Upload 837 files to data/part_3

data/part_3/0002152084.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f9f08da855cb154df1989adbd49f8d81","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/869cf637-460a-4d6c-9b8d-9aabd167505f/retrieve","id":"648440395"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f7d4aae7-f8c5-4e33-b161-af5114627f98","pagecount":"47","content":"Implemented work and achievements for the period October 2013 to March 2014 for the Africa RISING project in Ghana and Mali are reported. Surveys to collect baseline data for farming systems analysis, household nutrition, nutritional status of children, pig and poultry production and pearl millet cropping systems were completed. Data were analyzed and reported. Farmer-participatory livestock and crop trials initiated during the first or second year of the project ended during the period. Data were analyzed and reports written. The field trials identified improved housing for backyard poultry and agronomic management practices and cereal (maize and sorghum, and millet), legume (soybean and cowpea) and vegetable varieties for intensive crop production. Modeling and Geographic Information Systems and remote sensing technologies will be used to extrapolate results from the field/plot level activities to wider recommendation domains and larger scales using modeling and GIS and remote sensing techniques. Quality seeds of cereals, legumes and vegetables were produced for multiplication and dissemination to farmers and future project activities. Group and individual training were conducted to strengthen the capacity of farmers and researchers and development partners. Project outputs were disseminated through farmers' field days and farmer field schools, exchange visits and video shows. Meetings of stakeholders, Project Steering Committee and Program Coordination Team meetings were organized during the period.As part of the Feed the Future Initiative, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is supporting an innovative multi-stakeholder agricultural research program, the Africa Research in Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING). The program's main objective is to identify and validate scalable options for sustainable intensification of key African farming systems to increase food production and improve livelihoods of smallholder farmers and at the same time conserve or improve the natural resource base.Africa RISING is a three-in-one, five-year research program launched in 2011. It brings together a wide range of research and development partners from the CGIAR and the national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES), farmers, input and output dealers and policymakers to develop management practices and technology combinations that use the farming systems research and extension approaches to better integrate crops (cereals, legumes and vegetables), livestock (including poultry), and trees and shrubs in mixed-farming systems with the aim of improving whole-farm productivity, nutrition and incomes of small-farm families without degrading the environment. It will also develop innovations that effectively link farmers to markets and input suppliers. The three projects are: Sustainable intensification of crop-livestock mixed farming systems in the Guinea-Sudan-Savanna Zone of West Africa -led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA);  Sustainable intensification of crop-livestock integrated farming systems in the Ethiopian highlands -led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI); and  Sustainable intensification of cereal-legume-livestock integrated farming systems in East and Southern Africa -led by IITA. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) is responsible for monitoring, evaluation, and impact assessment across all three projects.The program is organized around four research outputs that are logically linked in time and space, namely: 1. Situation Analysis and Program-wide Synthesis 2. Integrated Systems Improvement 3. Scaling and Delivery of Integrated InnovationThe first research output covers the activities that are necessary to ensure that project activities are able to characterize and stratify target communities effectively so that promising interventions are identified and inappropriate interventions rejected. The second is delivered via a broad approach of participatory technology development and/or identification. This requires projects to allow for the identification of existing sound practices within communities that might be more widely propagated, the adaptation of these and other exogenous innovations, and the more effective combination of innovations from multiple sources.The first two outputs will generate integrated technology combinations that are more effectively targeted on farmers' real development needs. This third output recognizes that, even where such technology combinations can be identified, the approaches used for scaling them out may not always be effective and seeks to redress this shortcoming. The fourth output, which relates to monitoring adoption and farmer preferences and assessing economic and environmental impact of the project activities, is the responsibility of IFPRI.Africa RISING is being implemented in 25 intervention communities in the three northern regions of Ghana (Fig. 1), and 10 villages in the Bougouni-Yanfolila and Koutiala districts of the Sikasso Region in southern Mali (Fig. 2). It is intended to result in spillover effects to other similar agro-ecological zones. The farming systems in the region are dominated by small-scale, resource-poor farmers whose livelihoods depend on rain-fed crop, livestock and crop-livestock farming systems. Main staple crops are cereals (maize, rice, sorghum, pearl millet), legumes (groundnut, cowpea, soybean, Bambara nut, pigeon pea), and vegetables (roselle, okra, pepper, onion, eggplant, tomato, amaranths, pumpkin). The cereals are either grown in pure stands or intercropped/rotated with the legumes and a variety of vegetables. Crop yields on farmers' fields are generally poor due to low and variable rainfall; drought; low and declining soil fertility; use of low yielding varieties; lack of quality seed of improved crop varieties and land preparation equipment; high cost of inputs and postharvest losses; labour constraints that lead to poor growing conditions (late sowing, sub-optimal plant populations, inadequate control of weeds, Striga, pests and diseases); and low use of organic or mineral fertilizers.Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chicken, guinea fowl, turkeys and ducks are reared for meat, milk, land preparation, transport, manure and cash. The animals are mostly managed under extensive and semiintensive systems with limited feed, shelter, health care and breeding management. Productivity of the animals is low due to inappropriate husbandry (feeding, health care, housing and breeding) practices that result in high mortality rates. Farmers have limited access to veterinary services and improved livestock breeds. In general, the crop and livestock enterprises are weakly integrated.Diets of most rural poor farm families are often dominated by the intake of basic staple foods (e.g. maize, rice, millet and sorghum) which are usually deficient in micronutrients such as vitamin A, iron and zinc needed to prevent malnutrition. The nutritional status of most farm households, especially pregnant women, breastfeeding mothers and children below 24 months of age, is therefore poor, leading to chronic malnutrition linked to low income, unsuitable food processing and feeding practices and iron deficiency.Farmers have limited access to input and output markets. Enabling institutions and policies are also lacking. Due to inadequacies of traditional promotional and scaling-up/out pathways, there is a large unmet demand for information and technology, especially by women. This has led to low adoption of improved technologies and best practices by farmers to reduce food insecurity, poverty and natural resource degradation.Participatory approaches are used to identify and implement activities to address the bio-physical and socio-economic constraints of the farming systems in the intervention communities in each region by multi-disciplinary research teams from ARI, AVRDC, FRI, IITA, ILRI, KNUST, MoFA, MoH, SARI and UDS. Similarly in Mali, activities are implemented by multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional partners such as AMASSA, AMEDD, AVRDC, CMDT, ICRAF, ICRISAT and MOBIOM. The activities are implemented on-farm and on-station. The on-farm activities consist of activities managed by researchers; researchers and farmers; and farmers only. In addition to comparing intensified practices with farmers' practices, the onfarm activities are used to demonstrate new technologies and/or a combination of technologies through farmers' field days, farmers' field schools and exchange visits. They are also used to train farmers, extension and research assistants. The on-station activities are mostly used by graduate students as part of their dissertation research to test and/or develop new technologies.Most of the activities are implemented at the plot or field levels. Nevertheless, results and outputs from the activities can be extrapolated to larger scales and bigger recommendation domains using modeling, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing techniques. For example, our preliminary GIS analysis showed that results from plot activities implemented at the Natodori intervention community in the Upper West region can be applied to other West African countries with similar agroecology and socio-economic environment -Nigeria (9%), Guinea (49%) and Cote d'Ivoire (34%).  The baseline surveys in Mali and Ghana to be conducted by IFPRI are yet to be implemented. Therefore, the interdisciplinary research teams initiated own surveys to collect baseline data necessary for their research.Community mobilization and sensitization continued during the reporting period. The list of farmers or households interested in the project activities was revised in each community. A total of 1,783 farmers were interested, 41% of whom were female (Table 1). The first phase of a farming systems analysis in Ghana (Northern, Upper West and Upper East regions) and Mali (Bougouni and Koutiala areas) was completed by the Department of Plant Sciences of Wageningen University and Research Centre (The Netherlands) during the period. The objective of this first phase was to characterize farming systems in project intervention areas, to make farm typologies, and to find constraints and entry points for sustainable intensification and innovation at the farm level. It comprised four steps:1.Rapid characterization of farming systems by a survey.Detailed diagnosis of a representative subset of farms through a detailed survey.Model-based exploration of trade-offs and synergies within the farms, which results in set of alternative farm configurations that perform different in productive, economic and environmental performance indicators.Selection of a desirable farm configuration, as identified by the farmer and other relevant stakeholders on the basis of the performance indicators, for fine-tuning and redesigning the case study farm.The steps 2, 3 and 4 can yield suggestions and entry points for farming systems adjustments. Steps 3 and 4 were performed for the Ghana case study. The results showed a large variation in farm size and endowment in both countries. This observation stresses the need to consider farm typologies in targeting of technologies. Farms were grouped into farm types on the basis of structural and functional farm characteristics that reflect their size (surface area and livestock density), production orientation (subsistence or market) and income sources (on and/or off farm).In most regions the farmers cultivated 2-4 crops. Cereals (maize, sorghum and millet) and legumes (groundnut, cowpea and soybean) were the most important crops in Koutiala district in Mali, while cotton, sorghum and millet also occupied large areas. The crop yields reported by the farmers were extremely variable and often very low.Livestock numbers per farm differed greatly between the intervention communities within each country. Key livestock species kept were cattle, sheep, goats, domestic chickens and guinea fowl. Generally, livestock management was sub-optimal.The stated labor inputs per unit of area were variable but tended to decline with farm size. The percentage of female-headed households differed strongly between regions and was as low as 1-2% in the Northern region of Ghana, while in the Upper West and Upper East regions in Ghana on average 40-50% of the households were female-headed.The main constraints and critical points to sustainable intensification and innovation were identified as:• Household level farm productivity and on-farm income generation and returns to labor are low; in various cases food availability is insufficient during parts of the year.Women's representation in decision-making and ownership is often limited, although large differences between regions exist. Women indicated that the limited availability of food, clean water, options for sanitation and possibilities for education are important constraining factors. Moreover, limitations in opportunities for post-harvest storage and processing of farm products were reported.Limited or untimely availability of resources like seeds and fertilizers. Lack of improved crop varieties and animal breeds that are more productive or better adapted (e.g. early maturing and drought-tolerant). • Crop yields were low. Combined with the small farm areas and seasonality this resulted in food shortages in parts of the year. On the other hand, for cash crops the low productivity led to small volumes of produce for sales and income generation. Moreover, post-harvest storage losses are large in some cases.Problems with pest and weed control, in particular Striga, is an important issue.The management, storage and conservation of crop residues and animal manures were generally poor. As a consequence, the losses of organic matter and nutrients were probably large and availability of these organic resources for soil improvement was limited, which was reflected in low soil organic matter contents and soil fertility.The feeding of livestock was sub-optimal. Larger animals graze crop stubbles and rely on open and common areas for grazing. The management of grazing areas is often inadequate and availability of watering points can be limiting. Diseases are reported to affect animal performance negatively. As a result, the productivity levels of all types of animals kept on the farms (mainly cattle, goats, sheep, chickens and doves) was low.The access to training and advice on land preparation, crop cultivation, animal husbandry and farm management is often limited. In particular women indicated that possibilities for education were lacking.Farmers often reported being challenged by climatic conditions. These issues ranged from overall unfavorable conditions for agriculture, to variability and unpredictability, and trends of changes in climate.The following entry points for sustainable intensification and innovation at farm level were identified and analyzed: Manure can be stored anaerobically by covering with an impermeable sheet to reduce organic matter degradation, to avoid wash-out of nutrients in case of heavy rains and to avoid exposure to air so that ammonia volatilization is prevented. Crop residues could be harvested in a less mature stage of development and stored (conserved) in an appropriate way to preserve their feeding quality.The role of livestock on farms could be strengthened. This could contribute to nutrient cycling and the production of high-quality and high-value products.There is a strong need for education and training, and for the development of institutional arrangements and community-based organizations. These could support the development and implementation of many of the entry points mentioned above.A team of researchers from FRI, MoH and UDS led a survey on household nutrition. Five hundred and twenty two households from six intervention communities in the Northern (Cheyoli and Tibali), Upper West (Guo and Zuko) and Upper East (Bonia and Sabulungu) regions were interviewed. Data was collected on food consumption pattern, food frequency, dietary diversity, existing foods/food groups and their seasonal availability between October and November 2013. Green leaves of local vegetables were sampled from markets and farms in the Wa municipality and analyzed for micro-mineral (iron, copper, manganese and zinc) concentrations.Figure 3 shows food groups consumed by the households in the three regions. Consumption of milk, eggs and meat and meat products were very low. One reason for this is that households preferred to sell their livestock and livestock products for cash to meet family needs, e.g. to pay health and education bills. Similarly, fruit consumption was below 20% in all the regions. Legume consumption was highest in Upper East region and was around 60%, but the frequency of consumption is important to ensure adequacy.Figure 3. Food groups and percent of households consuming food groupThe micro-mineral concentrations in leaves of the traditional leafy vegetables varied among species (Table 2). The micro-mineral concentrations in some species were above the minimum requirements for humans, suggesting that promoting the consumption of the local leafy vegetables could improve dietary micro-mineral status in the communities. Research is warranted on integrated soil fertility management strategies to increase micro-mineral concentrations in the traditional leafy vegetables.The food frequency results showed that 91.2% (Northern Region), 94% (Upper East Region) and 91% (Upper West Region) consumed soybeans less than 3 times a week, while more than 60% (64.4%-88.9%) of households also consumed cowpea less than 3 times a week. The mean dietary diversity score of 4.6 out of 12 food groups differed significantly across the three regions. A higher score will indicate adequate food diversification, and hence a higher tendency to meet nutrient requirements. The results suggest the need for nutritional interventions to promote the consumption of protein source foods, green leafy vegetables and fruits. At present, most families take legumes in the form of dawadawa which is a condiment, and in isolated cases as gable, tubani and khebab. The farm-families were willing to take the needed protein from legumes, particularly soybeans, if they are taught to utilize it and are given the necessary processing equipment. This observation stresses the need for a value-chain approach for implementing project activities.Anthropometric data was collected on children up to 5 years in each household surveyed. The children were weighed and their heights were taken for the determination of their nutritional status. The World Health Organization (WHO) Anthro software was used to convert weight, height and age of child (months) into weight for age z score (WAZ), weight for height z score (WHZ) and height for age z score (HAZ). As per the agreed global standards, the following categories were used for the z-scores: Normal (Well nourished) = -1 to 0; Marginally under-weight/wasted/stunted or mildly malnourished = -2 to -1; Moderately under-weight/ wasted/stunted (Moderately Malnourished) = -3 to -2; Severely underweight/wasted/stunted (Severely Malnourished) = < -3.About 64% of children of 0-60 months were normal/well-nourished in the three regions (Table 3). More than 30% were marginally malnourished, whilst about 5% were moderately malnourished. The extent of malnutrition varied among the intervention communities (Fig. 4). It was relatively higher in the communities in the Northern Region than those in the Upper West and Upper East Regions. The results suggest that rigorous nutrition communication and promotion should accompany interventions aimed at improving household food security and incomes.  Table 4 presents the levels of wasting, stunting and underweight among the children in the three regions. Averaged across regions, 72%, 43% and 45% of children aged 0-60 months were not wasted, stunted and underweight, respectively. The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) led a team of researchers from ARI, UDS, MOFA and KNUST in Ghana, and from ICRISAT, IER and AMEED in Mali to document existing and potential feed resources, current use and cost, and assessed gaps with respect to demands for ruminant (cattle, sheep and goats) production using the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST).Table 5 presents constraints and opportunities for ruminant production in Ghana. Grazing and crop residues were identified as the key feed resources (Fig. 5).A similar study in six villages at Koutiala and Bougouni/Yanfolila in Mali showed that the key constraints to ruminant production were feed shortage, disease, restricted livestock mobility which hinders access to natural pasture, and housing. Therefore, livestock-related interventions should be multi-faceted including feed, animal health and housing. Grazing natural pasture accounted for 40-55% of the diet of ruminants (Fig. 6). Crop residues accounted for 20-35%, and naturally occurring and collected fodder accounted for 10-15% of the ruminants' diet. Common crop residues in the study sites included cereal (maize, sorghum, millet, rice) straw and bran, legume (groundnut and cowpea) hay, and cotton residues/byproducts (cotton grain residue, cotton seed cake). Availability and quality of these crop residues varied with season. The large part of the crop residues are normally fed to the household animals and/or sold, particularly groundnut haulm, while a small proportion is left on the field and burnt to improve soil fertility, according to the respondents.Based on area of land cultivated, the majority of the farmers were in small to medium categories (Table 6). Nearly all the households interviewed owned at least one draught animal or oxen which could be attributed to the need for animal power for cotton production (Table 7). In view of the importance of draught animal to the crop-livestock systems in Koutiala and Bougouni/Yanfolila, livestock interventions should address feeding strategies to improve the body condition of oxen in the late dry season/early wet season for field preparation. All households interviewed owned 5-25 small ruminants (sheep and goats) per household. The small ruminants are ready source of cash to meet emergency household need. Therefore, interventions to improve small ruminant production will be popular in the study sites.  Two separate surveys were conducted by the University for Development Studies and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, respectively, to collect baseline information on the rural pig and poultry enterprise in selected Africa RISING intervention communities in Ghana. The objective was to determine major factors that affect production of rural pigs and poultry and find prospects for intensification and integration.Table 8 presents a summary of the results from the pig survey involving 114 households. Farmers had their starter stock from their neighbors. The major source of finance for farmers was from the sale of pigs. Farmers largely described housing, health and inadequate feed as major challenges. Mainly mud houses roofed with thatch are provided for pigs. According to respondents, there was a ready market for pigs. They sold mostly bigger/older pigs as and when the need arose. Middlemen, pito (local beer) brewers and butchers were the main buyers.Generally, respondents were not trained in pig production and records were not kept. There is need to develop affordable housing, formulate adequate but cheap diets, put in place good preventive health regimes and empower farmers with adequate knowledge and skills to facilitate integration of more intensive pig production with the other aspects of the farmers' agricultural enterprises.The baseline survey of 180 households showed that domestic chickens and guinea fowl kept under semiintensive management are the dominant species (Table 9). Most farmers provided mud-houses for their birds. Mating is uncontrolled, and brooding is mostly by the hens. Live birds are sold to generate cash for food, school fees or health bills. Key constraints to intensification of the poultry production system were: pests and diseases, high keet/chick mortality, predation, lack of technical know-how and feed shortages.Ashanti Black Pig tethered. Photo: A. LarbiAs part of understanding the cereal-legume cropping systems at the Africa RISING intervention communities, focused group discussions were organized in five communities (Nyangua, Samboligo, Gia, Bonia and Tekuru) in the Upper East Region by ICRISAT and SARI research teams. A total of 85 respondents (26 women and 59 men) participated.The discussions revealed various cereal-cereal and cereal-legume intercropping systems practiced by farmers in the Upper East Region (Table 10). The general practice is to interplant the component crops on the same row. Millet (especially early millet) is often planted first with the early rains before the other crops are planted later in a relay cropping system. Very little is known about improved and quality seed as a factor for yield increases, meaning that there is need for more awareness promotion on the benefits of quality seed. Therefore, no conscious effort is made at acquiring and using them. Productivity of the cereal-cereal systems has not been documented, meaning that farming systems research is required to intensify the millet-sorghum-legume cropping systems. The University for Development Studies conducted a study in Bongo District of the Upper East Region of Ghana to assess effects of improved housing on performance of chickens. Ten farmers (7 men and 3 women) were purposively sampled for the study. Three hundred male chicks (non-commercial strain) at 4 weeks of age were randomly allotted into 20 groups of 15 birds per group and assigned to two treatments using a randomized complete block design, with a farmer serving as a block. Treatment 1 or control was the traditional housing (i.e. partial confinement) and birds managed under the free-range system. Treatment 2 was the improved housing (i.e. confinement) and birds managed under the intensive system. Growth and mortality data were collected.The housed birds were 43.5% heavier than their free-range counterparts at 15 weeks of age (Table 11). This is because the housed birds had access to balanced diet ad libitum, unlike their free-range counterparts. The latter group had to scavenge for poor quality feed on the range with the occasional handful of grains supplied by the farmers. Mortality of housed birds was 19.5% lower than the control group. This could be due to better protection of the birds housed from adverse environmental conditions such as predation, accidents and contact with other diseased birds in the community.Economic evaluation showed that it was 46.2% more profitable to confine birds. Intensive rearing of poultry has been recognized as the surest way to improve productivity and profitability at the village level. However, this may require high initial capital outlay, which is often beyond the reach of most rural farmers. Thus any intervention in that respect must be combined with facilitation of access to financial support to farmers. Responses of extra-early (80-85 days), early (85-100 days) and medium (100-110 days) maturing maize varieties to different nitrogen levels were evaluated in a multi-locational trial for the second year. The trials were established on station at Manga (UER), Wa and Tumu (UWR), and Damongo and Nyankpala (NR). For each maturity group, a split-plot design with four replications was used. Main plots were five maize varieties and sub-plots were five nitrogen fertilizer rates (0, 40, 80, 120 and 160kg/ha N). Each 6row sub-plot measured 5.0m x 4.5m. Nitrogen was applied as urea in two equal doses. All plots received 60kg/ha P 2 O 5 as Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) and 60kg/ha K 2 O as Muriate of Potash (MOP) at planting. Days to tasseling, plant height and grain yield and 1000-grain weight were recorded.In all locations, the maize variety by N rate interaction was not significant for all the parameters recorded for all the maturity types. Maize variety significantly influenced grain yield at