, governments, NGOs, and communities to develop appropriate and context-specific planning processes that support sustainable development in the drylands This includes assisting them to better understand the particular characteristics and requirements of rangelands, and how best planning processes can reflect and account for these.» Improve collaboration and coordination of activities and information sharing with other research organisations, NGOs, governments, and communities through, for example, participating in platforms, technical working groups, and committees that are established for this purpose.» Pilot different planning and management initiatives that contribute to the collection and sharing of good practice in order to influence better planning processes at government and community levels. This should be done in conjunction with NGOs and local government.» Assist governments to develop improved knowledge management systems that contain up-to-date and appropriate information for development planning in rangelands, which is accessible and updated on a regular basis.» Work with other organisations to lobby and advocate for an improved policy and legislative environment for more sustainable and participatory development planning in rangelands. This includes better land policies and legislation that provide stronger security of rights to land and resources for rangeland users.» Encourage and assist communities to mobilise themselves in order to improve their planning processes, and to contribute to government-led ones. Communities' awareness of the benefits of doing so will need to be improved, and their skills and capacity to do so supported.» Assist communities to consider and agree their vision for the future, in order to be better prepared when opportunities arise to contribute to development planning processes.» Develop partnerships with other actors including government, NGOs (both development and conservation NGOs), and commercial companies. All can offer different resource, support, and capacity assistance -and taking a more strategic and planned approach to working with them can be advantageous.","tokenCount":"12879"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6a5fd4b01cfec37fb5be26acd6d1a934","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/18c1a1db-cf39-4faa-b621-2557ea24af7c/retrieve","id":"-1842671214"},"keywords":["groundwater management","groundwater recharge","aquifers Mahen Chandrasoma; Layout: Nimal Attanayake"],"sieverID":"60edcfc1-5f20-4c7d-bba9-a5b95017ed0b","pagecount":"4","content":"ISSuE 13 2010 Putting Research Knowledge into Action WATER Over the past 50 years, groundwater development has been a feature of agricultural production across the developing world.Groundwater now accounts for approximately 50% of all irrigation supply in South Asia and two-thirds of supply in the grain belts of North China. Whilst the benefits of groundwater use are apparent, so too are the problems, which mainly concern issues of sustainability and water quality. While it is the problem of overuse that most often captures the attention of the media, there are parts of the developing world that have yet to take full advantage of the poverty-reducing and livelihood enhancing potential of groundwater.The need for information to support decision making is a critical element for groundwater management.In regions of overdevelopment, relevant government authorities need to effect a paradigm shift from resource development to management.There is no 'one-size-fits-all' position on groundwater management. To be effective, groundwater policies must address the unique socio-ecological characteristics of a region and its people. In South Asia, that means recognizing the decline of gravity-fed surface irrigation systems and the rise of a thriving groundwater economy based on millions of smallholder farmers pumping groundwater with the use of cheap diesel or electric pumps. China has some of the most abundant groundwater resources in the world and a highly heterogeneous groundwater economy, with falling water tables in some regions and little apparent decline in others. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), conflict over water has global implications. Significant quantities of renewable groundwater reside in coastal aquifers that are vulnerable to saltwater intrusion and sea level rise driven by global warming.Wherever they are, renewable aquifers are susceptible to overexploitation. In the deserts of Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, there is abundant fossil groundwater, but much of it is far from where it can be used. A lack of data (or access to data) makes it difficult to accurately estimate the extent and use of groundwater, but, as in other regions, it seems clear that groundwater plays an increasingly central role in agricultural livelihoods. In Central America, groundwater is used mainly for human consumption and industrial activities, with little use in agriculture to date. In most regions, there is a lack of reliable data to support decision making. Globally, the use of groundwater is rising. Among its many benefits, its widespread presence and enormous capacity provides a form of insurance against increasingly unpredictable rainfall patterns. With few notable exceptions, governments have yet to formulate or implement effective management policies that address the livelihood needs of small farmers.Groundwater recharge in Mekelle, Ethiopia (Photo credit: Akiça Bahri).Common themes running through IWMI's research on groundwater are sustainability and management. Where groundwater is overexploited, IWMI and partners are actively assessing the merits of managed aquifer recharge (MAR) as a supply augmentation strategy. Successful applications of MAR have been demonstrated in peninsular India, trials are underway in northern Thailand, and the concept has been presented as a solution to transboundary disputes over water along the Syr Darya River in Central Asia. Planning for groundwater use and addressing problems of overuse and water quality require a sound understanding of the local social, economic and political ecologies. Technical solutions alone are not sufficient. Within the technical realm, there is growing consensus that surface water and groundwater are intricately connected and must be managed 'conjunctively', that is, as parts of a holistic system at a scale that is meaningful. There is more than sufficient evidence to show that good groundwater governance can make a significant contribution to rural livelihoods and poverty reduction.Coming to terms with the challenges of groundwater use and management requires a comprehensive and coordinated program of research and advocacy that entails understanding the physics of groundwater replenishment and movement, the sociology of groundwater users, the political economy of the water and agricultural sectors, and the laws and institutions that have been or might be to bear. A number of key action points emerged from the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, among them: greater emphasis on conjunctive management with surface water; augmenting groundwater irrigation with urban wastewater; managing demand through indirect means, for example, by tackling the energy-irrigation nexus in many regions; moving towards 'precision' irrigation and water-saving technologies (e.g., micro-irrigation); and crop and livelihoods diversification.The need for information runs across all these topics and is a critical element for groundwater management. There are substantial gaps in basic information on groundwater availability and agricultural use, but enough available information to suspect that agricultural groundwater use appears to be substantially underestimated. IWMI is an active participant in, and supporter of, the global movement for sharing area-specific or georeferenced data, information, knowledge and experience.Where groundwater withdrawals are increasing and an excess of surface water is present, programs for managed aquifer recharge are urgently needed to ensure that falling water tables are stabilized or increased. IWMI researchers in India have helped to put groundwater on the national agenda and are providing the scientific basis for policies promoting in-situ recharge technologies, many of which incorporate rainwater harvesting. Where groundwater is abundant but underused, such as in sub-Saharan Africa for example, IWMI researchers are gathering evidence and demonstrating how groundwater can be used to enhance livelihoods based on pastoral livestock production and the role it plays in drought mitigation, small-scale irrigation, rural domestic supply, urban use and poverty reduction.Perhaps the most important arena for action is governance. With few exceptions in the developing world, government authorities need to upskill and transition from resource development to management.","tokenCount":"918"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"897ddc97a3ce0574d81ab24d3f2e85c1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6fa18d68-922e-4af0-9c55-c175a7892c83/content","id":"1174165119"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"51720d8b-643b-492a-88eb-a5455a203bfa","pagecount":"11","content":"Only a few genetic maps based on recombinant inbred line (RIL) and backcross (BC) populations have been developed for tetraploid groundnut. The marker density, however, is not very satisfactory especially in the context of large genome size (2800 Mb/1C) and 20 linkage groups (LGs). Therefore, using marker segregation data for 10 RILs and one BC population from the international groundnut community, with the help of common markers across different populations, a reference consensus genetic map has been developed. This map is comprised of 897 marker loci including 895 simple sequence repeat (SSR) and 2 cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS) loci distributed on 20 LGs (a01-a10 and b01-b10) spanning a map distance of 3, 863.6 cM with an average map density of 4.4 cM. The highest numbers of markers (70) were integrated on a01 and the least number of markers (21) on b09. The marker density, however, was lowest (6.4 cM) on a08 and highest (2.5 cM) on a01. The reference consensus map has been divided into 20 cM long 203 BINs. These BINs carry 1 (a10_02, a10_08 and a10_09) to 20 (a10_04) loci with an average of 4 marker loci per BIN. Although the polymorphism information content (PIC) value was available for 526 markers in 190 BINs, 36 and 111 BINs have at least one marker with .0.70 and .0.50 PIC values, respectively. This information will be useful for selecting highly informative and uniformly distributed markers for developing new genetic maps, background selection and diversity analysis. Most importantly, this reference consensus map will serve as a reliable reference for aligning new genetic and physical maps, performing QTL analysis in a multi-populations design, evaluating the genetic background effect on QTL expression, and serving other genetic and molecular breeding activities in groundnut.Dense genetic linkage maps are cornerstones for wide spectrum of genetics and breeding applications such as linkage mapping or association analysis based trait mapping, marker-assisted breeding, map-based cloning and physical map alignment. In general, it is possible to map only limited number of molecular markers in a given mapping population due to polymorphism constraints. As a result, several mapping populations are used for developing different genetic maps so that maximum number of marker loci available are mapped in the given crop species. Subsequently, with an objective to increase the number of mapped marker loci, genetic maps developed for different mapping populations are used for developing a consensus map. As compared to individual genetic maps, consensus maps offer several advantages such as: (i) mapping of a large number of marker loci onto a single map, (ii) determining relative position of common markers across the mapping populations, (iii) determining stability of marker locus position across the genome, (iv) provides evidence for chromo-somal rearrangements [1,2], gene duplication [2,3] and assists in the assignment of linkage groups to chromosome [1], (v) provides the basic information for comparative genomic studies among related species and subspecies [2][3][4] and (vi) provides genetic information for greater genomic coverage [5]. Because of above mentioned features, consensus genetic maps have been developed in many crop species like maize [6,7], wheat [8] barley, [9,10], soybean [11,12] and pigeonpea [13].Groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), an economically important oil seed crop, is cultivated mostly in semi-arid regions of the world. It is an allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 40) with a large genome size 2800 Mb/1C. Based on the origin complexity such as polyploidy nature, narrow genetic base with very low DNA polymorphism in cultivated tetraploid groundnuts, initially genetic maps were developed for AA-genome [14][15][16] and BB-genome [17,18]. Only recently a few mapping populations have been used for developing the genetic maps for cultivated groundnut species [19][20][21][22] or based on cross of cultivated and synthetic tetraploid groundnut species [23]. In some cases, consensus genetic maps based on two or three mapping populations have also been developed [24][25][26][27]. The most dense consensus genetic map developed so far is based on two mapping populations and is comprised of 324 SSR loci [27]. However because of availability of .4000 SSR markers in Arachis species [28], international Arachis community has been striving towards developing a consensus genetic map compiling a maximum number of genetic markers especially when efforts have been initiated to sequence the genome of Arachis species (http://www.peanutbioscience.com/peanutgenomeproject.html).Keeping in view of above, this article reports assembling of SSR marker genotyping data for 11 mapping populations including 10 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and one backcross (BC) population. These genotyping data have been used to develop a consensus genetic map with 895 SSR marker loci and 2 CAPS loci. For enhancing the utility of the consensus genetic map, the map has been divided into 20 cM long 203 BINs and the polymorphism information content (PIC) values for the markers, wherever possible, present in these BINs have also been presented.Marker segregation data were assembled for a total of 1961 markers ranging from 64 markers (RIL-8) to 339 markers (BC-1) per population (Table 1). A chi-square test was performed on marker genotyping data for individual mapping population to test the null hypothesis of segregation ratios of 1:1 at the threshold of p = 0.05. A variable percentage of distorted markers ranging from 3.45% (RIL-8) to 52.34% (RIL-2) were observed for individual mapping populations.The genotyping data obtained on 11 mapping populations (1961 markers) were used for constructing the component genetic maps for the respective mapping population using MAPMAKER/EXP V 3.0 [29]. All developed component genetic maps can be visualized in CMap database at http:// cmap.icrisat.ac.in/cmap/sm/gn/gautami/. The numbers of marker loci ranged from 46 (RIL-8) to 332 (BC-1) per component genetic maps for different mapping populations. Genetic map distance covered from 357.4 cM (RIL-8) to 2208.2 cM (RIL-2) with a range of map density from 2.5 cM (BC-1) to 18.6 cM (RIL-2) (Table 2). As several markers integrated into component maps have segregation distortion, the linkage group (LG)-wise segregation pattern of markers in each mapping population has been shown in Figure S1.A reference consensus genetic map was constructed by integrating all 11 component genetic maps using common markers across different genetic maps using MergeMap program. While integrating component genetic maps, some discrepancies were observed in the names of markers for which genotyping data were available on more than one mapping population. However, to facilitate integration, uniformity in marker nomenclature was maintained for all the markers. For example, 'pPGPseq xx' and pPGSseqxx' were changed to 'seqxx', and 'XIPxx' was changed to 'IPAHMxx' to maintain uniformity in names of marker loci.Based on the common markers and the comparison between component genetic maps, most of the linkage groups were consistent among the individual maps with few exceptions which can be visually assessed from http://cmap.icrisat.ac.in/cmap/ sm/gn/gautami/(also see Table S1). A total of 542 markers were unique markers i.e. mapped only in one mapping population, while the remaining 355 markers were common, i.e. they were mapped in at least two mapping populations (187 markers were common between two maps, 72 between three maps, for four maps 57 are common, 20 markers are common between 5 maps, between 6 maps 13 markers are common, 3 markers are common between 7 maps, 2 markers between 8 maps and 1 marker is common between 9 maps) and served as anchor points for the map integration (Table 3). The grouping of different LGs from component genetic maps to develop the consensus map were given in Table S2. Therefore, in the consensus genetic map, a total of 39.58% (355) markers are anchor markers present on all 20 LGs. The remaining 60.42% (542) markers are the markers which are unique to the individual mapping populations.Multiple segregating fragments (loci) identified with one SSR primer pair were designated with one lower case letter ''a'', ''b'' or ''c'' as suffix with the name of marker. For example two loci mapped on LG_AhVII and LG_AhXVII by using the same marker (RIL-1), were designated as IPAHM108a and IPAHM108b loci (Table S1).Seventy homeologous loci were identified on ''a'' and ''b'' linkage groups (Figure 1), which facilitate the detection of ten homeologous pair named from a01 to a10 and b01 to b10 based on the same loci detected on the framework map (BC-1 in the present study) developed by Fonce ´ka et al. [23]. Out of these 70 homeologous loci, 11 loci were located between the group a01-b01 and a03-b03, followed by eight loci between a02-b02 and a04-b04 and four loci between a09-b09. Except for the groups between a01-b01, a03-b03 and a04-b04 markers order and interloci map distance were well conserved between homeologous groups (Figure 1).In some cases, the same marker mapped single locus on different linkage groups in different mapping populations, these loci were not considered as the same loci and were included as unique loci (with the same name) in the reference consensus genetic map. Twenty nine (26.13%) primer pairs detected duplicated non-homeologous loci between linkage groups (e.g., seq12F07 detected two loci, one on a01 and one on a10; IPAHM524 detected two loci, one on b02 and one on b06 and IPAHM171 detected three loci on a06, b01 and b08) (Figure 1, Table S1).Although it was planned to include only SSR marker loci in the reference consensus genetic map, two CAPS (cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence) markers i.e., ahFAD2A and ahFAD2B, due to their association with high oleic acid to linoleic acid ratios (high O/L) [30], very important trait in groundnut, were also integrated in the reference consensus genetic map.In summary, the reference consensus map is comprised of 895 SSR and 2 CAPS loci distributed over 20 LGs. Nomenclature of LGs in the reference consensus map was given in the same way as in the framework map (BC-1 in the present study) developed by Fonce ´ka et al [23]. The map density in the reference consensus map ranged from 2.5 cM (a01) to 6.4 cM (a08) with an average of 4.3 cM per marker. The inter-locus gap distance ranged from 1.5 cM (a01) to 5.4 cM (a08), with a mean value of 4.5 cM per marker (Table 4). Among the 20 LGs, a01 possess maximum marker loci with 70 loci followed by a03, a05 and b03 with 65, 61 and 60 loci respectively, while a02 and b09 have only 23 and 21 loci, respectively (Figure 1, Table 4). The low number of SSR loci mapped on a02 and b10 may be related to the lack of polymorphism on these two LGs. For example, the consensus LG a02 is built with seven LGs of the different component genetic maps, among which four LGs have only two mapped loci. For these small LGs additional genetic markers are needed for increasing the map density. In the consensus map, some gaps are observed on the distal ends of the a02, b02, a03, a05, b05, a08, a09, b09 and a10. Of the 897 mapped loci, 32.33% (290 loci) of the marker intervals were smaller than 1 cM while 41.14% (369 loci) marker intervals were between 1-5 cM, 15.94% (143 loci) between 5-10 cM, 7.36% (66 loci) between 10-20 cM, and 3.23% (29 loci) marker intervals were greater than 20 cM.As SSR markers are the marker of choice in breeding applications, an attempt was made to understand the distribution of different SSR motifs as well as the polymorphism information content (PIC) values for these markers.Out of 895 SSR loci integrated into the reference consensus map, information on repeat motifs was available for 788 SSR loci. Of the 788 SSRs, 612 SSR loci represent simple repeat motifs and 176 SSR loci contain compound repeat motifs. Among simple repeat motifs contained SSR loci, 375 SSR loci (47.58%) are comprised of di-(NN) repeats followed by 226 (28.70%) tri-nucleotides (NNN) repeats. The longer repeat classes, i.e. tetra-(NNNN, 8 loci) and hexa-nucleotide (NNNNNN, 3 loci) represented 1.39% of the SSR loci (Table S3). In the case of the compound repeats containing SSR loci, 93 loci were comprised of NN repeats and the remaining 83 loci comprised with mixed repeats.Of the 897 mapped marker loci, the information on PIC values was available for 526 SSR marker loci from the studies in which the corresponding SSR loci were mapped (Table S3). Based on genotypes surveyed in those earlier studies, 144 marker loci have .0.50 PIC value. Majority of the loci (181) have 0.31-0.40 PIC value (Figure S2). Average PIC value of individual LGs varied from 0.55 (a02) to 0.81 (a01).For making the consensus map more informative, an attempt has been made to divide the genetic map in 20 cM long BINs. As a result, the reference groundnut genetic map has a total of 203 BINs ranging from 5 (a02 and b06) to 16 (b01) with an average of 4 per linkage group. These BINs carry 1 (a10_02, a10_08 and a10_09) to 20 (a10_04) with an average of 4.41 marker per BIN.In terms of selecting highly informative SSR markers based on available PIC values, 36 BINs have at least one marker that has .0.70 PIC value and 111 BINs carry at least one marker with .0.50 PIC value. 166 BINs have the marker loci with ,0.50 PIC value and 23 BINs do not have the information available on PIC values. 13 BINs do not have any marker.Finally, for deciphering the relationships between LGs of the different component maps, we have identified a total of 58 genome specific SSR markers. These markers will be of great interest for subgenome assignment of SSR loci in cultivated x cultivated mapping studies. These markers could also be used in diversity analysis as they give access to the diversity at the diploid genome level allowing differentiating the structural heterozygosity linked to polyploidy from true heterozygosity.As the reference map was developed based on the common marker loci mapped in the different component genetic maps using the same nomenclature of LGs, there was a good congruence except a few exceptions between marker orders and positions among component maps and the reference consensus map (http://cmap.icrisat.ac.in/cmap/sm/gn/gautami/and also see in Table S1). Comparison of a03 and b08 for all the component genetic maps and the reference consensus map, for example, has been shown in Figure 2.The results of the reference consensus genetic map were compared with the diploid AA and BB maps published earlier [15,18]. The LGs of the reference consensus map in this study are named according to the LGs named in Fonce ´ka et al. [23] (a01 to a10 and b01 to b10). In these maps, LGs of AA and BB genome map were named as Group 1 to Group 11 and B1 to B10 respectively. The synteny study between the reference consensus map and AA map assessed 68 common SSR marker loci and between BB map assessed 43 common SSR marker loci (Table S4). However, for all the ten LGs of the present constructed reference consensus genetic maps, overall good Table 3. Summary of number of loci common between genetic maps for different mapping populations.No. of mapped loci used in consensus map Number of markers in common with n other mapping populations    marker loci per homologous LGs varied between 2 and 10 with AA map and with BB map between 1 and 9.Significant progress has been made during last decade in high throughput genotyping and various linkage mapping tools to place a large number of marker loci on genetic maps in several crop species [8,13,[31][32][33]. In the case of tetraploid groundnut, genetic mapping efforts have been initiated only recently and few genetic maps with 46-332 marker loci have been developed [34]. To enhance the marker density, a few consensus maps have also been developed using 2-3 mapping populations and the mapped marker loci on these maps has not gone beyond 324 loci. The major objective of this study, therefore, was the development of a dense consensus genetic map that can be used as a reference map by the international groundnut community.Dense genetic maps can be developed mainly by using two approaches: (a) map maximum number of marker loci using highly diverse population, (b) merge available genetic maps using common markers mapped across the populations. While the first approach is quite challenging and laborious but precise, the second approach was used in the present study. In this context, segregation data for a total of 1961 marker loci generated for 11 (10 RIL and 1 BC) populations were assembled from different organizations. As a first step, component genetic maps were developed for all 11 populations. While comparing the component genetics maps developed in this study with the ones published by the source laboratory, all mapped marker loci could not be integrated into component genetic maps in this study. One of the main reasons for this may be use of a stringent and common approach to develop all the component genetic maps.Building a consensus map is not possible without common or bridge loci present on each LG [9]. A bridge marker was considered as such when it had an identical name and should have a similar position in different mapping populations that are underpinned. Markers with the same name that mapped to different positions in different populations were not considered to be common or bridge markers. However a minimum of three common markers per linkage group should be considered while, in the present study, at least one common marker per LG is also taken into consideration in some LGs because of availability of lower number of markers in some LGs.During the process of construction of consensus map, the major emphasis was given towards obtaining a general order and distance because as a known fact, groundnut is polyploid with a large genome size (2800 Mb/C), and has a narrow genetic base with very low DNA polymorphism. Slight discrepancies in marker orders as well as positions observed in some LGs (http://cmap. icrisat.ac.in/cmap/sm/gn/gautami/and Table S1) among different component genetic maps may be due to (i) different mapping population sizes used (ii) different type of mapping populations used and (iii) genotyping errors [35] or sometimes these small differences might be due to mapping-imprecision rather than real rearrangements.Developed consensus map integrates a total of 897 marker loci including 895 SSR and 2 CAPS loci with an average map density of 4.3 cM. This map is the most dense and community map and, therefore, is proposed as a reference consensus map. Despite of dense placing of markers on various LGs, some gaps were observed on the distal ends of some LGs e.g. a02, b02, a03, a05, b05, a08, a09, b09 and a10. These regions may be high recombination prone regions and some of them were also observed in other mapping studies also [19,21,[24][25][26][27]. Another reason for these gaps may be due to under-representation or deficiency of marker loci from these genomic regions in the dataset used for developing the reference consensus map [9,13,19,21].In present mapping protocol, the homologous LGs taking into consideration of homeologous relationship were used to generate consensus map LGs one at a time using MergeMap to establish marker orders (see materials and methods). Therefore, the marker orders in the consensus map are consistent throughout most of the linkage groups with few exceptions where the marker orders are in opposite orientation. Moreover, maximum markers were mapped onto the consensus map in their original orders similar to the individual maps, but small number of markers were joined with order changes, which could be caused by computational variation resulting from (i) recombination heterogeneity between different populations, (ii) weak linkages existing in the various LGs of maps, (iii) missing or poor quality data, (iv) different mapping programmes being used for constructing the individuals and the consensus maps and, (v) different thresholds statistics being applied for creating the consensus map and the original maps [36].While utmost precautions were taken in preparing this consensus map, there could be some disagreement in order of closely linked markers between the individual maps within some LGs intervals. Such a disagreement may be due to the quality as well as the quantity and distribution along the LGs of the bridge (common) markers used for preparing the consensus map, or to mapping populations, algorithm and stringency criteria of computer programme [9,24,36]. For example, the mapping populations from which the consensus map has been prepared have different numbers and different types of progeny lines. In smaller populations, the chance that informative recombinant progeny lines are present in the population to accurately position markers is lower than in larger populations [9,36]. Further, even for a given mapping population, different markers were mapped using different subsets of progeny lines in different laboratories. Therefore, the users of the consensus SSR map must consider that the marker order is conditioned by several factors like the progeny lines used and the position of cross over along chromosome within the progeny lines. The precise fine markers order may slightly differ in other population and users may need to verify the order of closely linked markers in their mapping and breeding populations.This reference consensus map integrated almost all types of SSR motifs, however di-and tri-nucleotide microsatellites at 47.58% and 28.70%, respectively, are present in higher proportions than the compound (22.33%) and other types of SSRs (1.39%). The underlying reason may be that the majority of SSR loci integrated in the consensus map were derived from the genomic DNA libraries that had been enriched for dinucleotide and trinucleotide SSR probes [28,34]. Therefore, the availability of different types of SSR loci in a given region will facilitate selection of the SSR repeat motifs of choice in a particular region of interest. Availability of the primer sequences for a total of 885 SSR loci, approximately 90% of all loci integrated in the consensus map, at one place should LGs of the reference consensus map and the diploid AA and BB maps. The LGs of the reference consensus map are represented as a01 to a10 and b01 to b10. The LGs of AA map are named as Group 1 to Group 11 and for BB map as B1 to B10 respectively (published by Moretzsohn et al 2005Moretzsohn et al , 2009)). The AA map was represented by a red bar and the BB map with green colour. The common markers between corresponding LGs in the reference consensus map and AA map are indicated in red colour and pink colour with BB map. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0041213.g003 accelerate the use of SSR markers in groundnut breeding activities. Similarly, the genotyping data has been made available for all the mapped SSR loci in the present study and this will allow the community to extend the dataset with their own data set in future.Another feature of the developed reference consensus map is the defining of the groundnut genetic map in 203 BINs. Furthermore marker loci present in these BINs are associated with the PIC values. One marker from each of such BIN with higher PIC value has also been identified. Using this criteria, 36 BINs have been identified that have at least one marker with .0.70 PIC value and 111 BINs carry at least one marker .0.50 PIC value. This information will be very useful to select the genome-wide markers that will have higher probability of showing polymorphism in the parental genotypes of the mapping populations or germplasm collections to be analyzed. It is also important to mention that primer sequence information also has been provided here for 885 markers.SSR marker segregation data available on ten recombinant inbred lines (RILs) and one backcross (BC) mapping populations were assembled from collaborators as mentioned in Table 1. The populations, for which marker segregation data were assembled, for the convenience of referring in this article, have been referred as RIL-1 to RIL-10 and BC-1.Three mapping populations (RIL-1, RIL-2, and RIL-3), developed at ICRISAT, segregate for drought tolerance related traits [25], two mapping populations (RIL-4 and RIL-5), developed at UAS-Dharwad, segregate for foliar disease resistance [26] and two populations (RIL-9 and RIL-10), developed at UGA and HAAS, segregate for tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV). In the case of RIL-6, RIL-7 and RIL-8, developed at GAAS, Yueyou 13 (Y13), a Spanish type with high yield was the common female parent. While the RIL-6 segregates for oil content, the RIL-7 segregates for protein content and the RIL-8 segregates for resistance to Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination [24]. The remaining BC-1 population (BC1F1) was developed using a wild tetraploid AABB amphidiploid (A. ipae ¨nsis KG30076 6 A. duranensis V14167), called AiAd [37] and a cultivated tetraploid AABB variety (Fleur 11). This population segregates for several agro-morphological and drought related traits [38].In brief, the segregation data for 211 marker loci on RIL-1 [19,21], 128 and 87 markers loci on RIL-2 and RIL-3, respectively [25] and 209 marker loci each on RIL-4 and RIL-5 populations [20,22,26] were obtained. RIL-6, RIL-7 and RIL-8 contributed marker data for 146, 124 and 64 marker loci respectively [24]. Segregation data were obtained for 261 and 193 marker loci on RIL-9 and RIL-10, respectively [27]. The lone BC-1 population contributed segregation data of maximum number (339) of marker loci [23]. Genotyping data as mentioned above have been provided in Table S5.Segregation data for 1961 markers obtained on all the 11 mapping populations were subjected to chi-square (x2) test to examine distortion from the expected 1:1 segregation using ''Locus genotype frequency'' function of JoinMap V 3.0 [39]. Individual or component genetic maps were constructed using MAPMAK-ER/EXP [29] and Kosambi mapping function [40] to assemble linkage groups by maximum-likelihood for respective mapping populations. Marker clusters were identified using a minimum LOD score of 5.0 and a maximum recombination fraction (h) of 0.35. The most likely marker order within each LG was estimated by comparing the log-likelihood of the possible orders of markers using multipoint analysis ''Compare'' command. The ''Try'' command was also used to determine the most likely placement of the unlinked markers, and subsequent orders were tested using the ''Ripple'' command with ''Error Detection'' and ''Use Three Points'' options enabled. The distance between neighboring markers were calculated using the multipoint analysis implemented in the ''Map'' command.A reference consensus genetic map was constructed using the markers mapped in ten RILs and one BC mapping populations. As peanut is an allotetraploid, deciphering the homologous versus homeologous relationships between LGs of the different component maps was necessary before constructing the consensus map. We first identified the sub-genome origin of each LG of the different component maps using a set of 58 single dose SSR markers (Table S6) that consistently amplified only one locus on the A or B sub-genomes. We then merged all LGs belonging to the same homology group with the software MergeMap [41]. In brief, LGs belonging to the same group of homology were first converted to direct acyclic graphs (DAG), which were then merged into a consensus graph on the basis of their shared vertices. Subsequently, efforts were made to resolve conflicts among the individual LGs by deleting a minimum set of marker occurrences. The result of the conflict-resolution step was a consensus DAG, which was then simplified and linearised to produce the consensus map. The final map was drawn with the help of Mapchart V 2.2 [42].For efficient visualization of individual and consensus maps as well as their comparison, mapping data were put in the comparative mapping programme CMap version 1.01 http:// www.gmod.org/cmap. This helped in assessing the congruency of marker positions and order by making a pairwise comparison among different genetic maps. Considering only the common loci existing among various genetic maps, highly conserved marker order was manifested. Subsequently, all the developed 11 individual genetic maps and the reference consensus map were aligned together in CMap.This article reports the first dense reference consensus map of the international groundnut community for wider applications in groundnut research. The consensus map provides the marker order for a maximum number of markers available in groundnut, which will be very helpful for aligning any new genetic map as well as anchoring genetic map to the future physical map. Furthermore, the reference consensus map now offers the possibility to select desirable set of markers with appropriate repeat motifs as well as PIC value that are uniformly distributed throughout the genome. In addition, marker segregation and mapping data as well as primer sequence information for as many as markers as possible have also been provided as supplementary tables that will be very useful for the groundnut community for future genetics research and breeding applications.  This table provides BIN wise information for integrated markers along with repeat motifs, PIC values and primer sequence information.Table S4 Summary of comparative information between tetraploid cultivated reference map and with diploid groundnut maps. This table provides comparative information on common markers between the tetraploid cultivated reference groundnut map with A-genome (Moretzsohn et al. 2005) and B-genome (Moretzsohn et al. 2009) Table S5 Genotyping scores for ten RILs and one BC mapping populations used to construct the reference consensus genetic map. This table provides detailed genotyping data for all the 11 mapping populations used for the construction of reference genetic map. (XLS) Table S6 List of the ''A'' and ''B'' genome specific markers mapped in the reference consensus genetic map. This table provides list of SSR markers identified specific to A and B genomes of the tetraploid groundnut. (XLS)","tokenCount":"4818"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5019b8f76f048270184f9a2834692a0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad443bf5-a58e-4119-9533-f354acb66f6d/retrieve","id":"1159678358"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"1b76a2fd-86b7-4ecc-8d4f-2006c158be8d","pagecount":"57","content":"The authors, listed in alphabetical order, are respectively with the Agricultural Development Economics Division (ESA) of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development of Tanzania, and with the Development Research Group (DECRG) of the World Bank.A diverse rural economy, with agriculture as the backboneThe near totality of rural households in Tanzania has some level of involvement in agricultural activities. Three fifths of rural households earn income from livestock husbandry, while 97 percent cultivate crops and approximately one fifth are employed as agricultural wage laborers. Agricultural activities combined (crop, livestock, and agricultural wage labor) amount to 70 percent of total income for rural households (53 percent from crop production, 13 percent from livestock, and four percent from agricultural wages). Self-employed farming is clearly the mainstay of rural livelihoods, with 53 percent of households deriving 75 percent or more of their income from self-employed farming.Participation in non-agricultural self-employment is similar to that of other developing countries (Davis et al., 2010), with 34 percent of rural households engaged in these activities. The non-agricultural sector provides a non-negligible 30 percent of total income, seven percent of which originates from non-agricultural wages, 13 percent from non-agricultural self-employment, and 10 percent from transfers (mostly private transfers from relatives).Agriculture: A sector of small-holder farmersThe NPS data yield the picture of a heterogeneous agricultural sector dominated by smallholder farmers. Average land ownership and operations are both at about 1.6 hectares, and less than five percent of rural households own or operate more than five hectares of land. Even in the top land quintile, average land operations are smaller than 4 hectares. Most rural households appear to be engaged in subsistence agriculture. On average, 67 percent of agricultural production is consumed by the household, 30 percent is marketed, and the remainder is used as input or allocated to other uses. Larger farmers tend to market a greater share of their agricultural output when compared to smallholders. Farming households in the top land operated quintile still consume a major part of their output at home, but they sell close to 40 percent of it on the market.The statistics on agricultural input use and purchases that emerge from the NPS point to a farming sector characterized by an extremely limited use of modern inputs. Only 30 percent of households report using any fertilizers, and 15 percent report the purchase of pesticides. Meanwhile, 58 percent of rural households purchased seeds for agriculture, but just 14 percent purchased improved seed varieties and only 12 percent bought certified improved varieties. Seed use is therefore largely made up of traditional varieties. As expected, the agricultural practices of larger farmers are somewhat more reliant on the use of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides/herbicides.About three out of five rural households report some income from livestock activities, earning an average 22 percent of total household income from livestock rearing. Both the share of rural households participating and the income shares from participation in livestock activities increase with welfare, as measured by expenditure quintiles. For the bottom quintile, 49 percent of households participate and livestock contributes to 18 percent of their total household income. At the top 20 percent of the expenditure distribution, the corresponding percentages are 69 percent for participation in livestock activities, and 24 percent for the share of income earned from them.The NPS data provide an opportunity to look closely the relationship between overall household welfare and livestock ownership in Tanzania. This can yield important indicators on i) the presence and extent of inequality and concentration within the livestock sector, ii) whether there are structural impediments in the access of the poor to livestock ownership, and iii) the extent to which investments in different types of livestock can be a vehicle for poverty reduction.The poor own relatively more poultry, the rich own more cattle, but average holdings are small for all In terms of total livestock ownership, Tanzanian rural households hold on average 2.72 Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs). Rural livestock ownership is dominated by cattle, which contribute 2.24 TLUs, equivalent to 82 percent of total rural livestock ownership. Cattle ownership is however limited to about one third of households. Poultry ownership on the other hand is almost universal, and for the average livestock keeping rural household it is poultry that constitutes the bulk of livestock holdings.The herds of poorer households are characterized by smaller animals, while wealthier households tend to hold more large livestock. However, all in all the relationship is not striking, which should not be surprising in view of the diversity of rural livelihood. In general, poorer households have broadly comparable levels of ownership to wealthier households. For cows, one can observe a somewhat stronger positive relationship with wealth, with the largest average holding being in the fourth quintile.Livestock holdings are concentrated in a relatively small group of households A substantial share of livestock ownership is concentrated in a relatively small share of the rural population. The top quintile of livestock owners own approximately 81 percent of all livestock. This concentration of ownership is even more striking when compared to the bottom quintile of livestock owners who hold less than one percent of total livestock. Underlying this trend is the composition and size of livestock ownership in these groups, with the bottom 40 percent relying essentially on small numbers of poultry, goats becoming more important in the third and fourth quintiles, and cattle dominating the fifth quintile.Herd size distribution also varies geographically, with larger holders concentrated in the Northern and Western regions, and smaller holdings prevalent in the Southern and Southern Highlands regions. Interestingly, levels of per capita expenditures do not change significantly across quintiles of livestock ownership, whereas herd size and structure does, with a particularly steep gradient in the top quintile, suggesting that there is a small core of relatively larger livestock owners who are substantially different from the rest. This is confirmed by the fact that households in the top quintile earn about a third of their income from livestock, as opposed to 10-14 percent in the other quintiles.The use of inputs in livestock activities is scarce: only six percent of rural livestock holders hired in labor for work on livestock related activities, and only one fifth purchased fodder for their livestock. The share purchasing fodder ranges from 13 percent for the poorest group of households to 37 percent for the top expenditure quintile of rural households involved in livestock keeping, which could be a reflection of their greater purchasing power, but also of differences in herd composition or livestock rearing systems.Households also keep livestock for a variety of other goods and services they provide, one being manure. Although the use of organic fertilizer in household agricultural activities is not widespread, a notable 25 percent of rural households that participate in livestock activities do report using it on their plots, as compared to only 12 percent for households that don't have livestock. That points to potential spillovers of the benefits of livestock to crop production.Livestock diseases are common, access to veterinary services and markets are notThe control, prevention and cure of animal diseases is an important element in explaining constraints to livestock profitability and growth, as well as possibly the single most important element of public policy towards the sectors. New Castle is the most widely reported disease, affecting 52 percent of all poultry keepers, with peaks of 60 percent in urban areas. Among cattle, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and East Coast Fever (ECF) are the diseases most often reported by farmers (17 and 15 percent of households respectively), while 23 percent of sheep and goat herders report some cases of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP).The high level of reported disease could be due to the overall low level of vaccination at approximately 29 percent. Poorer households have lower vaccination rates than wealthier households, and they also report slightly lower overall disease rates for livestock. Vaccination rates are much higher than average among households that hold significant numbers of animals, with 40 percent of households in the fourth ownership quintile and 59 percent in the top quintile reporting some animal vaccination in the course of the previous 12 months. Potential problems with barriers to access to vaccination services are suggested by the fact that urban livestock keepers are more likely than rural ones to report having vaccinated any of their livestock. A similar imbalance is noted for the access to vaccination by female-compared to male-headed households.Access to markets among rural households is limited. Only 10 percent of farm specialized rural households are market oriented (i.e., selling more than 50 percent of their output), and among all rural households, just 37 percent of total agricultural production is marketed, 29 percent being crop sales and only eight percent originating from livestock. Even though the share of livestock in total agricultural sales is limited with respect to crops, livestock is a relatively more market oriented activity, as approximately half of all livestock production is sold. As a result, whereas the value of livestock sales contributes only 7 percent to total agricultural production, it contributes to one quarter of total agricultural sales making it an important source of cash income.Alongside differences in wealth, the livestock sector is also notably divided across gender lines. Sixty-five percent of male-headed households participate in livestock activities, while only 51 percent of female-headed households report participation. When herd structures are compared with respect to the gender of the household head (admittedly a very imperfect indicator of gender control over assets) significant differences are observed in both herd size and composition. Female-headed households manage herds which are on average about two thirds the size of those owned by maleheaded households. The difference is most marked when it comes to cattle ownership; it becomes smaller for goats and sheep, and reduces even further for poultry, despite remaining statistically significant. Female-headed households, therefore, tend to have relatively more small animals than large pack animals compared to the average household. It should be noted that the differences are particularly large in terms of the probability of owning cattle. Once ownership is controlled for, herd size is not large and can actually be larger for female-headed households.While nearly a quarter of household livestock managers are only women, and fifteen percent are only male, three fifths are joint male-female managers. Women managing livestock earn less from their livestock; they manage considerably lower numbers of the main livestock species in Tanzania, with the exception of poultry, and are significantly less likely to use key inputs such as labor, fodder, and vaccinations. The differential rates of usage of inputs and services do not per se indicate discrimination in access, as they may be equally driven by differences in herd structure, since women are less likely to own cattle which are likely to be more (purchased) input intensive. Despite these differences, the share of households with only female livestock managers is not completely disadvantaged in terms of accessing markets. Forty percent sold any livestock, a share that is equal to the share selling among the male/joint managers group. It is worth noting that when considering the scale of production, female managers are significantly more commercially oriented, with 37 percent of their total livestock production being sold on market, compared to only 30 percent for households with men involved in livestock management. This outcome highlights that despite the obstacles faced by women in the livestock sector, commercialization of production may not necessarily be affected.Will the livestock sector be able to satisfy an increasing domestic demand? Consumption of livestock products, whether purchased or own produced, contributes 13 percent to total household expenditures, and just over one fifth to the value of total food consumption. Whereas the share of food in total household expenditures decreases with rising wealth, the importance of livestock in total household expenditures and in total food expenditure rises over quintiles. Total rural household food expenditure makes up nearly two thirds of total household expenditure.The overall level of per capita urban livestock product consumption is approximately twice that of rural households and is sourced almost entirely in purchases, whereas rural households demonstrate a more equal division between the value of produced versus purchased consumption. For meat, poultry and dairy consumption, urban households consume approximately twice the value as rural households, while for eggs, consumption is nearly four times the level of the rural population. The relationship between urban per capita consumption in TZS and wealth quintiles is positive and holds for nearly all products observed.The analysis of the patterns of consumption of products of animal origin reveals the picture of a sector with much room for expansion. The disparities in livestock product consumption between rural and urban areas and between different income groups suggest that as average incomes in Tanzania increase, the demand for livestock products may expand, offering good opportunities for livestock producers to increase their production in order to serve a growing domestic market. Female-headed households, while somewhat disadvantaged in terms of access to livestock assets, appear to be in a relatively good position to benefit from such opportunities, as their participation in livestock output markets is on par with, or greater than, that of other households. This growth is also likely to be accompanied by a shift in the composition of the demand towards more meat and dairy products. Poultry will continue to be important, but if current consumption patterns are of any guidance, household preferences will increasingly shift towards other livestock products as incomes increase.The challenge: Removing constraints to unleash growth in the livestock sector A series of factors may constrain households' ability to take advantage of the opportunities offered by a possible growth in livestock demand. In particular, the low level of input use and veterinary services, and the high prevalence of reported animal illness could place restrictions on the extent to which livestock is productive. Further analysis is required to identify the extent to which these constraints may become binding, and to single out possible actions to remedy the situation.The NPS data offer a rich basis, particularly if integrated with additional data sources, upon which to further the descriptive analysis featured in these pages. The objective of this report has been to use the wealth of information included in the NPS to identify some of the main constraints and opportunities related to growth in the smallholder agricultural sector. It is hoped that others will take this analytical agenda forward, exploiting to its full extent the wealth of information included in the NPS. To that end, the future rounds of longitudinal data that will soon become available from NBS provide an unprecedented opportunity for analysts to further our understanding of the nexus between livestock and livelihoods in rural Tanzania.Tanzania's National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP, also known as MKUKUTA from its Kiswahili title) recognizes that poverty in Tanzania is overwhelmingly rural, as about 87 percent of the population lives in rural areas, where the incidence of poverty is higher. The NSGRP also states that poverty is highest among agricultural households and expresses a concern for the urban-rural disparities in living standards. It is therefore important that the debate on poverty reduction in Tanzania be based on a sound and current understanding of the relationship between living standards in rural areas, agriculture and other sources of income, and access to resources, assets, and markets.In 2006, the government approved a National Livestock Policy based on the premise that \"the Livestock Industry has an important role to play in building a strong national economy and in the process, reducing inequalities among Tanzanians by increasing their incomes and employment opportunities\" (URT, 2006). The policy also recognizes that aside from contributing to GDP, the livestock sector has a role to play in i) ensuring food security, ii) providing households with employment, income, and a store of value and investment opportunity, iii) providing draught power and manure for sustainable agriculture, and iv) fulfilling cultural roles.Tanzania recorded good economic performance in the last decade, with GDP growth rates consistently between 6.0 to 7.8 percent (3.0 to 5.0 percent on a per capita basis). Even in the last years of the decade, despite the global economic recession, growth rates were sustained at respectable rates of 6.0 percent in 2009 and 7.0 in 2010 (or 3.0 and 3.9 percent respectively if the per capita figure is considered) (World Bank, 2011). The agricultural sector annual growth rate was somewhat slower with rates between 3.2 and 5.9 annually. The last two years have been among the worst (3.2 percent in 2009) and the best (5.4 percent in 2010) of the decade according to the available statistics. The agricultural sector accounts for around 28-30 percent of total value added, approximately one fifth of which originates in the livestock subsectors. The crop subsector, the largest component in agriculture, grew 4.5 percent in 2007 and 5.1 percent in 2008. The growth rate in the livestock subsector increased from 2.4 percent in 2007 to 2.6 percent in 20082.6 percent in (URT, 2009)). Government policies towards the sector focused on improving irrigation, rural roads, and infrastructure, as well as increasing efficiency in the use of land resources. Policies also targeted increasing the provision of agricultural services as well as improving access to fertilizers and animal breeding.However, several observers have pointed with concern to the lack of progress in rural poverty reduction, and have emphasized various constraints that are preventing the existing pockets of agricultural growth from translating into broad-based growth and significant gains in rural poverty reduction. Such constraints include low input use and lack of credit (Sarris et al., 2006), lack of productivity gains in the sub-sectors that matter most to the poor, such as maize (Pauw and Thurlow, 2011), and market imperfections that work against poor smallholder farmers (Mashindano et al., 2011). The increase in world food prices from 2007 to 2008 and the resurgence in food price levels in 2010 have contributed to increasing concerns regarding household food security, while opening a debate on the ability of the agricultural sector to trigger a supply response to the improved terms of trade for the sector. This report presents an analysis of rural livelihoods in Tanzania, with particular emphasis on the livestock sub-sector, smallholder farmers' living standards, and issues with access to productive assets. The report attempts to answer basic questions such as:• To what extent is keeping livestock an activity of the relatively better off, and to what extent are poorer households able to engage?• How does the role of livestock vary with different levels of income and well-being?• How are livestock holding size and structure associated with differences in welfare, gender, and geography?• How important are input and output markets for small livestock keepers?• What form does this market participation take in practice, and to what extent?• To what extent do the non-income services of livestock (e.g., manure, draught power) benefit crop production?The report is organized as follows: after a description of the data in Section 2, in Section 3 we analyze the composition of rural income, household endowment of human capital, and access to infrastructure and assets, in order to gain an understanding of the level of wellbeing in the rural space. A descriptive analysis of the characteristics of small rural livestock owners and their production practices is provided in Section 4, which highlights the heterogeneity of the households engaged in the livestock sector and presents evidence of the sector's importance to rural livelihoods in terms of both income and consumption. Section 5 concludes with a discussion of key results and their implications for policy and further analysis. The extensive focus of the survey on agriculture, atypical of previous living standard surveys in Tanzania, offers a wealth of data on the range of agricultural activities relevant for the country. Data was collected using household, agricultural, and community questionnaires in which information was obtained at the individual, household, plot, and community level. Agricultural production data was collected at the plot and crop level, with considerable detail on the allocation of production and the use of inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, seeds, hired labor, and household labor according to activity. Similarly, livestock activities were explored at length in the agricultural questionnaire, with data collected on the ownership of a range of animals, indigenous and improved breeds, transactions in live and slaughtered animals, diseases and vaccinations, and the production and consumption of products obtained from the animals. For all agricultural activities, information was also collected regarding the manager(s) of plots and animals, allowing for the calculation of gender-disaggregated statistics.The survey is nationally representative at the urban/rural and agro-climatic zone level.1 The final sample consists of 3,265 households, 1,202 of which are urban and 2,063 rural. In this study, we analyze the 2,055 rural and 1,200 urban households for which we have complete data on income and household characteristics. Given the extensive set of information on livestock activities, we also break down our analysis further to look at the 1,499 rural and 225 urban households reporting some involvement in livestock activities. 2   3. RURAL HOUSEHOLD LIVELIHOODSTable 1 reports basic summary statistics for some key characteristics of rural households. 3 Data for urban households and t-tests on the difference in means are also reported in the table, for comparison. These households consist on average of 5.4 members, 2.5 of which are of working age, defined as being from 15 to 60 years old. The average age of rural household heads is 47 years. One fourth of household heads are female and about the same share are single. The educational attainment of heads is at the primary school level: on average, household heads have completed less than five years of schooling and the highest level of attainment among all household members is, on average, under six years.Access to infrastructure and basic services is also problematic for many rural households. Fewer than five percent of all rural households report having access to an internal flush toilet, electricity, a fixed telephone line, or public/private garbage collection service. Households, however, are not entirely disconnected from public services and infrastructure. The distance to the nearest primary school from the community is 0.15 kilometers, on average. At an average distance of one kilometer, agricultural plots are also not far removed from the household or the nearest road, but they are relatively far from the nearest market, at about seven kilometers.Urban households are observed to be somewhat smaller at only 4.4 members, but with approximately the same number of working age members in the household. The urban sample is 1 The NPS is statistically representative of the following seven macro-regions of Tanzania: Central, Northern, Eastern, Southern, Southern Highlands, Western, Lakes, and Zanzibar. 2 Of these 1,724 households owning any animals, 1,404 households (1,197 rural and 207 urban) reported earning any income from livestock. In the discussion that follows, we will refer to these as 'livestock producers', and to the households owning livestock (the larger group) as 'livestock keepers'. 3 The survey documentation provides an explanation of the definition of the concept of a household in this survey. also characterized by having younger household heads, who more often tend to be female and single. Educational attainment, at seven years, is also notably higher, though still limited to an upper primary school level. Access to public services in urban areas is also considerably higher when compared to the rural space; however, it is by no means universal, as more than half of urban households lack access to modern sewage disposal, electricity, running water, and public garbage collection. While government schools are present in the vicinity of most rural as well as urban households, private schools are less accessible among the rural sample when compared to urban areas, reflected in the large distance rural households must traverse in order to reach a private primary school; urban households have private primary schools in greater proximity at 4.33 kilometers. Note: Asterisks denote significant differences based on t-tests across urban and rural as follows: * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%.Key survey results on household participation in income generating activities and the share of income derived from them are reported in Table 2, while Annex 1 describes the basic concepts and methodologies applied for defining income. The data from the NPS confirm the nearly universal involvement in self-employed agriculture reported in previous surveys and in the agricultural Census (URT, 2006). Three fifths of rural households earn income from livestock husbandry, while 97 percent cultivate crops and approximately one fifth are employed as agricultural wage laborers.Agricultural activities combined (crop, livestock, and agricultural wage labor) amount to 70 percent of total income for rural households, a figure that is driven mostly by independent agricultural work.Whereas 53 percent of total income comes from crop production and 13 percent from livestock, only four percent originates from agricultural wages. Note: A household is defined as specialized in labor if 75 percent or more of its total income comes from wages and self employment; it is migration specialized if it earns 75 percent or more from transfers; and it is farm specialized if it earns more than 75 percent of total income from on farm activities. Market oriented farm specializers are those selling more than 50 percent of their production, while subsistence oriented farm specializers consume more than 50 percent of their production. Diversified households earn less than 75 percent of total income from any one activity.Participation in non-agricultural self-employment is similar to that of other developing countries (Davis et al., 2010), with 34 percent of rural households engaged in these activities. The nonagricultural sector provides a non-negligible 30 percent of total income, seven percent of which originates from non-agricultural wages, 13 percent from non-agricultural self-employment, and 10 percent from transfers. These transfers are nearly all incoming transfers originating from children living outside the household. 4Self-employed farming is clearly the mainstay of rural livelihoods, with 53 percent of households deriving 75 percent or more of their income from self-employed farming. We define these households as agricultural specializers. Nearly all agricultural specializers consume more than half of their production, identifying their livelihood as subsistence oriented. Exactly one third of rural households hold a diversified portfolio of income, with no single source accounting for more than three quarters of total household income. Another 10 percent of households specialize in off-farm labor activities such as self-employment enterprises or wage labor in or outside agriculture.The composition of urban income portfolios is markedly different from the rural one. Only 13 percent of total income is sourced in agriculture, while 35 percent is derived from non-agricultural wages and 42 percent from nonfarm self-employment. Whereas the rural population is largely either specialized in farming or holds a diversified income portfolio, nearly three quarters of urban households are specialized in labor activities and only 15 percent have diversified income portfolios.Data regarding land holdings by rural agricultural households (reported in Table 3) yield the picture of a heterogeneous agricultural sector dominated by smallholder farmers. 5 Most households own or operate agricultural land; only 10 percent of rural households are landless and just six percent report that they do not operate any land. Average land ownership and operations are both at about 1.6 hectares. The distribution of land operated is illustrated in Table 3 and Figure 1, which both show the prevalence of smallholder operations in the rural space. Less than five percent of rural households own or operate more than five hectares of land; even in the top land quintile, average land operations are smaller than 4 hectares.  Most rural households appear to be engaged in subsistence rather than market oriented agriculture. On average, 67 percent of agricultural production is consumed by the household, 30 percent is marketed, and the remainder is used as input or allocated to other uses. Overall, 24 percent of households sell more than half of their production, a share that increases with land operated, while 73 percent of households consume more than half of total agricultural production, a figure that is somewhat inversely related to land size (Table 4).Larger farmers tend to market a greater share of their agricultural output when compared to smallholders. The households at the bottom of the land distribution appear to be primarily subsistence households as they consume up to 70 percent of their production. Farming households in the top land operated quintile still consume a major part of their output at home (61 percent), but they sell close to 40 percent of it on the market. Meanwhile, only 23 percent of the value of total agricultural production is sold by households in the bottom land operated quintile. Furthermore, one third of the largest farming households sell more than half of their output on the market, which is 14 percentage points more than the corresponding share in the first quintile. The statistics on agricultural input use and purchases that emerge from the NPS point to a farming sector characterized by an extremely limited use of modern inputs, summarized by the share of rural households using or purchasing agricultural inputs in Table 5. Only 30 percent of households report using any fertilizers (chemical or organic); about 14 percent buy them on the market, while the remainder rely on own organic fertilizers. Similarly, only 15 percent report the purchase of pesticides. Meanwhile, 58 percent of rural households purchased seeds for agriculture, but just 14 percent purchased improved seed varieties and only 12 percent bought certified improved varieties. Seed use is therefore largely made up of traditional varieties.As expected, the agricultural practices of larger farmers are somewhat more reliant on the use of seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides/herbicides. Purchases of chemical fertilizer rise with increasing area of operated land, from 10 percent in the bottom quintile to 14 percent in the largest land group. The use of any kind of fertilizer rises from 23 to 34 percent of rural households over quintiles of land operated. The purchase of improved seeds is not pervasive but it does increase considerably with land operated, confirming the trend towards greater access among larger scale producers. Households in the higher land quintiles are likely to use improved seeds more often (19 percent), while their use is much less common among the smallest holders at nine percent. Household labor is the one input easily accessed by agricultural households. At 99 percent, nearly all rural households relied on household members for agricultural labor in either season (Table 6). This figure varies minimally across land size. The use of hired labor is limited for livestock activities, but more common for activities related to crop production, with 46 percent of the rural sample contracting agricultural laborers. This share increases with area of land operated from 34 percent in the first land quintile to 60 percent in the fifth for crops and from 1 to 8 percent for livestock, although the relationship is not linear. Looking at the composition of total input expenditures in Figure 2, we see that hired labor and seed expenditures are the most important cost items across all land operated quintiles, while fertilizer and pesticides make a more marginal contribution. The composition of total expenditure changes as land operated rises. Larger land operators allocate a somewhat greater share of their total input expenditures to labor and a slightly lower share to seeds than smaller producers. Moreover, pesticide and fertilizer cost shares increase slightly with land size.The high level of labor expenditures relative to other inputs highlights the importance of manpower for agricultural activities, an observation that is consistent with the extremely low level of usage of agricultural tools and mechanization (Table 7). Most households appear to only own hoes; only three percent of rural households own a tractor. About one in five households in the top land quintile (10 percent in total) own an ox plough while almost no households own a mechanical plough. Even larger scale producers are not particularly mechanized, with only eight percent owning a tractor and essentially none reporting any other sort of mechanization. Most agricultural machinery is primarily powered by livestock. The first question this paper intends to investigate is the role that livestock plays in the livelihoods of Tanzania's households, particularly the rural poor. Fifty-one percent of Tanzanian households are to some extent involved in rearing livestock, according to the NPS data, as described in Table 8. In rural areas, the proportion is higher, with about three out of five households reporting some income or expenditure related to livestock activities and earning an average 22 percent of total household income from livestock rearing.In urban areas, livestock activities are of lesser importance, with only 22 percent of households participating. Among the livestock rearing urban population, the share of income is a full seven percentage points below the national average at 14 percent.Both the share of rural households participating and the income shares from participation in livestock activities increase with welfare, as measured by expenditure quintiles (Table 8). For the bottom quintile, 49 percent of households participate and livestock contributes to 18 percent of their total household income. At the top 20 percent of the expenditure distribution, the corresponding percentages are 69 percent for participation in livestock activities, and 24 percent for the share of income earned from them. Rural male-headed households are more likely to participate in livestock rearing than female-headed ones, and when they do they earn a larger percentage of their household income from this activity (23 percent as compared to 19 for female-headed households). The evidence on the relationship between overall household welfare and livestock ownership in developing regions is mixed. Pica-Ciamarra et al. ( 2011b) review the literature and analyze some cross-country data to show how generalizations are not possible and, depending on the country livestock ownership, show positive, negative, or no association with overall welfare as measured by consumption expenditure. They also show that household wealth is a poor predictor of herd composition. While a hierarchy of livestock keeping is sometimes observed (the so-called 'livestock ladder'), with the poor keeping mainly poultry and relatively wealthier households keeping more small and large ruminants, the occurrence of this phenomenon is essentially an empirical question, as factors other than wealth may drive the reliance of households on different types of livestock.The NPS data provide an opportunity to look closely at how these relationships play out in Tanzania. This can yield important indicators on i) the presence and extent of inequality and concentration within the livestock sector, ii) whether there are structural impediments in the access of the poor to livestock ownership, and iii) the extent to which investments in different types of livestock can be a vehicle for poverty reduction.Herd size and composition are important indicators for understanding the characteristics of livestock systems. In terms of total livestock ownership, Tanzanian households hold on average 2.53 Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs, Table 96), or 2.72 TLUs when only rural households are considered. Rural livestock ownership is dominated by cattle, which contribute 2.24 TLUs, equivalent to 82 percent of total rural livestock ownership by the shares of means measure, which conveys the distribution of livestock ownership at the level of the rural economy.For the average livestock keeping rural household, however, it is normally poultry that constitutes the bulk of livestock holdings. This is exemplified by the means of shares measure, which captures herd composition at the household level. This measure reveals that rural household livestock ownership is concentrated in poultry, which constitutes 48 percent of total TLU ownership, while cattle account for 26 percent of the total holdings. Sheep and goats make up about one fifth of rural household holdings, while other ruminants are marginal in terms of total herd composition. Annex 1 describes in detail the methodology in calculating shares of means and means of shares. Herd composition in terms of animal headcounts is analyzed in Table 10, overall and across rural expenditure quintiles. The importance of smaller ruminants such as goats and chickens is again observed through this angle, particularly when analyzed across expenditure quintiles. Despite some positive correlation between ownership levels and wealth, the relationship between holdings and welfare is not linear, and poorer households have broadly comparable levels of ownership to wealthier households. For cows, one can observe a somewhat stronger positive relationship with wealth, although the trend is also not linear, with the largest average holding being in the fourth quintile. For smaller ruminants like goats and sheep, it is actually the second and third quintiles, respectively, that report the highest average ownership level. These trends, taken together with the general observations on livestock sector participation, provide some additional evidence that the herds of poorer households are characterized by smaller animals, while wealthier households tend to hold more large livestock. However, all in all the relationship is not striking, which should not be surprising in view of the diversity of rural livelihoods. Figure 3 graphs the share of total livestock owned in TLUs against per capita expenditures. Livestock ownership is certainly more concentrated among the wealthier strata, however the differences are not striking. The conclusions from this distribution support the trends observed in Table 10 that fail to find clear correlations in the relationship between livestock headcounts and overall welfare levels. Lowess distribution of livestock ownership capita expenditures do not change significantly across quintiles of livestock ownership, whereas herd size and structure does, with a particularly steep gradient in the top quintile, suggesting that there is a small core of relatively larger livestock owners who are substantially different from the rest. This is confirmed by the fact that households in the top quintile earn about a third of their income from livestock, as opposed to 10-14 percent in the other quintiles.Taking a look at livestock ownership across the various macro regions of Tanzania, the relative importance of certain animals across such regions becomes clear, as does the relative concentration of livestock ownership nationwide. Table 12 reports average household headcount ownership by macro-regions for the livestock rearing rural and urban population. Most striking is the level of importance of cattle ownership for households in the Western macro-region, where the highest average household level ownership of heads is concentrated for all types of cattle. Although goats and sheep are also owned in considerable quantities relative to other regions, it is actually in the Central and Lakes regions where holdings are largest for these animals. Households in Eastern Tanzania do not own many heads of any animal, apart from poultry, the ownership of which is rather evenly spread throughout the country. Low levels of access to input use and credit, the incidence of livestock disease, and the poor dissemination and uptake of knowledge on improved management practices are recognized constraints to the development of the Tanzania smallholder crop (Sarris et al., 2006) and livestock sectors (URT, 2006;Njombe and Msanga, 2005).The first wave of the NPS allows an update of the situation with respect to the access by small livestock keepers to basic inputs and services such as extension and vaccination. Future waves of data collection will allow for the monitoring of trends, while also delving more deeply into the possible causal linkages between access to inputs and services, and the productivity and profitability of animal production.The use of inputs in livestock activities is scarce: only six percent of rural livestock holders hired in labor for work on livestock related activities (although this percentage goes up to 14 percent for the largest holders), and only one fifth purchased fodder for their livestock as observed in Table 13. The share purchasing fodder ranges from 13 percent for the poorest group of households to 37 percent for the top quintile of rural households involved in livestock keeping. It is noteworthy that the share of households purchasing fodder in the top quintile is about two to three times the share of households that purchased fodder in each of the other quintiles, which could be a reflection of their greater purchasing power, but also of differences in herd composition or livestock rearing systems.It is interesting in this respect that the largest holders are as likely as the average holder to have purchased any fodder.Aside from being a source of food products, livestock is also kept for a variety of other goods and services it provides, one being manure. The use of own produced organic fertilizer in household agricultural activities is explored in Table 13 for both households that do and do not participate in livestock activities. Although the use of organic fertilizer in household agricultural activities is not widespread, a notable 25 percent of rural households that participate in livestock activities do report using it on their plots. Since only four percent report having purchased any organic fertilizer, the use of it comes largely from household production among those using it in their agriculture. The use of organic fertilizer, whether purchased or produced by the household, is positively related to wealth, ranging from 20 to 32 percent over the five expenditure quintiles, but is much more strongly related to livestock (and cattle) ownership, as it goes up to 47 percent amongst the largest livestock keepers.Among households that are not involved in livestock activities, only 12 percent report the use of organic fertilizer on their plots, considerably lower than the share for livestock rearing households. However, since only five percent of non-livestock households report having purchased this input, other types of organic fertilizer that are not manure are likely being applied to their plots. These could include compost and worm castings, among other non-animal sources. Regardless of the source of the organic fertilizer, the relationship between usage and wealth is positive, as in the case of livestock producing households. Access to credit is also low among rural livestock producers. Access to credit for rural households in general is extremely limited, and the value of loans received varies little according to land size. Similarly, participation in credit or savings groups is low, at six percent. These figures vary minimally for the livestock producing segment of the rural population. Only six percent of these households reported holding credit and five percent reported membership in a credit or savings group. The shares vary slightly with expenditure quintiles in that wealthier households have somewhat greater access to credit, even if the eight percent in the top quintile of rural livestock producing households that hold credit is still a notably low figure. This disparity is also reflected in the level of access to credit-enabling social capital. Whereas only four percent of the households in the poorest quintile report participating in a credit or savings group, 10 percent of the wealthiest do.Access to extension services does not prove to be as scarce as credit, but it is not considerably widespread either. Just over one fourth of rural livestock producing households made use of these services, receiving advice on production practices or disease prevention. Access is positively related to wealth, though the dip in the fourth quintile disrupts the linearity of the trend. The trend is definitely more clear when access to extension services for livestock is related to the size of livestock ownership, indicating that households that have larger herds and depend more on livestock for their income are also more likely to use these services, particularly for livestock disease. The percentages are still low, however, with the vast majority of livestock keepers even in this group not reporting any use of the services.Relating income shares, diseases reported and animal vaccination rates to the receipt of extension reveals some important differences across households that do and do not receive any type of livestock extension (Table 14). Even though the two groups have similar livestock income shares, the share of extension-receiving households that report livestock disease is 12 percentage points higher than for households without extension. Even more notable is that the share of extensionreceiving households who used vaccines for any of their livestock is more than twice the rate of vaccination among households that did not receive any extension. Putting the disease rates together with the vaccination rates raises the question of why differences across groups for each of these variables are so large. While this finding is most likely associated with the fact that households receiving extension may have sought out the services of a veterinarian due to diseases afflicting their animals, or to the fact that the availability of extension and vaccination services may be correlated, it does point to significant differences between the two groups that should be further explored to confirm whether livestock extension may be having a substantial positive impact in ensuring higher vaccination rates.Looking closer at the prevalence of livestock disease among rural livestock producers illustrates the widespread vulnerability of all types of livestock to disease. Tables 15 reports the share of households reporting illness and the share reporting each disease, among owners of each type of livestock, while Table 16 reports the rate of owners reporting the illness of each type of livestock.The reported rates of disease are at an average of 60 percent overall, ranging from 48 percent among the smallest to 71 percent among the largest holdings. The most afflicted animal groups are reportedly poultry and cattle, followed by sheep and goats. For cattle, richer households tend to report higher disease rates, while for other animals all wealth groups have broadly similar rates of reporting. Some caution should be exhibited in interpreting these figures, as they do not factor in the share of each household's herd that was affected by disease.New Castle is the most widely reported disease, affecting 52 percent of all poultry keepers, with peaks of 60 percent in urban areas. Female-headed households report similar incidence rates for this disease as male-headed households, while they report proportionally greater occurrences of diseases among their cattle, sheep, goat, and pig holdings. Among cattle, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and East Coast Fever (ECF) are the diseases most often reported by farmers (17 and 15 percent of households respectively), while 23 percent of sheep and goat herders report some cases of Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) (Table 17).  