Manga and Damongo, and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) at Wa and Manga (Table 12). For each maturity group and at each location, maize had highest NUE at 40kg/ha N and the least at 160kg/ha N. Varietal differences in grain yield could be due partly to differences in days to anthesis and tasseling, plant height, 1000grain weight and NUE.Grain yield of the three maize maturity types generally increased non-linearly in response to increasing nitrogen rates in all the locations (Fig. 7). Reduction in nitrogen use efficiency with increasing N fertilizer rate may be partly responsible for the quadratic responses. Overall, increase in N rates beyond 80kg/ha did not result in significant increases in grain yield in most sites. Nitrogen fertilizer rates between 80 and 120kg/ha may therefore be ideal to optimize maize grain yields. Cowpea grain yield on farmers' fields is below 500kg/ha due to lack of seeds of improved cultivars at affordable prices, high incidence of diseases and pests, and inappropriate agronomic practices. Applying insecticides can control pests and increase grain and fodder yields. However, few farmers use insecticides because they are costly and excessive use can harm the environment. Quantitative data on integrated soil fertility management effects on productivity of maize-cowpea rotations is limited.Trial 1 evaluated the effects of planting date, insecticide application and cowpea variety on grain yield using a split-split plot design with three replicates. Main-plots were two insecticide treatments (Fig. 8a, b), sub-plots were four planting dates (see legend in Fig. 8), and sub-sub plots were six cowpea cultivars (Fig. 8). The sub-sub-plots consisted of four rows; 5m long spaced 0.60m between rows and 0.20m between plants in a row.In Trial 2, the effects of four insecticide regimes on grain yield of six cowpea varieties were compared using a split-plot design with three replications. Main-plots were four insecticide spraying regimes listed in Table 13. Sub-plots were cowpea varieties used in Trial 1. The sub-plots consisted of 4 rows 5m long spaced 0.60m between rows and 0.20m between plants in a row.In both trials, agronomic (days to 50% flowering and maturity, number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, haulm and seed yields) and insect population data were collected from the two middle rows in each plot. Populations of thrips and Maruca vitrata were estimated from flower bud formation to 50% podding by bringing 20 flowers in alcohol to the laboratory to count the insects. Populations of pod-sucking bugs were estimated by counting nymphs and adults. Pod damage by pod-sucking bugs and Maruca were estimated from a sub-sample of 100 pods after harvest.Application of insecticide to control insect pests (Fig. 9b) resulted in significantly higher grain yields than no insecticide application (Fig. 9a). Grain yields were reduced significantly as planting was delayed from July to late August with the crop either sprayed or not sprayed. Spraying cowpea with insecticide once, twice or thrice during the growing season to control insect pests significantly increased grain yield in all cultivars (Fig. 9). It also reduced the population of insect pests and pod damage (Table 13).The results suggest that cowpea farmers in the NR and UER should plant their crops between mid-July and early August for better grain yields. Judicious and timely application of insecticide at flowering and full podding can provide adequate control of key pests. Varieties IT99K-573-1-1 and IT99K-573-3-2-1 have high potential for grain production in northern Ghana due to their resistance to Striga gesnerioides. Integrated soil fertility management effects on productivity of maize-cowpea rotations An Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM) study was initiated in 2013 to evaluate the response of a maize-cowpea cropping system to organic (fertisoil) and inorganic fertilizers and Rhizobium inoculants. The 2013 cropping season was the set-up year and therefore it was not possible to measure rotation effect of maize following soybean that received different fertilizer treatments.The trials were conducted jointly conducted by SARI, IITA and KNUST researchers at Goriyiri (Nadowli district, UWR) and Bonia (Kassena-Nankan district, UER). The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with four replications and seven treatment combinations listed in Table 14.Rhizobium inoculants (5g/1kg of seed) and 1.5t/ha of fertisoil (organic fertilizer) were applied at planting. Recommended fertilizer rate was 25-60-30kg/ha as N, P 2 O 5 and K 2 O. The 60kg/ha P 2 O 5 as Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) and 30kg/ha K 2 O as Muriate of Potash (MOP) were applied at planting to plots that received P and K fertilizer. Plot size for each treatment was 4.5m x 5m. Plant height, days to 50% flowering, nodule number and weight, grain and stover yields, harvest index and 1000-grain weight was recorded. Farmers were actively involved in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation processes.Cowpea pod and nodule numbers and yields of grain and haulm were significantly affected by soil amendment treatment at Goriyiri (Table 14). Grain yield was highest for the treatment that received a combination of inoculants, PK and fertisoil, and lowest for the treatment with inoculants and fertisoil only. This result seems to suggest some synergy between Rhizobium inoculation and PK fertilization.Grain yield was positively correlated with nodule weight (r=0.66), nodule number (r=085), pod number (r=0.84) seed number (r=0.63) as well as biomass production (r=0.98).  A series of trials were conducted to evaluate options to intensify soybean production. Specific objectives were to demonstrate new soybean varieties to farmers; evaluate integrated soil fertility management effects on performance of soybean varieties in different environments; and determine farmer preferences for soybean varieties and ISFM technologies.Two trials were conducted using early-maturing (90-100 days) and late-maturing (100-115 days) soybean varieties. A split-plot design with four replications was used in both trials. Main plots were three early-maturing varieties listed in Table 15 in Trial 1, and five medium-maturing varieties listed in Table 15 in Trial 2. Sub-plots for both trials were five fertilizer treatments listed in Tables 14 and 15. The N, P and K rates were 25, 60 and 30kg/ha as N, P 2 O 5 and K 2 O, respectively. Nitrogen was applied as urea (46%N). Phosphorus was applied as Triple Super Phosphate (46%P 2 O 5 ) and K as Muriate of Potash (60%K 2 O). All fertilizers were applied in a subsurface band about 0.05m to the side of the soybean row. Plants were sown in July 2013. The early-maturing varieties were sown in six rows 5m in length and 0.6m apart, while the medium-maturing varieties were sown in six rows 5m in length and 0.75m apart. Distance between plants in a row was 5cm in all experiments with one seedling per stand. Weeds were controlled manually using a handheld hoe. Days to 50% flowering, plant height and grain yield were recorded. The two centre rows of each sub-plot were harvested at physiological maturity to determine grain and stover yields.The soybean variety and fertilizer treatment interaction was not statistically significant for any traits measured or calculated at Wa. Variety significantly affected days to flowering and stover yield of the early-maturing soybean varieties at Wa (Table 15). Stover yield of Anidaso was significantly higher than of Suong-Pungu. Rhizobium inoculation and NPK application had no significant effect on any of the variables.Anidaso had significantly more days to flowering, and higher grain and stover yields than Suong-Pungu at Bamahu (Table 16). Application of P and K fertilizer resulted in significantly higher stover yield compared to no fertilizer application. Suong-Pungu and TGX 1805-8F will be particularly useful in the drier areas in Upper East and Upper West Regions because they flower early. They could be used as a relay crop to early millet in Upper East Region. This will enable farmers to benefit from both millet and soybean cultivation in one season, particularly in Striga hermonthica-endemic and drought-prone areas.Results for the medium maturing soybean varieties are presented in Tables 17 and 18. At Wa, days to 50% flowering and grain yield varied significantly among the medium-maturing soybean varieties. Grain yield was highest for variety TGX 1834-5E or Afayak and lowest for variety TGX-1445-3E or Songda (Table 17), possibly due to the varietal differences in days to 50% flowering. Fertilizer and inoculation treatment significantly affected nodule weight and grain and stover yields. Grain and stover yields were highest with the combination of Rhizobium inoculation plus NPK fertilization and lowest when the seeds were neither inoculated nor fertilized. At Bamahu, variety had a significant effect on all the variables measured (Table 18). In contrast, Rhizobium inoculation and fertilizer application had no significant effect on any variable. Jenguma gave the highest grain and stover yields, while Songda gave the lowest.In conclusion, soybean early-maturing genotypes TGX 1805-8F and Suong-Pungu were found to have potential for grain production in drier areas due to their early flowering nature. Medium-maturing genotypes with potential for higher grain production were TGX-1904-6F and Afayak. Inoculation of seeds with Rhizobium in combination with NPK fertilizer would increase grain yields.In 2013, trials were carried out in 12 communities to evaluate a combination of variety and application of organic and inorganic fertilizers, including foliar fertilizers, in terms of soybean grain yield. The experimental design was a split-plot design arranged in randomized complete block with two improved varieties of soybean as the main plots and five integrated soil practices as sub-plots factor. Each community represented a replication. Each plot measured 5m x 4m with 2m alleys separating main plots and 1m alleys between sub-plots. Inoculated seeds of the two soybean varieties with Rhizobium at 5g of inoculants per 1kg seed were sown at 75cm by drilling except farmers' practice where no inoculation was done. Seedlings were later thinned to 5cm between plants in a row or 20 seedlings/m 2 with one plant per stand. The trial was conducted at Goriyiri (Nadowli district, UWR) and Bonia (Kassena-Nankan district, UER) using the same procedure outlined in section 2.3.2. The experimental design was randomized complete block design with four replications and seven treatment combinations listed in Table 17. Rhizobium inoculants (5g/1kg of seed) and 1.5t/ha of fertisoil (organic fertilizer) were applied at planting. Recommended fertilizer rate was 25-60-30kg/ha as N, P 2 O 5 and K 2 O. The 60kg/ha P 2 O 5 as Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) and 30kg/ha K 2 O as Muriate of Potash (MOP) were applied at planting to plots that received P and K fertilizer. Plot size for each treatment was 4.5m x 5m. Plant height, days to 50% flowering, nodule number and weight, grain and stover yields, harvest index and 1000-grain weight were recorded. Farmers were actively involved in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation processes.Soybean plant height, nodule numbers and yields of grain and stover were significantly affected by soil amendment treatment in Goriyiri (Table 20). Grain and stover yields were highest when inoculants, PK and fertisoil were applied and lowest when no soil amendment was applied. At Bonia, the soil amendments had similar significant effect on the agronomic traits of soybean. Grain yield was highest with inoculation plus PK suggesting some synergy between Rhizobium inoculation and PK fertilization, and lowest when only Rhizobium inoculation was applied (Table 20). Soybean grain yield was positively correlated with plant height (r=0.60) and biomass production (r=0.82). Twelve lines of each of the medium-maturing and dual-purpose cowpea types were evaluated in separate trials using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Each plot measured 4m x 4m with 1m alleys between plots and 2m alleys between replicates. Seeds were sown at 75cm x 20cm apart and within rows respectively. Two seeds were sown per stand.Pre-emergence herbicide was applied immediately after sowing to control weeds. Weeding was done at 4 and 7 WAP. Cymetox Super (30g of Cypermethrin and 250g of Dimethoate of active ingredient per liter), a systemic and contact insecticide for the control of insect pest on a range of field crops and vegetables, was applied at the rate of 1.5l/ha for insect pest control. Cymetox Super was replaced with Lambda Super 2.5E.C (25g of Lambda-Cyhalothrin) in the three spraying regime during the third spray to prevent insects developing immunity to the first chemical.Grain yield of the medium-maturing (Fig. 10a) and dual-purpose (Fig. 10b) cowpea types varied significantly among the genotypes in all regions. Yields in the drier Upper East region were generally higher than the Northern and Upper West regions, possibly due to lower insect pest damage. Averaged across regions, medium-maturing genotypes IT07K-318-2, IT08K-150-2 and IT08K-180-7; and dualpurpose genotypes IT09K-321-21, IT09K-456 and IT08K-126-19 were identified to have potential for grain production in northern Ghana.Sixteen early-maturing soybean genotypes were evaluated at Botingli, Siriyiri and Samboligo in the NR, UWR and UER, respectively. The same number of medium-maturing genotypes was established in separate trials at Duko, Passe and Bonia in the NR, UWR and UER, respectively. In both trials, a randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Each plot measured 4m x 4m with 1m alleys between plots and 2m alleys between replicates. Seeds were drilled at 75cm apart and were later thinned to 20 seedlings per meter. Pre-emergence herbicide (Lumax 537.5 SE) was used at 4l/ha to control weeds whiles hand weeding was done 5-6 weeks after sowing. Days to 50% flowering, nodulation, pest and diseases, plant height at harvest, days to maturity, dry pod weight and grain yield were recorded.Grain yield varied significantly among the early-maturing (Fig. 11a) and medium-maturing (Fig. 11b) soybean genotypes in all the regions. Grain yield of the early-maturing genotypes was higher than the late-maturing in all regions, possibly because the rains started late and planting was delayed. Grain yield in the Upper East Region was generally lower than in the other regions probably due to the differences in the length of the growing season. Averaged across regions, soybean genotypes with potential for grain production were the early-maturing genotypes TGX-1990-55F, TGX-1990-57F and TGX-1990-37F; and the late-maturing genotypes TGX-1990-80F, TGX-1990-47F and TGX-1989-42. A team from ICRISAT and SARI established field trials at Tingoli, Sabulungo and Nyagli in the NR, UER and UWR respectively to evaluate the performance of 10 groundnut genotypes consisting of eight aflatoxin resistant lines from ICRISAT-Mali, one improved variety (Nkate-SARI) and a popular local variety (Chinese). Grain and haulm yields varied significantly among the groundnut genotypes (Fig. 12). The preliminary results showed that the farmer variety and the aflatoxin resistant genotypes ICGV-94379 and ICGV-91317 have potential for grain and fodder production, whilst the aflatoxin resistant genotype ICVG-91315 and the released variety NKATESARI have potential for fodder production.Figure 12. Grain and haulm yield of aflatoxin resistant groundnut genotypes at Sabulungo, Upper East Region, Ghana, 2013Eleven hybrids were compared with the commonly cultivated local sorghum in the area using an Alpha design at Manga in the UER. The hybrids were sown on ridges in six rows of 5m in length and 0.75m apart. Three seeds per hill were planted at 0.30m apart and later thinned to two plants per hill. Basal fertilizer (15:15:15) was applied at the rate of 38-38-38kg/ha as N, P 2 0 5 and K 2 O. Top-dressing was done 4 weeks after planting at the rate of 26kg/ha N using sulphate of ammonia. Data were collected from the two centre rows.Genotypic differences were detected for plant height, grain yield, and harvest index (Table 21). The shortest hybrid was IPSA1527530 while the tallest was Sewa. Mean grain yield was lowest for Soumalemba and highest for IPSA Golofing. Mean grain yields of Fadda, Yamassa and IPSA Golofing were 37-57% higher than the local variety Kadaga. Grain yield was positively correlated (r=0.94) with the harvest index (grain yield*100/total biomass). Grinkan Yerewolo and the local variety were the most preferred by farmers whilst IPSA156731 was the least preferred. Kadaga was preferred for its brown grain that is ideal for brewing Pito. The okra genotypes were planted at a spacing of 30cm between plants in rows 75cm apart, replicated two times with a plot size of 4m x 8m. Plant counts at two weeks after planting and at harvesting; plant height; days to 50% flowering and 50% fruiting; and number and weight of fruits were recorded.Fruit yield varied significantly among the okra genotypes (Fig. 13). Genotypes NOKH 1002, NB-55-Srivan, NOKH 1003, NOKH 1004, AAK, EX-makutopora and FV-Unn-manna were found to be early-maturing (50% flowering 40-50 days after planting); Sasilon, ML-OK-16, ML-OK-37, TZ-SMN-86, Kpora-napon and Kpora-nasong were of the medium-maturity type (attained 50% flowering after 50 days of planting); while genotypes ML-OK-16, ML-OK-10, P1496946, FV-Unn and FV-Kpazeya were late-maturing, i.e., attained 50% flowering after 60 days of planting.High yield, early maturity, multiple harvest frequency and drying quality were identified by farmers as the most important selection criteria, especially under irrigated dry season production. Other criteria included prolonged tenderness, fruit size, price, taste, fruit texture and tolerance to field stress. Based on farmer preference and performance, genotypes NOKH 1004, NB-55-SRIVAN, Sasilon and NOKH 1002 were selected for further evaluation on farmers' fields. Six tomato genotypes (Duluti, LBR7, LBR 16, LBR17, Tengeru 97 and Keneya) were evaluated on-station at Manga in the Upper East Region under rainfed condition using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Seeds were planted in June 2013 in rows 0.75m apart and 0.30m between plants within a row. Plant counts 2 weeks after planting and at harvesting; plant height at 4, 8 and 12 weeks; days to flower initiation; days to 50% flowering and 50% fruiting; number of fruits at 70, 80, 90 and 100 days after planting; and fruit size were recorded.Fruit yield varied significantly among genotypes (Fig. 14). Genotypes LBR 17, LBR 7, LBR 16 and Keneya were found to have potential for production under rain-fed conditions. Limited access to quality seed of improved varieties, partly due to non-availability of seeds at affordable prices, was listed by farmers as a major constraint to crop production during the community analysis in Ghana and Mali. Therefore, linkages were established with public and private sector partners to produce and/or multiply seeds -breeder, foundation and certified seeds. The objective was to increase the accessibility of farmers to quality seeds of improved varieties. The seed multiplication plots were also used to demonstrate new crop varieties and to train farmers on good practices for vegetable production.In Ghana, IITA scientists partnered with CRI to produce breeders' seeds; with GLDB to produce foundation seeds; and with the Seed Producers Association of Ghana, SARI and community-based seed producers to produce certified seeds of cereals and legumes (Appendix 1). In Mali, a team consisting of AVRDC and AMEDD staff produced seeds of three vegetable species (Appendix 2). The breeder seeds will be used for production of foundation seeds, whilst the certified seeds will be used for participatory research with farmers in the intervention communities.As stated in Section 1.3, participatory approaches are used to implement the project activities, disseminate new technologies and promote knowledge exchange. For example, the \"mother and baby\" approach was used to disseminate several technologies and combinations of technologies in Ghana and Mali. In Ghana, for example, the following combinations of technologies were demonstrated to more than 700 farmers: (i) maize varieties and fertilizer application; (ii) soybean varieties and integrated soil fertility management; and (iii) cowpea varieties and insecticide spraying regimes. Similarly, in Mali the approach was used to reach out to more than 500 farmers. Farmers Field Days and Farmers Field Schools were jointly organized by SARI and AVRDC on vegetable production for farmers from Azum-sapielga, Badu, Boku, Tekuru, Bonia, Tampezua, Mognori, Nyorigu, Manga and Nayorko communities in the UER in Ghana. More than 250 farmers participated (Table 22). The Ministry of Food and Agriculture organized six field days for over 1000 farmers to demonstrate several technologies in mother trials in NR, UER and UWR of Ghana.Farmers field day in UWR, Ghana, and Striga infested sorghum crop in UER, Ghana. Photos: A. LarbiIn Mali, ICRISAT in partnership with AMEDD and Access Agriculture, an international NGO, distributed \"Fighting Striga\" DVDs to Africa RISING action villages. They studied the early impacts of the distribution and use of the DVDs and videos on partner dynamics, farmer knowledge and experimentation in Mali, including in several Africa RISING villages. A contract was signed with the Cinema Ambulante Numerique for the evening large-screen viewing of five \"Fighting Striga\" videos in all Africa RISING villages.In Ghana, ICRISAT partnered with MoFA and Access Agriculture to produce 5,000 DVDs on \"Fighting Striga\" in the Kusaal, Frafra, Dagbaari and English languages. The video was launched in Tamale on 17 July. Three videos -\"Striga biology\", \"Grow row by row\", and \"Let's talk money\" -were shown in five Africa RISING intervention communities (Nyangua, Bonia, Tekuru, Samboligo and Gia) in UWR. A review and planning meeting was held in Tamale, Ghana, on 11 December 2013. From 3-5 February 2014, the annual review and planning meeting for Ghana and Mali was held in Bamako, Mali. Monthly partner meetings in the three regions of Ghana have been initiated to better coordinate and oversee the activities.An agricultural economist for the two IITA-led regional Africa RISING projects has been recruited as international staff and will start work out of the Tamale, Ghana office in April 2014. The Project Administrator resigned in November 2013. This position was merged with the Project Accountants' position. The communications specialist hired in November 2013 for the two regional projects resigned and will leave in April 2014. The position will be upgraded to allow recruitment of a highly qualified international staff member able to address the growing communication needs.A Memorandum of Understanding was signed with Heifer International, an NGO dealing with livestock related issues, in November 2013. The MoU with ACDI-VOCA expired in December 2013 due to the ending of the ADVANCE project. There is interest by both parties to renew the MoU should the project be extended for another phase.The Africa RISING West Africa project is co-located with the country office of the N2Africa and SARD-SC projects at the IITA premises in Tamale.The activity coordinator in Mali resigned from the partner institution, ICRISAT, early 2014. He has been replaced by a new staff member. This has been the second change in leadership of the Mali activities within 14 months, with associated implications for institutional knowledge and continuity of activities and relationships.The USAID ban on supporting government institutions in Mali has been lifted in October 2013. Therefore, the project can partner again with IER, a key national research partner.In the absence of data from the baseline surveys to be carried out by IFPRI, the different teams had to carry out a number of smaller surveys to inform their research activities. IFPRI has now made preparations to carry out the baseline surveys in April/May 2014 in both countries.The regional M&E officer, a consultant hired by IFPRI, resigned in January 2014 leaving the position again vacant and disrupting the collaboration with Africa RISING implementation partners in both countries.The USAID Mali Mission is investing approximately US$9,000,000 in large-scale technology dissemination to boost the sorghum and millet value chains in Sikasso and Mopti Regions of Mali. The Mission has asked ICRISAT to prepare a proposal for 36 months. Though funds will be channeled directly to ICRISAT, this project will become a component of Africa RISING with reporting to USAID through the Africa RISING Coordinator for West Africa. The Africa RISING regional management will be represented on the Management Committee of this new component. Start of activities is expected immediately.","tokenCount":"8004"}