The high level of reported disease could be due to the overall low level of vaccination at approximately 29 percent. Poorer households have lower vaccination rates than wealthier households, and they also report slightly lower overall disease rates for livestock. However, vaccines are not necessarily available nor a necessary treatment for the ailments that households may report when indicating disease among their animals. The relationship could also be endogenous, in that households may vaccinate because they experience disease, even though vaccination should be a preventative measure. Finally, while the observed disparity in access to vaccines may stem from financial and information constraints, a disparity in access to veterinary services may also exist, which could contribute to the slightly lower disease reporting among the poor. Vaccination rates are in fact much higher than average among households that hold significant numbers of animals, with 40 percent of households in the fourth ownership quintile and 59 percent in the top quintile reporting some animal vaccination in the course of the previous 12 months.Potential problems with barriers to access to vaccination services are suggested by the fact that urban livestock keepers are more likely than rural ones to report having vaccinated any of their livestock. A similar imbalance is noted for the access to vaccination by female-compared to maleheaded households. The linkages between smallholder access to improved inputs and technologies and market participation (or lack thereof) have been widely noted in the literature. Barrett (2008) provides an insightful discussion, with convincing evidence related to the crop sector in Eastern and Southern Africa. Market constraints to smallholder development are as important for livestock as they are for crop products (ILRI, 2011), and different forms of interventions to improve market access are part of the policy toolbox of governments and donors throughout Africa. In Tanzania, such constraints are well recognized in livestock policy circles (Njombe and Msanga, 2005;Pica-Ciamarra et al., 2011a) and have led the government to take action both on issues of market infrastructure development (e.g., via the Tanzania Livestock Marketing Project) and of market information systems (e.g., through the Local Indigenous Technical Knowledge System (LINKS) Program).Access to markets among rural households is limited, as shown in the previous section on rural livelihoods. Only 10 percent of farm specialized rural households are market oriented (i.e., selling more than 50 percent of their output), and among all rural households, just 37 percent of total agricultural production is marketed, 29 percent being crop sales and only eight percent originating from livestock. Even though the share of livestock in total agricultural sales is limited with respect to crops, livestock is a relatively more market oriented activity, as approximately half of all livestock production is sold. As a result, whereas the value of livestock sales contributes only 7 percent to total agricultural production, it contributes to one quarter of total agricultural sales (Table 18).Taken together with the share of livestock in total income, which stands at 13 percent, this figure indicates that livestock is relatively more important in terms of cash generation for rural households than would be suggested by its share in overall income. Interestingly, the poorest livestock producing households sell as much as two thirds of their production, while just over one third was sold by the wealthiest households. Although this suggests that the poor are notably more market oriented relative to the scale of their production, it may also be an indication of distress sales of livestock. Unfortunately, the data do not allow for disaggregation by motive of market participation. Of the two thirds of livestock keeping households engaged in selling, 52 percent sold live animals, four percent sold some butchered livestock, and 21 percent sold livestock products (Table 19).Considering that 82 percent of livestock income earners produced some livestock products, the discrepancy between the two figures shows how most of that production is targeted for household consumption. Accounting for just seven percent of the value of livestock production, product sales are not the most important income generators, even though approximately a quarter of rural households earn some cash from those sales. Again, however, we note a steep gradient in the top quintile of livestock ownership, where the share of households selling livestock products (41 percent) is almost double the sample average, indicating a much stronger commercial orientation, which can also be noted in the share selling live animals (71 percent).On the other hand, livestock products appear to be important in supplementing household consumption. For example, more than 70 percent of rural households produced eggs, but mostly for own consumption, as only 11 percent sold any. Similarly, a quarter of rural households participating in livestock produced milk, but only seven percent sold any. This observation is true for all welfare groups, even though a slight increase in the proportion of households selling livestock products as wealth increases can be detected in the data, driven in particular by milk sales. Breaking down the share of households that sold any livestock by the type of markets they accessed reveals the use of a large variety of market outlets (Table 20). Sixty-three percent of households reported selling in their same village, while 46 percent reported having sold any type of livestock or product in a neighboring village. The types of markets to which they sold included businesses and business persons such as traders8 (59 percent), formal markets (27 percent), and neighbors (25 percent). A vast and growing amount of literature exists that documents gender inequalities in nearly all aspects of livelihoods management, from access to education to asset acquisition, wage differentials, and beyond.9 The livestock sector is no exception, in that women are disadvantaged relative to men in terms of herd size, managerial roles, scale of production, and access to industrial value chains (FAO 2011). At the same time, given the role of livestock as an insurance mechanism, a store of wealth, and a potentially sustainable income generating activity (FAO 2009), the livestock sector can serve as an important source of livelihoods, and a potential pathway out of poverty for rural women (IFAD 2011).In Tanzania, previous research has shown that women tend to own fewer TLU's than men, that they tend to be more likely to own poultry and small ruminants than cattle, and that their livestock market participation is more oriented towards the sale of milk, eggs and chicken, whereas the sale of goats, sheep, and particularly cattle, is dominated by men (Njuki et al., 2011). In the discussion that follows, we review the evidence that the NPS provides on some of these issues. It should be noted that the first round of the NPS has some limitations in terms of the provision of genderdisaggregated livestock data, as aside from the standard information on the gender of household headship, it included only a single question defining the person responsible for keeping the animals.However, the survey did not include questions on the control of income, the ownership of the animals, or any further detail on specific aspects of decision-making within the household. Alongside differences in wealth, the livestock sector is also notably divided across gender lines, with the first division concerning the level of participation in the sector. Sixty-five percent of maleheaded households participate in livestock activities, while only 51 percent of female-headed households report participation (Table 29). This difference may be a first indication of the presence of constraints for women to invest in such activities.As demonstrated in Figure 4, the participation differential across gender extends over wealth levels. Forty percent of the poorest female-headed households earned some income from livestock activities. This share increases with wealth, reaching just over 60 percent in the top quintile. Among male-headed households, participation ranges from 50 percent in the poorest quintile to around 70 percent in the top quintile, with much of the difference explained by a sharp jump between the first and second quintiles, and little difference between the other wealth groups. For female-headed households, the involvement in livestock activities seems to increase more gradually with wealth.When herd structures are compared with respect to the gender of the household head (Table 21) significant differences are observed in both herd size and composition. Female-headed households manage herds which are on average about two thirds the size of those owned by male-headed households. The difference is most marked when it comes to cattle ownership; it becomes smaller for goats and sheep, and reduces even further for poultry, despite remaining statistically significant. For equines and pigs, the differences between the two groups disappear, but these constitute a relatively minor component of the average herd. Female-headed households, therefore, tend to have relatively more small animals than large pack animals compared to the average household. It should be noted that the differences are particularly large in terms of the probability of owning cattle. Once Differences across gender lines, with female-headed households owning lower levels of TLUs than their counterparts, remain when the analysis is run by wealth level (Figure 5). For the first, fourth and top quintiles, the differences are not tremendous; however, for the second and third quintiles, female-headed households own less than half the level of livestock that male-headed households hold in those same quintiles.The trends in TLUs owned by gender are more sensitive to the type of animal owned. As observed, male-headed households generally own more livestock across the board, regardless of the type of livestock. However, exceptions to this trend exist, such as with poultry and draft animals, for which ownership levels are roughly equal across the gender of the household head. Moreover, for the ownership of sheep and goats, female-headed households report higher ownership levels than their counterparts in the bottom, fourth, and top quintiles. Despite those exceptions, inequality is most marked in terms of large livestock ownership. Ownership of cattle is higher across the board for male-headed households, the differences often considerably large, such as in the second and third quintiles in which female-headed households own less than half the number of TLUs of cattle than households with male heads. These trends are not necessarily or exclusively a consequence of discrimination, as in part they may be linked to female heads of households preferring to keep livestock that can be supervised around the house, rather than larger pack animals that may require greater labor intensity.Figure 5. TLU ownership by household head gender and rural per capita expenditure quintiles, rural livestock keeping households Aside from animal ownership, the NPS data offer the opportunity to look at the organization of livestock management across gender lines. Table 22 indicates that while nearly a quarter of household livestock managers are only women, and fifteen percent are only male, three fifths are joint male-female managers. Therefore, although joint gender management is the most common arrangement, a greater share of households have female-only rather than male-only livestock management. This figure seems to be driven by female-headed households for which 61 percent of livestock is managed only by women, in comparison to the five percent of female-headed households with only male livestock managers. Male-headed households, on the contrary, are approximately equally divided across male-only and female-only livestock managers, at 17 to 18 percent, while two thirds of male-headed households report involvement of both men and women in their herd management. Although these figures seem to communicate a positive message about gender equality in livestock management, they do not reveal the underlying dynamics in the joint male-female management arrangements and may also simply be a representation of the demographic composition of male-versus female-headed households, the latter of which may have fewer adult male members. As anticipated from the literature, Table 23 reveals that women managing livestock earn less from their livestock, they manage considerably lower numbers of the main livestock species in Tanzania, with the exception of poultry, and they indicate significantly lower usage of key inputs such as labor, fodder, and vaccinations. Although hired labor is not prevalent for livestock in general, the one percent of female managers that hire labor is statistically lower than the four percent of male or joint management households hiring in. Similarly, female livestock managers purchased fodder seven percentage points less often than households with male or joint management. The differential for vaccination rates is even greater, at 20 percentage points. Again, the differential rates of usage of inputs and services does not per se indicate discrimination in access, as it may be equally driven by differences in herd structure, since women are less likely to own cattle which are likely to be more (purchased) input intensive. Despite these differences, the share of households with only female livestock managers is not completely disadvantaged in terms of accessing markets. Forty percent sold any livestock, a share that is equal to the share selling among the male/joint managers group. The likelihood of selling for female livestock managers is slightly lower than the male managers group for both livestock sold alive and as livestock products; however, no differences are observed for slaughtered livestock sales. Moreover, the difference in value earned from slaughtered livestock sales and sales of milk, eggs and other products across gender lines is not statistically significant. For the value of livestock sold alive, however, the difference is much more pronounced, with female managers earning less than half the value earned by the male/joint managers group.It is worth noting that when considering the scale of production, female managers are significantly more commercially oriented, with 37 percent of their total livestock production being sold on market, compared to only 30 percent for households with men involved in livestock management. This outcome highlights that despite the obstacles faced by women in the livestock sector, commercialization of production may not necessarily be affected. Reverting the discussion back to female-headed households, inequality is also observed within the sub-population of rural female-headed households when analyzed by expenditure quintiles (Table 24). Poorer female-headed households report limited access to inputs for livestock production, such as lower vaccination rates, considerably reduced access to extension services, and lower shares of purchasing fodder. They do not however have a more limited commercialization of their livestock.Nearly 70 percent of the poorest quintile of rural livestock producing female-headed households sold livestock or livestock products, on par with the rural average for female-headed households and above the share for male-headed households. Moreover, the poorest strata sold close to 90 percent of their livestock production. Since this outcome seems to be driven by the sale of animals (live/slaughtered) as opposed to the sale of livestock products, and since the share of those sales in total production is considerably lower for the poorest strata than the upper wealth quintiles, the outcome could be suggesting distress sales among poor female-headed households. However, since we observe the same negative relationship for the share of livestock product sales in total production, and an inverse U trend for the share of households selling any livestock or livestock products, we can instead conclude that for this subpopulation, households are more commercially oriented in their livestock activities.Although we do not study the demand patterns for female-headed households, the high share of sales in the value of production for the poor communicates that production is not necessarily intended to satisfy household consumption needs. In fact, the relatively high share of female-headed household selling livestock products among the poor provides evidence that livestock could have the potential to serve as a pathway out of poverty for these disadvantaged segments of the rural population. Globally, the growth in demand associated with economic growth and the accompanying changes in dietary composition are among the main drivers in the development of the livestock sector (Delgado et al., 1999;Thornton, 2010). At the household level, livestock can provide producers with direct access to animal source foods, as well as the income necessary to pursue a more diversified diet. Consumers, in urban as well as in rural areas, tend to spend a greater share of their food budget on animal sourced foods as incomes increase. This section explores demand for livestock products in the rural sample of the NPS, and draws comparisons with urban households in order to illustrate differences in consumption preferences across the rural-urban divide. Total rural household food expenditure makes up nearly two thirds of total household expenditure. Consumption of livestock products, whether purchased or own produced, contributes 13 percent to total household expenditures, and just over one fifth to the value of total food consumption.Whereas the share of food in total household expenditures decreases with rising wealth, the importance of livestock in total household expenditures and in total food expenditure rises over quintiles.At an overall level of eight percent, the share of food expenditure coming from own consumption of livestock products also increases with wealth. Taken together with the share of total livestock expenditure in food expenditure, it is evident that wealthier households purchase a greater share of their livestock consumption than poorer households, who produce a greater share of their consumption. In terms of the value of livestock expenditure per capita, the poorest households report consuming just 5 percent of the value of households in the top quintile. Also noteworthy is the ratio between the bottom and top quintiles for the value of purchased livestock consumption, and also home produced livestock product consumption, which each fall between five and six percent. In other words, for every shilling spent by the poorest households on livestock products, the wealthiest households spent 18 shillings. The value of livestock consumption is therefore strongly and positively correlated with wealth.The allocation of livestock consumption to different items is similar across rural and urban areas. However, urban preferences differ from those of households in rural areas when measured in terms of the level of consumption of these livestock products. As seen in Table 26, the overall level of per capita urban livestock product consumption is approximately twice that of rural households and is sourced almost entirely in purchases, whereas rural households demonstrate a more equal division between the value of produced versus purchased consumption. For meat, poultry and dairy consumption, urban households consume approximately twice the value as rural households, while for eggs, consumption is nearly four times the level of the rural population. The relationship between urban per capita consumption in TZS and wealth quintiles is positive and holds for nearly all products observed. Although urban households are greater livestock consumers when considering the value of total consumption (i.e., purchases, gifts and home production), the share of home produced livestock consumption in total food expenditure is only two percent, a full 10 percentage points below the 12 percent average for rural households. The majority of urban livestock consumption is purchased rather than self-produced, whereas among rural households, home production is relatively more important.The role of participating in the livestock sector in livestock product consumption is conveyed in Figure 7, which presents the distribution of rural livestock product consumption according to whether households report any livestock income. In per capita terms, consumption of livestock products among livestock producers is nearly three times the level consumed by households not involved in livestock. Rural households that do not participate in livestock production reveal a much greater share of dairy consumption, while more nominal shares for poultry, meat and eggs are observed. Conversely, the 39 percent of households who are involved in the livestock sector report livestock product consumption that is somewhat more balanced across products. Eggs and poultry each contribute to approximately one fourth of the value of total consumption, dairy accounts for more than one third, while the value of meat consumption in total livestock product consumption is about one sixth. Annex 2 contains the rural per capita value of consumption in TZS for each product, broken down by expenditure quintiles. Richer households consume much greater levels of livestock products, whether home produced or purchased. The trend over quintiles is conveyed in Figure 8, which presents the level of total per capita home produced and purchased consumption for each expenditure quintile, by type of livestock product. The overall level of expenditures per person increases exponentially with increasing levels of wealth. Households in the bottom quintile spend less than TZS 10,000 per person per year on livestock products, which is less than 10 percent of the TZS 100,000 spent by households in the top expenditure quintile. Expenditures on meat, poultry and dairy increase the most with rising wealth, whereas consumption of eggs records a more limited expansion.  Breaking down per capita consumption levels by quintiles for home produced and purchased consumption reveals additional trends in Figure 9. First, for the bottom quintiles of the expenditure distribution, home produced and purchased production contribute approximately equal amounts to total per capita livestock product consumption. Among households in the third and fifth quintiles, home production levels are greater than purchases.For specific products, the trends support the findings of Figure 6 in which poultry consumption is mostly sourced in home production and meat consumption in purchases. Among the poor, meat consumption is almost entirely sourced from purchases, and the bulk of home produced livestock products is composed of eggs and poultry. Looking at the same figures in terms of quantities rather than values as in Figure 9 reveals similar trends, as per capita quantities of consumption increase exponentially with wealth. Once again, poultry is shown to be the most important item in rural livestock product consumption, and is primarily sourced in home production. The quantity of meat consumed increases with wealth, but is largely purchased rather than produced. As with consumption in value terms, the quantity in kilograms of purchases is greater than the quantity consumed from household production for all but the bottom quintile. Conversely, for dairy consumption, graphed separately since it is calculated in liters, the quantity of home produced consumption largely exceeds purchased consumption for all groups, highlighting the ownership of milk producing animals across the wealth spectrum. These results demonstrate that own consumption of livestock products is fundamental to rural household food intake. When measuring consumption in quantities per capita, urban households are greater consumers of livestock products in comparison to rural households (Table 27). On the whole, urban areas consume nearly twice as many kilograms of meat per person than rural areas. Whereas rural households consume nearly seven kilograms per person annually, the urban sample reports over 12 kilograms per capita. Similarly, urban consumption of eggs in kilograms exceeds rural levels by nearly three times. Poultry and dairy consumption are approximately equal across groups with no significant differences observed, which is striking if one considers that the value of expenditures is almost double in urban areas (Table 26). The Tanzania National Panel Survey (2008-09) provides an up-to-date snapshot of living standards and livelihoods in the country. This report has utilized the extensive information included in this dataset on income sources, productive activities, access to basic services, market participation, access to assets, and a host of other socioeconomic variables to put together a detailed picture of the role of livestock in rural livelihoods.In analyzing the different economic activities in which households are involved, and the income they generate, the report confirmed the perception that agriculture forms the backbone of the rural economy. Nearly all rural households participate in crop or livestock activities, earning on average two thirds of total income from the sector. Household participation in non-agricultural sectors is somewhat more limited but also widespread, with 77 percent of households participating and income accounting for almost one third of the total. Both crop and livestock production are also practiced extensively by urban households, accounting for a combined 11 percent of urban household income.Despite its importance to rural livelihoods, the family farm sector is dominated by small, largely subsistence-oriented operations, often raising some livestock as well as producing crop products. Land ownership is widespread, with only 10 percent of households identified as landless; however, the average farm size is a mere 1.6 hectares. Subsistence staple crop production dominates the sector, and only about one fourth of agricultural produce is sold on the market, while the rest is consumed within the household.The limited ownership of assets and access to inputs present important obstacles to improving the living conditions of rural households, particularly of the poor. Ownership of the most basic productive assets is limited and the use of mechanization is rare. Households instead rely heavily on family and hired labor for all agricultural activities. Furthermore, access to financial services such as credit is scant in rural areas, presenting constraints to household investment potential.This report placed a deliberate emphasis on the characteristics of the livestock sector, which is often overlooked in agricultural sector reports. The role of the sector for poverty reduction can hardly be ignored, as three out of five rural households engage in livestock keeping, earning over 20 percent of their income from livestock, while also benefiting from other livestock uses (e.g., traction, manure) which are not captured in that figure. Households involved in livestock rearing also enjoy a far greater consumption of animal origin products. The NPS offers a wealth of information on the livestock/livelihood linkages of which this report has provided only an initial, descriptive exploration.In terms of herd structure, large ruminants dominate, accounting for over 80 percent of total livestock holdings when measured in TLUs. When looking at the same picture from a household livelihood perspective, however, the importance of poultry emerges alongside that of cattle, as the average livestock keeping household holds 44 percent of their total livestock ownership in poultry. One issue of concern emerging from the analysis is the high degree of concentration in livestock holdings, with the top 20 percent of livestock keepers holding over 80 percent of livestock assets. This reflects a heterogeneous sector composed largely of small holdings that make limited use of inputs, with a core of relatively large holders who are much more active on both input and output markets, and earn a substantial share of their income from livestock.While some correlation between the ownership of livestock and welfare levels (as measured by consumption expenditure) is present in the data, this is not very strong. Cattle ownership is less widespread and more clearly linked to wealth. Poultry ownership is ubiquitous, while poor goat herders have flocks of similar size, or larger, than rich ones. The heterogeneity across rural households seems to be driven more by other issues, such as the regional differences in livestock systems and idiosyncratic household characteristics, such that the larger differences emerge when livestock keepers are classified in terms of the size of their holdings.In terms of heterogeneity along gender lines, the NPS data confirm expectations. Women are relatively disadvantaged when it comes to livestock ownership, in particular for cattle, especially among poorer households. It should be noted that the gender disaggregation of livestock data in the NPS is rather simple and hence these findings should be interpreted with some caution. Once they do own livestock, women appear to be as market oriented as men, if not more so, due in particular to their role in the marketing of milk and milk products. However, the sale of live animals is much more frequently handled by men.Taken together, these results point to the fact that potentially dynamic livestock producers are also present among the poor, and include poor rural women. Removing the constraints to increases in productivity and market participation for these households and individuals, thus allowing them to realize the full income generating potential from their livestock resources, is therefore bound to have a payoff in terms of rural poverty reduction. These payoffs can be amplified via the interaction between livestock keeping and crop production through the provision of manure and draught power. These inputs do appear to be used more frequently by mixed crop-livestock producers, in comparison with pure crop producers at comparable income levels. While this additional benefit of livestock keeping is not included in the figures of income shares reported above, it should enter the equation when calculating the full range of benefits of livestock production for rural households.The analysis of the patterns of consumption of animal origin products reveals the picture of a sector with much room for expansion. The disparities in livestock product consumption between rural and urban areas and between different income groups suggest that as average incomes in Tanzania increase, the demand for livestock products may expand, offering good opportunities for livestock producers to increase their production in order to serve a growing domestic market. Female-headed households, while somewhat disadvantaged in terms of access to livestock assets, appear to be in a relatively good position to benefit from such opportunities, as their participation in livestock output markets is on par with, or greater than, that of other households. This growth is also likely to be accompanied by a shift in the composition of the demand towards more meat and dairy products.Poultry will continue to be important, but if current consumption patterns are of any guidance, household preferences may increasingly shift towards other livestock products as incomes increase.While the prospects for the livestock sector are promising, the report also highlights a series of factors that may constrain households' ability to take advantage of the opportunities offered by a possible growth in livestock demand. In particular, the low level of input use and veterinary services, and the high prevalence of reported animal illness could place restrictions on the extent to which livestock is productive. Further analysis is required to identify the extent to which these constraints may become binding, and to single out possible actions to remedy the situation.The NPS data offer a rich basis, particularly if integrated with additional data sources, upon which to further the descriptive analysis featured in these pages. The objective of this report has been to use the wealth of information included in the NPS to identify some of the main constraints and opportunities related to growth in the smallholder agricultural sector. The descriptive analysis within this report also aimed to provide possible starting points for additional analysis that could offer recommendations of direct relevance to the formulation of national agricultural policies and programs. Further analysis of the NPS data and, even more so, the analysis of longitudinal data as future rounds become available, provide and unprecedented opportunity for the national and international community to further our understanding of the nexus between livestock and livelihoods in rural Tanzania.Income shares are calculated according to the \"means of shares\" approach (MS i ) in which the share of income of each activity in total household income is calculated for each household, and then the mean of all household shares is calculated for each income activity. This approach is effective in communicating the diversity of household income portfolios. An alternative approach, \"shares of means\" (SH i ), calculates income shares from each activity based on the mean level of income for a group of households, generating a picture of the relative importance of different income activities at the economy level, where the overall economy is defined by the universe of the group of households for which the shares are estimated. The formulas for each estimate of income are as follows: The income shares presented in this report are estimated as MS, as the interest of this report is to characterize household level income and agricultural activities. These approaches for estimating shares are not limited to income and can be applied to other variables. For example, the shares of each animal type in total herd size is estimated using both approaches to demonstrate the types of animals that are most important to households individually, as well as among all livestock holders. ","tokenCount":"12875"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4e9dfc9f4a8af9bdf568d6d2186133a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/5094DW/OBZYTC","id":"-878540140"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"0f8264d0-1751-4d6c-a999-f62b0bda92ea","pagecount":"5","content":"Good morning/afternoon. I am ___________________ from the SEDPrac Consulting Pvt. Ltd. Together with International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), we are conducting a survey that will provide IFPRI with necessary information to carry out research that is designed to help strengthen the resilience of farmers against climate change, particularly in terms of crop productivity and income of the farmers. Your household has been chosen by a random selection process.We are inviting you to participate in this study. Your opinions in this survey are highly valued and there are no wrong answers to the questions asked in this interview. We will use approximately thirty minutes to conduct the survey. There is no risk as a result of participating in this study. Your participation in this survey is completely voluntary. You are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue your participation in this survey at any point of time. All the information collected through this questionnaire will be kept anonymous and you will be identified through code numbers. All the information collected by us from you will be kept highly confidential.Your participation in this research activity is highly acknowledged. The answers you provide will help provide better information to policy makers, practitioners, and program managers so that they can plan for better services that will respond to your needs.The researcher read to me orally the consent form and explained me its meaning. I agree to take part in this study. I understand that I am free to discontinue my participation at any time as I chose, and the investigator will gladly answer the questions that arise during the course of this survey.Thankyou.Perception about climate variability, impact and adaptation techniques 1.Did you observe that adoption of LLL reduces cost of cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 2.Do you think adoption of LLL reduces crop loss due to climate variability? (yes -1, no -2) 3.How will you rank LLL technique to reduce cost of cultivation? (highly useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 4.How will you rank LLL technique to reduce crop loss due to weather related shocks? (highly useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 5.Did you observe that adoption of DSR reduces cost of cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 6.Do you think adoption of DSR reduces crop loss due to climate variability? (yes -1, no -2, not sure -3) 7.How will you rank DSR technique to reduce cost of cultivation? (highly useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 8.How will you rank DSR technique to reduce crop loss due to weather related shocks? (very useful -1, moderately useful -2, not very useful -3) 9.Have you heard about LLL? (yes -1, no -2) 10. Do you believe that LLL will be useful to reduce irrigation cost for crop cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 11. Do you believe that LLL will enhance crop productivity? (yes -1, no -2) 12. Do you believe that LLL can protect your crop from loss due to weather related events? (yes -1, no -2, not sure -3) 13. Why did you not adopt? (machine is not available on time -1, machine rent is very high -2, not sure about its benefits -3, improved seeds not available -4, others -5) 14. Do you believe that DSR will be useful to reduce irrigation cost for crop cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 15. Do you believe that DSR will be useful to reduce labour cost for crop cultivation? (yes -1, no -2) 16. Do you believe that DSR will enhance crop productivity? (yes -1, no -2)[9] Reason for not adopting LLL or DSR Reason (very highly relevant -1, moderately relevant -2, not very relevant -3) LLL DSRInadequate training 2.Inadequate machine supply 3.Rent of machine 4.Irrigation facility 5.Availability of improved quality of seeds 6.Weeding problem","tokenCount":"627"}

data/part_1/0274133814.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"05b274eb0124c02060bc4f99b4194002","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7fe9ef22-8539-48ed-aebe-3de3a9453cdb/retrieve","id":"443994108"},"keywords":["Kheir, A.M.S.","Govind, A.","Zoghdan, M.G.","Khalifa, T.H.","Aboelsoud, H.M.","Shabana, M.M.A sandy soils","physical properties","chemical properties","yield quality","SAP polymer","economic return"],"sieverID":"fce9f2e9-f61a-48f5-a0cb-e38242c8c753","pagecount":"13","content":"Two of the most significant issues confronting arid and semi-arid countries are soil degradation and the need to reclaim sandy soils and improve their properties to enhance the agricultural area and ensure food security. Many attempts to improve sandy soil properties have been attempted using soil amendments, but further research is needed to explore the combined impact of cost-effective amendments. To that purpose, we investigated the impact of various soil amendments, including single and combination applications of synthetic Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP), compost, and biochar, on sandy soil physiochemical characteristics and bean (Vicia faba L.) production and quality throughout three growing seasons. In a randomized complete block design with three replicates per treatment, different treatments such as control (without application), lower dose of SAP (SAP1), higher dose of SAP (SAP2), biochar, compost, SAP1 plus biochar, SAP1 plus compost, SAP2 plus biochar, SAP2 plus compost, and biochar plus compost were used. The combined treatments, such as SAP2 plus biochar (T8), SAP2 plus compost (T9), and biochar plus compost (T10), improved soil physiochemical characteristics and crop production significantly. Application of T10 decreased soil bulk density by 15%, 17%, and 13% while increasing soil available water by 10%, 6%, and 3% over the first, second, and third growing seasons, respectively, compared to untreated soil (T1). The application of treatment (T9) surpassed other treatments in terms of yield, quality, and economic return, significantly increasing the seed yield by 24%, 26%, and 27% for the first, second, and third season compared with untreated soil. The higher rate of polymer combined with compost could be considered a cost-effective soil amendment to improve sandy soil productivity in arid and semi-arid regions.According to estimates, 70% more food will be needed due to the world's rapid population growth in order to support the expected population of 9.6 billion people by 2050, with the majority of this need coming from developing nations and Africa [1,2]. In order to overcome this obstacle, it is necessary to boost crop production across the board, particularly in developing countries. Legumes are a key component of agricultural production systems and a major source of proteins and minerals, contributing mainly to human diets and farming systems [3,4]. Domestic Vicia faba production in Egypt fell three decades ago. Egypt's self-sufficiency in the crop was destroyed by a combination of political actions and environmental changes, resulting in the country's severe dependency on imports today. However, domestic bean (Vicia faba L. c.v. Nubaria 2) production is growing more slowly than needed to meet domestic consumption demands. Because of this, the faba bean food gap continues to grow [5]. In fact, the difference widened significantly, growing by roughly 891% from 73 thousand tonnes in 2000 to about 650 thousand tonnes in 2016 [6]. To close the gap, bean production must be increased both horizontally and vertically, which requires high quality soils.Soil quality can be described as the techniques used to improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil [7]. Sandy soil is one of the most difficult challenges facing agricultural production, due to its characteristics of low fertility, low water holding capacity, extensive erosion, and high evaporation, requiring much attention to improve soil quality [8]. There have been numerous efforts made to enhance the characteristics of sandy soil, including applications of both organic [9,10] and inorganic amendments [11]. Among such amendments are biochar [12], vermicompost [13], recycled agricultural wastes [14], and synthetic Super Absorbent Polymer (SAP) [15]. Compost has long been used as an organic soil amendment to improve physiochemical and biological characteristics [16,17]. It can also improve soil fertility, structure, increase soil water holding capacity, and decrease erosion and runoff in sandy soils [8]. Biochar, which is made from pyrolyzed wastes that have a longer residence period than unpyrolyzed wastes, increases soil fertility by affecting the physiochemical and biological characteristics of the soil [18,19]. Many studies have shown that biochar has a good impact on soil characteristics and crop output [20][21][22]. Depending on the kind, dosage, and soil type, biochar features such as pH, increased surface area, cation exchange capacity, and nutrient content positively influence soil parameters and ultimately improve soil fertility [23]. The feedstock from which biochar is created, as well as its makeup and the type of soil to which it will be applied, all have a significant impact on the biochar application rate [22]. The combined effect of composts, biochar, and polymers on the physical and chemical characteristics of soil has not yet been studied in detail, confirming the importance of the current study. Understanding how changed composts alter soil structure and, subsequently, soil physical quality through soil micromorphological studies may be helpful.Polymers are huge molecules made up of monomers, which are repeating units. Typically, polymerization of monomers results in the formation of polymers, which differ from monomers in both their physical and chemical characteristics. There have been reports of using both natural and synthetic polymers to stabilize soils [24]. Recently, there has been a focus on the use of synthetic polymers (SA) to stabilize soil properties and reduce deterioration in arid and semi-arid soils [25,26], but further research is needed to encompass a wider range of soils and settings. Therefore, the main objectives of this work are to (I) investigate the individual and combined effects of compost, biochar, and polymer in low and high rates on the physiochemical characteristics of sandy soil, and (II) study the response of bean yield and yield components to the application of these amendments in sandy soil conditions.The experiment was carried out in the Baltim area of Kafrelsheikh province in Egypt's north (Figure 1). The soil texture is sandy loam, with low fertility and water retention (Table 1). The region is located at the north of Egypt with low temperature and moderate precipitation (Figure 2), proving that soil properties are the main limiting factor in crop production. The study site represents the first agroclimatic zone in Egypt, which characterizes the moderate climate.      The field experiment, which included ten treatments, was set up in a randomized complete block design with three replicates per treatment. Individual plots included compost, biochar, SAP polymer, and their mixtures as: T1: control (without addition); T2: SAP1 polymer at 5 g per hull (SAP1); T3: SAP2 polymer at 10 g per hull (SAP2); T4: biochar 5.88 tonnes per acre (B); T5: compost 11.75 tonnes per acre (C); T6: SAP1 + B; T7: SAP1 + C; T8: SAP2 + B; T9: SAP2 + C; and T10: B + C. The local cultivar Nubaria 2 was sown on 9 November in three successive growing seasons (2020/2021, 2021/2022, and 2022/2023). The area of the field experiment was 450 m 2 (36 lines + 9 lines free between all treatments); the distance between each line of 30 cm, with one seed placed per hull, and the distance between the holes along the line was 25 cm. Amendments of biochar and compost, as well as phosphorus, were given during seedbed preparation. Phosphorus fertilizer was applied at 60 kg P ha −1 as ordinary Ca-superphosphate, and K was applied at 120 kg K ha −1 as potassium sulphate. Nitrogen (N) was applied at 72 kg N ha −1 as ammonium sulphate in three equal splits: 30, 45, and 60 days after sowing. SAP polymer was added after the line was prepared. faba beans were sown on 9 November in three seasons at 168 kg ha-1 using a dry planting by hand method. At the harvest stage, after 142 days, soil and plant samples were collected for analysis.Compost was prepared by the procedures described in [8], with the main properties of pH = 7.84, EC (saturation extract) 4.13 dS m −1 , organic matter content = 267.6 (g kg −1 ), N = 17.6 (g kg −1 ), P = 8.8 (g kg −1 ), K = 12.2 (g kg −1 ), and WHC = 126%. Corn waste was slowly pyrolyzed at 350 • C for 2.5 h to produce biochar. Super absorbent polymer (SAP; Polyacrylic acid) was provided by the Central Lab. of the Agric. Climate, Agric. Res. Centre, Giza, Egypt, with the main properties of pH = 7.12; BD = 0.67 Mg m −3 ; WHC = 600%; and composites (Bentonite + SAP − 20% and Kaolinite + SAP − 20%).Before and after harvesting, soil samples were taken and subjected to normal procedures for chemical and physical analysis [27,28]. The pressure membrane method was used to test the soil moisture field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) at 0.1 and 15 bars, respectively. Using the pipette method, the particle size distribution of soil samples was measured. Using a cylindrical, sharp-edged core sampler, the bulk density of the soil was calculated [29]. The modified wet combustion method was used to measure the amount of soil organic carbon [30]. Conventional techniques were used to extract and determine the amount of N, P, and K in the soil [31]. During the three growing seasons, the contents of NPK in faba bean seeds were determined, along with the plant height (cm), weight of 100 seeds (g), HI (%), seed, straw, and biological yields (kg ha −1 ).Total cost, total return, and net return were computed based on the change in the exchange rate between the Egyptian pound and the US dollar between 9 November (planting date) and 30 March (harvest date) during three growing seasons.Regression analysis of soil physiochemical properties under different treatments and over different growing seasons, as well as pair plot visualization of all crop features under all treatments, were performed in Python using the seaborn and matplotlip packages [32]. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) for all crop features and treatments was conducted using the Factoextra in R language. Analysis of variance and least significant differences (LSD) (p ≤ 0.01) were performed according to [33] using the agricolae package in R studio.Figure 3 indicates that amendments had a favourable influence on most soil characteristics, revealing that the addition of compost enhanced CEC, soil organic carbon, and soil nitrogen content significantly throughout the first and second seasons, while the soil phosphorus and potassium concentration were excessive only in the first season. Biochar, on the other hand, increased soil phosphorus and potassium content during the last two seasons (2nd and 3rd), as well as CEC values and soil nitrogen content during the third season. Furthermore, both SAP dosages (SAP1 and SAP2) exhibited a negligible to minor effect on soil chemical characteristics. The lowest increase in values was recorded when no amendments were received. The maximum CEC and SOC values were obtained by combining biochar and compost application (T10). All the combinations, particularly those with biochar, boosted the NPK content of the soil.  The soil amendments had a significant effect on bean seed yield and yield components (p < 0.001), and this effect differed significantly across all treatments (Table 2 and Compost application reduced soil BD by an average of 13.77% and 15.82% in seasons 1 and 2, respectively, while biochar application reduced it by 11.68% in the third season. It was reduced by an average of 18.05%, 20.51%, and 18.61% in each season using biochar +compost (T10) or SAP2 + biochar (T8). The application of SAP polymer had a significant impact on increased soil moisture content, such as WP, FC, and AW, with the application of SAP2 in respective seasons increasing WP, FC, and AW by 14.19%, 23.43%, and 29.50% in the first season, 20.73%, 27.44%, and 32.03% in the second season, and 19.95%, 29.80%, and 36.23% in the third season. SAP1 caused increases of 14.03%, 19.95%, and 23.84%; 11.83%, 22.83%, and 30.35%; and 18.87, 24.29, and 27.84 in the first, second, and third seasons, respectively. A combination of treatments resulted in an increase in soil moisture content, outperforming other treatments. Application of SAP polymers used with both organic additions (biochar and compost) enhanced soil moisture content. On the other hand, for WP, FC, and AW, there were no significant changes between all the investigated combinations (Figure 3). According to the findings, the residual effect of compost diminished in the third season. The effect of biochar, on the other hand, showed an increasing curve during the second season, particularly in the soil content of elements, due to increased CEC values, while the effect of adding both polymer dosages on soil moisture content was obvious.The soil amendments had a significant effect on bean seed yield and yield components (p < 0.001), and this effect differed significantly across all treatments (Table 2 and Supplementary Figures S1-S8). The treatment of SAP2 plus biochar outperformed other treatments, with highly significant differences in seed yield, straw yield, plant height, and seed weight when averaged over three growing seasons. There are no significant differences between SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10), confirming that any treatment from them could be adopted as long as the biggest economic profit is achieved. The treatment (T10), on the other hand, revealed the best nutritional status in bean seeds (N, P, and K) with highly significant differences from the other treatments. faba bean yield and yield attributes responded positively to the fusion application of biochar, compost, and SAP polymer. The pair plot showed positive correlation between all traits except HI, which showed negative correlation with all traits (Figure 4). To properly grasp the correlations between soil amendment treatments, yield, and their qualities, the PCA analysis (loadings and scores) was applied (Figure 5). Yield, yield attributes, and qualities correlated positively with the treatments SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10), and negatively with the trait HI. This confirms the importance of applying SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10) in improving sandy soil properties and maximizing yield and quality in these conditions. However, as there are no significant differences between these treatments (SAP2 + Biochar (T8), SAP2 + Compost (T9), and Biochar + Compost (T10)), further economic analysis is required to select the optimum treatment that achieves the highest return for farmers.    According to the results in Table 3, the expenses of adding amendments were high in the first season 2020/2021 compared to the control; therefore, the net return favoured the control over the new treatments. The difference was clear for all treatments compared to the control in the two subsequent seasons, as net profits increased by 136.93% and 59.66% with the addition of SAP 10 g + 2.5 tonne biochar, followed by 2.5 tonne biochar + 5 tonne compost (134.42% and 57.54%) in 2021/2022 and 2022/2023, respectively. Finally, the treatment of SAP2 plus compost (T9) may be chosen as the most cost-effective treatment with the highest net return in the third season. Principal component analysis (PCA) to better understand the variability of yield, yield attributes (loadings), and treatments (scores). The loadings include seed yield (SeedY), straw yield (StrawY), biomass yield (BY), plant height (PlantH), harvest index (HI), seed weight (SeedW), seed content of nitrogen (N), seed content of phosphorus (P), and seed content of potassium (K). The soil treatments (scores) included control, polymer5, polymer10, biochar2.5, compost5, polymer5 + biochar2.5, polymer5 + compost5, polymer10 + biochar2.5, polymer10 + compost5, and biochar2.5 + compost5 for T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, and T10, respectively.According to the results in Table 3, the expenses of adding amendments were high in the first season 2020/2021 compared to the control; therefore, the net return favoured the control over the new treatments. The difference was clear for all treatments compared to the control in the two subsequent seasons, as net profits increased by 136.93% and 59.66% with the addition of SAP 10 g + 2.5 tonne biochar, followed by 2.5 tonne biochar + 5 tonne compost (134.42% and 57.54%) in 2021/2022 and 2022/2023, respectively. Finally, the treatment of SAP2 plus compost (T9) may be chosen as the most cost-effective treatment with the highest net return in the third season. The costs of the raw materials in 2020 were 11.75 ton compost ha −1 = USD 236.67; 5.88 ton Biochar ha −1 = USD 285.71; 1.60 ton SAP ha −1 = USD 304.76 and 1.92 ton SAP ha −1 = USD 609.52.The current study clearly demonstrated that the combined use of biochar, polymer, and compost improved soil quality and plant growth in sandy soil conditions, rather than using the single effect as performed before [34,35]. Application of SAP polymer recently showed a significant improvement in soil properties and crop production [36], but further application in different environments and soils, particularly sandy soils, is required. In the current study, the combined application of polymers, particularly at the highest rate with compost and biochar, as well as the combination of compost and biochar, showed significant improvements in sandy soil properties and crop production. Some studies showed the importance of SAP polymer in improving clay soil properties [37], reducing fertilizer loss [38], and increasing soil content of N, P, and K, which is required for the nutrient demand during plant growth and development [39,40]. Other research emphasized the value of SAP polymer in sandy soils, demonstrating that SAP polymer treatment increased soil water content [41]. However, integrating SAP polymer with other amendments has been given less attention so far, emphasizing the novelty of the current research. Here, the combined application of SAP2 polymer with either biochar (T8) or compost outperformed other single and low-rate SAP treatments in terms of improving soil physiochemical properties and bean yield and quality. This might be explained by SAP's three-dimensional, cross-linked structure, which can take in and hold as much water as 400 times its weight [42,43]. Its hydrophilic functional groups, like hydroxyl, carboxyl, amide, and sulfonic groups, have excellent adsorption and complex capacities. When the molecular chain swelled beneath the three-dimensional cross-linked structure, water moisture entered the internal network easily and formed a water-blocking layer between soil particles, which could inhibit moisture from moving from the soil surface to the atmosphere or to the rock layer of slopes, but made it move horizontally, or to the place that had little SAP. As a result, soil treated with SAP can absorb more water than untreated soil, and it also permits the water to be released gradually when the soil moisture level drops [44]. Application of SAP polymer not only increases soil water holding capacity, but also improves other physiochemical properties in the sandy soil. The chemical hydrophilic groups and network structure of the SAP hydrogel molecule may be responsible for this. The water molecules were charged by weak connections, which could result in a good water exchange between the polymer and the soil. However, combining SAP polymer with biochar or compost outperformed a single application of SAP polymer in terms of enhancing soil characteristics and crop yield. This is primarily explained by the fact that biochar decomposes more slowly in the soil than compost because it contains more stable organic carbon molecules than compost [45,46]. In contrast, the compost's decaying organic elements promote the development of soil microorganisms and boost the activity of soil enzymes, increasing soil organic matter and improving the qualities of sandy soil [47]. This demonstrates the importance of combining compost and biochar with SAP polymer in enhancing the physiochemical characteristics of sandy soils and increasing crop production. Nevertheless, further research is required to use these combinations in different environments with summer crops rather than the current winter crop. Application of SAP polymer with compost and biochar in diverse environments, including moderate and high temperatures with summer crops, will give a realistic insight into using cost-effective amendments in improving degraded soils and crop production to accomplish food security and nutrition goals. Furthermore, the effect of these materials on soil microbial activity and greenhouse gas emissions should be considered as a future research direction. On the other hand, including these resources into decision support tools such as crop models [48] will enable them to be used at scale in a cost-effective manner.The combination of biochar (its shelf life in the soil is 25 years) + compost (its shelf life is 3 years) led to an improvement in the biological activity of the soil, which was reflected in the chemical properties and bulk density of the soil with reduced carbon emissions. From the perspective of economic returns, the use of this mixture gave an economic return like the addition of polymers to the soil (its shelf life is from 6 to 7 years) and, thus, reduced the total costs of adding the polymers alone or in combination with other treatments. In conclusion, the treatment of SAP2 plus compost (T9) could be adopted as the best economic treatment, achieving the highest net return in the third season. However, applying these treatments to a single crop is a study restriction that necessitates more research into employing such amendments in crop rotation and on diverse crops.","tokenCount":"3454"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8b0f94489894d6d09264d8a811df3b10","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37e65677-5ddf-4633-a596-26dedeba2894/retrieve","id":"-791452637"},"keywords":["David Dudenhoefer, Véronique Durroux-Malpartida Coordination","Véronique Durroux-Malpartida Design and Layout","Communications Department"],"sieverID":"a814ce50-9fd8-4c37-b31d-75b61526bae2","pagecount":"88","content":"2014 was a year of consolidation for the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB), as scientists made significant progress in the laboratory and on the ground, initial investments in gender integration resulted in more gender-smart research, and we made several changes to improve program management.Based on recommendations from the CGIAR Consortium, a Program Advisory Committee (PAC) was constituted with six nominated members from complementary backgrounds. With their extensive experience and great enthusiasm for our work, they have already begun to contribute significantly to helping RTB reach its objectives. At the end of 2014, the PAC was merged with some members of the Steering Committee to form an Independent Steering Committee.We developed a new program structure to facilitate results-based management (RBM) that organizes RTB research around a linked set of discovery, delivery and impact-at-scale flagship projects. These flagships will be composed of clusters of activities and will replace the current disciplinary themes starting in 2016. The transition from output-based to results-based management is one of the objectives for the program extension of 2015-2016. Other key elements include increasing integration of gender and the implementation of strategic gender research to enhance gender equity, expanding linkages with regional and sub-regional organizations, building broader alliances of partnerships, and maintaining a longer-term pipeline of discovery research.We are proud of the progress that has already been made on integrating gender into our work. A significant amount of RTB research in 2014 was gender-responsive and nearly a dozen gender strategic research case studies were completed that will feed into a CGIAR global study. RTB gender specialists have also engaged in new initiatives with partner institutions that are very promising.While our financial resources increased slightly in 2014, a retroactive budget reduction of 9% announced during the last quarter of the year impacted funding commitments and disbursement. We wish to see this risk reduced, especially because it affects funding that includes many partners, and time-bound projects.We are looking forward to continued progress towards our aims of alleviating poverty and increasing food security.The CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) made important progress towards its goals of reducing hunger, malnutrition and poverty in 2014. Efforts to mainstream gender produced important results that include gender integration in interventions to improve the management of the banana diseases Banana Bunch Top Disease (BBTD) and Banana Xanthomonas Wilt (BXW), and the collection of sex-disaggregated data on crop traits preferred by farmers, in order to enhance crop breeding. RTB also contributed to a CGIAR global study on gender and agricultural innovation, and launched a university partnership initiative that is connecting RTB researchers with graduate students in gender and development studies.RTB supported gap analyses of global genebank collections of potato and sweetpotato crop wild relatives (CWR) that revealed that many CWR species are underrepresented in genebanks and at risk in the field due to habitat destruction. Researchers also undertook a mass field screening of 1,973 sweetpotato accessions from the CIP Genebank for heat tolerance, identifying 21 that are especially good candidates for breeding efforts.A cross-center initiative to unravel the genetic mechanisms behind key crop traits and harness them for next-generation breeding has resulted in the gene sequencing of nearly 6,500 RTB crop accessions and metabolite profiling that has led to the identification of 7,000 metabolic features per RTB crop. CIAT researchers identified 181 genetic markers in the cassava genome linked to important traits, whereas IITA completed genome-wide association studies of cassava and applied the data to genomic selection. An impact study of a CIP project that promoted orange-fleshed sweetpotato consumption to pregnant or lactating women through a health program in western Kenya showed a doubling of dietary vitamin A intake for both mothers and infants. Bioversity, CIAT, CIP and IITA collaborated with an array of partners on an effort to help farmers manage RTB-critical pests and diseases under climate change, installing networks of weather stations and completing a socioeconomic survey of more than 400 farm households at action sites in Rwanda and Burundi. The centers also made progress on laboratory research to better understand temperature-dependent pest development. A cross-center initiative to improve management of seed degeneration -the transmission and accumulation of pathogens via planting material -resulted in the development of preliminary process models, which will be improved through ongoing, multiyear field studies in nine countries.RTB supported a meeting of cassava experts from research centers in Europe and Africa that resulted in the creation of the Pan-African Cassava Surveillance Network (PACSUN), which will add value to the work of existing organizations and networks by providing diagnostic expertise and information on cassava diseases, and by coordinating responses to halt their spread. RTB scientists continued to play a key role in coordinating an international response to the first African outbreak of the banana disease Foc TR4, working with national institutions, regional organizations and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on a pan-African strategy.RTB supports efforts to combat banana diseases in sub-Saharan Africa that include an alliance to contain and help farmers recover from BBTD led by Bioversity, CIRAD and IITA. Those centers helped local partners in eight countries to establish pilot sites and send 20 researchers to Montpellier, France for training in banana virus diagnostics. Bioversity, IITA and the Institutional Learning and Change (ILAC) Initiative collaborated on efforts to get banana farmers in Eastern and Central Africa to adopt a 'single diseased stem removal' (SDSR) approach to managing the disease BXW, which allows them to control the disease while still producing bananas.CIAT, CIRAD and regional and national organizations in Latin America and the Caribbean are collaborating on solutions for managing the banana disease Moko bacterial wilt that include the use of thermotherapy chambers for mass propagation of disease-free planting materials and a Moko-resistant cultivar. IITA researchers tested aeroponic and immersion bioreactor technologies for producing pathogen-free yam planting material that hold promise. Smallholders in the Tanzanian highlands significantly increased their harvests in 2014 thanks to CIP's efforts to strengthen the production and distribution of clean seed potato in their country. RTB researchers also made progress on a cross-crop initiative to develop a conceptual framework for evaluating and improving seed systems, which was strengthened through 10 case studies.IITA researchers completed a study of smallholder plantain systems in West and Central Africa that documented beneficial intercropping, fertilization and pest-and-disease management strategies. IITA scientists also undertook a field trial on intercropping yams with trees, identifying two tree species that boosted yam yields.A cross-crop initiative was launched to improve postharvest management practices for banana, cassava, potato and sweetpotato in Uganda, with four business cases implemented by teams composed of more than two-dozen organizations. RTB also teamed up with the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) to support efforts to integrate gender into RTB value chain tools and interventions. CIP began testing sweetpotato storage innovations in Ghana and Malawi using dry sand, the results of which indicate sweetpotatoes could be stored for months without major losses. RTB also funded research on cassava processing that should result in technologies to optimize key unit operations to enhance energy efficiency, among other improvements. During its third year, the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) strengthened and expanded its network of partners and began implementing a more effective management structure that will greatly enhance its ability to track and achieve outcomes and impacts in the future. RTB funded an array of initiatives under its seven Themes, among them cutting-edge genomic research, international collaborations to improve the management of priority pests and diseases, and research to help farmers increase their harvests and improve postharvest options.Together, those initiatives are helping the RTB centers and their partners harness the full potential of roots, tubers and bananas for reducing hunger, improving diets, and helping people work their way out of poverty.An RTB priority in 2014 was facilitating a fundamental change in the way the research centers and their partners do business. The idea is to help the centers and partners move from a focus on outputs to an approach that prioritizes evidence-based outcomes and measureable impacts on food security, nutritional uptake, livelihoods and gender equity. This change involves participatory planning with an array of NARES, NGOS, farmer groups and the private sector to transform the way we plan, execute and monitor research for development interventions through the application of results-based management (RBM).This new way of doing business asks scientists and development professionals to envision the impacts that they want to have, and then work backwards to identify all the actions and collaborations, outputs and outcomes needed to achieve them. This includes paying special attention to the needs and constraints of end users, and identifying the actors who need to be engaged or influenced to reach those end users. The focus of this approach, and the consequent framework for managing and monitoring research for development, is the 'impact pathway' -a conceptual tool that allows researchers and development professionals to identify and map the outputs and linkages needed to produce the outcomes leading to impact. An impact pathway places emphasis on the process of change and the partners required to make it happen. Putting it into practice involves the identification of output, outcome and impact indicators for monitoring evaluation and learning (MEL).Those indicators play a key role in implementation, since the feedback they provide allows researchers to make adjustments to an intervention as it progresses and check that it is on track to achieve the desired impacts.The adoption of RBM is one component of a transition from a structure-based on seven disciplinary themes, under which RTB's work was organized during its first three years, to one organized around outcome-focused flagships. RTB researchers made major progress in 2014 on the construction of RTB flagships, each of which is composed of various related 'clusters of activities,' through which the centers and their partners conduct research and effect change. Each of those clusters will have its own theory of change, impact pathway and MEL indicators. As RTB enters its second phase, all research will be organized within flagships and their component clusters, and theories of change and impact pathways will form the basis for all planning, monitoring and evaluation.   As part of its efforts to make crop research more genderresponsive, RTB teamed up with Cornell University in 2014 to launch a university partnership initiative that connects researchers with graduate students in gender and development studies in order to tap their skills and knowledge while providing them with opportunities to work in the field.One of those students is Lisa Anderberg, a Masters candidate in international development at Clark University who will spend several months in 2015 conducting research on women's role in cassava pest and disease management in Laos as part of an RTB project led by CIAT researcher Kris Wyckhuys. Anderberg will be an asset to CIAT, since she has more than two years of development and research experience in Laos and speaks the language, and she is excited about contributing to the project.\"For me, this opportunity means that I will be able to apply my contextual and cultural knowledge of Laos and the theoretical and analytical skills that I have been developing in graduate school,\" she said.Anderberg is one of several graduate students who signed up in 2014, but the partnership initiative is poised to make a major contribution to RTB's gender research goals in the coming years.   The RTB centers and their partners conserve the most important germplasm collections in the world for their crops of  At least 21 of the accessions showed high yields and early bulking under heat-stress conditions, which makes them good candidates for further selection and breeding efforts.Heider noted that the test site has poor, sandy soil and some plants suffered drought stress, which means the accessions that performed well have real potential for relieving hunger and malnutrition on marginal lands. \"This is really promising because we now know that we have germplasm that we can send to areas that suffer heat and related stress. In many areas of Africa and Asia, all the good farmland is already dedicated to other crops, and as the population grows, farmers are moving into marginal areas,\" Heider said.She explained that her team separated accessions according to know traits such as roots with high beta-carotene, or that are sweet or not sweet, which scientists in different countries are already breeding for. She added that the accessions in the CIP genebank are from all over the world, and some of the ones that performed best under heat stress are from Asia.\"The idea is that this information strengthens the breeding program,\" she said. \"The next step is to send the accessions that performed well for multiple testing in other regions.\"In addition to producing useful information for CIP's genebank and sweetpotato breeding program, the field study was innovative in its use of remote sensing data, thanks to a collaboration with the IRD office in Ecuador, a member of RTB's global partnership with French organizations. Information from remote sensing has not only enhanced the sweetpotato mass screening, it will strengthen the future use of this type of data for evaluation of sweetpotato in the field.\"The good news is that enough of the clones performed well that we have a lot of germplasm that could be used in marginal areas or under climate change conditions. If you look at the clones that performed well under both the heat-stress and winter scenarios, © G. Rossel/CIP Sweetpotato germplasm preserved in CIP's genebankIn December 2014, the Global Musa Genetic Resources Network, MusaNet, held a workshop in India to address the urgent need of Musa collection curators for an unequivocal standardized characterization o f germplasm and its associated management of information. This includes ensuring the correct identification of the germplasm conserved and making the information available to all users. The workshop was held at the National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB), in Tamil Nadu, India. Participants included 22 representatives of the 13 partners of the Taxonomic Reference Collection Project (TRCP), and national and regional curators, as well as NRCB scientific staff. Sessions covered topics such as field characterization, field management, documentation and information exchange, global and regional contexts, and next steps planned by the TRCP. \"We hope that we can use this technology for future evaluations and that it will make it easier to do phenotype analysis earlier in trials,\" said Heider, noting that it could be used for \"highthroughput, early analysis of sweetpotato development.\"Faye will use the data to strengthen a methodological framework that he is constructing for the use of remote sensing in landscape ecology. Working with Olivier Dangles, the head of IRD in Ecuador, Faye uses drone technology to study how microclimates affect crop pests. Most remote sensing data comes from satellites and is too low-resolution for application to microclimates. Drones permit the collection of high-resolution data for a small area, and allow scientists to bridge the gap between the climatic data used in models and the conditions on the ground experienced by the organisms they study. \"The RTB metabolomic research has produced the first metabolome diverse libraries for banana, cassava, sweetpotato and yam, which will be analyzed and made available to the RTB community in the next 18 months,\" he said.Becerra explained that the metabolomic data can also be used for the identification of biomarkers for optimal adaptation of specific genotypes to specific environments, whereas they are particularly useful for understanding plant-pest interactions. He added that CIAT plans to do metabolomic analyses of cassava landraces that are either resistant or susceptible to whiteflies in 2015. \"The idea is to expand the cassava platform to the other RTB crops, so that everything we've learned and all the systems that we've created for cassava can be applied to other RTB crops,\" said Mueller. \"Creating the system was a big effort, but once you've created the system, it isn't that expensive to apply it to other crops.\"Mathieu Rouard, a Bioversity bioinformatician who collaborated with CIRAD on the first sequencing project for the banana genome and has worked on the Banana Genome Hub and the Musa Germplasm Information System, as well as the GreenPhyl comparative genomics platform, spent July working with Mueller at BTI and then accompanied him to CIAT and CIP for meetings with scientists there. He observed that cross-\"We want to create better tools for breeders and we want to integrate all the tools that have already been created,\" said Mueller.There have been many cases in which improved crop varieties released by NARES were poorly received by farmers because they lacked the flavor or another trait that farmers or consumers wanted. To ensure high adoption rates for the varieties they develop, breeding programs usually survey farmers about the traits they prefer, but all too often, those researchers rely disproportionately on the opinions of men. However, specialization of household roles means that women and men have different knowledge about and preferences for varietal traits. Women are usually responsible for food preparation and small scale processing, but their knowledge is rarely used for the varietal development process.As RTB works to unlock the genetic potential of roots, tubers and bananas for improving food security, nutrition and incomes, it is also supporting field research to document genderdisaggregated trait preferences. The aim is to ensure that the improved RTB varieties developed in the coming years will have as widespread and gender-equitable an impact as possible.\"Next-generation breeding is helping breeders to speed up the process of developing new RTB varieties, but if we overlook the traits that farmers want, if we don't have the right targets, then center collaboration makes it easier to manage the \"data deluge\" created by RTB genomic and metabolomic research, adding that the effort is benefiting from contributions from several scientists involved in the South Green Bioinformatics Platform, which curates genomic information on tropical and Mediterranean plants.\"The good thing about bioinformatics is that what is developed for one crop can be used for another crop,\" Rouard said. \"We are trying to have a consistent approach, and to avoid reinventing the wheel.\" RTB scientists have already identified tens of thousands of genetic markers that can be linked to traits, but the challenge is to confirm which genes are responsible for key traits -various genes may interact to determine one trait -and make that information available to crop breeders.\"Most breeders lack the tools needed to use genomic data,\" observed CIP bioinformatician Reinhard Simon. One of Simon's priorities in 2014 was the establishment of 'phenotypic ontologies' -standardized terms for specific traits -for potato and sweetpotato, which will be linked to the genomic and metabolite data being generated for those crops. \"There is still a lot of work to be done to build tools to make this data accessible to breeders,\" he said. A first analysis of the dissemination and adoption of yam bean in six of the total eight agro-ecological zones of Benin showed an adoption rate of 47%. A survey of 75 villages, for a total of 101 producers, revealed that the main advantages of cultivating ahipa are the high storage root yields, high seed yields, which Farmer with the yam bean roots harvested on her farm in Zakpota, southeast Benin facilitates rapid propagation and dissemination, and the various options for small-scale root processing, including gari (mixed with cassava), flour, juice or chips. However, the study concluded that currently, yam bean cultivation can only be profitable in Benin if producers process the crop.\"Training in processing is definitely needed to introduce ahipa in local diets in Africa, and to help farmers to improve revenues. This is a striking result, because in Central America and Asia, the crop is so far only used unprocessed,\" Grüneberg said. To assess the intervention's nutritional and health impact, a longitudinal cohort study of vitamin A (COVA) was undertaken from 2012 to 2014 with 505 women from mid-pregnancy through nine months postpartum. At the end of the study, dietary vitamin A intake among both mothers and infants in the intervention areas was nearly twice that of controls. VAD also decreased among mothers in the intervention areas compared to those in control areas.\"Vitamin A deficiency in pregnant and breastfeeding women is a significant public health problem,\" said Dr. Amy Webb Girard of Emory University, one of the lead researchers. \"Finding solutions for pregnant and breastfeeding women that are safe, accessible, sustainable and acceptable is a challenge. When linked with public health efforts, OFSP holds significant promise as a strategy to overcome these challenges.\"Access to Clean Seed  \"As information comes in, we will plug in specifics to improve the models, in order to get management estimates for particular locations,\" said Garrett. She explained that one of the goals is to develop 'management performance maps' that will provide location-specific management guidance for farmers and extensionists. Work has also begun on a gender model that would be applicable across crops and pathogens.In 2015, the seed degeneration research will be incorporated into an RTB initiative to develop a cross-crop seed systems framework, which will strengthen both lines of research. Garrett noted that she learned about the existence of data sets that could be used to improve the seed degeneration models at a meeting with the seed systems team in December of 2014. She added that an initial area of collaboration will be the application of impact network analysis to better understand how the biophysical and socioeconomic aspects of seed degeneration management interact. This tool will help to link the seed degeneration data with the research done for the framework and thereby improve the scientists' understanding of seed systems. Onyeka noted that farmers across the region are suffering the effects of the diseases' destruction. In a survey of 70 taro fields in Nigeria, he found that the incidence of TLB ranged from 65% to 90%. He explained that because farmers in West Africa had never seen the disease before 2009, they have no idea how to manage it. He added that these two diseases not only constitute threats to incomes and food security, but they could also deplete diversity in the crops' already narrow genetic base.Onyeka's recommendations include: creating a regional network of specialists on the two crops in West and Central Africa; Moko bacterial wilt is the principal bacterial disease limiting plantain production in Latin America and the Caribbean, and it is primarily spread between farms and regions via planting material. Moko disease can destroy up to 75% of crop production in an affected area, and annual losses in the region have been calculated to be more than US$100 million. Most farmers use agrochemicals to combat the disease, but interdisciplinary teams of scientists from CIAT, CIRAD and regional and national partners have been working on sustainable solutions for managing the disease, where improving the production of clean planting material has played an important role.A significant development is the use of a thermotherapy chamber for mass propagation of disease-free planting materials. CIAT designed and piloted an inexpensive, efficient and completely automatic system to produce clean planting materials. Once the conditions needed to propagate planting materials were determined, a larger thermal chamber was constructed that is currently producing pathogen-free planting material for 7,000 farmers in central Colombia.The technology has since been adopted by at least 10 nurseries or planting material production centers in Colombia. CIAT scientists helped nursery entrepreneurs to improve their production processes and scale the technology out, while involving female household heads in preparations for planting material production and caring for plantlets. Field studies found that monthly production increased by as much as 90 plantlets, from 15 suckers per square meter, with a total production of 980,000 plantlets propagated and distributed to farmers in 2014. While she admitted that there is no \"silver bullet\" to correct the deficiencies of all seed systems strategies, Almekinders believes that most interventions lack a full scope of the seed system's functions and all the actors involved. She hopes the conceptual framework will help to fill this gap. The framework will be applied to the Marando Bora sweetpotato project in Tanzania in 2015, in order to test and improve the framework and draw lessons from the project that might be applied to other seed system interventions.   \"ASARECA anticipates that the exciting innovations from this project will be shared to benefit the millions of people who depend on RTB crops for their livelihood,\" he said. The research revealed that, after the roots themselves, energy is the second highest cost of production, and that rasping and drying -crucial steps for making starch, flour, gari and fufuwere the most energy-consuming processes.Cassava flour packaging in Sincelejo, Colombia \"Improved process yield and energy efficiency can make all the difference between profitable and unprofitable operations,\" Tran said.The researchers recommend further experimental characterizations and modeling to improve and optimize key unit operations such as rasping and drying, particularly at the small scale, in order to enhance energy efficiency.They also highlighted the need to integrate more socioeconomic data to predict the effect of such innovations on women, who tend to be displaced from value chains when cassava processing is mechanized. \"We realized that male and female value chain actors have different needs, interests and challenges. And when it came to strategies to overcome those challenges, men and women often had different views of how to go about it,\" Mayanja said.\"Previously, we had used a one-size-fits-all approach, but the gender responsive tools helped us use a differentiated strategy.For example, for improving access to credit for value chain investments, the partners helped men access loans from banks, while women were linked to a microfinance provider that developed a table loan, which better suited their needs.\" Like PMCA, the 5 Capitals approach was developed with little consideration of gender. Stoian, who developed 5 Capitals with Jason Donovan of ICRAF, said that their emphasis was on asset building at household and smallholder enterprise levels. He explained that 5 Capitals is complementary to PMCA, since it is primarily used for monitoring and assessing the impact of value chain interventions and, based on this, to adjust them to increase smallholders' capacity to benefit from them.Stoian explained that the project will facilitate the development of gender-responsive versions of PMCA, 5 Capitals and the Link methodology -a value chain tool developed by CIAT. Those tools will then be shared with other centers and tested in different countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.\"This is the way we envision our development-oriented research to work, with centers collaborating within and across Research Programs,\" Stoian said.In Benin and Cameroon, women spend countless hours grating cassava to make the traditional products gari or attiéké in a labor-intensive and potentially dangerous process. Switching to a mechanical grating processing could reduce injuries, save time and energy, and result in a more homogeneous product. To understand the potential for mechanizing the production of such traditional cassava semolina, CIRAD supported research by French engineering student Timothée Gally on technologies for replacing the tiresome, manual process in West Africa and Latin America. Together with partners, CIP researchers tested several sweetpotato storage systems, such as an improved ventilation system that was successful for Solanum potato storage in Afghanistan and a modified \"Triple-S\" method, in which small sweetpotatoes are stored in dry sand and later planted to produce sprouts for planting. That method is being tested to see if larger sweetpotatoes can be stored for eventual sale or consumption.In Ghana, which has a long, hot dry season, sand storage was compared with a traditional system of storing sweetpotatoes in a grass-covered heap that is regularly sprinkled with water. The dry sand box storage gave better results than the traditional heap storage, retaining root freshness and keeping them free of weevils for two months. ","tokenCount":"4587"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"306d0f2a7db960f669ef1e729e8d10d0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/95b986ab-5d42-4888-a7a8-e7e791c9874d/retrieve","id":"-795593022"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"48c5f50d-fd51-4809-b44d-445529245361","pagecount":"6","content":"A parasitic disease of cattle, East Coast fever (ECF) kills over one million animals a year in sub-Saharan Africa and is particularly devastating for smallholder farmers.A live vaccine provides lifelong immunity after a single inoculation, but it is expensive to produce, store and deploy. As a result, scientists are searching for other methods of control.Extensive research, including the identification of the antibodies and T cells which provide resistance to disease, is helping scientists at ILRI develop a subunit vaccine for ECF.Once available, the vaccine could dramatically improve cattle health and productivity over a large swathe of Africa.East Coast fever occurs in 12 countries in eastern, central and southern Africa and kills over one million cattle a year. Approximately half the 75 million cattle in this area are at risk of catching the disease. In herds which have not previously been exposed to ECF, over 80% of cattle die within three to four weeks of infection. In 2005, ECF-related deaths led to the loss of some USD 300 million of revenue, representing 44% of the combined value of beef production in Burundi, Kenya and Rwanda that year.The direct impact of ECF includes the loss of livestock, the stunting of calves, reduced milk production among survivors and the costs of preventing and controlling the disease. Smallholder farmers are often the worst affected, making their households even more vulnerable and food insecure. 1 The disease has also deterred many farmers from adopting more productive breeds that are less resistant to ECF than indigenous cattle.ECF was first identified in cattle in the early 1900s, but serious attempts to tackle the disease only began in the 1960s and 1970s. The early work on developing a vaccine led to the creation of the Muguga cocktail, derived from three different isolates of the parasite. 2 This is delivered to cattle using an infectionand-treatment method (ITM). Cattle are infected with the parasite and simultaneously treated with an antibiotic. 3 This is still the main vaccine providing lifelong protection against ECF -it has provided immunity to some 1.5 million cattle -but its manufacture, cold-storage requirements and delivery are complicated and expensive, with the cost of the vaccine being beyond the means of many smallholder farmers.  Live vaccines like the Muguga cocktail use the entire pathogen to stimulate an immune response similar to the one seen during natural infection. In contrast, subunit vaccines contain components from the pathogen which are selected for their ability to elicit a strong immune response. The risk of side-effects with subunit vaccines is minimal. Production costs are usually lower than those for live vaccines and subunit vaccines do not have the same stringent cold storage requirements. They are therefore easier to deploy and more affordable for smallholder farmers and pastoralists.A prerequisite to developing a vaccine, either live or subunit, is an understanding of the immune factors and parasite antigens which help cattle develop immunity. The ITM vaccine demonstrates that it is technically possible to vaccinate cattle, and this provides a strong justification for developing subunit vaccines. Research by scientists at ILRI and the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) and its collaborators led to the identification of two types of immune response that contribute to immunity to ECF, one dependent on T-cells, the other on antibodies.Research on the ITM vaccine led to the identification of a cytotoxic CD8 + T-cell response that kills schizont-infected cells. 4 This is the major mechanism mediating immunity to ECF. 5 In addition, cattle from ECF endemic areas were found to contain antibodies that neutralize the infectivity of the sporozoite stage of the parasite. 6 This means that antigens derived from the parasite are candidates for developing subunit vaccines, as they can respectively elicit cytotoxic CD8 + T-cells and antibodies. These two types of response are also the subject of intense research in developing vaccines for malaria, HIV and Tuberculosis (TB).One challenge when tackling ECF lies in the complex nature of the parasite. T. parva has approximately 4000 genes 7 , compared to fewer than 20 for an RNA virus like SARS-CoV-2. This makes the search for candidate vaccine antigens a demanding exercise.In addition, we know that the ITM vaccine induces strain-specific immunity, indicating that a broad-spectrum subunit vaccine will be dependent on the use of antigens that are common between different strains, or require the judicious use of a cocktail of antigens to mimic the immunity imparted by the Muguga cocktail. Nevertheless, several antigens -the targets of sporozoiteneutralizing antibodies and schizont antigens targeted by T cells from cattle immunized by ITM -have been identified.The quality of immune responses generated, and thus the level of immunity to ECF, varies with different methods of immunization, so the second challenge lies in identifying methods of immunization that induce robust sporozoite and schizont killing activity. In the general area of vaccinology, it is harder to induce CD8 + T-cells responses than it is to induce antibody responses. Hence, considerable effort has gone into defining antigens and assessing immunization methods.Drawing ILRI/Nicholas SvitekSignificant advances have been made in the identification and characterisation of antigens which can be used in a vaccine. 8 This entailed the development of assays for antigen identification, exploring different immunization methods and the development of immunological assays to measure immune responses in cattle.Two antigens of interest for the development of a subunit vaccine directed against the sporozoite cycle stage of the parasite were identified several years ago. 9 However, only the p67 antigen, the major surface antigen, has given consistent immunity to ECF, varying in efficacy from 20% to 70% in laboratory studies, depending on the different forms of recombinant p67 used and the method of immunization. 10 Unfortunately, it has not been possible to express stable recombinant versions of p67 that mimic the native sporozoite protein. Recent experiments have focused on a portion of p67, known as p67C, as it has been easier to work with and achieves the same level of protection in vaccinated animals.Five different p67C nanoparticle-based antigens combined with the ISA206VG adjuvant have been tested. Immunization with a combination of two of these resulted in 50% immunity and required three doses of antigen. A vaccine target product profile requires an immunization method of two doses and an efficacy of at least 70%, so more research is required to improve the efficacy of sporozoite vaccine antigens. In this context, eight new candidate sporozoite antigens have been discovered using a genome mining approach, but these need further testing on cattle. It is possible that a robust sporozoite vaccine requires a cocktail of antigens.Considerable effort has also been expended on developing a vaccine which can stimulate a lethal response from the CD8 + T cells at the schizont stage of the parasite life cycle. This is the modus operandi of the live ITM vaccine. Using different assays, a total of ten schizont antigens have been identified and nine different immunization methods have been tested. In one early experiment to develop a schizont subunit vaccine, 19 of the 24 cattle immunized with five parasite antigens showed readily detectable CD8 + T cell responses, but in only four of the animals did this response lead to the killing of infected cells. 11 Recently, the use of just one antigen -Tp1 -conferred immunity on approximately 30% of the animals when used in a dose which killed 100% of the unvaccinated control group. The antigen was deployed in a prime-boost regimen, where cattle were immunised with Tp1recombinant human adenovirus boosted with Tp1-recombinant Modified Ankara Virus. 