data/part_3/0019302683.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e7f3a8265de79aab1169636b00947b99","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b0fb536a-d7bd-46d0-9bc6-46bb3762c255/content","id":"-623882590"},"keywords":["Heterodera avenae, Heterodera latipons, molecular Heterodera avenae","Hl -Heterodera latipons DW -Durum Wheat","W -Wheat"],"sieverID":"523c6281-8ff1-4cc9-b267-83569fed252b","pagecount":"9","content":"Morphological and molecular diversity among 11 populations of cereal cyst nematodes from different wheat production areas in Morocco was investigated using light microscopy, species-specific primers, complemented by the ITS-rDNA sequences. Morphometrics of cysts and second-stage juveniles (J2s) were generally within the expected ranges for Heterodera avenae; only the isolate from Aïn Jmaa showed morphometrics conforming to those of H. latipons. When using species-specific primers for H. avenae and H. latipons, the specific bands of 109 bp and 204 bp, respectively, confirmed the morphological identification. In addition, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions were sequenced to study the diversity of the 11 populations. These sequences were compared with those of Heterodera species available in the GenBank database (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) and confirmed again the identity of the species. Ten sequences of the ITS-rDNA were similar (99-100%) to the sequences of H. avenae published in GenBank and three sequences, corresponding with one population, were similar (97-99%) to H. latipons.Cereal cyst nematodes (CCN) form a group of several closely related species. Three species (Heterodera avenae, H. filipjevi and H. latipons) are among the economically most important cyst nematode pests of cultivated cereals (Smiley and Nicol 2009). Heterodera avenae is widely distributed in temperate wheat-producing regions throughout the world (Smiley and Nicol 2009). Heterodera latipons is found in the Mediterranean regions, eastern and northern Europe, the Middle and Near East, North and South Africa, Asia and North America (Greco et al. 2002;Abidou et al. 2005;Smiley and Nicol 2009), whilst H. filipjevi has been reported from eastern and northern Europe, Central and West Asia, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and North America (Rumpenhorst et al. 1996;Rivoal et al. 2003;Holgado et al. 2004). Earlier reports from Morocco mention only H. avenae as representative of the CCN. The nematode was detected for the first time in 1951 in an irrigated wheat (T. aestivum) field in the Gharb region (Ritter 1982). More populations of H. avenae were found during later surveys (Ammati 1987;Mokrini et al. 2009). In all of these Moroccan studies, cysts were identified using only morphological features; morphometrical and molecular identification were not considered.The taxonomy of the H. avenae group and its members has been the object of several review papers (Ferris et al. 1994;Handoo 2002). Species belonging to this group form a complex, and invade and reproduce only in roots of cereals and grasses (Subbotin et al. 1999). Within the H. avenae group, only minor morphological and morphometrical differences distinguish the species from each other (Subbotin et al. 1999). The increasing number of species in this group makes morphological and morphometrical identification more difficult because it is time consuming and requires appropriate skills (Subbotin et al. 2003). Nevertheless, accurate identification of members of the H. avenae group is needed as an initial step in designing effective control measures. This is especially important when searching for potential sources of host-plant resistance against Heterodera species (Dababat et al. 2015). Furthermore, rapid and accurate identification is highly significant for quarantine purposes. For these reasons, the development of molecular methods to identify members of the H. avenae group has been the goal of numerous studies. The internal transcribed spacer regions of ribosomal genes (ITS-rDNA) were found to be useful to differentiate species within the H. avenae group (Subbotin et al. 2000;Zheng et al. 2000). Additionally, the comparison of sequences of the ITS-rDNA region of unknown species with those published and deposited in GenBank has facilitated fast identification of most species of cyst-forming nematodes (Subbotin et al. 1999(Subbotin et al. , 2000)).Because Moroccan CCN have mainly been identified on the basis of their morphology very little information is available on the diversity and variability of their morphometrics and genetics. Only Subbotin et al. (2003) published three sequences of H. avenae from Morocco. To fill these gaps, we conducted a survey in the major wheat growing areas in Morocco with the following main objectives: (a) to collect, identify and compare both cysts and second-stage juveniles (J2s) of populations of CCN using morphological, morphometrical and molecular approaches including species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the ITS-rDNA expansion segments, and (b) to determine the phylogenetic relationships between these populations.Sampling was carried out during the wheat-growing season (May to June 2011) in four different regions representing the main wheat growing areas of Morocco. Soil and root samples were taken from 75 cereal fields. Sixty-nine samples were taken from wheat fields; the remaining six samples were obtained from barley fields. Samples were taken where wheat or barley plants showed chlorotic, yellowing leaves and poor growth. Each sample (soil and root) was composed of 15 subsamples randomly collected per field. Cysts were extracted from each soil sample using the modified Cobb decanting and sieving method (Cobb 1918). After extraction, cysts were stored at 4°C.Species identification was based on cyst vulval cone structures and measurements, as well as morphometric features of the J2s. The vulval cone of the cysts was cut and prepared for microscopic examination according to Hooper (1986). For each population, cones of 10 mature cysts were mounted in glycerine jelly. For each population, juveniles were obtained from the same cysts, killed by gentle heat (warming up enough to kill the nematode but not too long not to deform or destroy it), fixed in triethanolamine formalin solution (TAF), embedded in glycerol; permanent slides were made immediately. Ten J2s of the selected cyst populations were examined and measured using an Olympus BX51 compound microscope.For each population, a single J2 isolated from a single cyst was transferred into an Eppendorf tube containing 25 µl double distilled water (ddH 2 O) and 25 µl nematode lysis buffer [final concentration: 200 mM NaCl, 200 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 1% mercaptoethanol and 800 µg Proteinase K]. The tubes were incubated at 65°C for 1.5 h and at 99°C for 5 min, consecutively (Holterman et al. 2006). The extracted DNA suspension was stored at −20°C or used immediately for DNA amplification.The species-specific primers set AVEN-COI-forward (5'-GGG TTT TCG GTT ATT TGG-3') and AVEN-COI-reverse (5'-CGC CTA TCT AAA TCT ATA CCA-3') (Toumi et al. 2013a) together with the universal primers developed by Ferris et al. (1993), i.e. forward primer 5'-CGT AAC AAG GTA GCT GTA G-3' and the reverse primer 5'-TCC TCC GCT AAA TGA TAT G-3' , were used to detect H. avenae in the DNA extracts of 11 populations. Extracts that were not identified as belonging to H. avenae were used in a PCR with the species-specific primers set Hla-acti-F (5'-ACT TCA TGA TCG AGT TGT AGG TGG ACT CG-3') and Hla-acti-F (5'-ACC TCA CTG ACT ACC GAT GAA GAT TC-3') (Toumi et al. 2013b) along with the universal reverse primers (Ferris et al. 1993) to eventually characterise H. latipons.The PCR used to detect H. avenae was run as follows: 2 µl DNA extract (see above) were added to the PCR reaction mixture containing 21 μl ddH 2 O, 25 μl 2× DreamTaq PCR Master Mix (Fermentas Life Sciences, Germany) and 1 µM of each of the primers AVEN-COI (Toumi et al. 2013a) and Ferris et al. (1993). The ther mal cycler programme consisted of 5 min at 95°C, 30 cycles of 30 s at 94°C, 30 s at 58°C and 45 s at 72°C, followed by a final elongation step of 8 min at 72°C. For the detection of H. latipons, 2 µl of the DNA extract was added to the PCR reaction mixture containing 21 µl ddH 2 O, 25 µl 2× DreamTaq PCR Master Mix (Fermentas Life Sciences, Germany), and 1 µM of each of the primers Hla-acti (Toumi et al. 2013b) and Ferris et al. (1993). The programme of the thermal cycler consisted of 5 min at 95°C; 50 cycles of 30 s at 94°C, 45 s at 50°C and 45 s at 72°C, followed by a final elongation step of 8 min at 72°C.The ITS-rDNA region was amplified using the primers 5'-CGT AAC AAG GTA GCT GTA G-3' and 5'-TCC TCC GCT AAA TGA TAT G-3' (Ferris et al. 1993). The purification process was done as described by the manufacturer's instructions (Wizard  SV Gel and PCR Clean-Up System Kit, Promega). DNA from each sample was sequenced (Macrogen, Seoul, South Korea) in both directions to obtain overlapping sequences of both DNA strands. The sequences were edited and analysed using software packages Chromas 2.00 (Technelysium, Helensvale, QLD, Australia) and BioEdit 7.0.4.1 (Hall 1999). Finally, all sequences were blasted in GenBank (Sequin v. 9.00, http://www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov/). Twenty-nine ITS sequences of H. avenae and H. latipons (13 new and 16 from GenBank) were aligned using Clustal W (Thompson et al. 1994) and visually checked. Differences between sequences were estimated using the DNA distance option provided by BioEdit sequence alignment editor (Hall 1999). The alignment was imported into the software package Mega 5.0; after checking 24 different nucleotide substitution models, the model with the lowest BIC score (Bayesian Information Criterion) was retained for constructing a 60% consensus Neighbour-joining tree. To determine statistical consistency of the classification, bootstrap analysis using 1,000 bootstrapped data sets was performed.The survey yielded 11 Heterodera populations (Table 1). Ten populations were monospecific for H. avenae and one for H. latipons.Mostly lemon-shaped, with a protruding neck and vulvar cone. Cyst wall -dark brown, bearing a zig- Bullae in all populations. The cyst of populations H01, H03, H07 and H08 -slightly bigger than other populations (Table 2).Body -cylindrical, head -slightly offset, tapering round tail tip. Stylet -strong with shallow anteriorly concave basal knobs. Body length -503 to 640 µm; stylet length -22.3-27.9 µm; anteriorly concave basal knobs. Lateral field with four incisures (Table 3).This species was detected in 10 populations (H01, H02, H03, H05, H06, H07, H08, H09, H10, H11). These populations were morphologically and morphometrically similar to populations described previously (Handoo 2002;Subbotin et al. 2003).The cysts (n = 10) had the following characteristics: lemon-shaped; cyst wall partially transparent, between light and dark brown; ridges with zigzag pattern. Bifenestrate vulval cone, body length without neck 590 μm (551 to 632 μm), body width -393 μm (310 to 490 μm), neck length -75 μm (65 to 90 μm), fenestra length -64 μm (60 to 72 μm) and width -21 μm (18 to 25 μm), underbridge length -96 μm (85 to 115 μm), vulval slit length -8 μm (7 to 9 μm), vulva bridge width -27 μm (24 to 33 μm), and bullae absent. The bifenestrate cysts with a strong underbridge and no bullae.The J2s (n = 10) had the following characteristics: cylindrical head slightly offset, round tail tip tapering.Compared with H. avenae bodies -slightly shorter and short hyaline terminal tail. Body length -445 μm (412 to 472 μm), body width -19 μm (19 to 21 μm), stylet length -24 μm (23 to 25 μm), four lateral lines, tail length -50 μm (46 to 54 μm), and hyaline terminal tail -28 μm (24 to 31 μm).Only one population of H. latipons was detected (Ain Jmaa, Saiss). The morphometrics and morphological characters corresponded to those reported by Handoo (2002).The H. avenae-specific primers PCR (AVEN-COI) amplified a band of 109 bp for 10 samples (H01, H02, H03, H05, H06, H07, H08, H09, H10 and H11) (Fig. 1). This means that out of 11 populations, 10 populations were molecularly identified as H. avenae. For the sample (one population) not identified as H. avenae, the H. latipons-specific primers (Hlat-act) amplified a specific band of 204 bp.A comparison of ITS-rDNA sequences of H. avenae and H. latipons populations among themselves and with sequences of Heterodera species available in GenBank is presented in Figure 2. The comparison confirmed the identification of the species using morphological features and species-specific PCR. Ten sequences of the ITS-rDNA were similar (99-100%) to the sequences of H. avenae published in Gen-Bank (AY148363, AY148364, AY148360, AY148359, AY148361, AY148362, AY148354, AY148358, AY148367, AY148368, AY148369) and three sequences (JQ319035, JQ319036 and JQ319037) were similar (97-99%) to H. latipons. On the basis of the topology of the calculated majority rule, 60% consensus Maximum Likelihood tree for all the Moroccan populations   Fig. 2. The topology of the majority rule 60 consensus Maximum Likelihood tree for all populations studied with the addition of Heterodera populations obtained from GenBank based on the sequence alignment of the ITS-rDNA. For the list with the abbreviations of the population codes see Table 1 collected in the survey and the three Moroccon populations in GenBank (AY148367, AY148368, AY148369), Subbotin et al. 2003 and 16 Heterodera spp. from Gen-Bank, two major groups of Heterodera were revealed (Fig. 2).Two species, viz. H. avenae and H. latipons were detected during the survey of cyst nematodes in the major cereal-cultivating areas of Morocco. The latter species was detected for the first time in the country; it was found in a wheat field in Ain Jmaa (Saiss) (Mokrini et al. 2012). Previous surveys in the area had revealed the presence of H. avenae only (Ammati 1987;Mokrini et al. 2009). In this study, cysts of H. avenae were found only in wheat fields (Saiss, Chaouia and Zaers regions of Morocco) with two species of root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus penetrans and P. thornei) (Mokrini et al. 2016). However, the absence of cysts in barley fields is probably related to the rotation with vegetables or food legumes, practiced in these fields. Moreover, farmers in the main cereal growing areas of Morocco prefer to grow wheat, so fewer fields of barley were sampled, hence reducing the chances for detecting infestations with cysts. Both species were distinguishable easily on the basis of the cyst morphology.  dollahi (2009) reported that the Indian populations of maize cyst nematodes were identified as H. zaea based on morphological and morphometric features. Species-specific primers for PCR have been developed to complement the traditional species identification of H. avenae (Toumi et al. 2013a;Yan et al. 2013) and H. latipons (Toumi et al. 2013b). Several genes were successfully used to identify many species of Heterodera (Subbotin et al. 1999;Yan et al. 2013). When using the species-specific primers developed for both H. avenae and H. latipons (Toumi et al. 2013a, b) we obtained the characteristic bands of 109 bp and 204 bp, respectively, confirming their morphological identification. This confirms the specificity of the primer sets.In addition to the morphology, morphometric, species-specific primers, the sequence comparison of the ITS region clearly separate the Moroccan H. avenae from H. latipons. This rDNA region has been commonly used to separate nematodes at the species level, including the genus Heterodera (Subbotin et al. 2003). The results reported here did not show any intraspecific polymorphism between Moroccan populations of H. avenae based on the ITS sequences. These results are in agreement with Baklawa et al. (2015) who found that H. avenae populations originating from different localities of Egypt clustered together in the same group and had high similarities to each other. However, polymorphism among different populations of both H. avenae and H. latipons had been reported previously (Subbotin et al. 1999;Madani et al. 2004). In our study, based on data of the ITS region, the Moroccan populations of H. avenae clustered with H. avenae populations from Europe and Asia. The data also confirmed previous results in the phylogram presented by Madani et al. (2004), in which a Moroccan population of H. avenae clustered with populations from France, Turkey and Israel. Moreover, the three H. latipons sequences from Morocco obtained from the same population were identical to each other and also to a sequence in GenBank from a H. latipons population from Jordan (HM560790). This is the first report providing the integrated morphometric, morphological and molecular characterization of cereal cyst nematode populations from Morocco. Further investigations are necessary to identify the pathotypes of the H. avenae and H. latipons populations of the Saiss, Gharb, Chaouia and Zaers regions of Morocco, as well as suitable resistance sources to be used in cereal breeding programmes.","tokenCount":"2618"}

data/part_3/0027732426.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"d314d26ee5a33c726bbb7662efa1146a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/01fc71ca-528b-4244-934f-cdb3eeed46b4/retrieve","id":"1890201049"},"keywords":["t '\"''\"","l • . ••¡5 /Ht' • yic• ld:","WI• J 't'","> r•rw r•.t 1 :ly :,t ('h :llnph i t•","¡ :tttd M .i:","u)",", ('J':,lJJ ••:•. l -b)",",,., :'-1(• x H-'/ , ? '","-","• x ｾ ﾷ Ｍ _ Ｌ ＠ la","t, n 11","._' • '1h Al.:> /'.rw.•d: •r-1.(•.-, ::pot f.' IW Com1n<m B:tc t ' r i ,, l lll i ｾ ｾ ﾡ Ｌ Ｇ ＠"],"sieverID":"d6d87102-f4f6-4842-936b-f2192afd67fe","pagecount":"9","content":"T. NA1'IONAL Bf!:AN VAHIF.'fY TIHJ\\L.) . ':.l .  -'1. :1? -lO X B-7Pn:1 ｾ ＠ nrr. hc : 4 . ? :? . B 2 . 3 / j _ . , 1). :.la3 . 0 '? . ? J • 3?-10 X B-7.3 • \")¡.1111 . <3d e J .J?II<Jhc .J . 2 1.7 1. 1 (kP./ha) :3,7   ()   ? -10 X ti-? J'  T.•: : l .   (::. :.oc :. . -:J., -? \" • \\J._.: . CD::-.65 :: . 32ｾ Ｎ ＠ e.s l18.:.c •.s . e::. 2;7 ﾷ ｾ Ｎ ＠ 33 :5 . 3 36 . 0::. ","tokenCount":"102"}

data/part_3/0032560081.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"a0e63a2207efc5b31eb8cd3e6ee83693","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.iita.org/dataset/d0198f64-44ff-454c-8d8a-9f244152a67f/resource/4b67cded-115b-4d35-8450-140e632a5a84/download/iita-yam-sop09-regional-varietal-trial_p.doc.pdf","id":"-953467997"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"dce6c4a9-de6c-47f4-9c52-46c97ef853ca","pagecount":"12","content":"The yam breeding program executes regional varietal trials (RVTs) in collaboration with its national partners in different countries. The objective of the trial is to effectively assess the performances of elite clones from advanced testing pipelines in multiple environments across the participating countries with a view of identifying candidates with superior attributes as new varieties for national release and/or use as parents in crossing program. The RVT often include 14 advanced test clones and 2 check varieties for each species: Dioscorea rotundata and Dioscorea alata.For each country, trial site selection should be made with high consideration for soil suitability to enhance optimum expression of genotypic potentials genotypes under evaluation. The trial should be conducted at least for two consecutive seasons per site or trial location to assess genotypes' interaction with seasons and locations. Soil and weather data should be collected for each trial site. Other management operations such as weeding, staking, and earthing up should be done at appropriate times.*Season 1: During the first season, establish RVT trials in locations representative of the targeted production area to assess G x E interaction. However, the number and quality of the seed-yam used might force this first evaluation to be executed a at few experimental stations or testing sites. Field management should follow standard agronomic practices and local procedures to protect the crop from pests and diseases and raise a good yam crop.The most common agronomic practices to be followed include:• Depth/height of ridge or mound at least 40cm high• Planting spacing 1-meter intra row (along ridges/mound) and 1 meter between ridges (inter-row) days after planting (DAP) of the yam. Subsequent manual weeding at least twice should be applied to further control weeds in the trial plot.• Earthing-up or Re-mounding: This activity is required to provide an optimum soil environment for proper development of the roots and tubers. It is normally done during weeding but when there is excessive roots and tubers exposure resulting from heavy rains or rodents it has to be done separately using hoes.• Staking and Trailing: Yam is a climber and may require proper staking depending on the agroecology for optimum crop growth and performance. A variety trial could be conducted with or without staking depending on the trial objective. If the trial is supposed to be staked, a proper trellising method should be applied to reduce the number of stakes required for the trial area. Staking is normally done about a month after planting at which 90% of the sprouts have emerged in a plot.Regular training of the vines must be carried out at least twice a week for proper twining.• Harvesting: Yam variety trial could be harvested between 7-9 months after planting depending on the species and maturity duration. In planting operations maximum care and precaution must be given during harvesting to avoid varietal mixture and for proper data collection. Before the harvesting operation, one has to prepare proper labels and arrange other items required for the harvest operation. On harvesting day, the harvestable net plot is carefully marked, and tubers dug out manually. All harvested tubers from the plot are packed on the harvested spot in each plot and the labelled tags for the corresponding plot  For plant breeders, the strength of spatial data management systems is their capacity to provide information on test locations that can support the analysis of genotype x environment interactions. Ideally, a so-called waypoint is taken with a GIS device to record each trial site's longitude, latitude, and altitude. Tuber Yield and yield parameters: These should be collected on a plot basis from the net plot. They include numbers and weights of small (tubers weighing <500 gm each), medium (tubers weighing ≥500 and <1kg) and big tubers (tubers weighing ≥1kg) and rotted tubers. A total number of tubers per plot (count), the total weight of tubers kg per plot (sum of all tuber size categories per plot), average tuber weight kg/tuber (total tuber weight per plot divided by a number of tubers per plot) and fresh tuber yield tons per ha ([total tuber weight per plot (kg) x 10]/plot size (m2) would also be estimated.Dry Matter and Oxidation: These would be evaluated from samples prepared from plot-based tuber samples. The intensity of Flesh Oxidation after Cutting [scale]: Visual score based on tuber oxidation intensity lasted for the flesh to become or not oxidized as:1= no oxidation, 3=slightly oxidizing, 5 = highly oxidizing at different time scale: a) at","tokenCount":"738"}

data/part_3/0047713564.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2d54b847b021c78b50a2ccb96af778bd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/796c1cb8-7512-4017-800f-01ff03c230b8/retrieve","id":"-1471806547"},"keywords":["AI","breed","double dose","PGF2α","Single dose","Synchronization"],"sieverID":"74a4697e-dc07-4753-878b-6abe4f69767b","pagecount":"99","content":"Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of science in Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics June, 2015 Mekelle, Ethiopia DECLARATION This is to certify that this thesis entitled \"Effects of prostaglandin administration frequency, artificial insemination timing and breed on fertility of cows and heifers in eastern zone of Tigray region, Ethiopia \" submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Masters of Science in Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics to the School of Graduate Studies, Mekelle University through the Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, done by Mr. Tadesse Gugssa Kebede (Id. No. CVM/PR84988/06) is an authentic work carried out by him under our guidance. The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma to the best of our knowledge and belief.Table 1: Sources and functions of the major reproductive hormones and commercial products ....            (20/27), respectively. No significant difference was found in conception rate between breeds in both treatment groups. The conception rates of cows and heifers in group 2 which were inseminated after heat detection and fixed time insemination were 68.5% (37/54) and 48. 9% (23/47), respectively. The conception rate of cattle inseminated at detected heat was significantly higher (P<0.05) than those inseminated at fixed time. Among 90 animals milk progesterone level was determined using RPHDT prior to synchronization, 57% had high progesterone level, while 43% low progesterone. On average, one technician misclassified 4.6 cows out of 10 cows presented for corpus luteum detection through rectal palpation. In conclusion, the overall estrus response and conception rate in the study area was high. Single dose PGF2α protocol is recommended for estrus synchronization in cattle in the region as well as the country, as it is comparatively cost effective, has less number of visits to farms and less laborious. RPHDT can assist rectal palpation to evaluate reproductive stage of animals, hence provide proper breeding management. Refreshment trainings should be given to AI technicians on rectal palpation to improve detection of CL and subsequently improve reproductive performance of cattle in the region.Livestock production is an integral part of the agricultural activities in Ethiopia. The livestock sector contributes about 12-16% of the total national Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 30-35% of the agricultural GDP, 15% of export earnings, and 30% of agricultural employment in the country (Land O'Lakes, 2010). Moreover, livestock contributes about 60-70% of the livelihoods of the Ethiopian population (Tessema, et al., 2010).Although the country holds the largest livestock population in Africa, production is too low mainly due to poor genetic performance, nutrition, management, infertility, reproductive disorders and diseases accompanied with lack of veterinary and Artificial Insemination (AI) professionals hindering the growth of the dairy industry in the country (Mureda and Mekuriaw, 2007;Mekonnen, et al., 2010;Bitew and Prasad, 2011;Haileselassie, et al., 2011).Estrus (heat) detection has been cited as the most important factor affecting the reproductive success of artificial insemination programs. However, proper control of the time of estrus is difficult, since peak estrus activity often occurs at night, and determination of the actual onset of standing estrus may be difficult without 24 hour observation (Aulakh, 2008). The commonly used method of estrus detection for cow breeding is mainly visual inspection which makes estrus detection unsatisfactory in most of the dairy farms (Tsadik, et al., 2008).Visual detection is less efficient way as a result of which, in most cases, cattle remain unobserved when they came in to estrus. The case becomes severe when cows come into estrus in the evening when it is usual that people become less active and go for rest. Similarly, rectal palpation is the only feasible, available and routine methods of diagnosing pregnancy (Labago, 2007) as well as pathology of the reproductive organs or reproductive status (Tsadik, et al., 2008).Although rectal palpation is the cheapest method and results can be found quickly, inaccurate diagnosis of pregnancy at an early stage, in accurate reproductive status and loss of embryo /fetuses are the common disadvantages of this method (Franco, et al., 1987). Rectal palpation is usually carried out late, after 60 days post-services by artificial insemination technicians or other animal health professionals. Poor practice and lack of experience in the field of artificial insemination (AI) and pregnancy diagnosis has been one of the main problems aggravating the poor reproductive performance. This results in loss of milk production, low calf crop as well as unnecessary feeding and management costs. This is because of mis-diagnosing non pregnant cows and heifers as if they are pregnant and vice versa. All leads the owners to take inappropriate management decision and practices such as extended calving interval, abortion and selling of pregnant cows by mistake (Lobago, 2007).Anestrous and repeat breeding are among the major and common problems affecting the reproductive performance of dairy cattle in Tigray (Tsadik, et al., 2008). It has been reported that heifers never bred until they are three or more years old. Similarly, postpartum anestrous leads to very long inter-calving intervals in local and crossbred cattle (Mukasa-Mugerwa, et al., 1991;Tsadik, et al., 2008). Additionally, ovarian cyst (follicular or luteal cyst) is one of the common factors causing sub fertility/infertility in some of the anoestrus and repeat breeding dairy cows (Tsadik, et al., 2008). Cystic ovarian disease cause extended calving interval (Vanholder, et al., 2006) by disrupting the normal estrous cycle of the animal. Poor farm management, nutrition and health condition of cattle in smallholder farms have also reported to affecting the fertility of dairy cattle in Tigray region (Tsadik, et al., 2008).Fertility is an important factor for the production and profitability in dairy herds (Gokhan, et al., 2010). A calving interval of 12 to 13 months is generally considered to be economically optimal, but often difficult to achieve. To meet this goal cows must cycle and become pregnant within an average of 85 days postpartum. However, a long postpartum anoestrous period is a very common problem in cows reared in a tropical environment (Million, et al., 2011).In dairy cattle, detection of estrus can be difficult due to a number of factors including the incidence of silent estrus. Hormonal treatments designed to control both luteal and follicular function has permitting efficient synchronizations of time of ovulation. Thus, the AI can be performed in a large number of animals on a fixed schedule without the need for detection of estrus. Using these management techniques, the fixed-time artificial insemination (FTAI) can overcome the problem of accurate estrus detection and help in reducing the incidence of repeat breeding. In addition, with FTAI in cattle operations, it is possible to facilitate management practices and commercialization, and to reduce the time and semen wasting with animals inseminated at incorrect times (Letícia, et al., 2011).The benefits of using technological options and approaches to improve supply of desirable animal genetic material that incorporates estrus synchronization and AI can be tremendous. These systems allow producers to reach certain production or economic goals quicker than natural service and can open the doors to value added markets as well by shortening and concentrating the calving and breeding season; inducing anestrous cows and pre-pubertal heifers to cycle; introducing new genetics into the herd; increasing calf performance and weaning weights with earlier birthdates; enabling more cows to be artificially inseminated to a genetically superior bull and decreasing the labor cost for heat detection (Bambal and Jais, 2011).Therefore, it is essential to introduce and implement appropriate technologies for improving the existing genetic makeup of dairy cattle generally in the region and particularly in the study area.Infertility is the main influencing factor that adversely affects the production and productivity of local and crossbred cows and heifers in Ethiopia. Consequently, cow and calf production and productivity continues to be unsatisfactory. Calving interval is generally longer than 12 months in most cows, including crossbreds, kept by small holder farmers. Heifers are reported to have a higher age at first calving (Shiferaw, et al., 2003) and rarely calve every 12-13 months after the first calving. In an attempt to reverse this On the basis of the objectives formulated above the following research questions are raised to be investigated. What is the difference on estrus response and conception rates following single and double dose prostaglandin hormone administered to local and crossbred cows and heifers? Is there any difference on estrus duration time after single and double dose injection of PGF2α? What is the success rate of AI when given at fixed time and following the detection of reliable estrus in cows and heifers? Are AI technicians efficient enough in detecting CL in cows using rectal palpation?Estrus synchronization is a farm management technique used to bring a group of animals in a same stage of estrus cycle so that they may come into estrus and ovulate at the same time. It is a good management tool for programmed breeding that can help beef and dairy producers to improve production and reproduction efficiency and economic returns. It can help shorten the breeding and calving seasons and produce calves more uniform in age and weight (Fike, et al., 1999). Hence leading to programmed feeding and easier management of the cows being at the same stage of gestation. Finally, the calving will also be easy and convenient due to expected date of calving spread over a shortest possible period (Sattar, 2002).The history of estrous cycle synchronization and the use of artificial insemination in cattle is a testimony to how discoveries in basic science can be applied to advance the techniques used for livestock breeding and management (Beal, 2002).The first successful synchronization of estrus in cattle was reported in 1948 (Christian and Casida, 1948). Since then more concentration was focused towards research on estrous synchronization and development of estrous synchronization products. Synchronizing estrous cycles of domestic cattle depends on control of the functional life span of the corpus luteum (Hansel and Convey, 1983). There are two ways to facilitate control of the corpus luteum that result subsequently in estrus and ovulation. The first method involves long term administration of a progestin with subsequent regression of the corpus luteum during the time the progestin is administered (Britt, 1987). Estrus and ovulation occur within 2 to 8 days after progestin withdrawal. The second method involves the administration of a luteolytic agent that shortened the normal life span of the corpus luteum. This is accompanied generally with estrus and ovulation within 48 to 120 hours after injection.It is known that no enough selection and improvement for productivity has been performed on the indigenous cattle. Nevertheless, the indigenous cattle are known to have special merit of coping with the harsh environments of the country. On the other hand, the high performing exotic cattle cannot cope with the harsh environments of the country.Therefore, improvement on the indigenous cattle for productivity without losing traits, which are essential for survival, has been proposed (MoA, 1996).Artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer (ET) management programs are highly dependent upon accurate heat detection procedures to achieve successful results.Conducting two to three daily visual heat detection observations of the cattle herd during the AI breeding season could lead to economic benefits to beef and dairy producers.Efficient heat detection, however, is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and requires good management and recordkeeping. Undetected heats in an AI program play a significant role in lowering reproductive efficiency by increasing the number of \"open days,\" which in turn results in longer calving intervals and ultimately reduces the net return to the producer (DuPonte, 2007).The use of AI in Ethiopia is growing but estrus detection is difficult owing to poorly expressed estrus of Zebu breeds (Mukassa-Mugerwa, et al., 1989). Similarly, Tegegne, et al.,1989, Bekele, et al.,1991) have shown that the short duration and low intensity of estrus signs in Ethiopian Zebu cattle caused most estrus detection failures which indicates a need for the use of current advances in AI, such as estrus synchronization.A successful estrous synchronization program requires an understanding of the estrous cycle. Estrous behavioral events are physiological changes leading to ovulation and sexual receptivity. This periodic pattern of sexual receptivity is the result of an organized and complex series of changes that occur in the reproductive system of cattle. Bovine estrus has been described as a short period (approximately 15 to 18 h) of sexual receptivity that is manifested every 18 to 24 days, with ovulation occurring 10 to 14 h after the cessation of behavioral signs of estrus (Esslemont, et al., 1980;Allrich, 1993).Estrogen production by the developing follicle results in a surge in the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary which stimulates maximum estrogen production by the follicle.The behavioral changes that occur at this time are used as the primary indicators of estrus. Estrous behavior expression in female cattle has a significant influence on the success of artificial breeding. The target of getting one calf annually per cow may only be achieved with proper detection of estrus and subsequent successful breeding. Standing behavior is one of several visual estrus symptoms (Diskin and Sreenan, 2000;Roberts, 1986). It shows that the female cattle are clearly in estrus (Yaniz, et al., 2006;DuPonte, 2007). Cows enter standing estrus gradually; secondary signs that an animal is getting close to standing estrus will progress until the animal stands to be mounted (Diskin and Sreenan, 2000) such as following, standing with, head resting, sniffing, nuzzling, licking, and grouping with other cows in or near estrus. These animals are active, nervous, restless, bawling, walking and searching (Allrich, 1993). However, none of the above behavior alone is a positive determination of standing estrus except standing to be mounted by a bull or another cow/heifer which is the only conclusive sign that an animal is in standing estrus and ready to be inseminated (Perry, 2004).Many factors affect estrus expression in cattle. Some of them related to management and to the cows (Colman, 1993). Reports from Dransfield, et al. (1998) and Stevenson, et al. (1998) showed that cow related factors (age or parity) contribute largely to the low detection rates. Difference between breeds in estrous behavior and duration of expression of standing heat and environmental stress (Gwazdauskas, et al., 1981) reported to affect expression of estrous behavior.The systems of estrous control that are used to synchronize or induce heat are designed to manipulate various components or functions of the estrous cycle. In order to manipulate various components or functions of the estrous cycle to synchronize or induce heat, it is necessary to understand the estrous cycle (Michael and Thomas, 2005;Roberts, 1986).The primary glands or tissues that control the estrous cycle are the hypothalamus, pituitary, ovary, and uterus. Each of these components of the reproductive system secretes chemical compounds called hormones, which regulate its own function, or the function of other components. Many hormones are involved in control of the estrous cycle, and release into the bloodstream can be measured experimentally (Michael and Thomas, 2005;Soren, et al., 2012). The major hormones which are most commonly manipulated or administered to animals to synchronize estrus, are outlined in Table 1. PGF2α is an endogenous hormone produced by uterine endometrium. Its lipids' consisting of 20-carbon unsaturated hydroxyl fatty acids derived from arachidonic acid and is responsible for luteolysis, or degradation of the CL in cattle (Lauderdale, et al., 1974).During the normal estrous cycle of a non-pregnant animal, PGF2α is produced and released from the uterus 16 to 18 days after previous estrus. This release of PGF2α is responsible for regression of the CL. The CL is a structure in the ovary that produces progesterone and prevents occurrence of estrus. The release of PGF2α from the uterus is the triggering mechanism that eventually brings the animal to return to estrus every 21 days (Lauderdale, et al., 1974).An injection of a synthetic PGF2α will mimic natural PGF2α release to cause CL regression. Synchronized regression of the CL will synchronize a decline in progesterone and result in the final growth of the dominant follicle to produce estradiol and behavioral heat (Diskin, et al., 2002;Michael and Thomas, 2005). In cyclic females, estrus occurs within 2 to 6 days after intramuscular injections of prostaglandin F2α (Lutalyse®) or one of its analogues (ProstaMate®, Estrumate®, estroPLAN®, In-Synch®) (Islam, 2011).Anestrous cows and prepubertal heifers will not respond to an injection of PGF2α since no CL exists. If represent a major portion of the herd, response rates could be quite low.Estrous-cyclic females can respond to injections between days 7 and 16 of cycles in the presence of a functional corpus luteum. The CL is a gland that develops in the ovary and secretes the hormone progesterone into the cow's blood. Estrous-cyclic females at days 0 to 6 and 17 to 21 of their cycles are without functional CLs and do not respond to injections. Research has shown that a higher percentage of cattle treated with PGF2αduring the late luteal phase (Days 10 to 17) exhibited estrus than those treated during the early luteal phase (Days 5 to 9).It has also been shown that the closest synchrony of estrus occurs when cattle are at a similar stage of the estrous cycle when PGF2α is administered (Diskin, et al., 2002;Michael and Thomas, 2005).The effectiveness of PGF2α to induce estrus is dependent upon the presence of a responsive CL. This typically occurs from Days 5 to 17 (heifers) and 7 to 17 (cows) of the estrous cycle, however, responses are usually greatest, intermediate and least for cows in the late (Days 14-19; 95.7%, 202/211), middle (Days 10-13; 86.4%, 291/337) or early (Days 5-9; 76.9%, 173/225) stages of the estrous cycle, respectively (Xu, et al., 1997).Intervals to estrus following treatment with PGF2α are dependent on the stage of follicle development at the time of treatment; cows with mature follicles at the time of luteolysis enter estrus sooner than cows with immature follicles (Roche, et al., 1999). Two-dose treatment protocols have been developed to ensure that most cows have a CL responsive to PGF2α at the time of treatment with the second dose of PGF2α.Option 1: shows a single injection of PGF2α is given to cyclic females, and then these females are bred as express estrus. The disadvantage of this program is that 20-25% of the females will not respond to the injection, but the advantages are the lower cost of one injection and that females are only handled once other than for breeding (Islam, 2011).Option 2: Second one shot option requires detection of estrus before any PGF2α treatment is administered. The producer detects estrus for 5 days and breeds each cow as exhibits estrus. The cows that have not exhibited estrus by the fifth day are given an injection of prostaglandin, which should induce to come into estrus in about 3 to 5 days (Michael and Thomas, 2005).This option represents the greatest savings in cost and labor associated with treatments because only one injection is given and not all the cows will need it. In addition, detecting estrus for 5 days gives the producer some idea of the total number of cows that are cycling. During this 5-day period, approximately 20 to 25 percent of the cows should show estrus (4 to 5 percent per day). All cows that are cyclic should show estrus within five days after the PGF2α injection. This is the most popular protocol that uses only PGF2αto synchronize estrus and can result in more than 90% of cyclic cows being bred during the first 10 days of the season. If 4 to 5 percent of the cows are not exhibiting estrus each day, then the cows are probably not cycling. This will allow time to evaluate the effectiveness of the estrous synchronization program. The disadvantage of this program is that it requires 5 days of accurate detection of estrus before prostaglandin treatment is administered. This program is recommended because of the opportunity to determine the reproductive status of the herd before animals are treated for synchronization (Islam, 2011).The two injection programs for synchronization with PGF2α are designed to increase the proportion of females with a CL that is responsive to regression with PGF2α.Option 1 uses two injections of prostaglandin spaced 14 days apart. Detection of estrus is not required before or between injections. All cycling cows should respond to the second injection regardless of what stage of the estrous cycle were in when the first injection was administered. Remember the non-cycling cows will not generally respond to prostaglandin products. The advantage of this option is that more cows should come into estrus at any given time than with the one shot options. The disadvantage is that it involves the cost and labor of administering two injections of prostaglandin to all cows (Michael and Thomas, 2005;Păcală, et al., 2009).Option 2 the second two-shot prostaglandin injection option is give the first injection, and breed all females exhibiting estrus and then give the second injection to only females that were not breed. This option lowers expense and handling, but results in two synchronized groups instead of one and a longer breeding period. Timed insemination instead of estrous detection may be used, but conception rates are generally lower than with estrous detection. Short-term calf removal may improve the response in cyclic postpartum cows (Michael and Thomas, 2005;Păcală, et al., 2009).In the early 1970s several workers pioneered the luteolytic effect of prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) in cattle (Rowson, et al., 1972). Subsequent research efforts then attempted to improve the reproductive efficiency of dairy cattle by inducing estrus with PGF2α (Seguin, et al., 1978;Plunkett, et al., 1984). Several studies demonstrated the capacity of PGF2α and its synthetic analogues, to trigger the regression of a mature CL in the ovary, thus provoking and synchronizing estrus (Lauderdale et al., 1974;Stevenson and Pursley, 1994). When PGF2α was administered to cows with a functionally mature CL, 85 to 95% reached estrus within 7 days of treatment (Macmillan and Henderson, 1983;Armstrong, et al., 1989;Folman, et al., 1990;Rosenberg, et al., 1990); 70 to 90% showing signs of estrus 3 to 5 days after treatment (Ferguson and Galligan, 1993).Further, an enhanced estrus response and normal fertility were reported when PGF2α was given at the late, rather than early to middle stage of the luteal phase (Tanabe and Hann, 1984;Watts and Fuquay, 1985;Xu, et al., 1997). Thus, the 14 days interval double prostaglandin regimen seems to show an improved response over the 11 days protocol, since two treatments given 14 days apart ensures that most animals are in the late luteal stage (cycle Day 11 to 14) when they receive the second PGF2α dose (Folman, et al., 1990;Rosenberg, et al., 1990;Young, 1989).Considerable research has been carried out in order to develop technologies to synchronize and efficiently detect estrus. In the past, reproductive management protocols have focused on the synchronization of estrus using PGF2α. These were very successful when cows were bred after a detected estrus. Detection of estrus increases and management of AI is more efficient when estrus is synchronized with PGF2α in contrast to daily detection of estrus (Stevenson and Pursley, 1994). Nevertheless, synchronization with PGF2α does not control the time of AI because estrus detection is still required. Lucy, et al., (1986) showed that cows receiving a fixed time AI at 72 to 80 hr after a second injection of PGF2α resulted in pregnancy rates considerably lower (P < 0.05) compared to cows receiving AI at a detected estrus alone. Low pregnancy rates related to timed AI following treatment with PGF2α may be explained by the variation in time of ovulation with respect to time of AI. This variation in time of ovulation is due to the deviation in stage of the pre-ovulatory follicle at the time of PGF2α injection (Pursley, et al., 1997). If a fully developed and functional dominant follicle is present at PGF2α injection, the time to and variation in time to ovulation, or estrus are significantly less than if the dominant follicle is early in development (Cavalieri, et al., 2008).Estrus synchronization protocols have been used to reduce labor and time associated with estrus detection and artificial insemination. Enhanced regulation of estrus depends on controlling the corpus luteum as well as follicular development. Prostaglandin F2α given in two doses, 14 days apart, has been used as a method of estrus synchronization which has limited time required for detecting estrus. Cows synchronized with two prostaglandin injections, 14 days apart, have produced pregnancy rates of 84% (Folman, et al., 1990).Despite successful conception rates, intense estrus detection is necessary for 2 to 5 days following treatment. In order to increase the efficiency of AI in the dairy industry, producers must be presented with an AI program designed to coordinate follicular maturation and luteal regression closely such that ovulation can be predicted. This would eliminate the need for the detection of estrus, permitting insemination at a prescribed time. (Cavalieri, et al., 2008).Two PGF2α injections, separated by 14 days, would offer partial synchronization of follicular development before luteal regression. If a group of cycling cows is in random stages of the estrous cycle at the time of the first of two PGF2α administrations, luteolysis should be induced in those cows in day 5 to 15 of the estrous cycle, while the rest remain unaffected. At the second PGF2α administration, the initially responsive group should be in the early stages of a new cycle, and the remainder would be in a broader range of the estrous cycle, allowing for a leuteolytic response to PGF2α (Lauderdale, 2002;Wiltbank, et al., 2002).This practice would yield a greater number of cows that will have a maturing second wave dominant follicle capable of ovulating in response to a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) induced lutenizing hormone (LH) surge than would a GnRH administration given at a random stage of the estrous cycle. A controlled release of GnRH capable of stimulating an LH surge would greatly reduce the time span of ovulations within a group of synchronized cows and greatly benefit reproductive management when breeding at a fixed time. Therefore, following the PGF2α dosage, a timed insemination protocol such as OvSynch could be incorporated. OvSynch consists of a GnRH injection, PGF2α administration 7 days later followed in 48 hr by administration of GnRH (Pursley, et al., 1997). The combination of the two protocols (two PGF2α injections 14 days apart followed by OvSynch) is known as PreSynch.Several researchers have noted normal or above normal fertility following synchronization of estrus with PGF2α in cows (Macmillan and Day, 1982;Lucy et al., 1986;Wenzel, 1991). Young and Henderson (1981) found no significant difference in conception rates after a double 11 days interval treatment regime using a prostaglandin analogue among cows inseminated only once at the fixed time of 75 to 80 hr (46%), cows inseminated twice at 72 and at 96 hours (47%) and control untreated cows (50%). Neither were differences found in cows timed AI following double 14 days PGF2α treatment compared to natural estrus (Macmillan, et al., 1977;Roche and Prendiville, 1979). However, reduced conception rates due to variations in the time of ovulation have been noted after timed AI, either following single (Fetrow and Blanchard, 1987;Archbald, et al., 1992) or double (Waters and Ball, 1978;Stevenson, et al., 1987) PGF2α administration, compared to AI at detected estrus. Reproductive performance in dairy cattle was also improved following double 14 days PGF2α treatment without assessing ovarian status when compared to a single dose based on detecting a CL by rectal palpation or by milk progesterone enzyme immunoassay (Heuwieser, et al., 1997). Tenhagen, et al., (2000) observed that timed insemination following double 14 days PGF2α treatment reduced the number of days open in lactating dairy cows when compared to AI performed at observed estrus.Fertility is high following PGF2α synchronization. Most studies indicate that conception rates are similar for beef cows or heifers synchronized with PGF2α and those bred after a naturally occurring heat. In one of the largest experiments (3,443 head) Moody and Lauderdale (1977) reported that cows or heifers bred 12 hr. After detection of a PGF2αsynchronized estrus had a conception rate of 59%. Untreated cows and heifers in the same herds achieved a 62% conception rate when bred 12 hr. After a natural heat. While some studies have demonstrated a tendency for animals treated with PGF2α late in the estrous cycle to have higher fertility, that trend has been inconsistent.Progesterone analysis of milk samples can be used to study the postpartum ovarian activity in the dairy cow. Firstly, a period of low progesterone levels after calving occurs when the cow exhibits a period of anoestrus (Lamming and Bulman, 1976). This period is followed by an increased progesterone level, which is indicative of the first postpartum ovulation. The cavity of the ovulated follicle is gradually filled with progesteronesecreting luteal cells, which forms the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum then dominates the estrus cycle during the luteal phase with high progesterone levels for about 14 days from about the fourth day after ovulation. After that, the corpus luteum is degenerated and a new ovulation can occur unless the cow becomes pregnant and the corpus luteum is maintained during the pregnancy (Peters and Ball, 1995).Since prostaglandins are being used more frequently in synchronization programs for lactating cattle and the effectiveness of this treatment depends on the presence of a functional corpus luteum on the ovary progesterone analysis is useful in verifying if a corpus luteum is present. In the mid-1980's, kits for performing the progesterone enzyme immunoassay procedure became commercially available to dairy producers and veterinarians. This procedure is considered a cow side test since it can be performed on the farm or in a veterinary clinic (Friggens, et al., 2008). It is important, however that the farmer receives proper instruction on milk sampling assay procedures, and interpretation of the results. This enzyme immunoassay is designed to determine relative rather than absolute concentrations of progesterone, and results are classified as either low or high.In most kits, assays produce a color reaction that can be read visually or through an electronic scanner (Peters and Ball, 1995).Since, induction of estrus was brought about by the luteolytic effect of PGF2α on the mature CL, the success of PGF2α primarily depends on the presence of a mature functional CL in the ovary. (Kristula, et al., 1992). Therefore, the stage of estrous cycle at the time of administration of the drug influence the ability of prostaglandin to induce luteolysis in cows (Johnson, 1978;Jackson, et al., 1979;Hansen, et al., 1987).The stage of follicular wave development at the time of PGF2α treatment appears to be the factor determining the time of estrus onset (Ferguson and Galligan, 1993;Adams, 1994;Twagiramungu, et al., 1995). Thus, the time elapsed between PGF2α treatment and the onset of estrus depends on the stage of the estrous cycle at the time of PGF2α treatment (Macmillan and Henderson, 1983;Stevenson, et al., 1984;Tanabe and Hann, 1984).In the same way, Kastelic and Ginther (1991) reported that the time from the administration of PGF2α to ovulation is dependent on the maturity of the most recently emergent dominant follicle. The time of ovulation is therefore dependent on the size of this follicle at luteolysis, because a small dominant follicle takes longer to grow into an ovulatory follicle. Kastelic and Ginther (1991) also reported that when dominant follicle had reached the static phase, the time from treatment to ovulation was 3 days, and if a new dominant follicle emerged at the time of luteolysis, the time from treatment to ovulation was 4.5 days. Several studies have reported that the stage of estrous cycle at the time of prostaglandin administration greatly influences the conception rate in dairy cows. Armstrong (1988) reported that the conception rate among the cows treated on Day 13 (71 %) was significantly higher when compared to the cows treated on Day 8 (46 %).The level of progesterone levels prior to ovulation following the administration of prostaglandin affect the fertility of cows in synchronized estrus. Folman, et al., (1990) found that cows conceiving to AI at induced estrus had higher progesterone levels during the preceding luteal phase than those not conceiving. However, Gyawu, et al., (1991) showed that excessively long periods of high progesterone prior to insemination can suppress fertility. It has also been reported that estrus was manifested in more percentage of cows (84 %) that had high progesterone concentrations, > 3.1 ng/ml. the day of the last PGF2α injection than did cows with low progesterone levels (56 %).The fertility of estrus, induced with different analogues of prostaglandin was reported to be similar to that of estrus induced with PGF2α (Martinez and Thibier, 1984;Seguin, et al., 1985). However, El-Menoufy and Abdou (1989) reported that the estrus synchronization rate was higher in cows treated with cloprostenol (90 %) when compared to cows treated with prostaglandin (82%). Schams and Karg (1982) compared the luteolytic action of alfaprostol, cloprostenol, prosolvin and tiaprost in heifers and reported that there was difference among the various analogues concerning their luteolytic action on the CL.Wenzel, (1991) reported that a greater proportion of cows with unobserved estrus show luteolysis and behavioral estrus when treated with PGF2α and fenprostalene than cows treated with cloprostenol (Colazo, et al., 2002)..Use of PGF2α for synchronization of estrus had less success in Bos indicus when compared to Bos taurus (Hardin and Randel, 1982). Hansen, et al., (1987) reported that Brahman heifers required higher dose of alfaprostol than Brahman cows for synchronization of estrus. Interval to estrus after PGF2α is affected by age and breed (Burfening, et al., 1978) and season (Britt, 1979). (Britt, 1979) recorded the influence of season in response to PGF2α affects the estrous behavior and conception rate. They recorded a high conception rate when synchronization program was conducted during July (50 %) than in December (20 %).The effect of genotype (breed) on mounting activity and duration of expression of estrus were reported in many previous experiments. Plasse, et al., (1970)   (Lamothe, et al., 1995), a good part due to genetics.The luteolytic action of PGF2α is used considerably as a drug for estrus synchronization and controlled breeding schemes with the objective to improve the reproductive performance of dairy cows. However, a proportion of failures occur, mainly cows not exhibiting estrus within the expected time period following the injection of PGF2α (Wenzel, 1991). The reasons for the failure of luteolytic action of PGF2α are reviewed below.Gynaecological examination by way of rectal palpation of ovary is often done to detect a mature CL before PGF2α administration (Wenzel, 1991). One major reason for decrease in the success of estrus synchronization following administration of prostaglandin is due to the unreliability of CL palpation by rectal examination (Ott, et al., 1986). The accuracy of rectal palpation in determining the presence or absence of mature CL has been reported by various authors (Watson and Munro, 1980;Mortimer, et al., 1983). Even though the handling serum (Vahdat, et al., 1979;Fahmi, et al., 1985) and plasma (Vahdat, et al., 1984) samples have been shown to affect progesterone assay results, the concentration of progesterone in plasma (Boyd and Munro, 1979), Serum (Mortimer, et al., 1983) or milk (Watson and Munro, 1980) was used as the standard against which palpation for the presence or absence of mature CL was judged. Ott, et al., (1986) showed that there was only 77 % agreement between diagnosis of CL by experienced palpator and the progesterone concentration. Further, they reported that identification of a CL by rectal palpation was 85 % accurate and no CL was false as many times as it was true. Whereas, Seguin, et al., (1978) and Dailey, et al., (1986) reported palpation error up to 6 % during identification of a CL by rectal palpation. Similarly, Kelton, et al., (1991) reported that the success of estrus synchronization depends on the accurate identification of a mature CL by rectal palpation.Another reason that affects the potential use of PGF2α in improving the pregnancy rate in the herd is due to the presence of often a very high number of cows in estrus at a given time after the administration of PGF2α for synchronized estrus, which reduces the estrus detection efficiency in the herd (Seguin, et al., 1985).It has been shown that there is a positive correlation between the level of progesterone in plasma (Lucy, et al., 1986;Folman, et al., 1990;Stevens, et al., 1993) or in milk (Dailey, et al., 1986) and the conception rate in PGF2α induced estrus indicating that the conception rate in cows following PGF2α injection has been positively correlated with the plasma concentration of progesterone that is reached during the days preceding the luteolysis (Folman, et al., 1990). Stevens, et al., 1993, observed that the efficacy of prostaglandin as luteolytic agent is reduced when it is administered along with GnRH.Another limiting factor in the use of PGF2α, is the variation in the duration of onset of estrus after the injection of the drug and estrus is not being precisely synchronized. This duration of onset of estrus following the injection of PGF2α ranges from 2 to 5 days in cattle (Watts and Fuquay, 1985;Dailey, et al., 1986). When PGF2α is administered to the cows having functionally mature CL, 85 to 95 % of the cows would be in estrus within Day 7 of injection (Macmillan and Henderson, 1983;Armstrong, et al., 1989;Folman, et al., 1990;Rosenberg, et al., 1990) and 70 to 90 % of these cows will exhibit the estrus on Day 3 to 5 after the injection of PGF2α (Ferguson and Galligan, 1993). This variation in the time of ovulation is the major obstacle, which causes substantially lower pregnancy rate per AI in timed insemination when compared to AI after a detected estrus induced by PGF2α in lactating dairy cows (Lucy, et al., 1986;Stevenson, et al., 1987;Archbald, et al., 1992).The synchronization protocols are measured by synchronization rate (the percentage of females detected in estrus compared with the total number treated), conception rate (the percentage of females becoming pregnant compared with those exhibiting estrus and inseminated during the synchronized period) and pregnancy rate (the percentage of females becoming pregnant compared with the total number treated) (Lucy, et al., 2004;Lamb, et al., 2006).The and West, respectively. The altitude of the district ranges from 1800 to 3200 m.a.s.l.