12 Much remains to be done to identify more potent methods of immunization and/or combination of antigens.Experiments exploring immunization of p67C with the Tp-1 antigen reveal an increased rate of survival when compared with the use of p67 alone at 100% lethal dose. This was done using the two corresponding immunization regimen, indicating that a combination of the two arms of the immune system, the cytotoxic T-cells and the antibodies, can enhance the protective effect. Combination approaches may also help when developing a broadspectrum subunit vaccine. What remains to be uncovered is the identity and number of sporozoite and/or schizont antigens that will be required.Being able to predict protection based on immune parameters eases the task of testing different antigens and delivery systems. Considerable effort has been put into identifying immune correlates, especially after immunizing animals against the sporozoite stage of the parasite, and targeting the generation of protective antibodies. Different assays have been developed based on the quantification of antibodies present in serum and an assessment of their quality. The analysis of several hundred archived samples is showing very promising results.A Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Animal Health project on ECF https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00Z41T.pdf will use these assays for antigen selection prior to animal experiments. The antigens will be delivered in nanoparticle form to increase potency and stability. The project will also develop new in vitro assays and introduce new nanotechnology platforms to be used for ECF and other diseases where an antibody-based subunit vaccine would be useful.Regarding induction of cytotoxic T cells to schizont antigens, there are two main things to consider. The first is choosing the right antigens and second is determining whether one or several antigens are needed to kill the infected cells. The many T. parva strains in the field and the diversity of tissue-type antigens in cattle complicates the process of selecting antigens. A particular parasite antigen may be good in one calf but not in another and a comprehensive study would be required to select the best antigens, involving screening of many immunized cattle with different antigens for their reaction to all the 4000 genes from T. parva. Nevertheless, this could be done, followed by selection of the most \"popular\" antigens.The other important consideration involves choosing a suitable vaccination system for induction of cytotoxic T cells in large animals, which is at the same time easy to perform and cheap to produce. If many antigens are needed it may be necessary to identify T cell epitopes to reduce the amount of antigens that need to be inserted into the vaccine..Photo ILRI/Kabir DhanjiPhoto ILRI/Lwitiko MwakalukwaCattle for sale at the Garissa livestock market in northeastern Kenya.","tokenCount":"1683"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9fcacf725467e5c1d90d15d77dda5d66","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dcfc7868-d1c0-4606-aac8-7d83e7d0307b/retrieve","id":"1454751481"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"28c83f92-7c8b-42ff-81b6-fc153fb85da1","pagecount":"34","content":"On September 21 st , 2022, scientists from various African countries specializing in plant breeding for cassava, yam, cowpea, maize, soybean, and plantain were welcomed to the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan for a three-day training on Gender Responsive Breeding. The primary goal of this training was to highlight the significance of gender and social inclusion in plant breeding research. The training provided an introduction on the definition and the application of gender-and social inclusion concepts to the breeding pipeline's design and implementation. It also enabled the trainees to recognize the relationship between gender issues and trait preferences, assess the social impact of breeding research activities, and, most importantly, to appreciate the benefits of working in an interdisciplinary team that combines biophysical and social scientists.The use of interactive learning methods throughout the training allowed trainees to participate, voice their opinions, exchange ideas, and feel equally involved. Supported by in-person participation, such techniques were intended to allow participants to vividly notice and appreciate the growth of their knowledge in gender responsive breeding through an ongoing reflection of the notions and approaches learned in their everyday breeding work. In general, the training was well appreciated by the participants, many of which expressed interest in a follow-up. According to many participants, the richness of the content presented would have required devoting more time to the group exercises and discussions.A short video documentary of the training with highlights from some of the participants is available at this link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x9_Plq6WenADay one -21 September 2022During the commencement of the training, Martina Cavicchioli welcomed all attendees. She stated that 11 of the 24 participants were from IITA, while 13 were from partner institutions, which, in her words, created an opportunity to foster collaborations with these partner institutions. She proceeded to introduce the other members of the training team who would participate in the three-day course and contribute their knowledge on gender responsive breeding. Cavicchioli expressed her gratitude for the programs and initiatives that had supported and sponsored the training session: the bilateral projects AfricaYam, AVISA, and NextGen Cassava, and the two OneCGIAR initiatives Accelerated Breeding (ABI) and Market Intelligence in Product Profiling (MIPPI). Cavicchioli concluded by emphasizing the critical importance of collaboration between plant breeders and gender and social scientists to achieve more transdisciplinary work. While enabling knowledge sharing from one discipline to the other, this will eventually allow both parties to collaborate towards the design of more gender and socially inclusive methodologies in breeding research. Cavicchioli continued by introducing the invited speakers to give some opening remarks.John Derera, IITA Head of Breeding, underlined the development through time from \"Traditional breeding\" to \"Breeding modernization.\" In a nutshell, he clarified that this transition importantly includes a focus on gender equality and the acknowledgement of diversity as a whole in order to better serve the demands of customers.Leena Tripathi, East African Hub Director (IITA) and IITA Biotechnology Lead, welcomed the attendees and emphasized the value of including gender from the \"start\" of any research activity. In breeding research, this translates into adopting a gender-responsive approach, that is one that includes gender during the Customer and Product Profiling Stages. Such an approach is crucial to the integration of gender during the deployment stages of a variety. In return, integrating gender considerations in the breeding pipeline will increase chances for a greater varietal uptake.Zainatou Sougrynoma Sore, Head of the Capacity Development Office at IITA, began by introducing her department's mission statement, which revolves around the pursuit of expertise through innovative programs that will enhance capacities in research for development while also delivering to transform African agriculture. She emphasized that, in accordance with the mission statement's briefing, the ongoing Gender Responsive Breeding Training fell under the category of \"innovative programs.\" Sore also highlighted the emphasis put on gender inclusion in the workplace as a crosscutting theme across OneCGIAR initiatives. This should remind us that gender is a fundamental concern both within capacity development programs as well as within the work setting in general.IITA's Deputy Director General for Corporate Services, Hilde Koper, emphasized that the organization needs to do even more to be inclusive and meet the CGIAR-set benchmark of at least 40% women in the workplace. She stated that by bringing in more women to the agricultural industry, there would be an increase in female scientists and, ideally, female breeders. Koper also underlined the significance of involving young people and women in agricultural and breeding projects because women currently greatly contribute to the food production sector and their preferences should thus be taken into account when developing new varieties. Second, she discussed the need to develop ways to make the agricultural sector more appealing to attract more young people as it is currently dominated by the elderly.Chiedozie Egesi, cassava breeder and executive director of the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) and project leader of NextGen Cassava, stated in his speech that cassava is a gendered crop that is traditionally grown and processed by women for consumption, and that it has the potential to increase women's income. The NextGen Cassava project is a breeding project that aims to empower both female and male farmers and processors by using innovative and sustainable cassava breeding methods. To address the issue of gender preferences, the NextGen Cassava project created Smarter Cassava Breeding, an initiative that makes use of market intelligence tools to better understand farmer preferences. Egesi also emphasized that the diversity of disciplinary expertise beyond breeding is key to the development, release, and deployment of the best varieties that have the potential to transform Africa's agricultural food landscape.Peter Kulakow, IITA cassava breeder, commended that Gender Responsive Breeding has become a key priority to IITA. He recalled his first experiences with the organization in 2009, when he noticed that the cassava breeding field days were male dominated. This prompted the need to create more gender-balanced settings during their field days, and he testified that this was changed to a more balanced setting through various pathways taken including the involvement of local extension agencies. In part of his speech, he stated that the cassava breeding team realized that those who receive information about their new technologies or varieties, as well as those who provided input that guides them in the development of new technologies, influence the success of the product. This brings gender responsive breeding into the equation, as it ultimately focuses on the diversity of groups of people, taking into account their roles in farming, agriculture, processing, and consumption of the product. He believes that this is significant because it allows breeders to reach out to traditionally marginalized groups in society, and in turn results in the production of varieties that are favoured by such groups.Steven Cole, IITA-Gender Science Lead based in Tanzania, emphasised the importance of gender inclusion in breeding, biophysical sciences, and other agricultural research fields. He first highlighted the importance to morally commit towards goals of gender equality, women's empowerment, and empowerment in general. Incorporating gender has the added benefit of getting existing products off the shelf and reaching more people along the product value chains. This has enabled a better targeting of different groups of people from different market segments. Another advantage of incorporating gender into breeding is that new products can be better designed as they are tested and refined to benefit more seed multipliers, producers, farmers, and others. In a nutshell, breeding initiatives will be able to release varieties that meet the needs of different groups of people, resulting in greater benefits for all. The final benefit of incorporating gender into breeding is that new products will be disseminated or promoted alongside social change innovations or different types of approaches, empowering more people, and transforming unequal power relations, discriminatory structures, or social norms. He concluded by wishing the group a productive training session over the following three days and thanked the training team for organizing it.To officially begin the training activities, participants were given three flash cards that would be used to state and voice their expectations, likes, and dislikes about the agenda of the training. They were thus given one yellow flashcard to write out their expectations for the training, one blue flashcard to specify their likes about gender research in breeding, and one pink flashcard to specify their dislikes about gender research in breeding. After filling out their expectations, likes, and dislikes on the cards, participants were asked to trade them with the person seated to their right. This person would then introduce and read out the written expectations for the person they exchanged cards with. The responses read out by participants are summarized in Box 1 and 2.• To gain understanding of practical application of gender integration in breeding.• To understand gender and how it relates to breeding.• Gain an understanding on the collection and analysis of data on gender in plant breeding.• To learn techniques or approaches on how to integrate gender into a breeding program.• Gain an understanding on how gender can impact breeding activities.• To learn more about the modifications that should be made or implemented for parties who are already including gender into their breeding operations.• To further improve on approaches currently being used in gender involvement in breeding.• To identify the role of gender in yam breeding and getting clarity of when or at what stage in breeding gender should be involved.• Understand how to integrate gender into the entire breeding value chain.• To identify crucial crop traits for gender responsive breeding.• To have an in-depth understanding of gender concepts in relation to plant breeding.• To have a clear explanation of the basic terms used in gender responsive breeding, and their implications on variety development and adoption.• To understand how to utilise large gender captured data for integration in product design.• Gain an understanding on the practicability of integrating gender into breeding research.• To gain an insight on how breeding initiatives can be made simpler through this training.• The improvement of adoption by both men and women. • Women performance in cowpea breeding.• The idea that gender research makes it an inclusive process and allows for better targeting of breeding processes. • The inclusivity involved in decisions such as traits and preferences. • The participatory evaluation of varieties.• High expenses that come with involving all stakeholders. Following the introductory phase, Millicent Liani, Martina Cavicchioli and Olamide Deborah Olaosebikan conducted a session to familiarize participants with gender-related concepts. This session was divided into two parts: one meant to introduce participants to gender concepts that usually inform approaches in agricultural research, and another on intersectionality, which involved a roleplay. This session was intended to provide participants with the opportunity to critically reflect on their place in society, to recognize the importance of addressing social inequalities in scientific research, and, finally, to recognize the importance of conducting a social impact assessment of an intervention.The first session slot included an interactive exercise that allowed participants to elaborate on visual and embodied interpretations of gender roles, concepts such as equality versus equity, and also voice out their thoughts on the concepts. They read out dialogue conversations on examples that explained the differences in how men and women perceive their different gender roles and how such situations result in gender inequalities. They were introduced to a variety of ideas and frameworks, including the distinction between gender and sex, approaches to gender integration, the Reach-Benefit-Empower-Transform (RBET) framework, and the \"traffic light\" showing the shift from gender exploitative, to sensitive, and finally to transformative approaches, to name a few. Some of the participants' questions focused on gender norms and stereotypes, as well as on how to transform existing cultural beliefs that contribute to gender inequality. Millicent Liani provided a few examples of transformative approaches to deal with such restrictive cultural norms. She mentioned conversations at the community level, as well as approaches such as household methodologies or gender action learning approaches. She explained that such tools and approaches can be used to unpack and synthesize the underlying harmful norms in order to try to change people's mindsets and behaviours.This session was facilitated by Martina Cavicchioli and Béla Teeken and was meant to build an understanding on why gender matters in market segmentation and product profiling and what questions help breeders make more informed choices towards a greater social impact: When are gender differentiated traits necessary? What is their impact? What are the trade-offs?The session began with a presentation about how gender affects value chain analysis, the social consequences of breeding decisions on value chain actors, and how to integrate breeders' efforts with other types of agricultural technologies. This presentation was followed by an interactive group exercise for crop teams with the following instructions:With this scenario, the various crop teams were expected to briefly present their proposals to \"donors\" -the remaining participants in the room -who were then expected to provide feedback on the proposal based on the expected social impact of the program and its feasibility. In these presentations, the teams were to: a) Describe the identified crop users' segment and present the reasons why they chose it. b) Outline the breeding objectives of their program as per the crop users' segment that was chosen. c) Highlight the product profile to achieve the programs' objectives, stressing out the opportunities and the trade-offs associated with its development.Different crop teams working on (above) and presenting (below) their proposals.The boxes below (3-8) briefly present the outcomes of each crop team's group work. This was a learning activity and the outcomes of this exercise were not supposed to be implemented.The cowpea team's proposal was to be developed in the West African region, specifically in the Guinea Savanah zone, which has rainfall ranging from 900mm to 1200mm. Their initiative is targeted to both women and male farmers, however certain roles are designated to certain genders -e.g. processing to be done by women.The main goal was to breed cowpea that is less time consuming and therefore requires less energy, specifically: (1) the plant architecture traits considered are those in which the pods are above the canopy, as this would make harvesting and insect management easier;(2) cooking time would be reduced and so require less energy.Feedback to the group: A commenter praised the traits that the group chose to improve, stating that they were a good choice, but the audience felt that there was a lack of alignment between the objective and the user segment.The plantain team's area of focus was Southern Nigeria, a region characterised by hot, humid forests with variable rainfall patterns that are sometimes high or medium. The main breeding objective was to develop plantain that is high yielding with improved shelf life for income stability and food security. The proposed user segments consisted of men, women, and youth. The processors would mostly be women whilst the consumers will be consisting of all the user segments. This endeavour was to address the short shelf life for consumers and processors, but they also hoped that other market groups' needs would be satisfied and that the new varieties would have a more favourable overall impact. This idea may result in nutritional content loss during storage.Farm gate processing will allow to address this trade-off.Feedback to the group: Overall, the group was commended for identifying the specific location of development for the variety. They were also commended for concentrating on a single idea to solve a specific problem: shelf-life expansion.The selected country was the Democratic Republic of Congo (Central Africa), which is located in a region characterised by high rainfall, with a hot and humid climate. The identified user segment was men, women, and youth (boys and girls) as they all play different roles to achieve the full cycle of work within the value chain.The objectives of the proposed initiative were to enhance nutritional value in the leaves, biofortification of the roots, disease resistance (specifically of cassava brown streak virus disease).They also aimed to improve productivity and have high yields and agronomic traits like weed suppression, long shelf life of the cassava root and more.Feedback to the group: The audience commended the group for presenting a balanced presentation on the development of the new cassava variety. The group was said to have covered a broad developmental initiative; however, this may also be a weakness as achieving all these objectives may be unrealistic.The proposed primary objective was to develop early maturing soybean varieties in the West African Region, which is characterized by hot and humid conditions and short rainy seasons. Other breeding goals included the development of a high-yielding, disease-resistant soybean variety with a high nutritional composition. This variety was intended for use in the production of oil, fortified flour, and soymilk. The values for the target product profile are indicated in the flipchart.Feedback to the group: The proposal was well received but criticized for the lack of clear definition of crop user segments, stating who these variety development initiatives were aimed at and why.This proposal aimed to develop a breed of nonsticking yams. Both men and women were targeted as crop user segments. The proposal was motivated by the high cost of yam sticking materials, the high labour requirements, and the scarcity of sticks to support the yam. As a result, in addition to the other goals, the development of non-sticking yams should address farmer income stability, increase food security, be less laborious, and, most importantly, reduce environmental degradation caused by farmers cutting down trees for sticking. With the development of such a variety, a trade-off could be a reduction in yield; however, they proposed using agronomic interventions, combined with the use of fertilizers, as well as targeting means and ways to develop disease resistant yams during the breeding procedures, in order to maintain high yields.Feedback to the group: The audience asked how the group planned to make the yams non-sticking and what else they might grip to if not the sticks. In addition, they received criticism for failing to specify their threshold in their product profile. Finally, they were questioned about how they planned to account for time and labour savings in their breeding pipeline.The aim of this proposal was to breed nutritious dense maize while combining high yield with climate change resilience for food security and household profile. This initiative's focus was proposed to be in West and Central Africa. Dry savannah characterizes the agroecological conditions. The group presented a well-structured and informative activity profile, stating that men, women, girls, and boys would be the most active and capable crop user segment. They specified the dates and times for planting, harvesting, and marketing, as well as the key players in each role.Because of its marketability and premium prices, the group proposed developing flint maize. They also considered storability to be an important characteristic for the new variety.Feedback to the group: Overall, the maize crop team received very positive feedback, with many people saying that their proposal was very convincing because they were able to analyse their value chains and show the roles each actor will be playing as well as the challenges associated with that. They were also praised for addressing the needs of both men and women throughout the process. The criticism they did receive was that the social groups they mentioned provided a simplistic view of the value chains.This session followed up on the morning session on gender concepts to introduce the one of \"intersectionality\" in a playful way. The trainees were invited to participate in a role play that allowed to resurface and be re-embed in their minds most of the concepts they had learned in the morning.For the role-play on intersectionality, called \"One step forward\" (Fischer et al. 2019), the facilitators asked 15 of the 24 participants to stand along a marked line. Each of the 15 participants was given a role that reflected the identity they would be portraying. These assigned roles were descriptive of various positions in society and lifestyles, creating an entirely new identity with different demographical information that would either privilege or disadvantage the participants. The newly assigned roles were to be kept a secret from the other participants. The facilitator would then read a scenario and invite participants with a specific identity trait to either step forward, move backwards or remain where they were standing. The rest of the group (9 trainees) were invited to sit and assess the dynamics going on during the role play as external observers. For both groups, this exercise provided first-hand knowledge of the various realities faced by farmers. It also provided insights into how factors other than gender can have a positive or negative impact on a person's position in society. Lastly, it allowed to reflect on how breeding initiatives can help to alleviate constrictive situations, as well as how targeting the correct user can help to alleviate the injustices faced by different farmers of different social groups.With this activity, participants realized that constraints such as gender, age, disabilities, and position within the society, to mention a few, contributed to some of the major failures amongst the farmers. The wealthier farmers, who were at positions of power or where related to those of high social strata, were at an advantage. In general, male farmers also had an added advantage in most described situations compared to the women. Overall, this activity provided participants with a foundation for understanding how aspects of a person's social and political identities interact to create different modes of discrimination or privilege. With this, participants gained a clear understanding of intersectionality and how it identifies multiple factors of advantage and disadvantage.The first day of training concluded with a discussion of the activity and clarification on some gender terms and concepts of those presented in the morning.Chosen participants for the role play standing by the starting line (left) and steps ahead of others, according to how favourable their chosen roles were (right).The second day started with a recap of the previous day's activities. This allowed the participants to go over what they had done the day before and review the gender concepts they had learned. They were also given the opportunity to express their difficulties with the crop user segmentation exercise from the first day, as well as to revise their understanding of intersectionality, and get some clarification.Following the feedback sessions, Béla Teeken, Olamide Deborah Olaosebikan, Bello Abolore, and Elizabeth Parkes led a session on gender-responsive tools and their application. This session allowed the participants to learn from the cassava engagement with users through participatory approaches and consider how to apply them to their own breeding program.To start off, the cassava gender team held presentations on different gender responsive approaches that have been implemented and sketched the trajectory from surveys to participatory approaches. They also pointed at participatory approaches as more suited to capture the large amount of tacit knowledge among cassava users compared to survey questionnaires. They also highlighted that participatory methods are more inclusive towards most knowledgeable crop users compared to other methods for which ability to communicate and dialogue is necessary (i.e. a mechanism excluding people with low levels of literacy or communication). These approaches identified and informed deeper understanding of specific agronomic, food product quality, and processing traits, the latter related to processes such as ease of peeling and toasting time. In order to investigate the external validity of breeding trials and measuring genetic gain in farmers' fields, the team adopted various interrelated approaches for proper social/gender segmentation: first, the implementation of the mother-baby trial (MBT) approach and then the scaled variant the Triadic Comparison of Technology (TRICOT) approach combined with the implementation of standard surveys based on the Poverty Probability Index (PPI), Rural Household Multi Indicator Survey (RHoMIS). The cassava team also presented the 1000 Minds Survey, an approach in which crop trait scenarios of equal economic value are compared with crop users. These approaches enable an in-depth documentation of the traits prioritized among crop users.To further explore on gender-responsive tools and their application, the cassava team led the participants into an activity whereby, based on their understanding of the presentations, they would write out what kind of approaches they liked and found suitable to their own breeding program and why. Tables 1 and 2 show the outcomes of this exercise.At the end of the session, trainees understood the rationale for adapting and incorporating any of these approaches into their respective breeding programs to make it inclusive and gender responsive. The team had no knowledge regarding the 1000 minds survey, thus they were not interested in adopting it. The PPI, RHoMIS and customised questionnaire were described as simple to use, able to provide useful information and suitable, respectively.The team preferred the RHoMIS method as it gave them a better understanding of the rural population in regards to food security and market access. The group also leaned towards the WEAI as it helped them understand gender roles and women's ability to access resources.The team was interested in adopting 4 out of 6 of these methodologies as they consider the economic weights for trait prioritization, determine the socioeconomic profile of the farmers, and give information on the farmers group. The methods that the team were not sure about adopting the WEAI and the HFIAS.The team indicated interest in surveys cutting across social groups, such as RHoMIS. The customised questionnaire provides primary information and WEAI provides good feedback from women in agriculture. Not interested in PPI because it requires background in socioeconomics.The team was not interested in PPI as they had little information about it. They indicated interest in RHoMIS as it works with target households. Interested in adopting the WEAI because it measures the levels of involvement of women.PPI, RHoMIS and WEAI approaches were viewed to consider the social qualifications and to adopt an intersectional approach. 1000 minds approach helps understanding the different traits prioritized by the end users and in coming up with the economic weights. Interested in almost all the methods and varieties except for the mother baby trial because of its oldfashioned nature. They were interested in the TRICOT approach for its inclusiveness.The goal of this session was to assess what the various breeding teams were currently doing in terms of getting feedback from crop users (mainly through participatory approaches) and to discuss what they can do to be more gender-responsive and end-user focused.Some days before the start of the training, the participants had been requested by the organizing team to prepare and give a short presentation on participatory approaches currently in use in their respective breeding programs. A representative from each of the six crop teams gave a short input during this plenary session. Each crop team discussed what they were currently doing and implementing, as well as their ambitions, challenges, constraints, when and how they engage farmers/processors/consumers for evaluations. The presentations were also inclusive of what kind of evaluations are done and when: points of inclusion of participants, types of data collected, how data is analysed and stored, and how it is combined with technical breeding data, challenges, ambitions, constrains and discussions.Participant presenting the current practices they are implementing.One of the six presentations was given by the cowpea group, who stated that the current methods they use for evaluating advanced breeding lines include the Multi location Trial (MLT), New Plant Type (NPT), farmers' Participatory Varietal Selection trials (PVS), \"seeing-is-believing\" variety testing, and on-farm TRICOT. The group also discussed the methods they used to obtain feedback from end-users and explained that with the feedback provided, it can be difficult for participants to express their true opinions due to external factors such as their leaders, husbands, and parents, among others. To alleviate difficulties, cowpea research teams stated that they usually consider communicating with representative farmers who assist them in bringing an equal number of male and female participants to eliminate bias. Also, due to cultural norms that are restrictive to women, it is sometimes necessary to separate men and women during conversations and interviews to allow both genders to be free and expressive.During the course of the presentations by the groups, the issue of respondents appreciation in the form of cash/kind and giving and sharing the results of the study with the respondents was raised as the plantain crop team mentioned that it is difficult to get participants to evaluate the crop: participants ask often for their benefits for such involvement, while researchers seldom give feedback of the results of study conducted, an attitude undermining credibility and the possibility to build trust with the local communities.With regards to the first point, it was cleared that, as it is important to appreciate respondents' time, it is out of place to use cash for compensation of participants' involvement in any activity, as this may affect or influence results given by the participants. The use of gifts that respondents may need was proposed as more appropriate. Agricultural extension staff could help facilitating this process and so the relationships between the researchers and the communities.As for the second point, it was underlined the importance to give feedback to participants within the communities where research has been conducted. This gives sense of respect to the participants, as well as a sense of belonging, as they will see themselves as part of research and will be more willing to participate in the future. This will help build trust between researcher and respondents. On that note, it was agreed that compensations in the form of gifts should not replace the need to share the results with the respondents.The G+ tools are intended to help plant breeders and social scientists collaborate so that programs incorporate gender issues from breeding implementation to impact assessment. In this session, the facilitators informed the participants on the issue of anticipating trade-offs and how to deal with them by introducing them to a role-play group exercise using the G+ tool.The exercise revolved around trait prioritisation with crop users using frequencies of traits mentioned or ranking of traits with crop users. Crop teams played the role of men and women crop users and were to provide 3 ranked pre-harvest and 3 ranked post-harvest traits. The possibility of ranking with the crop users as well as basing rank on the frequencies with which traits were mentioned by crop users were highlighted. Which method to choose depends on how crop users are confidently able to rank traits. The cassava experience was that often people were not able to rank as they stated all traits were equally important and often related, so the frequency count was used. This exercise was based on the RTB foods methodology as presented (Forsythe et al., 2021). After the ranking exercise, the crop teams were now asked to evaluate one pre-harvest and one post-harvest trait for social impact with regards to gendered benefits or possible harmful unintended consequences. Here they used the G+ product profile query tool. Participants evaluated the two chosen traits by responding to the possible positive effects questions (positive/negative) and the possible negative effects questions for proper understanding of impact (social/economic) that inclusion of certain traits in the breeding program may have on the value chain actors. Breeders in attendance found the prioritization and G+ tools exercise important to incorporate into breeding program. The day ended on a reflective note of the topics and the activities that had been discussed during the day.Day three -23 September 2022Day 3 started with presentation of each crop team on the assessment of traits using the positive benefit and do no harm questions from the group exercise on the G+ tool proposed in day 2. Most traits assessed had more positive benefits and very few do no harm.In a summary of the trait ranking exercise, the six crop teams identified three important agronomic traits specific to their crop, as well as three important post-harvest traits. The traits were ranked by importance for women and men, and the results revealed that generally women preferred quality traits such as texture, whereas men preferred traits that were likely to generate more income, such as higher yields.The G+ tool activity came after the trait ranking exercise. The G+ tool is thus a method for directing data collection in order to prioritize traits in product profiles by taking into account both the traits' potential positive and negative gender-related effects. Crop teams chose one agronomic trait and one post-harvest trait to access in the following exercise. Drudgery reduction, the impact on women's paid employment, quality and quantity improvements, and both men and women's valuations were addressed to assess the potential positive and negative effects of the chosen traits on both genders.In a nutshell, the results showed that most of the traits chosen by the various teams, such as reduced cooking time, improved textures, seed quality, and taste, had positive effects such as reduced drudgery or increased market value, whereas others, such as increased yields for crops like maize, required more management and workforce, increasing drudgery but positively impacting output levels and income. Such results varied according to crop. For instance, while increased yield would require more manpower for a crop like maize, for crops like yam, with higher yields, drudgery would be reduced significantly because a smaller area would produce higher output. As with yam in areas where it is regarded as a king crop and dominated by men, land is insufficient and fragmented, so higher yield would benefit women with limited farmland, as many large roots can be harvested from a single stand of yam. Various results were generated for all crop teams, which assisted the teams in assessing the pros and cons that could result from their chosen traits, as well as how and why it would benefit both genders.After a short follow-up on the G+ Tool exercise proposed in day 2, the first session of the day addressed the topic of transdisciplinary management in product advancement. Béla Teeken started with a presentation on the importance of team composition, and how such composition determines what knowledge is generated. This presentation was followed up by one by Gaby Mbanjo that focused on transdisciplinary breeding product management based on the example of the cassava team.The objective of this session was to raise consciousness about breeding as a transdisciplinary process where product profiles and product advancement are to be determined by the input from a transdisciplinary team consisting of the technical breeding team, food scientist, market specialist, agronomist, pathologists, social/gender scientists and market specialist. This is also a condition that allows good gender integration into breeding. The presentations provided examples on how to achieve such a transdisciplinary organisation of breeding by highlighting the need to determine roles, responsibilities, and decision-making rights for each of the members of this transdisciplinary team. A similar presentation was given to the Excellence in Breeding platform and can be viewed here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8Sfevy3eq0&t=262s.After the presentation, the crop teams were engaged in an exercise in which they had to map all the experts needed at each stage of the breeding process and to determine what kind of decision right they would have, as per the RAPID model (Recommend, Agree, Perform, Inform, Decide). The outcome (Table 3, p. 27) illustrated that next to different scientific experts, also crop user representatives would have a role in product advancement meetings and the breeding process in general. The group stated that for maize, the first two stages, which are product design and trait discovery, are merged into one stage. • Increasing the involvement of women from the beginning to capture their demands in the new breeds and towards the end during the on-farm trials, to ensure that they are involved fully.• Enactment of a quota in the area of seed systems that is expressly intended to benefit women and young people.The training ended on a reflective note for the participants, who were asked to evaluate the training. Among the many responses, some of the recurring suggestions on how the training could be improved included increasing the interactive activities, while many others suggested increasing the training length. Participants were also asked about their main takeaways from the training. Many of them testified about their newly acquired knowledge on gender concepts and approaches, as well as their realization of the importance of gender in crop breeding and how gender can be integrated into plant breeding initiatives. There was also an elevated request coming from the trainees for a follow-up, associated with the need of greater support from the gender experts in guiding and help in activity implementation, especially with regards to some concepts and tools introduced during the training. This request was taken in charge by the training organizers and readdressed during follow-up virtual chats with each crop team some weeks after the training, to monitor how specific learnings will be integrated and implemented. Table 5 is indicative of the responses from the participants' perceptions of the entire training.  ","tokenCount":"6107"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7f8e6848c715fd19382dbe57b0f63cba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eedd73c1-6f9d-4d16-a924-73abc0919a6a/retrieve","id":"233546016"},"keywords":["Pour plus d'informations","contacter Annie Lane","Bioversity International"],"sieverID":"ba4762f5-ab7a-4ea2-8379-629dfbb8f9dd","pagecount":"28","content":"Fruit de la passion, Bolivie. Les parents sauvages constituent une source précieuse de diversité et ils peuvent être utilisés pour faciliter l'adaptation des cultures à l'évolution des conditions environnementales et des besoins humains. A. Lane/Bioversity International La culture des noix figure parmi les cultures cibles du projet PNUE/FEM-Bioversity International pour la conservation des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées. A. Lane/Bioversity International Visiteurs du parc d'information du Ministère de l'agriculture du Sri Lanka guidés à travers une série d'espaces didactiques incluant des champs de légumes, des potagers, la banque nationale de gènes et un musée de l'agriculture.A. WijesekaraEntrée du parc d'information sur l'agriculture du Sri Lanka.Cette publication a été réalisée avec le soutien du projet du PNUE/FEM « Conservation in situ des parents sauvages des plantes cultivées grâce à une meilleure gestion de l'information et à des applications sur le terrain. » Les espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées comprennent les ancêtres des plantes cultivées ainsi que d'autres espèces plus ou moins proches. Elles constituent une source stratégique de gènes de résistance aux maladies, aux ravageurs et aux stress tels que la sécheresse et les températures extrêmes. L'utilisation de parents sauvages a permis d'améliorer la résistance au phytopte de l'enroulement du blé, au mildiou de la pomme de terre et au virus du rabougrissement herbacé du riz. Ils ont également été utilisés pour accroître la tolérance du blé à la sécheresse et du riz aux sols sulfatés acides ou encore pour augmenter la valeur nutritionnelle de certaines cultures, notamment la teneur en protéines pour le blé dur, en calcium pour les pommes de terre et en provitamine A pour les tomates.La protection des espèces sauvages apparentées contribue à maintenir une diversité génétique appropriée dans le pool génétique d'une culture donnée. L'uniformisation génétique croissante des variétés cultivées, combinée aux effets du changement climatique, rend les cultures plus vulnérables aux stress. Aux États-Unis, les pertes catastrophiques subies par les cultures de maïs à la suite de l'épidémie d'helminthosporiose des années 1970 ont mis en évidence le risque réel d'une dépendance vis-àvis d'un petit nombre de variétés à haut rendement. Bien que les États-Unis assurent environ la moitié de la production mondiale du maïs, cette production repose ainsi sur moins de 5 % de la diversité disponible sur l'ensemble du globe.Les espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées sont des outils précieux pour adapter les espèces cultivées à l'évolution des conditions environnementales et des besoins humains, mais les populations naturelles de ces espèces sauvages sont de plus en plus menacées en raison de leur surexploitation et de la destruction de leur habitat. Un projet international a été lancé en 2004 en réponse à ces risques. Ce projet, financé par le Fonds pour l'environnement mondial et mis en oeuvre par le Programme des Nations Unies, réunit des partenaires de cinq pays (Arménie, Bolivie, Madagascar, Sri Lanka et Ouzbékistan) qui possèdent un grand nombre d'espèces sauvages apparentées importantes et menacées. Pour plus d'informations sur ce projet, reportez-vous à la présentation en page 2.Cette section spéciale de Geneflow est parrainée par le projet « Conservation in situ des parents sauvages des plantes cultivées », dans le cadre de ses activités de sensibilisation.À mesure que les connaissances sur les espèces sauvages apparentées aux espèces cultivées augmenteront, les sélectionneurs s'y intéresseront de plus en plus afin de trouver des solutions à un grand nombre de problèmes non résolus liés aux maladies des plantes. La rouille noire, détectée sur le blé en Ouganda en 1999 et baptisée Ug99, compte parmi ces menaces. Cet agent pathogène s'est depuis répandu dans l'ensemble de l'Afrique de l'Est, où il entraîne des chutes de rendements grainiers pouvant atteindre 71 %. Si elle n'est pas maîtrisée rapidement, la souche Ug99 pourrait entraîner une épidémie mondiale au cours des 15 prochaines années. La conservation et l'utilisation des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées pourraient jouer un rôle clé dans la lutte contre Ug99 et contre les autres fléaux qui menacent l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire.Le projet « Conservation in situ des parents sauvages des plantes cultivées », qui réunit cinq pays (Arménie, Bolivie, Madagascar, Sri Lanka et Ouzbékistan), a pour objectif de protéger les populations naturelles d'espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées en créant, en matière de conservation, un précédent susceptible d'être suivi par le reste du monde. Ces pays abritent certains des foyers mondiaux de diversité, zones particulièrement exposées au risque de perte de diversité.Les espèces sauvages apparentées sont essentielles pour adapter les espèces cultivées à l'évolution des conditions environnementales et des besoins humains. Pourtant, de nombreuses populations naturelles de ces espèces hautement compatibles sont de plus en plus menacées en raison du changement climatique, de leur surexploitation et de la destruction de leur habitat. Le projet quinquennal, financé par le Fonds pour l'environnement mondial et mis en oeuvre par le Programme des Nations Unies pour l'environnement, encourage une conservation in situ efficace des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées afin de garantir leur disponibilité dans le cadre de l'accroissement de la sécurité alimentaire mondiale. Chacun des cinq pays participant au projet présente une diversité remarquable et unique d'espèces sauvages apparentées, qui ont, pour un grand nombre d'entre elles, fourni des gènes d'une importance capitale pour l'amélioration des espèces cultivées dans les pays développés et en développement.Bien que la plupart des pays partenaires aient défini la conservation des espèces sauvages apparentées aux plantes cultivées comme une priorité nationale stratégique, les ressources qu'ils pouvaient investir dans les programmes de conservation étaient limitées.Le projet vise trois grands objectifs :• Développer les systèmes d'information nationaux et internationaux sur les espèces sauvages apparentées aux espèces cultivées, avec des données sur la biologie, l'écologie, l'état de conservation, la répartition, le potentiel de rendement des cultures, les utilisations, les mesures de conservation actuelles ou encore les sources d'information existantes.  Pour plus d'informations, contacter Åsmund Asdal, Institut norvégien de recherche sur les plantes cultivées [email protected] production commerciale de Rhodiola integrifolia, espèce sauvage utilisée pour lutter contre la dépression, a commencé en Norvège et en Finlande. Nous n'avons pas changé de nom pour le simple plaisir. Notre organisme a évolué au fil des ans et l'ancienne dénomination, « Institut International des ressources phytogénétiques », si respectable soit-elle, ne reflète plus adéquatement notre travail.Nous sommes un organisme de recherche dédié à la conservation et à l'utilisation de la biodiversité, mais nos activités ne se limitent pas aux ressources phytogénétiques. Nous travaillons avec nos collaborateurs de recherche afin de conserver tous les types de biodiversité, aussi bien les ressources génétiques animales, aquatiques que microbiennes.Notre recherche ne se limite pas aux ressources génétiques et à la génétique. Elle est tournée vers l'homme, qui est au centre de tout ce que nous faisons.Nous n'évaluons pas notre succès en calculant le nombre de variétés et d'espèces conservées dans des banques de gènes. Nous le mesurons en termes de bénéfices tangibles que nos recherches apportent aux populations dans le monde, notamment à celles des pays en développement qui vivent dans la pauvreté et la faim. Nous travaillons avec un réseau international de partenaires afin de conserver la biodiversité et de l'exploiter en vue d'assurer des conditions de vie plus dignes et durables aux populations pauvres, de fournir une meilleure alimentation à ceux qui ont faim et de protéger les écosystèmes menacés.Afin de mieux refléter la portée et la nature de notre travail, nous avons donc adopté un nouveau nom : « Bioversity International ».Non seulement nous avons choisi un nouveau nom, mais nous avons créé un nouveau mot. Nous pensons que « Bioversity » évoque une constellation d'idées qui associent la biodiversité à d'autres concepts, qui sont au coeur de notre travail. Le nom suggère « univers » et « universalité », ce qui évoque l'immensité du monde naturel et notre conviction de travailler ensemble pour le bien commun de l'humanité. Par ailleurs, notre nouveau nom renvoie à « université ». Comme une université, notre organisation est « collégiale », s'appuyant sur la collaboration de groupes divers dont l'expérience dans différentes disciplines et dans la recherche est une composante importante.Vous lirez souvent « Bioversity » parce que c'est plus court, mais nous avons conservé « International » dans notre nom officiel. Ce n'est pas uniquement parce que nos activités s'exercent dans le monde entier et que nos membres, donateurs et partenaires de recherche viennent de nombreux pays, mais parce que nous voulons que nos recherches participent aux efforts internationaux visant à établir des politiques et des plans d'action pour la conservation et l'utilisation durable de la biodiversité agricole.Nous vous invitons dans le monde de Bioversity International.Nouvelle dénomination de notre organisme : Bioversity International (Bioversity, en bref)","tokenCount":"1427"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5f3e98b8404d0d9fd6bafae06f7a9e2c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/76db1eb0-a179-4945-a495-3898d02d012f/retrieve","id":"172566020"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bf62f431-0186-4af0-9f1e-fa3cdf9f83d1","pagecount":"50","content":"The publications in this series record the work and thinking of IWMI researchers, and knowledge that the Institute's scientific management feels is worthy of documenting. This series will ensure that scientific data and other information gathered or prepared as a part of the research work of the Institute are recorded and referenced. Working Papers could include project reports, case studies, conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research reports, monographs, etc. Working Papers may be copublished, by IWMI and partner organizations.Although most of the reports are published by IWMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally by IWMI staff. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically (www.iwmi.org) and where possible all data and analyses will be available as separate downloadable files. Reports may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment.IWMI's mission is to improve the management of land and water resources for food, livelihoods and the environment. In serving this mission, IWMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and land and water resources.This paper provides information on the current status of the agricultural extension systems in Central Asia (CA), with special reference to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The report reviews the existing extension strategies, donor-and state-driven initiatives to revitalize the agricultural extension systems, informal linkages that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) play in helping a limited number of farmers, and recommendations on ways to further improve the agricultural extension services in CA. The information related to each country was analyzed separately. This is because, after independence, each republic in CA had initiated their agricultural reforms with specific objectives, and have now established their unique agricultural systems that differ contextually. However, due to having the same history and agricultural system that existed during the Soviet times, these republics have many things in common. This paper (a) starts with a discussion of the modern definitions of the agricultural extension system to set the stage for the analysis framework (to establish a prism through which the existing extension systems within CA can be evaluated); (b) gives a historical perspective to the unified agricultural extension system; and (c) discusses the current status of the agricultural extension system. The report also reviews the current institutional set up and related policies that directly affect the existing agricultural extension systems, and identifies the limitations that need to be overcome in order to make improvements to these agricultural extension systems in these countries. The study shows that:• since independence, countries in CA have undergone an economic transition from being centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems, and this did not include the creation of agricultural extension systems;• except for some donor activities that were carried out to promote agricultural extension systems in CA, the initiatives were often not coordinated or consolidated;• the needs of the three countries in CA (considered in this study) for having improved agricultural extension systems are not similar, but are urgent. There is a clear need that formal extension systems should be revitalized, and the key role in achieving this should be played by the state as mediator, supporter and facilitator;• countries in CA have no national policy framework on the development of agricultural extension systems, which could ensure political and financial commitment from the government and other stakeholders; and• In order to enhance agricultural extension systems, a national policy framework needs to be developed. This framework needs to indicate the priorities of national agricultural development and a viable organizational structure for implementation of these policies.The framework should also include the mechanism of farmers' involvement to increase their motivation and interest.Agriculture is at the forefront of the development objectives of the republics of CA, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Since independence in 1991, these three countries have undergone transitions from being centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems. These three countries -that were under the single agricultural policy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) at one time and had a combined population of 37 million people (Kyrgyzstan -5 million, Tajikistan -7 million and Uzbekistan -25 million) -went through tremendous, heterogeneous agricultural transformations and experienced varying degrees of economic growth.These countries of CA have some of the largest irrigation schemes in the world, which were constructed during the 1960s. The average rainfall in these countries is 200-600 millimeters (mm) and evapotranspiration rates exceed 1,000 mm, which indicates that additional irrigation is necessary for sustainable crop production. Agriculture provides 20-40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) of these countries, with more than 22 million people directly or indirectly depending on irrigated agriculture (World Bank 2003).Land reform and farm restructuring was a major component of the transition plan of each country. An extension service of old Soviet systems was incorporated within the former kolkhoz (a collective farm of the former USSR) system and supported through the centralized state. The farm had its own agronomists, veterinary experts, construction specialists, mechanical engineers, economists and irrigation engineers. Farmers were bound to follow pre-defined government instructions. The higher education system (universities and subjective technical universities) used to produce higher-level specialists (irrigation engineers, agronomists, biologists, mechanical engineers, etc.). Middle-level professionals were produced by Technicums (technical schools) and Uchilishe (vocational institutes). The ministries of Agriculture, and Melioration and Water Resources were having their own specialized design and research institutes to deal with the different aspects of agriculture and irrigation. During the vegetation (weeding) and harvest (cotton picking) periods, all the students were sent to the rural areas to help collective and state farms with routine agricultural work as well as to gain some practical life experience. The complete agricultural production system was designed to spend tremendous amounts of money on largescale production and higher-scale outputs.Post-independence (from the Soviet Union) reforms in the agricultural sector in CA varied from country to country:• In Kyrgyzstan, fragmented and small sizes of lands were under private ownership and they had the freedom to grow crops;• In Uzbekistan, farming units were under long-term land lease (ownership) agreements, but the state had a quota system for the cultivation of the main crops (wheat and cotton) and fixed prices for these crops remained;• In Tajikistan, some big collective and cooperative farms remained under private ownership.Although there was no official state quota, farmers were tied down with debts from old dismantled farms and were dependent on futurist companies, which influenced farmers' thinking on cropping patterns.Nevertheless, every state had one similar problem. Before the reforms, as mentioned above, each kolkhoz 1 or sovkhoz 2 had its own specialists (agronomists, hydrotechnicians and head of the kolkhoz) with specialized training in agricultural education to manage the complete agricultural process within these big farms. After the reforms, each individual farmer was responsible for managing their piece of land without any special people in the background. In addition, there are other issues related to extension:• Detachment of research from practice.• Lack of state support for extension.• Farmers had no accessibility to donor-driven extension services due to high costs and lack of awareness.• Findings indicate the requirement of knowledge for 'new' farmers.Agricultural extension in the countries in CA remains a challenge (Qamar 2002;KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide 2008;EBRD 2008;Nazarov 2008). The creation of suitable extension advisory services in CA was not on the agenda of the agricultural reforms. The focus of the reforms was on the privatization of state collective farms (in Kyrgyzstan, partially in Tajikistan, and long lease periods in Uzbekistan) and the distribution of land amongst the public and hundreds of thousands of private farmers (semi-private in Tajikistan and state-owned but long-leased in Uzbekistan). The newly emerged farmers have different backgrounds (school teachers, doctors, police officers, etc.), have limited knowledge of profitable farming and are in desperate need of technical advice. They also need assistance in agrotechnical measures, marketing, inputs, irrigation, etc. The extension advisory services comprise mostly of those persons who worked as specialists on state farms or elsewhere in very narrow agricultural disciplines without any comprehensive knowledge of farm management. The only extension advisory services that exist at present are those supported by donors and based on projects. These are mostly private companies who are more interested in establishing expensive advisory units rather than helping poor farmers in the rural areas. As a result, agricultural productivity is declining.During this study, the technical, discussion and country reports gathered from different sources (the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Bank, national organizations and other agencies working in this field) are reviewed. We have also analyzed the impact of rural development and strengthening of extension services in the late 1970s and 1980s (led by the World Bank (WB), FAO, Asian Development Bank (ADB)) on agricultural sustainability in the developing regions of Asia and Africa. Based on this analysis, this paper draws conclusions and makes recommendations that will help to improve the current agricultural extension systems in CA.1 Kolkhoz -\"… a cooperative agricultural enterprise operated on state-owned land by peasants from a number of households who belonged to the collective and who were paid as salaried employees on the basis of quality and quantity of labor contributed.\" (Source: www. britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321400/kolkhoz).2 Sovkhoz -\"state-operated agricultural estate…, titled as Soviet farm…, organized according to industrial principles for specialized large-scale production. Workers were paid wages but might also cultivate personal garden plots. Its form developed from the few private estates taken over in their entirety by the state in the original Soviet expropriations.\" (Source: www.britannica.com/EBchecked/ topic/557139/sovkhoz).There is no single definition of 'agricultural extension' which is universally accepted or which is applicable to all situations. The general concept of extension is a function of providing the required and demand-based knowledge and skills for rural men, women and youth in a non-formal, participatory manner with the objective of enhancing their capacity to undertake farming operations to improve productivity and quality of life (Qamar 2002). Extension is concerned not just with physical and economic achievements but also with the development of the rural people themselves. This involves helping farmers in developing abilities to direct their own future development (Ameur 1994;Axinn and Thorat 1972;Swanson et al. 1990;Umali and Schwartz 1994;Rivera and Alex 2004;Neuchâtel Group 2002).Over time, agricultural extension has become one of the available means to help alleviate poverty and improve food security, by promoting the transfer and exchange of information that can be converted into functional knowledge to develop enterprises for promoting productivity and generating income (Rivera and Alex 2004). Agricultural information systems for rural development are aimed at linking people and institutions to promote better sharing of agriculture-related technologies and knowledge. According to FAO/WB (Qamar 2002), the system integrates farmers, agricultural educators, researchers and extension workers in order to enable them to harness knowledge and information from various sources to improve livelihoods.Traditionally, agricultural extension has referred to the work of a professional body of agricultural experts (often government employees), teaching improved methods of farming, demonstrating innovations, and helping farmers to organize and solve their problems. Extension has also served as a link between farmers to transfer the 'best practices' of one farmer to another, and as a channel to introduce -and sometimes enforce -agricultural policies. Agricultural extension presently encompasses a wide range of activities (in the public, private, nonprofit and nongovernmental sectors), but the exchange of information continues to be the primary focus of extension activities (Umali and Schwartz 1994).The ultimate goal of agricultural extension is to increase the agricultural productivity of farmers, especially small-scale farmers. This involves technological modifications at the farm level and this depends on its impact on development and dissemination of improved technologies, and involves sociocultural and behavioral adjustments (Axinn and Thorat 1972;Ameur 1994;Swanson et al. 1990;Rivera and Schram 1987;Umali and Schwartz 1994). All these changes can only be institutionally possible through well-established links between the state, research, extension and private organizations (or NGOs).Agricultural extension placed in the middle of the huge network of inputs, information and services is often highly inconsistent, particularly in more remote areas, especially in developing countries. Three out of four farmers in Asia have no contact with extension services (Maalouf et al. 1991). Therefore, the main task of the extension services, if organized properly, is to bring together and develop that network. However, the key role of extension services is to link research with farmers in a continuous way. Although it is not the job of extension services to provide inputs (such as fertilizers, seeds and machinery) and services (veterinary and irrigation water), they must make providers of such goods and services aware of farmers' needs and to ensure that these services are provided properly -advocacy and information function.There is a wide range of suppliers of agricultural extension services: the public sector (represented by ministries/departments of agriculture), NGOs, non-profit organizations (e.g., universities and commodity foundations), international research centers and the private sector. The private sector may include: (i) farmer associations whose membership is organized by locality or commodity; (ii) private production and marketing firms such as input manufacturers and distributors, agro-marketing and processing firms, and trade associations; and (iii) private consulting and media companies (publishing and telecommunication firms). Figure 1 shows the results of the worldwide survey that FAO conducted in 113 countries in 1989 (Swanson et al. 1990). The survey confirms the highly dominant role of the public sector in providing agricultural extension services. Approximately 81% of the extension work around the world is carried out through the Ministry of Agriculture or Department of Agriculture, at the national, state or provincial levels. Globally, some 600,000 extension workers are engaged in the provision of agricultural information to farmers (Maalouf et al. 1991;Swanson et al. 1990), of which 95% is carried out by public extension services (Rivera and Cary 1997). Several lessons can be learned from the reviews on the nature and extent of institutional participation in the delivery of extension services across countries. First, private sector extension is generally confined to commercially produced, often high-value commodities. A large bias towards catering to the specialized needs of medium-to large-scale farms also exists. Second, smallholders, if organized into associations, however, can be strong customers as well. Third, fiscal constraints are a pervasive problem in both developed and developing countries. Thus, strategies for (i) streamlining and cost recovery measures, and (ii) promoting the development of private sector extension services, are often necessary and unavoidable. This, however, does not necessarily imply the need for public delivery, because subcontracting to the private sector is also an option. Lastly, considering the limitations of the public sector and the selectiveness of the private sector, the participation of other institutions such as non-profit organizations and NGOs in delivering agricultural extension services will be crucial.Figure 2 presents the key actors that are involved in agricultural extension services and the channels of delivery (Umali and Schwartz 1994). This generic scheme of major actors involved in agricultural extension is taken as the basis for assessment of the existing strategies in countries in CA: Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Interrelational analysis between the actors was beyond the scope of this report. Three case studies are presented separately with special reference to their historical background on extension systems during the Soviet period. The Soviet Union had an enormous agricultural research and extension system. The major agriculture-related research institutes were part of the USSR's Ministry of Agriculture under the Agro-Industrial Committee -a governing body of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences (referred to as VASKhNIL after V. I. Lenin). The research themes covered various aspects of the agricultural production process -plant science, genetic engineering, soil science, irrigation (Morgounov and Zuidema 2001;Pray and Anderson 1997). Regional institutes with a zonal mandate had extension services built in.In 1929, a number of elite agricultural research institutes were merged into VASKhNIL. In the Soviet era, development of agricultural science reflected societal development. Since society was highly politicized by the Communist Party, the science was politicized as well. VASKhNIL had a dual role in the Soviet agricultural research system. It was both an association of institutes and an association of scientists. Its structure, and that of agricultural research itself, was marked by a constant flux. Over time, however, two distinct organizational patterns emerged. The first pattern, which dominated in the 1960s, was VASKhNIL as a union of a few specialized institutes, with a significant amount of agricultural research being conducted by institutes under the Ministry of Agriculture, outside VASKhNIL's management. The second pattern shows VASKhNIL as a giant organization managing almost all the agricultural research in the USSR with a complex structure of departments and regional branches (see Figure 3). Regional institutes with a zonal mandate had extension services built in. For example, the CA regional branch of VASKhNIL was based in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.Extension services at farm level were incorporated within the former kolkhoz system and supported by the centralized state. This was a large-scale production system that helped to increase crop yields. The farm had its own agronomists, veterinary experts, construction specialists, mechanical engineers, economists and irrigation engineers. The farmers were just left to follow their pre-defined instructions. The higher education system (universities and subjective technical universities) used to produce five-year higher-level specialists (irrigation engineers, agronomists, biologists, mechanical engineers, etc.), while specialized educational institutes such as Technicums (technical schools) and Uchilishe (vocational schools) produced middle-level professionals.The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Melioration and Water Resources, which were two separate sectors at that time, had its own specialized design and research institutes which dealt with different aspects of agriculture and irrigation. During vegetation (weeding) and harvesting (cotton picking) periods, all students were sent to villages to help collective and state farms with routine agricultural work and to gain some practical field experience. The Soviet research and extension system proved successful to organize large-scale production systems and increase crop yields. A comparison of the yields obtained from the main crops between 1961 and 1990 are given in Table 1. While wheat yields almost doubled during this period, other crops also recorded significant increases in yields. However, some argue that these yield increases were more related to the increased use of fertilizers and farm machinery rather than research and extension services (Pray and Anderson 1997). During the Soviet era, the agriculture industry was developed along with an administrative bureaucratic structure, and an economic policy was defined on a short-and long-term basis. Extension services followed a commodity approach where efforts were concentrated on the technical, administrative and commercial requirements of different crops. Development of the agricultural industry and extension/advisory service systems during the Soviet era in CA (former Turkestan Autonomous Republic) can be divided into six stages:• First stage (1917)(1918)(1919)(1920)(1921)(1922)(1923)(1924)(1925)(1926)(1927) • Second stage (1928)(1929)(1930)(1931)(1932) • Third stage (1933)(1934)(1935)(1936)(1937)(1938)(1939)(1940)(1941) • Fourth stage (1942)(1943)(1944)(1945) • Fifth stage (1946)(1947)(1948)(1949)(1950)(1951)(1952)(1953)(1954)(1955)(1956)(1957)(1958)(1959)(1960)(1961) • Sixth stage  First Stage (1917Stage ( -1927) ) During this period, the government took actions to nationalize the agricultural lands and irrigation facilities. During the process, agricultural lands were taken from big wealthy farmers, and were allocated to small local farmers (Dehkans) and the working class people. Cotton was declared as the major crop for the entire country whereas other crops such as wheat and other consumer goods were imported to the country. Main cotton committees (Boshpakhta Committee) were established to provide facilities for cotton farming, i.e., seeds, credits, agricultural machinery, fertilizers and requisite agricultural implements, as well as grain and other products equivalent to sown raw cotton. These organizations also provided some agricultural extension services to farmers.By the end of 1920s, more than 20 demonstration farms were established in the Turkestan Autonomous Republic. A team of 100 agronomists was established to educate farmers on cotton production techniques at more than 250 locations in the Republic. For development of the agricultural industry, three types of agricultural cooperatives were established:• Agricultural cooperatives mainly engaged in trade, i.e., they acted as intermediaries.• Agricultural cooperatives acted as a contracting party and also dealt with producers on behalf of the state procurement companies. In addition, they provided recommendations on monitoring of crop development, land treatment and irrigation practices. All the costs of these cooperatives were borne by procurement companies and the government.• The third type of agricultural cooperative comprised of representatives from the procurement companies who acted as contracting parties to deliver sorted products to the state procurement companies.These cooperatives were also extending their services by providing knowledge on agronomy, training of mechanization specialists and efficient use of the machinery, and establishment of pilot farms. Agricultural experiment stations were established at field sites where short-term agronomists, technicians and workers were responsible for extension services, part of which was funded by the central budget and the other part by the local budget.In 1925, the Central Executing Committee (CEC) of Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbekistan) (UzSSR) adopted decrees \"On Nationalization of Land and Water Resources\" and \"Land and Water Reforms\" to enhance water resources management (History of Uzbek SSR 1968). As part of these reforms the government initiated the establishment of reclamation associations, which were similar to the present day water user associations (WUA). The major responsibilities of these associations included providing recommendations to the existing Dehkans on efficient water use, operation and maintenance of water supply systems, renovation of irrigation networks and development of new lands. These associations were fully funded by the government. Training of water resources management specialists was the responsibility of the Reclamation Engineering Department of Turkestan People's University and Tashkent Hydraulics Technical College (Aminov 1983).During the second stage, collective farms (kolkhoz) were established in rural areas through the assembling of lands of small Dehkan farms whereas state farms (sovkhoz) were established with full support from the government. Seed farming and breeding works were improved, and research centers for seed farming were established. To carry out mechanization services, MTPs (Machine Tractor Parks) were established and improved. Agro-industrial centers were established under the MTPs, and training activities on agronomy and the efficient use of machinery were conducted. At sites, laboratory centers called 'Yield Rooms' were organized, where a range of short-term courses were provided to Dehkans. A number of research and higher education institutions were also established (Aminov 1983).In order to improve training of the specialists in agriculture and water resources and to enhance the research in irrigation and drainage systems, the Research Institute of Hydraulic Engineering was transformed into the Central Asian Research Institute for Irrigation (SANIIRI) in 1932. The Tashkent Institute of Engineers of Irrigation and Agricultural Mechanization (TIEAM) was established by merging two institutions of higher education -the Institute of Irrigation Technicians and Engineers and the Agriculture Mechanization Institute (Aminov 1983).Third Stage (1933Stage ( -1941) ) During this stage, collectivization reform was completed for the entire country. The agricultural services sector was developed, and the level of machinery supplied and the number of trained technical staff was elevated. This led to improvements in agricultural production. To improve the efficient use of land and water resources and enhance the systems of water supply, water management facilities, pump stations and irrigation facilities were constructed. Agronomists, engineers and hydraulic engineers were recruited by kolkhozes and sovkhozes, and the training of Dehkans was further strengthened. Research institutes expanded their studies in all spheres of agriculture and achieved considerable results.Recommendations of research institutions were delivered to farmers in the form of brochures and through guidelines of public administration authorities in the agricultural sector, and this had a good impact. Based on the recommendations worked out by research institutions (e.g., SANIIRI), new irrigation and drainage networks were constructed, new lands were developed, and training activities on the efficient use of land and water resources were enhanced.The fourth stage fell on the period of World War II, which caused changes in the crop production system by drawing food and equipment supply as well as technical specialists towards the Soviet Union Army. Production of wheat crops was extended along with technical crops like hemp and sugar beet.During this period, crop production decreased due to lack of equipment and fertilizers as well as specialists who had been called up to participate in the war. In addition, soil salinity rates increased, and irrigation and drainage networks deteriorated. Considering this, during the war, political divisions were established under MTPs in order to put into practice the efficient use of resources in the agriculture industry. These MTPs were specialized in guiding the new workers, mainly minor children, women and old men, in the organization of the agriculture industry and efficient use of existing resources (Aminov 1983).During the fifth stage, attention was diverted towards the improvement of machinery supply and increasing its effectiveness. Improvement of lands -that were in poor ameliorative condition due to the recruitment of machinery and labor for World War II -was carried out. Attempts were made to provide MTPs, kolkhozes and sovkhozes with machinery and technical specialists.In order to introduce and train the workers in new and advanced technologies, kolkhozes and sovkhozes recruited new agronomists, engineers, economists and irrigation technicians. Chief specialists were selected from specialists of higher and secondary education, and they were invited to take extension courses. They were supplied with new and scientific literature directly by a number of research and higher education institutes through the regional and district authorities (Aminov 1983).At the beginning of this period, a number of measures were carried out on the development of new irrigated lands with new irrigation and drainage infrastructure, including the construction of reservoirs. Deserts in the Qarshi, Sherobod and Mirzachul zones were developed. Attention was paid to the provision of chief specialists to the kolkhozes and sovkhozes, the establishment of divisions through a vertical administration system, and also to the provision of agronomists and agricultural management specialists to the divisions. During the 1970-1980s, a cotton monocracy emerged in Uzbekistan. Emphasis was given to cotton farms, which were further expanded. Due to the necessity for crop rotation, livestock farming and partial areas of horticulture were advanced (Nikonov 1980;Penn 1977).Specialized livestock and horticultural farms were established in the zones of the foothills and valleys. In order to improve integrated management, they were merged with processing companies into horizontal cooperatives, and agricultural and meat-packing plants were established (Nikonov 1980;Penn 1977). By the end of 1980s, the Former Soviet Union went through economic recessions, and shortcomings in the state administration structure became apparent. There were delays in the payment for the crops produced. The allied republics required using the system of market-oriented relations in making the payment, and this served as the main factor for failure of a system that was not ready for this.The Soviet Union's agricultural research and built-in extension system of the former Soviet republics of CA (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) was a highly organized, fully funded and overcapitalized agricultural research establishment. The built-in agricultural extension system is presented in Figure 4. The new independent republics inherited a large number of research institutions and a huge complement of research staff. Evolution of their economies and agriculture, however, challenges these countries to reform their technological systems including extension to make it responsive and effective (Morgounov and Zuidema 2001). The main actors in the public sector involved in the agricultural extension services are the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the Ministry of Melioration and Water Resources (MoMWR). The MoA has not invested in the creation of extension advisory services in the country. Agroprom, run by the MoA, has officers in all oblasts and rayons but their role is mostly supervisory (reporting to hukumats), as well as collecting data for statistical purposes (including yield forecasting based on highly unreliable methods). In Tajikistan, four levels of administration exist: national, oblast (province), rayon (district or nohiya) and kishlak (village or jamoat). At each level, there is an executive body (hukumat) and an advisory body (majlisi). There are oblast (city) and rayon level administrations (hukumats), as well as village administrations (jamoats). The organizational structure of existing agricultural extension systems is presented in Figure 5. The Association of Dehkan Farms and Businessmen was established in 1996 as a nongovernmental, independent and a self-governed social association. In 2003, the Association was reorganized into the Union of Dehkan Farms and Businessmen (UDFB) of the Republic of Tajikistan. The legal status of this association was again changed in July 2005, when the Union was re-registered as the National Union of Dehkan Farms and Businessmen of the Republic of Tajikistan.The UDFB was responsible for supporting dehkan farms and business persons for the implementation and improvement of the market infrastructure based on strengthening and coordinating farms and entrepreneurs. It also protects the rights of dehkan farms and businessmen and works towards the improvement of qualifications and establishing links with foreign partners. However, so far this association has only had limited success. A serious detriment to the development of the association is the lack of a functioning board of directors. This was not a specific strategy of the decision makers when creating the management structure of the association. It was a consequence of the inability to communicate with members of the association and have their active involvement in the decision-making processes relating to policy and strategy development.There are about 90 initiatives related to agricultural extension currently going on in Tajikistan and most of them are independent initiatives by different donors and projects, which are often small and duplicate the work of each other. There is no unified national level initiative to consolidate all the relevant extension services. In June 2008, key donors working in Tajikistan initiated the development of a Joint Country Support Strategy to improve the coordination of farmer services (legal, business and agricultural extension services).Donors such as the UK Department for International Development (DfID), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), SDC, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and FAO are supporting the unified national Legal Aid and Extension Center Network rather than extending financial assistance to individual centers. It is hoped that the pooling of donor resources will allow a unified approach for the provision of farmer services, create a minimum standard of professional services, provide a single set of information materials for farmers, increase the likelihood of leaving behind a sustainable network, and provide a unified approach for monitoring and advocating the rights of farmers with the Government of Tajikistan. However, there is a need to build on what has already been developed over the past 5-7 years rather than creating another parallel system. Over the last few years, several efforts have been made by international organizations to revitalize the state and initiate public sector agricultural extension services. For example:• In 2004, FAO with MoA established the Agricultural Information Center but this was stopped after funding ended;• The project, \"Support to the setting up of a structure to provide information, training and advice to farmers and other rural businesses in the Khatlon Region of Tajikistan\" (SITAF), established a nationwide organization for extension service providers (ESPs), such as the Agricultural Information Coordination Center (AICC), which was meant for the coordination of research and education. Similarly, this too was stopped after funding ended;• According to the project, Support to the Establishment of a National Agricultural Advisory Service (SENAS) in Tajikistan (SENAS 2008), the top priorities for Tajikistan's agriculture are continuation of land and institutional reforms, resolution of the cotton debt issue, focus on better agricultural productivity, improving agricultural infrastructure and addressing food security issues. The role of the state and the Ministry of Agriculture will be revitalized.According to EBRD ( 2008 Various cotton investors employ agronomists and hydrotechnicians who provide basic training to farmers on how to grow cotton and implement irrigation. In most cases, consultants lack the background in agronomy and irrigation. According to KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide (2008), some farmers perceive agronomists and hydrotechnicians hired by the cotton investors as checkers rather than extensionists.Most of the existing extension initiatives in Tajikistan are donor driven and are related to specific projects. Many NGOs involved in local extension activities are also supported through foreign funding. There is no single wider initiative to integrate and coordinate all such activities. As a result, there is a lack of cooperation between these organizations, which often resulted in duplication of activities and there are many times when they are working in the same area.According to SENAS (2008), there are four organizations that have developed their own extension systems:Information Network (AIN): one in Dushanbe with two sub-offices in Kurgan Tepa and Khodjent. They supported 16 Rural Advisory Information Centers (AIC).• NGO Jovid, supported by the German Agro Action (GAA) and German Development Service, is based in Chkalovsk and their focus is the foothills and the mountains.  The review showed that some private organizations and local NGOs have recognized the importance of the agricultural extension system while the role of the state is weaker and the institutionally sound agricultural extension system in Tajikistan is still missing. However, there is a need to develop a comprehensive extension system that integrates technical, financial, agronomic and irrigation aspects of crop production in which the main role of policy mainstreaming should be taken by the state.The key functions of MAWRPI in relation to extension services include policy, technical and financial support for rendering extension services to help farmers increase agricultural production by means of delivering research results, preparing professional staff through education and development of new technologies. In particular, MAWRPI, in close cooperation with existing extension services and research institutes, integrates the development of relevant information and methodical guidelines on innovative methods of crop rotation, irrigation and tillage to farmers and agricultural producers, and provides assistance in extension services to WUAs on legal, accounting and technical issues.MAWRPI has three wings -agriculture, water and processing industry. The Water Resources Department (WRD) has a strong organizational and hierarchical structure (Basin Water Management Organizations (BWMO) and Rayon Water Management Organizations (WMOs) serving WUAs) and its key and specific task is to organize water use in the national economy based on research, and on an equitable and rational basis. It has 7 (oblasts) BWMOs and 40 RWMOs.The Agriculture Department (AD) has oblast and rayon structures, but is given a higher role in regional and local governance. It deals with a wide range of agricultural issues compared to the water department, e.g., livestock, crop production, fertilizers, machinery, pest management, etc. For example, the deputy governor of oblast and deputy hakim of rayons is the head of ADs. This wing also has a Research and Agricultural Development Department, which includes two to three research institutes: irrigation, land management and plant. It has indirect links with the Rural Advisory Services (RAS) and provides occasional trainings for Advisory Training and Information Center (ATC) staff through associated research institutes.There is the Kyrgyz Agrarian University after Skryabin's name and the Osh Agricultural Institute. They are mostly responsible for education and preparation of professionals to serve in the water and agricultural sectors (engineers, researchers, etc.). However, the reforms in the political structure of the state made these organizations fall under the Ministry of Education whereas previously the educational and research institutes were part of the sectoral agency, MAWRPI. However, informal and methodological links still exist between the ministry and education.After collapse of the Soviet Union and the disbanding of state farms, on-farm irrigation was a problem. Many republics replaced their production brigades with WUAs. In the Kyrgyz Republic, with World Bank support, the WRD established WUAs to take over on-farm irrigation operation and maintenance (O&M). To ensure these were participatory, the Republic passed a WUA Law in 2002. To date, 451 WUAs have been legally registered under this law. As farmers had no experience with participatory associations, an intensive capacity development program was critical for success. Within the WRD of MAWRPI, the WUA Support Units (SUs) at the central (1), provincial (7) and district (40) levels were formed. International consultants and Central SU staff members provided more than 3,000 days of training for staff members of SUs. In turn, SUs have provided more than 47,000 days of training for WUAs. Interactions with SUs and intensive training have strengthened WUA boards and encouraged member participation. Monitoring data documents increased the efficiency of water delivery, while fees paid by WUA members have increased annually in every province. WUAs have now formed 14 WUA federations responsible for off-farm O&M (Johnson III and Stoutjesdijk 2008).The World Bank's (WB's) On-Farm Irrigation Project supported the WUA SUs since 1999, with a USD 29 million project with two main components: (1) rehabilitation of on-farm irrigation infrastructure serving a minimum of 170,000 hectares (ha); and (2) development and strengthening of the associated WUAs to ensure the on-farm system is operated properly and maintained. In order to ensure that WUAs accept the responsibility for the on-farm irrigation system they are expected to repay 25% of the rehabilitation costs, spread over 7 years, with interest not to exceed inflation, as well as a four-year grace period. In addition to collecting service fees from their members to cover the costs of O&M of the on-farm irrigation infrastructure and the WUAs share of repayment for rehabilitation, WUAs are expected to collect the irrigation service fee (ISF) that is to be paid to the water service provider.The team of WUA SUs includes people with expertise in WUA development, training and promotion, water and WUA legislation, financial management, and monitoring and evaluation. The following training materials are developed:• WUA formation.• WUA governance.• WUA leadership.• ISF establishment.• WUA financial management.• Irrigation water allocation principles.• Irrigation system management.• Irrigation infrastructure maintenance planning.Under the Water Productivity Improvement (WPI) project (see section, Agricultural Extension Systems in Tajikistan), the WUA SU in the Osh Province acts as an extension agent complementing the RAS activities of the training of farmers in agronomic practices with a special focus on the efficient use of water. For example, in Uzgen, Karasu and Aravan districts of the Osh Province, a number of farmers are sharing water from the tertiary level outlets through selected and trained leaders of water user groups (WUGs). These leaders are introducing a system of water use that provides a platform for the setting up of WUGs. They are also introducing a system of water measurement through hydro-posts (weirs and gates) with methodological support for the transfer of water payment from a hectare-based to incentive-based volumetric system. Other trainings on the efficient use of water are also conducted.The WUA Support and Regulation Unit and the RAS of the Osh Province work in close connection. Leaders of the outlets, trainers from the WUA Support and Regulation Unit and trainers from the RAS of the Osh Province work together, supplementing each other.The recent WPI project was able to create a well-functioning partnership system, which links knowledge generators (research) with knowledge processors (information center) and existing extension services, that has good ties and trust amongst farmers. The partnership is based on the innovative cycle which is a system that continuously assesses farmers' needs and elaborates corresponding extension messages with regards to water (under the project) as a complement to the ongoing (without the project) agronomic trainings for farmers, and organizes compilation and dissemination of technologies based on existing local or previous knowledge.Many donors are active in Kyrgyzstan, and a number of donor-supported initiatives and projects are related to agricultural extension. Several pilot activities, covering a few rayons/oblasts of the country, have been carried out in support of family farmers, with emphasis on the provision of technical and business advice, group organization and credit. These include projects by the European Union (EU)/Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS), Agricultural Training and Advisory Services (ATAS) in 1994 (sort of training and visit (T&V) system) and the Agri-Business Centers (ABC) projects. SDC aid (provided through Helvetas and Caritas) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH (formerly Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH) started its advisory project in the Oblast of the Osh Province in the spring of 1997. The basic approach to the advisory services has been the same, in that the farm extension advisors visit the villagers on a rotational basis four to five times a week to provide advice. Advisory services and farmer organizations are also provided under the ongoing Sheep Development Project financed by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the World Bank. Implementation of this project commenced at the end of 1996. According to the project report, \"the project has had an enthusiastic response from the farmers, group formation is progressing and farmers visit successful groups in order to learn from their experiences\".Two other donor initiatives, also closely related to the Agricultural Support Services Project (ASSP), are UNDP's field program of lending to joint-liability groups through its Poverty Alleviation Pilot Project and the World Bank's Rural Finance Project which provides agricultural credit to agribusinesses and smaller farms through the Kyrgyz Agricultural Finance Corporation (KAFC). However, farmers below the poverty line who normally cannot afford collateral need additional support.In 1994, the Kyrgyz Swiss Agricultural Project (KSAP) of Helvetas started establishing a rural advisory service in mainly mountainous rayons of Kyrgyzstan with the help of Caritas in generating income with small-scale enterprises. The rayons included Kochkor-Jumgal in Naryn oblast, and Suzak, Bazar Korgon and Nooken rayons in Jalal-Abad oblast. At the beginning, each project had its own advisory topics which were linked to credits in most cases. In 1998, the approach was revised in all projects, when Caritas ceased advisory activities and went for an independent credit line. Helvetas discontinued credit and focused on technical assistance, and GIZ institutionalized the link with the American-funded Agricultural Cooperative Development International/Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance (ACDI/VOCA). In 1997, with the support of Helvetas, participatory advisory approaches were started in Kochkor-Jumgal.Helvetas (Swiss Association for International Cooperation) has been active for 45 years as a development partner of governmental organizations and NGOs in 20 countries, and have been working in the areas of infrastructure in rural areas, sustainable use of natural resources, and education and culture.Since 2001, Helvetas has been involved in implementing different extension projects:• the Rural Advisory and Development Service Foundation (RADSF) through KSAP in the three oblasts Naryn, Issyk Kul and Jalal-Abad, and with specific activities on a national level in the fields of cattle breeding, support to agro-entrepreneurs and an agricultural coordination unit;• Legal Assistance to Rural Citizens (LARC) in eight rayons of Jalal-Abad and oblasts in the Osh Province bordering Uzbekistan;• Agricultural Vocational Education Project (AVEP) in Naryn, reforming the vocational education of young farmers (men and women); and• The Business Promotion Project (BPP), providing entrepreneurs with marketing support and training through the start-up and growth phases of their business development, especially community-based tourism in Naryn and Jalal-Abad oblasts.KSAP and LARC were implemented on behalf of SDC, which is also the funding agency for both projects. RAS is a decentralized organization with branches in oblasts and rayons. Thus, RAS managers are responsible for the development of annual work plans for their respective oblasts, under the overall guidance of the local Oblast Steering Councils (OSCs). The OSCs which comprised of representatives of farmers, NGOs and government agencies from within the oblast, play the same pivotal role as the national RAS.There are some questions with regard to the professional interactions which RAS developed with the local research, NGO and other organizations involved in agricultural production. Actually, the RAS has few links with the Kyrgyz Irrigation Research Institute where RAS uses its staff for its trainings. The linkages with the other research organizations are informal or nonexistent or sometimes occasionally based on specific tasks (non-systematic).A national level coordination office receives all donor and government (to a lesser degree) funds, and contracts oblast and rayon advisory services (branches) on an annual basis. They are basically grown up units earlier established by different donor projects. The yearly contracts are based on annual work plans and there is a performance system to measure achievement compared to plans. RAS have introduced the planning process based on the bottom-up principle. RAS regularly upgrades the qualifications of its field staff. RAS maintains the exchange of experience and dissemination of useful innovations by providing training and consultations. Knowledge transfer is mostly done through the demonstration process.The RAS has 41 rayon and 7 oblast offices; the ATC office operated on the national level. In each rayon office, there are 2 to 4 rayon advisors and various specialists on subject matter are working in each oblast office. RAS staff are normally selected on a competitive and contract basis. In order to meet the rural people's information and knowledge requirements, the RAS strives to render good quality services, oriented to a number of advisory topics. They cover a wide range of topics such as crop production, livestock management, machinery, marketing, farm economy, dissemination of innovations and knowledge, farm management, tourism, handicrafts, business planning, gender issues, small business projects and group development.The RAS annual reports indicate some challenges and difficulties in implementing the tasks due to the low salaries of staff compared with other projects. This affects the motivation of advisers, results in outdated office equipment, ever-changing concepts of the RAS with its each new phase, indifferent attitudes of some RAS staff to their work, increased fuel price, increased office rent, outdated devices and vehicles entailed additional expenditure, and there being many obstacles to realize its mandate (wrong selection of farmers on some advisory topics, sharp decrease of budget, uncertainty about the future of RAS activities, political situation with weak support, unchanged level of staff salaries, whereas the living costs and inflation are increasing from year to year, and this results in losing well qualified advisors).The ATC was initiated under the KSAP due to non-satisfactory development of the internal potential within the RAS system. The objective of the ATC was, \"the overall capacity of the extension staff is improved through a well performing Advisory Training Centre\" (ATC 2007). With the purpose of strengthening the RAS (extension) with knowledge management and capacity building, the autonomous ATC unit was formed within the RAS system like any regional RAS. The ATC specialists and contract trainers are working on farm development, business planning, proper use of plant and livestock production technologies, home scale processing, and marketing, by improving the publication quality devoted to farmers and advisors. Besides, they are also involved in the implementation of the integrated pest management projects.ATC roles include:• acts as resource center. ATC collects information, and processes, prepares, publishes and holds dissemination materials such as pocket leaflets, handbooks, books, electronic information, newspapers and journals on various aspects of agriculture such as pest management, crop development, agrotechnical measures and other subjects.• acts as methodological and training center. The Center provides training of trainers (ToT) on extension to RAS staff in oblasts and rayons. It develops training materials and methods for the local advisors depending on the demand for these materials. For example, in 2007, it trained 20 specialists from the regional RAS on potato pests and diseases. In total, ATC conducted 64 training activities for 755 participants. In its training activities it involves some specialists from the Kyrgyz Irrigation Research Institute and Kyrgyz State Agrarian University.• Provides marketing skills to ras. ATC provides trainings and required capacities on marketing issues to the oblast RAS, so that the branch organizations are self-sufficient and sustainable in the future when the funding stops.Recently, the ATC was reestablished as TAIC, which is also participating in the WPI project (led by IWMI and SIC ICWC and supported by SDC) with an information center role to provide extension approach and ToT support to the RAS and WUA Support Units (SU) of the Osh Province.Training and Extension System (TES) is a Kyrgyz NGO specialized in rural advisory services. GIZ and the Osh State University founded TES in 1997. Their goal was to increase people's income from farming with the help of qualitative training and advisory work. It is based on private consultation with freelance field advisors and trainers served by the TES Center.The focus of TES is on small farms with little to average resource endowment. TES assist farmers in forming interest groups. At the same time, these groups represent a starting point for self-help organizations with different ends such as common marketing and qualification for seasonal loans. TES supports and gives contracts to freelance trainers and field advisors to train and advise farmer groups throughout the year. Training in extension methods and agricultural technologies takes place mostly during the off-season. During the cropping season, TES coach these freelance advisors to better fulfill their roles of supporting farmers. In this way, every year, TES supports more than 50 agricultural advisors, more than 100 farmer groups, and between 1,000 and 1,500 farmers. In return, trainers and advisors pay an annual service fee to TES. Farmers pay a fee for each training that they receive.TES has four departments (Organizational Development, Farmer School, Technical Advisory Services and Publications), bringing in external specialists, trainers and field advisors wherever possible. TES Center is headed by a management board of three senior staff. The Supervisory Board comprises of the founder (Osh State University), a major client (USAID), two TES staff members, and three freelance trainers and advisors.From each group (consisting of 5 to 15 members) a leader is elected who receives a contract from TES to act as field advisor during the entire cropping season. This leader receives additional training (technology and methodology) at TES Center every month or more often, and is expected to carry out practical demonstrations at the group's learning field as well as to monitor the crop of each group member, to organize joint input purchases, work out the delivery schedule with the processor and organize collection or delivery of the group's produce.The practical demonstrations are about operations which have been discussed at the Center, for example, in the case of tomatoes, seedling production, field establishment, scouting for pests, predator release, working out fertilizer and chemical amounts, and anti-erosion measures in irrigation. The field advisor takes the responsibility on behalf of all farmers on the application and spraying of fertilizer. TES agronomists assess all farmer fields three times during the growing season, and according to these results, a gratuity payment to the field advisor is computed.The Policy Support Project (PSP) funded by the SDC was set up in 2007 with the aim of strengthening the capacity of MAWRPI through DAPI, in formulating and implementing agricultural policy by learning experiences and moderating processes. PSP has two key objectives: i) development of rural extension policy jointly with the RAS and KSAP; and ii) PSP assist MAWRPI in the coordination of agricultural projects. There are 61 donor-driven activities related to agriculture existing in Kyrgyzstan: 46 projects, 11 programs, 3 funds and 1 center. The donors are ADB, World Bank, USAID, GIZ, European Commission, UNDP, Swiss Government, Turkish International Cooperation and Development Agency (TIKA), Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Figure 6 presents the current organizational structure of the main actors involved in agricultural extension in Kyrgyzstan.Since 2010, Helvetas is implementing the SDC-funded \"On-Farm Water Management\" Project (SEP 3 ). The aim of the project is to use a demand-driven extension approach by training farmers and local communities on the understanding of water as a limiting and important factor for agricultural crop production. SEP works with different organizations that are better linked with farmers (this may include local NGOs, agricultural extension services, WUAs, cooperatives and private businesses). The main approach is that local partners must submit proposals for their projects (which aim at building capacities of farmers in efficient water use at field level) within a duration of 6-18 months. The project has set up a local technical committee, which comprises the local stakeholders, who decide on the most innovative proposals based on SEP criteria. Only agreed projects are supported by SEP for implementation with guidance and supervision from TAIC. Currently SEP and WPI projects are exchanging its materials, reports and performing cross-project evaluation.The process of reforms in the agricultural sector of the country that started in 1992, went through a number of stages ranging from (a) macroeconomic policy to the level of sustainability, (b) the rate of growth achieved as a result of conducting macroeconomic policy and market reforms by the government, and (c) initially during the reforms, property was denationalized and a pattern of nongovernmental ownership of property emerged.In the first stage, the nongovernmental sector was made responsible for denationalization and privatization, and production of major agricultural output. Collective farms and collective property were set up instead of state farms and state-owned enterprises.In the second stage, the collective farms were the staple producer in the agricultural industry; attention was directed towards the establishment of private farms and development of Dehkan farms. The state-owned livestock sector was sold through an auction to private livestock farms. Agricultural cooperatives (shirkat farms), private farms and Dehkan farms were selected as the prospective forms of farming on the results of economic experiments carried out at this stage of reforms, and in April 1998, new laws \"on Agricultural Cooperatives Farms (Shirkat)\", \"on Private Farms\" and \"on Dehkan Farms\" were adopted.Reforms associated with gradual liquidation of agricultural enterprises and their transformation to private farms is considered as the third stage of reforms conducted. The first steps were initial liquidation of shirkat farms that were operating at an economic risk and continued transformation of shirkat farms to private-ownership-based farms as well as formation of various enterprises, in particular, Alternative Machine Tractor Pools (AMTPs), WUAs and agro-firms, serving on their available technology and machinery base.In line with these agricultural reforms, various forms of advisory services emerged. These advisory services developed during the stage of development of reforms, and were formed progressively and based on various patterns of ownership. Certain spheres were covered based on every type of service formed, and each of them corresponded to render specific services to agricultural enterprises based on universality and privatization principles.The service sector and advisory services formed during this period are presented below:• Collective farms were transformed to joint-stock cooperatives (shirkats). Here, the administration was democratized for the sake of appearance only; the economic management board and the main specialists were maintained. The existing divisions were named shirkats, and thereby the service and training measures were continued as they had been implemented before.• Measures to transform the shirkat farms in bulk to private farms were carried out and tested. WUAs and AMTPs, as well as agricultural input production services, were established.• A new structure, Association of Private Farmers, was established in the Republic. Its branches in the regions and districts were also formed, and the association was responsible for providing support to private farmers including assisting in the development of production activities.• The basin water management system was adopted in the water sector. Their task was to organize water resources in the territory in a reasonable way and arrange measures for improvement of irrigated lands.• The private service sector was developed and started servicing on the basis of legal and information spheres.• Advisory services were formed to assist in the production and organizational processes through projects operating with financial support from foreign donors, who served the development of the newly-formed spheres, e.g., WUAs and retail markets.• The system of receiving education and extension in the developed foreign countries was put forth for the enterprises engaged in the agricultural sphere, and qualified specialists were now invited directly for the specialists working in agriculture. The experiences gained from them were implemented at sites.• Research institutions started conducting to-government-order research work on requisite projects on a competitive basis only, and the results achieved were submitted to State Science and Technical Committee and thereby forwarded for direct adoption by the related ministries. In addition, research institutions acted on the order of agricultural enterprises.The next stage was remarkable with the liquidation of shirkat farms (which were the largest forms of agricultural farming), their complete transformation to private farms and allocation of lands on a long-term lease to private farms, and the formation of infrastructural facilities serving the newly established private farms on the base of the liquidated private farms. Presently, advisory services to specialized private farms are being developed. Programs for training and retraining farm managers are worked out, and foreign and local specialists are recruited for their training.During a short period of implementation of reforms, the agricultural service sector developed significantly as shown below:• Maintenance and transport servicing (MTPs under government control, limited liability AMTPs based on farm property, private MTPs, machine pools of technical and pilot establishments under the control of private farmers).• Agrochemical services (regional and district divisions of Uzqishloqkho'jalikimyo, fertilizer selling posts, pesticide laboratories established as a result of privatization, and reorganization of agrarian and chemical laboratories under former shirkat farms, Goskarantin State Inspection, Republican Center for Plant Protection and its branches).• Reclamation and water management service (Basin Irrigation System Authorities (BISAs), WUAs, private enterprises).• Construction services.• Zoological and veterinary services (veterinary divisions under government supply at the districts and veterinary sector related to private sector).• News and consulting services.• Logistic support services.• Agricultural product selection, preparation, recycling and storing services.• Accounting, financial analysis and audit services.• Services of research and special programs based on large-scale projects.There are several reasons for rapid development and diversification of services in the service sector, i.e., the new establishment of such types of farms, small areas of lands, monopoly conditions of service enterprises, their distant location from agricultural producers, weaknesses of the material and technical basis, stress of funds, constraints in credit borrowing, imperfection of leasing relations, and a number of other legal and economic issues.During the past several years, the government has been trying to find ways for sustainable development of the agricultural sector. In this regard, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR) is a responsible organization for the coordination of all agricultural activities including extension service to the farmers in Uzbekistan.As a part of this, MAWR initiated several reforms in the agricultural sector including (i) the creation of private farms in the territory of old shirkats; (ii) establishment of Association of Private Farmers (APF) with offices in each oblast and rayon; (iii) introduction of BISAs within inter-farm systems and WUAs for on-farm systems; (iv) creation of Alternative Machine Tractor Pools (AMTP); and (v) formation of agro-firms to assist the dehkhan and private farmers involved in fruit and vegetable production.Figure 7 depicts the structure of several organizations that provide some elements of agricultural extension services in Uzbekistan. Some of these organizations are government funded, and some are funded by NGOs, universities, farmers' associations, research institutes and others. These organizations are:• Association of Private Farmers (APF)• Rural Business Advisory Services (RBAS)• Agricultural Service Center Despite all efforts, current structural frameworks do not completely meet the needs of farmers. Undefined structural and organizational parameters, lack of stimulation gear and remuneration of labor, and lack of integration of the interests of producers and service providers are some of the problems. In addition to the factors mentioned above, dominating administrative methods of work are not letting the world-renowned technologies and progress in agricultural research to make its way to the farmers' fields.Development of an agricultural extension service in Uzbekistan is becoming a matter of national importance. However, there is no national policy framework on extension service development, which could ensure political and financial commitment of the government and other stakeholders.In the development of an effective extension service, a national policy framework is a basic concern, since it should indicate national agricultural development priorities, outline the organizational structures necessary to implement these priorities and the corresponding institutional linkages, and the extent and nature of the commitment required to encourage farmers to act in a manner supportive of national policy.In addition, there is little incentive among farmers involved in the production of state-ordered crops, cotton and wheat. This is different among the farmers involved in the production of fruits and vegetables, where use of informal extension services is in practice and in high demand.Since 2009, in Uzbekistan, partners of the WPI project and SANIIRI, as a research organization, got together to search and analyze the existing research materials and generate new knowledge with regards to the efficient use of water. The functions of the Information Centre in the project are carried out by the former provincial experts of the IWRM-Fergana project, who have worked in the project since 2002 based in Andijan BISA. The Syr-Darya-Sokh BISA in Fergana, Naryn-Karadarya BISA in Andijan and Naryn-Syr-Darya BISA in Namangan provinces were selected to play the role of extension agencies by providing training for farmers on effective irrigation technologies. The project considers consultations and training in 13 districts:• Five districts of Andijan (Bulakbashy, Marhamat, Shahrihan, Pakhtaabad and Oltynkul);• Five districts of Fergana (Tashlak, Kuva, Altiarik, Baghdad and Furkat);• Three districts of Namangan (Pap, Naryn and Namangan).Through the training centers of BISA, farmers get training in the farmer field schools of the selected WUAs where BISA trainers and advisers render regular consulting services to about 150 farmers that cover 7,784 hectares. One trainer-adviser is assigned for each demonstration field, who works both at the demonstration field and with all farmers of the selected WUA as well. In WUAs, one expert is selected among the others who work in close cooperation with the farmers and trainer of the demonstration field as well, as the trainer organizes the farmer field school in the WUA.Each trainer carries out the monitoring of farmers' fields and since the trainer is an expert, this elicits the needs and requirements of farmers and reveals shortcomings and mistakes made by the farmers when irrigation and agro-technical activities are performed. As stated in previous sections of this report, which were dedicated to the analysis of the existing extension systems in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, the WPI project is trying to fill the gap between research and extension and make sure that knowledge of technologies that can help to increase the efficiency of water use reaches the farmers in a simplified form and in an understandable manner. The absence of the extension services in Uzbekistan did not stop the project, which decided to work with existing BISAs as the organizations are closely related to farmers in delivering their water. Rakhmatilloev (2008) indicates that the following key problems hamper improvements in the performance of Tajikistan's extension services:• Lack of state financing. Insufficient financial support from the government that is required to provide farmers with extension services, to introduce new technologies that lead to the effective use of resources, to conduct field research at farm level and disseminate positive practices among farmers.• Organizational insufficiency. There is no single government body to coordinate numerous consulting, donor and state activities in the water and agriculture sector.• Poor technical facilities and lack of qualified specialists. Lack of modern knowledge and capacity, computers and training equipment; there is a need for new and younger staff, and the retraining of existing personnel.There is a contrast of agricultural extension service providers -two extremes exist: from one side, there is a strong administrative state organizational structure but with weakened capacities and misled staff with overlapping tasks; and from the other side, numerous good skilled and active NGOs supported by donor-specific projects, very scattered and duplicated with a lack of communication between each other and questioned sustainability.KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide (2008) identified the following needs at the Dehkan farm level:• Farm financial management (book keeping, accountability, finance procurement, reporting)• Farm business management (budgeting, cropping activities, input procurement, shareholder participation)• Crop management (irrigation, pest control, weed control, nutrition)• Water management (cropping practices, irrigation scheduling/allocation)Soil fertility (crop rotations, organic matter, green manure, mineral fertilizers)• Genetic characteristics of cotton (varieties, seed quality, seed increase)Resources (infrastructure/equipment/finance)• Input supply (fertilizers, fuel, pest control agents, etc.)• Water supply and distribution (WUAs, maintenance, rehabilitation, gates, regulators, irrigation scheduling)• Machinery and equipment (improvements, efficiency, new technology)• Finance (access to cropping and capital investment finance)The concept of public extension and the provision of continuous advice to farmers are not widely understood. There is no institutional extension system existing in Tajikistan. The state organizations practice a top-down and order approach when working with farmers.Research, education and agricultural policies are isolated from each other. The state funding is being decreased. The management of all three aspects is highly centralized and strictly controlled.The bulk extension is now provided by a number of projects and NGOs. They are geographically focused and based on a subject and have a limited reach. There are some signs of cooperation but this seems to be occurring to a limited extent. Many overlapping and duplications exist. KSAP (2007) indicate the following issues with the existing rural extension services in Kyrgyzstan:• Insufficient financing of agricultural extension services by the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic. At present, extension services are mainly funded by donor organizations. This cannot last forever and by 2011 the funding can be terminated.• Weak coordination of agricultural extension service activities by MAWRPI. Actually no one subdivision of MAWRPI work in this area.• Inadequate level of knowledge in the application of new agricultural technologies, economic issues and marketing.• Weak interrelationships between extension services and the scientific-research and educational institutions, and also with production and processing organizations.• Insufficient number of trained extension staff.• The vision of MAWRPI for further development of rural extension services does not coincide with that of the RAS.• The attitude of MAWRPI towards state allocation of funds for financing rural extension services is not clear.• National authorities are not ready to consider extension services as a priority of the agrarian policy.• High turnover of senior management of the Ministry constrains promotion of the extension policy.The survey conducted by Jooshev and Mityakova (2008) indicates the following knowledge requirements of farmers:• Agro-technical measures (tillage, planting time, crop cultivation, inter-row cultivation, layout and crop rotation).• Irrigation techniques (irrigation terms and irrigation depths, how to receive water, where, when and how to apply), farmer rights and relations with WUA, how much to pay for water, how to determine the volume of water received, measurement of water flow in aryk (small irrigation canal), measuring devices, water losses, how to determine water flow in a furrow and how to identify furrow length, determination of dependence between water penetration of soil, slope, and types of crops.• Marketing service (what crop is profitable for planting in the current year, what seeds are fruitful, where and how much seeds may be bought).• Application of fertilizers and chemical protection of plants.• Introduction of new irrigation technology (sprinkling irrigation, drop irrigation, etc.).• Basic economic knowledge on drawing up of business plans, marketing, estimation of efficiency of capital investments, estimation of actual first cost of output, its price, estimation of efficiency and choice of the optimal development directions of agricultural production.• Legal regulations of land and water use, organization of farms, acquaintance of farmers with their rights and obligations to the state, taxation rules and payments of taxes.• Opportunities and rules of attraction of investors, drawing up of credits and mortgages, establishment of the credit unions.uzbekistan Nazarov (2008) concludes that in Uzbekistan there is no organization that could fulfill the functions of an agricultural extension system, but there are organizations providing elements of extension services. In addition, Nazarov (2008) identified the major gaps in infrastructure, institutional arrangement and availability of extension materials.To identify gaps, a survey was conducted among 198 farmers located in 8 rayons of 5 oblasts of Uzbekistan (Nazarov 2008). The survey results showed the following:• Of the survey participants, 93% indicated that they use services in the agronomy area (agro-technology, pest control and others), 89% indicated using the advisory service in on-farm water resources management, 84% indicated using the advisory services in economic aspects, and 75% indicated using advisory services in legal aspects. The least used services were cattle breeding (3%), veterinary services (20%) and information advisory services (20%).• With regards to questions related to on-farm water management and water productivity, the priorities of survey participants were (i) land reclamation (83%); (ii) water distribution and water measurement equipment, structures and installation (77%); (iii) crop water requirements and irrigation management (water savings) (65%); (iv) types of advanced irrigation technologies (drip, sprinkler) and their implementation (31%); and (v) others (8%).• Answering the question, \"Are you ready to pay for advisory services that meet your needs?\", 78% of survey participants agreed to pay if a high quality and efficient service was provided, 6% indicated that they were already paying for these services, and 16% indicated that \"free was better, even if it was not satisfactory\".• Answering the question, \"What types of services need to be developed?\", 24% of survey participants indicated agronomy (agro-technology, pest control and others), 17% indicated economics (accounting, business plan development), 24% indicated on-farm water management, and 21% indicated that there was 'no need' for development of services. A reason for this could be that many farmers are not familiar with extension services and some are afraid that they would have to pay for the services.• Answering the question, \"What is the best way to extend the knowledge about advanced technologies in agriculture to the dehkan and private farmers?\", 43% of survey participants indicated that the best way was to establish demonstration fields and conduct demonstration activities, 38% have chosen the provision of different training programs and seminars, 12% chose books and brochures, and only 7% have chosen the use of mass media (newspapers, journals, radio, TV) as the best way to extend agricultural knowledge.The major gaps in infrastructure that were identified are as shown below:• Lack of financial resources It calls for increased awareness of the importance of the farming systems approach, particularly at the zonal level and below. However, even changing the current emphasis on the cultivation of single crops and drawing more attention to research on growing a combination of crops, is not easily achieved and requires a number of organizational changes. Research on farming systems is even more difficult to make operational and calls for a high degree of expertise at local research stations. Above all, an effective extension system is needed that is capable of diagnosing field problems and transmitting them to the research establishment. Cernea et al. (1985) recommends the following:• Agricultural extension requires effective organization and management tailored to suit specific situations.• Agricultural extension requires site-specific methodologies and suitable technologies.• Agricultural extension must be relevant and responsive.• Farmer participation is fundamental for sustainable extension.It is easy to define the broad recommendations for institutional change that is needed to reform agricultural extension to meet the changing demands. From this review, it is obvious that current prescriptions include decentralization, pluralism, privatization, cost recovery and involvement of farmers as a key player. History and recent developments around the world illustrates that it must be driven by learning about what works and what does not, and by the nature of local circumstances and context. An analogous approach proposed by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) is known as the institutional learning and change initiative, which is trying to adopt agricultural research to address recent challenges and improve its effectiveness (CGIAR: www.cgiar. org/impact/global/index.html). These types of approaches stem from the realization that improving the performance and capacity of a system concerns reflection, learning and incremental changes. If extension policy is to pursue such an approach, what practical steps could CA republics take?• A first step would be to undertake a deep institutional analysis of historical and current experiences of implementing different extension approaches. This should focus on successes and failures and should be undertaken in a constructive manner to devise ways by which these approaches could be modified, bottlenecks removed and institutional arrangements amended. It was obvious during this study that there are very limited studies and analysis of the extension sector, and these are usually not used in extension policy development and planning. This approach, of course, will require a capacity development of local expertise for analyzing complex systems such as extension, which is lacking at the country and sub-country level. Without this capacity countries will remain dependent on international experts to suggest country strategies, models and blueprints.• The next step is to set up pilot projects as experiments in agricultural extension (which already started in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and to some extent in Uzbekistan with donor assistance). While this is not new, such experiments should be coupled with local capacities and institutions (research, state, education, farmer organizations and local NGOs), and they should be involved from the beginning to draw principles of promoting innovation in rural areas. The initiative can then be replicated with some location-specific modifications. While all these are in the process, the wider discussion of the policy framework and strategies (a few recommendations and examples of which are stated above) can be initiated in parallel, but what is most important is the interest from the state because the government should be the initiator of these reforms.• Realizing the fact that technical and financial support from the government is a key factor for sustainability of agricultural extension services, it is recommended that associated departments of the Ministry of Agriculture or other relevant state agencies should be the main actor to play the role of agricultural extension service provider in CA. This is important for the sustainability and continuity, but the state should be the reform carrier to decentralize the extension.• Any external assistance should strengthen the institutional capacity of the state agricultural departments by assisting in developing working relations with all the relevant state organizations (research institutes, academia, state water departments (in our case they are oblvodkhozes), BISAs, BWMOs with its coupled district-level subordination units, input dealers, banks, etc.); development projects (funded through the EU, WB, ADB, SDC, UNDP); NGOs that are supported by the agricultural projects and have relevant advisory experience (UDFB, ZarZamin, CECI and ACTED in Tajikistan; RAS, ATC, Jer-Azigi in Kyrgyzstan; and Association of Private Farms in Uzbekistan); producers; and private companies that are involved in agricultural extension.• The consolidation activities should facilitate the cooperation between the organizations mentioned through consensus building, bridging and dialogue roundtables to develop single strategy on agricultural extension while the major, leading and coordinating role should be given to the state agroproms.• The initiatives to support extension should facilitate and assist Agricultural Departments to establish working and effective linkages with local National Agricultural Research and Extension Systems (NARES) for long-term and sustainable cooperation. The programs to assist agricultural extension should develop and transfer recommendations on better ways, approaches and methodology (specifics) for provision of extension services to farmers with regard to on-farm water management through adult training, Participatory Rural Appraisal/Assessment (PRA) methods, needs assessment, and how to monitor and evaluate extension activities.• The support programs should facilitate the good working relations and policy uptake of results at a higher level -the MoA through the Agriculture Department for wider dissemination of positive experiences of a comprehensive and sustainable system of agricultural extension by provincial agroproms in the case of the Sogd Province.• The support program should assist and call other players active in developing and supporting agricultural extension to provide innovative capacity and approaches, which should lead the way for farmer participation in diagnosis, testing and dissemination of new knowledge and technologies.• Any state and external joint initiatives to establish extension should participate and support other initiatives to establish national level umbrella institutions or systems (these projects are SENAS in Tajikistan and Policy Support Project by KSAP in Kyrgyzstan), with an appropriate policy framework, sustainability issues (cost recovery) and the possible (new) roles of state agroprom systems (coordination) should be discussed with the appropriate ministries (or relevant departments) and initiating parties based on project experience.This study reviews the existing agricultural extension systems in three countries in CA, i.e., Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. The study shows that after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, agricultural extension services in these three countries have been destroyed completely, resulting in a decline in agricultural productivity. This is especially true for small farmers who cannot afford to hire the services of expensive private extension advisory companies. As most of the newly emerging farmers are ignorant of farming practices and crop production mechanisms, there is an urgent need to establish formal extension systems in CA in order to ensure future food security.The fragmented efforts of establishing extension services by internationally funded projects are filling the gap to some extent but are not sufficient for all farmers in the area. This is because these efforts are restricted to specific areas and usually have specific objectives due to their financial limitations. The extension services provided by KSAP, RAS and ATC (ZOKI) initiatives by WB and SDC, the SENAS program by EU to streamline fragmented extension in Tajikistan and WB's Rural Enterprise Support Project (RESP) in Uzbekistan are doing a reasonably good job. However, these services need to be coordinated with the state-owned extension service organizations.The analysis of current organizational structures showed that all three countries have the necessary institutions, such as the association of farmers in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan or agricultural research and education coordination departments in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Any new initiatives to establish formal extension systems should be revitalized within the existing institutional framework and should be based on existing structures. For this purpose, existing institutes should be further strengthened, reformed and their roles should be redefined. Creation of new institutions will be complex as they will need much more capital and effort to ensure long-term sustainability. To ensure ownership, the state should play the role of mediator and facilitator for the proposed changes. These reforms should integrate the ongoing processes of social, political and economic changes in the countries in CA.This study reveals that countries in CA have no national policy framework for the development of agricultural extension services, which could ensure the political and financial commitment of the government and other stakeholders. Unless appropriate national extension systems are established in CA through institutional reforms, backed by national policies outlined within the context of comparative agricultural advantage of different countries within the region, these countries would not be able to exploit their full potential in agriculture (Qamar 2002;KasWag AgriConsulting Worldwide 2008;EBRD 2008;Nazarov 2008).To have effective extension in place, a national policy framework is a fundamental concern, since it should indicate national agricultural development priorities, outline the organizational structures necessary to implement these priorities and the corresponding institutional linkages, and the extent and nature of the commitment to encourage farmers to act in a manner supportive of national policy.","tokenCount":"12966"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"36ca98ad7e3f479566e5c2c1e18bbbaa","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd8912ee-db0d-443d-acf1-728da28e16ee/retrieve","id":"483048801"},"keywords":["banana","plantain","A and B genome","host plant resistance","virus transmission","aphid vector","Africa"],"sieverID":"e4f58cb8-d6c5-4369-a31c-af524fc2a93b","pagecount":"18","content":"Banana bunchy top disease (BBTD), caused by the banana bunchy top virus (BBTV, genus Babuvirus), is the most destructive viral disease of banana and plantain (Musa spp.). The virus is transmitted persistently by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae). While research efforts have focused on screening Musa genotypes for BBTD resistance, comparatively little work has been carried out to identify resistance to banana aphids. This study assessed 44 Musa germplasm of different A and B genome composition for the performance of banana aphids under semicontrolled environmental screenhouse conditions and in a field trial established in a BBTD endemic location. In the screenhouse, the AA diploid Calcutta 4 had the lowest apterous aphid density per plant (9.7 ± 4.6) compared with AAB triploid Waema, which had the highest aphid densities (395.6 ± 20.8). In the field, the highest apterous aphid density per plant (29.2 ± 6.7) occurred on the AAB triploid Batard and the lowest (0.4 ± 0.2) on the AA diploid Pisang Tongat. The AA diploid Tapo was highly susceptible to BBTD (100% infection) compared with the genotypes Balonkawe (ABB), PITA 21 (AAB), Calcutta 4 (AA), and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), which remained uninfected. The Musa genotypes with apparent resistance to BBTD and least susceptibility to aphid population growth provide options for considering aphid and BBTD resistance in banana and plantain breeding programs.Banana (and plantain, Musa spp. L., Zingiberales: Musaceae) is among the top 20 food crops worldwide [1]. The cooking banana types are among the most important crops cultivated for household food security and income generation by millions of smallholder farmers under subsistence-farming conditions in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where they are largely grown in mixed-crop fields and backyards of household compounds. Banana productivity in SSA remains low at 7.3 million metric tonnes/ha [1], mainly because of the widespread negative impact of several endemic and exotic pests and diseases, including banana bunchy top disease (BBTD). BBTD is caused by the banana bunchy top virus (BBTV, genus Babuvirus) and is the most destructive virus disease of banana worldwide [2,3]. BBTD was first reported from Fiji in 1989 and is presently known to occur in 37 countries. In SSA, BBTD was first reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo. The virus is presently known to occur in 17 African countries (Available online: https://www.bbtvalliance.org/index.php/bbtv (accessed on 2 March 2022)) where BBTV has since emerged as a serious threat to banana production [3]. BBTV infection of banana plants results in a range of symptoms that generally culminate in a bunchy appearance at the top of severely stunted pseudostems [4]. The virus-infected plants do not produce fruit when the infection starts before flowering, while late infections result in deformed and inedible fruits [5]. Regardless of the time of infection, BBTV infection leads to 100% banana fruit yield loss from the infected plants [6,7].BBTV is transmitted through vegetative propagation of infected banana propagules and by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae), which occurs on plants in the Musaceae [8]. A closely related species, Pentalonia caladii van der Goot, frequently found on plants in the Araceae and Zingiberaceae [8,9], has been shown to transmit BBTV under experimental conditions, albeit much less efficiently than P. nigronervosa [10]. Considering its poor BBTV-transmission efficiency and its generally restricted distribution to non-Musa spp., P. caladii is unlikely to play a significant role in the natural transmission of BBTV in banana plantations. However, P. caladii could be a significant vector in BBTV transmission to other hosts in which BBTV was recently detected, including Heliconia sp. in Hawaii (USA) [11] and Alpinia galanga (L.) Willdenow and Curcuma longa L. in Indonesia [12].The banana aphid transmits BBTV in a persistent, circulative, and non propagative manner [13,14], while there is no evidence for mechanical viral transmission [13,15]. The banana aphid can acquire the virus after at least 4 h of the acquisition access period (AAP) on infected tissue and requires a minimum inoculation access period (IAP) of 15 min to transmit the virus [13]. The aphid retains the virus throughout its life. BBTV-transmission efficiency by P. nigronervosa increases with increased AAP, IAP, virus titer in the source plant, and aphid abundance [13].Several cultural and chemical approaches were developed for BBTD management, including the use of virus-free planting material, quarantine measures, roguing of diseased plants, and use of pesticides to control the aphid vector [16][17][18]. While these approaches were effective in large-scale monoculture banana plantations, they have not been widely adopted by smallholder farmers in SSA due to the low availability of virus-free planting materials, high costs of pesticide use for aphid control, and high labor requirement for rouging-based methods [19,20]. Host-plant resistance to the virus and/or the aphid vector, particularly in smallholder farming environments of SSA, offers the most economical and environmentally sound means for controlling virus diseases [21][22][23][24][25][26]. Previous studies focused on assessing Musa genotypes' resistance against BBTD [5,[27][28][29], while resistance to the banana aphid has rarely been evaluated.This study covers the evaluation of a set of Musa genotypes representing all known Musa ploidy levels and genomic groups (Table 1) to identify resistance to BBTV and its banana aphid vector. Resistance to the banana aphid was evaluated in the absence of BBTV under a semi-controlled environment, while resistance to the aphid and BBTV was assessed over 36 months in the field under natural aphid colonization and BBTV infections. The results demonstrated the differential response of genotypes to both aphid performance and BBTD, and identified promising genotypes with high levels of tolerance to the virus vector and to the disease. Musa genotypes used in this study were sourced from the international Musa collection held in genebanks of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria, the International Transit Center of Bioversity International in Leuven, Belgium, and the IITA station in Yaoundé, Cameroon (Table 1). Virus-free stocks of all sourced genotypes were propagated in vitro at the IITA tissue-culture laboratory in Yaoundé before their use in the screenhouse and field trials. Acclimatized plants were grown in 15 cm diameter pots containing a mixture of pasteurized forest topsoil, sand, and poultry manure at a ratio of 3:1:1 and maintained for 5-6 months in an insect-proof screenhouse at the IITA station in Yaoundé, Cameroon, a BBTV-free area of Cameroon.Virus-free plants of 38 genotypes were evaluated for banana aphid growth potential under screenhouse conditions at the IITA-Cameroon campus in Yaoundé (03 • 51.839 N/ 011 • 7.748 E, ~770 m.a.s.l.) (Table 1). Banana aphids of mixed stages (nymphs and adults) were collected from banana plants at the IITA-Cameroon experimental farm to establish an aphid colony on virus-free potted plants of the cultivar 'Williams' (AAA). The plants were raised for about 55 days (approximately three generations) in an insect-proof screenhouse before their use. Pentalonia nigronervosa identity was established by examining morphological features of at least 20 aphids under a phase-contrast microscope [30]. Twelve plants per genotype arranged in three replicates of four plants each were evaluated. Using a fine camel-hair brush, five 4th instar aphids from stock cultures were gently teased-off the plant and transferred onto an unfurled top leaf of each test plant. All plants of the 38 genotypes were infested with aphids collected from the stock colony on the same day. The infested plants were maintained in an insect-proof cage (70 × 50 × 43 cm). The experiment was conducted from July to September 2013. Aphid census on the whole plant started one week after the transfer of aphids and continued weekly for nine weeks. Plants were taken out of the cage for a brief period for a census of aphids. Apterous and alate aphids were tallied separately. Test plants were watered as needed. Temperature and relative humidity within the screenhouse were monitored with a Hobo Pro v2 logger (Onset Computer Corporation, Bourne, MA, USA) suspended just above the cages in the center of the screenhouse. Temperatures during the experiment fluctuated between 18.4 and 36.2 ), an area in the South Region of Cameroon where BBTD is endemic [6]. BBTD is widely prevalent in the area, with 94.3% of fields with one or more BBTD-infected plants and a within-field disease incidence ranging between 0.17% and 36% (Ngatat et al., unpublished data). The nearest banana farms were at 30, 15, 24, and 1000 m from the field borders in the north, east, south, and west, respectively. This area of the field experiment is located in a humid forest zone with bimodal rainfall. Temperature and relative humidity were monitored with Hobo ® Pro v2 logger (Onset Comp., Bourne, MA, USA) installed under a waterproof shelter, while rainfall data was collected with a Tru-Chek™ rain gauge (Edwards Man. Co., Albert Lea, MN, USA) placed in an open area. Temperatures in the experimental field ranged from 14 to 37 • C with an average of 24.1 ± 0.02 • C, while relative humidity ranged from 35 to 100%, with an average of 89.1 ± 0.07%. Average yearly rainfall for the 3 years was 1806 ± 122 mm.Virus-free, hardened tissue-culture plants of 44 genotypes, including 34 genotypes evaluated for aphid population growth under the screenhouse experiment, were planted at 2 × 2 m row spacing in holes of 30 × 30 × 30 cm. One kg of poultry manure (2.1, 1.3, and 0.8% N, P, K, respectively) was mixed with soil at planting time in September 2013. The experiment was terminated 36 months after its initiation. The experimental layout followed a complete randomized block design with three blocks (=replicates), with an area of 704 m 2 per block and a 4 m distance between blocks. Within each block, all genotypes were planted in plots of three rows and five plants per row for a total of fifteen plants per plot. All plants were free of banana aphids and BBTD at planting. To facilitate and augment the natural spread of the virus, 176 BBTD-symptomatic suckers, obtained from the virus-affected banana fields in the vicinity of the experimental field plot, were planted at the edges of rows between blocks [29]. Aphid infestation and BBTV infection of experimental plants occurred naturally. The field was weeded manually. Dead leaves were pruned as needed. The field was managed under rainfed conditions with no additional inputs during the 36 months of the experiment.Census for banana aphid and BBTD-affected plants were initiated 2 months after planting (MAP) and continued monthly for 36 months. The number of banana aphids (all life stages) was counted on the bottom third of the oldest pseudostem on three plants per replicate (Figure 1) [31,32]. After flowering and bunch production of the oldest pseudostem, aphid census was shifted to the next oldest sucker of the same mat [29]. Occasionally, aphid occurrence was observed on the throat and leaves of the census plants, but they were not counted to maintain the standard assessment to only the lower portion of the pseudostem. BBTD incidence was recorded at the same time of aphid census. All the shoots (pseudostems) of a mat (=plant) in a replicate were carefully checked for the presence of BBTD symptoms. A mat was counted as symptomatic based on typical BBTV symptoms on at least one pseudostem. The time between planting and the first appearance of BBTD symptoms on a plant was evaluated for each genotype. At the end of the experiment (i.e., 36 MAP), leaf samples of all asymptomatic plants were collected for BBTV testing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as described previously [6]. Estimation of the number and weight of bunches at harvest time was not possible due to thefts. shoots (pseudostems) of a mat (=plant) in a replicate were carefully checked for the presence of BBTD symptoms. A mat was counted as symptomatic based on typical BBTV symptoms on at least one pseudostem. The time between planting and the first appearance of BBTD symptoms on a plant was evaluated for each genotype. At the end of the experiment (i.e., 36 MAP), leaf samples of all asymptomatic plants were collected for BBTV testing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as described previously [6]. Estimation of the number and weight of bunches at harvest time was not possible due to thefts.  Aphid abundance, including apterous and alate forms, was estimated for each genotype present in screenhouse and field trials. The area under the infestation pressure curve (AUIPC), which represents the increase in aphid population over time, was computed for each genotype using the modified formula from Shaner and Finney [33].) × (t i+1 − t i ) where i = the ranking of the assessment, n = number of days between i and i + 1 assessment, and y = number of insects at time t. BBTD incidence-based on symptom observation in the field of each genotype was calculated as BBTD incidence = Total mats in f ected Total mats planted × 100. A quantitative summary of disease over time represented by the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) was computed for each genotype using the formula from Shaner and Finney [33]where y i is the proportion of infected plants at the ith observation, t i is time in days at the ith observation, and n is the total number of observations. Virus incidence, based on virus-positive leaves by PCR analysis, was calculated as the percentage of infected leaf samples for each genotype. All response variables, i.e., apterous aphids, alate aphids, BBTD incidence, and AUDPC, were tested for normal distribution using the Shapiro-Wilk test at p > 0.05 [34]. Response variables that were not normally distributed were analyzed with the Kruskall-Wallis nonparametric test. Bonferonni pairwise comparison of genotypes was used because of the large number of pairwise comparisons.To select the genotypes that were most or least susceptible to banana aphid and/or to BBTD, in each genomic group for both screenhouse and field trials, four genotypes with an extreme mean (two highest and two lowest) aphid abundance or BBTD incidence were selected and compared. Correlation analysis was used to relate aphid densities in the screenhouse to those in the field on each of the 34 genotypes present both in the screenhouse and in the field. To rank the genotypes, while simultaneously considering their reaction under natural conditions to both banana aphid and BBTD, a heatmap with hierarchical clustering was used for classification based on both AUDPC and AUIPC values for each genotype obtained from the field trial. All statistical analyses were performed with R 3.6.2 package (R Development Core Team), while the heatmap was generated with JMP 8.2 (SAS Institute).Apterous aphid densities were higher on triploid (155.3 ± 21.4) and tetraploid (139.7 ± 13.7) than on diploid (74. 8 ± 10.5) genotypes (χ 2 = 14.7, df = 2, p < 0.001). Alate aphid densities were also greater on triploid (7.4 ± 1.4) and tetraploid (5.3 ± 1.4) than on diploid (1.4 ± 0.4) genotypes (χ 2 = 13.6, df = 2, p = 0.001). A difference was observed among diploid genotypes for apterous aphid abundance (χ 2 =17.7, df = 10, p = 0.006) but not for alate aphids (χ 2 = 13.98, df = 10, p = 0.17) (Table 2). However, both apterous and alate aphid abundance differed among triploid genotypes (χ 2 = 23.4, df = 14, p = 0.04 and χ 2 = 32.2, df =14, p = 0.004, respectively). The highest aphid density was observed on the Waema (AAB), while the lowest density was observed on Ice cream (ABB) (Table 3). The highest alate density was observed on Ebang (AAB), while the lowest occurred on Yangambi Km5 (AAA). Similarly, both apterous and alate aphid abundance differed among genotypes in the tetraploids (χ 2 = 21.5, df = 1, p = 0.03 and χ 2 = 25.2, df = 11, p = 0.009, respectively) (Table 4). The highest apterous and alate aphid densities were observed on FHIA 03 (AABB), while the lowest occurred on T6 (AAAA). Comparison of two genotypes with highest and lowest aphid densities from each ploidy level showed significant differences among the sorted genotypes for apterous aphid (χ 2 = 30.0, df = 11, p = 0.002) and alate aphid (χ 2 = 30.1, df = 11, p = 0.002) densities. Apterous aphid density was highest on Waema (AAB) and lowest on Calcutta 4 (AA), while alate aphid density was highest on Ebang (AAB) and lowest on Calcutta 4 (AA) (Table 5).  Abundance of Banana Aphid in the FieldIn the field trial, there were also large differences among ploidy levels in apterous aphid densities, but, not for alate aphid densities (χ 2 = 22.9, df = 2, p < 0.001 and χ 2 = 5.6, df = 2, p = 0.06, respectively). After 36-months, apterous aphid densities were similar on triploids (10.7 ± 1.4) and tetraploids (10.7 ± 1.3). In case of the diploid genotypes, differences were observed among genotypes for apterous aphid densities (χ 2 = 15.8, df = 8, p = 0.04) but not for alate aphids (χ 2 = 12.1, df = 8, p = 0.15). The highest apterous aphid density was on Chuoi Man (AB), while the lowest was on Pisang Tongat (AA) (Table 6). In the triploid group, both apterous and alate aphid abundance differed among genotypes (χ 2 = 40.5, df = 18, p = 0.002, χ 2 = 39.9, df = 18, p = 0.002, respectively). The highest apterous aphid density was recorded on Batard (AAB), while the lowest was recorded on PITA 24 (AAB). On the other hand, alate aphid densities were considerably lower than apterous aphids on all the genotypes, and the highest density of alates was recorded on Essong (AAB), while the lowest was on Lep Chang Kut (BBB) (Table 7). In the tetraploids, significant differences were observed between genotypes for apterous aphid densities (χ 2 = 34.8, df = 15, p = 0.003) but not for alate aphid densities (χ 2 = 20.6, df = 15, p = 0.15); the highest apterous aphid density was on CRBP 39 (AAAB), while the lowest density was on CRBP 37 (AAAB) (Table 8). Analysis performed on 12 genotypes to sort out the best and the worst genotypes for aphid performance under field conditions, with two from each ploidy group with highest aphid densities and two with lowest aphid densities, showed large differences among the sorted genotypes for apterous aphid densities (χ 2 = 27.7, df = 11, p = 0.004) and alate aphid densities (χ 2 = 20.5, df = 11, p = 0.02). The highest apterous aphid densities were observed on Batard (AAB) and the lowest on Pisang Tongat (AA). The highest alate aphid densities were recorded on Essong (AAB) and the lowest were on Yagambi km5 (AAA) (Table 9).    On diploids, the genotype Chuoi Man (AB) presented the first BBTD symptoms at 2 MAP while it took 36 months to observe the first symptoms on Ney Poovan (AB) (Table 6). On triploids, the first BBTD symptoms were observed at 2 MAP on Waema (AAB), 3 MAP on Williams (AAA), and PITA 23 (AAB), while symptoms were observed only at 36 MAP on Fougamou (ABB) (Table 6). On tetraploids, BBTD symptoms were first observed at 3 MAP the AAAA genotypes Buccaneer, SH 3436-9, T6 (AAAA) and on FHIA 03 (AABB), and the latest at 26 MAP on CRBP 37 (AAAB) and 28 MAP on CRBP 535 (AAAB) (Table 7). Four genotypes-Calcutta 4 (AA), Balbissiana Los Banos (BB), PITA 21 (AAB), and Balonkawe (ABB)-did not show any BBTD symptoms at any time during the 36 months of the experiment.Overall, latent BBTV infection was detected by PCR assays in asymptomatic plants of 13 genotypes, all ploidy considered at 36 MAP at the end of the experiment. Of the dipoids, BBTV was detected in 15.6% of the 45 leaf samples from Kunnan (AB), while the virus was not detected in any of the asymptomatic plants of other diploid genotypes (Table 6). On the triploid genotypes, the highest virus incidence (16.7% for total 6 plants tested) was detected in Williams (AAA); BBTV was not detected in the asymptomatic plants of Yagambi Km5 (AAA), the AAB genotypes (Batard, Ebang, Elat, Essong, Waema), Fougamou (ABB), Balonkawe (ABB), and Lep Chang Kut (BBB) (Table 7). On the tetraploids, 17.8% virus incidence (15 plants tested) was observed on SH 3436-6 (AAAA), while no virus was detected on the asymptomatic leaves of 12 genotypes, including the AAAA genotypes (BITA 2, Buccaneer, FHIA 23, T6), the AAAB (BITA 8, CRBP 37, CRBP 535, CRBP 568, FHIA 21, IRFA 908), FHIA 03 (AABB) (Table 8).No significant difference was observed among the ploidy levels for the disease incidence (df = 2, χ 2 = 0.7, p = 0.7) and AUDPC (df = 2, χ 2 = 0.9, p = 0.7). In the diploid group, significant differences were observed among genotypes for both BBTD incidence (χ 2 = 19.6, df = 8, p = 0.01) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 20.2, df = 8, p = 0.009). At 36 MAP, Tapo (AA) was the genotype with highest disease incidence-100% of the plants expressed BBTD symptoms. Tapo also had the highest AUDPC, which together with its disease incidence indicate that Tapo was the most susceptible genotype to BBTD. On the contrary, none of plants of the wild genotypes Calcutta 4 (AA) and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB) showed any BBTD symptoms at any time during the experiment (Table 6), which along with their virus-free status at 36 MAP indicate that these two genotypes are resistant to BBTD-at least for the duration of our experiment. In the triploids, significant differences were similarly observed among genotypes for BBTD incidence (χ 2 = 32.2, df = 18, p = 0.02) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 34.9, df = 18, p = 0.01); 66.7 % of plants of FHIA 25 (AAB) expressed BBTD symptoms, while no disease was observed on Balonkawe (ABB) and PITA 21 (AAB). Moreover, the highest AUDPC was observed on Yangambi Km5 (AAA) and FHIA 25, while the lowest was recorded on both Balonkawe (ABB) and PITA 21 (AAB) (Table 7). In the tetraploid group, there was no difference among genotypes for both disease incidence (χ 2 = 19.5, df = 15, p = 0.2) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 18.7, df = 15, p = 0.2) (Table 8).Analysis performed on 12 genotypes sorted from the four divergent genotypes of each ploidy group (four from each ploidy group, two with highest AUDPC, and two with lowest AUDPC) showed significant differences among the sorted genotypes for disease incidence (χ 2 = 26.9, df = 11, p = 0.005) and AUDPC (χ 2 = 28.5, df = 11, p = 0.003), the highest disease incidence and AUDPC was recorded on the AA diploid Tapo, while the lowest incidence and AUDPC were recorded on Calcutta 4 (AA), Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), Balonkawe (ABB) and PITA 21 (AAB) (Table 10). Generally, at the field level, average BBTD incidence was 15.3, 26.1, and 34.1%, respectively, at 12, 24, and 36 MAP.The heatmap with hierarchical cluster showed that genotypes were clustered into four groups: A1, A2, A3, and A4 (Figure 2). All the five genotypes in group A1 were highly susceptible to BBTD and least susceptible to the banana aphid, including Figue Sucree (AA), Pisang Tongat (AA), Yangambi Km5 (AAA), and FHIA 25 (AAB). Group A2 included 18 genotypes of different genomic compositions, from moderate susceptibility to both BBTD and the banana aphid. Group A3 included 11 genotypes of different genomic compositions with least or slight susceptibility to both BBTD and banana aphid. Group A4 included 10 genotypes slightly susceptible to BBTD and highly susceptible to the banana aphid (Figure 2). both BBTD and the banana aphid. Group A3 included 11 genotypes of different genomic compositions with least or slight susceptibility to both BBTD and banana aphid. Group A4 included 10 genotypes slightly susceptible to BBTD and highly susceptible to the banana aphid (Figure 2). There was a positive and moderately high correlation between screenhouse and field aphid densities on each of the 34 genotypes present both in the screenhouse and the field (r = 0.529, p = 0.001). The genotypes with the highest aphid densities, in both screenhouse and field trials, were from the AAB genomic group followed by the AAAB group, while the lowest aphid densities occurred on the AA genomic group in both the screenhouse There was a positive and moderately high correlation between screenhouse and field aphid densities on each of the 34 genotypes present both in the screenhouse and the field (r = 0.529, p = 0.001). The genotypes with the highest aphid densities, in both screenhouse and field trials, were from the AAB genomic group followed by the AAAB group, while the lowest aphid densities occurred on the AA genomic group in both the screenhouse and the field (Table S1).Most banana cultivars originated from intraspecific or interspecific hybridization between wild diploid M. acuminata (A-genome, 2n = 22) and M. balbisiana (B-genome, 2n = 22) species of section Eumusa, including diploid (AA, BB and AB), triploid (AAA, AAB and ABB), and tetraploid (AAAB, AABB, ABBB) variants [35]. This study showed that in the screenhouse and the field trials, there was a wide variation in the performance of banana aphids on the Musa genotypes with different A and B genome composition and ploidy levels. In the screenhouse, aphid densities on triploid and tetraploid genotypes were higher than on diploid genotypes. The rates of aphid population growth were faster and reached higher densities on two AAB triploids, Waema and Ebang, than any other genotype. Aphid densities under field conditions were relatively lower than in the screenhouse, but the trend of banana aphid performance on Musa genotypes was similar under both screenhouse and field conditions. For instance, the AAB triploids Batard, Ebang, Essong, and Elat and the AAAB tetraploid hybrids CRBP 39, CRBP 969, and CRBP 535 were highly suitable to banana aphid population growth, resulting in the highest aphid densities both under field and screenhouse conditions. Aphid densities were lowest (about 10-fold lower population) on AA diploid genotypes Pisang Tongat, Figue Sucree, and Calcutta 4 compared with AAB and AAAB genotypes under field conditions. In general, aphids were more abundant on triploid and tetraploid genotypes combining both A and B genomes (AAB, AAAB) than on those combining only A (AA or AAA) or only B (BB and BBB) genomes. Only one genotype, Yawa 2, evaluated in this study corresponds to the ABBT group, which is a natural cross of section Musa (Eumusa) (AA and BB) × section Australimusa (TT). This genotype under screenhouse evaluation supported high densities of banana aphids, but the genotype was not assessed under field conditions due to insufficient planting material.Further studies are necessary to understand the underlying factors contributing to the differential aphid establishment rates in relation to host genomic composition. One aspect of investigation should focus on the thickness of epicuticular wax on leaf-petiole, and pseudostem. For instance, a thick epicuticular wax was reported to increase resistance to black Sigatoka of banana [36]. Several studies have shown that successful aphid colonization and performance are affected by multiple factors, including (i) chemical content of the sap (e.g., nitrogen and carbon levels, and free-amino-acid composition in sap) [37,38]; (ii) defensive compounds that reduce aphid feeding and multiplication rate [39]; (iii) plant physical properties, which serve as barriers to feeding and growth (e.g., leaf pubescence, smoothness or roughness of leaves, the presence of trichomes or the shape and color of the leaves) [40]; (iv) leaf and plant color, which affect attractiveness and landing behavior [41]; and (v) chemical cues affecting landing decision [42,43]. Further studies should consider comparisons of the physical and chemical properties of Musa genotypes supporting low and high aphid population densities to understand the mechanisms contributing differential rate of establishment and population growth on different Musa genotypes evaluated in this study.As observed for most aphid species, apterous banana aphids were more abundant than alates in both the screenhouse and the field. Owing to their higher mobility, alates play a major role in the horizontal transmission of BBTV within and between the fields. Alate abundance is generally linked to increasing density of apterous forms. Consequently, a Musa genotype that supports the establishment of high densities of banana aphids poses an increased risk for the horizontal spread of BBTV and heightens virus spread in the field. In the field trial of this study, Musa genotypes with high BBTD incidence did not support relatively high numbers of alate aphids, and the genotypes with high alate populations were moderately affected by BBTV. Plant viruses are known to induce specific changes in the host plant, modifying the behavior of its vector, which may favor or impair virus transmission. A similar observation was made in a recent study that demonstrated differential emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) by healthy and BBTV-infected banana plants of Williams (AAA) and a Pacific triploid (AAB) plantain [42]. Relatively higher VOCs detected in the BBTV-infected plants were attributed to a stronger attraction to alate and apterous banana aphids than in uninfected plants [42]. The diversity and concentration of VOCs were greater in the AAB plantain than in AAA Williams, which implies differential production of VOCs depending on the genomic composition.The Musa genotypes evaluated in the field showed large variations in BBTD incidence ranging from 0 to 100%. BBTD expression varied significantly with Musa genotypes, with the highest AUDPC on the AA diploid Tapo, which conversely was among the genotypes with low aphid densities. This was followed by two AA diploids, Pisang Tongat and Figue Sucree; and two triploids, FHIA 25 (AAB) and Yangambi Km 5 (AAA). Generally, genotypes with only A genome (AA and AAA genomic groups) were more susceptible to BBTV infection, except for the wild diploid Calcutta 4 (AA), which was not infected after 36 months of exposure in the field, compared with genotypes with B genome. In regard to the genotypes with both A and B genomes, triploids can be found throughout the BBTV susceptibility spectrum; for example, the triploid FHIA 25 (AAB) was highly susceptible while PITA 21 (AAB) and Balonkawe (ABB) remained uninfected after 36 MAP in the field. In general, genotypes with more than one copy of the B genome (BB, BBB, ABB, and AABB) showed less susceptibility (0 to <20% incidence) to BBTV infection. For instance, low infection was recorded on the ABB triploids Daru, Pisang Awak, Fougamou, and BBB triploid, Lep Chang Kut. No infection was recorded on the wild diploid Balbisiana Los Banos (BB) and the triploid Balonkawe (ABB). This leads to the hypothesis that Musa genotypes with two or more copies of the B genome possess better tolerance to BBTV infection. However, the exception was the synthetic hybrid FHIA 03 (AABB), which despite having two sets of BB chromosomes showed a relatively high BBTD incidence (62.5%). Another genotype, the synthetic hybrid PITA 21 (AAB), despite having only one copy of the B chromosome, showed a very high tolerance to BBTV infection. Musa genomic studies can shed light on the potential role of the B genome in banana resistance to BBTD. The observations on BBTD occurrence on some of the genotypes in this study corroborate with previous studies [28,29].Wild genotypes often harbour some traits linked to resistance to disease and/or pests, as observed in the present studies with Balbisiana Los Banos (BB) and Calcutta 4 (AA). The diploid Calcutta 4 is known to be resistant to black leaf streak disease (BLSD) caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis [44]. Calcutta 4 (AA) has been used extensively in Musa breeding as a source of black Sigatoka and BLSD resistance [44] and for its partial resistance to banana weevil [45]. Calcutta 4 has also been reported as resistant to some races of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense in subtropical Australia [46], and M. balbisiana accessions have shown resistance to Xanthomonas wilt in a greenhouse trial [47]. The B genome is also known to confer some drought resistance in Musa genotypes [48]. The four genotypes-Calcutta 4 (AA), Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), PITA 21 (AAB), and Balonkawe (ABB)-that showed high tolerance to BBTV infection are of interest for breeding programs. PITA 21, a plantain hybrid developed by IITA and resistant to BLSD, is among hybrids grown by farmers in at least four countries in Africa, including Cameroon and Nigeria [49], where BBTD is present. Balonkawe is a traditional landrace widely used in the Philippines. Both PITA 21 and Balonkawe can be used to broaden sources of resistance to BBTV. However, further research is necessary to assess the robustness of resistance by experimental inoculation of these plants with viruliferous aphids under controlled conditions.The grouping based on reaction to banana aphid and BBTD identified a group of five genotypes that are highly susceptible to BBTD and less susceptible to the banana aphid, including Tapo, Pisang Tongat, Figure sucre, Yagambi Km5, and FHIA 25. The second group of 10 genotypes, Batard, Essong, Ebang, Elat, PITA 21, CRBP 39, CRBP 535, CRBP 838, CRBP 969, and Daru, were less susceptible to BBTD and highly susceptible to the banana aphid. These groupings indicate that BBTD incidence is a genotype trait and is not positively related to aphid abundance on a genotype [29]. Although aphids were found on PITA 21 (AAB), Balonkawe (ABB), Calcutta 4 (AA), and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB), these genotypes were free of BBTV at 36 MAP in a BBTV endemic area. The lack of BBTV infection on these four genotypes could result from cases where aphids fed on them may not have been viruliferous, or the plants were difficult to infect by aphid inoculation. However, considering the establishment of the trial in a BBTV hotspot, with high levels of inoculum in the vicinity and the presence of spreader plants (BBTV symptomatic plants), and the same banana aphid population moving randomly in the field, there is a high probability that viruliferous aphids would have spread onto the plants of these four genotypes. However, due to evidently high tolerance, the plants remained uninfected. These genotypes may be resistant to virus inoculation. Hooks et al. [5] stated that despite susceptibility to BBTV, some banana cultivars have some resistance to virus inoculation by the banana aphid. Further experimental inoculation with viruliferous aphids is important to understand the reason for the uninfected status of these genotypes, even after prolonged exposure to BBTV in an endemic location.Musa genotypes evaluated in this study exhibited differential reactions to the banana aphid under screenhouse and field conditions. Aphid densities were higher on triploid and tetraploid genotypes containing both A and B genomes than those combining only A (AA or AAA) or B (BB and BBB) genomes. Similarly, genotypes responded differently to BBTD. In general, Musa genotypes with two copies of the B genome showed high tolerance to BBTV, and none of the plants of four genotypes [PITA 21 (AAB), Balonkawe (ABB), Calcutta 4 (AA), and Balbisiana Los Banos (BB)] were infected by BBTV after 36 months of exposure to BBTV inoculum in the field. These genotypes could be used as a source of resistance for breeding BBTV-resistant hybrids. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the underlying mechanisms contributing to the reduced susceptibility to banana aphid and BBTV.","tokenCount":"5829"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8e29e9401d7a5f322f730bfa9324ee0a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7e1aa6d8-0d11-42ef-8754-e7a232764378/retrieve","id":"1582220906"},"keywords":["S tem Bli ght 5","2 Fusarium Rool Rot 5","3 Fus arium Yellows 5","4 P y thium R ool ROL 5","5 Rhizoc t uni a R OOl ROL"],"sieverID":"8f8102bb-2aa0-4dbb-88f2-f27efdfad34c","pagecount":"138","content":"FRONT COVER: Four field problems of beans. Background. a field severely infect ed with bean common bact.erial bli~ht (H . F. Schwartz): top inserto H.!/íQlhis v;rescens feeding (A. van  Schoonhoven); lower left. manganese to xicity (H . F. Schwartz) ; lower nght. paraquat chemical damage (H . F. Schwartz). BACK COVER: Left, a di sease ohservation trial at the Obonuco Experimental Station of ICA, near Pasto, Colombia (H.F . Schwartz); right. clean seed production of a promi s ing variety a t t he Quilamapu Experimenta l St a tion of INIA, near Chillan, Chile (H . F. Schwartz).C IAT is a nonprofit organ ization devot ed t o the agricul t ura l and economi c developmen t of th e lowland tropies. The Government of Colombia provides support as host country for C IAT and furni s hes a 522• hectare farm near Cali for C IAT' s headquarters . Collaborative work with t he In s tituto Colombiano Agropecuario (lCA) is carried out 0 11 several of it s experimental s tation s and s imilar work is done with nationa! agricultura! agencie s in other Latin American countries. ClAT is financed by a number of donors represented in th e Con sulta tive Group for lnternational Agricultura! Research. During thi s year these donors are the U nited Ste tes Agency for lnternati onal Development {US AID l. the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the w . K. Kellogg Foundation, the Canadian lnternational Development Agency (CIDA), the InternationaJ Bank for Recons truction and Development (mRD) through the lnternati onal Development As soeiati on (IDA), the In ter-Ameri can Development Bank (IDB) and the governm ents o f Aus tra lia, Belgium , t he Federal Republic of Germany , Japan , the Netherlands. Norway, S witzerland and the United Kingdom . In addition, spec ial project funds are s upplied by variou s of the aforementioned entities plus t he lnternat ional Deve! opment Reseatch Centre (IDRC) of Canada and t he United Nati ons Developm ent Programme (UN DP ). Informat ion a nd conclus ion s reported herein do 110t necessa ri !y ren ect t he pos iti on of any o f thc aforcment ioned agencies, foundations or governments ._\"\"r . fffJiATJ ~JtM\" ~~-~Beans comprise an important protein component in the diets oí' mast Latin Ameri can people. Despite their importance , national y ields average on ly 600 kg/ ha, but beans possess the potential to yie ld over 4,000 kg/ ha . This grea l differenee between actua l a nd potential y ields is primaril y ca used by plan t di sease/ in sect pest com ple xes and so il nu tr iti o na l pro blems en cou ntered in rarmers' fields .Thi s booklet is ¡ntended to aid sci en tists, tec hni ci a ns , e xten s ion agents a nd farmers in the identi fi cat ion of production problem s and deve!opment of control measures . As an ai d in fully de scri bing proble m s en countered in the fi eld, sorn e names com monl y used in La tin Ame ri ca are listed in b lu e on lhe right-h a nd margino P hotograph s of fun ga! structures and insects in thi s book are approximately life-s ize, excepl where the estimated magnification is noted under the ph otograph .Bean s grown in the tropies are affeeted by many plant di seases eaused by fungi , bacter ia , viruses and nematodes. A la rger number of plant pa t hogens exist a nd infeet beans grown in the tropie s than in tempera te zones o f the world. In t he tropics be a ns are gro wn almost c ont inuou sly and undee diverse env iro nme n tal co ndition s favorable for in fecl ion by and surviva l of pa thoge ns. Environm e nl a l condition s range [rom hi gh temperature a nd moisture present in tropi ca l lowlan d areas to low tempera ture a nd hi gh moisture presen t in s ub-tropical h ighland areas . Sorne plant path ogen . are restricted lo spec ifi e reg ions; for example, web Bean common mos ai e v irus (B C MVI is a seri ou s probl e m 01' beans throughout the world. Symptom express ion ma l' be affected by s t ra in of the vi rus, degree of re s is tan ce of ~h e bean va riety o r age of the plan t , and different env ironmenta l con ditioll ~ sllch as tempera ture . Leaf sy mptoms inc lude ¡i g ht -and da rk -green mottled or mas ai e pattern s on l eav e ~, whi c h o rte n h a ve a cupped appearance as the leaf edges c url downward s . ¡nfecled lea ve s are ofte n s mall er lh an normal, and mal' ha ve s ma ll bli ster, on the lea l wrfaee (Fi g. 1) . Plant s are often stun ted , an d p ods and bloss oms may be deform ed. BCMV c an be lransmi! t ed m ec han ical ly, by seed (Fig. 21 or by aphids (Fig. 3) Hi gh t emperalures (grealer lh an 26\"C) mal' cau se lhe production 01' loc al necro tic lesi o ns on lea ves (F ig. 4) or plant systemic ne crosi s w hen resistant planto are infec led by s train s of BCMV. This reaction is actually a bl'persensilive res po nse nf the re s ist ant plan t to in fec tion by the v irus. System ic necros i s begin s wilh a s light wilting of y oun g le a flel s al any stage of planl growth; lea ves turn brow n or n ea rl y black and lhe n wilt (Fig. 5), followed by complele plant wilting and dealh, The plan l va sc ular sy stem also becomes necrolic (Fig. 6). T he v iru s cau s es a normal systemic mosa ic react ion al hi g h temperatures in sURcep tib le pla n ts . Bean ye llow mosaic virus (BYMV) has a wide ra nge of hosts including bean s, soybeans, clover and gladiolus. Symptom express ion may be affected by pathogenic slrains of the vi ru s and differences in the resistétnce of planl va rieties. Leaf sy mptoms on beans consist of yellow and green_ m ottled or mosai e patterns (Fig. í), which are more s evere in their express ion than s imilar sy mptoms of bean eommon m osa ie virus (BCMV). Leaves tend to beeome brittle, coneave and glossy. lnfected pods and lea ves may be malformed and distorted. The plant may be seve rel y stunted , much more so lhan stunt ing eaused by BCMV. Spee ific vi ru s strain s ma y cause purpling of the leaf bases of lower lea ves whi c h may resu lt in d eat h of the plan l . BYM V is not lransmilted by seed, but is ea s ily Lransmitted mec hanieally and by aphids.Control measures co nsis t of planting resi~t.ant varieties and contro !lin g the insec t vector population (see Seetion 11 . 11 . Bean Golden Yellow MosaieBean golde n mosaie v irus (BGMV) is a serious proble m in many tropica l area s 01' the world where bean s and li ma heans are gro wn. Leaf symptoms eonsi st uf a y ellow and green mosaic pattern which ma y ca use the infected leal' to cud downwards (Fig. 8). Reeent ly -emerged trifo li ate lea ves show brighl yellow. genera l mosaie patlern s ; these may eont ra s t s harply wilh lhe older leaves wh ich exhibit less dislin e t mosaie sy mptoms (Fig. 9). ¡n feeled planls are easil y observed in lhe field b~ thei r genera l yellow appearance . Sorn e varielies may be s tunted and have malformed pod s (Fig. 10). High popul a tions of lhe whitefly inseet vector (Bemisia taba e!) are necessary t o cause BGMV epidemies (Fig. 111 . BGMV en n be transmitted mec hanica Uy, but is nol seedborne. Weeds ma y a l50 servl: a:; rese rvoirs of in oculum.Contro l measures cons ist of plan ting resista nt or t o lerant varieties and co ntrol of lhe in see t vector populatio n (see Sec li on 11.4). Bean ehl orot ie mot tle virus (BCLMV) does not us ua lly ca use se ri ous losses to bean s. but may frequently be observed. Beeause of a lac k of c ha raeter iza ti on, we have in cl uded under this virus name severa l viru s diseases with si mil ar sy mptoms described by different workers. Leaf sy mptoms inelude ehlorotie mottled patches wit h so rne assoeiated ieaf curling .nd deformation in certain varieties (Fi g. 12) . If infeetio n occurs durin g the early seedling s tage , a sus• eept ible plant m.y be severely stunted and produce a witches'•broom (Fig. 13). Several weeds s ueh a s Sida sp., Euphorbia sp . and other common tropica l weeds serve as reservoirs of inoc ulum . The virus is tran smitted by t he whitefly (Bemisia tabaei).Control mea sures eons ist of planting res is tant variet ies and eontrolling the in seet vector population (see Section 11 .4).Mosaico Rugoso Ampollado Arruga miento Encarrugamiento Mosaico em Desenhos Bean ru gase mosaie viru s (BR MV) produces sympt oms whieh may resemble those ca used by BCMV. Symptoms can vary am ong pathogenie strain s of the virus an d di fferen ee s in the resistanee of pl ant va rieties. Leaf sy mptom s inelude a li ghta nd dark-green mosaie pattern, often aeeompa ni ed by severe lear bl istering, eurling a nd malformation wi th a t hiekened or leathery appearance (Fig. 14 ). Pl ants are often quite stu nted, espeeially if infeeti on oecurs during the seed ling stage of growth. P ods may be malform ed and exhibít a mosaic pattern. BRMV ís transmitted me ehanica l1y, an d by species of Ceroloma a nd DiabrOliea.Control meas ures cons is t of planting res istant varieties and virus-free seed, and eontrolling the in see t vector population (see Seet io n lO.2) .Bean southern mosaic virus (BSMV) has becn reported to occur in many coun• tries of Latin America. The virus may produce circular, brownish-red local lesions ) •3 mm in diameter, or systemie mottle and vein banding symptoms, depending upon the variety inoculated. The mottle symptoms eommonly resemble those produced by BCMV and BYMV , but they are less intense than those produced by the latter two viruses. Leaves may have bli s ters and be malformed . Pod symptoms may consi st of dark-green, water-soaked blotches which are irregular in shape. BSMV is seed-borne and commonly detected by serologieal teehniques (Fig. 15) Control measures consist of plantíng virus-free seed and resistant varieties. Alternaria lear spot can be a problem in locations with high humidity and relatively cool temperatures (l6-24°C). Lear symptoms appear as s mal! reddishbrown, irregula r zona te lesions surrounded by a darker brown border. These lesions grad ual!y enlarge and develop as concentric rings, which often become brittle and fal! out leaving a shot•hole appearance (Fig. 16). Lesions may coalesee and cover large area s of the leaf resulting in partial or premature d efoliati on. Alternaria sp. can cause death of the central growing point of the plant or reduce pl ant vigor. The fungus can also blemish leaves (Fig. 17 Angular leaf s pot of bean s (Fig. 19) , is present in many regions of the world . Infection and development of lhi s fungus are favored by modera te temperatures (18•25°C) and periods of high humidity or moi stu re. Lea f signs and symptom s generally appear first on the lower leaf surface as gray spots, which la ter turn brown and become covered by small columns of hy phae (synnemata) which bear gray-to black -colored conidia (Fig. 20). The les ions are angul ar beca use of delimi • lation by the veins and veinlets . Brown angu lar lesion s are also apparent on the upper leaf surface, but us ually do nol bear synnemata. Pod and stem lesion s are reddi s h-brown and oflen surrounded by a dark-eolored border (Fig. 21) . The pathogen can become seedborne, and transmission also occurs from windblown spores .Control measures inelude erop rotation, planting seed free of the fungus and res ista nt varieties, ando application o f ehemicals (b en omy\\ or thiophanale).-o TESColLetotrichum lindemuthianum (Sacc. and Magn.) ScribnerBean anthracnose (Fig. 22), is prevalent throughout mos t regioll s oi\" the \\Vorld, espeeially at elevati on s above 1000 m. Infeeti on a nd development by this pathogen are fav ored by cool temperatures (J4•18\"C) and hi gh humidity or free moisture. Spores are disseminated by wind and rain or m ovement through rield, by man, animals and in seet s. Leaf sy mptoms (Fig. 23), initially appear on lower lear s urfa ees and consist of dark briek•red l o black lesions along the leaf veins and veinlets. These lesion s may also appear o n the leaf petiole, branch, eotyledon, stem or podo P od infeetion generally appears as pink or rust •eol ored to blaek spots whi ch develop into sunken ca nkers containing pinkish masses af spores (Fig. 24). The fungu s can become seedborne and cause severe yield losses. Anthra c nose sy mptom s may be ca nfu sed with Ascoe hy ta sy mptoms, however, thei r d irferences are apparent (compare with Seetion 4.4).Control mea sures ¡nelude crop rota tio n, planting seed of re s istant varieties and seed free of the fungu s, and applieation of ehemicals (fentin acetate, captafol or ben omyll. Resistanee is a[feeted by the existenee oC different pathogenie races. Ascochyta leaf spot is primarily a problem at highl and elevations greater tha n 1500 m, and is favored by coo! temperatures and high humidity or moisture. Leaf s igns and sy mptoms con s ist of dark•gray to black zo na t e les ion s (Fig. 25), which may co ntain s ma ll, blac k pyenidia. Lesions ma y also appear on the peduncle, peti• ole (Fig. 26) a nd pod (Fi g. 27), and ca use stem girdle and plant death. Premature leaf drop may oecur during severe epidemics. The fungus can be seedborne.Control mea sures include crop rotation , planting of res L sta nt varieties or seed free of the fu ngus, an d applieation of ehemieals (zineb or be nomyl) .  Chaetoseptoria lear spot can be a problem in regio\"s with m odera t ely cool temperatures and moi st environ ment s. In México infec ti o n usualIy occurs on the prima ry len ves soon after plant emergen ce. Leaf sign s and symptoms cons ist of c ircular les io ns with light-ta n lo cream centers s urroun ded by a reddish-brown border (Fi g. 28). Small gray pycnidia may form in the les io n . Se ve re lear defoli• ation and yield 105S may oee ur. The fungo s is sus peeted t o be seedborn e.Control measures include erap rolat ion. plan ting seed free or the fungus, applieation o f ehemic al, (benomyl) and deve lopment 01' resistant o .. tolerant varie• tieso NOTES . . Leal' si gn s and symptoms consist DI' white angular lesions which may coalesce and appear irregular on the lower surface of lea ves (Fig. 29). The fungus characteristically produces a white floury-Iike growth of mycelium and spores . There may be a light-green or yellow discoloration present on the upper leaf surface, with no evidence of mycelium or spores. Infection generally occurs first on the older leaves and progresses ante new foliage. Severe infection may cau se premature defoliation.Control measures inelude crop rotation, application o f chemicals (thiophanate or benornyl) and development of resistant or tolerant varieties. Gray spot (F íg. 30) ís prevalent at elevatíon s greater than 1500 m where cool temperature and hígh moi sture condition s persi s t. Leaf s igns and symptoms consist of pale-green to chlorotic angular lesions (2 -5 mm in diameter) on the upper leaf surfa ce (Fig. 31). A grayish-white powdery growth of mycelium a nd spores may be prosent in these lesions on the upper leal' surface. A grayish mat of mycelium and spore s is produced on the lower leaf surface (Fig. 32) , and is very characteristic of the fungus. Severe ínfectíon s may cause premature defolíatíon.Control measures include crop rotation, planting resistant varieties and applicatí on of c hemí ca ls (copper hyruox ide or benornyl). Botryotinia fuckeliana (de Bary) Whetz.Botryti s cinerea is the eonidial or sporulating s tage of Botryotinia {llekeliana, and can b e a problem during periods of low temperature and high moisture. In• fection usually occurs at wounds on plant parts such as lea ves, stems or pods, oc seneseent blossoms eol onized by the fungu 5 (Fig. 33). Symptoms appear as a wa• tersoaked, gray•greeni5h area on t he affeeted ti osue, whieh 5ub sequently wilt.s and dies. Seedlings may al so beco me wilted and die. but damage is usually limited to a watery, 50ft rot of pods.Blaek stromata a nd selerotia (up to 4 mm in diameter) may forro in infected tis sue and resemble those formed by Sclerotinia . Apotheeia and / or mycelium may be produced by a germinating sclerotium of B. {uche/iana (Fig. 34), and aceount for variability in virulenee.Control mea sures inelude reducing the plant density, application of ehemicals (benornyl) and dev elopment of res istant va rieti es .  