(WOARD, 2014). The study site or tabia (Peasant association) was Baati May Mesanu.Farmers practice mixed farming system comprising crop, livestock, and agro-forestry sub-systems. Livestock husbandry is the main integral part of the farming system of the district (WOARD, 2014). According to the national agro-ecological zonation, the study area falls under the Central Cereal Production Zone, classified as wheat and barley production area with uni-modal rainfall pattern (USAID, 2000). The annual rainfall of the wereda varies from 350 to 650 mm while the rainfall pattern is erratic and unpredictable.Out of the total annual rainfall greater than half falls between July and August. The mean minimum and maximum temperature ranges from 8 to 25 0 C (WOARD, 2014).Atsbi Wemberta district is located in Eastern zone of Tigray National Regional State at 13 0 36' and 14 0 06' north latitude and 39 0 39' and 39 0 48' east longitude. Geographically, it is located between 13 0 46' -13 0 59' N latitude and 39 0 36'-39 0 42' E longitude (WOFP, 2014). The altitude ranges from 1900 -2460 meters above sea level.The study site or tabia (Peasant association) is Genfel. The livelihood of all inhabitants of the district fully depends on subsistent agriculture. The dominant types of agriculture in the district is mixed crop livestock farming system, but small scale rain fed crop farming is the main pillar of livelihood in the district. The area exhibits uni-modal type of erratic and unreliable rainfall distribution which occurs between June and August ranging from 350-450m.m. Besides to the major rain fed farming, irrigation is also practiced in some areas especially since 2005 due to the high attention given by the government to water harvesting and utilization (WOARD, 2014). Annual temperature varies from 17 -23 0 c maximum monthly average temperature is May/June, whereas the minimum temperature is in October and December (WOFP, 2014). The experimental animals includes a total of 240 local and crossbred cows (parity ranging between 1 and 5 and postpartum period > 60 days) and heifers having body weight above 230 kg were selected and used. Two breeds local (n= 120) and crossbred (n=120) were used. Their body condition score at the beginning of the experiment was 4 -6 on a scale of 1 to 9 which is 1=emaciated and 9=obese (Roche, et al. 2009). This body condition score was subjectively give to females to describe overall body condition, fat cover and flesh over the ribs, loin and tail head.From each three district one potential station (tabia) was selected purposively. 120 local and 120 crossbred cows and heifers were selected from the three districts. The animals were selected purposely based on availability of feed, body condition, age, health status and absence of pregnancy during synchronization. Pregnancy diagnosis was conducted using rectal palpation before starting the experiment to avoid the risk of abortion by PGF2α. Animals were diagnosed for the presence of any reproductive disorder clinically.Finally, 120 animals were assigned for single dose synchronization protocol, 60 for double dose synchronization protocol and the remaining 60 Animals for fixed time AI regime after double injection of the PGF2α hormone. Source: WOARD (Ganta-afeshum, Atsbiwemberta, and Kilte-awlaelo weredas, 2014).Multi-stage sampling techniques were applied in sample selection processes. In the first stage, the study areas comprising of three districts of the \"LIVES project\" were selected purposively on the basis of availability of local and crossbred of cows and heifers, long time experience in artificial insemination services, availability of feed, and accessibility of the weredas. Finally, sample size was determined by using the following formula. The sample size determination formula provided by Yemane (1967) to determine the required. In the second stage, from three district one potential tabia was selected purposively. In the third stage, 120 local and 120 crossbreds of cows and heifers were selected purposively from each district. Study subjects were purposively selected based on estrus synchronization through hormonal treatment is naturally and technically practical if and only if some pre-conditions or pre-requisite characters that must be fulfilled by the selected cows and heifers for estrus synchronization. The study design was experimental with two treatment groups running in three steps. In the first step, the two treatment groups that are local breed cows/ heifers and crossbred cows/heifers were selected on the basis of their suitability for estrus synchronization through hormonal treatments. In the second step, each treatment group was assigned in to single and double shot frequency of hormonal injections. In the third step, the single and double dose PGF2α protocols were sub grouped on the basis of breeding techniques as breeding at fixed time and breeding according to estrus detection.Experimental animals were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment protocols (1=single PGF2α injection; and 2=double PGF2α injection). Prior to the start of the experiment, reproductive organs of animals were palpated per rectum to confirm the reproductive stage, presence of mature corpus luteum and whether they were free from any obvious reproductive tract abnormalities.Animals allocated to protocol 1 (n=120) were injected (2ml) PGF2α (Synchromate, Bremer Pharma GMBH, Germany, 1 ml solution of Synchromate contains cloprostenol 0.263mg equal to cloprostenol 0.250mg,) intramuscular (IM) on Day 0. Animals were observed for any external symptoms of estrus (for example, clear vaginal discharge, mounting other cattle, allowing other cattle to mount them, and other related signs) after 24 hrs following the treatment. Animals allocated to protocol 2 (n=120) were injected (2ml) PGF2α (Synchromate) on Day 0, which was followed by administration of same dose of PGF2α (Synchromate) IM on day 14. Animals were observed for estrus expression after 24 hours of the second injection of PGF2α. Animals were recorded whenever observed in estrus with assigned value.The following figures illustrate the single and double dose injection and time schedule of synchronization protocols. The first group was given single administration of PGF2α IM and bred according to estrus. Whereas, the second group was injected with two doses of 2ml PGF2α IM each at 14 days interval, estrus was detected after second administration of PGF2α. In both treatment groups, animals were inseminated either following visual observation of heat signs and rectal palpation, or inseminated at fixed time (without heatSingle shot of PGF2α was given for 120 cows/ heifers (group 1) and double shot for 120 cows/heifers (group 2) based on body condition, parity level and pedigree information.Females from the experimental groups were synchronized with synthetic analogues of PGF2α (Synchromate) using the following experimental protocols:The first group was injected with intramuscular administration of a single dose of 500μgPGF2α, then detection of females in heat in the next 5 days and AI. The second group was injected with intramuscular administration of two doses of 500μg PGF2α each at 14 days interval, heat detection after the second dose of PGF2α and fixed time AI were used.Estrus synchronization in these cows and heifers was done by the exogenous administration of PGF2α. It is synthetic analogue of prostaglandin structurally related to PGF2α containing Cloprostenol sodium 0.263 mg equivalent to cloprostenol 0.250 mg/ml, manufactured by BREMER PHARMA GMBH GERMANY. The production and expiry dates were noted and has dose of 500 μg, i.e., 2 ml intramuscularly in cows. Rectal examination was done prior to administration of PGF2α to exclude the chances of pregnancy and to detect the presence of corpus luteum.To know more precisely the estrus onset, animals were monitored starting 24 hours after PGF2α administration 3 times a day (in the morning, at noon and late in the evening).Animals were artificially inseminated when they were detected in heat after single dose injection. In animals treated with two doses of PGF2α, heat detection were performed only after the second administration of PGF2α (Figure 2, middle). For double dose administration of PGF2α the animals were inseminated at fixed time (at 48 and 72 hours)and after estrus detection.The test was conducted using 10 to 20 ml of milk from 90 lactating dairy cows were collected to detect the level of progesterone (Zdunczyk et al., 2002) after AI technicians checks the presence of CL by rectal palpation to screen the lactating cow for synchronization from same cow. Milk samples were collected from clinically healthy udder and teats by hand milking of the four quarters after discarding the first milk drops (after fourth milk drop). For RPHDT no additives were added to the raw whole milk as the test was conducted at the farms immediately after collection. First, raw whole milk samples were shacked very well. Milk progesterone level was determined by shaking the entire milk sample and then sub-sampling 0.5 ml of whole raw milk. Sampling was done using separate pipettes for each cow. Then, Dipstick (P4 Rapid, Ridgeway Science Ltd, Gloucestershire, UK) was placed in to the test tubes containing sample and left for a maximum of 10 minutes, according to manufacturer's instruction.Findings were interpreted as: When the dipstick showed only one strong line indicates high progesterone level -the cow was not in heat, it may be pregnant or in its diestrous stage (luteal phase) and there was functional corpus luteum. Whereas, when the dipstick showed two strong lines indicates very low P4 level -the cow was definitely not pregnant and there was no functional corpus luteum. When the dipstick showed one strong top line and one faint line it means that low P4 level -the cow may be in its metestrous or proestrous stage (going out or approaching to estrus).Cows and heifers were observed for estrus signs at 24, 48, 72, 96, and > 96 hours and the number of cows and heifers with no response after hormonal treatment were considered as anestrus in each treatment group. The time interval from the PGF2α administration to the onset of estrus, for the females treated with a single dose of PGF2α and two doses of PGF2α at 14 days was recorded for cows and heifers that manifested heats at 24,48,72,96 and greater than 96 hours. Cows that exhibit estrus were artificially inseminated by experienced technician using frozen semen after PGF2α injection.The number of pregnant cows and heifers after artificial insemination was computed as a percentage of cows and heifers exhibiting estrus during the synchronized period in each treatment group. Pregnancy diagnosis was conducted by rectal palpation 60 days after AI.The percentage of females that became pregnant of those exhibiting estrus and inseminated during the synchronized period was evaluated after insemination at fixed time and after estrus detection in all experimental animals.PGF2α is only effective if administered between days 6 to 17 of the oestrous cycle when functional corpus luteum is available in one of the ovaries . By using RPHDT in milk of lactating dairy cows it is possible to evaluate the CL detection efficiency of artificial insemination technician (Dobson and Fitzpatrick, 1976;Friggens, et al., 2008).First AI technicians checked the presence of CL through rectal palpation to screen the lactating cows for synchronization. Then to perform comparative evaluation of the efficiency of AI technicians milk was collected from 90 lactating cows for 9 AI technicians and RPHDT dipstick was placed in to the test tubes containing sample and left for 10 minutes and the presence of CL was evaluated based on high or low P4 level (Colour of the dipstick).The independent variables of importance in this study were those variables which were thought to have influence on the dependent variables of the study. These include breed, body condition, parity, frequency of injection, time of heat expression and time of insemination of the sampled cows and heifers (Table 4).To analyze the effectiveness of fixed time AI and AI at detected estrus on the conception rate of cows and heifers, GLM called binary Logistic Model and expressed as odds ratio and 95% confidence interval.To analyze the ability of AI technicians to correctly classify the presence/absence of active corpus luteum as verified by RPHDT kit was analyzed using quadratic discriminant function, and there was an assumption of no equal covariance matrices among AI technicians and descriptive Statistics such as frequencies and percentages was applied.The statistical model used in this analysis was logistic regression model and expressed as:Where  πij is the probability of the presence of the event of interest (estrus response, duration of estrus response and conception rate) In all the comparisons, the level of significance was set at α< 0.05. Modelling was continued until all the main effects or interaction terms were significant according to the Wald statistic at P < 0.05.The Tigray national regional state science and technology agency health ethical review committee had been critically reviewed the proposal in the context of research ethics and conclude that, there is no ethical problem on the objectives and methodology of the proposal and authorized to implement the research project in the field work. The ethical clearance paper is attached in the appendix V. Among 120 cows and heifers synchronized using single shot injection of PGF2α, 84.2% (n=101) of them came to heat as visually observed and 15.8% (n=19) did not manifest heat. The estrus manifestation rate of the local and crossbreds treated with single injection of PGF2α were 78.3% (n=47) and 90% (n=54), respectively. Crossbred cattle was found higher proportion (90%) of estrus response than local breeds after single dose of PGF2α injection. The odds of estrus response in crossbreds were found to be 2.5 times more likely than local breeds (OR=2.5; 95%CI: 0.876, 7.066). The estrus expression rate of local and crossbreds treated with double dose PGF2α injection were 93.3% (n=28) for both breeds and 6.8 %( n=4) did not manifest heat.There was no significant difference between the local breeds detected in estrus compared to the crossbreds. Estrus expression rate of local and crossbred cows and heifers synchronized with single and double shot hormonal treatment programs are summarized in Fig. 3.   Among cows and heifers placed under double dose PGF2α injection about 6.7% (n=4) of them did not manifest heat, where as 6.7% (n= 4) and 38.3% (n=23) of cows and heifers manifested heat at 24 and 72 hrs. respectively (Fig. 6). The analysis for single dose PGF2α injection and estrus manifestation showed that among 120 local and crossbred cattle, 24.2% (29), and 60% (72) of them manifested heat before 24hrs and after 72 hrs of PGF2α administration, respectively. However, the rest 15.8% Among 153 animals inseminated after treatment with single and double dose injection of PGF2α 62.7% (n=96) of them conceived, where as 37.2% (n=57) animals did not conceived. A total of five animals were sold from all experimental animals. The conception rate of the local and crossbreds animals inseminated after single and double dose injection of PGF2α were 59.6% (n=59) and 68.5 %( n=37) respectively. Higher proportion (68.5%) of conception rate was recorded among cows and heifers that received double injection. The odds of conception rate in cows and heifers that received double injection was 47% more likely to conceive compared with females that received single injection (OR=1.47; 95% CI: 0.732, 2.973). The conception rate of 73 local and 80 crossbreds treated with single and double dose injection of PGF2α were 61.6% (n=45) and 63.7% (n=51) respectively.The conception rate was higher in crossbreds (63.7%) than local breeds (61.6%). The odds of conception rate in crossbreds was 9% more likely to conceive than local breeds (OR=1.09; 95%CI: 0.567, 2.108).The result of the study also showed that, from 47 heifers and 106 cows synchronized using both protocols of PGF2α injection, 67% (n=31) and 61.3% (n=65), respectively, conceived. The odds of conception rate in cows was 19% less likely to conceive than heifers, (OR=0.81; 95%CI: 0.398, 1.679).  Conception rate of local and crossbred cows and heifers synchronized with single and double dose hormonal treatment programs are summarized in Fig. 9. Among animals tested for progesterone level prior to synchronization using RPHDT 57%(51/90) had high progesterone level, while 43% (39/90) showed low progesterone level. Largely abundant, clear and watery mucus discharge was observed following treatment with PGF2α. Higher proportion (93.3%) of estrus response was measured among cows and heifers that received double injection. Even though, there was no statically significant, cows and heifers that received double injection was 2.6 times more likely to give estrus response compared with females that received single injection. Regarding breed there was no statistical significance recorded, the likelihood of crossbred cows and heifers to manifest estrus was higher. Remember the non-cycling and unhealthy cows will not generally respond to prostaglandin products.The result with single dose PGF2α obtained from this experiment is higher than other previous works reported by (Păcală, et al., 2009) from the 70 females with known estrous cycle hormonal stimulated with a single dose of PGF2α, 67.1% (n= 47) manifested heats.It is also higher than what was reported in Hawassa-Dilla Milk shed, SNNPR (76.1%) conducted in mass synchronization campaign (IPMS, 2011). Though this result seems a little bit lower comparing it with previous work in the region, that reported 100% for Adigrat-Mekelle Milkshed in Tigray (Tegegne, et al., 2012), This result obtained from single dose PGF2α injection is agrees with other previous works reported by (Macmillan and Henderson, 1983;Armstrong, et al., 1989;Folman, et al., 1990;Rosenberg, et al., 1990); who indicated that, PGF2α administration to cows with a functionally mature CL, 85 to 95% reached estrus within 7 days of treatment and (Ferguson and Galligan, 1993) Also reported cyclic animals treated with single PGF2α dose showed 70 to 90% signs of estrus 3 to 5 days after treatment. The single dose of PGF2α injection also agrees with the results of Murugavel and his colleagues (2010) who confirmed 70 to 90% estrus rate within 2 to 5 days when PGF2α was administered to cows with a functional corpus luteum. In this study, higher number of crossbred manifested estrus than local breed this is in agreement with Bo, et al., (2003) who reported poor estrus expression of Bos indicus breed in tropical environment. Further, higher estrus response rate of crossbred may be due to the higher care given for this group of animals such as giving good quality feed and close supervision by family members.Among animals treated with double dose PGF2α at 14 days interval 93% of them exhibited estrus, which is higher than the report of Păcală, et al., (2009), who reported 88.2% estrus expression rate. Enhanced estrus response was reported when PGF2α was given at the late, rather than early to middle stage of the luteal phase (Tanabe and Hann, 1984;Watts and Fuquay, 1985;Xu, et al., 1997). Since two treatments given 14 days apart ensures that most animals are in the late luteal stage (cycle Day 11 to 14) when they receive the second PGF2α dose (Folman, et al., 1990;Rosenberg, et al., 1990;Young, 1989). This practice resulted for a greater number of cows that have a maturing second wave dominant follicle capable of ovulating in response to a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) induced lutenizing hormone (LH) surge than would a GnRH administration given at a random stage of the estrus cycle.It is noted that from total 120 cows received single dose of PGF2α majority (71.3%)showed estrus after 72 hrs. and 28.7% showed after 48 hrs. the present study was higher than Păcală, et al., (2009), 68% who reported cows exhibit heat after 72 hours with single dose PGF2α administration. Further, among 60 animals received two doses of PGF2α more than half (62.5%) animal's exhibit estrus after 72 hrs, where as 37.5% of them showed before 48 hrs. This is higher than the report of Păcală, et al., (2009), who record of 28.9% cows showed estrus before 48 hrs with double dose administration of PGF2α. In the present experiment, large number of animals from both experimental groups manifested heat after 72 hours of hormonal treatment. Estrus response to treatment was impressive, it might be due to strict follow up of the animals and technicians also participated in detecting estrus through palpation per rectum after day two of treatment, Selection of cows in good body condition and with functional corpus luteum was also crucial factor for such a good estrus response.From a total of (153) cows and heifers received PGF2α from both protocols a considerable portion (62.7%) conceived. Higher proportion (68.52%) of conception rate was found among cows that received double injection. Cows subjected to double injection were more likely to conceive compared to cows with single injection.The conception rate of the total animal treated with single shot injection was 59.6%(59/99). Findings were similar with some previous work done in Awassa milkshed 57.7 % (n=94) and 61.7 % (n=119) Adigrat milk shed (Tegegne et al., 2012).The conception rate result obtained from this experiment is extremely higher than the three years ' work ( 2011-2014) reported by Tigray Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (TBoARD, 2014) in collaboration with other stakeholders conducted a mass synchronization scheme addressing 58,676 cows and heifers, using single PGF2α injection in 33 weredas of the region. The mass synchronization results showed low performance with conception rates of 31.5% (TBoARD, 2014). Selection of cows with good body condition score, free from diseases and with functional ovaries, and close follow-up and proper heat detection might have contributed to the observed higher conception rates.The conception rate was higher in crossbreds (74.1%) than local breeds (63%) treated with double dose injection of PGF2α. The conception rate result obtained from this experiment were 68.5% (37/54) in agreement with 70.5% conception rate following second PGF2α administration reported by Xu, et al., (1997) in dairy cows.AI at detected estrus resulted in higher conception rate (68.52 %) than fixed time AI (48.9%) after double dose of PGF2α injection. where findings were statistically significant (OR=2.3; 95%CI 1.009, 5.107). This result in agreement with Lucy et al., (1986) has shown that cows receiving fixed time AI at 72 to 80 hours after a second injection of PGF2α resulted in pregnancy rates considerably lower (P < 0.05) compared to cows receiving AI at a detected estrus alone.From the findings of this study it can be inferred that fixed time AI has advantage of time saving for AI technician and the farmers, but the conception rate of fixed time AI is lower than insemination after detected estrus. This may be due to synchronization with PGF2αdoes not control the time of AI because estrus detection was still required. Low pregnancy rates related to timed AI following treatment with PGF2α may be explained by the variation in time of ovulation with respect to time of AI. This variation in time of ovulation may be due to the deviation in stage of the pre-ovulatory follicle at the time of PGF2α injection (Pursley, et al., 1997).Comparing the efficiency of Nine (9) AI technicians who participated on detection of active corpus luteum through rectal palpation with the Rapid Progesterone Heat Detection Test, the minimum and maximum numbers of cows misclassified were 1 and 6, respectively, with 36.6% coefficient of variation. On average one technician misclassified 4.6 cows out of 10 cows presented for corpus luteum detection. Seguin, et al., (1978) and Dailey et al. (1986) reported palpation error up to 6% during identification of a CL by rectal palpation. The result obtained from this experiment is extremely lower than the 77% agreement between diagnosis of CL by experienced palpator and progesterone concentration reported by Ott, et al., (1986). Similarly, they reported that identification of a CL by rectal palpation was 85 % accurate. Kelton, et al., (1991) also reported that the success of estrus synchronization depends on the accurate identification of a mature CL by rectal palpation.Prostaglandin based synchronization requires the presence of active CL on the ovary. The simplest method to detect CL on the ovary is rectal palpation during synchronization.This result indicated that rectal palpation to detect ovarian status needs experienced technician and vigorous training assisted with hormonal and visual aids (ultrasound imaging) before allowing less experienced AI technicians in ovary palpation. One major reason for the decrease in the success of estrus synchronization following administration of PGF2α could be due to the unreliability of CL palpation by rectal examination (Ott, et al., 1986). The accuracy of rectal palpation in determining the presence or absence of mature CL has been reported by various authors (Watson and Munro, 1980;Mortimer, et al., 1983). The concentration of progesterone in plasma (Boyd and Munro, 1979), Serum (Mortimer et al., 1983) or milk (Watson and Munro, 1980) was used as the standard against palpation to detect the presence or absence of mature CL was judged.This study has shown that PGF2α based estrous synchronization could be implemented under smallholder farmer's condition. The overall estrus response and conception rate in the study area was high. Crossbred cattle showed higher estrus response than local breed cattle, though findings did not vary significantly. Crossbreed cattle have been given Based on this study the recommendations were set as fellows,  The single dose PGF2α synchronization protocol should be implemented with great care on appropriate animal selection and management to get high estrus response rate and highly requires setting proper heat detection mechanisms to maximize the conception rate of the animals. Fixed time insemination after synchronization with double dose injection protocol of PGF2α was showed low conception rate. So, to go for higher conception rate, it is better to implement heat detection after double dose synchronization protocol. Strict and continuous supervision of heat detection should be done after 48 hours of hormonal injection, for animals synchronized using both single and double dose injection protocols. Hands on practice are needed using visual and hormonal aids for artificial insemination technicians to improve their expertise in corpus luteum detection. The use of RPHDT at farm level and at veterinary clinics should be implemented and encouraged to assist rectal palpation and avoid false diagnosis when rectal palpation alone is used. I have evaluated estrus response and conception rate of the synchronized animals but I will intend to evaluate the calving rate of the local and crossbreds cows. Model farmers and AI technicians will be trained on the application of RPHDT to diagnose their animals and animals in the farm or veterinary clinics to diagnose their reproductive stage. Pushing the government to introduce RPHDT and ultra sound particularly to the region as well as to the country. Providing refreshment training on detection of CL through rectal palpation by using RPHDT to AI technician based on my findings.","tokenCount":"10649"}