Powdery mildew (Fig. 35) is distributed worldwide and ilS growth is favored by low humidily and fiaderate temperalures. Hawever, the fungus can be preva• lent ayer a wíde range of environmental conditions. Severe darnage may occur if young plants are infecled , however, infeetion is usually noticeable only on older plants and seldom reduces yields. Leaf signs and sy mploms inelude an initiall y darkened area on the leaf which sub sequently becomes cov ered by white, powdery spots, generally only on the upper surface (Fig. 36). These superficial spats may coalesce and cover lhe en tire leaf with a white powder of mycelium and s pores. Seve re infection may cause premature defoliation . lnfecti on may occur on the stem and pods , causing the latter to be malformed and have a brown lo purple discoloration (Fig. 37). Spores may be presenl on the outside of lhe seed s. bul the primary di ssemination of spores occurs by wind currents.Control measures ¡nelude planting fun gus-free seed or seed of resistant varieties and chemical applications (dinocap, lime sulfur or s ulfur). Res istance is affecled by the exi sten ce oí different pathogenic races. ea rly in the season befare nowering. Lear signs and sy mptoms may eonsist of ehlorotie or white spots whieh develop into reddish •brown pu stules or uredia on the lower and upper leaf surfaees (Fig. 38). A pu stule eontains thousa nds of brown urediospores during the growing sea son or dark-brown teliospores near the end of the season, espeeially in temperate regions of the world. The pustules may be surrounded by a ehlorotic or neerotie border (Fig. 39) , depending upon the pathogenic raee, variety and environmental cond itions. Severe infection may cause premature defoliation. Pod infeetion may a l so oeeur (Fi g. 40).Control mea sure s in el ude destruetion of old plant debris, erop rotation, appliea tion of chemieals (oxyearboxin, benomyl or maneb) and planting resistant Or tolerant va rieties. Resistan ee is affected by the existenee of different pathoge ni c raees. Figure 41 illustrates the effeet of rust infection upon a re sista nt and a susceptible varie ty .En/y/ama pe/uniae Speg.Leaf blister smu t oeeurs in many regions of Central Ameriea and the is lands o f the Caribbea n. Leaf signs and symptom s on the upper leaf s urfaee eon si st of grayi s h•bla e k blisters or lesions (Fig . 42) whieh eontain subepidermal masses of blaek ehlarnydospores . Lesions are o ften del imi ted by the leaf vein s or veinlets. lnfeetion usually oeeurs first on the primary Or first and seeond t rifoliate lea ves.C ontrol mea sure s inelude destruetion 01' o ld plant debris, erop rotation . application of chemica ls (carboxin) and development 01\" resistant varieties . Web blight can cause severe yield losses when beans are grown in the lowland tropics where high temperature and moisture conditions persist. Leaf signs and symptoms begin as sma ll watersoaked s pots wich appear to be scalded light green to gray, and often surrounded by a dark border (Fig. 43). The fungu s produces tan •c olored hyphae whieh grow from these spots to uninfeeted foliage , eventually covering the entire plant with a web of hyphae if environmental eonditions are favorable (Fig. 44) . Pods can also be in fected by the fungus. The fungu s produces s mall brown sclerotia (0.2•0 .5 mm in diameter) whieh ca ll survive in Lhe soi l. The fungus can beeome seedborne.Control measures inelude des truction ofplant debris, crop rotation, planting seed free of the fungus , applieation of ehemieals (benom)'ll, and development of varieties with open plant canopies and/or tolerance . White mold is distributed worldwide, and has a very wide range o( hos ts which ineludes most vegeta bies and many weed speeies. This fungus is favored by modera te to eool temperatures, high humidity or moi sture and seneseenl plant tissue (Fig. 45). Symptoms and signs of infeetion initiall y appear as a water•soaked lesion, foll owed by a white moldy growlh On lhe affeeled plan~ organ sueh as a leaf or pod (Fig. 46). This infeeled lissue laler beco mes dry . light•eolored and ha s a ehalky or bleaehed appearanee. Blaek selerotia (1-10 mm in diameter or larger) form in and on infeeted lissue within a few days after infeetion. The enlire plant and its parts may beeome infeeled, but generally infeetion oeeurs on above•ground plant pans. The fungus ca n be ~eedborne, however, it is primarily di sseminated as selerotia Or spores relea sed by a fruiling s trueture eaHed an apotheeium (Fig. 47), produeed from a selerotium buried in lhe soil.Control measures inelude erop rotation, appliealion of ehemieals (PCNB, thiophanate or benomyl), reducing plant densities, and planting varÍeties whieh possess an upright plant architecture with an open plant eanopy, andjor resistance or tolerance.....Pudrición Gris de la RaízMacrophomina phaseoli (Maubl.) Ashby Podridao Cinzenta do Caule Ashy stem blight can oceur ín regíons wíth warm temperatures and moderate to hígh moísture condítions. The fungu s ís a pathogen of beans, soybea ns, maiz. and other crops. Symptoms usually appear after soílborne mycelía or sclerotía germí nate and ínfect seedling stems near the soil surface or at the base of developing eotyledons. The fungus produces black, sunken cankers whíeh have a sharp margín and often contaín coneentric rings. The plant growing tip may be killed or the stem may break . Old.r seedling and plant infections may cause stunting, leaf chlorosis, premature defoliation, hypoeotyl and root degradation, and plant death. lnfeeti on is often more pronouneed on one s ide of the plant (Fi g. 48). Older lesions turn gray and often conta in smal! black pycnidia (Fig. 49) or sclerotia (Fig. 50). The fungus can be seedborne .Control measures include planting seed free of the fungus , erop rotation , deep plowíng, applieatíon of ehemicals (benomyl) and development of resi stant varíeties. Fusarium solan; (Mart.) Appel and Wollenw.f. sp. phaseoli Snyder and HansenPodridiio Radicular Seca FusariuID root rot produces symptoms which inelude reddi sh streaks or lesions on the primary root one to two weeks after germination . This discoloration increases in intensity and extent, and may CQver the en tire root system. The red color later turn s brown and longitudinal fissure s or cracks may appear on the ex• terior of the taproot and extend lO the soil surface (Fig. 51). The primary and lateral roots are commonly killed by the fungus and persist as dried remnants, however, secondary roots may develop aboye lesion s on the primary ro ot. The main root and lower plant stem may become infected and eventualIy turn pithy . Small bluish•green masses of conidia may be observed on old lesions . Plants usually are not killed by the fungus, however, yields can be reduced.Control mea sures inelude crop rotation, wide plant spacing, planting in uncompacted and warm soils, application of chemicals (thiram , Ceresan or benomyl) and planting of resistant or tolerant varieties . f. sp. phaseoli Kendrick and SnyderFusarium uxysporum produces symptoms which are easily confused with lhose eaused by F. sola ni infeelion . However, F. oxysp orum infeels through root and hypocotyl wounds and causes a reddish di seoloration ol' lhe vascular sys t em in the roots (Fig. 52), s tem, petioles and peduncles. It causes a yellowing of lower lea ves whieh progresses into leaves located higher on the plant (Fig. 53). The lea ves become progressively yellow and orten senesce prematurely. Sl unl ed pIants oceur if seedlings are infeeted. The fungu s can be seedborne l'rom spores Iocaled on the seed s urface.Control measures include erop rotation , plantíng resistant or tolerant varíeties or seed free of the fungue, and applieation of ehemicals (ethylmercury chloride or hydroxyrnereuric hlorophenol).Pyt hiu m aphanide rmatum (Edson) Fritz .P y thium deb aryanu m Hesse.Pythium myriotyl um Drechs.Pythium ultimum T row.Phythi um but/eri Gubr.Pythium root rot is caused by a compJex oi Py thium•spp. and seJdom causes serious yield los ses . The fungu s can cause root rot, damping off, and stem and branch rot o ¡nitial symptoms appear as elongated water•soaked areas on the lower hypocotyl or roots of seedlings. These lesion s become tan to light • brown in color and may be slightly su nken (Fig . 54). Plant wilt and death may occur in seedJings (Fig. 55) and even in mature plants when environmental conditions sueh as high temperatures and moisture persist, and allow the fungus to progress upwards onto other plant parts. The fungus caro beeome seedborne.Control measures incJude erop rotation, wide plant spacing, adequate soil aeration, planting resistant or tolerant varieties or seed free of the fungus, and application of chemicals (ethylmereury chloride or Busan•72A) . Rhizoctonia root rot produces sy mptoms which inelude reddish•brown sunken canke\" of varying si ze on the root and hypocotyl (Fig. 561. and may cau se damp• ing•off of young seedlings. Th e cankers are usuall y delimited by a well•defincd border a nd become rou gh, dry and pithy as t hey age. lnfection often proceeds into the plant pith and cau ses a brick•red discoloration (Fig. 57) . The fungus ca n be seedborne.Contro l measures inelude crop rotation, shalJ ow planting dept h, wide plant s pacing, incorporating organ¡ c so il amendments. planting res is ta nt or tolerant varieties or seed fre e of the fungus, and arplication of chemi cals (PCNB or chlo• roneb) . Sclerut;um rolfs;; has a wide host range an d produces symptom s which include brown, water-soaked les ions on the stem or hypocoty l jus t benea th the soil surface (Fig. 58). There may be a s light yellowin g of the lower lea ves and premature defoliation . Infection proceeds into the taproot and destroys the corte x, even• tually ca us ing plant wilt and death if environmen tal conditi on, are favor ab le. Signs of infecti on in clude t he presence of white mycelium whi ch adh eres as a co llar around che roo t s or hypoco t yl or to soi l parti cles (Fig. 59) .The fungu s al so produces s mooth spherical white sclerotia (1 -2 mm in diameter) which becorne brown as they mature .Control measures consi s t of crop rotclt ion . p lant ing of res istant or tolerant. varieties, and application of c hem ica ls (dicloran).  T hese ba ct eria are di s tributed worldwide and ca use severe y ield los ses, espe• ci ally in region s with modera te t o h igh tempera tures and moi s ture. lnitial infeet ion by comm on and fu sco us bligh t bacteri a appears a s water -soaked spots on the underside of leaves or leaflets (Fig . 60) . These ' pots sub,equently enlarge irregul a rl y and adjacen! les io ns may coa lesce (Fig. 6 1). lnfe cted reg ions appear fl aceid, and are en ci reled initi a ll y by a narrow zone of lemon •yellow ti ssue, whieh may later tum brown and necrotic . Yellow droplet s ol' bacterial ooze or exudate may be visible on and around les ions. Stems and pods may al so be infecled; pod infeeti on prov ides the opportuni ty for seed discoloration and/or s ubsequent seed tran smi ss ion of the bacteria (Fi g_ 62) .Co ntrol mea sures in clude ccap Totati on, plantin g bacteria -free seed , a nd t ol era nt vari eties , and applieation 0 1 chem ic a ls (copper hydroxide or streptomyei n sul fate) . Pse udo m onas phaseolicola (Bu rk.) Dows.Mancha de Halo T hese bacteria are di s tributed worldwide and can be a seriou s problem (Fig. 63) in regions wi th cool t o moderate temperatures (less than 28\"C) . Init ial sympt oms appear three to five days after infect ion as s mall , water-soaked spots generally on the lower leaf sur face. A halo of greenish-yellow ti ssue later appears a round these water-soaked areas (Fig. 64). Systemic plant chloTOsis with lea f yellowing and malformation may develop without the appearance of much external infec tion . A light cream or s ilver-col ored bacterial exudate may be observed on and around les ions . Stems and pods may also beco me infected and cause subsequen t seed transmission of the bacteria .C ontrol measures inelude crop ro talion, planting bacteria-free seed a nd resistant or tolerant varieties, and application of c hemica ls (copper hydroxide or streptomyc in sulfate) . Resistance is affected by the existenee of different pathogeni c stra ins. Symptoms of root knot nematode infeetion inelude plants which are stunted, yell owish and wilt during the warmest part of the day. Examination of the root sys tem of a n infected plant reveals numerous enlargements or gall s (1 -\\5 m m in diameter or larger) in which the nematodes are located (Fig. 65, left s ide). These galls interfere with the pla nt 's abil ity to obt ai n moisture and nutrient s from the soil and can greatly reduce y ield s. Figure 66 (r ight s ide) s hows feeding da mage by the root les ion nematode.Control meas ures for the root knot and ot her nemat odes inelude crop rotation, application of chemicals (carbofuran, fenamiphos or ethoprop), a nd development of varieties with res is tance or tolerance. Many fungal, bacteria l and viral pa thogens are transmitted on or within bean seed used by farm ers for planting (F ig. 67). T hese pathogens can su rvive for long periods of time, and then infect an d destroy the germinating seedling (F ig. 68) , or survive as epiphytes On the developing plant until en vironmental condition s beeome favora ble for infeetion later in the growing season. Seed storage life, seed • li ng emergenee and vigor, and plant yields can be seriously affected by these pathogens. There are three major control measures which can satis factorily reduce the effects of seed transmission.1. Varieties whieh are resistant or tolerant to infeetion by pathogens will prevent t he buildup of pathogen spores or baeterial eell s a nd as sure the produc • tion of elean seed. However, varíeties which are tolerant to infeetion may s ti ll exhibit sorne seed transm ission which eould provide inoculum for susceptible varie• ties; this seed s hould be handled by one or both of the following measures.2. Various ehemieals are avai lable whieh can be applied a s seed trcatments to destroy pathogenie fungi and bacteria present on or within the seed . Sorne ehem ical s are systemic and can penetrate the seed coat to destroy internal contaminants, while other chemica ls only di s infect the outer seed coat. ehemicals are also used to protect seed produced in the [ield. Foliar applications during the growing season, especially at pod formation and maturity, reduce the incidence o[ pod infection and seed contamination. Suitable chemicals for specifi c pathogen s ha ve already been mentioned in previou s sections. 3. Production of pathogen-free seed can be easily achieved in areas where specific pathogens do not exist or where environmental conditions are unfavorable for pathogen development. However, this requires additional producti on costs and an efficient system to distribúte the elean seed to farmers .Many farmers, especially those working on a smal! scale, commonly keep seed over for future planting. lf resistant or tolerant varieties are unavailable or cheroi• cals are not 'used to treat this seed, several other simple practices are effective for reducing the incidence of seed•transmitted pathogens.a . Harvesting should be as early as poss ible to reduce the period during whichBeans may be attacked by many insect pests which cause defoliation, pod and seed losses on the plant, and 'storage losses. Beans in Latin Americ a are often grown in association with other crops, and in diversified environments which tend to stabi líze insect. populations and maintain al1 equilibrium between pests and their biological control agents . Beans also have a relatively short growing sea son which usually enables the plants to esc ape s ignificant damage and yield loss before insect populations reach serious levels.However, these positive factors are often complicated by current agricult.ural practic es such a s continuous cropping and varietal uniformity. Abus es Iike poorly planned pesticide policies often destroy natural biological control agents or stimulate pes t.s to develop t.olerance to specific chemicals. Some insect pest s are di stributed throughout Lat.in America, while others are restricted to specific growing regions. Problem s caused by these insects are described in the following sections. A large number of ínseels sporadíeally atlaek bean s duríng and s hortly after planl germínatíon. Infes tatí on s of these ínseels are us ually unpredi etable and seldom cause serious oc widespread damage.Crickels usually sever primary leaves or growing poinls from slems (Fig. 701, while moleeriekets and whítegrubs (Fig. 711 feed on underground plant parts eausíng seedling death. Millipedes and anls destroy seed prior to germinatíon.Control mea s ures should rely upon ínseel baits plaeed near the base of the plants. A sa tisfaetory bait formulation may inelude sawdust, coromeal or wheatbran, molasses and trichlorfon or disulfoton . It s hould be applied in the late afternoon. The larvae of many species of noctuid mOlhs can damage bean seedlings . The adult moth lays eggs during the night on seedlings or organie mallero Larvae are usually gray-brown and can be found near lhe base of lhe plant a few centimeters deep in the soil where they feed sublerraneously on the seedling slem and hypocolyl, severing lhe rools and slem and causing plant wilt and death (Fig. 72). Severe seedling losses may occur, especially in moi st or humid areas of lhe field. Stem girdling (Fig. 73) ruay al so occur in older plants whieh wilt(Fig. 74) or are broken by lhe wind. This damage is sometimes confused with that caused by root infeeling fungi.Bait forruulations are effective control measures. Adequate soil preparalion and removal of plant debris by. burning or soil incorporation o ft en reduces pest populations. Preventive ehemical control is nol feasible sinee attaeks are infrequent and unpredictable. The lesser corn stalk borer can be a serious problem. especially in sorne areas of Peru and Brazil. The gray larvae (Fig. 75) en ter the stem just below the soil surface and tunnel upwards into the seedling, causing plant death. Adults lay their eggs in lhe soil or on le.ves, and larvae may form pupal chambers in so il a t tached t o lhe stem (Fig. 76).Control methods inelude e1ean fall owing an d heavy irrigations. Chemical control (with methamidophos, monocrotophos or c.rbofuran) should be directed near the seeds or at the base of the seedlings.  The seedcorn maggot can severely reduce plant den s ity in area s with modo erate temperatures, such as Chile and México. Larvae (white maggots) attack the germinating seed s at the growing point (Fig. íí), and prevent germination or deform the seedlings (Fig. 78). Larvae ean also penetra te the hypocotyL Adult females, resembling the common housefly, lay their eggs in recently disturbed , humid soil high in organie matter.Control is most easily achieved by planting later in the sea son when the soil temperature is higher and seed s germinale rapidly , thereby redueing the expos ure time. Resi s tant varieties may also be planted , or the chemicals earbofuran Or di.zinon may be applied. Several species of caterpillars cause defoliation of bean plant s. Yields are us ually not greatly reduced unless defoliation is severe due to larval feeding . You ng larvae of E. acrea aggregate (Fig. 79), are recognized by their hairiness (Fig. 80) and may vary in color fr om Iight•brown to blaek. Those of U. proleus are easily identified by their relatively large red•brown head capsule (Fig. 81). Feeding damage of U. proteu s is evident as folded leaf sec tions (Fig. 82), beneath which the larvae live. Larvae of Hedyl epta sp. are green, and feed on leaf paren• ehyma ti ssue of lea ves woven together (Fig. 83). Tric hoplusia larvae are pale green loopers whieh may damage pod s and direetly reduce yields (Fig . 841.Biological control is usua lly present since high levels of parasitism of larval stages OCCurs naturally unless broad-spectrum insec ticides have been applied. Ba cillus lhuringien sis is a bacterium which is efreet ive when sprayed o nto bean plants to control the larvae. Trichogramma egg parasites can a lso be re leased in the vicinity of infe s t ed plants. ehemical control (using endosulfanl is possible, however, it is difficult to reach larvae hidden between lea ves which are wQven togelher. Adult chrysomelid beetles vary in color according to lhe species (Fi g. 85) . AlI are a bout 1 cm in length. These insec ts are widely di str ibuled lhroughout bean production regions and can transmit bean rugose mosaie virus. Adults can cause defoliation during the en tire growth cyele of beans, however, certain amounts of foliage damage can be tolerated before yield losses become serious. Seedling damage is usually more severe (Fig. 86), while fl ower and young pod damage al so occur. Larvae feed on plant roots and root nodules, leaving feeding marks (Fig. 87) Or perforation s resembling adult feeding damage. Plants with severe root damage are stunled , and basal leaves lurn yellow with premature senescence.Adult feeding is controlled with foli ar applications of ca rbaryl or di az in on while band appli cat ions of carb ofuran are effective against larva l feeding . The Mexican bean beetle is a serious pest of beans in many regions o f Central and North Ameri ca . Adu\\ts are 5 mm in length and copper-colored with 16 black spots on their back (Fig. 88). Larvae are yellow and covered with branched spines (Fig. 89). Adult beetles and larvae can cause serious defoliation as adult s feed throughout the entire leaf, while larvae reed on the lower leaf s urfa ce usually leaving the upper epidermi s intact. Larvae chew and compress the leaf tissue but only swallow the plant juices. Stems and young pods may al so be dam aged . Adult females attach yellow to orange-colored eggs to the lower leaf surface, and mature larvae pupate whiJe atlached lo lhe leaL Control mea sures inelude des troy ing or deep pl owing o[ plant debri s, reducing plant density, planting resis tant var ie ties or applying chemicals (carbaryl, disul• foton or malathion) . Chemical co ntrol can often be combined with the first spray application for Apion attack (see Sect ion 12. 1).Agromyza sp. Liriomyza sp.Leafminers are often abundant, but generally do not reduce yields. The larval damage appears as serpentine galleries (Fig. 90) and the pupae can be found altached to the leaf (Fig. 91).Control measures are not economically justi fied.Vaginulus plebejus Fisher Limax maximus (L.)While they are not insects, slugs cause seriou. defoliation of beans, especially In El Salvador and Honduras. Mature and young slugs are cylindrical, Ilattened, lack legs and have a browni s h-gray body which is soft and s limy (Fig . 92) . Mature slugs may measure 10 cm in length. The hermaphroditie adults lay egg masses in moist environments beneath plant debris Or weeds, and young slugs maturo in about throe months. They feed on foliage during the night, and hide beneath plant debris and weeds during the day .Control mea sures indude removal of weeds from field borders, de struction of plant debri s and appl•icati on of commereial baits. Se veral species of aphids attack bean planes. T heir feeding seldom cau s es di reet damage to the pl ant, but sorn e species are abl e to transmit viru s partic1es of bean c arnman masaie virus ar bean yell ow masai e viru s. Aphids are small (2 mm) and green to bla ck in color (Fig. 93), depending upon the spec ies. Aphids may be winged or wingless depe nding upon age and density of insect population s. Aphid popu lation s can expand rapidly s ince remales are v lv iparou s.N atura l pred a tors su c h as lady bee tl es and some d ipt erous larvae (syrphid s) The lea/bopper is on e or lhe most economically imporla nt insect pes t s or bean s; il orlen ca uses complete crop los ses . Adults, measuring aboul 3 mm (Fig. 94). and pale green nymphs (Fig. 95) reed on lear unders ide s and pelioles . Lea/b opper damage is apparent on lea ves which have yellowed margins and cup or curl downwa rd s (Fig. 96) . Planls are stunled and have a bushy appearance. Be ans are mosl sen si • live to lea/bopper altack during lhe flowering s lage .Control measures inelude planting during the wet season , and use of mu\\ches, associ ated cropping and resistant varieties . Che mical control is achieved with seed, side •dressi ng or foliar applications o f chemicals s uch as ca rbaly l , dimethoat.e or monocrotophos. Mites do not usuall y cause significant damage but can become serious during the dry season and followin g hea vy appli eatio ns of pestieides. The red spider mite is found on th e lowe, leaf surface (Fig. 97), and is identified by sm all red or brown spots on its abdomen . Feeding damage may be observed as a cluster of pinpoint sized white d ots on the upper lea r surface (Fig. 98). Contin ued feeding cau ses th e lea ves to turn rust-brown in color a nd beco me eovered by webbing (Fig. 99) :The tarsonemid mite is a s mall, pale green m ite whieh is not vi s ible without magnifieation . This mite ca uses the edge, o f yo un g leaves lO roll upwa rds (Fig. 100); lea ves oft en ex hibit a reddish•purple diseoloration on the lowe, surface (Fig. 101) . Continued feeding may cause leaves to tum yellow and fall prem aturely . Heavy feedi ng may also discol or the pods.  Several speeies of whiteflies attaek bean plants. T he ir feeding seldom causes direet damage to the plant, but so me speeies and strains are able to transmit virus particles of bean golden mosaie virus and bean ehlorotic mottle virus. Adults are sma ll white in seets (Fig. 102), about 2-3 mm in length, which often fly up in a cloud-li ke mass when the plant is disturbed . !mmature sta ges are oblong, pale green, and attached to the leaf undersi de (Fig. 103l.Whiteflies a re controlled by natural predators and parasites, or by applications of oxydemeton -methyl , monocrotophos , phorate or aldiearb . The bean pod weevil is a seriou s pes t in Central America and can ca use complete yield 1055 when larval feeding is heavy. The adult weevil, which is black and nearly 2 mm in length, reed s nn flow ers and pods with no apprecia ble damage. The adult remale chews a small hole in the mesocarp of sm all pod s and deposits an egg on or above the developing seed . Thi s damage appears as a sea r on the developing pod (Fig. 104). Larvae, white rounded grubs a few millimeters long, reed down the pod wall lO the devel oping seed whieh then serves as a feeding ehamber (Fig. 105). The larvae pupa le in the pods and adults emerge when the pods approae h ma turi ty.Control measure s inc1ude timely planting (around M ay in Ce nt ral America) , devel opment o f resis tant variet ¡es and a pplication of the chemic a ls carb ofuran, carbaryl. or mo noc rotop hos. Epinotia sp . are lepidopterous pod borers which can be economically important in Peru, Chile and Brazi!. Young larvae are green while older larval stages appear pink. Larvae push masses of black excrement out of their larval tunnels onto the plant surface. Larvae feed on terminal and lateral buds (Fig. 106), or perforate stems and pods. Secondary rotting oflen accompanies the feeding damage in pods.Control mea sures inelude early planting and application of the ehemicals carbaryl, monocrotophos or methamidophos..OHSHeliothis virescens (F.)Heliothis zea (Boddie) Heliothis Helotero Bellotero Yojota HeLiothis sp . may cause sporadi c but severe damage to beans. Larvae are greenish •yellow with longitudinal bands which are oft en reddish•brown in color. Adults lay their eggs on young bean lea ves , and larvae reed on flowers and devel• oping seeds in lhe pods by perforating lhe pod wall directly above lhe seed (Fig. 107). The larva e do not tunnel in si de lhe pod but can destroy several seeds in each podo Secondary rotling often accompanies t hi s feeding and destroys lhe remaining seeds.Control mea SUres inelude the use of Trichogramma egg pa ras ites, or the Bacillu s thuringiensis bacterial pathogen on you ng larvae. The chemicals monocrotophos or meth orny l are also effective controls.12.4 Other Pod BorersMaruca testulalis (Geyer)Laspeyresia leguminis (Heinrich)Otros barrenadore s de las VainasOther pod-boring insects are encountered in ma ny reg ion s of Latin America . Man.lea sp. ¡ay eggs near or on fluwer buds, flowers, young leaves and p ods. Damage u sua ll y res u lt s from pod-boring followed by secondary rotting. Laspeyresia s p. cau se d a mage s imil a r to that of Epinotia, however, thi s borer u sually web ~ pods together_ Adults lay eggs on pods whe re young larvae bore into them an d des t roy the seeds (Fig. 108).Control mea,ure, inelude early planting a nd a ppli c ati on of the chemicals ami nocarb or dimeth oate . Acan/hose elides ob/ec tus is the principa l s tored grain insect in ca 01 high• land regions of Latin America or in le~s tropical counlries such as Argentina, Chile and Mexi co. Adults are gray•brown and measure 3 mm (Fig. 109). Females lay eggs among s tored seed or infest bean s in the field where they lay eggs in crack s or wounds of developing pod s . Young larvae then penetrate the seed which serves 'as the feeding and pupation cell. This cel! becomes vi s ible as a circular window where the larvae feed on the lower surface on the testa . After pupation the adult pus hes or cuts this tissue out and repeals the egg lay ing cycle imme• diately after emergence .Control meas ures inelude dus ting stored, s hel!ed bean s with inert materia ls s uch as crystalline silica, bentonite or magnesium carbonate or protecting stored seed with the chemicals phostoxin or pyrethrins. Seed can al so be protected with vegetable oils and resistant varieties are available.Zabrotes sub{asciotu s is the principal pes t of stored grain in warmer region s (u sually below 1500 m) of the tropies Adult female s are grayish•brown with Iighter eolored spots on the abdomen . Adult males (about 3 mm long) are one•half the size of females and are uniformly gray•brown in color. Zabrot es female s lay eggs and firmly attach them to the seed (Fig. 110). The larvae then hateh and bore through the egg shell and seed eoat in one proeess . The remainder o f the life ey el e is s imilar to that o f A contha see lides o bt ee tus .Control mea s ures inelude s toring bean s in undamaged pods and tl'eating seed. either with vege table oils Ot ehemi cals (phos to xi n orpyrethrin s).In Latin Ameriea beans are grown on many different so il types wh ere different nu tri tional di fi ei enei es or toxie i ti es may I i mi t yield. In Centra l Am eri ea a nd western Sout h Ameri c a , beans a re ge nera ll y grown i n mountain afe a s wh ere Andosois (Ineeptisols) pre domin a te. In these soil s phosphorus deficiency and alumi• nium/ manganese loxicity are the main problems . Between mountain ran ges, beans are grown in valleys whie h genera lly ha ve alluvi al soil s o f high fertility, A1th ou gh beans ex trac t rather large a mounts 01' nit rogen and potass ium from the soil, the mos t commo n nutri t iona l probl em is phosph oru s deficiency. Nitrogen defi ciency may a lso seriou s ly Jimit yields in low organi c matter soils or in soi Is where biological nitrogen fixation is nol effective due to high temperatures or soil restrictions. Potassium deficiency seldom occurs in Latin America. Beans are ext remely susc eptibl e to alumi ni um/ma ngan ese coxicity whieh frequently occurs in acidi e so ds. Am ong the minor element problem s, boron and zinc deCicieney are most eommon ly observed in high-pH so il s or soi ls with a very low content of weatherable minera ls .A nutricional problem is generally diagnosed wit h the use of so il and plan! tissue analyses, as we11 as vi sual observation of symptoms. Sometimes a range of different elements is applied to either s oil or folia ge to observe an y improvement of growth or disappearance of symptoms, so as to identify the specific element limi ting plant growth.Toxicidad de AluminioAlurnini um toxicity occurs in large areas of Latín AmE'rica with acid Oxisol s, Ultisols and lnceptisols. Seans are quite susceptible to aluminium toxicity and generally do not yield well in these soils unless lime is added . Sean yields are affected ir the aluminium saturation of the effective Cat ion Exchange Capacity is over 25 to 30 percent . A1uminium toxicity produces stunted growth and necros is along leaf margins (Fig. 111). Under severe conditions aU leaves senesce and the plantdies (Fig. 1I2, left s ide).A1uminium toxicity is controlled by applying calcitic or dolomitic lime. Six tons lime/ ha was effective on an acidic volcanic as h so il as indi ca t ed by improved plant growth (Fig. 113,background). Applicati on ofbasic s lag and certain rock phos• phatesmay also reduce aluminium toxicity,while such acid-forming fertilizers as arnmonium s ulphate and urea may intensify the problem .  Calcium deficiency is generalIy observed in combination with aluminiurn taxicity in acid Oxi sols and Ultisols. Calcium deficient plants remain small with a poorly developed root system (Fig. 118, right side) . Leaves remain green with a slight yellowing at the margin s and tips, and may crinkle and curl downwards. Internodes are often s hort, producing a rosette-ty pe of plant growth (Fig. 119) . Deficient plants have calcium contents in upper leaves of less than 2 perce nt at flower initiation.Calcium deficiency is controlled by deep inc orporatian of calcitic oro dolomitic lime, Or calcium oxide ar hydroxide . Low rates such as 500 kg/ha generally are sufficient to relieve calcium deficiency , but higher rates are o ften emplayed t o neutralizt:: toxic amounts of aluminium. Calcium phospha te ~ources s uc h as ba si c slag, rock phosphate and superphosphate may con tribute s ignificantly ta calcium nutrition . Copper deficiency is generally controlled by soil application of5-10 kg copper/ ha as copper s ulfate. Foliar application s of 0.1 percent copper as copper sulfate or copper chelates are al so effective 14.5 Iron (Fe) Deficiency Deficiencia de HierroIron deficiency may occur in organic soils Or mineral soils with high pH, especially if free calcium carbonate is present o Deficiency symptoms appear as an interveinal chlorosis 01' upper leaves which later ma)' become uniformly ligbt yellow to whi te (Fig. 120). Normal iron levels are about 100•800 ppm .The dericiency is controlled by foliar application of iron chelates. Magnesium deficiency is controlled by incorporating dolomitic lime or magnes ium oxide, or by baod application of 10•25 kg magnesium/ha as magnesium sulfate. Foliar spray s of magnesium sulfate Or magnesium chelates may al so be used . Manga nese defic iency may occur in organi c soil s or high -p H mi nera l soils. De fi cie n t plants are s tun ted a nd upper lea ves b ecome golden yello w b etwee n s mall ve ins giving a mottled appeara nce on beans a nd soybea n s (Fig. 124). Normal pl ants ha ve man ga n ese conte nts o f 75-200 ppm in upper leaves, while deficient leaves generall y con ta in less t ha n 30 ppm .T he d efici ency is cont ro lled by so il applicati on of 5-10 kg manga nese/ ha as manganese sulfate or manganous oxi de, or by foliar applications o f manganese chel a tes.Manganese tox icity is cornmon on very aci d , poorly drained so ils. Bean s are quite s uscepti ble to manganese to xi c ity and plants show ao in terveina l chl oros is of upper lea ves (F ig. 125) . With severe t oxi c ity , upper lea ves are small , c rinkl e an d c url downward s (F ig. 126) . Leaves gen erally con tai n over 500 ppm mangan ese .The toxi c ity is controlled by liming a nd by improvi ng field drainage. N itrogen deficiency is cornmon in soil s with a low organic matter co ntent , a nd in acidic soils with toxic level s of aluminium or manganese, or deficient lev eIs o[ calcium and pho sphate which reduce effective bacterial nitrogen fixation. Leaves nea r the bOLLom of t he plan! lurn pale gree n and event•ually , uni forml y yellow wi lh discoloration gradually progressing upwards (Fig . 127). Plant 'growth is stunted and yields may be affected. Upper lea ves of deficient plants contain less than 3 percent nitrogen during flower initiation, while a normal plant contains ahoul 5 percenl .Nitrogen deficiency is controlled by inoculating seed with effective strains of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, or by applying a green manure, animal manu re or ch ernical nitrogen fertilizers. The application of 50-100 kg nitrogen/ ha is ge nerall y sufficient , although in sorne soils responses ha ve been obtained with 200-400 kg nitrogen/ ha (Fig. 128, left s ide). Nitrogen fertilizers are generall y ban dapplied at or shortly after seed ing, or as a s plit a pplicati on aL seed ing and !l ower init¡ati o n. Arnmon ium 01' nitrate SOUTces are equally effecti ve. /lOTES ., 14.9 Phosphorus (P) Deficiency Deficiencia de Fósforo P hosphorus deficiency in beans is eom mon on vole ani e ash so ils and in highly \\Veathered Oxisols and Ul tisols. Plants lack general vigor a nd ha ve rew side branches (Fig. 129, left side). Upper lea ves are dark green but sma ll , and bottom lea ves become yellow and necrotic before senescing (Fig. 130) . Phosphoru s deficiency retard s flowering and maturatian (Fig. 131). Deficient pl a nts have less than 0 .35 percent phosphorus in upper leaves at fl ower initiation.Phosphorus deficiency is contro lled by applying, at the time 01\" planting, bone meal, basic slag, s in gle or triple superphosph ate or roe k phospha tes. These treatments shou ld be broadcast and incorporated except for the superph os phate which should be applied in bands in high phosphorus-fixing so ils. The rate of application depends on the phosphorus content of the soi ls and its phosphoru s-fixing capac i ty. H igh ra tes of 200-400 kg P 2 0. / ha of a phosphori c acid ferti I i zer are required for maximum yield in high ph os ph orus-fixing soi ls (Fig. 132, le ft s ide). Potassium deficiency seldom is observed in beans, bul can occur in infertiJ e Oxisols anp. Utisols, or in so ils high in calcium and magn esium. Symptoms appear as yel lowing and necrosis of leaf t ip s and mal'gins, initially on the lower part of the plant, but graduall y exte nding upward s (Fig. 133). Neerotie spotting may also oc eur. Defieient plant o have less than 2 percent potassium in upper leaves al fl ower initiati on, and this level may be laV/er in plant s grown on high caleium 01' magnes lum so il s.Potassium deficiency is generally conlrolled by banding, at the time of planting, 50-lOO kg pOlash (KzO) / ha in the form of either pOlassium chloride or pota:;s iurn sulfate. The sulfa te farm is recommended for soi ls which afe low in avadable sulphur. S ulphur defici ency is controlled by applying 10•20 kg/ ha of element a l slllp hur, or th e use o f s ulfur-conta inin g fertilizers 5uch as simple superphosphate, arnmonium and pota ,;s ium s u iphates. Certain fun g ici des su eh a s El os al may contribute to the s ulfur nut riti on 01' the planl. Zi nc deflc iency occurs in high-pH soi ls Or over-limed aci d soil s with low zinc conten t. lt may be induced by high application uf p hosp horu s. Zinc deficienc y sy mp t oms appea r as an interveinal c hl oros is of upper leaves (F ig. (36), wh ic h la • t er bec ome necrot ie (Fig. (37). Deficient plant s h ave zin c con t en ts be low 20 ppm in th e leaves. while n ormal levels are abou t 40-50 pp m.Zinc defic iency can be co nlrolled by so il app)ication 015-]0 kg zinc/ ha as zinc s ulfate , 0 1' by foliar spray s of 0.5 percent zinc su lfate Of zin c c helates. ferti l izer m ay be plaeed too clase t o seed s. ereat in g problem s ir chemi eals do nol di ss olve and leae h ra pidly in to the rOOl zo ne. Oam age sy mptoms inelude brown or neerot ie tis sue on t he lea ves, us ua ll y al the lear t ips and margin s tF ig. 138). Depending upon the severity of dam age, leaves may be deformed and s tunted in t heir development . Foli age burn can a lso oeeur as neero ti e s pots t Fi g. 139) ir loxie ehemieal spray s drift ont o bean planlS. For examp le, 2.4-0 dam age may oee ur if applied to oth er e rops nearby during moderate t o hi gh win ds tFig . 140) . Phy,iologica l di sord ers ca n be ca used by other c he mi ca ls whic h may contain impurities o r produ cts metaholi zed by so il microorganisms into lo xic by-produ cts, o r aggravated by specifie soi l and envi ronm enta l cond iti on s. lt is beli,'ved t ha t C rAl' recen tl y encountered a si milar si tu atio n in beans , ca lJ ed \"Prohlem X \", whi c h ma~; be caused by cheroica l toxicity in so il s \"'\\lit h a hi gh organic maU er co ntent a lld high pH (Fig. 14   Geo rg e S .  ","tokenCount":"10400"}

data/part_1/0390044565.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"037fd12a86d600ebda999483447b82de","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/878858cf-0839-4b3a-af1b-cff2a94caeec/retrieve","id":"1132427018"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"859d78e5-a0ac-4987-b173-8cee32cd6fe6","pagecount":"104","content":"This manual is designed lO help farmers and technicians identify th e most common ins ect, disease and so il probl ems of rice in Identification of problems affecting rice production in Latin America MOS l of the problems affecting rice prod uction can be idcntified by knowledge of the varieties auacked, care ful observation of the symptoms and lhe;r panern o f distribution in lhe ficld , and vis ual association o f lhe affeclcd pl a nls or areas with dif-(e re nces in soí l5, irrigation or fertilization practices. Information on soil pH and fertilit y hclps identify nutritional problems\"Most in sec ts are Jarge enough lo be observed; a few are minut e or difficult te detect bul can be identified by lheir feeding habits.Damage is caused by chewing, suck ing and rasp ing in sec ts, lhe first two classes being lhe mast impo rt ant.Damage to Icaves a nd panicles is easily detected, bUI damage 10 rools and ste ms cannO l be determined without pu lling up the plant or cutting open the stems.Many insects inhabit rice fields but not all darnage rice; sorne are beneficial as they fced on other insects. Not only must the ¡nseet and [h e damage eaused be reeognized, but it must also be determined whether the insect populati on can cause economic damagc. Frequently. the damaging insecls a\"re nOl present in suffici ent number to apply in sec tieides.It should be pointed out that specific insectici des have nol been recomrnended for (he control of lhe inseet pests des cribed for three reasons: (1) New prod ucts are continually being developed lo replace exi<ling ones; (2) frequenlly, lhe aVdil ab ility of specific products varies from o ne co untry to another ; (3) nomenclature is not standard .Diseases can attack leaves, stems, panicles and roots; their preso ence is con firmed by discolored, rolted are as of plant tissue in the affected parts. Some diseases are worsened by high nitrogen tert'l'• zation and water stress while in others the presence of thc disease signals a fertilizer deficiency. The hoja blanca disea se is transmittcd by insects whosc presence in large numbers may indicate rhat the di sease will soon appear.Soil problems are usually invol ved when (1) all plants within the area are affected, (2) insects and fungus diseases are nol obvious and (3) the problem is allevialed or intensified by fertilization or by flooding afler symptoms have appeared .Soil problems occur becausc th e plants cannot absorb adequate amounts of a specific nutrient or becausc some nUlrient is ab sorbed in taxic amounts. The following rabie shows the most ¡mportant nutrients and the conditions favoring (he nUlrienl dcficiency or to xicit y. When new lan d is first pUL into rice, many ¡nseels that have been li vi ng in the soil and feeding on the rools of othe r craps are already present in th e field s and can cause severe reduction in the rice stands by eating the ri ce rools and killing th e young pl ants. Commonly found in these areas are large, thick •bodied whitish worms that are always curled up in a U-shaped rorm (P ho to 1) .Th ese are larvae of rather large brownlo black-colored bectles that range in size from 13 lo 25 mm . In sorne cases, the ad ults also reed on the ric e rooLS. The dead plant illustrated (Photo 2) has had ma st of jts roolS deslro ye d by the ¡meets. These ¡nseets attack upland rice roo t5 al any stage of.gro wth but cannot survive in irrigated rice.PhOIOS 5 and 7 . Adult and larva of UssorhOPlrU$ orvzophi1vsThi s ¡nsect is a major pCSl o f flooded ri ce in many counlries.The adult wee vils (Photo 5) feed o n rice leaves leavi ng while lo ngitudinal scars parallel lO the midrib. The adults measure about 3 mm, but in Srazil o ne speci es is ab out 5 l O 6 mm in length. Eggs are laid bclow th e wa ter leve l and th e lar va fee d o n the rice roots (PhOlO 6). The leg less white larvae measure ab out 6 to 12 mm in length (Photo 7).When a considerable portíon o f the roOl system is de stroyed , th e older lea ves become yellow (Photo 8), and the plants may lodge.Chineh bugs are small (3.5 mm) blaek in seel' wilh whili sh Phot o 10. Larva of Spodoptera frugiperda Thi s inseCl IS faund in all ri ce-grow ing areas. The larvae (Photo 10) reed on ¡he le aves or you ng rice plants (Photo 11) . They va ry in co lo r fro m light brown lo green , to almost black and have three yellowish lines on th e back that ex tcnd from lh e head lo the tip of the abd omen. Two of these lines unite 10 form an ¡nverte d \" Y\" on lhe fronl pan of lhe head. The lar vae of a few relat ed species feed d urin g lhe night an d hide in lhe soil during lhe day. This is lhe mast seri o us o f lhe leaf-ea ting ca terpill ars as it is generally prescnt in large numbers and can defaliate a rice field in only a fe w days. The adult butterflies are usually brown in color with sorne yellowish spots on the forewings. The antennas are hooked al the tips (Photo 12). The damaging state is the larva, whi ch is easily recognized by il' green color , by Ihe large hearl-,haped he ad, and by the necklike thorax which ca n be extended or retracted . The tip of the abdomen i, also flattened (Photo 13). The larva rolls ¡he leaf margins of one or more leaves together (Photo 14) lo provi de a protected feeding area.The ¡nsee! is nol considered lo be a serious pes! of rice and is rarely found in numbers sufficient to cause economic damage. This small ¡nseet has caused tremendous damage to rice fields.It transmits (he hoja blanca virus disease a nd is often present in sufficient number to destroy entire fields as a res ult of its feeding. AdullS and nymphs (PhOlO 15) suck the sap from rice leaves and stems and fro m developing panicles during Lhe boot stage. The insects excrete a honey dew substance which attracts (ungí, causing soo ty black spots on the surface of the [ca ves and stems (')hoto 16) . The males are smaller and darker than the females, and l. . nymphs (immature stage) are wingless and have two black stripes running the entire length of the body . This species is distinguisned fram a similar insect, Sogatodes cubanus, whi ch has two black spots on (he back corresponding to the tips of lhe fronl wings (Photo 17).5. cubanu5 is co mmon in rice fields but feeds on grasses and neither transmits the hoja blanca virus to rice nor causes feeding damage.Protection against attacks from thi s inseet and from the virus is obtained by the use of resistant varieties. The varieties in the cenler and on the righl of Photo 18 are susceptible lo mechanical damage by the ¡nseel while the variety on the left is resistant.. . These are small , shin y beetles that feed on the rice leaves.They vary in size from 2 lo 6 mm, and the co lor may vary from bright yellow lo black . So me have characteristi c spots, others may have stripes, while others may be of a salid color. The \\arvae of sorne of these insecls al50 attack the root5 of upland rice. There are a nu m ber of bO lh long-and shon -antenn ae d gra sshoppers th at attac k ri ce. Ph oto 29 shows a common lo ng•horned grassho pp er, Caulopsis cuspidolo. Long-horned grassho pper adults and nym phs reed on leaves (Ph olo 30) and sle ms (Pho to 31 ), produ cing white he ads. Shon -horned gr.sshoppers (Pho to 32) m. y al50 ea l Icaves bUl occasionall y feed on th e developing gra ins (Pho to 33). In mas t rice•gro wing areas, th ese insec ts do no l ca use eco no m ic damage; bU l in Gu ya na and in the Caribbean area, they can ca use significan t damage if no t con trolled. There are four or five species of stem bo rers [hat attack rice in Latin America, bU I only three are cons idered to be important.The mast dam aging and th e most widel y distri bu ted is rhe sugar ca ne bo rer. Th e adult moth (Photo 34) is se ldom seen since it is hidden during lhe day . Eggs are raid on lhe Ic aves, and lhe newly hatched larva may feed on Ih e surface of lh e leaves for a few days befare ente rin g lhe plant through lh e lea f sheaths and lhen boring into lh e stems. The mature larva (Ph oto 35) has brown spo ts o n each scgment o f rhe abdomen but no stripes are prescnt.When lh e plant is attack ed at an carly stage, lhe growing tip may be desl ro yed, producing dead hearts (Pholo 36) . Later altacks produce white hea ds (Pholo 37 ). The white rice stemborer is found from Mexico to Peru and across northern South American from Colombia to Surinam. The white moth (Photo 38) is commonly seen on the uppermost leaf tip,. The whitish or eream-eolored larva (Photo 39) is easily reeognized by its small head, tapered abdomen and the absence of spots or stripes on its ribbed body. In upland rice it can be a serious pest attacking at ground level and feeding upward in the stem. This inseet is not normally a serious pes! in irrigated rice even though present in high populations. Plants attaeked by the inseet usually show a yellowing of the lower leaves (Photo 40). After che pupa stage is complete, the adult exits through a hole (Photo 41). The lesser corn sta! k borer al times seriously damages upland ri ce in Central America and in Brazil. The larva attacks th e base of the plant often ca us ing dea th (P hoto 42). The adult insecl is a slender moth (Photo 43) with grayi sh brown front wings and white rear wings. In the resting posi tion , the wings are folded over the back. The mature larva is blui sh gree n with brow n stri pes and measures about 15 mm . The lar va remains in [he stem only during feeding and is found in the soil at the base of the plant when not feeding. Since the lar vae li ve in the soil , they are controlled by heavy tains.., .,Photo 44. Tibraca limba tiven tris. empty grajn and sjgnificantly reduce yields . later attacks produce lighl and ch.lky grains lhal break during milling (Photo 47). Stink bug damage to rough rice can be detected by the presence of the brown fungus spots which appear at the point where the grajns were piereed by lhe inseel (Photo 48).The pr:ncipal stink bug in northern South America and Brazil is Oebalu5 poecilu5 (Photo 49), which closely resembles other specie5 in Cent ral America and in the Dominican Republic. The small black stink bug is found in Colombia and other parts of Central America . This insect, Alkindu5 otralU5, resembles a 5mall black beetle but belongs to .nother slink bug f.mily (Photo 50) . Rice blast is caused by a fungus that attacks all stages of plant growth. 11 is mest damaging in nursery beds for transplanting. It also attacks the leaves of actively tillering plants, the nades of stems and panicles.Typieal leaf lesions (Photo 52) are diamond shaped (re ae hing 1.5 cm in leng.th) and the center of the lesion is grayish; whereas early ¡nfeelion and resistant reactions cause smaH brown spots that are difficult to distinguish (rom other leaf diseases. Large leaf lesions often coalesce and kili the plants. When nades are infected (Photo 53). the upper portion of the stem dies. Infeetion may occur in any part of the panicle or al the base of the panicle, eausing neek rot (Photo 54). Severe neck rot causes heavy yield losses as the panicle may produce sorne grains that are usually light and have poor miJling reCQvery. Blast spots on (he glumes of seeds are often confused with Helminthosporium and other fungi.Th e disease is di sse mínated by spore5 ca rri ed by wínd . Hígh humidíty¡ prol o nged 50ft rains and co ol níghts favor dise ase development. Hea vy nitrogen supply and den se populati o ns stimul ate the disease . 81 as t is more damaging o n upland than on irrigated ri ce.Vari etal resis tance (PhOIO 55) is the most econom ical way 10 control blast. However, the fungus readily pro duce s new forms that attack re sistant varie ties after one or two years of planting. Car eful water control fo llowing establishment of seedlings and split applications of ni(roge n redu ce leaf blasL Fungícides are frequ ently use d to redu ce ne ck rot loss es and to improve milling quality .Narrow brown lea f spot is primarily a leaf disease that occasionall y causes minor spotting on glumes. The fungus causes ver'l narrow, linear, brown lesions pa ra \\\\ el lO the veins of leaf blades (Ph o to 58) . The lesion s on susceptibl e var;eties are somewhat wider an d lighter brown. Th e di sea se ;5 comman but rarely important. It can cause numerOU5 lesions and leaf drying on matur• ing plants of highly susceptible va ri eties, resulling in so rne yield 1055.Varietal res istan ce is [he onl y prac ticabl e mean s of di sease control. Mest modern varieties are moderately to highly resis tant.Highl y susceptible varieties should be avoid ed in high humidity areas where th e dise ase is co mmon.Leaf sea ld is. fungus dise.se that attaeks the o ld er lea ves. The les ions usually begin al the leaf tips and progress down lhe leaf blade . The lesions commence as water-soaked blotches and develop into large are as encircled by dar k brown bands with lighter brown halos (Photo 59). The zonation eaused by d.rk brown margins and lightcr ¡\"ncr areas is diagnost ico Lesion enlargement results in the drying and death of severely infected leaves. The fu ngus may attack grains , causing glume discoloration and ste rility .The disease is camman on upland rice in Central and Sourh America. It is nol serious on irrigated ri ce. Severe attacks of leaf scald may cause yield 1055, but it is nol gene rally regarded as econo mically important outside of Central America.Heavy nitrogen applications favor disease developrnent, Sorne var ieties are susceptible whHe others are considered to be toleranl or resistant. No efficient fungicide control programs are known .Stackburn disease, caused by a weak fungal pathogen, is an uncommon leaf and grajn problem of minor economic importance . Leaf spots which rarely cause much damage are large and rounded, with dar k brown and narrow margins that encircle the pale centers of the spots like a ring (Photo 60). The light straw-co lo red centers may show numerOU$ 5mall black sclero ti a. The lea f spots rarely , if ever, occur in abundance.Infe c ted grajns show pale spots wjth black dots in the center surrounded by a dark border. The spots are djfficult to distinguish from other di seases. Under favorabl e conditi o ns the fungus may attack a high percentage of grains in the field , ca using seed dis eol • oration. Whe n planted, these grains may result in seedling blight and death of young plants .Specjfjc control methods are unknown.Leaf smut , caused by a fungus, is a widespread , fairly common disease of linle or no economic importance. The fungus causes ,maJl, black ,pots on both sides or the leaves or older plants. The spots are usually linear or rectangular and rarely coalesce (Photo 61). Heavily infected [eaves may lurn yellow . Each spot is covered by an epidermis that when removed by soak ing in water, reveals a black mas> of spores. No co ntrol measures are k-nown or necessary.Leplosphaeris salvinií (HeJminthosporium sigmoideum,ScJerotium Oryz8eJ Stem rOL is an important disease of rice. ¡nfeetion of stems begins near the water l¡ne through wounds, as a black, irregular lesion that enlarges as the disease advances. The fungus produces sclerotia ¡nside the leaf sheath and eventuall y penetra tes the culm (Photo 62). One or two internades are rotted, and tissues are covered with numerous, 5mall , black sclerotia that are diagnostic (Photo 63). The upper leaves of infected stems frequently become yellowish and may die (Photo 64). Rotting stems lodge and yi eld 1055e5 can be high.Sclerotia are distributed in ¡rrigalion water . High levels of nitrogen and wounds caused by ¡nsee!s or o ther agencies favor disease development .Chemical control of stem rol is nOl effective. Burning of straw and stubble reduces the level of sclerotia. Large differen ces in varietal reaction to the pathogen are known, and the use of resislant and/or nonlodging varieties is the most effecti ve control measure . The le,ion, may coale,ce (Pho to 66) and kili ¡he upper lea ve,. Brown sclerotia are often attac hed loosely to {he lesions. Severe ¡nfeelion causes reduced panicle size, sterility and grain losses. Typical leaf blade lesions are shown in Photo 67.The di sease is favored by warm weather and al! factors that give high humidity: heavy density, high {illering and heavy fertilizatíon with nitrogen. The disease appears to be increasing in severity, parallel to the ad op tion of the modern, short va ri eties. It can be severe on upland as well as on irrigated rice .Although no highly resistant varieties are av ailable¡ many are considerabl y more tol era nt than others. The avoidance of highly susceptible varieties and reduced nitrogen ar e the most effective mean S of co n1rol... ..False smut is caused by a fungus that causes conspicuous symptoms, The disease is frequemly observed but has little or no econamic importan ce.Symptoms are seen only in maturing panicles. Infeelian occurs in young panicles; and few (occasionally several) grains are affected per panicle (Photo 70) . Individual grains are tran sformed into greenish yellow spore balls mal eventually turn dark. The spore masses may reach 1 cm or more in diameter.Humid weather fa vors dísease development. Sorne varieties of rice appear to be more resistant [han others, but special control mea sures are not necessary.Hoja blanca, the only rice virus disease in Latín America , is cyelical in nature, causing severe economic losses for several years followed by a period of relative unimportance.The ea sily identified freid symptoms ¡nelude long yellowish white stripes and mottling on leaves (Photo 71 and 72L stunting of the plant (Photo 73), and small, deformed, highly sterile panicles with discolored spikelets. The disease rarely appears befare planls are about tWQ months old and begins in isolated patches that rapidly sprea d to cover the field.The only important vector of the virus is Sogatodes oryzicola.The disease is nal transmitted by seed, soi] or other agents. Fertil-¡zer, density and water have little effect on di sease development and spread .Hoja blanca is controlled al present through plant resistance to the insect vector. A few varieties are also highly resistant to the virus. In sec ticide control of the vector does not satisfactorily control hoja bl anca.White tip , causect by a seed -borne nemato de , Aphelenchoides besseyi, is identifi ed by chlorotic or white leaf tips of o lder planls ( Pho to 74) . Flag lea ves may be twisted, causing incomplete panicle emergence (Ph010 75). Affe cted pan icles are small , hi gh ly ste rile and show di slorted glumes. Resistant vari eties and th orough draining and dryi ng of the soil fo r a fe w day s wh en the rice is about 50 day s old successfufly control st ra ighthead.Many species of birds cause damage lo rice. Ducks and other waterfowl uproot and destroy seedlings in írrigated fields. Many seed ea ters, especially migratory species, cause heavy losses by feeding on grain in th e milk stage (Photo 83) and on mature seeds. Damaged panicles in th e rnilk stage show a typical whitish discolora tion of ¡he glumes (Photo 84).The best control is lo schedul e pl anting lo avoid heading during migratory flights. Varieti es show clear differences in panide damage . AII older, tall varieties having their panicles above the flag leaves are susceptible to bird damage . Short, modern varieties ha ving long flag leaves extending over the panicles escape extensive damage so long as th ey re main ereet and do not lodge. 70Nitrogen defi cie ncy is the mast camman nutr;ent problem in rice fields. The Icaves may vary from pale grec n lo yellow (Photo 85), and tillering and growth are poor (Photo 86).The problem is more serious in upland rice , in fields Wilh poor water control, and in cold or light so¡!s. Nitrogen does nOl persist in lhe soil fo c more than a few weeks and should be applied two to threc times during the growing period lo maintain good leaf color and vigor...Potassium deficiency is difficult to diagnose in young rice si nce the only symptom is a difference in the color of the lower leaves. Plants may be moderalely stunted , but tillering is only slightly reduced. As the plants become older, the lower leaves become yellowish gree n, starting fro m the tips, and begin to droop (Photo 89). With increasing age, the lower leaves turn brown ; and the ye llowish coloratían extends to the upper leaves. In some cases brown spots occur on th e dark grecn leaves. Applications of potassium sho uld be made to the so il shor tl y befare or after seeding.Iron deficiency is a comman seedling disease on neutral or alkaline upland soils (Photo 90), but can also occur on acid soils during periads with little or no rainfa11. The deficiency may persist after flooding alkaline soil (Photo 91) . Mildly affected seedl ings often grow out of the problcm with little damage lo yield.Many abando ned banana planta tions show iron defi cjency symptoms when planted to rice (Photo 92). This is due to copper toxicity caused by the application of Bordeaux mixture over many yea rs. The exccss copper inhibir') th e absorption of iron and produces iron defici ency sym ptoms .Iron deficiency 00 alkaline soils can be avo'ided by transplanting healthy ri ce seedlings into a floo ded fi eld or by a pplying sulfur to lower the pH of [he soil .Preger minated rice may be SQwn iota water if th e field has beeo preflooded for a periad of four week s aod ir the soil is not allowed to dr y during the seedling establishment periodo \" \" \"Mangenese defici ency is nol comman o n the soils currently h eing planred lO rice in Latín Am erica. lt occurs on sandy , highly permeabl e, upland soils where the rapid perco lation o f rain water ¡eaches the ava ilabl e manga nese. Damage does not Qc cur on im pe rm ea ble , flooded so ils.The symptoms are diagnostic and appear as reddish brown strea ks in the leaf blades (Photos 93, 94) .Probably the most practica l control is th e use of foli ar applica. tions of manganese. Soil applicati o ns of 50-75 kg/ha of manganese sulfate can also be used during th e land preparation.. ...lron toxicity is a serious problem that occurs only in strongly aeid, flooded soils with a pH generally below 5.5. Iron toxieity is not a probl~m on upland rice. Two types of iron toxicity -indirect and direct-are recognized and can result in severe damage. In the indireet or yellow type, the roots (Photo 99) are inaetivated by a coating of iron oxide, and the older leaves (Photo 100) become yellowish or orangish in color. The problem is associated with phosphorus deficiency and insufficient development of new roots. In this case, the [eaves have not absorbed excessive amounts of iron . Varietal resistan ce is being observed under ficld conditions (Photo 101).Direct iron toxicity occurs wh en the leaves abso rb excessive amaunts of iron. The first sy mptom is the appearance of many small rust-eolored spots on the tip s of the lower leaves. These spots enlarge and progress down the leaf in rows between the veins of the blade (Photo 102). The mid-vein usuall y remains green and unaffected for severa! weeks after the appearance of the problem . lron to x icity can seriously affect plant growth (Photo 103).Iron toxieity is usually eontrolled by the application of lime to increase the pH¡ by preflooding for four to five weeks prior to planting, or by draining off the flood water without allowing the soil te dry excessively whenever the symptoms begin to appear.Generally ,aJuminum toxicity is nol a serious problem in rice in the western hemisphere. It may be severe in strongly acid (beJow pH 5.0), upl and rice soils; bUl usually after failures with exp erimental plantings in new unknown areas, farmers do nol reptant upland rice.Root growth is greatly reduced and the leaves become yellow with dead leaf tips (Photo 104). These symptoms may be confused with cold temperature damage in tempera te elimates . Symptoms usually accur in the lower parlS of the field where there is a greater amount of water 10 evapora le. Leaf lips 1urn whitish and di e (Photo 105). Ir th e rice is nea ring maturity , white and emply panicles may emerge al heading time.","tokenCount":"4388"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5e4e198ae5fa60be92c767ab1be58020","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c1b76a75-e8c4-4f18-a139-51b6badd9abd/retrieve","id":"1018135675"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"feaeb88a-fc5f-49f4-91d6-e472f3a16a8d","pagecount":"40","content":"La collection Pro-Agro est une coédition d'Ingénieurs Sans Frontières Cameroun (ISF Cameroun) et du Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (CTA).Arbuste de 1 à 4 mètres de hauteur environ, il est cultivé pour ses tubercules et ses feuilles. Les tubercules sont très riches en amidon. Les tiges sont quant à elles utilisées comme matériel de plantation. Consommé tant pour l'alimentation humaine qu'animale, le manioc est très utilisé dans l'industrie alimentaire (pâtisseries, tapioca, pâtes alimentaires, cossettes, …). Avec plus de vingt produits dérivés, le manioc sert également dans l'industrie textile, la production du papier, de colles, d'alcool ou d'amidon.Sa culture procure des revenus importants aux petits producteurs à travers le monde. Les tubercules de manioc, ainsi que ses sous-produits, s'écoulent partout sans difficulté. Les tiges des variétés améliorées sont également vendues comme matériel de plantation.Ce guide permettra aux vulgarisateurs de mettre à disposition des producteurs de la filière manioc des techniques simples et améliorées de production, de stockage et de transformation.De son nom scientifique Manihot esculenta, le manioc est l'une des cultures vivrières les plus cultivées et les plus consommées dans de nombreuses régions du monde.Le manioc est un arbuste ligneux, vivace et ramifié pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 5 mètres de hauteur. Il produit de larges feuilles fortement lobées et spiralées de formes très variables. Lors de leur croissance, les arbrisseaux produisent plusieurs racines tubéreuses de réserve contenant jusqu'à 35% d'amidon, pouvant atteindre jusqu'à 1 mètre de long, et peser collectivement jusqu'à 40 kg. Le manioc produit des fleurs régulières femelles et mâles aux dimensions réduites réunies en petites grappes. L'arbuste produit un fruit de forme de capsule non charnue. Le manioc connaît une meilleure croissance dans toutes les zones proches de l'Équateur : une altitude inférieure à 1500 mètres, une pluviometrie variant de 1000 à 1500 mm/an, et une température comprise entre 23 et 25 o C. Hormis les sols lourds et inondés, il peut se développer sur tous les autres sols ; le manioc préfère néanmoins les sols légers, bien drainés, profonds et riches en matière organique. Il apprécie les situations bien ensoleillées et pousse dans les conditions de hautes températures et d'ensoleillement des régions tropicales et subtropicales. Exigeant en matière d'ensoleillement, le manioc préfère un climat chaud et humide et tolère les longues saisons sèches (6 à 7 mois), ainsi que les précipitations réduites.Le manioc peut être planté seul ou en association avec d'autres cultures telles que le maïs, la banane plantain, les légumes ou les légumineuses. La culture du manioc ne requiert pas beaucoup de main-d'oeuvre, soit généralement 75 à 125 hommes-jour par hectare, de la préparation du terrain à la récolte. Les tubercules de manioc doux peuvent être récoltés au bout de 8 à 10 mois après la plantation, alors que pour les variétés amères, la récolte commence à partir du douzième mois.Par sa résistance aux températures élevées, à la sécheresse, à l'augmentation des teneurs en gaz carbonique atmosphérique, le manioc est très adapté au changement climatique. • Un terrain plat ou légèrement en pente pour éviter l'érosion capable de détruire la terre arable riche en humus. • Des antécédents culturaux favorables : tirer des leçons des maladies rencontrées, de la présence de termites ou autres ravageurs, des mauvaises herbes difficiles à gérer. Ces informations peuvent guider quant au choix du site et aider à mettre en place un programme adapté de protection du manioc.Elle varie selon le climat, la nature du sol, la végétation et le relief. Il s'agit d'ameublir la surface du sol, de l'enrichir en matière organique, et de réduire le développement des mauvaises herbes.• En culture manuelle, il faut procéder au défrichage de la parcelle et labourer le sol. Il s'agit ensuite de procéder à un buttage ou un billonnage dans le cas de sols lourds. • En culture mécanisée, gyrobroyer, labourer et billonner dans le cas de sols lourds.Les bonnes variétés de manioc à planter sont celles riches en matière sèche, conservables en terre, et bien adaptées à la zone de production. Il s'agira de variétés à tubérisation précoce et faciles à transformer.Les boutures de manioc sont généralement collectées dans les champs, en cours de récolte. Les variétés améliorées peuvent également être obtenues auprès d'organismes de recherche ou de développement appropriés.Prélever les boutures de 20 à 30 cm de long sur les parties centrales brunes des tiges saines, âgées de près de 12 mois. Éviter les parties fortement aoûtées ou tendres. On reconnaît les pieds sains par la vigueur des tiges et des rameaux, le feuillage luxuriant, les tiges et les feuilles peu abîmées par les maladies et les ravageurs.En culture intensive, il est conseillé d'alterner la culture de manioc avec un repos sous couverture de légumineuses.En culture associée, il est préférable de planter le manioc en fin d'assolement, juste avant la jachère, car il épuise énormément le sol.Bonnes boutures de manioc Boutures de manioc à éviterAfin d'assurer une reprise homogène, récolter les tiges environ une semaine avant la mise en place et les conserver à l'ombre, dans un endroit bien aéré. On découpera les boutures au moment de la plantation, ou plutôt la veille. Chaque bouture doit posséder 5 à 7 yeux dormants. L'entretien consiste à :• Remplacer au fur et à mesure les plants manquants. Enlever à la fin du 3 ème mois les pousses fragiles et ne conserver que les plus vigoureuses. • Lutter contre les mauvaises herbes en procédant à deux, voire trois sarclages :-premier sarclage : 3 à 4 semaines après la plantation -deuxième sarclage : 1 à 2 mois après le premier sarclage -troisième sarclage : au début de la deuxième année. • Butter dans le cas du semis à plat sur une hauteur de 10 cm, 5 à 6 semaines après la plantation.Sur un terrain vierge ou une jachère de longue durée, la fertilisation n'est pas nécessaire. En culture intensive ou continue, la fertilisation permet de compenser les exportations d'éléments minéraux par la plante.Pour la production de boutures, la fertilisation minérale est privilégiée. Lors de la préparation du sol, apporter de la dolomie à raison de 100 kg par hectare. Deux mois après la plantation, apporter de l'engrais NPK (10 18 18) à raison de 300 kg par hectare, pour un objectif de production d'au moins 25 tonnes par hectare, ou de l'urée (150 kg par hectare), du phosphate tricalcique (100 kg par hectare) et du KCl (250 kg par hectare), pour un objectif de production d'au moins 30 t par hectare.Pour la production de tubercules, la fertilisation organique est recommandée. Lors de la préparation du sol ou au moment de la plantation, apporter de la litière de volaille ou tout autre fumier animal à raison de 10 t par hectare, voire 15 ou 20 t par hectare si le sol est appauvri.Le manioc étant largement planté comme culture de subsistance, le traitement chimique doit être très limité. La lutte culturale devrait toujours être privilégiée.Traitement chimique• Feuilles déformées et présentant des taches jaunes ou vert pâle.• Appareil végétatif réduit.Virose ou maladie de la mosaïque africaine du manioc, causée par un virus transmis par la mouche blanche (Bemisia tabaci) qui pullule en début de saison des pluies et disparaît en saison sèche. La mosaïque est causée par l'emploi de boutures infectées.• Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines.Utilisation d'insecticides à base de Thiamethoxam (Actara®) ou de Pymétrozine (Chess®).• Chancre sur les jeunes tiges et dessèchement de leurs extrémités.• Nécrose brune sur les feuilles.La maladie est aussi transmise par des boutures contaminées.• Utiliser des boutures saines.• Éliminer les débris de récolte.• Taches anguleuses sur le limbe.• Brûlures foliaires avec production d'une toxine.• Flétrissement des feuilles.• Lésions sur tiges avec production d'exsudat.• Défoliation des rameaux. • Petites taches chlorotiques jaunes sous forme de piqûres observées sur la face supérieure de la feuille.• Rétrécissement des feuilles.• Destruction des feuilles terminales qui tombent, donnant aux extrémités des pousses un aspect de \"cierge\".Les acariens (Mononychellus Tanajoa) sont de minuscules créatures non ailées qui apparaissent comme des taches à l'oeil nu, mais peuvent être vues clairement à l'aide d'une loupe de poche. Vertes au départ, les nymphes (acariens immatures) prennent par la suite une coloration jaunâtre. L'acarien vert du manioc suce la sève des feuilles et des extrémités des tiges de manioc.• Planter des boutures saines.• Effectuer des rotations culturales.• Planter en début de saison des pluies.• Maintenir la parcelle propre.• Entre-noeuds plus courts.• Mise en touffe des feuilles donnant un aspect buissonnant.• Déformation de la tige (torsion).• Dessèchement des feuilles.• Pieds de manioc défoliés.La cochenille du manioc (Phenacoccus manihoti) apparaît sur les extrémités des tiges de manioc, la face inférieure des feuilles, et les tiges. Ces cochenilles se couvrent d'une sécrétion abondante de cire blanche et sont caractérisées par l'absence d'ailes, une couleur rose, une forme ovale, et de très courts filaments corporels. La cochenille du manioc pique et suce la sève des feuilles et des extrémités des pousses du manioc. En se nourrissant, elle leur inocule une toxine qui induit de sévères perturbations du développement des plantes.• Planter des boutures saines.• Effectuer des rotations culturales.• Planter en début de saison des pluies.• Maintenir la parcelle propre.• Développement de moisissures charbonneuses sur la plante.• Noircissement des feuilles qui s'assèchent et tombent.En se nourrissant de la sève des feuilles de manioc, l'aleurode (Aleurodicus dispersus) sécrète d'importantes quantités de miellat qui favorisent le développement de moisissures charbonneuses sur la plante.Les adultes, de couleur blanc clair, et les nymphes de l'insecte apparaissent en masse sur la face inférieure de la feuille de manioc, laquelle est couverte d'une abondante sécrétion cireuse.• Utilisation d'insecticides à base de Thiamethoxam (Actara®) ou de Pymétrozine (Chess®).• Pieds de manioc defoliés.Le criquet puant (Zonocerus variegatus) mâche les feuilles, les pétioles et les tiges vertes du manioc. Il défolie les pieds de manioc et débarrasse les tiges de leur écorce.• Ramasser à la main ou détruire les bandes de larves avant leur dispersion.• Repérer les zones de ponte à proximité de la culture et détruire les oothèques.• Piéger les larves et jeunes imagos en utilisant des perches enfoncées obliquement sur lesquelles ils vont se rassembler. Ramasser et détruire les criquets rassemblés sur les perches.• Utiliser des appâts empoisonnés avec un insecticide.• Utiliser des extraits de neem. • Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines.• Utiliser des variétés résistantes.• Planter des boutures saines. Les variétés précoces parviennent à maturité entre 6 et 8 mois en moyenne après la date de plantation, tandis que les variétés tardives nécessitent entre 12 et 18 mois dans des conditions optimales, comme en zone de forêt humide. En zone de savane humide, la récolte des variétés tardives se situe entre 20 et 24 mois après la date de plantation. Le manioc se développe plus rapidement dans les bas-fonds humides que dans les régions de haute altitude.Le rendement varie de 20 à 30 t par hectare pour les varietés locales, et de 25 à 70 t par hectare pour les variétés améliorées. En milieu hostile où d'autres cultures échouent, le manioc est capable d'offrir un bon rendement. Dans des conditions classiques, le rendement peut varier entre 8 et 15 tonnes de tubercules par hectare.Deux à trois jours après la récolte, on assiste à un processus rapide de pourrissement des tubercules. La récolte se fait généralement lors de son utilisation, incluant une petite durée de conservation à l'air libre. Plusieurs méthodes permettent de prolonger de quelques jours la conservation :• Le stockage dans des silos-fosses recouverts d'un toit de chaume.• Le stockage dans de la sciure humide.• L'immersion dans un fongicide à base de Thiabendazole (ex : Mertect SC) et la mise en sacs de polyéthylène. • Le stockage au froid et la congélation.• Le stockage sous bâche en plastique de racines trempées dans de l'eau.La méthode de conservation au champ est la plus utilisée dans les exploitations familiales, mais elle diminue la productivité de la terre qui ne peut être utilisée pour de nouvelles cultures. Les tubercules, facilement attaqués par les rongeurs, insectes et nématodes, deviennent plus fibreux et liquéfiés, entraînant une baisse des propriétés nutritives du manioc.Le manioc est conservé sous forme de cossettes (morceaux de manioc découpés, défibrés ou non). Les cossettes stockées constituent un milieu favorable au développement de nombreux insectes tels que les coléoptères. Parmi les insectes nuisibles, il y a le grand capucin du maïs (Prostephanus truncatus), certaines espèces du genre Dinoderus, le capucin des grains (Rhyzopertha dominica), le tribolium rouge de la farine (Tribolium castaneum), le charançon du maïs (Sitophilus zeamais), la bruche du café (Araecerus fasciculatus), etc. Le grand capucin du maïs est le plus destructeur, pouvant occasionner des pertes de 70% après 4 mois de stockage. Il peut être maîtrisé par la pratique de la lutte intégrée, et surtout biologique, à l'aide du prédateur Teretrius nigrescens.Pour ce faire, il faut au préalable sécher rapidement les cossettes, et dans de bonnes conditions d'hygiène. Les cossettes doivent aussi être conservées dans des structures de stockage offrant une protection suffisante contre les insectes nuisibles et la réhumidification. Les greniers construits en argile ainsi que les sacs et tonneaux en plastique sont les mieux adaptés.Il faut les contrôler régulièrement pendant la période de stockage. En cas d'attaque, il faut les étaler au soleil pour provoquer la fuite ou la mort de la plupart des ravageurs. Il est ensuite impératif de procéder immédiatement à la mouture et à la consommation, afin d'éviter des pertes subséquentes.Dinoderus spp.Bruche du café Charançon du riz Tribulium rougeÉcraser les feuilles à l'aide d'un mortier afin d'obtenir une masse très fine.Faire bouillir de l'eau, ajouter du sel et les feuilles écrasées. Remuer constamment jusqu'à ce que les feuilles soient cuites (15 minutes au moins). Mettre de côté.Frire les oignons, ajouter le lait de coco ou le beurre d'arachide. Quand le mélange commence à bouillir, ajouter les feuilles de manioc cuites. Remuer encore quelques minutes et retirer du feu. Servir avec du riz ou un autre plat principal à base de céréales.Pour rendre les feuilles comestibles, une cuisson des feuilles préalablement hachées ou broyées permet d'éliminer une grande quantité de cyanogènes.• 1 kg de feuilles de manioc fraîches et tendres • 1 boîte de suc de noix de palme (800 g de sauce graine) • Tubercules de manioc ou de macabo (facultatif) Préparation Dans une grande casserole à fond épais, mélanger le suc de palme avec les feuilles de manioc pilées. On peut y ajouter des morceaux de tubercules de manioc ou de macabo préalalement épluchés, coupés et nettoyés (facultatif).  Le manioc peut être transformé sous différentes formes. Une dizaine de sous-produits sont présentés ci-dessous. Avant toute opération de transformation, sélectionner des racines de manioc saines, mûres, fermes, fraîchement récoltées, ce afin d'obtenir un produit de qualité.La transformation du manioc part de 2 produits semi-finis, à savoir la pâte de manioc (fermentée ou non) et les cos settes.Éplucher et laver les tubercules de manioc. Puis, les tremper dans l'eau pendant trois jours afin de les ramollir. Une fois fermentés, les nettoyer en retirant la partie centrale, puis récuperer le manioc. La pâte obtenue est pressée et écrasée pour obtentir une pâte de manioc fermentée servant à la fabrication du bâton de manioc.La pâte de manioc non fermentée sert à la fabrication de plusieurs autres produits : pâtisseries, couscous, semoule, amidon, etc. Éplucher les racines fraîches. Les laver avec de l'eau propre. Puis, râper le manioc. Le râpage est fait soit manuellement, en frottant le manioc contre une feuille métallique perforée, soit mécaniquement, grâce à un broyeur.6.1 Fabrication artisanale de la pâte de maniocLe bâton produit dépend du type de conditionnement utilisé.Quelques types de bâtons de manioc (Cameroun)La pâte de manioc fermentée est déposée sous forme de ficelle d'environ 27 cm de long, sur la longueur d'un ou deux morceaux de feuilles de jonc ou de bananier plantain. Laisser 1 à 2 cm à chaque extrémité, puis rouler la feuille et rabattre les extrémités. Ficeler le tout.La pâte de manioc fermentée est moulée dans une ou deux feuilles d'halopegia azurea, sous forme de fil d'environ 40 cm de long, en laissant 1 à 2 cm aux extrémités rabattues.La pâte de manioc fermentée est assaissonée avec de l'huile de palme, du sel, quelques épices locales et du piment, si souhaité. La pâte jaune obtenue est conditionnée sous forme de pain de mie d'environ 20 cm de long et 5 cm d'épaisseur, et moulée dans un ou deux morceaux de larges feuilles de maranthacées.Pour obtenir 250 kg de cossettes, il faut prévoir 1 tonne de tubercules de manioc frais. Les cossettes sont obtenues après épluchage et découpage en morceaux du manioc. Il s'agit ensuite de tremper les racines pendant 3 à 6 jours, en fonction des saisons. Cette opération dure moins longtemps en saison sèche.Puis, retirer les fibres et faire sécher les cossettes au soleil avant de les conserver dans des sacs propres.Après le conditionnement, les pâtes conditionnées sont cuites pendant 45 minutes.La fabrication de la farine de manioc est faite soit à partir de cossettes séchées, soit à partir de la pâte de manioc non fermentée. Dans les deux cas, le produit est séché, broyé finement, puis tamisé avant d'être emballé.• Piler ou meuler les cossettes pour produire la farine.• Tamiser et mettre la farine dans des emballages appropriés (cuvette, sac, sachet).À partir de la pâte de manioc • Presser la pâte obtenue après le râpage des racines épluchées et soigneusement lavées. • Sécher au soleil sur une toile propre, disposée sur une pente douce.• La pâte est séchée jusqu'à ce qu'elle soit farineuse. Moudre ensuite la pate séchée au mortier ou dans un moulin, pour produire la farine. • Tamiser et mettre la farine dans des emballages appropriés (cuvette, sac, sachet).La toile doit être placée sur un support surélevé et non directement sur le sol.L'amidon de manioc est produit à base de pâte de manioc non fermentée.• Malaxer la pâte de manioc dans une bassine d'eau, à raison de 5 litres d'eau pour 1 kg de pâte. • Tamiser le mélange et récueillir le lait d'amidon dans une bassine. Laisser l'amidon se décanter pendant 1 heure. • Recueillir la pâte qui s'est déposée au fond et la sécher au soleil. On obtient de l'amidon. • Moudre l'amidon et tamiser la poudre obtenue, puis conditionner dans des sacs.La semoule fermentée et cuite, couramment appelée « attiéké », est issue de la fermentation du manioc épluché et broyé. La fermentation est assurée par des ferments traditionnels appelés « magnan ». Les semoules sont obtenues après essorage de la pâte. Elles sont séchées, tamisées, calibrées et cuites à la vapeur pour donner un produit acidulé et légèrement collant appelé attiéké frais. Pour obtenir 100 kg d'attiéké frais, il faut prévoir 200 kg de tubercules de manioc frais.• 70 kg de pâte de manioc non fermentée • 15 kg de tubercules de manioc • 150 ml d'huile de palme raffinée• Éplucher les tubercules de manioc. Les laver, les faire cuire et les laisser refroidir. • Envelopper ensuite dans un sac en polypropylène. Laisser au repos 2 à 3 jours pour obtenir le levain. • Enlever les fibres et laver les racines couvertes de mycélium au moment de l'utilisation.• Préparer 70 kg de pâte de manioc et 7 kg de levain. Mélanger la pâte et le levain et y ajouter environ 150 ml d'huile de palme, puis malaxer le tout. • Mettre le mélange dans des bassines en fibres végétales tressées pour la fermentation, avec égouttage pendant 2 à 3 jours. • Presser la pâte contenue dans les sacs, à l'aide de blocs de pierre.• Émotter à l'aide d'un tamis à grosses mailles carrées de 1 à 2 mm de côté, tout en éliminant une partie des fibres.• Semouler les mottes en réalisant les granules à la main dans une large cuvette, et conférer aux particules une forme lisse plus ou moins sphérique. • Exposer la semoule au soleil pour une déshydratation partielle.• Vanner pour éliminer les fibres. Puis, faire cuire dans un couscoussier.• Conditionner l'attiéké frais dans des cuvettes, des sachets ou des paniers.Le gari est une semoule sèche qui se conserve très longtemps. Une tonne de tubercules de manioc peut produire 200 à 300 kg de gari.• Préparer la pâte de manioc, l'ensacher dans des sacs, et laisser fermenter 2 à 3 jours. • Presser la pâte à l'aide de blocs de pierre ou d'une presse, jusqu'à ce que l'eau cesse de s'égoutter. À noter que la surface du sac doit rester humide.• Émotter la pâte essorée à l'aide d'un tamis tout en éliminant une partie des fibres. • Griller ou rôtir la semoule dans une poêle ou un plateau chauffé.• Après la torréfaction, tamiser le gari afin de retirer les gros morceaux qui persistent, et le calibrer au moyen de tamis en fibres de bambou tressés de mailles différentes qui vont donner ainsi différentes qualités de gari. • Le conserver dans un récipient propre, en sac ou en sachet, pour la commercialisation.Il faut se débarrasser de la bonne quantité d'eau pour éviter que le gari forme des grumeaux lors de la torréfaction. Si l'on presse trop la pâte, le gari ne cuira pas convenablement et deviendra farineux. Pour 20 litres de bière, prévoir 40 kg de tubercules de manioc.• Tremper les tubercules de manioc dans de l'eau pendant 7 jours.• Éplucher les racines et broyer la pulpe.• Ajouter 20 litres d'eau à la pâte obtenue et mélanger. Laisser au repos pendant 3 jours. • Filtrer le jus fermenté. Conditionner la bière dans des jarres ou autres récipients adaptés.Ingrédients pour 4 litres d'alcool à 45%• 4 kg d'amidon de manioc • 1 kg de grains de sorgho • 20 à 30 g de levure de bièrePréparation du malt de sorgho • Trier, nettoyer les grains de sorgho.• Les faire tremper dans l'eau pendant 4 jours afin de les faire germer.• Faire sécher ensuite les grains germés au soleil pendant 2 à 3 jours.• Ôter manuellement les plantules.