data/part_3/0054271988.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3bfc85cfe15e4d4cab1a6a8b15b4fcad","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0cce0974-050f-4537-959c-113d392c3882/retrieve","id":"-1746780839"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"22ba6702-4837-45c0-ac44-57d9b5a9ef1d","pagecount":"19","content":"Ecosystem Services (ESS) and biodiversity depend on the interaction of multiple ecosystem types at different temporal and spatial scales, which are characterized by dynamic and non-linear relationships (Birkhofer et al. 2015;Bennett, Peterson, and Gordon 2009). There are few analytical models which can integrate or link across these different scales, capture complex behavior of (agricultural) ecosystems, and evaluate agricultural systems at different scales, from farm level to global level (Balbi et al. 2015). Even simulation models, which take a more systems oriented approach, have often focused on isolated processes and rarely examined effects of agricultural practices in multiple ecosystems (Balbi et al. 2015;Barraquand and Martinet 2011).In order to inform decision-making regarding resource allocation and planning, it is important that analytic tools and methodologies integrate ESS in the analytic process. Analysis and information presented to policy makers for consideration of appropriate policies to promote sustainable practices should be based on approaches that allow the integration or linkage of evaluation across different scales. Such approaches can consist of methodologies that can combine different modeling techniques (Balbi et al. 2015). This includes the use of different types of data, including spatially explicit quantitative and semi quantitative data and expert opinion (Balbi et al. 2015).Against this background, under the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets (PIM), Bioversity International convened the workshop Integrating Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services into Foresight Models\" to identify opportunities to enhance existing agricultural modeling capabilities to incorporate key ecosystem services, which affect sustainable agricultural productivity growth, and to support these modeling capabilities with relevant geospatial data from Bioversity and other sources. ESS considered are associated risks of pest/disease incidence, pollination, water quality and use efficiency, and soil health, which in turn are affected by agricultural crop diversity and other factors.The workshop held at Bioversity International in Rome, Italy, from 7 -8 May 2015 brought together a group of researchers and members of CGIAR centers, and other institutions who are interested in modelling biodiversity and ESS using geospatial data (see Annex 1 for a list of participants). The workshop focused on modeling at different scales: household/farm level, the agricultural sector level and the economywide level, in order to explore trade-offs and complementariness between productivity, nutrition and ESS.The workshop opened with a welcome address by Ann Tutwiler, Director General of Bioversity International, and Anita Regmi, Head of Development Impact Unit at Bioversity, followed by an introduction of participants. The workshop was organized into four main sections: i) presentation of availability and use of geospatial data ii) presentation of different economic models: household/landscape, partial equilibrium and general equilibrium models; iii) working groups on data/economic model followed by presentation of outcomes from these group discussions; and iv) final discussion (see Annex 2 for the full workshop agenda).Workshop sessions were divided in two types: presentations and group discussions. Presentations were aimed at familiarizing all participants with the different approaches of agricultural economic models and spatial data. After each presentation, participants had a chance to raise questions. Discussion groups contributed to developing a better perspective for the different agricultural economic models and data. Thus, participants were provided with a number of questions to guide the discussions.The first session had the objective to set the stage. Keith Wiebe (IFPRI) provided an update on the Global Futures and Strategic Foresight program, a CGIAR initiative led by IFPRI. Steve Prager (CIAT) discussed the current capabilities and needs for integrating biodiversity and ESS into foresight models.Session 2 consisted of three presentations related to the generation, availability and use of geospatial data. Alberto Zezza (World Bank) presented Geo-referencing in the Living Standard Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA).LSMS is an open access household survey program focused on generating high quality data, improving survey methods and building capacity. This program has the aim of facilitating the use of household survey data for policy making. LSMS-ISA is focused on agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Devra Jarvis (Bioversity International) briefly introduced Bioversity data compiled over 18 years of work (1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015) on measuring annual and perennial crop (fruit trees in Central Asia) diversity, in relation to their resilience to pests and diseases, on farms in many countries around the world. Celine Termote (Bioversity International) presented the agriculture biodiversity 4-cell assessment methodology used in all three CGIAR Systems CRPs and the related data collected by Bioversity using this methodology. Melanie Bacou (IFPRI) presented HarvestChoice, which is an open access platform that provides data on farming, cultural and socio-economic conditions with a particularly good coverage for Africa. Datasets are organized into a matrix of 10km x 10km grid cells. In addition, Harvest Choice offers interactive tools which are used for creating scenarios by manipulating and overlaying over 700 agricultural indicators (Harvest Choice 2015)Session 3 had two presentations related to the use of remote sensing to scale GIS analysis to larger geography. Chandra Biradar (ICARDA) and Michael Marshall (ICRAF) pointed out that remote sensing is a useful tool for assessing land cover change, as well as for scaling from farm level to landscape-level through the use of different spatial resolution images. It was mentioned that one of the biggest data gaps is the lack of socio-economic data in remote sensing.Session 4 focused on Partial Equilibrium Bio-Economic Modeling. The first presentation was on IMPACT model by Keith Wiebe (IFPRI). He introduced the IMPACT model, which is a global food policy model developed and maintained by IFPRI and widely applied to global projections on agricultural supply, demand and trade. IMPACT is used for ex-ante assessments of the long run impacts of changes in drivers of agricultural production and consumption such as socio-economic, technological and climate change. IMPACT currently includes 58 agricultural commodities and 320 food global production units, defined by the intersection of 159159 countries and 154 water basins. Scenarios are based on alternative assumptions about economic growth, population growth, technological change, climate change and other factors. IMPACT works at country or regional level and offers indicators of food security at national, regional and global levels. Regarding ESS and biodiversity, IMPACT currently is working only with land use and water management but the model is quite flexible, thus results can be linked with external models, such as soil and water assessment tools. IMPACT could also be linked with models of different scales. Future work envisaged with the model includes developing a nutrition model component and quality of diet indicators, as well as differentiating impacts at household group levels (such as rural/urban and poor/ non poor households).The second presentation made by Ulrich Kleinwechter (IIASA) introduced GLOBIOM, which is a partial equilibrium model of the world agricultural, forest and bioenergy sectors developed by IIASA. GLOBIOM covers 18 crops which represent 70% of cropland in 30 economic regions and up to 200,000 simulation units. In GLOBIOM, consumer and producer surplus are maximized following a spatial equilibrium modeling approach. GLOBIOM captures environmental aspects such as water, carbon sequestration, and land use, but not explicitly biodiversity. It is possible to incorporate ESS and biodiversity by using external data within the 200,000 simulation units. GLOBIOM can be linked with models of other scales. GLOBIOM worked with MIRAGE (CGE model) for biofuel studies, and EPIC (bio-physical model). Currently, the GLOBIOM team is working with IFAD to explicitly represent smallholder households in the model. For this purpose socio-demographic characteristics are taken into account.Session 5, presented the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) Model. Justin Johnson (University of Minnesota) gave a virtual presentation on this free and open source software suite developed with the aim of informing and improving natural resource management and investment decisions. InVEST consist of 18 different models for analyzing ESS: carbon, biodiversity, crop pollination, water, timber production, and others which have different data requirements. InVEST works at a household, landscape, watershed and national level. It has been used by academic institutions, international organizations (e.g. WWF, Nature Conservancy), private business and governments. The model is applied around the world, with a focus on North and South America, Africa and Asia. InVEST can provide different outputs (e.g. carbon sequestration) at different levels (e.g. household, farm), which could become inputs for bio-economic models, making it very useful for policy makers. With a view to the future, it is possible to develop and analyze future scenarios and associated impacts on ESS.Session 7 focused on Household/Landscape models. Walter Rossing (University of Wageningen) presented the Farm and Landscape IMAGES Model. IMAGES is a spatially explicit, GIS based land use optimization model, which employs the Differential Evolution optimization strategy and concepts of Pareto optimality. Similar to linear programming approaches, decision variables and objectives can be programmed for the single units. The model covers a wide range of crops and livestock. It has been applied in Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa. ESS and biodiversity are incorporated through the landscape quality, as well as dietary diversity. Tradeoffs between nutrition, environment and productivity are analyzed with a farm level model, considering gross margin vs. nature value. It is possible to incorporate ESS/biodiversity (nature value), as well as other objectives. The output of these models can be used in PE and CGE models.Felix Bianchi (University of Wageningen) presented a discussion on Pest/Disease Modeling. The model generates maps of the potential for natural pest suppression by natural enemies of agricultural pests. The model is based on a landscape scale study in which parasitism rates have been assessed in cabbage crops in the Netherlands. Being a statistical model, its main shortcoming is that the ecological mechanisms underlying the analyzed phenomena are not captured. It was mentioned that the value of biocontrol through species interaction can reach 400 million USD/year. The household DAHBSIM model was presented by Guillermo Flichman (CIHEAM-IAAM). DAHBSIM is a household model with a dynamic recursive optimization approach and non-separability between production and consumption. The annual results are used as inputs for the following year (e.g. soil conditions). Production, consumption and labor allocation choices are made simultaneously. The model covers a wide range of annual crops, livestock and some perennial crops. The model is still a work in progress, but there is an empirical application in Malawi. DAHBSIM considers joint production functions, which means that a farm produces two or more products, such as a crop and externalities (e.g. carbon sequestration, erosion, Nleaching). Water, (type of) nitrogen and nutrition could be added as a constraint in the model. The presenter mentioned that it is possible to convert the analysis to a normative approach, thus allowing for the analysis of tradeoffs between nutrition, environment and productivity. ESS and biodiversity could be incorporated in the model through the effects of land use change and the multi-product production function. DAHSIM outputs can be used in PE and CGE models.Session 8 focused on General Equilibrium Modeling. David Laborde (IFPRI) gave a presentation about MIRAGE. MIRAGE is a global CGE model that has been developed to study trade policy scenarios, covering 140 regions. MIRAGE has been applied for studies of climate change and biofuels, and nutrition is added through external modules. There is some scope for incorporating ESS and biodiversity in MIRAGE. The model is calibrated under market-clearing assumption and exogenous factors can be changed to run scenarios: policy variables, technological shifters, and supply of factors of production. Tradeoffs between nutrition, environment and productivity can be analyzed at the sectoral aggregation level. It is relatively easy to incorporate ESS and biodiversity through external modules. MIRAGE could be linked to household models. The principal shortcoming of MIRAGE for the analysis of ESS and biodiversity is that the analysis is conducted at a high level of aggregation.Sherman Robinson (IFPRI) presented GLOBE, which is a \"standard\" global CGE model that has been calibrated using data derived from the GTAP database. The model is calibrated under a market-clearing assumption and exogenous factors can be changed to run scenarios. The presentation pointed out that partial equilibrium (PE) models are more appropriate for integrating greater details of biodiversity and ESS into the analysis. But the option to link CGE and PE models allow discussing the cross-sectoral national and global level policy implications of PE-level analyses.For the group discussions, workshop participants were split into four groups dealing with the four different topics. Group discussions during the first day dealt with Data (two groups) and Partial Equilibrium (PE) Models (two groups). On the second day of the workshop, the topics for group discussion sessions were Household/Landscape Models and Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models, each discussed by two groups. Participants were provided with a number of questions to guide the discussions:1. What should be the objective of collaborative work in this area? 2. What are 3 concrete work streams which would accomplish this goal? 3. What geographic area or areas may be recommended for focus?  Consolidate what exists in terms of data and identify data gaps. Focus on methods for data integration. Working with national stakeholders could contribute to avoid data duplication. Bring together CGIAR case studies.Question 3: What geographic area or areas may be recommended for focus? Group 1 mentioned CGIAR priority countries, hotspots and major carbon emitters. Group 2 mentioned that it is important to assure that data collection has spatial and temporal overlap, with few places having deep data and a global coverage with wide data.Question 1: What should be the objective of collaborative work in this area? The main challenge is to link model outputs from PE scales to local/HH, or to link impacts of agricultural systems on ESS/biodiversity and to link the necessary data across scales. Options for addressing this challenge have to be identified. An option would be collaboration across model scales, for example using outputs from PE models in landscape models or household/farm level models. Another option would be the use of statistical approaches, e.g. from ecological modeling, to link PE model output to biodiversity and ESS.Question 2: What are 3 concrete work streams which would accomplish this goal? Identify PE model outputs that can be used to inform about ESS and biodiversity indicators and include a feedback mechanism between biodiversity and production. Establish a link between PE models and modeling approaches of other scales, e.g. landscape models, household models, or statistical ecological modeling.  Incorporate shocks into the system (ecological and economical), non-market values and genetic diversity into models.Question 2: What are 3 concrete work streams which would accomplish this goal? Work on ecological production functions, linking agrobiodiversity with ESS. Develop or look into current household/landscape dynamic models. Other suggestions were: integrate resilience concepts and parameters into the models, identify and integrate multiple resolutions of diversity and link ancillary population models for affected species groups (e.g. pests, predators, etc) to develop rules of thumb.Question 3: What geographic area or areas may be recommended for focus? Representative landscapes (under-studied ones). Across range of landscape structures (conversion) and management styles. Sentinel landscapes where Bioversity works (but some areas with no interventions to be able to assess impact of interventions).Question 1: What should be the objective of collaborative work in this area? Enhance the use of CGEs (and other models) to provide decision makers with relevant information on ESS, biodiversity and related socio-economic impacts. Look into complementarities between biophysical and CGE/PE models. CGE/PE models could be used to explore policy space to assess implications on farm level (top-down approach), as well as to feed changes in profitability or productivity from household/farm level models into CGE/PE models.Question 2: What are 3 concrete work streams which would accomplish this goal? CGEs require going beyond rural/farming households to include all the households, spill-over effects and capture externalities (positive or negative). Quantify and value (whenever possible) selected ESS. This work can be country specific with an effort to increase the coverage. This implies taking stock of existing work done, setting (adjusting) standards, elaborating a sound methodology for measurement and valuation, building a dataset, and disseminating as a public good.Question 3: What geographic area or areas may be recommended for focus? Start with one region (pilot).The workshop had aimed for the following outputs: Identify the next steps to link relevant data from Bioversity and other sources with ongoing modeling work. Narrow down and prioritize components from model enhancement consideration, together with relevant geographical area of consideration for all 3 scales of modeling efforts. Identify the next steps for developing concrete future program of work for integrating Bioversity and ESS into foresight models (see section 5).Sessions 2 and 3 focused on the generation, availability and use of geospatial data from Bioversity International, the Living Standard Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (World Bank), HarvestChoice (IFPRI) as well as the options to scale from farm level to landscape through the use of different spatial resolution images. Open access satellite images and associated databases permit for remote sensing analysis of ESS where few data are available. During Session 6, two groups discussed about data. It was a consensus that an open access meta-database of available data should be developed, in a format that could be useful for the different types of models. For this purpose a consolidation of existing data is necessary, as well as the identification of data gaps and constraints.Participants agreed that the main challenges are to link model outputs from CGE/PE scales to local/HH or vice versa, to link impacts of agricultural systems on ESS/biodiversity and to link data across scales. It was suggested that CGE/PE models could be used to explore the policy space to assess implications at the farm level (top-down approach), and feed changes in profitability or productivity from HH/farm level models into CGE/PE models. Another recommendation was to look into complementarities between biophysical and HH/farm, landscape and PE/CGE models. Work on ecological production functions for linking agrobiodiversity with ESS, was another suggestion.Regarding the identification of relevant geographical areas, participants had different opinions. Group 1 in the Data session mentioned CGIAR priority countries, hotspots and major carbon emitters. Group 2 in the Data session mentioned that it is important to assure that data collection has spatial and temporal overlap, with few places having deep data along with a wider global coverage. The PE models groups considered that research could focus on a particular region based on considerations of data availability, priorities for CGIAR research (biodiversity hotspots) or on ESS of interest. The HH/Landscape model group considered to choose representative landscapes. Finally, the CGE groups mentioned the need to start with one region (pilot).There was general agreement among the participants that the workshop was very successful in bringing together different economic model approaches. As a principal result from the workshop, a consensus emerged that the following issues have to be addressed: The environmental services (ESS) of interest have to be clearly identified and key concepts of biodiversity and related variables have to be defined in order to develop a common language among the participants. Develop a methodology to identify the scale of ESS and time frame. For this issue, it was suggested to develop a typology of questions related to biodiversity and socioeconomic impacts, which may help guide future work. Develop a meta-database of available data in a format that could be useful for the different types of models.At the end of the workshop representatives from CGIAR's Standing Panel on Impact Assessment (SPIA) and FAO provided their reactions to the workshop discussions.The central messages of these participants were in line with the consensus emerging among most participants. It is necessary to make clear and show in foresight work that agrobiodiversity has a value and fulfils a purpose, and therefore has to be valued by society.  It is important to understand where biodiversity brings benefits and under which conditions its value is maximized. Biophysical aspects of biodiversity and its outputs (value) are not understood.  Lack of data and models to assess value of biodiversity is a limitation. Questions to answer:-What are the key biodiversity indicators? -Who's going to collect them? -What is the method for evaluating them? Answering these questions will help us to get on a pathway toward performing impact assessment related to biodiversity. It is necessary to complement quantitative model analyses with other, qualitative, types of validation (stakeholder consultations) because models tend to \"flatten\" scenarios, and they do not capture full richness of scenarios. During the workshop, distinction between biodiversity and ESS was often not clear.Precise concepts and definitions are needed. Payments for environmental services (PES) may need to be considered to examine to which extent they could be an additional source of income to contribute to food security. This, along with other instruments of providing incentives for preserving crucial ESS for the future, is an important new dimension. Benefit of this process is that a first step has been taken to fill the gap between biodiversity/ESS indicators and economic analysis. Developing a formal protocol/shared vision regarding the objects and objectives of analyses for consideration will be helpful. ","tokenCount":"3435"}

data/part_3/0062325161.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"95f9eeeb5215fbc2acf34a0ed474e8bb","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://awm-solutions.iwmi.org/Data/Sites/3/Documents/PDF/Country_Docs/Ethiopia/watershed-management-in-ethiopia.pdf","id":"2089090285"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c246283f-55fd-4c6b-9ea2-63027fcf0149","pagecount":"2","content":"Ethiopia has a history of watershed management initiatives dating back to the 1970s. The basic approach has shifted from top-down infrastructure solutions to community-based approaches. There is now a supportive policy and legal framework in the form of policies that facilitate decentralized and participatory development, institutional arrangements that allow and encourage public agencies at all levels to work together, and an approach to natural resources that re ects local legislation and tenure practices.Evidence suggests that Ethiopia has not yet achieved the full potential of its surface and groundwater resources. Watershed management programs based on lessons learned over the past several decades o er new opportunities to reduce farmers' dependence on rain-fed, low-productivity subsistence agriculture, reverse land degradation and increase the level of water use and local participation in water management. The challenge is not one of \" nding solutions\" but negotiating solutions that are inclusive and equitable and steer the country towards its stated goal of making rural agriculture the basis of economic growth.AgWater Solutions researchers assessed watershed development activities in three locations to determine how management e orts can be scaled up across the country. Researchers visited six study sites, two each in Tigray, Amhara and Oromia (Figure 1).The two watersheds in each region were chosen to re ect one successful and one less successful watershed. The watersheds are located on the eastern side of each region where moisture shortage is a limiting factor and watershed degradation is high.Whilst there was sometimes considerable variation across watersheds, the overall economic and social status of the communities in the study areas improved following watershed interventions.Watershed size and hydrogeology play a critical role in management. In this study, macro-watersheds, such as the Abraha-Atsbeha watershed, performed much better on all performance indicators than smaller watersheds. Improvement of groundwater was more pronounced in watersheds with permeable geological formations (e.g., sandstone and colluvial deposits of Abraha Atsbeha).Land and crop productivity and additional area for cultivation increased over the years as a result of land rehabilitation activities, increased availability of water for supplementary or full scale irrigation and the introduction of new agronomic practices.Farmers have gained tangible economic bene ts (Table 1). The productivity gain of individual farms in the upstream areas are mainly from the in-situ rainwater conservation, while farmers in the downstream areas have increased access to irrigation water particularly from groundwater. In the lower reaches, farmers are able to cultivate two or more times a year because of higher water availability during the dry season.• Farm income increased on average by 50 percent;• Improvements in food security from 20 to 90 percent were reported; and • Access to health and education services increased by 20-50 percent and 50 percent respectively.This brie ng note summarizes the preliminary case study ndings for discussion and commentBased on a report by Gebrehaweria Gebregziabher These ndings and recommendations are preliminary and are reproduced here for the purposes of discussion. The AgWater Solutions Project welcomes all comments and suggestions. These should be directed to [email protected], please write \"Ethiopia\" in the subject line.• Informants identi ed the most urgent problems as land degradation and moisture stress, shortage of water, shortage of animal feed, ooding and sedimentation, human and animal health, and local management capacity.Various land rehabilitation and conservation measures are being employed (soil and water conservation structures, reforestation, gully treatment, area enclosures) along with water harvesting, rural water supply, and income diversi cation. Since a 'one size ts all' approach does not work, site speci c watershed development solutions should be identi ed that take into consideration local situations.• In terms of capacity building, managing watershed externalities within and outside a watershed requires cooperation among various stakeholders to build and strengthen institutions, social norms and regulations, and to develop systems of sharing responsibilities and bene ts. The country's watershed management policy needs revision to address land tenure and community rights issues.","tokenCount":"641"}

data/part_3/0063385508.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1e8c5099ecbb62764f8027c29f9e8bb3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_19734i.pdf","id":"1793134760"},"keywords":["PROBLEM DEFINITION 8 SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION 5","2","1 Terms of Reference 5","2","2 Relevant actors 5","2","3 Actors' objectives 5","2","4 Environment 5","2","5 Problem situation 5","2","6 System identification ANALYSIS OF CONSTRAINTS 8 OPPORTUNITIES 5","3","1 Window selection for analysis 5","3","2 The 'ideal research cycle' 5","3","3 Knowledge network analysis 5","3","4 Overall conclusions 5","3","5 Recommendations"],"sieverID":"7d1d90a2-6a9e-4389-a6ae-56df2812d3ca","pagecount":"48","content":"This report is the output of lhrce studins that were carried out under the Dutch funded project titled \"Managing Irrigation for Environmentally Sustainable Agriculture in Pakistan\". The overall objectives of this project are: i) to deve/op and implement a set of improved management strategies and techniques that can reduce the aggravating effects of irrigation on waterlogging and salinity; iiJ to expand the institutional capacity to efecfively manage the solt/tiorrs. wd iii) to maximize the role of farmers and rural communities in irrigation rnanagemetrf for increasirlg agricodtural production.In order to reach these objectives, collaboration with national partners is aimed for in all the research components of the project. It is assumed that 'success stories' cannot be achieved if national partners are not actively involved in or supportive to the innovation processes that are hoped to be achieved by the project. Nowadays IIMl's interest in participatory research methods is increased, In the hope to be able to enhance this collaboration.Rapid Appraisal ofAgricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS) entails participatory action research. The assumption underlying the RAAKS-methodology is, that agricultural innovation is not a straightforward, technical process. Instead, it is considered to be the outcome of social interaction between many stakeholders who are interdependent, but at the same time pursue their own strategic objectives. Studying development processes, using the RAAKS methodology, may help in improving the generation, exchange and utilization of knowledge and information for agricultural innovation. Therefore IlMl Pakistan choose this tnethodology, to study and better understand the present developments in the irrigated agriculture sector in Pakistan. Afler a RAAKS in April 1995, three studies of six months each were commenced by three Junior Researchers from The Netherlands and counterparts in November 1995. The start of the research went along with a RAAKS training in December, wherein many IlMl researchers and agency staff participated.The (intermediary) results of tho stirdies have not always been welcomed with enthusiasm. The inability to get the collaborators-to-be grouped around the discussion table voluntarily, was not seldom attributed to a lack of experience or unrealistic high expectations of this approach. For me. the strength of these three studies lies in the fact that throughout the study, the researchers were motivated and destined to reach their objective, that is to establish real participation andeven more -t o sensitize the potential for it. Their achievements should be seen as the result of an interactive process and of an approach that is characterized by a strong belief in the significance and necessity of real participation to realize sustainable development. The questions that logically follow from these studies are: what exactly do w e expect from collaboration and how can we get there?This report gives a detailed description of the different 'actors' that play a role in irrigated agriculture and their interests. The three action researches in various fields of irrigated agriculture, give a realistic impression of what one might expect of Inter-agency collaboration. The report shows that fighting for real participation is skating on thin ice. It demonstrates the extensive negotiations, the inevitable concessions that had to be made along the way and the agreed-upon starting points for change. I recommend this report to anyone who is concerned wilh irrigated agriculture in Pakistan and Its present developments.Cris H. de  However, the separate studies contain sufficient information on the social environment to be read separately from Chapter 2. Chapter 2 could be used as a work of reference.Finally, it is emphasized that everything stated and written in this report is based on interpretation of qualitative information gathered during tlie research process by the RAAKS researchers. The outcomes of a RAAKS study are subjective. Therefore, this report does not represent an objective truth, but it reflects the valuable ideas and insights of all people involved in the studies. This report is a discussion paper and by no means a final statement. research, RAAKS comprises much more. In the three case studies conducted for IlMl Pakistan, the implication of introducing RAAKS was that all people involved in the FWAKS studies went through a joint, participatory learning process and they designed actions in order to solve the problem situations under scrutiny.FWAKS uses techniques (e.g. semi-structured interviewing and participatory observation) common in social science and, as in social science, the information gathered, the analysis of information, and conclusions are subjective. The conclusions are based on confronting and synthesizing views of different people. However, RAAKS does not stop here. The (intermediary) conclusions are only one step in an ongoing process of redefining the problem situation, coming to an understanding of the solutions, and taking consequent action. The goal of this process is to solve a common felt problem.This Chapter reflects on the RAAKS methodology as such and on the research process which is based on 'learning by doing' experiences of the RAAKS researchers in three RAAKS studies. First, the intentions, the analytical framework, and the procedural framework of RAAKS. which together shape the RAAKS methodology, are clarified.Secondly, an overview is given of the concepts and principles underlying RAAKS, followed by three operational objectives of RAAKS. Finally, an elaboration on some key issues that illustrate the RAAKS process in the three RAAKS studies is given.In The procedures and practicalities relate to the process of organizing the RAAKS research. Ideally, the study is carried out by a multi-disciplinary team consisting of persons with experience in applying R M K S and persons who are directly related to, and knowledgeable of, the problem situation and its socio-cultural environment.The procedures also include the collection of information. There are various ways to gather information (preceding the analysis of the problem situation): interviews, informal discussions, participant observation, project documentation and literature.After each important step in the analysis, it is essential to communicate the findings, and discuss them with all the parties involved. In this way, the necessary feedback is incorporated and validity is gained. By involving relevant people in the research, collective decision-making can be achieved on the basis of findings on issues related to, for example, the (change in) direction of the research. Thus, RAAKS seeks to stimulate a joint learning process among the people involved in the problem situation.Other procedural and practical issues include the allocation of staff, resources, facilities and time to the RAAKS research. Based on the intentions (read: expectations of all the parties) there is a discussion on the issues mentioned above. During the course of the research, the direction of the research might change, and therefore the demand on, for example, resources might increase. This calls for a renegotiation on issues that were agreed upon with the client. The main actor in this ongoing decision-making process is the client who has initiated the RAAKS study, defined the objectives (Terms of Reference) of the study, and can provide the necessary support.The analytical framework in RAAKS is represented in In the analytical framework, three phases are distinguished:Phase A: problem definition and system identification; Phase B: analysis of constraints and opportunities; and Phase C: action planning.Each phase comprises several 'windows'. Windows are analytical perspectives which help researchers to focus their attention on correlations between different sources of information and specific issues. Windows assist the researcher in addressing critical questions related to these correlations. The windows are applied and modified according to the situation under scrutiny. All windows comprise several tools that help the RAAKS researcher to systematically gather and process information. A tool is the practical way to address a particular window. As windows can be adapted and modified, also tools can be adjusted according to the questions the researcher wants to address.All windows in Phase A have to be addressed to ensure a proper definition of the problem situation. In Phase B, the researcher selects windows on the basis of criteria defined and justified within the given context. In Phase C. all windows have to be applied for an adequate action planning. Although the three phases are depicted in a sequential research process and time frame, it does not imply there is a linear sequence that should be followed. In practice, the researchers are always reviewing previous steps in the analysis, adjusting former conclusions, negotiating previous decisions, and formulating action among themselves and with the client.During the research process, concepts used by the researchers are constantly put to the test in real life situations. For example, the interpretation and definition of 'commitment' differs from one person to another. Therefore, it is useful and clarifying to define the concepts as used and interpreted by the RAAKS researchers in this report and, more important, during discussions with people involved in, and related to, the RAAKS studies. An overview of the most important concepts is given below.An Actor is anyone who plays a role in, and thus influences, the irrigated agriculture system. Actors may be individuals, groups or organizations.Commitment is an active interest in, and support for, reaching a specified goal through a (participatory) process. It is an engagement that restricts freedom of action; to bind oneself to a course of action. Active interest is expressed by taking initiatives to meet and discuss, by exchanging information, and keeping track of the process. Support can be both material (time, resources, facilities and knowledge) and social (giving feedback, appreciation of the research and research team). This means that a person (an actor) can contribute to the (research) process by giving either material or social support.Environmental (f)actors are those (f)actors, whose influence on the system cannot be controlled or assessed within the scope of the study.Facilitation is difficult to define Key characteristics related to facilitation are: inciting and supporting change; group and process coordination; negotiating; conflict management; monitoring and evaluation; communication with and between individuals or groups; training; awareness building; group dynamics/team building. etc. However, an individual person is not able to address all these elements, which pleads for a team of facilitators.Innovation is something new that requires and incites social change (change in ideas and actions).Participatory working is working together and collectively deciding on roles and rules for working. Everyone has herlhis own responsibility. Everyone can take the initiative, though coordination by someone may be necessary. For participatory working, there must be something common, like an issue, a problem, a purpose, or an interest.Involvement is achieved through communication and sharing resources (adapted from Training Workshop Report, 1996, p. 21). This implies:* being aware of one's dependence on others for solving a felt problem; making explicit individual interests; * trying to find a common interest; * defining a common objective; * expressing the willingness to compromise in order to reach the common objective; * expressing support for maintaining the process. and Process, outcome and output A process is a series of changes or events; a course of action; or a series of operations used in making something. An outcome is the (visible) result of an event or a process; in the case of research these are the findings. An output is the product of a process of mental or physical work, in the case of research, an output is, for example, the report.Realities are the different views people have of the environment in a problem situation, which is expressed in their behavior. The nature and number of solutions an actor perceives is restricted by hislher reality.A System is a representation of a part of the world we focus on. Within its imaginary boundaries, we look at activities and the interaction of people in order to understand mutual dependency. The decision to regard someone as an outsider or insider is based on how we perceive our influence on other people's behavior and vice versa. Drawing this boundary is a strategic decision.Terms of Reference, research questions and the analytical framework A Terms of Reference (TOR) are the specific objectives of a client translated in a task or an assignment. The specific objectives of the assignment are derived from a general (higher, long term) objective. The assignment is appointed to thb researchers. Often, a justification is given of how the assignment is related to the general objective (i.e. of a project). In order to design the research, the TOR is analyzed and specific research questions are deduced. Research questions specify what is to be studied. Defining and justifying how these questions can be answered is the basis for the analytical framework. The combination of the answers on the what. how and why questions is called the analytical framework.A Window is an analytical perspective that helps RAAKS researchers to focus their attention on correlations between different sources of information and speci fi c issues. Every window consists of several tools that help the researchers to gather and process information systematically.The RAAKS methodology is based on a set of principles of a scientific and philosophical nature. The underlying principles of RAAKS are summarized below (as presented by the RAAKS researchers during the RAAKS Exchange Workshop, February, 1996):1 Reality is subjective, constructed and interpreted by each individual; 2 The focus is on all people involved in a problem situation; 3 Goal of RAAKS is change towards improvement; into one picture; 7 On the basis of this picture, a common basis for understanding and action is created in order to make desired change possible; every little step towards this change is a collective responsibility and accomplishment; 8 RAAKS is a means, not an end; and 9 RAAKS provides only a framework and a number of methodological tools; it is the people using RAAKS who give meaning, content and value to this framework and tools. That is why the RAAKS manual will always remain a draft version.The three operational objectives of RAAKS comprise:1 To identify opportunities for intervention aimed at improving the way social actors organize themselves to achieve innovation;2 To create awareness among relevant social actors with respect to the constraints and opportunities which affect their performance as innovators or change agents; and3 To identify (potential) actors who (may) act effectively to remove constraints and make use of opportunities to improve innovative performance (adapted from RAAKS manual 1995: p. 19).Some characteristics of applying W K S 'in the field' are given to illuminate the theoretical picture of RAAKS that is sketched above. These characteristics are derived from the three RAAKS studies which provided insight in the practicalities of doing RAAKS.Box 1.1: Doing RAAKS in order to understand the process.Doing wid yoiiiy Ilttouyh RAAKS yoursclf is essential and imperative to a proper understanding of what is needed (conditions, environment, facilities, commitment). and what the opportunities and constraints are to applying the RAAKS methodology.Interviews are an impcrtant element of RMKS. In the first place, the RAAKS researcher conducts interviews to collect information related to the problem situation.These interviews tend to have the character of a meeting, which seems to originate from the fact that RAAKS is an action oriented research methodology, RAAKS researchers are always looking for opportunities to design actions for improvement of a problem situation. Meetings, as such, have a more 'problem solving' character than interviews. The distinction between a meeting and an interview in RAAKS is therefore artificial.RAAKS in the field requires a continuous 'feedback loop' to previous steps and decisions made in the research process. During the process of gathering information, the problem situation saems to become more detailed and complex. These insights and details could consequently prove that previous decisions need to be adjusted. Recalling and making explicit previous decisions is an important aspect of the RAAKS research process. Often, the client feels very uncomfortable with recalling decisions because it is perceived to be a drawback in the research. However, in the case of RAAKS, this cyclical process of coming back to previous steps and decisions is indispensable for obtaining the necessary insight in the problem situation. An example of a 'feedback loop' in decision making is the approximation of the problem situation at the end of phase A, after which the first 'loop' of the diagnosis is considered closed. However, it is also necessary that the RAAKS researcher is, and remains, flexible in addressing the initial Terms of Reference and research questions again. This clearly shows that defining a more workable and realistic definition of the problem situation, and thus redefining and scrutinizing the Terms of Reference is imperative to doing RAAKS in a proper way. Sometimes, as in the Bahawalnagar case, the Terms of Reference is finalized just before the final analysis starts. 'Looping' is a general feature of RAAKS; a phase is never completed. On the basis of new information, the researcher might decide to return to the previous phase.RAAKS is a participatory methodology which implies that the people engaged in the application of the RAAKS methodology work together. The process of working together is restricted by the limitations people face in terms of knowledge, time, resources and facilities. In all three RAAKS studies, the RAAKS counterparts faced a time constraint which, for example, resulted in the fact that in two cases the analysis in phase B was done by the RAAKS researcher alone. The RAAKS analytical framework appears to be quite fixed, but in practice the phases and windows comprising the framework can be applied in a flexible manner. The windows are not the sole analytical instruments to identify and subport opportunities for the solution of the problem situation. Through intensive discussions, the design of new windows, and the combination of existing windows, etc., the analysis gains in depth and the researchers gain more insight. A good example of the flexibility of the RAAKS methodology is derived from the RAAKS study in Hasilpur. in which an 'ideal research cycle' was designed and used as an analytical tool.The application of the analytical perspectives (the windows and tools) is difficult for all people involved in a RAAKS study. All RAAKS counterparts mentioned that they considered the RAAKS methodology to be useful, but that they were unable to apply and select the windows for the analysis. In other words, the principles of RAAKS are clear but when these principles have to be made operational in the windows, RAAKS looses its transparency.This chapter sets the social context for the three RAAKS studies. The social context can be divided into the actors and the environment in which the actors act. tn the first section, all of the actors who play a role in one or more of the RAAKS studies are presented. Every actor works in and/or for the irrigated agriculture system of Punjab.In the second section, the environment that influences the behavior of the actors is described. The environment is divided into: political and economic environment; sociocultural environment; Organizational culture and performance; and the physical environment. The researchers chose to compile this information in one chapter to avoid unnecessary overlap, and draw a comprehensive picture of the actors and the environment.Each actor is presented, firstly as an organizational entity and secondly, in terms of specific groups or designations. For each organization the overall objective(s) are defined. The description of the organizational structure is limited to that part of the organization which is relevant to the RAAKS studies. Furthermore, some striking characteristics and actualities regarding the organization are mentioned. Designation, tasks and activities of those individual actors involved in the RAAKS studies are specified in a table.IlMl is an autonomous, non-profit international research and training institute, supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IIMl's overall objectives are: 1) to generate knowledge to improve irrigation management and policy making in developing countries; 2) to strengthen national research capacity in the field of irrigation management; 3) to support the introduction of improved management and policy making. With its headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka, IlMl conducts research programs in many developing countries, many of which are situated in Asia. The tasks and activities of relevant actors in IlMl are specified in Table 2.1  to design and conduct research; to report and present research results.to support proper functioning of llMl (administration. transport, maintenance etc).to manage and coordinate field staff and activilies; to prepare fortnightly account statement and book keeping: to train and monitor field staff in data collection and analysis. report writing; to establish and maintain relations with line agency officials; to communicate with 2nd report to liMl Head Office; to manage administrative matters of field station; lo maintain communication with Head Office and line agencies; to train line agency field staff, to supervise students; to design TOR for students (occasionally); to receive and brief visitorslmissions.to collect and (partly) analyze data;% establish and maintain relations with farmers and line agency field staff; to train and guide newly recruited field staff and students; to support field team leader in adminisiralive matters; to process documentalion.The PID is the government agency that manages the irrigation system in the Punjab Province. The foundations for this management are rules and regulations that are for a large part based on the Canal and Drainage Act of 1873 (which was amended several times). The overall objective of the PID is to ensure the equitable distribution of water to the cultivators in the Punjab. The Department is headed by the Minister and the Secretary. PID officials frequently state that the high infiltration of politics as the main cause of the department's malfunctioning: 'the system is technically sound, but the system's management to coordinate donor funded projects (World Bank. USAID).to train newly recruited irrigation managers for the post of SDO: to train SDOs. XENs and SEs when they go for promotion.to supervise and monitor the work of Superintending Engineers, Executive Engineers and Sub-divisional officers by conducting monthly meetings; to handle administrative and financial matters concerning the management of the irrigation system in the Zone; to report to the Secretariat in Lahore; to maintain the IIMI-PID collaboration.:o supervise XENs to ensure that all activities In the Circle are carried 3ut [operation, maintenance. regulation and revenue collection); to .eport to CE.:o supervise SDOs; to supervise and ensure revenue collection; to ,eporl to SE and CE..o supervise the executive staff to operate. maintain and regulate the jistribution in his subdivision; report to XEN.o supervise the administration of the Lining Office for the Fordwah iastern Sadiqia (South) Irrigation and Drainage Project o picp;irc activities that are connected to the lining of irrigation canals: jupervise the work that is under construction, report to XEN Lining.The aclOrS arid llie envimnrnenlThe On-Farm Water Management Directorate (OFWM) was established in 1977. as a wing of the Department of Agriculture. Its overall objectives are: 1) to increase irrigation efficiency at the watercourse level; 2) to improve agricultural productivity through the provision of extension services on water management issues; 3) to stimulate the involvement of water users in improvement and maintenance of watercourses through establishment of Water User Associations (WUAs) From the onset OFWM has been provided funding, initially by the U.S. Agency for International Development (1976-'81), which was followed by funding from the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the OECF of Japan.