• Broyer les grains entiers (à savoir l'écorce et l'albumen) pour obtenir la farine de sorgho malté. Le manioc offre des avantages considérables en matière de sécurité alimentaire, avec des rendements stables et élevés, même sur des sols marginaux et dans des conditions pluviométriques incertaines. Les coûts de production requis tels que l'achat des engrais, des produits phytosanitaires et du matériel de reproduction sont minimes.Lorsque les feuilles de manioc se referment sur elles-mêmes, les pieds de manioc peuvent être laissés à l'abandon. Ce qui permet d'optimiser l'utilisation de la main-d'oeuvre sans mettre en danger la production de manioc.La production de racines de manioc est une activité rentable. Ci-dessous, le compte d'exploitation d'un hectare de manioc sur 3 ans : Pour une plantation d'environ 10 000 pieds à l'hectare, avec un rendement potentiel de 30 tonnes, le revenu net s'élève à 840 000 FCFA, à raison de 28 FCFA/kg. En Côte d'Ivoire, la camionnette de 2,5 tonnes se négocie entre 100 000 FCFA et 200 000 FCFA (transport compris).Compte tenu de sa faible durée de conservation, c'est à partir du 10 ème mois qu'il faut rechercher des clients (transformateurs, revendeurs) pour obtenir des commandes fermes avant la récolte (prévue au 12 ème mois).Le gari est un produit très consommé au Bénin. Sa production est donc une source de revenus assez stable. Le tableau suivant présente un compte d'exploitation pour la production et la commercialisation de 825 kg de gari par semaine.C'est une activité rémunératrice qui procure un revenu supérieur au SMIG pour un groupe de 4 personnes. La production et la commercialisation de l'attiéké peuvent générer plus de 5 000 000 FCFA de bénefice annuel. Production et transformation du manioc","tokenCount":"3902"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"6ecec90421964f6ff1c627582f74aa75","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0c52c760-33e1-4645-8192-e9f63b92e81b/content","id":"-699717228"},"keywords":["chlorophyll","cropping systems","early vigour","grain yield","nitrogen content"],"sieverID":"9a9be5a9-996d-41a0-aa6e-fd6e4654a05a","pagecount":"15","content":"Previous, research focused mainly on the effects of conservation agriculture (CA) and conventional practices (CP) on crop yield mostly. A study was conducted at five sites in Zimbabwe from 2012 to 2014 to investigate effects of CA and CP practices on emergence, chlorophyll content, early vigour and grain yield of different maize varieties using 12 hybrids and 4 open pollinated varieties (OPVs). The experiment was laid as a 4 × 4 alpha lattice design with three replications. Emergence was higher under CA (75%) at University of Zimbabwe (UZ) in 2012/13 and Domboshawa Training Centre (DTC) (67%) compared to CP (71% and 39% respectively). Lower early plant vigour was observed under CA compared to CP at most sites. CA had lower leaf chlorophyll content during the early crop growth stages compared to CP. However, at some instances, CA had higher leaf chlorophyll content (45 units) than CP (35 units) at 78 days after sowing in Zimuto 2012/13. For maize yield, CA outperformed CP on a sandy loamy soil (3050 kg ha -1 vs 2656 kg ha -1 ) and clay soil (4937 kg ha -1 vs 4274 kg ha -1 ). However, on a sandy soil, CP outperformed CA (1764 vs 1313 kg ha -1 ). Our results suggest that tillage effects on early maize plant vigor, leaf chlorophyll content and the final yield can be site and season specific. Furthermore, a delay of nutrient release for plant uptake under CA systems was found and potentially implies investigations of new fertilization strategies for such cropping systems.Agriculture systems based on tillage and removal/or burning of crop residues pose a threat to food security through accelerated soil degradation (Thierfelder, Mutenje, Mujeyi, & Mupangwa, 2014). Maize yields are reportedly declining to the highest average yield levels of 1.1 tons ha -1 in the past decade (Thierfelder & Wall, 2009). The need to implement more sustainable ways of farming in the smallholder sector is therefore increasingly important. Several ways present potential solutions in addressing food insecurity and soil degradation, and this range from new and adapted maize varieties to good agronomic practices (Cairns, Sanchez, Vargas, Ordoñez, & Araus, 2012). Conservation agriculture (CA), based on minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil organic cover, and the use of diverse crop rotations/associations, has the potential for addressing the current food insecurity and soil degradation on smallholder farming systems (Thierfelder et al., 2014). Compared with conventional plough-or hoe-based cultivation practices (CP), CA practices have been shown to increase and stabilize maize yields in studies conducted in different parts of the world (Govaerts, 2009;Thierfelder et al., 2014;Mhlanga, Cheesman, Maasdorp, Mupangwa, & Thierfelder, 2015). This increase in crop yields under CA could be attributed to increased soil moisture induced by residue retention, increased faunal abundance achieved by reduced disturbance of the soil and residue retention, and increased nitrogen (N) fixation from crop rotations with legumes (Mhlanga et al., 2015;Mutema, Mafongoya, Nyagumbo, & Chikukura, 2013;Thierfelder & Wall, 2009). However, the smallholder farmers still regard CP as an easier farming method based on how easily weeds are controlled at the beginning of the season through ploughing which buries the weeds (Derksen, Lafond, Thomas, Loeppky, & Swanton, 1993). Furthermore, CP improves soil aeration but this benefit is outweighed by the detrimental effects it has on the environment, leading to yield decreases in the longer term (Reicosky, Sauer, & Hatfield, 2011). Moreover, CA in some instances reduces yield through waterlogging, reduced soil temperatures and N lockup (Chikowo, Mapfumo, Nyamugafata, Nyamadzawo, & Giller, 2003).The growth and development of maize is affected by management practices such as soil fertility and weed management. Differences in crop performance are likely to occur between CA and CP as they involve different management strategies. Altuntas and Dede (2009) observed an increased maize crop emergence under CA compared to CP. On the contrary, Hayhoe, Dwyer, Stewart, White, and Culley (1996) found a slow and uneven maize crop emergence under CA compared to CP and this was directly linked to low temperatures under CA systems which are generally triggered by residue retention. Burgess, Mehuys, and Madramootoo (1996) pointed out possible effects of allelopathy of the maize residues usually retained under CA systems to the emerging maize seed. Cairns et al. (2012) investigated in-vivo chlorophyll content in maize and found a strong and positive relationship between leaf chlorophyll content and grain yield. The relationship between the two parameters was stronger especially towards and during maize flowering in the same study. However, because of different soil conditions under CA compared to CP i.e. the temporal unavailability of N through immobilization in maize stover mulched soils, photosynthesis levels are affected especially during the early stages of crop growth (Verhulst et al., 2011a). The temporal unavailability of N is caused by the increased levels of immobilization which is triggered by the high C: N ratio of mulching material such as maize stover (Wortman, 2006). Furthermore, the temporal unavailability of N has an effect on early vigour of the maize crop as growth and vigour are dependent on photosynthesis (Lundy, Pittelkow, Linquist, Liang, Van Groenigen, Lee, & Van Kessel, 2015). Low soil temperatures under CA systems affect germination, vigour and growth of crops (Duiker & Haldeman, 2006). In a study carried out by Verhulst et al. (2011b), the initial maize growth was slower under CA compared with CP although this did not translate into significant yield differences at harvest. The slower initial maize growth under CA may be due to the slower mineralization of N into the soil that could be delayed by up to three weeks (Chikowo et al., 2003).On the other hand, soil tillage increases mineralization of soil organic matter (SOM) because the soil environment becomes well aerated (Barbera, Poma, Gristina, Novara, & Egli, 2012). However, increased mineralization leads into high potential loss of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) from the soil through erosion, leaching and mining by plants (Barbera et al., 2012). As a result, maize under CP can have increased access to soil nutrients leading to high early plant vigour and a higher rate of growth compared with maize under CA (Chikowo et al., 2010). This creates differences in growth of plants under CA and CP cropping systems. Information on effects of tillage systems on secondary growth parameters in maize is still limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different management systems (i.e. CA and CP) on maize secondary traits such as early vigour, leaf chlorophyll content, and grain yield. The hypothesis of the study was that different management systems affect growth and yield of maize (on above mentioned parameters). This was tested on a set of locally produced maize varieties under different environments in Zimbabwe.The experiment was established in the 2009-10 season with maize varieties evaluated under CA tillage system only. For comparison of tillage systems, CP tillage system was introduced in 2011-12 with maize varieties grown in both systems. This current study however, presents data from the 2012-13 and 2013-14 cropping seasons. The study was carried out at five experimental locations: University of Zimbabwe (UZ) (17.73°S; 31.04°E and 1483 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l), Domboshawa Training Centre (DTC) (17.62°S; 31.17°E and 1500 m.a.s.l), Madziva (17.00°S;31.43°E and 1169 m.a.s.l), Hereford (17.42°S;31.44°E and 1054 m.a.s.l), and Zimuto (19.85°S;30.88°E and 1223 m.a.s.l). The soils at UZ are characterized by a high clay content of more than 40% and are classified as Chromic luvisols (Nyamapfene, 1991). Domboshawa Training Centre has soils classified as Gleyic luvisols and has a 5% clay content generated from granitic parent material (Thierfelder & Wall, 2009). Hereford soils are heavy red clays with up to 40% clay content and classified as Chromic luvisols (Nyamapfene, 1991). Madziva is characterized by sandy soils which are classified as Gleyic luvisols generated from granite parent material (Thierfelder et al., 2012). Dominant soils at Zimuto are Arenosols generated from granitic sands of low inherent fertility and less than 5% clay content (Thierfelder & Wall, 2012).Twelve commonly grown maize hybrids and four open pollinated varieties (OPVs) from different sources were used in this study. The choice of maize genotypes was based on commercial availability in Zimbabwe and wide adoption in southern Africa (Kassie et al., 2012). The genotypes can be subdivided into early maturing (i.e. SC403, PAN 413, PHB 3253 and PHB P2859W), medium maturing (i.e. PAN 53,Pristine 1,SC 513,SC 533,SC 635,ZAP 51,ZAP 61,ZS 261,PGS 63) and late maturing (i.e. SC 637) hybrids; and early maturing (i.e. ZM 401 and ZM 309) and medium maturing (i.e. ZM 523 and ZM 525) OPVs.The experiment was set as an alpha lattice design at all sites with the CA and CP plots laid adjacent to each other, replicated three times and blocked four times against slope. At all sites, gross plot size measured 4.8 m × 3.6 m (i.e. 17.28 m 2 ) with a net plot size of 3.8 m × 1.8 m (i.e. 6.84 m 2 ).Residues (maize stover) were uniformly spread over the CA plots at a rate of 3 t ha -1 while residues were removed in the CP plots before disc ploughing to a depth of 25 cm prior to the beginning of the season. Maize varieties under CA were planted in rip lines created by a Magoye ripper (a ripper tine attached to an ox-drawn mouldboard plough) at all sites except for UZ were basins were created with hand hoes during the dry winter period. Basins under CA were only used at UZ due to the unavailability of animal draft power. Under the practice of CP, planting was done using basins at all sites. Maize was planted at 90 cm between lines and 50 cm between plants with 3 seeds per station thinned to 2 to achieve a population of 44, 444 plants ha -1 at all sites. Maize plants in both CA and CP received basal fertilizer [Compound D (7 N:14 P 2 O 5 :7 K 2 O)] at the rate of 14 kg N ha -1 , 12.2 kg P ha -1 , and 11.6 kg K ha -1 at sowing.Top dressing was applied to both CA and CP in two splits, at four and seven weeks after crop emergence to a total of 69 kg N ha -1 in the form of ammonium nitrate (34.5% N). Weeds were controlled by spraying a tank-mixture of glyphosate [N-(phosphono-methyl))acetamide] at a rates of 2.5 l ha -1 , 3.5 l ha -1 and 1.0 l ha -1 active ingredient (ai), respectively, immediately after sowing the seed in the CA plots. In CP plots, weeds were controlled through tillage at the beginning of the season. This was mainly to control grasses and broadleaved weeds. In both CA and CP plots, manual weeding was conducted after crop emergence during the growing period each time weeds reached approximately 10 cm in height or radius for weeds with a stoloniferous growth habit. Maize stalk borer (Busseola fusca L.) was controlled using Dipterex at a rate of 1.6 kg ai ha -1 applied in granular form into the maize funnel at early signs of attack.Rainfall was measured at each site using a standard rain gauge located in an open space next to the experimental location. Readings were taken in the morning after each rainfall event.Soil sampling for fertility analyses was done at each experimental location using the stratified random sampling method in each replicate of each cropping system. Three samples were taken from each replicate using a soil auger at three soil depth levels i.e. 0-10 cm, 10-30 cm and 30-90 cm. A composite sample was then created representing each depth and each cropping system. Soil samples were submitted to the Soil Chemistry and Soils Institute of the Department of Research and Specialist Services of Zimbabwe (DR & SS) to analyze for chemical and physical properties of the soils.Days to 50% emergence were determined by counting the number of seedlings emerging in the two central rows of each plot daily for 10 days. Emergence percentage was recorded as the number of plants which emerged out of plants which were expected to emerge (60 plants) within the two central rows.At 6 weeks after sowing, 5 plants were selected from each plot and height measured from the root crown to the top of the innermost leaf. The number of leaves (omitting the bottom dry leaves) per plant were counted from the same sample and the average number of leaves calculated. To determine the above ground biomass, a destructive sampling method from the border rows was done and 5 plants were selected randomly, oven dried to a constant weight at 65 °C for 72 hours and the dry weight recorded.In vivo chlorophyll content of leaves was estimated using a portable chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502®, Minolta, Tokyo, Japan). Measurements were taken weekly starting from 6 weeks after sowing on the upper most extended leaf on 5 randomly selected plants per plot. However, prior to flowering (i.e. about 9 weeks after sowing) onwards, the ear leaf was used instead as the sampling leaf reached senescence stage as this had the greatest contribution of assimilates to the sink (ear).Grain and stover were harvested for yield determination from the net plot measuring 2 rows by 4.8 m. The number of plants and cobs per net plot were recorded. The fresh cobs and stover were weighed and their weight recorded. A sub-sample comprising five cobs was extracted from each plot and the fresh weight of cobs recorded. A stover sub-sample of approximately 500 g was taken and its fresh weight measured. The stover and cob sub-samples were dried in an oven and the dry weight recorded. The grain weight was determined after shelling for each plot. Grain moisture was determined using a Dickey-john mini GAC® moisture tester and yield was expressed at 12.5% moisture content.Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), generalized linear models, and multiple linear regressions. This was done to identify significant effects of tillage systems on emergence, early vigour and leaf chlorophyll and the contribution of the primary traits to grain yield using GenStat version 12 (VSN International, 2002) statistical packages. Where the effects of tillage systems were significantly different, separation was done using the Tukey's test (HSD) at P < 0.05 probability level.In the 2012-13 season, all sites received above 600 mm of rainfall and had an effective growing season of about 80 days except for Zimuto which had rainfall below 400 mm and an effective growing period of 60 days (Figure 1). There was a short dry spell of about 15 days at Zimuto immediately after planting and a sharp increase in rainfall immediately after planting at DTC and Hereford of about 100 mm in 10 days. In the 2013-14 season, there was a longer growing period of over 80 days compared with the 2012-13 season. However, Zimuto and UZ sites experienced a short dry spell of 10 days after planting in 2013-14 season (Figure 1).Days after planting Soil chemical and physical properties were different at the five study sites (Table 1). Hereford and UZ sites had higher clay content (< 40%) while Madziva and Zimuto had soils with a sandy texture (< 14% clay). Generally the light textured soils had less amounts of phosphorus (P) (< 18 mg/100 g) and potassium (K) (< 0.013 mg/100 g) and were acidic (< 5.9) compared to the heavy textured soils. Heavy textured soils had a pH range of 6-7. Madziva had soil with the lowest clay content (8% in the top layer) and was the most acidic (pH < 6). The highest total N levels (> 50 ppm) were recorded in the heavy textured soils compared with levels (< 34 ppm) in light textured soils. Higher levels of available N under CA compared with CP were found at Domboshawa, Hereford and UZ whilst CP soils had a higher available N content at Zimuto and Madziva. Furthermore, Zimuto and Madziva had more acidic soils under CA compared with CP. However, at the other sites, pH was similar in both cropping systems (Table 1). In 2012-13 season, emergence was significantly (P < 0.05) higher under CA at UZ (75%) compared to CP (71%).Emergence was significantly higher in CP (63%) at Zimuto in the same year compared with CA (43%) (Figure 2). In the 2013-14 season, CA (67%) had significantly (P < 0.05) higher emergence than CP (39%) at DTC. Conventional practice had significantly (P < 0.05) higher emergence at UZ (63%) and Zimuto (80%) compared with CA (58% and 62% respectively) (Figure 2). High emergence percentage showed a positive relationship with grain yield i.e. one unit increase in emergence resulted in 0.19 units increase in grain yield under CA and 0.007 units under CP (Table 2). Grain yield decreased by 0.03 and 0.04 units for every one unit increase in days to 50% emergence under CA and CP respectively (Table 2). The multiple linear regression accounted for over 50% variation on the measured parameters both under CA and CP systems.  In the 2012-13 season, CA and CP had significantly (P < 0.05) different total dry matter weight of the maize plants at all sites. Furthermore, the number of leaves per plant at all sites except Hereford, and plant height at DTC and Hereford, were significantly (P < 0.05) different (Table 3). At four of the five sites (DTC, Madziva, Zimuto and Hereford), CP had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher dry matter compared with CA in 2012-13 season.It was only at UZ where CA outperformed the CP treatment. There was no clear trend of CA and CP effects on plant height at most sites. Significant differences in height were only observed at DTC and Hereford where CP out-performed CA (Table 3). During the 2013-14 season all sites had significantly (P < 0.05) more dry mass under CP compared with CA except at Hereford. More leaves were found in the CP system at UZ, DTC, and Zimuto whereas CA outperformed CP at DTC only. A generally lower total dry matter weight was observed at the sandy soil sites, Madziva (9-39 g/5 plants) and Zimuto (< 36 g/5 plants) compared with the clay soil sites. Note. Means followed by different letters within the same row are significantly different from each other at P < 0.05 probability level.Maize leaf chlorophyll content consistently fluctuated in both cropping systems throughout the seasons (Figures 3 and 4). There was a significant (P < 0.05) difference between CA and CP systems which was more pronounced in 2012-13 season compared with 2013-14. In the CA system, chlorophyll content was lower compared with CP at initial growth stages of maize at Hereford in the 2012-13 season and at Zimuto in both seasons (Figures 3 and  4). At Zimuto, greater chlorophyll content was observed in CA treatments (43 units) compared with CP plots (37 units) towards the end of the season (Figure 3). In 2013-14 season, no differences (P > 0.05) in chlorophyll content were observed at all sites except for Zimuto (Figure 4).  4). At Madziva CP and CA had a maize yield of 1764 and 1313 kg ha -1 , respectively (Table 4). DTC site had 3050 kg ha -1 in CA and 2656 kg ha -1 in CP in the same season. Hereford site had 4937 kg ha -1 in CA and 4274 kg ha -1 in CP. Seasons, sites, and varieties showed significant (P Note. Season (2012-13 and2013-14), Site (UZ (University of Zimbabwe), DTC (Domboshawa Training Center), Madziva, Hereford, Zimuto), System (CA and CP), Treatments (maize varieties).Higher emergence under CA compared with CP was found at DTC. This concurred results by Altuntaş & Dede (2009) who reported high emergence rates under CA compared to CP in clay loamy soils. In their study, favorable soil physical properties for maize seedling emergence, which include lower bulk density, were found under CA compared to CP (Altuntas & Dede, 2009). During our study high soil erosion was observed in the CP treatments at DTC because of the heavy rains received during emergence although erosion rates were not measured. This resulted in poor maize crop emergence under CP compared with the CA system. However, CP outperformed CA at UZ, Hereford and Zimuto. This is in line with observations made by Hayhoe et al. (1996), Griffith, Kladivko, Mannering, West, and Parsons (1988) and Dam et al. (2005) which were mainly attributed to low soil temperatures under CA systems compared with CP. Duiker et al. (2006) reported a delayed and uneven emergence under CA, but this delay did not affect vegetative growth or the final crop yield. Hillel (1998) pointed out that soil with more moisture, a scenario under CA compared to CP, heats up more slowly than a dry exposed soil, and this might explain the low temperature that potentially affected emergence. Moreover, since clay soil has ability to conserve more moisture than sandy soils, heating up of a mulched clay soil is even slower than an exposed bare clay soil. This could have affected emergence under CA compared to CP at UZ and Hereford in 2013-14. Zimuto experienced poor maize emergence under CA in both seasons and this could be attributed to delayed weeding and the little rains received at the time of planting. This could have led to a competition for the available moisture between the emerging maize seedlings and the weeds. Delayed weeding was as a result of the unsuitability of chemical weed control particularly glyphosate under very sandy soils due to its slow degradation nature (Locke et al., 2008). Hence manual weeding competed for labor with the seeding operations at the start of the cropping season. This shows that the success of CA also relies on the management practices being followed by farmers and the type of soils (Giller, Witter, Corbeels, & Tittonell, 2009). These inconsistent results indicate the need to further investigate the effect of CA on crop emergence under different soil types. Furthermore, the effects of planting methods under CA must be explored. However, planting basins and direct seeding have shown high emergence percentage compared to ripping in difference parts of southern Africa (Ngwira, Thierfelder, & Lambert, 2012b;Thierfelder & Wall, 2009).Conservation agriculture has shown the potential to improve soil physical and chemical properties (Altundus & Dede, 2009). This has the potential of increasing crop vigour through an improved nutrient cycling. Although plant vigour is determined by the genetics of a plant species, the environment plays a vital role in the exhibition of plant vigour (Negi, Baskheti, & Bhatt, 2015). Furthermore, an improved emergence gives a better chance of high crop vigour. However, high emergence does not always translate into high plant vigour and final yield (Negi et al., 2015). Vigorous plants are associated with resistance to diseases and pests, and good root development which potentially translate to higher yield (Namuco, Cairns, & Johnson, 2009). Lower dry matter and fewer leaves were generally found under CA compared with CP at the experimental sites during the two seasons. Furthermore lower dry matter and fewer leaves were observed under CA in light textured soils compared with heavy textured soils. This is because light textured soils have lower soil fertility and nutrient supply to growing plants is therefore limited compared to heavy textured soils (Chikowo et al., 2010). In addition, the soil chemical and physical analysis in this study revealed a high nutrient base in Hereford, DTC and UZ compared to Zimuto and Madziva. Moreover, at the light textured soil sites, soils from the CA treatment had less available N compared to CP plots. However, CA treatments at all sites had more total N compared with CP. Hence crops with access to high nutrient supply have better chances of having high vigour. The number of leaves per plant and in-vivo leaf chlorophyll at 6 weeks after sowing were higher under CP compared with CA. Verhulst et al. (2011a) found a slow initial growth in maize under CA compared with CP. This relates to the availability of nutrients especially N during the early stages of crop growth. High C:N ratio in residue types such as maize stover used in this study potentially caused immobilization of N making its uptake by plants slow (Chikowo et al., 2008). However, at DTC and Hereford more leaves and higher dry matter were found under CA compared with CP.High chlorophyll concentration early in the season is a very vital component in a plant's life. It shows how vigorous a crop is performing, and, although it is not the only indicator, gives an indication of the potential yield (Namuco et al., 2009). The chlorophyll content determines the level of photosynthesis and productivity (Egli & Rucker, 2012). Lower chlorophyll content under CA can be explained by a number of reasons, but besides lower temperatures under CA it is mainly due to nitrogen lock-up (Mapfumo et al., 2007;Rasmussen, 1999). Low chlorophyll content in maize leaves under CA has also been observed where different residues are used as soil cover on light textured soil (Mupangwa, Nyagumbo, & Mutsamba, 2016). Carbon and N turnover was found to be 1.5 times slower under CA than CP (Chivenge, Murwira, Giller, & Mapfumo, 2007), which can explain the differences of chlorophyll content between the two systems. Moreover, the extend of differences also depend on clay content of the soil (Chivenge, 2003).Generally there was no significant difference in yield between CA and CP over the sites and seasons. However, higher grain yield was observed under CA compared with CP at DTC in 2012-13 and Hereford in 2013-14. Even though Verhulst et al. (2011b) ascertained a slower growth under CA compared with CP which matches results of current study, this did not translate to yield differences under the two tillage systems. Although some differences were found in the maize growth patterns during the season between CA and CP such as emergence, chlorophyll and some early vigour parameters, this did not translate into yield differences at some sites. However, if these differences are addressed such as poor emergence, lower chlorophyll content at early stages and low vigour, and the potential persistence of foliar diseases under CA systems, yield is highly likely to increase. This study also suggests the need to identify sites which best suits the CA practice. In some sites in this study such as Zimuto, practicing CA showed no yield benefit compared with CP. However, Thierfelder and Wall (2009) found that CA in Zimuto increased yield both on maize and cowpea compared with CP although adoption remained poor. Furthermore, according to this work it is not all seasons that CA results in good yields or CP result in bad yields. Besides, yield performances under CA, other benefits must however, be considered such as reduced erosion and energy use, improvement of soil biological, chemical and physical properties which will bring benefits in the long term (Baudron, Thierfelder, Nyagumbo, & Gérard, 2015).The performance of maize varieties was tested on different soil types and rainfall regimes under two cropping systems (CA and CP) at five locations of Zimbabwe. Based on the results of this study the following conclusions can be made: there is a delay in nutrient accessibility by plants under CA which might be due to the nitrogen immobilization effect of residue mulch in CA systems. This highlights the need for a different fertilization strategy in terms of timing and formulations under CA systems. Chlorophyll content and early vigour characteristics were different under the two cropping systems which indicate the need to select maize varieties that are nutrient-efficient and suitable under CA systems. The study showed that maize yields are affected by a number of traits which emergence and chlorophyll content alone cannot explain. Breeding programs need to select for highly N use efficient varieties to suit CA. Although all the measured establishment and growth parameters showed differences under CA and CP, no grain yield differences were observed at some sites suggesting that if problems under CA such as N lock up are addressed, increases in crop yield are expected. Higher maize yield under CA compared with CP were observed at DTC and Hereford suggesting the site selective effects of CA practices. However, there is need for further investigations as the results of the present study are based on short-term data.","tokenCount":"4672"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1137f2a902ed07fe843e966a2656edec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4cb707f-355e-40e5-acf8-d3b95737d151/retrieve","id":"1020051437"},"keywords":["wheat","field experimental data","heat stress","simulations"],"sieverID":"3d9e36dd-fd66-4a0c-85d0-2843671ffc69","pagecount":"7","content":"The dataset reported here includes the part of a Hot Serial Cereal Experiment (HSC) experiment recently used in the AgMIP-Wheat project to analyze the uncertainty of 30 wheat models and quantify their response to temperature. The HSC experiment was conducted in an open-field in a semiarid environment in the southwest USA. The data reported herein include one hard red spring wheat cultivar (Yecora Rojo) sown approximately every six weeks from December to August for a twoyear period for a total of 11 planting dates out of the 15 of the entire HSC experiment. The treatments were chosen to avoid any effects of frost on grain yields. For the late fall, winter, and early spring plantings, temperature free-air controlled enhancement (T-FACE) apparatus utilizing infrared heaters with supplemental irrigation were used to increase air temperature by 1.3°C/2.7°C (day/night) with conditions equivalent to raising air temperature at constant relative humidity (i.e. as expected with global warming) during the whole crop growth cycle. Experimental data include local daily weather data, soil characteristics and initial conditions, detailed crop measurements taken at three growth stages during the growth cycle, and cultivar information. Simulations include both daily in-season and end-of-season results from 30 wheat models.The Hot Serial Cereal Experiment for modeling wheat response to temperature: field experiments and AgMIP-Wheat multi-model simulations 1 ORIGINAL PURPOSE: The original purpose of this dataset was to support a model inter-comparison (Asseng et al., 2015) as part of the Agricultural Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AGMIP, http://www.agmip.org/; Rosenzweig et al., 2013). The field experimental data were from the Hot Serial Cereal (HSC) experiment carried out by the USDA Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center and the University of Arizona at Maricopa, Arizona to investigate the response of wheat development (White et al., 2011(White et al., , 2012)), gas exchange (Wall et al., 2011), growth, grain yield (Ottman et al., 2012;), canopy temperature and energy balance (Grant et al., 2011;Kimball et al., 2012) to supplemental heating and to seasonal air temperature from varied planting dates. This dataset is a unique source of information for meta-analyses of the impacts on temperature and heat on crop growth and yield and for benchmarking model improvement against a large ensemble of state-of-the-art wheat crop simulation models.A full description of the experiment site and of the experiment treatment are found in Wall et al. (2001) and Ottman et al. (2012). The most important information for the plantings and heat treatments used in the AgMIP-Wheat project are summarized below for a comprehensive understanding of the dataset and to allow setting up simulations. The experimental site was located at the University of Arizona's Maricopa Agricultural Center, Maricopa, Arizona, USA (33°4'N, 111°58'W, 361 m a.s.l.). Maricopa has a semiarid climate with mean annual solar radiation of 21 MJ m -2 day -1 , a mean annual temperature of 21°C and mean annual precipitation of 164 mm. The soil was a Trix clay loam with low organic matter content described in Post et al. (1988). Wheat crops were sown approximately every six weeks from March 2007 through January 2009. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with three replicates. Seeds were sown at a rate of 288 seeds m -2 with a row spacing of 0.19 m to produce a final target plant density of approximately 200 plants m −2 . Blocks were strips 11 m wide × 37 m long, allowing three 11 m × 11 m plots per block. A circular (3-m diameter) (Control) plot was identified in the center of each block where plant measurements were taken. On four planting dates, two additional treatments were arranged in each block to yield a 3 × 3 Latin square experimental design, where heated plots were paired with Reference plots. The Heated plots were equipped with infrared heaters arranged to provide uniform warming over a 3-m diameter circular area as described in Kimball et al. (2008) (Figure 1). The Photograph of the infrared heater system. In the centre foreground, infrared heaters are arranged in a circle above a wheat crop (Heated plot), and in the background to the left, the dummy non-operable heaters are arranged in a similar configuration (Reference plots).The crops were irrigated at 100% replacement of potential evapotranspiration to maintain the soil water content at field capacity. Depending on planting date, the total amount of irrigation ranged from 362 to 921 mm. Water was supplied through a surface drip tape irrigation system with drip tapes placed 38 cm between every other row. Heated plots received 8% to 10% more water as a separate supplemental irrigation (except for the first planting on 13 March 2007) to provide a first-order correction for the increased plant-to-air vapor pressure gradient (Kimball, 2005). To guarantee good germination and emergence of the summer planted crops, additional sprinkler irrigation was provided. Soil fertility was managed to avoid nutrient limitations. Fifty to 56 kg N ha -1 and 67 kg P2O5 ha -1 were applied as granular ammonium phosphate at planting, and urea ammonium nitrate was subsequently applied in irrigation water at rates of approximately 50 kg N ha -1 per application with up to four applications (at tillering, heading, anthesis and during grain filling) depending on crop requirements. The date of drilling the seeds into dry soil is the \"nominal\" planting date, and the \"effective\" planting date is defined as the date irrigation water was first applied for seed germination and to fill the soil profile to field capacity, which occurred between one and eight days after the nominal planting date. Each crop was sampled three times during the growing season for biomass and other crop growth parameters. The stages at sampling were before flag leaf emergence, after heading, and final harvest between physiological maturity and harvest ripe stage. Exceptions to the stages at sampling are the first sampling of the 13 March 2008 planting, which occurred between anthesis and the kernel milky stage, and the 13 February 2008 and 12 January 2009 plantings for which plants were also sampled after tillering. For the sampling times before maturity, dry mass, and nitrogen concentration of stems, green leaves, brown leaves, spikes, and crowns were determined. Leaf area index was calculated from the leaf laminae surface area and green area index was calculated from the sum of leaf, stem, and spike surface area. Grain and total plant yields were adjusted to a 0% moisture basis. Dates of crop emergence, anthesis and physiological maturity and final leaf number were determined as described in White et al. (2011). Figure 2 illustrates the exceptional range of grain yield and temperature in this dataset and the impact of the supplemental temperature treatments on grain yield. The entire HSC experiment comprised 15 planting dates, but in both years the crop planted in September and October suffered from significant frost damage and were excluded from the model intercomparison study reported by Asseng et al. (2015), which focused on high temperature impacts. These four plantings are not reported here. Experimental data for these plantings and additional measurements for all plantings, including detailed phenological stages, leaf emergence rate (Haun stage), soil and canopy temperature, vegetation index (NDVI), leaf level gas exchange and water relations, and grain quality data are reported in a separate paper (Kimball et al., 2018).Maximum and minimum values of daily air temperatures were obtained primarily from a weather station at the experimental field. When temperature data were unavailable, data were obtained from an Arizona Meteorological Network weather station (AZMET; http://ag.arizona.edu/azmet) located 1.2 km from the experiment site and were adjusted to match the on-site station values using a regression procedure.The wind and air temperature sensors were at 2-m height on the field mast, whereas wind was at 3 m and air temperature was at 1.5 m on the AZMET mast. Daily solar radiation, precipitation, mean wind speed and mean dew point temperature were obtained from the AZMET weather station. Seasonal (defined based on observed phenological stages) mean air temperature was calculated from daily air temperature, which was derived from the sum of eight contributions of a cosine variation between maximum and minimum daily air temperatures as described in Weir et al. (1984).Figure 2. Final grain yield versus mean growing season temperature for the 11 plantings and the four Heat treatments of the HSC experiment reported here. The dashed lines connect the Control and supplemental Heat treatments of the same plantings. Control, average of the Control and Reference treatments; supplemental Heat, infrared warming (T-FACE) treatment. Data are mean ± 1 s.d. for n = 3 (for the supplemental Heat treatments and the Control treatments of plantings with no supplemental Heat treatment) to 6 (for the Control treatments of the plantings with supplemental Heat treatments) replicates.Results for the Reference and Control treatments were similar (Ottman et al. 2012), so they were pooled and named \"C\". The Heat treatment was named \"H\". Data are reported as mean and standard deviation. Missing data are indicated by \"NA\". Missing data correspond either to plant variables that were measured only at specific growth stages (e.g. grains were harvested only after anthesis) and to crops that died early in the growth season because of the summer heat (planting dates between June and August). In the latter case, final grain and chaff yield and nitrogen mass are equal to zero and the other variables are reported as NA.The fifteen treatments described above were simulated by 30 wheat models (see Supplementary of Asseng et al., 2015). Simulations were carried out using standardized protocols and several steps of calibration. The simulation results reported here are for the full calibration step for which modelers had access to most of the experimental data reported here. For the simulations, the nominal planting dates were used. Some models were executed with water and nitrogen unlimited options. Fifteen of these 30 wheat models also participated in a model improvement exercise (Maiorano et al., 2017), where the HSC dataset was used for model improvement. For these fifteen models, simulation results are given for both the original and improved versions. For the four plantings with Heat treatments, the three replicates of the Control and Heat treatments were simulated. The model inputs for the replicates differed only for the temperature and amount of irrigation. As no differences were observed between the replicates (as in the experimental data) in the data reported here, they were pooled. For the plantings without Heat treatments, only one replicate per planting was simulated. None of the Reference plots were simulated. The experimental data presented here were also used in a modeling study of AgMIP-Wheat where canopy temperature models were evaluated for nine of the 30 wheat models used in Asseng et al. (2015)  (Webber et al., 2016) and in an earlier study where energy balance and canopy temperature simulated by the wheat model ecosys were evaluated (Grant et al., 2011). Measured canopy temperature and energy balance data were reported in Kimball et al. (2018).An overview of the main dataset tables is given in ","tokenCount":"1815"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f598feeeca12ff99c74ee038656f1e0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7190951d-1ff4-46c5-9962-0f49e4ab7c6d/retrieve","id":"786333733"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"8778e8c8-9ec5-4704-abfa-f09221d421f7","pagecount":"5","content":"On a recent hot day, water gushed onto Ramanbhai Parmar's lush, green field in Anand, a district in semi-arid western India. The scene was typical of many farms in the developing world, with this exception: An array of solar panels dominated the view.\"For almost my entire lifetime, I had been using electric pumps to draw groundwater and irrigate my fields,\" he told a film crew. Then researchers with the International Water Management Institute, which leads the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE), came along and asked if he would consider using solarpowered water pumps. He did, and six months later, he likes the results. He now has access to electricity during the day, while before he had to wake up at night to irrigate his farm. \"Secondly, there is a 50 percent cut in my electricity bills,\" he said.Parmar's experience reflects the groundswell of change occurring in one of the world's most populated countries. The sun increasingly is powering irrigation pumps on farms in India. Solar power is being embraced by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi as a way to help meet the country's massive power needs, while being a \"green\" solution to a growing carbon emission problem.A 'SPaRC' to keep aquifers healthy, put cash in farmers' handsHowever, in a country where groundwater has emerged as the main source of irrigation for smallholder farmers, scientists worry that solarpowered irrigation pumps could threaten aquifers just as much as electric pumps powered by free subsidized grid electricity have. Many areas of western and southern India--where farm power supply is either free or heavily subsidized -already experience groundwater over-pumping. Solar pumps, which offer 2,300-2,500 hours a year of uninterrupted, daytime free energy, could just exacerbate the problem by, in essence, encouraging farmers to use water at will.In the past 18 months, IWMI researchers have come up with what they believe is a practical solution to potential groundwater exploitation by solar pumps: Lower the electricity subsidies to a modest rate and enable farmers to sell back surplus solar power to the utility grid. In other words, WLE would like to position solar power as a crop that farmers can 'grow.' The plan has been dubbed \"SPaRC\" (Solar Power as a Remunerative Crop).\"By allowing farmers to in effect grow solar power as a 'cash crop,' they will be motivated to use such energy efficiently, thereby minimizing the pumping of scarce water,\" said Tushaar Shah, a senior fellow at IWMI. That, in turn, could propel smallholder farmers onto a path of prosperity.In places like Anand, in the westernmost area of India, SPaRC could also be the recipe to managing water resources amid the effects of climate change, including extended hot, dry spells and unpredictable rainfall. \"This project exemplifies WLE's aim to deliver innovative science into practice that unlocks potential value and results in 'triple wins'environmental sustainability, agricultural productivity and equitable social benefits -for more resilient smallholder farming communities,\" said Meredith Giordano, co-leader of WLE's Land and Water Productivity research theme.Getting things done in India often comes down to politics, and IWMI's progress with SPaRC exemplifies WLE's goal of nurturing close working relationships with governments to help them weigh the trade-offs inherent in major natural resource investment decisions. Shah, named a CGIAR Outstanding Scientist in 2002, has a background in economics and public policy, is politically well-connected and has often been called on to advise the government on irrigation policy. He presented the solar power buyback idea to India's finance ministers in 2013 and 2014 and to power secretaries in Gujarat and Maharashtra states in 2015. He also has promoted the approach at conferences and in opinion pieces in major newspapers in India.The Indian government's 2014 budget provided USD 67 million for solar pump promotion. But the National Solar Pump Program is aimed at largescale deployment of solar pumps, which could hurt aquifer health in certain regions of India.India is a big country, with varied climate conditions, so the goals of the solar buyback program vary depending on the region.In dry areas such as Gujarat state, officials want to wean farmers from using powerful electric pumps, which strain power and groundwater resources. In eastern India, where aquifer resources are generally plentiful, the hope is to stimulate agricultural production in an area where, until recently, production had stagnated because of soaring diesel prices.In September 2014, the Karnataka state government in southwestern India introduced a policy in line with IWMI's SPaRC concept, Surya Raitha, a program that encourages farmers to buy solar pumps and sell back excess power to the utility at a guaranteed price. A farmer with a typical 10kwp solar power system (10 kilowatts at peak performance or full sun) is expected to earn about USD 800 a year selling back surplus power, according to state documents promoting the policy.Andrew Noble, former WLE director, said solar buyback provisions have tremendous potential to support aquifer health and address the 'energywater nexus' in the developing world.\"I feel this is potentially a 'game changer' in addressing the challenge of over-extraction of groundwater, a challenge that not only India is facing, but one that certainly could emerge in sub-Saharan Africa,\" Noble said.\"This approach offers to farmers a choice that I believe will result in behavior change without the implementation of full-scale policy reforms. I would expect farmers to be more judicious in the way they pump and use water for their crops in order to benefit from the sale of excess electricity into the national grid.\" A decade ago in Gujarat, heavily subsidized electricity for irrigation resulted in over-pumping, huge financial losses for utilities and political chaos. IWMI researchers led by Shah recommended a tamper-proof rationing of farm power supply with improved quality of service and monitoring of groundwater depletion. Taking these recommendations, Gujarat separated the agricultural electricity feeder line, improved the quality and reliability of service and provided farmers with an eight-hour-per-day power ration on fixed schedules. Gujarat state officials put the scheme in place in 2006.The solution was expensive -USD 250 millionbut aquifers and the utilities are recovering, and the state economy has been on a roll. Gujarat recovered the investment in less than three years through reduced farm power subsidies. The Stockholm International Water Institute, a nonprofit think tank, said that this electricity rationing scheme sparked new non-farm enterprises and improved rural livelihoods. (Not everyone agrees; some say poor farmers have suffered, which perhaps explains why the government of Gujarat has issued half a million new electric connections, especially targeted at poor and marginalized farmers).WLE's solar pump proposal, or SPaRC, has a way to go before being fully embraced. Solar buyback is just one aspect of the plan. Another is to reduce solar panel subsidies. Currently, many Indian states still offer subsidies of 80 to 90 percent for farmers to buy solar panels.IWMI's research shows that the heavy subsidies have created unintended adverse incentives. The subsidies have made it too easy to buy and use solar pumps and have led to potential groundwater over-extraction. They have also enabled the solar industry to raise solar panel prices -increasing their profits and locking some poor farmers out of the market. Elites have captured a lion's share of the subsidies. IWMI recommends lowering solar panel subsidies to a modest amount, but helping poor farmers buy pumps by making bank financing more readily available. Researchers also emphasize the need for solutions to be tailored to local conditions.SPaRC faces an institutional challenge as well. A utility faces high transactional costs if it is required to buy back power from individual farmers. That's because the utility would need to monitor and measure each farm's power surplus.\"We need to find a solution to that challenge, and we believe the best way is by forming solar farmers' cooperative enterprises,\" Shah said. A cooperative could set up one connection on the grid where the utility would monitor, measure and buy back surplus solar power. The co-op then would absorb the costs of monitoring and measuring individual farms and compensating the farmers fairly.Earlier this year, the IWMI-Tata program, with financial support from the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), launched a joint pilot project in Gujarat state to explore climate-smart agriculture with solar farmers' cooperatives. The group is in the process of forming perhaps the world's first Solar Pump Irrigator's Cooperative Enterprise (SPICE) in the village of Dhundi.The cooperative will evacuate surplus solar power generated by its members at a single point in the utility grid. The utility will meter the power being put back on the grid and pay the cooperative a set price, likely between 3.5 and 6 Indian rupees per kilowatt hour. Gujarat recently included the option of the utilities buying back surplus power in its new solar policy. Tata Trusts is interested in supporting a larger, similar co-op with 40 to 50 solar pump farmers in another village.IWMI researchers believe the SPaRC proposal has application to other parts of South Asia, which still depend heavily on diesel power.Noble said it might be more difficult to enact a solar buyback plan in sub-Saharan Africa.\"While this program may have significant positive outcomes in India where you have the infrastructure to support the sale of electricity into the grid, this may not be appropriate for parts of sub-Saharan Africa where the basic infrastructure to move electricity still has to be built in rural areas,\" Noble said.However, he added, that even in areas where the infrastructure is lacking, excess energy produced by solar panels could be used to help meet household needs by powering lights, radios, TVs and recharging cell phones. \"So at the end of the day, I do feel this is a replicable approach that needs to be tailored to fit the context.\"In the past year, Shah has his research to development process to four main points for replication:• Strive for policy change rather than research only for the sake of science• Adopt a broad, cross-disciplinary approach• Focus on problem solving more than hypothesis testing• Generate practical, doable research projects with a quick turnaround India's first sunshine farmerIn June of this year, Parmar, the wheat and banana farmer in Anand district, became the first farmer in IWMI's pilot program to sell energy back to the power grid. He received 7,500 Indian rupees (about USD 120) for the surplus power, generated over a four-month period.At that pace, he would receive about USD 360 a year, equivalent to more than 20 percent of Gujarat's average per capita income. Over time, IWMI researchers believe that farmers, as they weigh the trade-offs between irrigation pumping and selling excess power, will be able to earn close to USD 1,000 a year. ","tokenCount":"1768"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fe2bb28122b5bd0eb1231f88c4b375cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b4b7d62-2573-4af4-8ea1-7fc21ea58df2/retrieve","id":"-1206054336"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"bef4088e-003b-457b-9d5f-4d102053da84","pagecount":"2","content":"The international Potato Center (CIP) is promoting Orange-fleshed Sweetpotato (OFSP) production, consumption and marketing as an easily accessible source of vitamin A to tackle to vitamin A deficiency (VAD) especially among under five children, pregnant women and lactating mothers in Malawi. CIP has advanced its partnership with public and private institutions in promoting and expanding production and commercialization of OFSP across value chains.Through the Feed the Future Partnering for Innovation (FTF P4I) project funded by USAID and the Root and Tuber Crops for Agricultural Transformation in Malawi (RTC-ACTION Malawi) funded by Irish Aid, CIP is working to promote OFSP production by farmers who will then supply roots to University Industries Limited (UIL) for use in the development of commercial OFSP products. CIP intends to develop efficient and sustainable value chains among farmers, linking vine multipliers to root producers and further facilitating linkages between root producers and agro-processing entities, enhancing different capacities of all key actors along the value chains.As a means for enhancing public-private partnership aimed at supporting smallholder farmers in Malawi to expand their market access and access to improved inputs and technical training, CIP has partnered with UIL in the implementation of the FTFP4I and RTC-ACTION projects. CIP is also working with Government Agencies namely, the Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS) to develop the right OFSP varieties for the right use (Fig. 1) and provide disease-free planting material and the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAES), who mobilize farmers for vine and root production. In addition, CIP works with NGOs such as Concern Worldwide, CARE, United Purpose (UP) (formerly known as Concern Universal), CADECOM, Catholic Relief Services and Save the Children as well as informal marketers of doughnuts (mandazi) and OFSP root wholesalers and retailers. How are we going to make it happen?CIP will provide technical support to 80,000 farmers through the five year RTC-ACTION project of which 8,500 will be empowered on commercialization through P4I and 5,000 by RTC-ACTION. Apart from training on production and acquiring disease-free planting material to increase productivity, farmers are being linked to supply roots to UIL and other fresh markets where farmers can sell roots profitably. CIP has further trained households on OFSP utilization to achieve diet diversity and therefore nutritional security. Small-scale marketers of doughnuts have also been trained on use of OFSP purée (steamed and mashed roots) to improve the profitability of their businesses.• Training of Smallholder farmers: A total of 10,000 beneficiaries comprising of vine multipliers and OFSP producers have been reached in 2017 with trainings on vine multiplication and root production as a business. • Household food and nutritional security: The beneficiaries have been trained to produce more OFSP to cater for household use and sell the excess to earn income. Increased OFSP use supports improved food and nutrition security through consuming the roots and using the generated income to diversity the household diet. • Improvements on OFSP value chain: Inclusion of all actors in OFSP value chain from government agencies, NGOs, multipliers, root producers, traders, processors and consumers imply sustainability in vine and root production and efficient and high quality service to processors and consumers • Small-scale entrepreneurs: Have been trained on use of OFSP purée as a key ingredient for doughnuts and how to fry fresh chips. Doughnut selling is a widespread small-scale business amongst the Malawian women and if adopted, could absorb considerable amounts of OFSP roots. • Enhancements in building public-private partnerships:On a large-scale, CIP has partnered with private institutions (such as UIL) on value addition and processing of OFSP-based products, including crisps (Fig. 2), MADYO soft cookie biscuits, purée and bread. It is anticipated that as the market for value-added OFSP Decentralized Vine Multipliers have been linked to markets to for selling their vines for root production to CIP and other NGOs. Farmers (suppliers) from the targeted districts have been selling OSFP tubers to UIL (Table 1) at U$0.2/kg, a profit generating price (Fig. 4). UIL does not deal with individual small-scale suppliers. This has driven many farmers to organize into groups to be able to aggregate their supply to send to the processor. • Improvements in good agricultural practices: 8,500 smallholder farmers have been imparted with up-to-date knowledge in OFSP production which will improve OFSP yields if consistently utilized. ","tokenCount":"707"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5e10d1e6549a76a44c39544fdbc6ac61","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/99a8c402-e777-4af3-ab68-3ef1dddb6d98/content","id":"-1906719976"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"faba496c-6da2-4a53-9ce9-5d50e5258cfe","pagecount":"70","content":"CIMMYT -the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (www.cimmyt.org)-is the global leader in research for development for maize and wheat and for maize-and wheat-based farming systems. Headquartered at El Batán, Mexico, CIMMYT works throughout the developing world with hundreds of partners to sustainably increase the productivity of maize and wheat systems to improve food security and livelihoods. CIMMYT is a member of the CGIAR Consortium and leads the CGIAR Research Programs on Wheat and Maize. CIMMYT receives support from national governments, foundations, development banks and other public and private agencies.Figure 1 presents examples of the thermal index and NDVI derived from the UAV against equivalent CT and NDVI measured at ground level. Airborne and ground-based measurements were made on the same day, or days as close as possible to each other. In general, correlations are strong between the two types of measurements, acting as a validation for the airborne derived indices. Correlations between the aerial thermal index and CT tend to be slightly lower than those of the NDVI index. This could be attributed to the higher variability of CT, due to environmental factors, particularly wind speed. The airborne derived thermal index and NDVI have been compared to yield and final biomass to determine how closely the airborne indices and these agronomic traits are related. Figure 2 presents a time series of the relationship between airborne derived UAV and biomass (2a) and yield (2b) over part of the growth cycle of a yield potential trial. As a comparison, the equivalent relationship between ground-based NDVI and yield/biomass is also shown. In general, the airborne measurements show a stronger relationship with yield/biomass compared to the ground-based measurements. This could be attributed to i) the ability of the airborne images, unlike the ground-based point measurements, to remove noise, such as non-vegetation pixels, as well as ii) the instantaneous measurement of plots via the airborne platform, which removes the confounding effect of temporal drift associated with ground-based readings in larger trials. This difference was seen to be significant in all cases excluding those from drought stress environments. Results support the application of airborne remote sensing techniques for high-throughput phenotyping. Time series like the ones above are useful at determining at which point in the growth cycle is it most efficient to make measurements, i.e. at which point in time index X best predicts yield or biomass.The airborne platform also has the potential to estimate other, more novel traits, such as lodging, chlorophyll florescence (Zarco-Tejada et al. 2009;Chapman et al. 2014) and other traits. For example, Figure 3 shows various cross section images taken from a 3D point cloud created using a surface reconstruction algorithm applied to low level, overlapping, RGB images collected off nadir. From the 3D point cloud, it is possible to estimate height, LAI, and if the spatial resolution is high enough, other plant characteristics, such as such as spikes/m 2 .-0. In addition, it might be possible to use low-level aerial imagery to estimate phenology of a plot, via changes in reflectance and plant architecture throughout the growth cycle. This method has already been applied using ground-based and proximal remote sensing methods (e.g. Deery et al. 2014). Figure 4 shows an estimation of spike count, taken from a snapshot of a low level multispectral image. The estimation was calculated via a multistage classification process based on the pixel values. In summary, the aerial remote sensing platform can be applied as a high-throughput phenotyping tool for trait estimation and selection, with such large-scale measurements increasing the probability of genetic diversification in selections. It also has the potential to be utilized for smaller scale measurements to estimate traits that require higher resolution. To optimize these methods, high-throughput automated analysis procedures must be developed in order to process the high volumes of data that are generated and applied.Sivakumar Sukumaran 1 , Matthew P. Reynolds 1 , Marta S. Lopes 2 , and Jose Crossa 1 . 1 CIMMYT, Mexico; 2 CIMMYT, TurkeyIncreasing yield potential per se still remains a major objective of crop improvement programs worldwide (Braun et al. 2010;Reynolds et al. 2012). A significant proportion of yield potential of CIMMYT's semi-dwarf spring wheat lines can be explained by genetic variability for adaptation to agronomic planting density (Reynolds et al., 1994a). Earlier released lower yielding lines showed a higher yield response to reduction in interplant competition-i.e. treatments that increased light penetration to the lower canopy from boot stage onwards, as well as treatments that combined increased light penetration with decreased below ground competition-than more modern higher yielding varieties. The results indicated the sensitivity of low yielding genotypes to plant density and the potential of some high yielding genotypes to perform well both under high interplant competition and reduced interplant competition. In other words high yield potential (HYP) genotypes respond less when interplant competition was reduced than the earlier released low yield potential (LYP) lines.Little is known about the genetic basis of the adaptation of wheat plants to agronomic density, which is significant considering that it is not something that would have been selected for in nature, interplant competition of single plants being of clear survival value. Our hypothesis was that adaptation to high-plant density is a component of yield potential and therefore amenable to genetic dissection. Plants subject to high density tend to reduce the number of grains set, but genotypes better adapted to the \"density stress\" show less reduction in the number of grains per spike. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were twofold: (1) to quantify the effects of plant density on grain yield, thousand kernel weight, and grain number, and (2) to identify genomic regions for adaptation to plant density in the wheat association mapping initiative (WAMI) panel through a genome-wide association study (GWAS).Adaptation to agronomic plant density is a component of high-yield potential important in crop breeding. Earlier studies have shown that progress in genetic yield potential is associated with adaptation to agronomic planting density. In the current study, a wheat association mapping initiative (WAMI) panel of 287 elite lines was assessed for the effects of plant density on grain yield (YLD), thousand kernel weight (TKW), and grain number (GNO); measured on each line of the population planted in four rows. Results of comparing YLD and GNO of two inner (high plant density) rows with two outer rows (low plant density) in each bed indicated a consistent pattern: genotypes that performed best under intense competition (inner rows) responded less to reduced competition (outer rows) while being generally the best performers on aggregate whole plot (inner + outer). TKW was not affected by plant density (Fig. 1).On average, inner rows yielded 37 % less than outer rows, and the yield of inner rows ranged from 40 to 90% of the yield of outer rows. Inner rows had 37 % lesser GNO, with a range of 41 to 88% of outer rows. For TKW, the percentage differences between inner and outer rows ranged from -9% to 5%, indicating that TKW was higher in some inner rows by 9%, and in some cases that outer rows had higher TKW by 5%. On average the inner rows had 1% higher TKW than outer rows, that is not significant. To give a reference point for YLD and GNO in conventional units, values for I+O were calculated on an area basis. YLD per bed (I+O) had a range of 4.2-8.4 t ha -1 , with an average 6.8 t ha -1 (Table 1).   To identify the genetic loci for ADi and to know ADi's association with high yielding sites, ADi was computed as the scaled difference in trait values between inner and outer rows. We calculated ADi for grain yield and grain number as:where ADi is adaptation to density index, YLDo is the grain yield of outer rows and YLD I is the grain yield of inner rows , µ is the grand mean of all data gathered over three years, and µl is the mean of the specific trial. In addition WAMI was also evaluated at 33 international sites (Mexico, Iran, Sudan, Egypt, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, and Pakistan) under two rows per bed system and grain yield was recorded in 2010 and 2011 (Lopes et al. 2012). We used the data to evaluate the hypothesis that adaptation to density index (ADi) is a component of high-yield potential in wheat. Results of correlation biplot analysis indicated that ADi is correlated with grain yield in high yielding environments; suggesting it is a component of high yield potential (Figure 2). Genotyping of the WAMI panel was done through 90K Illumina Bead SNPs array. Association mapping employed using 18,104 SNPs markers for ADi identified a major locus in chromosome 3B at 71cM that explained 11.4% variation in ADi for YLD and GNO (Figure 3). The marker IAAV7721 in chromosome 3B was further analyzed through BLAST search in National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) and it resulted in a BLAST hit of SET domain protein gene with 99% identity. SET domain proteins are associated with pollen abortion in Arabidopsis (Xu et al. 2010). This marker was also identified for grain yield in our recent study, often the case for yield and yield components (Sukumaran et al. 2015). GWAS results for the adaptation to density index are shown in Table 2. The marker on 3B was also identified for ADi GNO . Also markers on 1B, 2A, 2D, 3B, 4B, and 6B were associated with the density index that explained 6 to 8 % variation for the trait and with p-values lower than 1.76×10 -05. A number of hypotheses could be tested to explain genetic differences in adaptation to density. For example, a more optimal distribution of chlorophyll b-i.e. light antenna pigments-throughout the canopy that permits increased light penetration to lower leaves, resulting in a greater proportion of leaves operating close to optimal light levels, and therefore increased radiation use efficiency (RUE) (Melis 2009;Ort et al. 2011). Another hypothesis, more difficult to test, is that high plant density-perhaps in response to red/far red light receptors or other responses induced by a \"density\" stress-elicits a plant growth regulator response reducing grain set (Ugarte et al. 2010;Blum 2013). Spikes m -2 were higher in the adapted lines than the non-adapted lines (Reynolds et al. 1994). A third hypothesis would be that lines adapted to density express a tiller dynamic whereby their production and abortion is somehow minimized or optimized.Wheat is grown in Mexico mainly under irrigation in the northwestern and central regions of the country. Mexico bridges a range of latitudes, providing an array of topography, environments, soil types and epidemiological zones susceptible to different diseases. These characteristics offer important information about the performance and adaptability of outstanding wheat lines that eventually may be the basis for the development and international release of high-yielding varieties through the Wheat Yield Consortium (WYC). The evaluated material is listed in Table 1, and the location of the nurseries (environments, E) is shown in Figure 1. Data were recorded for: 1) Plant height (PH); 2) days to heading (DH);3) days to maturity (DM); 4) harvest index (HI); 5) grain yield (GY); 6) biomass (BIO); 7) spikes per square meter (SSM); 8), thousand kernel weight (TKW); and 9) grains per square meter (GSM). HI, BIO and SSM were not considered for Obregon. Data obtained for all recorded variables were subjected to an analysis of variance within each site. Additionally, combined analyses of variance were performed over various locations and regions (northwestern and central) to estimate the statistical significance of effects due to genotypes (G), E and the genotype by environment (GxE) interaction. The AMMI1 programming routine described by Vargas and Crossa (2000) was employed to explain the GxE interaction estimated by the combined analysis of variance.At least significant differences (p<0.05) in PH among genotypes were detected in all locations: in DH, in all locations, except Baja California (BC); in DM, only in Sinaloa (Sin) and Sonora (Son); in HI, only in Guanajuato (Gto) and Jalisco (Jal); in GY, only in Jal and Son; in Bio, only in Jalisco; in SSM, only in BC and Jal; in TKW, in all locations, and in GSM, in Jal and Sin. About PH, DH, DM, GY and TKW, evaluated in all the locations, combined analysis detected highly significant differences (p<0.01) among E and at least significant differences (p<0.05) among G; at least significant differences in GxE interactions were detected for PH, DH, DM and TKW. For HI, BIO, SSM and GSM, evaluated in 4 locations, highly significant differences were detected among E and among G; GxE interactions were highly significant for HI and SSM. Analyzing by regions, lines 41, 29 and 27 were the best for GY in Bajío (Gto and Jal), and lines 8, 20 and 7 were outstanding in the northwest (BC, Son and Sin). As a general average the most yielding line was the number 20 (BCN/WBLL1//PUB94.15.1.12/WBLL1), with 6,417 kg ha -1 .Average GY ranged from 6,647 kg (BC) to 5122 (Jal). Average GY for Gto, Sin and Son were 5,930, 5,239 and 5,814 kg, respectively. Although GxE interaction was not significant for GY, it is important to mention that, considering the AMMI1 approach, Jal and BC were identified as the best locations to discriminate for PH; BC for PH; Sin and Son for DM; BC and Gto for TKW; there was no a good location to discriminate for HI, although BC presented the highest values and Sin the lowest; Jal was the best location to discriminate for SSM. Recognizing that all of these parameters eventually are related to GY, it is considered important to maintain this multi-location approach to better understand their interactions. Wheat is grown in a wide variety of environments, ranging from fully irrigated (e.g. northern India and Egypt), high precipitation (e.g. northwestern Europe, east Africa, southern part of Latin America) and drought-prone (e.g. US Great Plains, most of Australia and parts of Argentina) regions. In these areas wheat production undergoes a series of biotic and abiotic factors and crop improvement requires a precise approach of the needs of crops in each zone, by producers, the processing industry and consumers (Lantican et al., 2002). In Mexico, for example, wheat is grown in nearly every state, although its cultivation is limited by temperature, with the optimum ranging between 10 and 25 ° C (Aguilar, 1991).Wheat breeding worldwide has been of great impact as this cereal has spread to most favorable climates for agriculture, through the development of varieties adapted from tropical climates to the semi-desert or in environments that are located from sea level up to just over 3000 m (Villaseñor et al., 2004). To date, traditional selective breeding has been the main force behind wheat yield; however, \"the records suggest that the advances will not be quick enough to overcome the complex challenges of population growth and climate change. In spite of predicted increases in demand for wheat at a rate of around This document provides the analysis of information for the SATYN Experiment set in five locations in the Bajio and northwest wheat producing regions of Mexico during the 2013-14 wheat growing cycle. Sites of evaluation were located in the states Guanajuato, Jalisco, Sonora, Sinaloa and Baja California. Twenty four (24) bread wheat entries OR GENOTYPES were evaluated and data recorded for: 1) Plant height (PH), 2) days to heading (DH), 3) days to maturity (DM), 4) harvest index (HI), 5) grain yield (GY), 6) biomass (BIO), 7) spikes per square meter (SSM), 8), Weight of 1000 grains (TGW) and 9) grains per square meter (GSM). Days to maturity where not considered for Jalisco and HI, BIO and SSM for Sonora. Data obtained for all recorded variables were subjected to an analysis of variance within each site and combined analyses of variance were performed over locations to estimate the statistical significance of effects due to genotypes, locations and the genotype by environment interaction. The AMMI1 programming routine described by Vargas and Crossa (2000) was employed to explain the genotype by environment interaction estimated by the combined analysis of variance for grain yield.Mean square estimates due to genotypes for measured traits at each location not shown here detected statistically significant differences among genotypes for GY, DH and DM in all locations. Statistically significant differences were also detected among genotypes for PH, BIO, SSM and GSM in at least three locations. Harvest index and thousand-grain weight, respectively, only showed statistically significant differences in Jalisco and Baja California.The combined analyses of variance for variables showing statistical significance for all sources of variation of interest are presented in Table 1. Effects to due locations and genotypes showed a high statistical significance (p≤0.01) for days to heading, days to maturity, grain yield, biomass, spikes per square meter and grains per square meter. With the exception of days to heading which showed a p≤0.05 statistical significance, the genotype by environment interaction showed a high (p≤0.01) for the rest of the variables. Average over locations for genotypes ranged from 3,010 to 6121 kg ha -1 for GY; 83 to 101 cm for PH, 77 to 84 days for DH, 121 to 129 days for DM, 39 to 55 g for TGW, 7.2 to 12.7 t ha -1 for BIO, 176 to 451 for SSM and 7,117 to 15,014 for GSM, Table 3.Correlation coefficients estimated using phenotypic means calculated over locations involving grain yield only showed a closer and positive relationship with biomass (r=0.95) followed by those with SSM (r=0.77), GSM (r=0.76) and PH (r=0.50).The AMMI1 programming routine employed to explain the genotype by environment interaction showed that environments, genotypes and their interaction explained 30.3, 31.2 and 22.2% of the sum of total sum of squares for grain yield in the model, while the first two components of AMMI analysis explained 65.9% of the variation due to the genotype by environment interaction. A graphical representation (biplot graph) of genotypes and environments is presented in Figure 1. On the x-axis grain yield for genotypes and environments is depicted, and on the y-axis stability is measured; that is, values closer to zero are considered stable while those distant from the principal component one (PCA1) are considered unstable. The dotted line perpendicular to the x-axis indicates the average yield of genotypes, so that the genotypes and environments plotted to the left of the x-axis are the lower grain yielding genotypes and environments, while on the right side of the x-axis genotypes and environments showing a higher performance are located.It can be observed in Figure 1 that genotypes 9424, 9402 and 9403 display the highest performance; while genotypes 9412, 9415 and 9410 showed the lowest yields. The Baja California site exhibited the highest grain yields followed by Guanajuato, with both recording above average yields. Sonora, Jalisco and Sinaloa sites show below average yields.  Genotypes showing PCA1 values greater than zero are well suited to environments that similarly have values of PCA1> 0; genotypes and environments interact positively, but respond negatively in environments that have values of PCA1 <0. The opposite applies for genotypes that have values of PCA1 <0 (Samonte et al., 2005). Jalisco and Sonora displayed lower PCA1 values, i.e., they were the most stable; therefore, these environments discriminate genotypes to a lesser extent since most of them had similar responses. Instead, Baja California is the best to discriminate genotypes. Genotypes 9402 and 9424 were notorious for their high performance and stability.Correlation analyses using the particular set of bread wheat entries included in the Stress Adaptive Trait Yield Nursery (SATYN) indicate that there is a close and positive relationship between grain yield and biomass, spikes per square meter, grains per square meter and plant height. These relationships show a considerable opportunity for improving grain yield and its direct components, spikes and grains per square meter, by jointly increasing biomass and plant height. However, a limit to avoid lodging might have to be set for plant height, mainly in irrigated wheat-growing areas having poorstructured soils, like those in northwest Mexico, where levels of organic matter are very low.Genotype by environment interaction continues challenging plant breeders and agronomists who drive crop performance trials over different environments, and can reduce progress from selection. Stability of performance has to be considered an important aspect of yield trials. Although inferences extracted from biplots are valid only when the first PCA or the first two explain maximum variation due to interaction, the AMMI analysis offers the possibility of selecting for yield and stability. In order to accelerate genetic gains from their current rate of around 0.6% p.a. (Sharma et al. 2012), given that genetic bases of cultivar level differences in yield potential is still largely unknown, wheat breeding efforts currently depend on three main approaches: 1) Strategic hybridization to combine complementary yield potential traits; 2) Use of exotic germplasm to complement levels of expression in conventional gene pools; 3) High throughput phenotyping for progeny selection. Using all information available on photosynthetic and partitioning traits, hybridization schemes were designed to combine physiological traits (PTs) with the view to achieving cumulative gene action for yield potential (Reynolds et al. 2012). These approaches have recently delivered new germplasm that expressed both higher yield and biomass compared to local checks at the majority of the 18 international sites where they were tested, as the 1 st International Wheat Yield Consortium Yield Trial (1 st WYCYT) in 2013 (see Reynolds et al. 2014). Progeny from this breeding effort and other material developed using similar approaches are already being used to better understand the genetic basis of yield potential (e.g. Griffiths et al. 2015). The pre-breeding effort is ongoing, and the following data result from subsequent international yield trials and germplasm evaluations in Mexico.The 2 nd WYCYT consisted of 35 new PT lines, seven elite CIMMYT checks (Table 1) and was grown at 26 international sites in 2014 (Table 2), for which performance data is summarized (Table 3). In addition, this report presents information on candidates for the 3 rd WYCYT that were tested in Obregon in 2014 for international distribution later this year (Table 4). It also discusses primary re-synthesized hexaploid lines expressing promising yield potential characteristics (Figure 1) that are candidates for new crosses.Research showed that new PT lines were the best, yielding at 23 out of 26 sites by an average of 10% over the best CIMMYT check at that site, and by as much as 20% (Table 3). When considering all new PT lines, average yield at each site showed superior performance compared to the average yield of all checks at all sites by an average of 7%, and up to 18% at the best site. A PT line (with the pedigree SERI/BAV92//PUB94.15.1.12/WBLL1) expressed the highest average yield across all sites.Above ground biomass was reported for 13 sites and PT lines expressed the highest biomass at all 13 sites, by on average 14% above the best CIMMYT check and by up to 25% at the best site. When considering all new PT lines, their average biomass at each site was higher than the average biomass of all checks, again at all sites, by on average 6%, and up to 12% at the best site.Across all sites, the new PT material was on average one day earlier to anthesis than the average of all checks, expressed the same number of days to maturity, and was on average 2% taller (2cm).  New material coming through the pre-breeding pipelines also showed considerable promise in Obregon, with the best yield expressed 12% above best check in preliminary yield trials of the 3 rd WYCYT candidates (data not shown). This compares favorably with a value of 5% above the best check for the best new line of 2 nd WYCYT in Obregon in 2013, despite substantially larger values in target environments (Table 3).More recent crosses have emphasized the use of exotic germplasm and its impact is clearly seen. Table 4 shows a summary of the crosses that generated the best yielding progeny in Pre Preliminary Yield Trials. A total of 48 lines showed at least 5% greater yield than the best check. What is interesting about the new material is that all crosses involved landraces, and in some cases also re-synthesized hexaploid germplasm. Check SOKOLL 0%There is much exotic genetic diversity available for use in crossing from the recent screenings of a) landraces in the World Wheat Collection, and b) of primary re-synthesized hexaploids, under yield potential conditions in Obregon.Figure 1 shows the favorable expression of biomass of primary synthetics compared to elite checks, indicative of their high radiation use efficiency.The new PT lines were generated by crossing lines with superior expression of a number of relatively simple traits, including photosynthetic capacity (cool canopy temperature, crop growth rate/RUE, stem water soluble carbohydrates) to lines showing favorable expression of traits leading to high grain number and size (spike index, spike density, kernel number, kernel weight). The approach has proven successful in two successive years in achieving genetic gains for yield across a representative range of CIMMYT spring wheat target environments. Very similar results were also found for a trial run in parallel at most of the same international sites -the 3 rd SATYN consisting of lines developed and selected for physiological traits associated with adaptation to warmer irrigated environments -where the best PT lines expressed the highest yields at 19/24 sites by an average of 7%, and a PT line expressed the highest average yield across all sites. Now that improved yield potential and RUE has been identified in new PT lines and validated at international sites, the next step will be to refine the approach in two ways. First, the best performing new lines are being studied side-by-side with their parents in controlled field situations in order to more clearly identify and understand the contribution of respective yield potential traits and their interactions with each other and genetic background. Second, experimental progeny of the most successful crosses will be developed into mapping populations in an attempt to understand gene action for promising traits, as well as to identify candidates for gene discovery, cloning, and marker-assisted selection.The need of increasing grain yield of wheat and the trade-off between grain number (GN) and average grain weight (TGW), reinforced by the negative relationship between these components in the CIMCOG genotypes (Wiersma et al., 2001;Sadras, 2007;Quintero et al., 2014), highlight the aim of improving TKW in breeding programs. Molecular assisted breeding in crops requires uncovering the importance of particular genes in the determination of complex traits as grain yield to improve the efficiency of plant breeding of crops for food production. Identifying the functionally linked mechanisms of yield components, i.e., grain number (GN) and average grain weight (TGW), and understanding their genetic bases, is necessary at the present to boost yield potential of wheat. From a physiological perspective, the knowledge of grain number and kernel weight determination provide important clues for a successful phenotyping and genotyping evaluation. The time-course of flowers, carpels weight, grain length and grain water content studied in the last years offer helpful trails (Ferrante et al., 2010;2013;Calderini et al., 2001;Hasan et al., 2011). Additionally, molecular biology also delivered crucial information to build a physiological-genetic framework. Sugar signaling affecting both grain set and kernel weight (Ruan et al., 2010;Wang and Ruan, 2013), programed cell death and autophagy conditioning grain set (Ghiglione et al., 2008;Wang and Ruan, 2013), the expression of TaExpA 6 gene driving grain length (Lizana et al., 2010) and TaGW2 gene expression modifying grain wide (Bednarek et al., 2012;Simmonds et al., 2014) will be the foundations to identify promising lines by phenotyping and genotyping.In previous evaluations of CIMCOG genotypes carried out in Ciudad Obregón, curvilinear associations were found between grain yield and GN, negative associations were identified between TKW and GN and positive relationships between TKW and grain weight of grain positions G2 were found (Quintero et al., 2014). Promising traits of individual kernel weight (IKW) were detected such as grain volume, grain length and water content of grains, which could be phenotyped in doubled haploid and RIL populations. On the hand, contrasting results were found in the CIMCOG population evaluated in a very high yielding environment like that of southern Chile where a line association between grain yield and GN was recorded. Therefore, the present study has the aim of confirming or refuting previous relationships found in C. Obregón between traits and the promising characters in the environment of southern ChileOne set of 8 contrasting genotypes in the arrangement of thousand grain weight (TKW) and grain number (GN) chosen from the 60 CIMCOG´s genotypes were assessed at the Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Austral (39˚ 47' 18\"S, 73˚ 14' 5\"O) of Universidad Austral de Chile (UACH), Valdivia, Chile, during the 2014-2015 growing season. The set was sown on 27 of August in 2014 under two thinning treatments (control and thinning rows in booting). Plots were arranged in a completely randomized design with 3 replicates. At the control treatment the genotypes were sown in plots 2.5 m long and 1.35 m wide, while in the thinning treatment plot dimensions were 3.5 m long and 1.35 m wide. Seed rate was 333 seeds per square meter in both treatments. The thinning treatment was carried out at booting to increase the availability of resources to the remaining plants. The thinning was carried out by removing all the plant of the two closer rows of plants. Additionally, the source-sink ratio was increased in 5 control and 5 thinning plants at heading and 10 days after anthesis by halving the spikes. The plots were irrigated when necessary; weeds were periodically removed by hand and recommended doses of pesticides were used to prevent and control insects and diseases.In the experiment the phenological stages were recorded (Zadoks et al., 1974). The timing of physiological maturity was estimated when grain growth stopped as in Hasan et al. (2011). At harvest, grain yield, GN and TKW were recorded. The individual kernel weight (IKW) and grain dimensions of grain position 2 (the second grain from the rachis: G2) and grain position 4 (the fourth grain from the rachis: G4) of two central spikelets were measured in at least 5 spikes per plot. Grain volume was calculated as in Hasan et al. (2011).Twenty two main-shoot spikes of similar size and development were targeted at anthesis at each plot to follow grain growth. From anthesis on, two main shoot spikes were harvested 11 times (A+5, A+10, A+15, A+20, A+25, A+30, A+35, A+42, A+48, A+54 and A+60). The individual grain weight (IGW) was measured in G2 and G4. At each sampling two main-shoot spikes per plot were harvested.Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), and mean comparison by least significant difference procedure.Correlation analyses were also performed to assess the degree of association between variables.The nine genotypes evaluated in Valdivia in 2014-2015 reached grain yield between 600.7 and 770.8 g m -2 in control treatments although no differences were found (P>0.05). On the other hand, yield components ranged from 11336 to 18018 for GN and from 38.9 to 61.5 g for TKW. On the other hand, plants under the thinning treatment at booting showed grain yield from 865 to 1538 g m -2 . The GN and TKW at the thinning treatment ranged between 15158 and 32204 grains m -2 , and 47.4 to 68.6 g, respectively (Table 1). Taking into account recorded grain yield, the thinning treatment over-yielded the control from 42 to 105%. A positive relationship between grain yield and GN was found, while no association was detected between either grain yield and TKW (P>0.05) and between TGW and GN when all treatments were plotted together (Fig. 1). Interestingly, both GN and TKW were increased by the thinning treatment (Fig. 2), however, the response of GN to thinning was higher than that of TKW taking into account that GN increased 52%, while TKW only 16%, averaged across of the genotypes.   A highly significant association between TKW and grain weight of G2 (R 2 = 0.89, P< 0.001), and between TKW and grain weight of G4 (R 2 = 0.45, P< 0.01) was found across genotypes and thinning treatment (Fig. 3). These associations highlight the need of counteracting the trade-off between TKW and GN by increasing the IGW of grains set in both proximal and distal positions of the spike. On the other hand, no association was found between grain weight of both G2 and G4 and GN (Fig. 4), supporting the hypothesis that the trade-off between the two main yield components could be broken.  Volume and dimensions (length, width and height) of grain were evaluated in grains G2 and G4 at harvest (Fig. 5 and 6).As expected, the IGW of G2 and G4 had a positive and highly significant relationship with the volume at harvest (Fig. 5a  and 6a). Among grain dimensions, the length, width and height of grains were positively associated with the IGW of G2 (Fig. 5b, 5c and 5d) and G4 (Fig. 6b, 6c and 6d). Additionally, IGW of G4 showed good association with both grain length and width (Fig. 6). However, grain length of G2 and G4 seems to be the most promising trait taking into account this trait reached the final value earlier than width and height in the grain filling period (Fig. 7).   This study confirms the trade-off between the main yield components reported previously (Bustos et al., 2013;García et al., 2013), including the CIMCOG genotypes (Quintero et al., 2014). However, this trade-off has been lower in Valdivia.The relationship between TKW and IKW of G2 has been confirmed here as well as the predictive value of kernel length about potential kernel weight, showing that this trait and its physiological and molecular drivers are a key for improving TKW. In addition, kernel wide should also be considered, especially in distal kernel positions. Therefore, expansin and GW2 genes controlling are proposed as promising genetic bases of kernel weight of wheat.The complexity of hormone production and its effects on plants raises a lot of questions about their incorporation into plant improvement programmes (e.g. When and what to measure where? At which phenological stage will hormone measurements provide the most explanatory power in both improvement programme and in mechanistic studies?). It is well documented that pre-anthesis is the key phenological stage where grain number per spike and spike per square meter (m 2 ) can be affected by the environment), while during the post-anthesis stage it is mostly TGW and consequently yield that are impacted. Hormone quantification in key tissues at these key regulatory stages provides us for much scope for analysisGenotypes do not react similarly to the environment and therefore reduce their yield differently, either by the reduction of grains per spike, or by the number of spikes per m 2 , TGW or by combininations of two or three of these responses. In order to determine which hormone(s) is/are relevant to understand some basis of yield resilience, it can important to determine the hormonal signatures in different key tissues at key stages of development. Potentially a very wide range of hormones can be quantified.One approach to understanding key roles for hormonal regulators is to quantify yield components of different genotypes as affected by mild environmental perturbations. Genetic variation in yield and yield components can then be linked to constitutive variation in hormone signatures and the resilience of these signals under environmental challenge. One hypothesis is that the signalling involved in determination of potential yield takes place via the same set of regulators contributing to a stress response, i.e. in stress biology, we are concerned with a perturbation in a regulatory system rather that at a stress lesion per se.Field experiments were carried out at Cd. Obregon CIMMYT station, Sonora State, NW Mexico (27°20 N, 105°55 W, elevation 39 masl). The experimental material consisted of 10 wheat lines from the CIMCOG(acronym of CIMMYT Core germplasm) panel. These wheat lines were evaluated for one cropping season from February to June 2013 under twostress environments (heat and drought) and optimal (yield potential) conditions. The drought stress was applied at mid heading stage (65 days after sowing). The sampling consisted in taking, along the phenology, 4 leaves and 4 spikes per plot and freezeing them into liquid nitrogen. This represented 660 samples. The samples were kept in -80ºc and then freeze-dried to be sent to CIMMYT headquarters (El Batan) for grinding before, in turn, being sent to Lancaster University. During this experiment, ethylene gas produced by leaves and spikes was measured once at heading stage under heat conditions in a first selection of 6 genotypes.In order to associate the susceptibility tendencies determined above to a key phenological stage, seven (7) phenological stages (3 replications) were studied from initiation of booting to anthesis, sampling 4 immature spikes and flag leaves under semi-drought, and 6 phenological (2 replications) stages under heat stress. The samples were taken at 01:00 pm when plants suffer the effects of the highest temperature. Samples were frozen in the field by plunging them into liquid nitrogen. Afterwards, samples were dried using a freeze-dryer and finally ground. The dried ground samples were sent to Lancaster University to be analysed. During this experiment, ethylene gas produced by leaves and spike was measured, at heading stage. A complementary set of hormones has been analysed at this stage (ABA, ACC, CK).All analysis is carried out within the framework of a newly-developed stress index (Thiry et al. 2015 under internal review). As it has been shown previously, a combination of production capacity and resilience, calculated with yield data under stress and non stress conditions, has demonstrated a high correlation with yield under stress.In this paper we discuss the relationships between a suite of hormones, the yield, yield components and the stress indices of a range of genotypes. New methods of ethylene sampling are described and differences between ethylene accumulation in different plant parts at different developmental stages are discussed.Some emphasis is placed on cytokinin accumulation in developing reproductive structures and future plans for perturbation of this key variable are presented.Analysis of experimental results and relationships between hormones and yield components provide a basis for future plant improvement based on the definition of new physiological traits. Results also provide a clear basis for further experimental work to elucidate the mechanistic basis of yield regulation.• Quantitative comparative approaches for genetic potential will be estimated using new stress indices incorporating both estimates of productivity and susceptibility. • New high throughput hormone quantification techniques will be applied on an organ, plant and plot scale with laserbased technology • Incorporation of PGR-defined traits (growth, development, yield and physiology) into crop improvement programs.• PGR-defined progeny will be tested in target environments and promising material specific to stress environments will be identified and assimilated into other pre-breeding activities (targeting International Nurseries and national wheat programmes). • Mapping population will provide new insight into the physiological and molecular basis of genetic variation in GxExM attributable to PGR effects and will further inform future breeding strategyJohn Foulkes Despite a hypothetical limit to HI of ca. 0.65 in wheat (Austin 1982;Foulkes et al. 2011), there has been no systematic progress since the early 1990s from values of ca. 0.45-0.50 in spring wheat and 0.50-0.55 in winter wheat (Foulkes et al. 2011;Reynolds et al. 2012). Evidence shows that the latest progress in yield potential of CIMMYT spring wheat in the Yaqui Valley from 1990 to 2009 in semi-dwarf cultivars is associated with greater above-ground dry matter and grain weight, but decreases in HI over the same period (Aisawi et al. 2015). In this scenario, it seems that biomass is an important determinant of genetic gains in yield potential but it will be crucial to identify traits and markers enabling breeders to discriminate \"useful\" and \"non useful\" biomass to maximize partitioning to the grains, not only for current new high biomass cultivars but also at even higher levels of biomass anticipated from impacts in the area of photosynthesis research.While allocation of carbon to the developing wheat spike determines grain sink strength (a major determinant of yield potential), concurrent growth of other organs competes for carbon (Fischer 1985;Foulkes et al. 2011;Reynolds et al. 2012). Partitioning to spikes could be increased by reducing competition from alternative sinks, especially during stem elongation when grain number is determined. These competing sinks include roots, leaves, stems (structural and soluble carbohydrate DM), and infertile tillers. A potential avenue to increase spike partitioning and HI is to decrease true-stem DM partitioning while increasing the material strength of the stem to maintain lodging resistance (Foulkes et al. 2011).True-stem DM is partitioned between structural and redistributable components, and increasing the proportion of soluble DM has been shown to favor HI in irrigated spring wheat cultivars in northwestern Mexico (Saint Pierre et al. 2010).Strategies to boost spike growth by reducing assimilate partitioning to alternative sinks are complementary to those to optimizing phenology. Optimizing partitioning to favor the spike will mainly increase the rate of spike growth, whereas optimizing phenology will mainly extend the duration of spike growth in the pre-anthesis phase.The complementary trait to spike partitioning, that may be improved to further enhance grain number, is the fruiting efficiency (ratio grain number to spike DM at anthesis, FE) (Foulkes et al. 2011;Lázaro and Abatte 2011). There is clear variability among modern cultivars in FE (González et al. 2011;Lázaro and Abatte 2011). Although a trade-off between these two physiological components is often observed (Gonzalez et al. 2011), encouragingly recent work has demonstrated the possibility to identify genotypes combining high spike DM with a high FE (Lázaro and Abbate 2011).We aimed to: (i) identify genetic sources of wheat expressing favorable values of assimilate-partitioning traits and fruiting efficiency to achieve a step change in HI through screening genetically diverse germplasm and (ii) identify novel traits and mechanisms determining genetic variation in spike partitioning, fruiting efficiency and HI. Results showed a weak positive non-linear (quadratic) association between spike partitioning index (proportion of aboveground biomass in spike, SPI) and grains m -2 at GS65+7d amongst the 26 CIMCOG genotypes (R 2 = 0.16, P= 0.13; Figure 1e). There was a stronger positive linear association between the fruiting efficiency at GS65+7d and grains m -2 (R 2 = 0.40, P<0.001). Plant height ranged from 84-116 cm (P< 0.001), and showed a trend for a negative association with HI (R 2 = 0.12, P = 0.09; data not shown), but was not overall associated with grain yield or above-ground biomass.Spike partitioning index ranged amongst cultivars from 0.21-0.27 (P< 0.001) and was positively linearly associated with HI (R 2 = 0.16, P< 0.05; Fig. 2a). The proportion of the true-stem DM present as water soluble carbohydrate (WSC) at GS65+7 d ranged from 0.11-0.38 (P< 0.001) and was also positively linearly associated with HI (R 2 = 0.11, P = 0.09; Fig. 2b).Spike partitioning index was linearly negatively associated amongst genotypes with true-stem PI at GS65+7d (R 2 = 0.35, P< 0.01; Figure 3); there was no association of SPI with leaf-sheath PI or leaf-lamina PI (Figure 3). Overall these results indicated that, in modern high yield potential CIMMYT cultivars, the true-stem component is competing most strongly with spike growth. In order to reduce true-stem partitioning in the most effective way, it will be necessary to identify those true-stem internodes which are competing most strongly with stem growth during stem elongation.  We investigated the association of DM partitioning to true-stem internodes (peduncle, internode 2, 3, and 4+) with SPI amongst a subset of 9 CIMCOG genotypes with a restricted range in anthesis date (Figure 4). Negative associations between SPI and internode 2 partitioning index (PI) and internode 3 PI were found (P< 0.05; Figure 4); no associations were found for peduncle PI or internode 4+ PI. This indicates growth of the 2 nd and 3 rd internodes competes most strongly with spike growth. Assuming 5 extended internodes per shoot, extension of the 3 rd internode typically occurs before booting, and of the 2 nd internode typically occurs during booting and spike emergence. The lack of a correlation between SPI and peduncle PI may reflect a significant proportion of peduncle extension occurs after anthesis. The average allocation of dry matter to plant components at GS61+7d as either fixed structural DM or soluble redistributable DM is shown in Figure 5 together with the genetic ranges. The design targets to maximize partitioning to \"useful biomass\" in high biomass cultivars include: i) reduced DM partitioning to true stem and ii) increased DM partitioning to true-stem soluble carbohydrate. Our results demonstrate that spike partitioning index can be increased from the current maximum value in the CIMCOG panel of 0.32 to 0.38 by exploiting existing variation for partitioning within the CIMCOG panel, i.e. by combining minimum expression of partitioning indices for competing plant components (leaf lamina, leaf sheath, true stem) observed in the panel (Figure 3). Averaged across 2012 and 2013, genetic variation in grains m -2 was mainly explained by FE rather than SPI. For a subset of 7 genotypes, with a restricted range in anthesis date representative of the full range in FE in the 26 genotypes, a detailed analysis of spike partitioning at harvest (rachis, glume, palea, lemma, awn) was carried out.Results indicated a positive linear association between the partitioning of spike DM to the lemma and the FE (r = 0.84, P< 0.01; Fig. 6a).It can be speculated that a larger lemma fraction may favor floret survival through enhanced lemma photosynthesis and/or that larger lemmas may be associated with a relatively greater assimilate supply within the spike to developing florets which are initiated in the axils of the lemmas. In addition, decreased rachis specific weight was associated with higher FE (Fig. 6b). Our results show strong evidence that grain partitioning is not optimized to take advantage of high biomass and moreover there is unutilized genetic potential that can be exploited. Our analysis in the CIMCOG panel in 2011-2012 -2012-2013 has shown that increased harvest index is most likely to be achieved from combinations of novel traits that include: (1) decreased true-stem DM partitioning to internodes 2 and 3, ( 2) enhanced partitioning to the soluble DM component of during stem elongation and (3) enhanced fruiting efficiency, associated with decreased rachis specific weight and increased lemma fraction. Our data has shown that there is sufficient variation within the CIMCOG panel for these novel traits to achieve a step change in HI in CIMMYT spring wheat to 0.60 from the current maximum value of 0.51 by combining within a novel plant ideotype the biggest expression for 'useful' biomass traits for grain partitioning, including: decreased partitioning to internodes 2 and 3 (0.206; Babax/LR42) to enhance spike growth and decreased rachis specific weight (11.0 mg cm -1 ; Becard/Kachu) and increased lemma fraction (0.256; Pavon) to enhance fruiting efficiency (Figures 3 and 6). We have identified subsets of germplasm with highest expression of these favorable traits (whilst minimizing trade-offs) for strategic crosses in pre breeding at IWYP-PLAT. Applying the knowledge and phenotyping techniques developed here in genetically characterized panels will allow us to maximize exploitation of the radiation-use efficiency advances of IWYP by developing novel traits and molecular markers for \"useful biomass\". Lodging is defined as the permanent displacement of plant stems from their vertical position as a result of wind acting on the stem, and rain or irrigation weakening the soil leading to reduced stem and anchorage strength (Berry et al. 2004). This phenomenon reduces wheat productivity by adversely affecting grain quality (Berry et al. 2004) and reducing grain yield by up to 80% (Easson et al. 1993;Berry and Spink 2012). Reduced height with the introduction of dwarfing genes to wheat during the Green Revolution has increased lodging resistance, however, further reduction of plant height may be limited because these genes could have a direct negative effect on the final grain weight (Miralles and Slafer 1995), reduce water soluble carbohydrate storage capacity (Cossani and Reynolds 2012) and reduce leaf extension rate (Keyes et al. 1989). A minimum plant height compatible with high yields was estimated at between 0.7 to 1.0 m (Flintham et al. 1997) and has been reached in many environments. Wheat height has remained static for several years in some countries such as the UK (Berry et al., 2014). Recently, Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL), which increase height and yield have been identified (Berry and Berry 2015). This discovery may help to explain why plant breeders have found it difficult to improve yield and reduce height simultaneously.A mechanistic validated model of lodging in wheat (Baker et al. 1998;Berry et al. 2003b) calculates the wind speed required to cause lodging based on crop characteristics (e.g. height, yield, stem strength, anchorage strength). The lodging model has identified genetic variation for the stem and anchorage strength of winter wheat in the UK (Berry et al. 2003a(Berry et al. , 2007)). The identification of traits involved in the strength of the stem and root anchorage (stem diameter, wall width, material strength and root plate spread, structural rooting depth) represents a new alternative for breeding for lodging resistance. However, more understanding of the genetic control of these traits and possible trade-offs with yield will be required.A preliminary attempt to quantify the stem strength and anchorage strength required by winter wheat to withstand a 1 in 25 year wind gust in the UK by using the lodging model has been made by Berry et al. (2007). This indicated that substantial amounts of dry matter must be invested in the stem and anchorage system to make plants lodging-proof. This would mean that the maximum harvest index (ratio of grain dry matter to above-ground dry matter) for a 0.7m tall crop yielding 8 t ha -1 would only be 0.42, rising to 0.50 for a crop yielding 16 t ha -1 , which is significantly less than the theoretical maximum harvest index of 0.62 estimated by Austin et al. (1980). Additionally, it is possible that the investment in dry matter for the stem and anchorage system may compete for resources with grain yield determination. The aim of this paper is to quantify the dimensions of spring wheat plants required to avoid lodging in northwest Mexico (NWM) and considers the dry matter that must be invested in support structures to achieve this. A positive regression (R 2 = 0.63; P < 0.001) between the structural stem dry matter per unit length and internode failure moment for internodes 1 to 2 (27 genotypes, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014) and internodes 3 to 4 (5 genotypes, 2013 and 2014) showed that both traits were strongly correlated in spring wheat. According to this regression model where the response variable was the internode failure moment, a fitted value of 100 N mm in this parameter could be achieved with a structural stem dry weight per unit length of 1.13 mg mm -1 or with 1.53 mg mm -1 of overall stem dry weight including WSC (Fig. 2). There was no association between WSC content and internode failure moment for any internodes. There was a positive association between root dry weight per plant and root plate spread among 27 genotypes which had a consistent slope across years 2012 and 2013 but different intercept with an R 2 of 0.74 (P < 0.001). The predicted size of the root plate, stem diameter and stem failure moment required to avoid lodging for a range of crop types and lodging return periods have been estimated by the lodging model and are described in Table 1. The amount of stem and surface root dry matter for a range of crop types and lodging return periods (Figure 3) were estimated from the relationships between stem strength (stem failure moment) and root plate spread with biomass that were described earlier. This shows that a substantial amount of stem biomass must be invested in the support structures of the plant for it to withstand a wind gust with a return period of 25 years. The strong positive relationships between the stem structural biomass per unit length and stem strength (stem failure moment), and root plate spread with root surface biomass demonstrate that breeding for greater yield and lodging resistance will be challenging unless total biomass can be increased. Even with greater biomass, careful optimization of yield and lodging traits will be required to minimize the inevitable trade-offs between traits that develop at the same time.For example, it is understood that the most useful investment of stem biomass for stem strength is in the production of wider stems and stronger material strength, rather than thicker stem walls. It is possible that a shorter lodging return period will have to be accepted in order to maximize average grain yield over several years. A combination of genetic dissection of biomass and lodging traits, together with modeling to identify optimum combinations of traits and genetic markers, will be required to increase yield and lodging resistance.Oscar E. Gonzalez-Navarro 1 , Gustavo A. Slafer 2 , and Simon Griffiths 1  1 John Innes Centre; 2 ICREA and University of Lleida, SpainGenetic gains in wheat yield are to a greater degree related to grain number, rather than to the average grain weight (Fischer 2008(Fischer 2011)), as yield is mostly sink-limited during grain-filling (Serrago et al. 2013). Consequently large gains in yield can be only expected through gains in grain number (Slafer et al. 2014), the most plastic of the yield components (Sadras and Slafer 2012). Grain number is largely determined during the stem elongation (SE) period (Fischer 1985;Slafer and Rawson 1994). Before becoming grains, floret primordia start developing sometime around the initiation of terminal spikelet, which typically coincides with the beginning of SE, and the final number of fertile florets is set at anthesis. It is likely that the duration of the stem elongation phase, within adaptive constraints, is a major determinant of floret number (Miralles et al. 2000;Whitechurch et al. 2007). In aspiring to manipulate grain number and therefore yield, one approach is to manipulate the length of SE. However, to ensure that as many florets as possible are converted to grain it is important to understand the dynamics of floret production. Within the indeterminate spikelets of wheat many more florets are initiated than grains finally produced. This is largely due to floret abortion (Gonzalez et al. 2011).In this study, we have investigated both processes: the implications of different floret development/abortion profiles in selected lines of the CIMMYT Mexico Core Germplasm (CIMCOG) population; and the genetic control of the duration of SE through Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) analysis in the Buster x Charger doubled haploid population. The long term breeding goal is to provide the tools and knowledge to achieve an increase in the period where resources are being partially allocated to the generation of florets, allowing for labile primordia to further develop reducing the risk of mortality (Gonzalez-Navarro et al. 2015) and find genes and alleles that can be selected to extend the period of SE. Finally, we are producing a new set of genetic resources that will enable us to extend this type of analysis to wider CIMMYT germplasm making sure that all of the carbon captured in new high biomass materials is channeled into grain yield.The variation in number of fertile florets within a representative subset of the CIMCOG elite germplasm was much better related to the survival of floret primordia than to the maximum number of florets initiated; both components had a significant variation (Figure 1). This shows that selection for floret survival, rather than peak floret number is likely to be the most productive strategy to increase grain number. An in-depth analysis of line 8 and 9, highest and lowest spike fertility respectively, showed that the two floret primordia proximal to the rachis were mostly fertile, while the most distal florets (florets 6-8) never reached a fertile stage, pinpointing the difference in number of fertile florets to the developmental patterns of intermediate florets (floret primordia 3, 4 and 5). It seems that florets started its development in line 9 with some delay compared to timing of development initiation on line 9 (Figure 2). Genotypes with a higher number of fertile florets exhibited an improved survival of floret primordia that relates to a longer period of development. In order to locate chromosomal positions affecting the time to the beginning and end of SE, three seasons of field experiments with a doubled haploid population of Buster x Charger were carried out using a 90K Illumina SNP based map developed within the EU FP7 project ADAPTAWHEAT. This analysis confirmed the presence of a QTL in chromosome 7A for time to terminal spikelet and two QTLs in chromosomes 2D and 4A with an effect on time to heading (Figure 3). Independent genetic control of time to TS and heading show that marker assisted selection could be deployed to manipulate SE duration. Alternative ways to further increase yield by breeding are urgently required to maintain current levels of food security. Among other traits, further increases in yield potential are dependent on adaptation and fine-tuning of wheat development (Reynolds et al. 2012). Being able to allocate each major developmental stage to the optimal weather condition, seem like a must within the context of climate change. In the work developed so far (whose results are outlined above) we proved the relevance of floret development as a major determinant of grain number (and yield) in wheat and identified QTLs in a mapping population related to the partitioning of developmental time to heading which might be a driving force for differences in floret development. However, to translate this into trustworthy tools for realistic breeding programs we must reconfirm the value of the traits (developmental partitioning and floret survival associated to it) in strategic crosses designed to produce breeding populations for improved yield potential and identify molecular markers in these realistic populations. Therefore, in order to extend the approach outlined above and our other studies of CIMMYT germplasm (Griffiths et al. 2015) we have developed segregating populations using CIMCOG varieties as founders and two common parents, Paragon (UK spring wheat) and Weebill (CIMMYT spring wheat). These populations will allow us to describe the genetic architecture of SE and floret dynamics so that these difficult to score traits can be manipulated by marker assisted selection. Conceptual models of desirable trait profiles are used in wheat breeding to accumulate complementary physiological traits (Reynolds et al., 2009b). Whereas physiological breeding efforts have been focused on improving crop adaptation to abiotic stresses (Reynolds et al., 1998;Condon et al., 2004;Reynolds et al., 2005;Richards, 2006;Reynolds et al., 2009b), interest in raising the yield potential has grown recently (Reynolds et al., 2009a(Reynolds et al., , 2011) ) with promising results to date (Reynolds et al. 2014;Reynolds et al., 2015). Under yield potential conditions, the conceptual models of traits encompass a large diversity of the potential mechanisms that are based on a combination of empiricism within a limited range of environments, as well as some speculation based on the theory (Reynolds et al., 2009b). The identification of these traits and the importance of them should be assessed by whether they fit into frameworks that are appropriate to improve yield. In this sense, only those traits of economic importance showing genetic variation and high heritability can be considered for improvement in the context of plant breeding (Jackson, 2001).It is generally assumed that the genetic diversity for certain traits in elite material is scarce (Able et al., 2007). However, few studies have determined genotypic variation for yield potential related traits in elite wheat lines. Therefore, we can consider these assumptions more theoretical than derived from empirical evidences. The main traits presented in Figure 1 where studied for three years at MEXPLAT (NW-Mexico) in the CIMCOG panel (CIMMYT Core Germplasm) composed by elite wheat lines including the most advanced lines provided by CIMMYT breeders and some historical lines. This work is part of a series of studies related with Wheat Yield Consortium (WYC) activities aiming to achieve yield potential (Figure 1). • Spike Fertility  (González-Navarro et al., 2015) • Avoid floret abortion (González-Navarro et al., 2015) • Hormone signalling (Thiry et al., 2014) • Abort weak tillers • Lodging resistance traits (Piñera-Chavez et al.   2013, 2014)   • Partitioning to grain (HI) (Rivera-Amado et al. 2014;Trujillo-Negrellos et al. 2014) • Adequate roots for resource capture (HI/RUE) (Alderman et al., 2014) SOURCE (pre-grainfill):• Light interception (LI) (López-Castañeda et al. 2014, 2015) • RUE preGF (López-Castañeda et al.2014;Molero et al. 2015) • Photosynthetic capacity and efficiency Pre-GF (Silva-Pérez et al. 2014;Prins et al., 2014) • Mesophyll conductance (Robledo-Arratia et al., 2014) SOURCE (grain-filling):• Canopy photosynthesis (RUE/LI)• Light distribution (López-Castañeda et al., 2014, 2015) • Spike photosynthesis (Sánchez-Bragado et al., 2014a,b, 2015;Molero et al. 2014   (Parry et al., 2014;Carmo-Silva et al., 2014) • Stay green (Trujillo-Negrellos et al. 2014) • RUE (López-Castañeda et al. 2014, Molero et al. 2015) Sixty elite lines of wheat, including the most advanced lines provided by CIMMYT breeders and some historical lines, were grown under yield potential conditions in the Mexican Phenotyping Platform (MEXPLAT), Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico for two seasons (2010-11 and 2011-12) and a subset of thirty lines (CIMCOG-Subset) were grown for another additional season . The subset of 30 lines represented the genetic variability of the whole CIMCOG panel and was used for further analysis.Radiation use efficiency (RUE) was dissected according to aboveground biomass harvested at different times during the growth cycle (Figure 2). Genotypic variation for RUE among the lines was observed (data not shown) with the exception of RUE comprised between initiation of booting and seven days after anthesis (RUE T3-T2 ). The most important periods to determine final aboveground biomass were RUE from canopy closure (forty days after anthesis) to initiation of booting (RUE T2-T1 ) together with RUE during grain filling (seven days after anthesis to physiological maturity, RUE GF ). In addition, RUE GF appeared to be closely and positively associated with yield and thousand grain weight highlighting the importance of post-anthesis photosynthesis to determine final grain yield. The positive correlation between grain yield and grain filling RUE highlights a higher efficiency of the crop to convert intercepted radiation into biomass after anthesis can affect the activity at the sink.In order to achieve high final aboveground biomass (BMat) it is important to produce high biomass in earlier stages (Figure 2) avoiding the loss of fertile stems at the end of the crop (Figure 3a). The positive correlation between biomass measured at initiation of booting with grain number (GNO) together with a positive correlation with water soluble carbohydrates measured at heading (P<0.05, data not shown) highlights the importance of pre-anthesis photosynthesis to increase spike fertility. However, as has been previously reported, this investment in more grains is negatively correlated with final grain weight probably associated with a possible source or source-sink co-limitation during grain filling (Figure 2). Even than under drought stressed conditions investments in early biomass is a desirable trait, no effect (or even negative) was observed under yield potential conditions (Figure 3a). Loss of spikes between seven days after anthesis until physiological maturity was negatively correlated with yield, biomass and radiation use efficiency suggesting than the ability to keep fertile stems during grain filling has a high impact on final yield. This ability is associated with higher RUE along the growth cycle (Figure 3a). The correlation of harvest index (HI) and other sink traits with yield and biomass highlights the importance of these traits to translate the extra biomass into grains (Figure 3b). Theoretical considerations suggest that wheat yield potential could be increased through the genetic improvement of radiation use efficiency (RUE). According to the results, the most influencing periods to increase final aboveground biomass are the ones comprised between canopy closure and initiation of booting and during grain filling. In this sense, further research should be focus on these critical periods in order to increase yield potential. In this sense, due to spikes intercept more than 30% of light during grain filling, further studies to estimate the contribution of spikes to canopy RUE must be assessed.These results highlight the importance of RUE during crop growth in order to maximize yield potential. However, to achieve agronomic impacts, structural and reproductive aspects of the crop must be improved in parallel with RUE.   The ideal crop canopy maximizes interception of solar radiation throughout the crop cycle while optimizing the distribution of light. The latter is important because photosynthesis saturates at about half the intensity of direct sunlight. Hence the maximum rates of canopy photosynthesis are achieved by increasing the leaf area index to values typically above three, and arranging leaves in a more erect posture thereby reducing the proportion of leaves in a light saturated state and increasing light penetration. In fact light interception is generally above 95% for most wheat canopies in favourable environments and modern wheat canopies already have erect or semi-erectophile canopies (Araus et al. 1993).However, there may be scope for further genetic alteration of leaf posture, leaf size or density to alter the architecture and hence the in-canopy light characteristics which influences the extent and dynamics of light saturation (Murchie et al. 2009). An area of canopy photosynthesis that has not been addressed in breeding before is the potential to improve the contribution from spikes. Studies were conducted in genetically diverse elite high-yielding spring wheat genotypes to determine light extinction patterns.Former research work conducted at CENEB showed substantial genetic variation in biomass, total leaves area, number of stems per square meter, leaf area index (LAI), extinction coefficient (k) and light intercepted (LI) by the canopy in a combined analysis of 60 genotypes measured under flat and raised beds during 2010-2011 (Table 1). In general, higher values for all traits were observed under flat planting system (PS). However, the interaction G x PS was only significant for light intercepted and extinction coefficient (k). The obtained k values also presented a wide genetic variation in flat and raised beds, showing there is scope to reduce the proportion of incident radiant energy transmitted in to the soil surface beneath the canopy, and so increasing LI by the canopy, especially under raised beds (Table 1).One of the major aspects to consider in a plant breeding program is the heritability (h 2 ) of useful plant traits present in the available genetic variability. In Table 1, we can observe from moderate to high heritability for all traits in each individual analysis. Heritability was moderate to high for the combined analysis among planting systems with the exception of light intercepted. This can be explained by the G x PS interaction.Genetic variation in LI intercepted by the canopy and its distribution into spikes and top leaves determined in flat beds showed spikes, flag leaf, leaf 2 and the reminder was 1.4, 1.4, 2.0 and 1.9-fold, respectively (Table 2). This has also shown spikes, flag leaf and leaf 2 intercepted more than 80 % of the above canopy incident radiation, and this also allowed us to establish that a longer peduncle and a longer internode between flag leaf and leaf 1 are key morphological traits to permit a greater penetration of light in to lower green leaves (López-Castañeda et al., 2014). The identification of key genetic and physiological factors that may help increase LI and reduce the transmission of radiation into the soil surface beneath the crop canopy, might offer good opportunities to increase yield potential through an increase in dry matter accumulation. A larger LI by spikes can be achieved by an increased spike size, which in turn may lead to an increased sink strength (e.g., grain number and size) and a greater partition of assimilates to the grain during the grain filling period. So, that selection by higher spike LI and lower k values may result in an increase in dry matter production and grain yield. A good example of success in a significant reduction of k values is given by Monteith (1965) and Cooper et al. (1983); these authors showed k to have values between 0.3 and 0.5 and 0.37 respectively, which are higher than the k values obtained in the present research work (mean of k=0.23). The substantial reduction in the k values observed in these studies (≈ 60 %) as compared with the mean of k values obtained by Monteith (1965) and Cooper et al. (1983) represent a clear example of progress achieved through unconscious selection leading to a significant reduction in the proportion of radiant energy transmitted to the soil surface beneath the crop canopy.species (e.g. Yeoh et al. 1980;Galmes et al. 2014). Consequently, without further detailed biochemical examination, variation in V cmax@25 derived from gas exchange may not truly represent the underlying cause of variation in photosynthetic rate and this could lead to problems identifying the genetic basis.There are several different possible routes for altering photosynthetic properties which could lead to increased yield potential. Photosynthetic rate can be increased by raising the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. This could come about because the leaf has a greater nitrogen content and therefore more photosynthetic proteins per unit leaf area. Alternatively, the leaf could alter the internal allocation of nitrogen which could increase Rubisco content at the expense of some other leaf protein(s). Another possibility is that a Rubisco with kinetic properties superior to existing wheat lines could be identified from wheat germplasm collections or wild relatives and used to replace the current form. It is this last option that has the greatest potential to increase yield with the least requirement for additional nitrogen. Justifiably, attention is focused on Rubisco as under normal field conditions, this enzyme has been demonstrated to determine photosynthetic rate and it accounts for such a large fraction of leaf nitrogen.The objective of this research has been to develop a more rapid methodology to screen photosynthetic characters, either in the field or grown in controlled environments. We are now in a position to apply this technique to screen a larger number of genotypes. First, we need to characterise parents of existing recombinant inbred line populations to identify those suitable for detailed screening. A broader screen of elite genotypes is also needed as this may identify better potential parents for new RIL populations. Screening of these populations will then allow the discovery of markers and the genetic basis for the variation in photosynthetic characters. This in turn will enable the identification of parents that can be used in a breeding program to enhance photosynthesis and provide markers that can assist in selection.There is an increasing necessity in raising wheat yield potential and stability (Reynolds & Borlaug 2006;Araus et al. 2008;Reynolds et al. 2011) is increasing in view of the growing challenges imposed by social and climate changes. Moreover, genetic advances fuelled by breeding programs have decreased over recent decades (Reynolds et al. 1996;Araus et al. 2008). There is a need to develop more efficient wheat breeding methodologies, particularly phenotyping strategies, which complement existing (traditional) breeding techniques (Araus et al., 2008). One of the approaches proposed to increase yield potential and improve adaptation to abiotic stresses, such as drought and heat, is to select for higher ear photosynthesis. Hence, ear photosynthesis is thought to play an important role in terms of the source of photoassimilates during grain filling, not only under drought, but also under good agronomical conditions (Araus et al. 1993;Bort et al. 1994;Abbad et al. 2004). Although the photosynthetic contribution of the ear to final grain weight has been widely studied (Araus et al. 1993;Bort et al. 1994;Tambussi et al. 2005Tambussi et al. , 2007;;Maydup et al. 2010;Saeidi et al. 2012), its actual importance in terms of contribution to grain filling is not well understood (Tambussi et al. 2007), which has prevented the settling down of high-throughput phenotyping approaches for this trait. The main objective of this work was to compare different experimental approaches aiming to assess the relative photosynthetic contribution of the ear and the rest of the plant (the culm) to grain filling. Three different techniques were used: inhibition of ear and culm photosynthesis through i) herbicide DCMU application; or ii) by shading each organ; and iii) a non-disturbing approach which compares the carbon isotope composition (δ 13 C) in its natural abundance of assimilates from different plant parts (awns and peduncle) with the δ 13 C of the mature grains. Several advanced CIMMYT lines were tested under good agronomic conditions.Our results from the shading treatments indicate that total photosynthetic contribution of the ear represents 60% of total assimilates going to the grain (Figure 1). Conversely, the DCMU approach assigned a higher role to the culm photosynthesis, but herbicide application in the culm affected the ear, biasing the final grain weight. Nevertheless, results from any treatment of intrusive nature should be interpreted with caution, as unwanted compensatory mechanisms in the remaining unaffected organs could affect final grain weight.In the approach using δ 13 C, the relative contribution of awns to grain filling was also higher compared to the culm, although it depended on water status (assesses through δ 13 C grains ) and the overall similarity of magnitude than the value inferred from the shading approach. Thus, ear photosynthesis (awns) represented on average 60% of the total assimilates going to the grain, and up to 87% when water conditions were less optimal in the most positive interval of the δ 13 C grains (-25.0, -26.0 ‰).Ear contribution to grain filling may yet be underestimated since the glumes were not included in the approach using δ 13 C. Using the δ 13 C approach, we provide a precise tool for assessing the photosynthetic contribution of the ear to grain filling, which can help design crosses to breed new lines adapted to a wide range of environments. However, some considerations should be taken into account in order to apply the δ 13 C approach, such as the sampling methods, avoiding post-harvest respiration.In accordance with the results obtained in this study using different approaches, under good agronomical conditions the contribution of the ear to filling grains was comparable or even higher to that of the rest of the plant. Even under good agronomical conditions ear photosynthesis plays a key role as a source of photo-assimilates during grain filling. This trait has to be incorporated into conceptual models addressing wheat yield potential. Moreover our study advances the development of high-throughput phenotyping tools to assess ear contribution to grain filling. This study may help develop precise phenotyping tools to identify physiological traits such as ear photosynthesis that could contribute to increased grain yield. As far as we know, this is the first report where different experimental approaches of an intrusive and nonintrusive nature, aiming to assess the contribution of ear photosynthesis to grain filling were compared. Martin A.J. Parry Photosynthesis is the primary determinant of biomass with more than 90% of biomass (on a dry weight basis) derived directly from photosynthetic products. There is compelling evidence from free air CO 2 enrichment experiments (FACE) that increasing photosynthesis does increase crop yields provided that other constraints do not become limiting (Ainsworth & Long, 2005). The maximum theoretical efficiency with which the sun's energy can be captured as crop biomass is 4.5 to 6%, although it seldom exceeds 2% and averages less than 1%. Improving this conversion efficiency is an important area of research, with the potential to significantly increase crop yields. The processes underlying photosynthesis are highly conserved in different species and thus progress that is made in a model species should equally apply to crop species (Parry et al., 2011;2013;Carmo Silva et al., 2014).One of the reasons for low photosynthetic efficiency (e.g. of rice and wheat) is that the primary carboxylating enzyme, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco), is slow and also catalyses a competing reaction with O 2 rather than CO 2 . Much research has focused on overcoming the limitations of Rubisco either through mining natural diversity (Driever et al 2014) or by genetic engineering (Lin et al 2014a;2014b), and has included attempts to increase the flux of CO 2 to the site of utilisation by Rubisco. Significant progress has also been made toward promoting a plentiful supply of the CO 2 acceptor molecule and Rubisco co-substrate, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), through altered expression of rate-limiting enzymes required for its continuous regeneration.The concentration of CO 2 at the catalytic site of Rubisco is a major determinant of photosynthetic rate and is strongly influenced by both the stomatal conductance (g s ) and the mesophyll conductance (g m ). Differences in physical characteristics lead to the large variation in g m among species (Flexas et al., 2012). One goal was to determine the extent of variation in g m between wheat cultivars.The photosynthetic performance of 13 field-grown cultivars of Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) at the CIMMYT experimental station in Sonora, Mexico, was screened using gas exchange and fluorescence equipment. Mesophyll conductance (g m ) was highly variable even between cultivars of wheat (Fig. 1). Leaf age and water availability were carefully controlled to eliminate their impact on the observed variation in g m , for which reason the observed differences must have been inherent to the cultivars themselves, probably reflecting distinct anatomical characteristics. ","tokenCount":"12801"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0e2b91e976beff13c9b16163187ec872","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad4e6f08-7810-48cf-80b1-3c9c4f500fc5/retrieve","id":"-1317670748"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b0c561bd-2b30-4ac0-a788-c81c5865c4e6","pagecount":"1","content":"In the Peruvian highlands, potatoes are the main crop for small producers and an important component of the regional agri-food system. In the highlands, above 3,500 meters above sea level, more than 2,500 varieties of native potatoes are grown, but most of them were not reaching wider markets. Since the early 2000s, the International Potato Center (CIP), in partnership with more than 20 public and private partners, has been using an agri-food system approach to develop biodiversity-based and impact-oriented innovations that benefit small producers and the potato sector in general. We call this the Participatory Market Chain Approach (PMCA) and it is based in principles of open innovation and social inclusion. This work was initiated by the INCOPA 1 project , which developed the PMCA method and used open innovation principles. This project was initially coordinated by CIP between 2001-2010, but the dynamics of the strengthened potato innovation system have continued over time.The research team developed and used the Participatory Productive Chain Approach (PMCA) (Bernet, Thiele and Zschocke, 2006), describing a framework of open innovation systems that:1. Facilitates the problem-solution match and links business opportunities with stakeholders' capacities for generating and developing innovations; 2. Facilitates management of the heterogeneous interests of diverse stakeholders in different dimensions of the agri-food system and helps identify common business-oriented objectives that they can carry forward; 3. Promotes a consultative process through knowledge management that enables incorporating the commercial, technological, and institutional components in the processes of development and dissemination of market-oriented innovations; and 4. Capitalizes on the articulation of ideas for the use of biodiversity, some of which are already in process and other which are seen as future possibilities, but clearly oriented to new ventures and products for the market (e.g., business start-ups around potato biodiversity).As a result of PMCA and the open innovation process, stakeholders (public and private) were brought together and combined their strengths and generated:1. Commercial and demand-driven innovations and new products for the market; 2. Institutional innovations and legal norms that supported competitiveness; and 3. Technological solutions to facilitate innovation.Open innovation helps generate changes at a micro level (i.e., for potato growers) and in the potato sector and agri-food system as a whole. Studies indicate that producers increased their yields and their income, which makes them more competitive to benefit from market opportunities. At the sectoral level, national per capita consumption of potatoes has increased from 65 to 92 kg in Peru in the last decade, while demand for and prices of native potatoes have increased by 55% during the same period. Small farmers in the Peruvian highlands have also benefited significantly from the open innovation process that generated favorable economic policies and Peru's recent growing notoriety as a global culinary influencer (Ordinola et al., 2018). Figure 2 shows the dynamic process to generate different products by multiple private and public stakeholders for both national and international markets based on native varieties that are produced primarily by small producers.  The complexity of biodiversity-based potato agri-food systems in the Andes requires the use of open innovation to develop and promote adequate links between agricultural research organizations, public and private investors, farmer organizations, NGOs, policy makers and different actors along the value chain. The combined strengths of these actors contributed to develop demand-driven products based on potato biodiversity, which have generated income for small producers. CIP acted as a broker by linking a diverse range of public and private oriented stakeholders who generated ideas and innovations that have been taken to the market to varying degrees of success. We conclude that open innovations and methods such as PMCA have contributed to revitalize economic activities in the biodiversity-oriented potato sector in Peru.","tokenCount":"610"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2bb4f2cf73e643c263465a1289c3b5db","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7f959819-7c6e-46f5-9201-59b19ef744d8/retrieve","id":"882517677"},"keywords":["Bashiru, M.","Ouedraogo, M.","Ouedraogo, A.","Läderach, P. Smart climate-smart agriculture","smart farming technologies","sustainable agriculture","smallholders"],"sieverID":"400a573f-11cf-4fe9-9976-f5a6a49ea506","pagecount":"13","content":"Small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) need to adopt and consistently practice sustainable agriculture to ensure sustainable livelihoods and food security. However, the adverse effects of climate change are threatening the achievement of this goal. Therefore, farmers within the sub-region need to embrace climate-smart agriculture (CSA) as a means for climate change adaptation and mitigation. This study was conducted to understand, on the one hand, how smart farming technologies are being promoted in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other hand, how farmers are adopting the prevailing technologies. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) procedures were followed to identify 48 scientific papers in sub-Saharan Africa. It was found that promoters of smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa include CGSpace, FAO, National Research Institutions, individual researchers, local institutions, and private institutions. The approach to the smart farming technology discourse in sub-Saharan Africa starts by building on efforts to sustain CSA practices with a gradual shift towards the fourth agriculture revolution innovations. Even where there are efforts to push beyond conventional CSA practices by the private sector, farmers' responses are still low. It is recommended that any intervention to promote modern smart farming technologies to smallholders should build on conventional CSA practices.Sub-Saharan Africa owns more than 60% of the world's arable land with over 85% of farmers operating as smallholders [1]. These smallholders are the primary and secondary pillars of the agricultural sector [2] and hence provide the majority of food production in the sub-region [3]. The sub-region is an agrarian economy, with its economic development dependent on a significant transformation of agri-food systems [4].Unfortunately, most sub-Saharan African countries are unable to embrace food selfsufficiency even though the agricultural revolution is within their reach [5]. Food insecurity continues to rise even in less dry areas such as Nigeria and Ethiopia [6]. There is a consensus among both past [7,8] and present studies [4,9,10] that population increase alongside declining agricultural productivity is the immediate cause of food insecurity in the sub-region. Besides, all these studies explain that the increase in population is putting pressure on food demand, on the one hand, while climate change is threatening crop and animal production, on the other hand. The \"climate change and population dynamics\" discourse is responsible for the imbalances between demand and supply of food in the sub-region.It has been noted that almost half of the world's extreme poor live in sub-Saharan Africa [4]. These are mostly smallholders whose livelihoods are particularly vulnerable 2 of 13 to climate change [9]. Moreover, such farmers in the region are still struggling to raise productivity through conventional farm practices despite the technological revolution in the agricultural sector. Consequently, smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa are challenged by declining yields, depleting natural resources, alongside climate variability [11,12]. The effect of climate change is deeply felt in sub-Saharan Africa [12]. If this is not reversed, resources meant for socio-economic development in the region will be diverted to the fight against climate change.Recent scholars of climate science [4,[13][14][15] have unanimously agreed that efficiency and sustainability in agriculture within the sub-region can be achieved through the introduction of smart farming technologies. The approach of these scientists [4,14] is based on an effective collaboration among actors along the agri-food systems on technology adoption in agriculture. Smart farming technologies refer to the application of innovative solutions to optimize efficiency, productivity, and sustainability in farming [5,16]. Smart technologies consist of land and water management practices, as well as the use of improved breeds that farmers incorporate into their on-farm activities [13,17]. Therefore, the purpose of smart farming technologies is to achieve CSA.Beyond climate action, farmers need to embrace technology to meet the changing population needs. So, in recent times, there has been a gradual shift from these conservational smart practices towards a more advanced view that incorporates elements of the fourth agricultural revolution (agriculture 4.0) which is associated with digital agriculture [18]. Digital agricultural technologies are associated with the use of electronic devices in transforming the agri-food value chain into an inclusive, effective, resilient, and sustainable ecosystem [19]. An example is the use of meteorological data collected by sensors for farm applications from nursery to post-harvest [16]. The data are based on high-resolution multi-band images taken from satellite systems [6]. In smart agriculture, therefore, farms are connected to devices that can monitor, analyze, and make decisions [20].Smart farming technologies integrate elements such as automation, data analytics, connectivity, and artificial intelligence to enable data-driven decision-making and improve various aspects of farming operations [21]. Some notable smart farming technologies include precision agriculture equipment, automation, robotics, farm management information systems, the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, and artificial intelligence [22]. Others, according to [19], include smart weather forecasting, plant protection drones, auto-navigation of farm machinery, and digital humidity control. These technologies, according to [23], open new infinite possibilities for stakeholders and hence extend the production frontier. Apart from this benefit to farmers, smart technologies have the potential to reduce environmental impact through a green revolution [24]. Given these benefits, international organizations and governments are therefore promoting climate-smart agriculture in all parts of sub-Saharan Africa [4].Regrettably, smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa have not been able to respond appropriately to the prevailing smart technologies in agriculture [2,5]. One critical gap is the low uptake of smart technologies among farmers despite their proven potential [9,10,13]. It has been noted that many innovations are transferred to farmers whose understanding of the local farming circumstances is limited [11]. This is an indication of a diffusion gap because some innovations may target the wrong user or not directly address their felt needs. Climate-smart agriculture faces the additional challenge of a questionable conceptual understanding among policymakers [11]. Again, [11] noted that smallholders in the sub-region are characterized by a heterogeneous population, and this means that a single uniform approach will not be adequate in promoting climate-smart technologies in agriculture.Recent studies [16,22] have shown that smart farming technologies, although at a low level, are available to smallholders in Africa. What is missing is the proper packaging of different pieces of technologies and innovations for farmers [1]. This leaves a communication gap between promoters of smart farming technologies and users of the technologies. Another inference is that farmers do not have a utility for the technologies being promoted. The main objective of this study is to understand, on the one hand, how smart farming technologies are being promoted in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other hand, how farmers are adopting the prevailing technologies.Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following specific questions:1.Who is promoting what technology to which group of farmers? 2.What strategies are used to promote smart farming technologies to farmers? 3.How are farmers responding to smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa?After the introduction, the next section of the paper is an overview of the conceptual literature that presents a review of the basic concepts used in the study. Following that is the methodology of the study. After the methodology, the results are presented and discussed under the objectives of the study. The paper ends with a conclusion and recommendation for policy action.This section presents the general procedures for obtaining the results of the study. A systematic review methodology was used to conduct the study. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) procedures were followed to identify scientific papers on the promotion of smart farming technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. These procedures include a literature search, screening for eligibility, data extraction, and data analysis. These procedures were applied at various stages as shown in Figure 1.Recent studies [16,22] have shown that smart farming technologies, although at a low level, are available to smallholders in Africa. What is missing is the proper packaging of different pieces of technologies and innovations for farmers [1]. This leaves a communication gap between promoters of smart farming technologies and users of the technologies. Another inference is that farmers do not have a utility for the technologies being promoted. The main objective of this study is to understand, on the one hand, how smart farming technologies are being promoted in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other hand, how farmers are adopting the prevailing technologies.Therefore, the study seeks to answer the following specific questions: After the introduction, the next section of the paper is an overview of the conceptual literature that presents a review of the basic concepts used in the study. Following that is the methodology of the study. After the methodology, the results are presented and discussed under the objectives of the study. The paper ends with a conclusion and recommendation for policy action.This section presents the general procedures for obtaining the results of the study. A systematic review methodology was used to conduct the study. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) procedures were followed to identify scientific papers on the promotion of smart farming technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. These procedures include a literature search, screening for eligibility, data extraction, and data analysis. These procedures were applied at various stages as shown in Figure 1. The first step of the PRISMA process was to identify scientific publications on the subject under consideration. Guided by past studies [25,26], the identification of scientific publications was performed by searching through Scopus, JSTOR, CGSpace, and Google Scholar databases. These databases were purposively chosen since they contain publications on the keywords of the subject. Multiple strings were used to search in all the databases, which included the following:• (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Sustainable Agriculture\" OR \"Sustainability\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (strategies) AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Promotion\" OR \"Adoption\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Challenges\" OR \"Barriers\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\"); • (\"Smart Farming Technologies\" OR \"Precision Agriculture\" OR \"Climate-Smart Agriculture\") AND (\"Adoption Strategies\" OR \"Promotion Strategies\") AND (\"Sustainable Agriculture\") AND (\"Smallholders\" OR \"Small-scale Farmers\") AND (\"Sub-Saharan Africa\").The search process generated 106 papers from Scopus, 19 from JSTOR, 11 from CGSpace, and 111 from Google Scholar. This first stage produced a total of 247 papers of which 150 were found as duplicates.Next in the process was screening for eligibility. The duplicate papers were removed, leaving 97 papers. The remaining papers were subjected to further screening using inclusion and exclusion criteria. It was found that 18 papers were irrelevant to the subject under discussion, 29 papers did not contain any of the relevant keywords, and 2 were found as draft papers. Therefore, a total of 49 papers were excluded while 48 were found eligible and hence included for a full review, as shown in Figure 1.The eligible papers were reviewed and the results on smart farming technologies being promoted, promotion agents, target farmers, and their location were recorded in Microsoft Excel. Other variables including smart farming promotion strategies as well as their adoption strategies by farmers were recorded for analysis. The data were transferred to SPSS and descriptive statistics were generated and presented using tables and charts. The results are presented and discussed in the next section.The papers considered for review in this study were published by different institutions. Table 1 indicates that 29.2% of the sample papers were published by the Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI), 27.1% by Elsevier, and 18.8% of them were published by CGSpace. The further distribution of the remaining eligible papers is shown in Table 1 below. Apart from the source, the papers also vary by year of publication. The period under consideration is 2015 to 2023. However, no eligible paper was found to have been published in 2015. As shown in Figure 2, 29.2% were published in 2021, 20.8% in 2022, and 12.5% were published in both 2018 and 2023. The distribution suggests that there is an acute rise in interest in promoting smart agricultural technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. Apart from the source, the papers also vary by year of publication. The period under consideration is 2015 to 2023. However, no eligible paper was found to have been published in 2015. As shown in Figure 2, 29.2% were published in 2021, 20.8% in 2022, and 12.5% were published in both 2018 and 2023. The distribution suggests that there is an acute rise in interest in promoting smart agricultural technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. Further analysis revealed that the papers linked the application of smart farming technologies to different sustainable agricultural indicators such as environment, food security, income, livelihood, and welfare. The majority (45.8%) of the papers linked the applications of smart farming technologies to food security, and 41.7% linked it to livelihood. The further distribution of this relationship is shown in Figure 3.   Further analysis revealed that the papers linked the application of smart farming technologies to different sustainable agricultural indicators such as environment, food security, income, livelihood, and welfare. The majority (45.8%) of the papers linked the applications of smart farming technologies to food security, and 41.7% linked it to livelihood. The further distribution of this relationship is shown in Figure 3. Apart from the source, the papers also vary by year of publication. The period under consideration is 2015 to 2023. However, no eligible paper was found to have been published in 2015. As shown in Figure 2, 29.2% were published in 2021, 20.8% in 2022, and 12.5% were published in both 2018 and 2023. The distribution suggests that there is an acute rise in interest in promoting smart agricultural technologies to smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa. Further analysis revealed that the papers linked the application of smart farming technologies to different sustainable agricultural indicators such as environment, food security, income, livelihood, and welfare. The majority (45.8%) of the papers linked the applications of smart farming technologies to food security, and 41.7% linked it to livelihood. The further distribution of this relationship is shown in Figure 3.   The results suggest that the recent smart farming literature is more concerned about food security and livelihood than income, environment, and welfare. This conclusion agrees with the observation in [12] that the immediate effect of climate change is on food security and livelihood. However, income is very important in the analysis of sustainable agriculture but has been given less attention, as shown by the data. The possible explanation is that sometimes income is often treated as a component of food security and livelihood in the literature of CSA and not an independent concept. It is therefore very apparent why climate change interventions focus on addressing the food security and livelihood concerns of smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa.Several actors were found to be promoters of smart farming technologies, as reported by scientific studies. These promoters include CGSpace, FAO, government agencies, individual researchers, local institutions, private institutions, and USAID. Moreover, the approach to this promotion takes the form of government initiative (39.6%), public-private collaboration (43.8%), and private initiative (16.7%), as reported in Table 2. Some specific technologies were identified as being promoted to farmers. Most of these technologies are land and water management practices that are generally classified in this study as conservational climate-smart agricultural practices. These practices constitute 72.9% of smart technologies, as shown in Table 3. Other technologies identified include certified seed, climate-smart cowpea varieties, conservative agriculture, drone technology, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), precision agriculture, and elements of the fourth industrial agriculture revolution. Further analysis suggests that smart farming technologies are being promoted to different categories of farmers. As indicated in Table 4, most modern technologies such as the use of drone technology, GIS, and precision agriculture are being promoted to all crop farmers. Precision agriculture in particular consists of managing crops by observing, measuring, and responding to other variables that can affect the plants [27]. Such precision practices are evident but in a small proportion (2.1%). Besides, the conventional practices are distributed over different categories of farmers, although crop farmers were found to dominate (39.6%) over the others. Apart from this, farmers engaged in cowpea cultivation, dairy, maize, or potatoes are exclusively targeted by some technologies. The promoters of smart farming technologies and the location of their activities have been identified. As shown in Table 5, the institutions that are engaged in the promotion of smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa include CGSpace, FAO, government institutions, individual researchers, local institutions, private institutions, and USAID. This implies that different categories of stakeholders have concerns about farmers' use of smart technologies in the sub-region. The results in Table 5 also show that the technologies are being promoted in different parts of the sub-region such as West Africa (Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria), East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda), Central Africa (DRC), and Southern Africa (Malawi and Zambia). The agencies engaged in the promotion of smart farming technologies do so using different strategies. Some of these strategies are reported in this study (Table 6) and their relative proportions include capacity building (14.6%), co-creation and partnership in scaling (14.6%), the use of extension services (12.5%), and policy action (12.5%). Other strategies identified in Table 6 are advocacy (8.3%), piloting (8.3%), financing (6.2%), research (6.2%), indigenous knowledge (6.2%), the use of the market (6.2%), the climate-smart village approach (2.1%), and Climate Information Services (2.1%). The findings imply that capacity building is the dominant strategy that institutions use to promote smart farming technologies. As argue by [11], some technology-oriented approaches often fail because innovations are transferred to farmers who do not understand the local farming circumstances. This means that the recent approach of technology transfer in sub-Saharan Africa through capacity building can significantly transform towards sustainable agriculture. Meanwhile, a combination of the strategies identified can be a winning combination for smallholders in the sub-region. Farmers use different strategies to adopt smart farming technologies in sub-Saharan Africa. It was discovered that the bundling of land and water management practices is a key strategy used by farmers. As shown in Figure 4, the proportion of studies confirming this is 22.9% of the sample studies. The further distribution shows that 16.7% adopt the practices as a result of a push from socioeconomic factors. Also, 14.6% of the studies indicate that farmers adopt smart farming practices by building on their indigenous knowledge. Another strategy used by farmers is that they adopt technologies that permit knowledge sharing among themselves while others boast their resilience to climate variability by adopting some smart farming practices.this is 22.9% of the sample studies. The further distribution shows that 16.7% adopt the practices as a result of a push from socioeconomic factors. Also, 14.6% of the studies indicate that farmers adopt smart farming practices by building on their indigenous knowledge. Another strategy used by farmers is that they adopt technologies that permit knowledge sharing among themselves while others boast their resilience to climate variability by adopting some smart farming practices. The subject of smart farming technologies in smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa has been given attention by scholars. Scholars of the subject share their research findings with the scientific community mainly through MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace. This implies that MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace are the top three publishers that promote smart farming technologies among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The year of publication also shows a rising interest in the subject of smart farming up to the year 2021, when the majority of the papers were published. After this period, the number of publications has kept declining. The most accepted explanation is that smart farming technologies are advanced innovations that are often used by specialized farms such as those on a large scale. Therefore, the promotion of such innovations among smallholders is gaining little attention in recent scholarly debates.The results show that CGSpace (one of the dominant promoters) often relies on public-private collaboration. Such collaborations are often between CGSpace staff, on the one hand, and on the other hand, government agencies such as the ministry in charge of agriculture and agricultural research in various countries. Besides, local institutions promote smart farming technologies, and this is largely through government initiatives. Such arrangements take place when the government takes action through farmer groups/organizations to promote smart farming technologies among themselves. Contrary to findings that most collaborations are between developed countries [3], the results of this study suggest a changing trend in collaboration among developing countries in response to the integration of technologies in agriculture. The subject of smart farming technologies in smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa has been given attention by scholars. Scholars of the subject share their research findings with the scientific community mainly through MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace. This implies that MDPI, Elsevier, and CGSpace are the top three publishers that promote smart farming technologies among smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. The year of publication also shows a rising interest in the subject of smart farming up to the year 2021, when the majority of the papers were published. After this period, the number of publications has kept declining. The most accepted explanation is that smart farming technologies are advanced innovations that are often used by specialized farms such as those on a large scale. Therefore, the promotion of such innovations among smallholders is gaining little attention in recent scholarly debates.The results show that CGSpace (one of the dominant promoters) often relies on publicprivate collaboration. Such collaborations are often between CGSpace staff, on the one hand, and on the other hand, government agencies such as the ministry in charge of agriculture and agricultural research in various countries. Besides, local institutions promote smart farming technologies, and this is largely through government initiatives. Such arrangements take place when the government takes action through farmer groups/organizations to promote smart farming technologies among themselves. Contrary to findings that most collaborations are between developed countries [3], the results of this study suggest a changing trend in collaboration among developing countries in response to the integration of technologies in agriculture.The results in Table 3 also show that CGSpace and local country-level institutions dominate in the promotion of conventional practices, even though all the promoters have at least promoted one of the conventional practices. These findings agree with previous studies [12,13] that the past decades have witnessed the promotion of conventional CSA practices within sub-Saharan Africa. This implies that there exists a gap in the promotion of more advanced smart farming technologies that are featured in the fourth agriculture revolution to smallholders.Besides, CGSpace has innovated some smart farm practices as its climate action intervention, and such practices as highlighted in the literature include high-yielding drought-tolerant crop varieties, Climate Information Services, agricultural insurance, agroforestry, water harvesting techniques, and integrated soil fertility management practices. More recent smart farming technologies such as drone technology, GIS, the fourth industrial agriculture revolution, and precision agriculture are promoted by private institutions and individual researchers. The results provide evidence of conservational smart practices rather than modern innovations. The use of automation, robotics, farm management information systems, the Internet of Things, and artificial intelligence applications, as reported by [22], have not been promoted in smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa.The promotion of smart farming technologies occurs in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa, in economic blocks such as East Africa or Southern Africa, while sometimes being restricted to farmers in some specific countries as illustrated in Table 5. Countries that were noted to have gained from such promotions include DRC, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. It is interesting to note that CGSpace, which is one of the key promoters of smart technologies in agriculture, operates in different parts of sub-Saharan Africa and could extend its intervention to some countries not identified in this study. The possible reason could be the limitations in the methodology of this study. The review methodology included only papers that have been published in the English language, and this can be the reason for this finding being skewed towards Englishspeaking countries. Notwithstanding, some (37.5%) of the promotions take place in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa, while others take place in the southern and eastern parts of Africa. This suggests that no country located south of the Sahara has exclusively been left out in the smart farming technology discourse.The strategies being used vary from promoter to promoter. The results indicate that the extension services approach dominates over the other strategies, and this is used often by local institutions. CGSpace uses capacity building, co-creation, or partnership in scaling, financing, piloting, and research to promote smart technologies to farmers. On the other hand, local institutions can promote smart farming technologies to farmers through policy action. Besides, FAO and USAID are multilateral organizations that also engage in the promotion of these technologies to farmers. The results indicate that FAO does so through project financing while USAID builds the capacities of actors through training.The results in Figure 4 indicate that strategies such as bundling climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and Climate Information Services (CIS), as well as substituting indigenous technologies with more scientific ones, are common among the farmers. The findings imply that a combination of land and water management practices leads to the strategies adopted by farmers as a response to the promotion of smart farming technologies. The next dominant strategies (adoption based on socioeconomics and building on indigenous knowledge) all suggest that socio-cultural dynamics dictate farmers' response to innovations. Concerning past studies, especially [6], farmers are concerned with fostering sustainable management of their natural resources, enhancing ecosystem services, and building climate resilience. The findings of this study are consistent with this view since farmers are responding through land and water management technologies, as reported as the dominant strategy.The results indicate that farmers are responding to smart technologies in agriculture based on their socio-economic circumstances. Farmers' socio-economics covers a broad range of variables including their ongoing practices, as well as the cost of adopting innovations. Similar to the observation in [28], a response to some technologies in agriculture depends on the resources spent on the promotion. By analogy, farmers' decision to adopt will be influenced by their economic capacity in terms of scale economies and expected payoff from an intervention. Besides, in their quest to manage the cost of adoption, farmers rely on information sharing to facilitate the transfer of indigenous knowledge among themselves. This strategy will preserve their culture of farming while reducing the cost of adoption.The findings again suggest that while farmers have recognized the role of their indigenous knowledge in their response to innovations, they have not overruled the importance of scientific information such as CIS. The findings show that 8.2% of the literature reported that farmers bundle CSA and CIS as a strategy for integrating smart practices in their farming. This means that even if they cannot adopt the more advanced technologies, especially those related to the fourth agriculture revolution, they nevertheless underrate their importance in their farming businesses.Several attempts have been made to transform smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa by public and private institutions or a collaboration between the two. The quest to attain sustainable agriculture is pushed by a growing population, increasing food demand, and the threat of climate change. Therefore, a response to these issues necessitates a substantial shift to smart technologies in agriculture.It has been noted from this review that sub-Saharan Africa needs to attain and maintain sustainable agriculture to ensure sustainable livelihoods and food security. However, the adverse effects of climate change are threatening the achievement of these goals. Therefore, farmers within the sub-region need to embrace climate-smart agriculture as a means for climate change adaptation and mitigation. While climate-smart agriculture remains a comprehensive strategy, individual farmers must adopt smart farming technologies as entry points for climate-smart agriculture. This could be a linear path towards a longrun achievement of sustainable agricultural production in the region. On the one hand, smart farming technologies are innovations based on the fourth agricultural revolution. On the other hand, climate-smart agriculture encompasses conventional soil and land management practices in addition to innovations that aim at improving farmers' capacity in the management of soil, land, and water resources.The literature implies that promoters of smart agriculture technologies do not differentiate between climate-smart agriculture and modern advanced smart farming technologies that are being promoted in advanced countries. Therefore, the approach to the smart farming technology discourse in sub-Saharan Africa starts by building on efforts to sustain CSA practices with a gradual shift towards the fourth agriculture revolution innovations. This approach is considered feasible because of its inclusiveness in terms of coverage and local adaptation conditions. Even where there are efforts to push beyond conventional CSA practices by the private sector, farmers' responses remain low.The present paper brings to the fore the prevailing smart farming technologies, who uses them, and where they are used. The discussion also highlights which institution has an interest in promoting which technology to which group of farmers. Although different promotion strategies are being used by different institutions, this review specifies that the use of co-creation/partnership in scaling, as well as building the capacity of farmers, are key strategies that can be used to push farmers to adopt more smart technologies in their farming practices. These findings are unique in providing a strategic direction for farmers and institutions that have an interest in smallholder farmers' transformation.It is important to note that all interventions to promote smart technologies in agriculture among smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa should consider, first, the socio-economic context of the farmers, such as their indigenous practices. The next stage of the intervention should target upscaling the conventional CSA as a necessary condition before any attempt to upgrade to recent innovations as proposed by the fourth industrial agriculture revolution. Any effort to promote smart farming technologies will not succeed without meeting these necessary conditions.Author Contributions: M.B.: extracting materials from databases, summarizing the materials, and making up the write-ups. M.O.: framing the study, guiding the objectives and purpose, and providing relevant reading materials and proofreading. A.O.: discussing the relevance of the study, managing references. P.L.: proofreading, guiding the implications of the findings to meet smallholder farmers' needs. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.Funding: This research is being supported by the CGIAR Trust Fund (https://www.cgiar.org/funders/).","tokenCount":"5009"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7ae0a0a3d6cdd3fec71303c2796e158b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bd2490a3-7a5c-4144-a680-21bc772cc1f1/retrieve","id":"-2020615472"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dcac8e59-8594-4367-95c9-05d71a961508","pagecount":"2","content":"In late 2018, the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) received funding from GALVmed for a research project for the development of a subunit vaccine for African swine fever. African swine fever is a disease that is present in approximately 26 countries in Africa where it poses a problem for pig farmers due to the frequent wipeout of herds, which happens regularly in some areas. In addition, the disease has grown to pandemic proportions in Europe and Asia, including China.There is no vaccine against African swine fever virus (ASFV) and current control is based on culling and biosecurity measures. Therefore, a vaccine could significantly contribute to this control and alleviate the problems for African farmers.African swine fever (ASF) is a devastating hemorrhagic pig disease originating from Africa, first described in Kenya in 1921. It is currently a major problem in Eastern Europe, Asia, China and India where it has spread since it escaped to Georgia from Africa in 2007 (Iglesias et al. 2017). African swine fever virus (ASFV) is present in about 26 countries in Africa, where it poses a serious constraint for pig farmers due to the recurrent wipeout of whole pig herds.There is no vaccine; therefore, control of the disease is dependent on biosecurity and culling of animals. The virus infects domestic pigs, wild boars in Europe and Asia and wild pigs (i.e. warthogs and bush pigs) in Africa. It is transmitted by the soft ticks of the Ornithodores genus in Africa. The transmission system is very complex with several farm risk factors associated such as, lack of fences and routine cleaning of pens (Dione et al. 2017). This complex transmission system complicates the control measures.The virus is a large DNA virus belonging to the Asfaviridae family, sharing some similarities with the pox viruses. It encodes between 151 and 167 genes depending on the isolate. ASFVs are divided into 24 genotypes, all of which have been detected in Africa (Quembo et al. 2018).One of the goals in the project is to identify antigens from ASF which are responsible for the immunity seen using the whole virus for vaccination. It has been shown previously that modified viruses by deletion of genes can confer immunity. Therefore, an attenuated version of ASF isolate was used for immunization of pigs followed by peptide screens using overlapping peptides (pieces of protein) covering the whole virus. The ASF virus which was used was isolated at the border between Kenya and Uganda during an outbreak and was determined as a genotype IX isolate (Gallardo et al. 2007 andOnzere et al. 2018). The virus had a deletion of one gene called the CD2v gene, which was generated in another project.Three groups of pigs (including European and Kenyan local breed pigs, 22 animals in total) were immunized with the modified live virus followed by testing of immune cells. Cells were either white blood cells (PBMC) or a fraction of these, the CD8 cells, which are known as killer cells. They recognize virus-infected cells and kill them. The recognition of the infected cells happens due to small pieces of protein (peptides) of the virus, which are located on the outside of the infected cells. These peptides can be recognized by the immune cells and get killed.In order to determine these peptides which are recognized by the immune cells, the cells are cultured together with pools of known peptides from the virus. If the cells recognize them, they will produce a substance called interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). That can be measured in an assay called enzymelinked immunospot (ELISpot) assay.The cells from the three groups of pigs were tested in ELISpot for recognition of peptide pools corresponding to each gene of the virus. Of the 217 peptide pools tested, 153 pools were recognized by PBMC of at least one animal (2.8 animals/pool +/-3.6, range 1-17 animals) of which 42 pools were also recognized by CD8 T cells of at least one animal (1.7 animals/pool +/-1.5, range 1-6). There were 47 pools corresponding to 41 genes, which were recognized among members of all three groups (6.8 animals/pool +/-3.9, range 3-17). Among these highly immunogenic genes, there were known immunogenic genes, as well as genes that have not previously been identified as immunogenic.Eleven genes have initially been selected for testing immunogenicity and protection against ASF in pigs. The selected genes are recognized by cells from 5-17 animals out of the 22 pigs for the PBMC. The CD8 cells recognized fewer pools with the best antigen recognized by six animals.The antigens are currently being inserted into viral vectors for vaccination of pigs. The viral vectors are human adenovirus 5 (AdHu5) and modified vaccinia virus (MVA), which are both replication-defective, meaning that they don't multiply after injection. Each pig will receive a pool of AdHu5 with selected genes from African swine fever. Then, they will receive a booster with the recombinant MVA with the same antigens inserted as in the AdHu5 vectors. Following this immunization, they will be challengd with the virus to monitor if the vaccine is effective.The first generation ASF vaccine will probably be a live attenuated vaccine, whereas a second-generation vaccine could be a subunit vaccine, which likely will be far safer. Accesses to a vaccine will have a major impact on pig farming in Africa, where many farmers are discouraged from staying in the pig business due to recurrent problems of ASF. A vaccine would greatly improve income and livelihoods for African farmers, which translates to other actors in the value chain.","tokenCount":"909"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b3f835ccecc713f699ae288ea5b91d47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e987da4b-a051-42a1-b48c-e2fda1f9bf57/retrieve","id":"1386455751"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"55d13d95-69f1-4f8c-b0dc-907e42c9abe8","pagecount":"3","content":"Brief for EPMR Field Day (October 8, 1994) Soil Fertility Dynamics in Crop Rotations/Agropastoral Systems (\"Culti-Core\" and satellite experiments at Carimagua and Matazul) In 1993, the CIAT Savannas Program in collaboration with the Colombian nationaJ program, ICA, established the \"Culti-Core\" experiment at the CORPOICNCIAT Research Station at Carimagua on the Colombian Llanos. The goal was to study the biophysical and agronomic processes contributing to sustainability or lack of sustainability in a spectrum of a!t~ve production systems based on component tolerance to soH acidíty. The experiment iucludes \"fertilizer lime\" systems (lime applied at low rates solely as a souree of calcium and magnesium) based on Al-tolerant upland rice grown in continuous monoculture or in rotations with green manures, cowpeas or adapted mixed pastures, and \"remedia! lime\" systems (lime applied to reduce levels of soluble Al in soíl) based on maize in continuous monoculture or in rotations with green manures, soybeans or Iess-adapted but better quality mixed pastures. AH systems are managed to optímize production and minimize soíl degradation by conserving crop residues, maiiltaÍnÍng soil fertility, controlling weeds and other pests, etc. The plots are also large enough to allow grazing in the case of pastures, and to permit the use of conventional machinery which are Iikely to influence soil physíca! and biological properties.\"Culti-Core\" is a multi-disciplinary project involving severa! institutions with complementary types of expertise: . U:l MA' I l!iS1The rice-based (Ufertilizer\" lime) TOtations were initiated in 1993 while logistica! difficulties requlred that instalIation ofthe maize-based (\"remediaJ\" lime) rotations be delayed untilI994. Cereal crops are sown at the beginning ofthe rainy season (about mid-April) and harvested in late-August. The secol}.d crop in the rotations (a grain legume or grecn manure) is sown as soon as possible thereafter. . The fourth crop is now in the field in the case of the rice-based systems while the second crap has just been sown in the maize-based systems. Salient results currently available'at this time are:• average fU'st year rice yields --approximately 3.4 tIha of paddy over an area of7 ha.• a well-established pasrure unrlersown with the rice erop put to anímals 3 months afier harvest • po significant influence ofunrlersown pasture on rice grain yields.• average animalliveweight gains during 3 months ofdry season --333 gramslday • grain legume cowpea yields -approximately 1130 kglha of seed over an area of 3 ha.• marked inercases in mineral nitragen concentrations in the soU profile during the dry season due to incorporation of green manure (1.54 t-dry weightlha) and cowpea crop residues (1.7 tIha) • lower weed infestations in the 1994 rice erop compared to monoculture rice due to the ground cover provided by legumes during the Jalter parí of the previous rainy season. • maize grain yield in the \"remedial\" lime treatments are about 2,5-3 liba (preliminary estimate), somewhat below its potential due to less than ideal germination and emergence.Complementing the Culti-core systems trial on the Llanos are a number of satellite experiments designed lo more accurately assess the nutrient requirements and constraints of component crops, and estímate nutrient losses and use efficiency under alternative management strategies on soils (Oxisols and Ultisols) whose mineralogicaJ properties are not conducive lo the efficient use of nutrient inputs. Experiments include the following:• lime-potassium-magnesium balance trials (Carimagua, Matazul, La Florida) -to determine the optimal balance of lime, Mg and K for component crops, lo study me dynamics of applied cations and soil acidity, and the interaction of amendments on nutrient fluxes, Cate and residual value. phosphorus residual value trials (Carimagua, Matazul) _. to determine the optimal levels of soluble pbosphate fertilizer for the component crops, to characterize the fate of P applications, and to determine the residual value of pbosphate applications and parameterize a model of P residues in highly weathered soils. • silicon response trials (Matazul, La Florida) _. lo identify a potential constraint to rice production on highly•weathered (desilicated) soils.Results obtained thusfar from these experiments demonstrate the following:• strong responses lo Mg in rice and cowpeas with virtually no rice yield without Mg. ,. K requirements of80-120 kglha for rice and maize depending on soil texture. 1 -minor rice (acid soil toleran! O. Sabanas 6) responses lo lime (as calcite) indicating a mínimal lime application of300 kglha as dolomite principally as a Mg source. • somewhat higher cowpea requirements for lime (about 600 kglha applied lo preceding rice crop).• maximum yields (3.5 liba) ofCIMMYT AI-tolerant maize germplasm with less than 1.6 liba of calcite (exchangcable Al saturation reduced to approximately 50%). Without lime (90% Al saturation), yields reduced to 2.6 liba or 77% ofthe observed maximum. . • P rates of approximateiy 40 and 80 kglha produced maximum yields with rice and maize, respectiveiy, suggesting tbat these soils are not as strongly P fixing as expected. Preliminary observations also indicate Iarge residual effects. • rice yield increases of 500-1 000 kglha and a drarnatic reduction in the incidence ofblast when Si is applied, It is intended that these experiments continue for a period of four years to provide both basic data with respect to nutrient requirements ín the Culti-core component crops, but aJso to quantil}-residual effects and nutrient losses in order to more intelligently manage inputs in the long-term trial ., Dynamic phosphorus pools (Brachiaria-kudzu tria~ Carimagua; agropastoral trial, MaWul).At Carimagua,• the microbial P pool was larger in the grass-Iegume pasture compared with the grass alone, which in tum was slightly higher than the native savanna. • microbial P was in general 2-5 times greater than the available P pool measured by the standard BraY2 P soil test. clearly indicating the importance of microbes in P cycling and availability.• grass-legume pasture maintained a higher amount of applied P in the surface soil apparently caused by more efficient cyc1ing ofP through labile P pools compared to grass-only pastures and native savanna. • At Matazu1 farro, • microbial P levels were higher in systems involving rotations of rice with pastures than in rice monocultures.lnvestigations such as these will be extended to the Culti-core experiment to determine whether short-term rotations with grain legumes and green manures have similar effects as those observed in long-term rotations with pastures • I ~","tokenCount":"1018"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"657ae8f502403cbde74d89a9cfc687f0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2acd059c-ee39-4572-9fe1-9f97d5fb7cf9/retrieve","id":"-1319775412"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4c95d4fe-ea0b-4e9b-88ea-2d40fe8b1512","pagecount":"41","content":"Bioversity International is a global research-for-development organization. We have a vision -that agricultural biodiversity nourishes people and sustains the planet.We deliver scientific evidence, management practices and policy options to use and safeguard agricultural and tree biodiversity to attain sustainable global food and nutrition security. We work with partners in low-income countries in different regions where agricultural and tree biodiversity can contribute to improved nutrition, resilience, productivity and climate change adaptation.Bioversity International is a member of the CGIAR Consortium -a global research partnership for a food-secure future.v We acknowledge Olga Spellman (Science Writer, Bioversity International) for English and copy editing of this workshop report and Luca Pierotti for design and layout of the front cover.Cover photo: Seed fair in Hoima Uganda, August 2018. Credit: Bioversity International/G.Otieno.Other photos: International Workshop on Registration of Farmers' Varieties, 4-7 December 2018, Imperial Botanical Beach Hotel, Entebbe, Uganda. Credit: PGRC of NARO Uganda/B.Namulondo.viiiThe registration of farmers' varieties in national and regional seed catalogues -as objects of seed regulation --has been the subject of considerable debate in recent years, at local, national and international levels. Farmers have contributed immensely to the development, management and conservation of a wide range of crop varieties, but national seed regulations generally only focus on crop varieties that are the products of so-called 'formal sector' plant breeding. Article 9 of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) recognizes the contribution farmers have made to the conservation and development of plant genetic resources and stipulates that the responsibility of protection of farmers' rights rests with national governments in accordance with their needs and priorities.In addressing these challenges, an international workshop on registration of farmers'varieties was held at the Imperial Botanical Beach Hotel in Entebbe, Uganda, in order to advance the understanding of farmers' varieties and the gains from establishing mechanisms for their registration at both the global and national level. During the workshop, the participants were able to share global experiences from countries where farmers' varieties and evolutionary populations have been registered and have an active supportive legal system. After reflecting on experiences from a range of countries and regions around the world, the participants narrowed their collective focus to the situation in Uganda, andUgandan seed policies and laws in particular.The current legal and policy framework in Uganda comprises the National Seed Policy (2018), the Seeds and Plant Act (2006), and the Seeds and Plant Regulations (2017).However, they only focus on the so-called formal seed system, which produces only 20% of the nation's seed on an annual basis. This legal framework does not provide policy support for the production and distribution by small-scale farmers of quality seed of farmers' varieties. However, the National Seed Policy (2018) recognizes that the informal seed system is strategic in conserving the biodiversity of landraces and meets 80 percent of the seed requirements in Uganda. It also allows the exchange of farm-saved seeds and recognizes quality-declared seeds (QDS). This is encouraging, but the existing legislation does not have provisions that support registration and commercialization of farmers' varieties. This lack of a supportive policy environment denies farmers the right to produce and sell varieties they have helped to create and conserve for generations. Also, the draft policy on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA), which provides a legal framework for registration of farmers' varieties, is yet to be approved by the Cabinet.ix Through participatory engagement of participants from national and international agricultural research institutions, academia, the private sector, farmers' organizations, seed regulatory authorities, politicians and civil society organizations (CSOs), a roadmap for registration of farmers' varieties in Uganda was developed to address the gaps in the current seed laws.One of the critical actions was to push for Cabinet approval of a draft PGRFA policy that has recently been developed through a process of consultation. In addition, the participants discussed other variety registration and seed-certification standards that may hinder or help small-scale seed producers and/or participatory plant breeding.From the sessions, it was observed that most participants had varied understanding of what farmers' varieties are. This is due to a lack of a universally recognized taxonomic or legal definition of farmers' varieties to refer to for clarity. However, the common characteristics of a farmers' variety were identified as the following: having a historical origin, high genetic diversity, local adaptation, recognizable identity, no formal-sector genetic improvement, and association with traditional farming systems. These characteristics were found to be key in defining farmers' varieties. Countries that have set up systems for registering farmers' varieties have introduced relaxed standards.The workshop participants also considered the issue of ownership of farmers' varieties, which in many (perhaps most?) countries is dealt with through separate intellectual property laws. Participants appeared to agree that farmers who have contributed to the development and conservation of farmers' varieties should enjoy rights of control (which could be called property rights) over those varieties, either as groups or individuals. For the case of group ownership, the participants considered the possibility of legal entities in which rights could be collectively vested (e.g. cooperatives, associations, community-based organizations, etc.). It was further noted that a range of different organizations (nongovernmental organizations, local governments, companies) could usefully offer technical support to farmers as collaborators in the variety evaluation and registration process and, subsequently, in seedproduction activities.Therefore, there is a need for champions and commitment from stakeholders, as well as resources to address gaps in the registration of farmers' varieties. It is also necessary to clearly justify the key benefits of registering farmers' varieties and, most importantly, put in place a flexible and relaxed regulatory framework for such registration.Nearly 70 percent of the food-security needs of developing countries are met by smallholders. The expected outputs of the meeting included the following:1. A detailed workshop report on the roadmap towards registration of farmers' varieties and farmers' rights in Uganda.2. A draft for publication in a high-impact journal on the case studies on registration of farmers' varieties.Participatory approaches such as interactive PowerPoint presentations, panel discussions, experience sharing, group work and plenary discussions were used to actively engage participants and make the workshop interesting and productive.Dr John Waswa Mulumba, who presided over the opening session, welcomed the participants and encouraged them not only to enjoy the workshop but also the beauty of Uganda. Dr Mulumba highlighted the significance of farmers' varieties and how they came into being. He noted that farmers are central to germplasm conservation and that germplasm collection and conservation dates way back to our ancestors (early humans).To contextualize farmers' varieties, presentations were made by Bram De Jonge and GloriaOtieno. Both presentations highlighted the importance of so-called informal seed systems, challenges to seed access, benefits and challenges of farmers' varieties and legal (international, regional and national) perspectives on farmers' rights and the registration of Furthermore, the right to seed is a human right according to the United Nations pronouncements on the rights of peasants and people living in rural communities, as described in an article published by International Property Watch: 6...peasants and other people working in rural areas should have the right to seeds. This includes: the right to the protection of traditional knowledge relevant to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture; the right to equitably participate in sharing the benefits arising from the utilisation of those resources; the right to participate in decision-making relating to the conservation and sustainable use of those resources; and the right to save, use, exchange and sell their farm-saved seed or propagating material.This right to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed has been a longstanding demand of peasants and civil society groups, in particular in the context of intellectual property protection on new varieties of plants.Article 19 also asks that peasants have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their own seeds and traditional knowledge; and requests that states \"shall take measures to respect, protect and fulfil the right to seeds of peasants.\"The article further requests that seeds of sufficient quality and quantity are made available to peasants at \"the most suitable time for planting, and at an affordable price.\"Peasant seed systems should be supported and promoted, as well as agrobiodiversity.Article 19 further directs, and notes that states shall recognise the rights of peasants to \"rely either on their own seeds or on other locally available seeds of their choice, and to decide on the crops and species that they wish to grow.\"\"Seed policies, plant variety protection and other intellectual property laws, certification schemes and seed marketing laws should respect and take into account the rights, needs and realities of peasants.\"Drs Otieno and de Jonge both stressed the importance of creating an enabling environment and mechanisms for including farmers' varieties more systematically within the scope of national seed regulations. This will make it possible to register farmers' varieties in national catalogues and enable commercialization. Day 1 generally focused on the international perspectives and experiences from countries that have registered farmers' varieties. Day 2 focused on the Ugandan context since it was the focus of the workshop as a practical learning experience and reference for other countries. Day 3 focused on a review of the two days' progress and the need to publish the outputs from the workshop. o Landraces or obsolete varieties.One conclusion at the end of the session was that, while most participants had ideas about the meaning of 'farmers' varieties', there was no unanimously agreed-upon definition. This conclusion is reflected in the existing literature, which shows that there is no universally recognized, taxonomic or legal definition of farmers' varieties to refer to for clarity. 7 This prompted the facilitators to take this up as one of the key topics for further discussion during the subsequent group session.Why is it difficult to define farmers' varieties?Legal and technical/institutional challenges to defining farmers' varieties were raised and these include the following:o Farmers' varieties cover a broad spectrum of types and are not easy to categorize.o Globally, most countries have no relevant legislation to recognize the system under which farmers' varieties are generated and utilized. Farmers' rights and varieties are not prioritized in our legal frameworks. In most African countries, the laws regarding farmers' rights and varieties are still in draft form (e.g. Uganda and Zimbabwe).Therefore, there is a need to advocate the registration of farmers' varieties so that farmers can get value from their varieties. o The characterization and description of farmers' varieties requires data. However, data on farmers' varieties is grossly lacking.o Farmers' varieties should also meet some minimum quality standards, such as purity, germination and freedom from pests and diseases. These standards are not clearly defined, so it is important to define minimum quality standards and an appropriate quality assurance mechanism for farmers' varieties.o What are the implications of the recently approved Genetic Engineering Regulatory Act (2018) on farmers' varieties in Uganda?o How do we address the contradictions in the national, regional and international laws/commitments (e.g. ITPGRFA versus the International Union for the Protection ofo Won't promotion of farmers' varieties erode the gains from investments in and/or compromise the competitiveness of the formal seed sector?o How do we balance the support for farmers' varieties and improved varieties in terms of public investment in their development and use?Both formal and informal seed systems have their unique benefits, so the relevant policies and laws should not create disincentives for the operation of those systems. What is important is to look at the purpose and objectives of the different systems and build structures and mechanisms to support the co-existence of pluralistic seed-delivery systems.Farmers know how to identify their varieties. The key issue would be to link local knowledge to science/action-based research and build beneficial partnerships with farmers, which can be done through characterization of farmers' varieties and participatory plant breeding. Ethiopia  Are traditional varieties competent? Yosef Gebrehawaryat gave a research perspective on durum wheat in Ethiopia, comparing traditional and improved varieties.  Many landraces were observed to mature earlier than the improved varieties.  A yield advantage of 61% was obtained from the best landrace over the best improved variety (Robe).  Landraces had better tolerance to Setoria tritici.  There are two pathways for registration of varieties:o Formal variety release process in which varieties are evaluated in at least three locations for two seasons. Four traditional barley and 2 durum wheat varieties have been released through this process. o One-year characterization of farmers' varieties through PPB and quality-declared seed (QDS) production. Farmers' varieties can be identified by office of agriculture, research center or NGO, and can be registered by a nearby research center or university. Focus is on distinctiveness and uniformity since stability is locally specific. QDS production is inspected and certified by the seed inspection unit. Seed can be distributed through the informal seed system.  In both cases, the registration center is responsible for maintaining the variety and providing prebasic seed. o How do we address the contradictions in international, regional and national laws/commitments (e.g. ITPGRFA versus UPOV)?o With reference to Nepal, the focus is on farmers' varieties with commercial value. What about those with niche/distinct and other values, such as adaptability, cultural value and nutrition? This case could inform our approach/strategies. In the short term, we could focus on those varieties with commercial value and on others in the long term!o How do we ensure that farmers' varieties that are registered in the national variety register and national genebanks remain entirely under the control and ownership of the farmers? Do we need to maintain separate variety registers for farmers' varieties and improved varieties? Who is the custodian of the registered farmers' varieties?o There is a need to devise mechanisms that ensure that registering farmers' varieties do not create disincentives for investments in the formal seed system; thus, there is a need to balance the two systems.o Given the significance of informal seed systems, why do policies still target the formal seed system?These areas of concern were addressed through group discussions.To guide the discussions, the rapporteurs presented a synthesis of the key challenges for registration of farmers' varieties arising from the previous sessions (opening session and sessions 1 and 2). Four groups were constituted, with participants randomly selected. Topics for group discussions were drawn from the key issues arising from the previous sessions as recapped by the rapporteurs. These are presented in table 2.  Identify the variety o Gather preliminary information about the variety (e.g. name, origin, unique known attributes as perceived by the community)  Agree on key distinguishing parameters against which to describe the variety.Use traits known by the farmers o How many traits (could vary per crop)?  Evaluate the parameters on farmers' fields to validate the selected traits  Document the variety descriptor based on participatory evaluation trials  Submit to designated authority for release if it meets minimum requirements 2 Who applies for registration of farmers' varieties? Since farmers are the maintainers, they should own 100% of farmers' varieties, either as groups or individuals  For farmers' groups, it is highly recommended that it should be a legal entity, in order to attach responsibility (e.g. cooperatives, associations, CBOs, etc.)  Interested individual farmers could also register -preconditions for this should be clearly spell out in the regulations  Institutions (NGOs, local government, companies and research) should not register farmers' varieties -they should only offer technical support to farmers as collaborators in the variety evaluation and registration process and, subsequently, in seed production activities Who maintains farmers' varieties? Assess capacity to maintain the variety before granting maintainer rights o Could be a legal or moral person designated in the application (first define the seed source) o Designated public authority or genebank  Field inspections depend on the criteria for registration and/or definition of farmers' varieties -safeguard against loss of variety or specific characteristics Who benefits from registration of farmers' varieties? Moral recognition for owners/maintainers  Farmers who take up these varieties  Opportunity for built-in benefit-sharing mechanism 16 16 3 Alternative mechanisms for quality assurance of farmers' varieties  Suggested that only 4 to 5 morphological parameters be considered in identification of farmers' varieties  Recommended verification of farmers' descriptors for one season by the regulator at the farmers' fields  Define minimum quality standards for seed of farmers' varieties  Relax the formal system to make it work for farmers by reducing costs for registration with the regulator, inspection costs, etc.4Framework/structure for registering farmers' varieties Two mechanisms proposed:  Option 1: Adoption of existing but relaxed framework for national variety evaluation and release o Create flexibility without requiring the submission of strict DUS dossiers/descriptors, which most farmers do not have o Provide the basis for allowing acceptable seed-quality parameters such as QDS, truthful labeling, etc. o Emphasize unique combination of variety attributes preferred by farmers in a particular community/region/agroecological zone  Option 2: Adapting the provisions of the ITPGRFA (Article 9 of which recognizes farmers' rights to save, use, exchange and sell farm-saved seed and propagating material, subject to national law and as appropriate) to the country level o Basis for providing a framework for conservation, access, utilization and benefit sharing of all PGRFA at international and country level.Key issues/comments from first group workThe response received from group work raised additional issues, which are summarized in table 3.Group Key issues/comments 1  Do obsolete varieties qualify as farmers' varieties? Some landraces are not landraces in reality! Response: Only if justified to be significantly different from the original variety through DUS testing.  Can different communities register the same variety?Response: Co-ownership is provided for in the ITPGRFA. Solutions to ownership rights should be guided by the ITPGRFA. There are also provisions for protection of communities. The system for registration of farmers' varieties in most countries is not well establishedunethical individuals/institutions could hijack the process and register farmers' varieties. o There is a need for formal criteria with safeguards to avoid misappropriation and deletion of farmers' varieties. o Cooperatives/societies/associations should be strengthened to register farmers' varieties. o Conflicts of ownership should be guarded against and conflict resolution under the law should be considered.  Formal criteria are needed to link community seed banks/farmers (owners) with national genebanks. Consider self-certification (truthfully labeled) or delegation of seed certification of farmers' varieties as mechanisms to reduce costs.  Focus on building the capacity of farmers to ensure self-regulation through strengthening internal quality-control mechanisms or building local capacities for seed-quality assurance. Coverage of options for the registration of farmers' varieties should initially be limited to application at the national and sub-national level because most farmers' varieties are specific to local farm conditions.  Harmonization across countries and regional economic blocs such as COMESA, SADC, ECOWAS and the East African Community (EAC) can be done later once countries have advanced in employing the options. Remarks by the Hon. Francis GonahasaThe Hon. Gonahasa started his remarks by quoting the key messages he learnt from this workshop: \"Without seed sovereignty, we can't have food security. The harvest is in the seed.\"Uganda is well positioned to feed the region but needs to exploit its potential by taking advantage of its agroecological situation. He thanked the organizers for holding the meeting in Uganda and the international participants for sharing their very interesting and useful experiences. This workshop has contributed tremendously to the process that will guide the different countries in developing internal mechanisms for registering farmers' varieties. He noted that as a legislator, this workshop has empowered him to advocate for farmers' rights from an informed point of view. He promised to include seed issues in the alternative agriculture policy statements published by his office annually, and he requested that stakeholders involve legislators as much as possible in these very useful discussions on important issues in the seed sector. This will help them to legislate better. He welcomed the Minister to give his speech and officially close the workshop.Closing speech by the Minister of Agriculture, Animal Industry andThe Minister was represented by the Director General of NARO, who read his speech. The Minister sent his apologies and thanked OXFAM, NARO, Bioversity International and ISSD Uganda for convening this workshop. He particularly thanked Bioversity international for the tremendous support, knowledge and partnerships at local, national, regional and international levels in the area of advocacy for farmers' rights and conservation, as well as utilization of genetic materials. He also thanked ISSD for the collaboration with MAAIF and NARO in supporting community-based seed production, and farmers for the excellent work in biodiversity management. He welcomed international participants to Uganda and encouraged them not to leave without exploring the \"Pearl of Africa.\" From the various experiences shared, this workshop justified the need for farmers' varieties. He noted that the government crop priorities exclude the most important crops grown by farmers, and he acknowledged the genetic biodiversity that Uganda has. Because of this, the Ministry will fast-track the recommendations of this workshop to ensure that this biodiversity is appropriately managed and utilized. MAAIF has undertaken measures to create an environment that is favourable for the informal seed system. For example, the National Seed Policy (2018) provides for strategic support toward development of the informal seed system and further pledges support toward registration of farmers' varieties. The Minister concluded his remarks by wishing participants journey mercies and officially closed the workshop.The event attracted media coverage from some of Uganda's leading television stations.  ","tokenCount":"3540"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9d4162921f63fd7baf6a0379d139845d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/4ec079f0-58a5-41c1-a95c-d2a6b8ac33c9/content","id":"-616852918"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a9d02b1f-354f-4d98-a943-9b40e8ab1a8e","pagecount":"35","content":"Mexico. These samples were grown in a number of different countries under various ecological conditions.Trltlcale Protelns 1   Ev ANGELINA VILLEGAS/ C. E. McDoNALn,' 1 K. A. GILLES ' 1   Undernutrition and malnutrition are currently widespread in many areas of the world. The most serious nutritional problem is protein-calorie malnutrition among children in the developing countries. ( 5,24).There now exists a world shortage in production of animal proteins, which are superior in nutritional quality to plant proteins. Animal production can be expanded neither easily nor rapidly to overcome the deficit. The magnitude of the imbalance between production and need for animal protein will become worse as world population increases. It is anticipated that more and more of the world's need for protein will have to be supplied by the plant proteins, as is already the case among low income groups in many densely populated areas of the world.The total current world protein consumption is estimated to be 120 million metric tons ( 14 ). Of this total, only 30,000,000 metric tons or 25 percent is supplied from animal proteins. The remainder, 90,000,000 metric tons or 75 percent, is plant proteins.Cereals, the principal source of plant protein, represent 60 percent of the world protein supply ( 14). Unfortunately, cereal proteins are deficient in several amino acids that are required by man for proper growth.Nutritional qualities of a protein are determined by the amount and the kind of amino acids which become available to the animal organism during digestion. Cereal proteins are lower in nutritional value than animal proteins. Their lower nutritive value results from a poor balance of essential amino acids. The most limiting essential amino acid is lysine ( 2,4,8,12).In recent years an ever increasing number of food supplements have been developed ( 5,6,24 ) , which can be used to improve the diets in many underdeveloped countries. Unfortunately, these improvements seldom reach the rural people, who generally constitute from 75 to 90 percent of the total population in such countries, and it is among this sector of the population where the worst nutritional problem exists. Doubtless, this situation could be improved markedly if cereals having improved amino acid balance could be made available.In 1964, the mutant gene of corn, opaque-2, was reported to be associated with an increase in the lysine content of corn protein ( 13 ). More recently a second mutant gene, floury-2, also has been shown to affect the amino acid pattern of corn protein ( 18).These discoveries stimulated genetic biochemical research to find other cereal varieties or mutants with genes for high lysine content.Improving the amino acid balance in the protein of small grains through genetic manipulation has been handicapped by inadequate and time consuming analytical methods for analyzing a large number of samples.At present, all methods used for total lysine determination in proteins require previous hydrolysis.The chemical analysis for lysine in protein hydrolysates using ion-exchange chromatography ( 15, 16, 17) has been found to be the most reliable ~md rapid procedure. Automatic recording devices have opened the way to the routine analyses of protein hydrolysates. The main advantages of the method are: 1) reproducibility, 2) accuracy and 3) automation.In the present study, lysine variability was investigated among species and varieties of wheat, rye, Triticale and wheat amphiploids. Concurrently with the survey of lysine variability in the above mentioned cereals, a triplicate sample method was developed for the determination of lysine by ion-exchange chromatography on an automated amino acid analyzer. MATERIALS D,L-histidine and D,L-lysine used were purchased from Nutritional Biochemical Corporation. An amino acid calibration mixture was obtained from Beckman Instrument, Inc. L-lysine monohydrochloride M. A. Grade which was used as a standard for the lysine analysis was obtained from Mann Research Laboratories, Inc. C. Triticum species: Sixty-four samples of, diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species were supplied by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, World Collection of small grains. They were grown in 1964 at Aberdeen, Idaho. Another 26 samples of Triticum species, including 6 amphiploids, were grown at Fargo, North Dakota in 1964.A collection of 125 varieties and species of Secale was supplied by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in Mexico City, Beckman Model 120 B amino acid analyzer was packed to a height of 6 cm with Beckman spherical resin type AA-27 in early work. A single sample was analyzed for basic amino acids.2. A method for triplicate lysine analysis in cereal protein hydrolysates was developed in this study. Stefanye and Spero ( 28 ) first used a replicate-sample method for analysis of simple mixture of acidic and neutral amino acids in 1964.The Benson and Patterson accelerated method for basic amino acids was modified in this study by changing the type of resin for one of different particle size, length of the resin bed, pH and ionic strength of the citrate huffer, and column temperature.Triplicate lysine analyses of cereal hydrolysates were done using this modified procedure. This method gave similar results as compared with those obtained by the Benson and Patterson method for a single sample. Therefore, because of its advantages the triplicate method was used during this study. The working conditions of both methods are listed in Table 1. The sodium citrate buffer 0.2N, pH 5.10 was prepared in the same way as described by Benson and Patterson ( 3), but the amounts of sodium citrate and hydrochloric acid were reduced in order to get the desired sodium concentration and pH as shown in Table 2. In the triplicate-sample method, one sample aliquot of 1 ml is applied to the column. The sample is pushed into the resin with nitrogen p~essure of 30 p.s.i. The column walls are washed thrice with 0.2 ml portions of buffer ( 0.2N, pH 5.10), which also are pushed into the resin with nitrogen pressure. Addition of sample and wash with buffer require approximately 8.5 min. Thereafter, the buffer is pumped through the column ~.r 3.6 min. at 130 p.s.i. with a flow rate of 68 ml per hr. The pump is• then stopped; the column is opened and another sample is applied. After the third sample is added and the column walls washed, the ninhydrin pump is started. Buffer and ninhydrin are introduced into •the coil and the recorder is turned on.The lysine in each sample appears on the chromatogram as a separate peak without overlapping. The histidine which has been slowed in, the elution comes under the ammonia peGk. The first lysine peak appears on the chromatogram in approximately 44 min.; the third lysine peak is completed on the chromatogram at 57 min. Then the analysis is stopped. Regeneration of the resin is made by pushing sodium hydroxide 0.2N through the column for a period of 7 min. with nitrogen pressure of 30 p.s.i. followed by equilibration with the 0.2N, pH 5.10 buffer for 25 min.The lysine content of the hydrolysates was calculated from the peak area using the height-width method ( 26) and standard L-lysine monohydrochloride solution ( 25 p.M per ml.).In the Benson and Patterson accelerated method for basic amino acids ( 3 ) the histidine peak emerges on the chromatogram immediately after the lysine peak ends. Under the conditions of the modified procedure, the histidine elution from the resin is delayed, and the corresponding peak on the chromatogram does not emerge immediately after lysine. The histidine peak appears to come under the ammonia peak. This procedure leaves enough room on the chromatogram for the additional lysine peaks when triplicate samples are applied to the column.The 0.35N, pH 5.28 sodium citrate buffer used by Benson and Patterson and column temperature of 55°C cause the histidine to be eluted centered between lysine and ammonia. The reduction of the pH to 5.10, the sodium concentration of the buffer to 0.2N, and the temperature from 55° to 40°C cause the histidine to change its position in the chromatogram. The use of the resin PA-35 gave better resolution. and sharper peaks than the resin AA-27, and provided an advantage in the triplicate method.When working under the modified conditions described above, and with a resin bed of 6 cm, good resolution of the 3 lysine peaks was obtained .. . . ., :-: . . ~ . : : \\ ! ! : .. . . ., . .... . •:: : .: \\} \\ : ..•\"• ~ r . . :; . . :\\.: :' :.••.•..,. . . .. ..Chromatogram obtained from three 1 ml. aliquots of the amino acid calibration mixture with lysine peak 1 from aliquot 1, peak 2 from aliquot 2, and peak 3 from aliquot 3.3rd peak became largely overlapped by the histidine and ammonia peak. This overlapping is thought to be due to the large amount of ammonia present. The high concentration of ammonia in wheat hydrolysates arises primarily from the cleavage during acid hydrolysis of amide groups of glutamine and asparagine. However, substantial amounts of ammonia may result from breakdown of certain amino acids, notably tryptophan, serine, and threonine. By changing the resin bed length to 9 cm, good resolution of the 3 lysine peaks was obtained with wheat hydrolysates, and the reproducibility cf the results was good. For example, 3 aliquots of 1 ml of a wheat hydrolysate analyzed by the triplicate method gave: 1) 0.173, 2) 0.176, and 3) 0.173 µM. of lysine per ml.The accuracy of the triplicate-sample method was checked by analyzing different amounts of a whole wheat hydrolysate which were all contained in a volume of 1 ml by appropriately diluting with pH 2.2, 0.2N sodium citrate buffer. The results are shown in Table 3, and the chromatogram of this analysis is shown in Figure 2. The amount of lysine that should have been in each replicate was calculated from the lysine value obtained for 1 ml of hydrolysate by the Benson and Patterson accelerated method. The amount of lysine found in each sample in the triplicate-sample analysis was from 97 to 100% of the calculated value. Good accuracy by the triplicate method was obtained also on whole wheat hydrolysate to which different amounts of pure lysine ( 0.5 µM. per ml of solution) were added. The results are shown in Table 4. The total lysine contained in each sample was that calculated from an analysis of 1 ml of the hydrolysate by the accelerated method plus the lysine added. The amount of lysine found in each sample was from 96 to 99% of the expected value.Reproducible results were also obtained in the triplicate-sample method when the buffer flow rate was increased from 68 ml to 80 ml per hr. (pump pressure 15 5 p.s.i. ) . Accuracy as well as resolution of the lysine peaks was maintained, and the analysis time was reduced approximately from 90 min. to 78 min. Analyses of 3 samples using the accelerated method of Benson and 'Patterson would take approximately 3 hr. The triplicate-sample method with a buffer flow rate of 68 ml per hr requires approximately 90 min. and at buffer flow rate of 80 ml per hr only 78 min. Table 5 shows results obtained of one hydrolysate using the two buffer flow rates.  The method used throughout this study was at a buffer flow rate of 68 ml per hr.During the course of this study, single analysis of each ;ample was made for lysine content and duplicate analysis for protein. The lysine content of durum wheat varieties and lines grown at North Dakota and Mexico were investigated.The results of analyses for protein and lysine content of 5 varieties of durum wheat grown at 3 locations in North Dakota in 1966 are given in Table 6. The protein content was relatively high in all the varieties at the 3 locations, but the samples from Fargo had a protein content somewhat lower than those from the other locations.It is customary in the literature to present the results as g. amino acid per 16 g. of nitrogen or in some cases as g. amino acid per 17.5 g. of nitrogen ( 20 ) which is equivalent to 100 g. of wheat protein. Expressing amino acids according to Orr and Watt ( 19) as amount per 1 g. of nitrogen affords the greatest ease of computation, but as yet this method has not been widely accepted ( 21 ) .In this study the lysine has been reported as percent of the protein, because the amino acid balance of the protein is most important nutritionally.The values for the lysine also are given as the percent of the dry sample weight, in order to show clearly that samples with high content of lysine but with low protein content would contribute less lysine than samples with high protein and low lysine in the protein. •Dry weight basis (N X 5.7).h Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.The results in Table 6 indicate that the lysine content of the protein varies little among varieties and in the same variety grown in the different locations. The lysine in percent of dry sample ,weight is higher in the varieties grown in Edgely, because the protein content in general was high.It has been reported previously ( 9,22,25 ) that in bread wheat an inverse relationship exists between the protein content of a sample and the lysine content of the protein up to about 14% of protein. Here, statistical analysis showed this inverse relationship• with durum wheat even though protein contents were considerably higher than 14%. The correlation coefficient ( r) obtained was -0.77 and highly significant.A group of lines and selected plants in a line, as well as one variety of r. turgidum and one variety of r. dicoccum (commonly used as progenitors) that were grown in the same location in 1965-1966, were analyzed to evaluate the variability in lysine content due to varietal difference. Data are shown in Table 7.The kernels from the lateral florets of the spikelets at the bottom and center of the spike were analyzed separately to determine the degree of variability in lysine content among kernels of a single spike. The results showed little variation in lysine content among kernels from the bottom and center of a spike. The small variability observed in some spikes was due to difference in the protein content of the kernels. The lysine percent of dry sample weight showed that the lysine content was maintained almost constant among the kernels at different sites of the spike.However, the lysine content among lines, and in some cases, even among selections of a given line was variable. Line RD-176 selection 2B had a relatively high amount of lysine and a high content of protein. The percent of lysine in protein of selection 7 A was only slightly higher than that of selection 2B, but the protein content was much lower. The same pattern was observed in other selections of lines. The correlation coefficient for the relationship between lysine content and protein level was -0.33 and not significant.The lysine content of the progenitor varieties Khapli ( T. dicoccum) and Barrigon Yaqui ( T. turgidum) was at the same level as that showed by the durum wheats. hDry weight basis (N X 5.7).c Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.Two groups of varieties of spring wheat, one grown in Mexico in 1965, and the other in North Dakota in 1966, were analyzed for lysine content in order to evaluate varietal differences.The results of analysis of 5 varieties of hard red spring wheat grown at two locations in North Dakota are given in Table 8. The .. Jysine contents of these varieties were quite similar. Even though the protein content of the varieties was different in the two locations the lysine level in the protein remained almost constant. The variety Selkirk showed the lowest protein and lysine content. The relation of the lysine content of the protein to the protein level gave a correlation coefficient of -0.4 and not significant. This low correlation may have been due to the high protein level of all the samples. The influence of date of planting and chronology of spike development on the lysine of several varieties of bread wheat grown at Chapingo, Mexico, is shown in Table 9. Kernels from different sites of the primary, secondary, and tertiary spikes were analyzed. In general, the lysine content was more variable among spikes in the first date of planting than in the second. The protein content of the grain was highly variable for the first planting date, and may have caused this variability of the lysine content. This variability may be influence by riitrate and moisture availability, or the temperature during the time of grain formation. The variation in lysine was greater among the primary, secondary and tertiary spike, than among the kernels from different sites of a given spike. The variety Lerma Rojo showed higher variation in the lysine content among kernels from different spikes than the other varieties. The varietal differences in the lysine content were low, not over 0.5%, and can not be considered significant. •Dry weight basis (N X 5.7).•Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.It has been reported that soft endosperm portions of the wheat kernel have less total nitrogen but a greater amount of the basic amino acids than the hard endosperm portion ( 11 ) . Soft endosperm wheats can be expected to contain higher percentages of the water soluble proteins than the hard wheats, with concomitant higher lysine levels in the total protein. However, the protein of the soft endosperm varieties Lerma Rojo, Narifio, and 81% showed lysine contents similar to those obtained from the hard endosperm wheats. The soft endosperm wheats had an unusually high protein level due to nitrogen fertilization. A highly significant inverse relationship between lysine content of the protein and protein level was observed ( r = -0 .68).Small groups of different species of T riticum were investigated to determine if any among them might contain protein with high lysine content.Table 10 shows the protein and lysine contents of different samples of diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid species of Triticum. Variability in the lysine content of these samples is evident. The protein content ranged from 9.96 to 27 .00% (dry weight basis) and the lysine of the protein from 2.09 to 3.99%. The negative correlation between the protein content and the lysine level in the protein was highly significant (r = -0.41 ).Lawrence et al. ( 9) reported that T. pyramid.ale, T. sphaerococcum, and T. persicum were the species that have high lysine content 'among the species analyzed. The lysine values of these species obtained in the present work are similar to those reported by them, except for the T. sphaerococcum where lower values were obtained here. No analysis of T. boeticum was reported by these workers.In the present study the species, T. boeticum, was an outstanding group.The high values for lysine in percent of dry sample were due to both high lysine in the protein and high protein content.A group of samples of different species of Triticum, grown at Fargo, North Dakota in 1964 was analyzed also and the results are given in Table 11. Only slight variations were observed in the lysine content of these samples, even though large variations were observed in the protein content. The protein content ranged from 12.04 to 28.16% (dry weight basis), and averaged 18.46%. The lysine content of the protein varied from 2.30 to 3.05% and averaged 2.60%.  The varieties Larionowii and Pancii of the species, T. boeticum had lower lysine content than samples of this species showed in Table 10. This difference may be due to varietal difference or the effect of environment. Reliable comparisons cannot be made among these two groups of samples because the varieties of the different species were not the same and they were grown at two different locations.The lysine values of the T. pyramidale reported in Table 11 are also lower than those shown in Table 10, and the one reported by Lawrence et al.Rye belongs to the genus Secale which is closely related to Triticum. It is known that rye has better protein quality from the nutritional standpoint than wheat ( 8).. A group of varieties and species of Secale were investigated to determine their variability in the lysine content. The results obtaind from these analyses are shown in Table 12. High variability in lysine content and protein level was apparent in these samples. The protein content ranged from 7.17 to 20.6% (dry weight basis) and averaged 13.)4%. The lysine content varied from 2.42 to 4.26% of protein and averaged 3.72%.In general, the lysine content of rye has been reported to be higher than that of wheat ( 4 ). Rohrlich and Rasmus in 1956 ( 23) compared the germ, aleurone and endosperm proteins of rye and wheat. These workers used a tetraploid rye, and did not find qualitative differences between the amino acids of the germ and of the aleurone of wheat and rye, but they noted that the wheat endosperm was lower in arginine and lysine than that of rye endosperm. , • Place where these samples were grown is unknown, with exception of the last four, which were grown at Chapingo, Mexico, 1965. b Dry weight basis (N X 6.25).• Lysine expressed as % of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.From data presented here, it is evident that rye protein is richer in lysine• than wheat protein, and that high variability among samples exists in the lysine level. It is impossible to state whether this variability is varietal or mainly environmental, because the samples were grown in many different parts of the world.. As in wheat, the protein content of rye showed an inverse relationship with the lysine level in the protein, and the negative correlation existed over the entire protein range ( 7.17 -20.6% ). The correlation coefficient was -0.70 and highly significant.The new, man-made amphiploid cereal, Triticale, is a potentially important food crop. Triticale ( hexaploid) is similar to bread wheat in that two thirds of its make-up is tetraploid wheat, but differs in that the other one-third is rye ( Secale spp.) instead of goat grass ( Aegilops squarrosa).Studies from the University of Manitoba have shown that the Triticale from durum wheat •and rye has a high yield potential. Tests on quality have indicated that the Triticale has a high protein content but poor baking quality. Acceptable loaf volume can be produced when the Triticale flour is blended with flour from a hard red spring wheat.Because of these factors it was interesting to investigate the lysine level and variability of the Triticale protein.A group of different lines of hexaploid and octaploid Triticales developed by a group of workers of the University of Manitoba, and grown at Ciudad Obregon, Sonora, Mexico, was investigated. In some cases the primary, secondary and tertiary spikes of differerit selections were analyzed, in other cases only one or two spikes. The results are given in Table 13.The protein content of these samples ranged from 11.76 to 22.50% (dry weight basis). The lysine content of the protein varied from 2.55 to 3.74%. 'The averages were 17.48% protein and 3.24% lysine in the protein. In general, the protein level of the samples was high with little variation in the lysine content.Fox and De Fontaine in 1956 ( 7) reported that the total lysine content of one T riticale analyzed by them was between the rye and wheat parent. In the present study, it is not possible to make a reliable comparison between the lysine content in the protein of durum wheat, rye and Triticale, because the durum wheat and rye progenitors used in the development of these lines were not analyzed. However, comparisons of the durum wheats and ryes analyzed in this study indicated that the lysine content of Triticale protein was generally higher than that of wheat protein, and somewhat lower than that of rye protein. The lysine level of Triticale analyzed in this study was similar to that reported by Lebedeva in 1965 ( 10) which only showed value of one sample analyzed.An inverse relationship between lysine content and protein level was found also in Triticale. The correlation coefficient obtained was -0.52 and highly significant.To achieve genetic improvement of protein content and nutritional quality in cereal crops, a wide genetic base should be examined for lysine content in each species. The high lysine character, if found, should be incorporated into varieties or lines with high protein and high yield.The present study includes more than 400 lysine evaluations, however, the number of varieties or species investigated was reduced greatly because in the earlier part of the work the number of analyses for each sample was multiplied when analyzing kernels from different sites on the spike and different spikes of a given variety. • Number corresponds to plant selected, A = primary spike, B = secondary spike.•Dry weight basis (N X 5.7). •• Lysine expressed as 96 of protein and of sample on dry weight basis.Among the varieties and lines of durum wheat analyzed, only the line RD 176 -7A showed a lysine content in the protein of 3.4% (average), with a protein content of 11.03% (average).In the bread wheats, 5 varieties of hard red spring wheat and 3 varieties of soft red spring wheat (from Mexico) were analyzed. The highest lysine value obtained was that showed by the variety Lerma Rojo with an average of 3.03% of lysine in the protein with an average protein content of 14.12%.Among the 16 different species of Triticum, 83 varieties were examined. From the 7 varieties of the T. boeticum (diploid), 5 varieties high in protein were high in lysine. The protein content ranged from 19.40 to 24.46% (average 22.25% ). The lysine content in the protein ranged from 3.05 to 3.50% (average 3.17% ).Five varieties of the tetraploid T. pyramidale showed higher lysine values in the protein (3 .28 to 3 .59 % , average 3 .41 % ) than the varieties of T. boeticum. However, the protein contents were lower ( 11.80 to 13.36%, average 12.49% ).The protein of the hexaploids T. sphaerococcum, T. spelta, T. macha, T. vavilovii, and T. zhukovuskyi, contained lysine levels similar to those showed by the bread wheats.The group of 125 varieties and species of Secale had protein with high lysine content, except for 13 samples with lysine content below 3.0%. The protein content of this group varied greatly (7.17 -20.6% ), while the lysine content varied in the protein (2.42 -4.26% ).Among the 70 samples of Triticale only 14 samples were found with a lysine content in protein below 3.0%. Some of these are octaploid Triticales in which the wheat progenitor was the hexaploid Mayo 64.Lines of the different wheats, ryes and Triticales showing a protein content over 12% combined with high lysine content are shown in Table 14. Samples showing over 4.0% lysine in protein were found only among ryes; however, these haa low protein content, as shown in Table 15.Lines indicated in Tables 14 and 15, may be considered potentially valuable as parental material for breeding programs. However, it should be demonstrated first that the high lysine level of these lines is controlled by a genetic factor. Therefore, they must be tested again after being grown under different environmental conditions which will affect the protein content of the samples.   ","tokenCount":"4551"}

data/part_1/0478362433.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fa9d2fb4b1f2666ab592bac5783b2e4f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4ce67ace-a440-4efb-835c-2e02db6ba87a/retrieve","id":"-1404093154"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f2ced46e-0919-4dcd-ba62-4a02d3703a68","pagecount":"1","content":"Con la incorporación de forrajes mejorados a los sistemas ganaderos, estos podrían contribuir como sumideros, dependiendo del manejo y características edafoclimáticas, factor importante en los flujos de GEI.Las actividades agropecuarias se han asociado con el incremento de óxido nitroso hacia la atmósfera, ya que las prácticas de manejo (Fertilización y mecanización) contribuyen con la dinámica del nitrógeno, incrementando la emisión de este en forma de oxido de nitrógeno (N 2 O) y limitando el almacenamiento de metano ( CH 4 ). Sin embargo, los sistemas agropecuarios se han constituido en sumideros de gases efecto invernadero (GEI), dependiendo del manejo que se dé a estos.Estimar las emisiones de CH 4 , N 2 O y CO 2 , con el fin de establecer estrategias de manejo en pro de la mitigación y adaptación al cambio climático. El trabajo, presenta resultados del \"Estudio de emisión de gases efecto invernadero y captura de carbono en sistemas de pequeños y medianos productores de carne en los municipios Patía y Mercaderes, Cauca.\", el cual se desarrolla en el marco del programa de investigación \"Desarrollo y uso de recursos forrajeros en sistemas sostenibles de producción bovina para el Departamento del Cauca\" financiado por el Sistema Nacional de Regalías, ejecutado por la Gobernación del Cauca y operado por la Universidad del Cauca, el Programa de forrajes tropicales del CIAT y las asociaciones de productores ASOGAMER y COAGROUSUARIOS.Este trabajo está alineado al programa de investigación del CGIAR en cambio climático, agricultura y seguridad alimentaria (CCAFS). ","tokenCount":"247"}

data/part_1/0481911032.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"29fbedb634920610e57547cca287d859","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/efef5173-2630-40a5-98c6-46cb086d0cee/retrieve","id":"-1241470466"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"59cbce45-7aea-45da-83ae-5dc269f09429","pagecount":"4","content":"Food safety standards require the implementation of specific standards from production-to-consumption. The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) is now a widely accepted methodology in risk analysis for industrially processed foods. The application of HACCP is a bigger challenge in developing countries where food market channels are less formal.. This study adapted a HACCP methodology to assess health risks at different points in the informal milk marketing network. Key critical control points identified for high total bacterial counts were channels with multiple transaction points which took considerable time from the farm without refrigeration facilities. High coliform counts were associated with the use of plastic versus metal containers. Approximately 13% of samples were adulterated with added water. Recommendations for procedures to improve milk quality and how these can be communicated to farmers, market agents and consumers are proposed and discussed.Milk safety has been debated in Kenya but without much quantitative information for over a decade. This has been especially so since milk market liberalisation in 1992 which was followed by a dramatic increase in raw milk sales in urban areas. As with all food safety standards worldwide, milk safety requires monitoring from production-to-consumption. The Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) process, recommended by FAO/WHO (1998), is now a widely accepted methodology in risk analysis for industrially processed foods. HACCP identifies the points in a process that are hazardous, their risk factors and potential level of risk so that \"critical control points\" for remedial action can be implemented. Controls are specific actions taken to prevent health risks. The application of HACCP is a major challenge in developing countries where food markets are mostly informal. Market channels for milk range from direct sales of liquid milk or processed dairy products from producers to consumers, to a long chain involving combinations of private traders on bicycle, public or private transport, milk bars and kiosks, dairy farmer groups, small-scale and industrial processors. About 88% of marketed milk in Kenya is sold unprocessed, outside regulated channels. This paper attempts to adapt a HACCP methodology to assess health risks at different points in the informal dairy marketing network in Kenya.Between March and May 1999, 162 raw milk traders of various cadres were identified and their milk handling practises studied. Traders were selected in a random sample, stratified on proximity to consumers (Nairobi) and producers (Kiambu). Milk handling practices for each trader were both observed and recorded on a questionnaire. Questions included milk procurement (source, time of collection, distance travelled, quality control procedures, type of handling vessels, bulking (mixing of milk from different sources), mode of transport and prices paid); milk handling (time to re-sale, storage, method of cleaning, water source); milk sale (type of buyers, quantities sold, packaging, prices received); and hygiene of premises and personnel. In addition, variable and fixed costs were estimated. One or more milk samples were collected at retail points in sterile tubes from each market agent and total and coliform bacteria in the milk counted using the Standard Plate Count method. Boiling and adulteration of sampled milk were also investigated by the peroxidase test and lactometer, respectively. Bacterial counts were estimated for 80 pasteurised milk samples, purchased from retail shops and tested on the last day of expiry.Two strategies were used to identify critical points (CPs) that were associated with high total and coliform counts in raw milk. The first was descriptive, to define dummy variables for all potential CPs (combinations of sources of milk and agent) and estimate statistics for each CP or group of CPs. These included the calculation of proportions with counts above national standards and the plotting of bacterial counts versus time since collection for each CP to visually assess trends. The second strategy was to include all potential CPs and milk procurement, handling and sale variables in stepwise regression models of the logarithm of total and coliform bacterial counts as dependent variables in the Proc REG procedure (p<0.05 for entry and retention) in SAS. Time since collection of milk was forced into all final models.About 75% of milk samples were collected within two hours of their receipt by traders. Market points with one or more intermediate steps comprised 41% of samples collected. Direct sales occurred between producers and dairy co-ops (20%), hawkers (15%), milk-/snack-bar (13%) and kiosks/shops (12%). Bacterial counts were high (Table 1). At this early point in the retail chain, 58% and 82% of raw milk samples did not meet national standards for coliform and total bacterial counts, respectively (Figure 1). Interestingly, 70% of pasteurised samples did not meet national standards for bacterial counts. Approx. 13% of samples were adulterated with water.Complete data for the regression analysis were obtained for 103 samples. Two market channel types (retail agents other than dairy co-ops and multiple selling steps) and three risk factors: scooping of milk, higher milk temperature and piped water were associated with higher coliform counts (the three risk factors were also associated with higher total bacterial counts) (Table 2). Using both complete and incomplete data records (154 samples), high coliform counts were also associated with the use of plastic versus metal containers (p=0.03). Time in the market chain and distance to retail points showed no significant association with bacterial counts (p>0.05).   The generally high bacterial counts and lack of association with time suggest that most bacterial growth occurred before the first transaction. Given a previous finding that milk sampled fromfarms had low bacterial counts (Ombui et al., 1994), we hypothesize the existence of one (or more) CP(s) between farm and milk market agent. There are numerous possibilities (e.g. time held on farm, bulking), which deserve further investigation. Association of piped water source with higher counts was unexpected and may reflect a relative shortage of water from piped sources. Better milk quality from dairy co-ops is likely due to higher hygiene standards (mainly testing for adulteration, use of aluminium containers and chilling equipment). Otherwise, most milk samples were not chilled and the high bacterial counts (both raw and pasteurised) can be partly attributed to the general lack of a cold chain. One option is the adoption of the lactoperoxidase system (LPS) for milk preservation (see FAO Internet Home Page). However, the widespread adoption of LPS will require its widespread acceptance by national policy makers. The majority of milk that currently reaches consumers, both from informal and formal agents, is below Kenyan national standards. Thus, the boiling of milk, now done by virtually all consumers of marketed milk, should continue to be encouraged. This study shows that some practices of informal market agents, such as scooping of milk and use of plastic containers, could be improved by extension and training. Since bacterial counts were already high on reaching the informal market agents, we will focus on studies to investigate potential CPs on-farm and between farm and market agent. Given the low common practice of boiling, the public health risks from informally marketed milk appear low when compared to the substantial socioeconomic benefits obtained from this system.","tokenCount":"1159"}

data/part_1/0495223927.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c906f0846760e23f02e5106eeb79d889","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3d9af067-6f1f-4fda-96af-9ecf019cdae7/retrieve","id":"791376810"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3601792b-d156-4db2-a79e-8f67c503414e","pagecount":"11","content":"The launch of national report on \"Evaluating Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems: Evidence from India\" was organized on 23 January 2024 in Delhi, India. This was under the aegis of CGIAR Initiative on National Policies and Strategies (NPS) which focuses on building policy coherence and integrating policy tools at national and subnational levels in eight countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Under this initiative, the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) have researched the policy landscape at the national level in India for the food, land, and water (FLW) systems. NITI Aayog, the apex public policy think tank of the Government of India, has guided this research. The study offers key evidence-based recommendations for enhancing policy coherence.The importance of policy coherence in strengthening the means of implementation and revitalizing the global partnership for sustainable development is a core focus of the SDG 17. Policy coherence aims to identify synergies between policies, as well as the unintended consequences that may hamper the impact policy aims to create.The collaborative national level study was on developing a methodological framework on understanding policy coherence in the FLW sectors at the national level. It involved the creation of a database of centrallevel policies encompassing the FLW systems. This resulted in the selection of 60 policies from 12 ministries. From this, seven policies were selected for in-depth analysis through predefined criteria. These policies were Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana -Per Drop More Crop (RKVK -PDMC), Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH), Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana -Watershed Development Component (PMKSY -WDC 2.0),Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), National Mission for Clean Ganga -Namami Gange Programme (NMCG -NGP) and Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY). The in-depth analysis was conducted through a consultative approach to gather insights on policy coherence in India's food, land, and water systems. The findings were validated through a national-level consultation workshop organized in June 2023.The launch of the national report was attended by experts from government departments and civil society organizations. During the event, the organizers and authors shared key recommendations from the study with the attendees. This was followed by a panel discussion that initiated deliberations on critical challenges aimed at strengthening policy coherence across various sectors.Dr Sikka welcomed participants on behalf of IWMI and CEEW. He provided a brief introduction about IWMI and stated that the policy coherence report is a joint initiative of IWMI and CEEW. He reflected on the multi-stakeholder consultation meeting co-organized by CEEW and IWMI in June 2023, where Ms. Debashree Mukherjee, Secretary, Ministry of Jal Shakti shared her valuable thoughts on the methodology and initial findings emerging from the study. Building on these suggestions, the report aims to address the issue at the intersection of food, land and water policies. Dr. Sikka mentioned that coherent and convergent policies and programs are crucial for tackling complex challenges common to food, land, and water which are the central focus of the report. Its launch today marks the importance of evaluating policy coherence and laying emphasis on the key learnings and best practices from the case of India that can be relevant in the context of other countries from the Global South. This collaboration between IWMI and CEEW is important for delving deeper into this aspect.Dr. Sikka also highlighted the discussions around the importance of convergence, which is an important element of policy coherence. This began as early as 1998 with the convergence of watershed activities, followed by the convergence of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) with Integrated Water Management Programme (IWMP), and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) (Agriculture Science Centres). This report comprises the analysis of such convergence within a wider context.Following the welcome remarks by Dr. Sikka, Mr Bassi introduced the national report titled \"Evaluating Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems: Evidence from India\". He elaborated on policy coherence as a key focus area of the sustainable water program at CEEW. He also highlighted the importance of collaboration and partnerships for sustainable development and emphasized the consultative process, with the participation of government officials, practitioners from civil society organizations, and researchers, through which policy coherence is understood.Mr Bassi also shared the importance of deep-dives into state level policy coherence and the ongoing efforts of the team to carry out this analysis in two selected states -Odisha, and Rajasthan. He also shared the successful state-level multi-stakeholder consultation held in Odisha in December 2023 under the guidance of the Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Empowerment, Government of Odisha. Shri. Yugal Joshi emphasized the importance of making policies and programs a responsibility of everyone with the inclusion of citizens' participation citing the important case of the Swachhata (literal translation in English is 'cleanliness') Mission in India. With people's participation, we can understand how government policies and programs are affecting the people, in conjunction with important environmental aspects of air, food, water and land.He further reflected on the importance of studying the overall impact of these policies and programs, and the core problem of how we tend to think narrowly about the domain we work in. This needs attention because narrow thinking can result in issues like environmental pollution. Decisions and actions can have unintended consequences which need to be researched. Further, with the introduction of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), environmental considerations have become more prominent. The real-time dashboards of the policies and programs of the Ministry and departments show the impact created and are a platform for informed governance.With the emphasis on these important areas, Mr Joshi mentioned that 'If we do not see convergence in these areas, we need to think about why and how to address it.' Referring to the national level study, he suggested that we need to research how to build more vertical and horizontal coherence in our policies, along with greater institutional coherence in policy implementation, integration of viewpoints from multistakeholders, and consideration of external factors that can affect policy actions and impacts.The IWMI-CEEW presentation offered an overview of Food, Land and Water policies in India. On behalf of the research team, Mr Archisman Mitra (Researcher, IWMI) and Ms Kangkanika Neog (Program Associate, CEEW) presented the study briefly, highlighting the problem statement and context, methodology, findings and recommendations.Ms Debashree Mukherjee (Secretary, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Ministry of Jal Shakti) shared her reflection on the study through a video message coordinated by Dr. Suparana Katyaini (Programme Lead, CEEW, and Ms. Tejaswi Joshi, Consultant, CEEW). She expressed that the report offers important insights into the interactions between policies in India's food, land, and water systems. She also highlighted the national-level consultation held in June 2023 to discuss the study's key findings and proposed recommendations with the relevant stakeholders. The final recommendations could guide policymakers, researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders toward making meaningful contributions to coherent and effective governance of natural resources. Ms Mukherjee mentioned that two of the selected schemes -ABY and NMCG-NGPare anchored at the Ministry of Jal Shakti. She also talked about how the ministry is encouraged to work with different departments and ministries and is committed to sustainable development and management of water resources in India through an integrated approach. She then congratulated the research team from CEEW and IWMI for their commendable effort and for taking a consultative approach to understanding India's food, land, and water systems.The National Report on Evaluating Policy Coherence in Food, Land, and Water Systems: Evidence from India was launched by: NITI Aayog: Shri Yugal Joshi, Programme Director DW&S, Niti Aayog IWMI: Dr Alok Sikka, Mr Archisman Mitra, Ms Garima Taneja, Dr Suchiradipta Bhattacharjee, CEEW: Mr Nitin Bassi, Dr Suparana Katyaini, Ms Ekanksha Khanduja and Mr Shashwat Shukla Mr Bassi started the discussion by introducing the panelists and inviting each panelist to share their thoughts on the following:Shri Yugal Joshi, NITI Aayog cited examples from Singapore and India. He stated that Singapore, after independence in the 1960s, faced the challenge of transforming itself into a clean, green, and blue nation. They established a dedicated pollution management unit and ensured all government policies supported this goal.Recognizing the importance of water, they prioritized sustainable water resource management. The key takeaway is the coherence between air, water and land management. Unlike Singapore's top-down approach, India's Swachh Bharat Mission emphasizes inclusivity. The idea is for everyone to participate, with programs like Swachh Bharat Kosh encouraging ministries to integrate cleanliness into their budgets. By involving citizens through initiatives like Swachh Iconic Places and awareness campaigns, the mission aims to foster behavioral change. Women and children are given special focus, with programs like Jal Jeevan Mission involving them actively. All natural resources are limited, and sustainable living is crucial. While the Indian government, through Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate change, is taking steps, grassroots involvement is essential.on sustainable agriculture and community development? Please share emerging innovative mechanisms at the grassroots level that are leading to improvement in the governance of food, land, and water systems.Ms. Parijat Ghosh, PRADAN stated that their policy decisions are aligned, since Pradan works with small and marginal farmers, the findings from the report and the experience from the field really overlaps. The key role of village level collectives in governing Food, Land & Water (FLW) issues are highlighted. The village communities possess valuable historical knowledge that helps in sustainable practices. Deteriorating health often relates to unsustainable food practices. Promoting regenerative agriculture improves both soil and human health, reducing diabetes and anemia. Collaborative discussion and facilitation by village organizations like Gram Sabhas empower farmers to adopt sustainable practices (e.g. integrated pest management, women led FPOs for indigenous crops). Integrating the holistic view of nature held by Adivasi communities is crucial. Participation of women farmers should be increased. Also, engaging children in forest visits and encouraging them to record their learning promotes biodiversity awareness for future generations. The success of FLW sustainability lies in recognizing and harnessing the knowledge and leadership of village communities.agriculture systems in Odisha, please share approaches and practices which would be helpful for other states in India and other developing economies in the world as well.Dr Arabinda K Padee, Principal Secretary, Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Odisha, (sharing his views online coordinated by Dr Suparana Katyaini) emphasized achieving sustainable and climate-resilient food systems. He mentioned that in the past 60 years in Odisha, only three years have been free of extreme weather, while the other years experienced either floods or droughts. The frequency of dry spells is expected to increase in future, necessitating a shift in cropping areas. The Millet Mission, which began in 2017, is a success story that caters to a well-informed audience concerned about ecological footprints and nutritional content. The initiative also focuses on matters of equity and justice. Odisha, known for its participatory and inclusive approach, is recognized as a global model for promoting millets through the Odisha Millet Mission. A key policy lesson from this mission is the \"from fork to farm\" approach, which targets both rural and urban consumers and incentives agronomic practices for enhanced productivity. Climate-resilient practices have been prioritized in recent years as part of adaptation efforts. Procurement in millet schemes involves distribution through government channels, managed by self-help groups with transparent payment systems. The success of these initiatives depends on a strong institutional framework, with WASSAN serving as the program secretariat and collaborating with international and national research organizations. Promoting climate-resilient systems may sound simple, but in reality, requires careful planning and implementation. Dr Alok Sikka, Country Representative, IWMI, emphasized the importance of thinking beyond a specific sector, particularly when it comes to managing water resources. Water is more than just a source; it is a crucial enabler that connects with various sectors such as food and energy. Without proper connectivity between these sectors, effective water resource management becomes challenging. It is essential to consider the convergence of land and water, as they are intertwined and cannot be worked on separately. Community involvement, especially from vulnerable groups, is crucial for achieving convergence and coherence in natural resource management. Strong community involvement has been implemented in programs like ABY and PMKSY, highlighting the importance of inclusivity. Utilizing technology for monitoring and evaluation can strengthen systems like MIS and dashboards. Integrated knowledge management is key in packaging information based on the target audience, as seen in initiatives like Ganga Knowledge Centre. Inter-ministerial and inter departmental coordination is essential for addressing concerns across various sectors. Establishing multi-stakeholder platforms goes beyond government involvement and includes participation from the public, private sector actors, and others. Collaboration is necessary to address water resource management challenges effectively. Another study on fisheries consumption at the household level highlighted the need for increased consumption particularly in low and medium consuming states. Lack of consumption among lowincome households is attributed to limited purchasing power, while medium-income households are often unaware of the health benefits. High-income households face issues related to supply and quality. A combination of policies, including subsidies and a focus on nutritious and sustainable food consumption, is essential to strengthen the agricultural value chain and engage the private sector. The lack of skills in farm mechanization and awareness among farmers pose challenges that need to be addressed holistically. Efforts should be made to match skills acquisition with practical needs in the agricultural sector.6. What are two key priorities to realign governance for better coherence and sustainability in food, land and water systems, and how can they be enabled? (To all panelists)Key priorities emphasized by the panelists:• Going beyond anthropocentric mindsets to include all policy impacts on environmental health and biodiversity. • Measuring outcome and not just outputs for understanding convergence and adopting systems approach. • Engaging the community is crucial in the planning process, with focus on communitybased organizations and a systems approach required to identify key indicators. • Acknowledging the importance of coherence in implementation with a focus on integration of policy efforts where commonality in objectives exists. • Considering the best practices demonstrated existing at sub-national level in planning and revising the national policies.","tokenCount":"2341"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"be736cca56f1fd0d97a78b6143273a99","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/933c8c2d-b880-4ab2-9f5c-c903eefdbe46/retrieve","id":"166881128"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3892fc60-2b41-4f44-8e1c-5cb8286b9d23","pagecount":"7","content":"Within the CGIAR Resilient Cities Initiative, RUAF is applying an approach to food system monitoring frameworks and indicators that has been developed, tried and tested in a number of cities globally since 2016. This briefing document shares and explains previous work done by RUAF to develop tools for assessing and tracking food system transformation at both a city and city region level. The experience of conducing indicators work under Resilient Cities contributes to on-going development of the approach and will help inform future applications.The starting point was the City Region Food System 'parent' indicator framework (2018) that became the foundation on which the subsequent MUFPP, CRFS-Resilience and Green Cities indicator frameworks have been developed. These tools are aimed at people who are addressing food system change by working on food policy, strategy and governance using multi-stakeholder processes. These could be researchers, policy makers, local government staff and elected members, food businesses, civil society groups, not for profit organisations.RUAF has used the same design approach for each of the monitoring frameworks listed below although each one offers a different lens to work on food system transformation (see indicator focus notes). This means that they are complementary and to some extent contents can be combined by users. Each of the monitoring frameworks takes a food system approach and offers a 'menu of options' which should be selected and customised in relation to user priorities. The frameworks have been designed to support a participatory multi-stakeholder process over a period of time. The frameworks are multi-functional and can be used to support the development of food policy or strategy, to guide further in-depth research and analysis and to develop ways tracking progress towards desired outcomes. These frameworks have also been linked to SDG goals.RUAF has taken an outcomes approach to developing indicators, as explained in this diagram. There is a logical flow from left to right across the table.A city region food system (CRFS) encompasses the complex network of actors, processes and relationships that are involved in input supply and food production; storage, processing and manufacturing; wholesale and distribution; markets, catering and retail; consumption; and food loss and waste, in a given city region that includes a more or less concentrated urban centre and its surrounding peri-urban and rural hinterland. The CRFS approach reflects the multifunctional nature of the food system. It goes beyond value chains, looks beyond city limits and aims to support inclusive governance of food actors that connects national and local governments. The first phase of CRFS work (2015-2018) developed a toolkit to assess and plan sustainable city region food systems in a way that reflects the multifunctional nature of the food system.Date & status: Developed, trialled, and refined between 2015-2018 during the CRFS1 programme led by FAO & RUAF with the cities of Toronto, Medellin, Quito, Kitwe, Lusaka, Colombo and Utrecht.The CRFS indicator framework is a practical assessment and planning tool designed to help cities: (i) Assess the current status and performance of a CRFS on the basis of a set of performance indicators, following a whole-systems approach. (ii) Identify priority areas for action with clearly defined outcomes and ways of measuring change. (iii) Help with planning strategy and action to achieving the desired outcomes. (iv) Establish baselines and monitor changes resulting from (future) policy and programme implementation.Quick summary: Shaped around six sustainability areas that connect to components of the food system: social sustainability and equity (improved health and well-being); economic sustainability (increased local economic growth and decent jobs); environmental sustainability (improved stewardship of environmental resources); urban-rural integration (improved city region food supply); food governance (improved governance for sustainable food systems); reduced vulnerability and increased resilience. There are 210 possible indicators included in the full CRFS indicator framework. These relate to 9 overarching objectives, 21 desirable 'direction of travel' outcomes and 29 key issues to measure -all of which characterise a more sustainable and resilient city region food system with strong urban-rural linkages ('A Vision for City Region Food Systems', FAO & RUAF) 1 . Based on data gaps and needs and specific policy priorities identified in the CRFS Scan, each city region will need to identify the most appropriate indicators on which to collect data in the CRFS assessment.The focus is both urban and rural. Use of indicators helps to assemble information in response to 'big picture' questions about the longer-term sustainability and resilience of the city region food system and to plan prioritised actions. In addition to the usual practice of defining (or re-defining) indicators as part of action planning in order to monitor progress and assess impacts of interventions, in the CRFS process indicators are used to clarify where attention should be focused from the start.Date: Informed by the CRFS framework (above) and co-designed with cities and developed between 2016-2018. Implementation pilot project with the cities of Nairobi, Quito and Antananarivo in 2019. Over 80 signatory cities are starting to use this monitoring framework (source: MUFPP secretariat, Oct 2022) Purpose: The Milan Urban Food Policy Pact is an international agreement of Mayors, established in 2015 by the then Mayor of Milan. More than a declaration, it is a concrete working tool for cities. The MUFPP monitoring framework was requested by MUFPP signatory cities. It is designed to enable cities to track progress as they adopt the structured MUFPP approach to urban food system transformation and work on their own food policies and strategies. Indicator focus: The focus is on urban food systems. Cities commit to develop sustainable food systems that are inclusive, resilient, safe and diverse, that provide healthy and affordable food to all people in a human rights-based framework, that minimise waste and conserve biodiversity while adapting to and mitigating impacts of climate change. Most cities are currently using the framework to help identify baseline data with which to work in the future in order to track progress over time.Additional resources: Online practical handbook and resources to support cities in adopting their own monitoring frameworks. https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4181enDate & status: Developed, trialled, and refined during the second phase of the CRFS programme (2019)(2020)(2021)(2022)(2023). Piloted in five cities: Antananarivo (Madagascar); Colombo (Sri Lanka); Kigali (Rwanda); Tamale (Ghana) and Melbourne (Australia).Purpose: Based on the CRFS Sustainability Indicator Framework, the CRFS Resilience Indicator Framework is also a practical assessment and planning tool but designed specifically to help cities to assess resilience capacities and to multiple hazards with a focus on climate and stresses and pandemics, to guide further research that informs action planning. Following the development of action plans, new refined indicators should be agreed within a customised CRFS Resilience monitoring plan. The ultimate purpose is to support the building of resilient city region food systems.Quick summary: Shaped around food system nodes, this indicator framework helps to explore the specific needs of different parts of the food system in relation to building resilience capacities. These nodes are:• input supply and food production • food storage, processing and manufacturing • food wholesale and distribution • food markets, catering and retail • food consumption • food loss and wasteIn addition, the framework includes indicators on emergency food provisioning, food system governance and natural resources and ecosystem services (which are directly impacted by climate shocks and stresses and are intrinsic to the functioning of all other nodes). There are 150 possible indicators included in the CRFS Resilience Indicator Framework. These relate to 9 overarching objectives, 12 desirable 'direction of travel' outcomes and 79 key issues to measure -all of which together, characterise a more resilient city region food system.Indicator focus: Both urban and rural. Use of indicators helps to guide assessment, more in-depth research and thus assemble information in response to agreed priority areas that relate to the impacts of shocks and stresses and the need to develop resilience capacities. Effective actions can then be identified in response to clearly evidenced needs. In addition to the usual practice of defining (or re-defining) indicators as part of action planning in order to monitor progress and assess impacts of interventions, in the CRFS process indicators are used to clarify where attention should be focused from the start.Date: Draft developed by RUAF 2021-2022.Purpose: Designed to complement and add to the urban food system MUFPP monitoring framework in the areas of Urban Forestry and Greening, Urban Agriculture and Governance.Quick summary: FAO Green Cities Initiative encourages an integration of urban food systems work with urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) and with urban and peri-urban forestry (UPF). New indicators have been developed for UPA and UPF in consultation with leading cities that have been working on 'green urban integration' for several years. The new recommended actions and related indicators complement existing MUFPP urban food system indicators.The focus is on urban ecosystem protection, regeneration and integration -maximizing the provision of ecosystems goods and services; fostering sustainable and climate-resilient practices and technologies to improve local food production and management of urban forests and trees; and promoting sustainable urban and peri-urban development with inclusiveness and green and circular economy.(See related RUAF ppt slides that further explain these different monitoring frameworks.) ","tokenCount":"1497"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"118b87e0331515b6a9b539c0fb56d35c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/374a5eb2-8abf-47ae-b718-646ca3a366a5/retrieve","id":"-1030425779"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d3a935c0-3f02-43b9-83f6-2ff753235eb9","pagecount":"16","content":"n los agroecoslstemas clave de los trópicos. millones d,e famll!as se ~ __ /. encuentran atrapadas en un modestas ~ se está ag9tando, ráp!c'\\amen~e.circulo vicioso de pobreza y La pobreza en las zonas rurales dewadaCi6n de los recursos naturales. lnevltabJementll conduce a la EmptUadas'hacia tierras menos deslntegiac!ón social. Losmlembros, favorables para la agricultura. luchan de I¡i farirlI1a e:mlgran a los ,suburbios por consegulr su sustento en zonas ' urbanos donde,' en vez de ' earaclerlZadas por suelos lnf'értlies e oportunlclades, e;'cuentran máS Inestables. Para consegulr el pan y privaciones. Allí y en el campo. la suplir otras necesidades de 'sus' crlsis de los pobres contribuye a la familias, traJ:¡aJan hasta agoj:ar sus escalada de conflictos y descontento: parcelas 9abrennuevasti=s a la Los actuales conUletos en la zona ~ agricultura., desMcadenando así la 'Andina y en partes de ,Afrléacentral deforestación, la pérdida de la del sudeste de Asia estáR diversidad biológica, la emisión de ,drrect¡ur¡eIfterelaC\\Qn\"do!'l: iIJV~Piíadcro por la q¡¡:enÍadet ~espiré\\1 qe pobrc\",J(, negl'1lcJ ,]josqt~ J;(<l'<:gradacjón del suelo y Sin e¡nbargo. no son enos los úni....,Oo perdedores. En un mUndo Interdependientll., todos están afectado-=por el circulo vicioso -a través de las presiones que generan la ,~olenCia ~ y--la migración masiva hacia las zonas . urbanas; de laredu<¡ción'en la dlsponibllidad de agua limpia; de la pérdida de plantas que @J.W<!anel potenctal <le nuevo,\" alimentos y :. ' , 1.' ,', medictn\"\\>: y. eventualmen te. d~ los cambioj en el clima q,,1 pla,x',ta;,e,.. r . . OS patronea de manejo de la agricultura sea más competitiva en Indica,además, que ¡¡!lntegrar el;.!J... . . tierra agr!cola son el :resultado los mercados locales y mundl¡¡!es. mejOramiento de cultivos con la .. acumulado de decisiones y Una agricultura dinámica y sostenible 'Investigación en el man<tlo de los a.cClonea tomadas por millones de generará Ingresos y empleó, aYl.ldará a :recursos IUlturales, podemos lograr agricultores y por un rifunero satisfacer la necesidad de .comlda y de aún más para m(jorar el bienestar de , :relativamente pequeño de Individuos otros bienes de la población rural y la humanidad y preservar los que diseñan politicas y.estra. reglas de I urbana. y protegerá el legado de la agroecoslstemas del trópico. desarrollo. Nuestra mayor esperanza , naturaleza. de. romper el circulo Vicioso es ~frecerle .a \"\"tas personas \"~:mecan1smos más efectivos' y , fUllbienta1mente sanos paro que la •.' \" ',\",.~ \"0/ 4 1 ' ~~,':, Hacia .e$te fin .• el Centro internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIATl lleva acabo investigación en cinco aspectos 'intinlament~ relacionados:MeJoram.iento, de >cultivos -C(J.r;-SCl:.ración de la diversidad biológiL'2.ManeJe), df'_ plagar; y l,'nfertnedade-s ,,~'aH,j<'h'i Áüe(S\\Ú;'~Ci ,r ~'is~é\"íl1¡rS de    ,~ temor los agricultores es a las plagas y a las enfermedades, porque ponen en riesgo su seguridad alimentarla y sus Ingresos. En muchas partes (C$pedalmente en Afrtca al sur del Sáhara), la población rural está prácticamente Indefensa ante estas adversidades. En lugares donde los agricultores tienen disponibilidad de pestlcldas (como sucede en gran parte de América Latina), frecuentemente caen en el uso indiscriminado de pIagu1cldas, sobre todo en cultivos con un alto valor para los mercados domésticos o de exportación. La dependencia absoluta en estos productos químicos amenaza la salud de agricultores y de consumidores, envenena el ambiente e, b:6n1camente, puede empeorar el problema de las plagas. I!:l mejor antídoto para el temor de los agricultores es el conoClmlento -de la natoraleza de las, plagas y de las enfermedades y de las diversas medidas de control. Para desarrollar y difundir este cOnoClmlento, los científicos del CIAT, en colaboración con las institucIones nacionales, llevan a cabo Investigaclón en manejo Integrado de plagas (MIP). Este es un enfoque efectivo y ambientalmente sano que saca provecho de la combinaclón de diferentes priiciicas de control, con base en un entendimiento profundo del comportamiento y ecología de las plagas y las enfermedades.Loll especialistas en MIP del CIAT desarrollan alternativas, tales como germoplasrna genéticamente resistente y control biológico. Con estos componentes, los Investigadores y los agricultores pueden formular estrategias de MIP para su localidad. Para' hacer el proceso más eficiente, el Centro desarrolla métodos de Investlgacl6n pariictpatlva para los agricultores y promueve ésta y otras técnicas a través de proyectos regionales y mundiales. Los científicos del CIAT están explorando varias opciones que penn!tan a los agriCultores Intensillcar la producción agrícola. sin destruir los suelos de los agroecosIstemas marginales (ver recuadro en la página 12). Por ~emplo, los sistemas de cultivos-pasturas, especJahnente aquellos que Jncluy:en leguminosas forrajeras, aumentan la productiVidad del cultivo y del ganado, al tiempo que restauran la caJl.dad del suelo al Intenslftcar la actiVidad biolÓgica y mejorar su estructora fislca. En muchos casos, las variedades mejoradas y las nuevas agroempresas (en las que se procesan productos tropicales, agregándoles valor) son Vitales paia el fortalecimiento económlco eje los agricultores, tocentivo que los lleva a adoptar prácticas que regeneren los recursos natorales.En última Instancla, el desarrollo de sistemas de produccl6n sostenJbles es un reto local que requlere que los tovestlgadores y los agricultores dlseíien nuevas opctones para ambientes especificos. Para ayudarles , .... dedicado a la I/lvestlgaci6n y el desarrollo agrícolas. Su fortaleza ,depende ,no sólo de la excelencia de cada uno de sus miembros, sIPo de la energia que I/lvierten en esfuerzos conjuntos. Por tal razón, trabajamos arduamente para establecer vinculos con otras tnstitociones a través de la I/lvestigación colaboratiw. organlzada alrededor de proyectos especificos, Nuestro círculo cada vez más amplio de colegas I/leluye otros centros Internacionales, los tnstltutos nacionales de I/lvestlgacl6n, las universidades, las organJzaclones no gubernamentales y el sector privado. Trabajamos con ellos medIante una diversidad de acuerdos, tales como consorcios y redes, a nivel local, regional e Internacional. A través de alianzas estratégicas con Jos Institutos avanzados, hacemos que este valioso conocImIento científico se aplique a los retos más tmportantes de la agrtcultura tropical.Como un servicio a nuestros colegas, el Centro ofrece diversas opciones de capacitación y , conferencias, serviclos especfaHzados de lnfonriacl6n y dOCUIllentacl6n, y un amplio programa de comUnicaciones.La I/lvestlgaci6n del CIAT gira alrededor de proyectos, los cuales proporcionan un mecanismo para Integrar lainVestlgación dentro del Centro y para organizar la cooperación con nuestros colegas. A solicitud del interesado pOdemos hacerle llegar resúmenes de los proyectos.En el Centro trabajan unas 600 personas. Aproximadamente 70 de ellas son investigadores reclutados Internacionalmente en más de 20 paises. Algunos de nuestros científicos tienen sede en Brasil, Filipinas, Guatemala, Honduras, Kenya. Malawi, Nicaragua. Tanzania.Tallandla Y uganda.El CIAT es uno de los 16 centros auspiciados por el Grupo Consultivo para la lovestlgaclón AgrícOla Internacional (GCIAJ). El GCIAl es un consorcio de paises y organtzaclones donantes comprometidos con la agricultura sostenible en el mundo en desarrollo. El grupo es auspiclado conjuntamente por la organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAOJ, por el Programa de las Naciones , Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUDJ, por el Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente (PNUMAJ y por el Banco Mundial.Actualmente el CIAT recibe fondos de los países y organtzaclones llstados en el recuadro de la página 14. Agradecemos sinceramente su compromiso y sus contribuciones.~ \"","tokenCount":"1161"}

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8ec99ccd528756470d7098db504dd302","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d1df6c8c-7c3b-4ccf-872b-d9bbaac448e4/retrieve","id":"-490653673"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f745ae56-4ef5-418c-b381-17dbd2a5ed81","pagecount":"1","content":"• The conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture • The fair and equitable sharing of benefi ts derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food securityThe Treaty will facilitate access to plant genetic resources crucial for research and plant breeding. Certainty, transparency and standardized practices in the transfer of material will lead to increased and improved fl ows of material. The Treaty will foster the exchange of information and technology concerning conservation and use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.Special nature of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture • There is no individual owner with whom individual contracts for access and benefi t sharing must be negotiated. This lowers transaction costs to benefi t farmers, plant breeders and researchers and ultimately consumers • No requirement for tracking of individual accessions • Recipients must continue to make the materials received available to the Multilateral System using the SMTA • Click wrap/shrink wrap acceptance options • \"Intellectual property or other rights that limit facilitated access to the PGRFA, or their genetic parts and components, in the form received from the Multilateral System\" may not be claimed • Access to PGRFA under development, including material being developed by farmers, shall be at the discretion of its developerSharing monetary benefi ts: • If a product that incorporates material from the Multilateral System is commercialized in a way that restricts others from further research and breeding, a mandatory payment will be made to the Multilateral System. • In the frame of the Treaty's funding strategy, the benefi ts obtained through these payments will be used for conservation and sustainable use Sharing non monetary benefi ts: • Facilitated access to genetic material is itself a major benefi t For questions: Ruaraidh Sackville Halmiton ([email protected]), Michael Halewood ([email protected]), Gerald Moore ([email protected]), Isabel Lopez ([email protected])","tokenCount":"315"}

data/part_1/0545713655.json

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+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"fb97c2dac9f397666dec3cca5b5524f9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/11e23812-7f52-4431-99d8-9029345d97d1/retrieve","id":"1960752405"},"keywords":["• P676 -6","1","2 Women's Involvement in Decision-Making and Outcomes for Rural Households • P578 -2","4","2 Support to Nigeria Policies OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report"],"sieverID":"704c3f1f-a0fa-4a13-97b7-c4d46183b327","pagecount":"5","content":"This policy [1], launched in 2019 [2] after three years of preparation, was informed by research findings ( [3], [4], [5], [6]) presented by IFPRI staff to the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, civil society, donors, academia and research institutions at various policy events, conferences and seminars between 2016 and 2019 ( [7], [8]). One of these findings is that when women have access to farm inputs and markets and make decisions on agricultural production, either independently or together with their male counterparts, the chances of increasing productivity are very high.IFPRI was a member of the advisory committee for the development of the policy and contributed to the development of the policy's components on training of agricultural officers to identify and address gender issues in agriculture; mainstreaming attention to gender in agricultural extension and climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts; empowering women through building skills of women's groups on financial management (for instance opening and maintaining bank accounts), and monitoring and evaluating implementation of the policy and assessing the differential impacts of projects and interventions on women and men.It is expected that the National Gender Policy in Agriculture will enhance food security and accelerate development in Nigeria.• https://tinyurl.com/rqsne62• https://tinyurl.com/wjkqgtgThe Nigerian National Gender Policy in Agriculture aims to promote the adoption of gender sensitive and responsive approaches in the agricultural sector, and especially to ensure that men and women have equal access to and control of productive resources.This policy [1], launched in 2019 [2] after three years of preparation was informed by research findings ( [3], [4], [5], [6]) presented by IFPRI's Nigeria Country Program staff to the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, civil society, donors, academia and research institutions at various policy events, conferences and seminars between 2016 and 2019. One of these findings is that when women have access to farm inputs and markets and make decisions on agricultural production, either independently or together with their male counterparts, the chances of increasing productivity are very high. Another finding is that women's inheritance rights, though acknowledged in statutory law, are not enforced in customary law.IFPRI was a member of the advisory committee for the development of the policy and worked together with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development's Gender Unit on the development of the policy's components on training of agricultural officers to identify and address gender issues in agriculture; mainstreaming attention to gender in agricultural extension and climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts; empowering women through building skills of women's groups on financial management (for instance opening and maintaining bank accounts), and monitoring and evaluating implementation of the policy and assessing the differential impacts of projects and interventions on women and men.","tokenCount":"449"}