* OFWM is target-oriented in the planning and evaluation of activities. Performance assessment is based on a preset number of watercourses to be lined within a specified time period. * There are no institutional links between OFWM and PAD Exterision at the field level. although both wings are engaged in extension activities.OFWM is currently conducting a pilot study within the Fordwah Eastern Sadiqia South (FES(S)) Project. The main thrust of this World Bank-funded project is to explore and develop possibilities for Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in Punjab. The overall objective of the pilot study is to organize and train farmers at watercourse and distributary canal level for the establishment of active and sustainable WUAs and Water User Federations (WUFs) at the watercourse and distributary level, respectively.In the FES(S) project area, rules for cost-recovery of lining have been changedrecently, due to budgetary constraints. Formerly water users had to pay 30% of costs after completion of lining activities. Now, this 30% (which will most probably be raised to 35%) has to be paid in advance. The consequence is a considerable reduction of applications for watercourse lining in the area. The target number of watercourses to be lined has been reduced as well.The department has recently introduced laser land levelling machines, which are located at demonstration plots and can be leased by farmers on a short-term basis. Laser levelling the land has been shown to substantially increase irrigation efficiency and crop productivity. OFWM has developed strong ties with IIMI, reflected in a constant information exchange, frequent (formal and informal) meetings and joint activities. One OFWM official is currently working on secondment for IIMI. with the main task lo further develop and keep record (i.c. documenting) of collaborative liaisons between IIMI. OFWM and other line agencies. Another OFWM official is mainly concerned with research on flow measuring devices and irrigation scheduling.The tasks and activities of relevant actors in OFWM are mentioned in Table 2.3 to coordinate and monitor social organizing activifies far the development of WUAs and WUFs in the command area of two distributaries. to siipervise administration and staff; to report to higher levels about progress; to communicate wilh donors and related agencies on field level; to convene meetings and field visits for visiting officials (i.e. donor missions).lo manage and coordinate field staff and administrative matters; to report to higher levels about progress; to coordinate lining activities in the field; to supervise the establishment of WUAs; to check on costrecovery of lining; to supervise extension activities in the field and on demonstration farm; to attend field meetings with farmers on organizational and lining issues. Technology is tested and will disseminate 'naturally' among farmers' community (demonstration effect). Problems of farmers and field staff are discussed fortnightly in T&V training sessions; * AE is characterized by strong links (in terms of communication of problems, information, etc.) among staff at field level, and weak links between field staff and higher-ups; There is no institutional link or coordination of activities between A€ and OFWM at the field level. Although both wings belong to the same Department and are involved in extension activities; A€ has a strong link with private input suppliers. Private input suppliers have their own demonstration plots and specific knowledge on their products. A€ is invited by private input suppliers to farmers' meetings in order to provide technical advice:A€ faces serious budgetary problems, which have a strong impact on the task performance of field staff in that they are not able to visit all of the contact farmers in their area; Monitoring and evaluation of task performance of field staff is weak;The majority of farmers are not able to follow the advice of AE due to resource constraints (unavailability of inputs); A€ is not problem-oriented because the agenda is set at higher levels. There are too many agents involved in the transfer of technology; A€ selects contact farmers on the basis of the following criteria: he should be interested; he should have some financial resources; his farm should be easily accessible, where everybody can see the demonstration; he should have a certain level of education (i.c. matrix). Branch which mainly deals with dissemination of research results; IWASRI is mainly coordinating and managing research on waterlogging and salinity, but is also actively involved in research projects (i.e. the Joint Satiana Pilot Project and FES(S) Project in Bahawalnagar); On an organizational level, IWASRI faces some financial constraints to work on projects involving participatory techniques. However, the WO projects mentioned above have adopted a participatory development approach with the assistance of UNDP and NRAP. * *ActionAid is an international non-governmental development organization working with the poorest communities in 20 countries throughout Asia, Africa, 'and Latin America.ActionAid Pakistan ( M P k ) is committed to helping the poorest communities in its development areas to improve their quality of life. Its overall objective is to facilitate the empowerment of the poor through the equitable development of human and natural resources. The participation of communities in identification, planning, management, implementation and evaluation of the project is a key factor in ActionAid's work. The Head Office is based in London.  Characteristics and actualities * Private companies establish good relations with Agricultural Extension to earn credibility with the farmers for their products. In this way their sales increase; Input suppliers comprise: 1) large seed companies that visit the field. organize meetings, and take farmers to demonstration plots; and 2) local shop keepers that sell the inputs according to the demand; Prices of agricultural inputs are not fixed by the government. Artificial shortages are created by suppliers to increase prices. Black marketing is a common practice.*Farmers' overall objectives are: 1) to maximize and secure production of crops and livestock; 2) to adapt their knowledge base to the changing social and physical environment.Characteristics and actualities * Among farmers there is a diverse variety in caste, class, elhnicity, and land-holding;Farmers comprise a high variety of ownerslcultivators, ownerslnon-cultivators, tenants;* More than 80% of the farmers is illiterate;* There are constant tensions between farmers in the head of the distributary and tail enders; * Farmers collectively design the kachi warabandi (schedule of 'water turns).Cooperative societies' overall objective is to provide loans lo groups of farmers at a low interest rate for piirchasing inputs.Cooperatives are often one-man societies existing only on paper. The legal framework is used for personal interest only, Practically, only influential people make use of this facility.ADBP's overall objective is to provide loans to farmers for financing agricultural activities.Characteristics and actualities * Only influential farmers have access to this facility; ADBP is coordinated by PAD.This Section describes some characteristics of the political and economic, sociocultural, organizational and physical environment in which the studies were situated. These characteristics based on information from interviews, documents and personal experience have a strong impact on the problem situation and the actors involved.Influential people, who have resources, large social networks, status and (physical) power can direct government policies and their execution. Corruption is everywhere. In the job market, supply largely exceeds demand, especially in engineering. Higher degrees (MSc. PhD) or social connections are indispensabld for getting a job. Government posts often have first preference, because of status and job security (permanent contract, labor pool). There is a free market for agri-inputs, but prices for crops are fixed by the government. This has created an imbalance between costs and benefits of agricultural production. Agricultural productivity suffers from bad quality and unavailability of agri-inputs (seed, pesticides, fertilizer). Absence of fixed prices and reliable supplies for these inputs favor black marketing and skyrocketing prices during peak seasons of the farming cycle (artificial shortage). There are more than 20,000 national NGOs in Pakistan. An NGO can be a very profitable business. Innovation in the irrigated agriculture system largely originates from, and depends on, foreign funding and development agencies. World Bank, Asian Development bank and other international funding agencies attempt to direct government policy (i.e. through the introduction of Participatory Irrigation Management, Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authorities). Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authority (PIDA): something is going to change in the governmental configuration of irrigation system management, but no one knows when, what, or how. Speculations range from complete privatization of the system to no structural change at all (only a change of name). * * ** Society is strongly fragmented and hierarchical. Factions and hierarchical structures are based on caste, ethnicity. family, property (land), income. age and sex. In the farmers' community, collective action is hampered by heterogeneity in interests and social ties.Big landlords determine political and social relations within and between rural communities. Their power is based on family and caste ties, property and the (threat of) violence. This leads to an overall feeling of insecurity and distrust among people in every layer of society. More than 80% of the rural population are illiterate (for women the figure is even higher). Lack of education is seen as the main barrier to development. The illiterate community is not sufficiently aware of their democratic rights or the power of having a vote. Votes are collected by anyone who can offer incentives, has social standing, or is strong in rhetorics.To climb in the social hierarchy is a strong driving force for people. Ambitions are more focused on raising social status than on personal development.Social relations tend to have a competitive aspect. Being the best is reflected in the number of awards that can be won in sports, education and work. This feeds envy as opposed to solidarity. As the saying goes: \"I would like my neighbor's roof to come down, even if it falls on my own house.\" People tend to base their actions on material incentives or a clear short-term benefit (risk avoidance). Bigger landowners are usually not cultivators themselves. They live in urban areas and are often engaged in agri-business (marketing of agricultural products and inputs). The implementation of rules and regulations is hindered by political pressure. This leads, for example to a lack of accountability in task performance (superiors have no control over staff performance, for everyone can seek protection against * disciplinary sanctions from influential peers). 'Transfer trauma': in all government organizations, people can at any moment be shifted from one post or area to another. Any shift in the political arena (i.c. change of seats in provincial government) may lead to complete re-staffing of a department or office. This creates constant instability in the social and professional life of government staff. Government salaries are not in accordance with work load and responsibilities and generally, salaries do not cover costs of living. This induces people to seek illegal ways of earning income (rent-seeking); Briberylcorruption is a 'bad necessity'.Good task performance is not rewarded. This has a serious impact on a person's job satisfaction and their motivation to develop professionally. Openly criticizing someone's performance is uncommon and generally disapproved of, certainly if it pertains to a person senior in post or age. Criticism is often expressed in informal teasing remarks or jokes. (Un)official assignments from superiors can occur at any moment and have to be executed immediately. It is therefore difficult to plan activities and rely on any appointment. Appointments are usually cancelled (if at all) after the agreed date and time.Problems at the field level seldom have an effect on policy-making. Communication between field staff and higher levels is poor and irregular, limited to standard reporting and passing down assignments. Task performance and communications are frustrated by poor communication and lack of adequate transport facilities, as well as an insecure power supply. * Amendments in policy, planning and implementation within government departments can only be made at the top level (secretary and minister), not on lower levels in the hierarchical chain.   The training was intended to provide the participants with the knowledge and incentives to form a RAAKS Action Team to conduct a RAAKS study. Unfortunately. there was no PlPD official present that IlMl was working with in the Bahawalnagar region. The TOR was subjected to the participants of the RAAKS Training Workshop, but apparently. the participants did not feel very much related to the TOR. The result was that no RAAKS Action Team had been formed when the workshop was concluded.Among the RAAKS researcher and the Field Team Leader, it was decided to form a RAAKS Action Team by arranging a meeting I workshop with the PIPD staff from the Bahawalnagar Circle. In the meeting the PlPD staff would be informed about the RAAKS methodology and asked to form the RAAKS Action Team. This meeting took place on January 23, 1996. Although the participants were formally invited and all invitations were personally confirmed, only one PlPD official attended the meeting. The other four officials were not present. By interviewing the one PlPD official that was present, it became clear that the other PlPD officials were not interested in the objective of the meeting. The outcome of the effort to build a RAAKS Action Team was considered a crucial step in the RAAKS research process because it showed !hat among the PlPD there was no commitment to form a RAAKS Action Team at that moment; more in general, this meant that there was no broad organizational commitment in PlPD for the RAAKS study; the only interest for the RAAKS study was a personal interest.These findings were presented to IlMl in the RAAKS Exchange Workshop on February 6. 1996 in Lahore. In the workshop it was decided that the three RAAKS researchers should deal with specific issues concerning the RAAKS study within the subcomponents. For the Bahawalnagar case, this resulted in a series of meetings at Bahawalnagar Field Station about the planning of the activities for 1996 and the integration of the RAAKS study in these activities. The people present in the meetings were: the Team leader, the Field Team Leader, the Systems Analyst and the RAAKS researcher. It was decided that the RAAKS study would be conducted by a team consisting of the Field Team Leader and the RAAKS researcher and that the activities of the RAAKS study should, as much as possible, coincide with the ongoing activities of the Field Team Leader.With respect to the TOR there has been ample debate between all of the parties involved throughout the RAAKS study. Finally, the RAAKS researcher formulated a TOR at the end of the research that covers the context and subject of the RAAKS study. This final TOR is:. ldentify possibilities to improve the //M/-P/f'D coNaboration for /MIS implemenfation in the Chishfian and Malik subdivisions and other future collaborative acfivitiesThe first actors that were identified were the invitees to the meeting on January 23.1996 in Bahawalnagar. These actors have been implicitly identified on the basis of the judgement of the Field Team Leader, who had already established contacts with them. This means that beforehand no criteria had been set. Afterwards. the implicit criteria can be deduced. These were: is the actor relevant (now or in the future) for: 1) Ihe IMlS implementation process; 2) Decision Support Systems in general; or 3) the IIMI-PIPD collaboration? Initially, only the actors in the Bahawalnagar Circle were considered relevant. Later on, just before the interviewing started, actors from the higher levels in the PlPD were added (see Box 3.1). These actors are located in the PlPD Secretariat in Lahore.Box 3.1: Actof identification process.The actor identification process depended for a large part on coincidence and already existing contacts:(1) The Systems Analyst (see actor list below) requested the RAAKS researcher to conduct interviews together with higher officials at the PIPD secretariat in Lahore This event led to the inclusion of these actors in the research. Because these 'coincidences' have a major impact on the direction of the research, it is important for a researcher to recognize them(2) Other actors were included because IlMl slaff had established contacts with them.In the list of actors below, more specific information is added to the actor descriptions of IlMl and PIPD in Chapter 2, Section 2.1. This information is particularly relevant to the Bahawalnagar case study. Among the actors in the list there are some actors (i.e.Working Group and Planning Group) that have not been described in Section 2.1.These actors are characterized extensively. In the list, all actors that have been interviewed, or officially met. are marked with (#).Punjab Irrigation Department, Bahawalnagar Circle (PIPD BWN)1. Sub-divisional Officer Malik Branch (SDO Malik) (#)collaborates with the IlMl Field Team Leader of Bahawalnagar Field Station to implement IMlS in the Malik Subdivision. He is a Mechanical Engineer and therefore is given personal training on Hydraulics and system management by the IlMl Field Team Leader. He encounters difficulty in collaborating with IlMl because of a lack of institutional support from PIPD. He resolves these difficulties by collaborating with IlMl on a personal basis (e.g. in his spare time). He is willing lo do this because he recognizes that he will develop professionally by collaborating with IIMI. For any officlal time investment in the IIMI-PIPD collaboration, he needs approval from his direct superior, Executive Engineer Sadiqia Division. He is critical on IMlS as a computerized DSS tool. ","tokenCount":"6611"}

data/part_3/0069055695.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"49c85609c83a12a8245814648a56c4ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3535ea4-dad3-4c8f-93ec-bf504aae4296/retrieve","id":"-973073400"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a72856d6-d690-488f-b6a1-18d3696be714","pagecount":"4","content":"La pomme de terre, une culture importante La pomme de terre (PDT) est la troisième culture la plus cultivée au monde pour l'alimentation humaine. C'est aussi l'une des cultures vivrières les plus rentables. Par conséquent, elle permet aux producteurs d'améliorer leurs conditions de vie (belles habitations, bonnes écoles pour les enfants, bons soins de santé, etc.). Elle est aussi une source importante de protéines, des vitamines, du potassium, ainsi que le fer et le zinc qui sont importants pour les femmes allaitantes et la croissance des enfants.Climat frais de l'ordre de 16-20°C A l'aide des mains, ramasser la fiente (environ 250 g à 400 g selon la fertilité du sol -3 à 5 t/ha) et l'épandre sur un mètre linéaire dans les sillons. De façon pratique, la fiente ou fumure prise aux deux mains d'adulte s'appliquera à 2-3 futur plants. Utiliser un mélange d'engrais NPK du type 13-13-21 et azotés du type 15-0-0 dans les proportions de 4/1 (500 kg pour le premier et 125 kg pour le second par hectare), soit 7,5 g appliqués à chaque plant à la plantation et l'autre dose de même quantité au premier buttage. Une capsule de fanta bien remplie correspond à la dose requise. Puis déposer les tubercules sur 30 -40 cm sur la ligne de plantation, soit l'équivalent de 1,7-2 t/ha de semences ayant un calibre de 30-45 mm. • Sur tiges : les tiges infestées sont affaiblies.• Fongicides dits de CONTACT (action en surface) comme Manga Plus, Mancozeb, Penncozeb, Balear, etc.• Fongicides dits SYSTEMIQUES (action partout) comme Orvego, Bonsoin, Ridomil, etc.Flétrissement bactérien • Bien attendre la mort naturelle du feuillage avant de procéder à la récolte pour avoir un rendement maximal ;• Eviter de faire la récolte quand il pleut ou quand le sol est trop humide ;• Utiliser une houe ou utiliser les mains pour déterrer les tubercules ; et• Laisser les tubercules au sol pendant un certain temps avant leur ramassage.A la récolte, les tubercules montrant des signes de pourriture se ramassent en dernière position.Le calibrage des tubercules commence au champ pour bien séparer les lots lors de la vente. Il importe de signaler que les différents calibres se vendent différemment.","tokenCount":"362"}

data/part_3/0083673831.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"1a2cb440544f67d21092480c31ddbe56","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4848408f-1f64-435d-a0f5-e906b82e64f5/retrieve","id":"741373600"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"05fe7d6e-057c-4599-af51-f29ec945d57b","pagecount":"6","content":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.After the objectives of the meeting were highlighted, a brief introduction of ILRI's food safety work around the world was presented. Thereafter, an overview of the food safety work that ILRI is conducting in Zambia was given and meeting members offered some useful suggestions thereafter: Since pigs are a common site near fish piles at the harbour market, in some cases even found sniffing or even pinching the fish, cysticercosis research should be consideredThe next agenda item saw each meeting participant, in turn, giving a brief presentation on their food safety research interests and activities, highlighting what they feel are food safety issues and priorities in Zambia. Most abattoirs in Zambia have very poor hygiene standards and even have sick animals finding their way there Lack of Good Hygiene Practices in most abattoirs, lack of Cleaning protocols in most abattoirs, no separation of \"Clean\" from \"Dirty\" operations, HACCP would have too many Critical Control Points  Antibiotic and hormone residues Antibiotic residues in food can lead to antibiotic resistance and other harmful effects Antibiotic residues in animal-derived foods exceeding the WHO maximum residue levels have been extensively recorded in many African countries It has been reported that in some African countries prevalence of veterinary drug residues in foods of animal origin can be as high as 94%. Unfortunately, this data is not available in Zambia as far as antibiotics and hormones as growth promoters are concerned.A wide variety of diseases, including emerging diseases. The aquaculture industry in Zambia is growing but there is no information yet on which fish zoonoses are found here.Mining wastes are directly discarded into the Kafue River in the Copperbelt region, increasing the risk of fish and food poisoning.Fruitful discussions ensued on how best some impact can be made in food safety in Zambia  Crucial to take into consideration gender and power relations as well as social norms that may promote or compromise food safety  Baseline data need to be collected to understand current levels of contamination with toxic metals such as arsenic and mercury (and other things including mycotoxins, dioxins and organo-phosphates?)  Strengthen collaboration among food safety stakeholders in the country. It would be easier to influence policy makers that way  Increase food safety awareness, not only among consumers but also policy makers  Make use of risk assessment along value chains, even on a very small scale for a start, but can keep building upon it  Include more stakeholders such as local government in future meetings  Known standards and guidelines should be better utilised in Zambia, this will also help to highlight short-comings, however, small producers need help to meet standards, e.g. through safety certification assistance and consider what research is needed to inform standards in Zambia  Consider how ongoing intensification will affect antimicrobial resistance.There is an absence of estimates of the burden of foodborne disease in Zambia, in terms of both health and economic burden. This could be done relatively easily through modelling studies, although field studies would provide more convincing evidence. Policy makers and donors need to have this information in order to appreciate the need for investment in food safety.","tokenCount":"567"}

data/part_3/0088437125.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"7e8766f77cf3ee8821fce954db58aeee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8fa3acc6-9e91-4616-94ee-5adc31d2de5a/retrieve","id":"763826782"},"keywords":["Biological control","entomophagy","nest mate recognition","weaver ant colony production","Oecophylla longinoda"],"sieverID":"16c3acfa-6187-4a53-ab18-d3d924136268","pagecount":"6","content":"Oecophylla ants are currently used for biological control in fruit plantations in Australia, Asia and Africa and for protein production in Asia. To further improve the technology and implement it on a large scale, effective and fast production of live colonies is desirable. Early colony development may be artificially boosted via the use of multiple queens (pleometrosis) and/or by adoption of foreign pupae in developing colonies. In the present experiments, we tested if multiple queens and transplantation of pupae could boost growth in young Oecophylla longinoda colonies. We found out that colonies with two queens artificially placed in the same nest, all perished due to queen fighting, suggesting that pleometrosis is not used by O. longinoda in Benin. In contrast, pupae transplantation resulted in highly increased growth rates, as pupae were readily adopted by the queens and showed high survival rates (mean = 92%). Within the 50-day experiment the total number of individuals in colonies with 50 and 100 pupae transplanted, increased with 169 and 387%, respectively, compared to colonies receiving no pupae. This increase was both due to the individuals added in the form of pupae but also due to an increased per capita brood production by the resident queen, triggered by the adopted pupae. Thus pupae transplantation may be used to shorten the time it takes to produce weaver ant colonies in ant nurseries, and may in this way facilitate the implementation of weaver ant biocontrol in West Africa.The arboreal weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina and O. longinoda) are territorial and prevent intruders from accessing their nests. They forage for arthropod prey including many different insect pests in the canopy of their host trees (Way & Khoo, 1992;Peng & Christian, 2006;Van Mele, 2008). According to Dejean (1991) a colony with 12 nests can capture approximately 45,000 prey items per year and may in this way suppress insect pest populations. of crops such as cashew nuts (Peng et al., 1995;Peng et al., 2004), citrus (Barzman et al., 1996) and mango (Sinzogan et al., 2008;Peng & Christian, 2005b). Therefore, Oecophylla is increasingly being utilized as a substitute to synthetic chemical pesticides as they are often equally or even more efficient in controlling pests and at the same time cheaper to use.Several recent studies on applied weaver ant research have been carried out in Asia and Australia on O. smaragdina, however, the life history and the behavior of the African O. longinoda is less well documented. Emerging markets for organic and sustainably-managed African fruit (mango, citrus) and nut (cashew) products (Van Mele & Vayssières, 2007) asks for more research and investment in O. longinoda in West Africa, as also here the economic potential is high. For example, Dwomoh et al. (2009) showed that O. longi-noda can be used to control pest hemipterans as effectively as insecticides in Ghanaian cashew plantation and were able to increase yields four-fold compared to plots without any control measures.On top of the high potential as a biocontrol agent, Oecophylla is also used as a commercial food product (Sribandit et al., 2008) -a tradition especially well developed in Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries (Van Huis et al., 2013). The double utilization of the ants has led to an increasing interest in the development of Oecophylla management. For the effective implementation of Oecophylla ants in pest management and ant farming, several aspects need to be considered.It is difficult to collect a queenright colony since the queen nest is well hidden in less accessible places (Peng et al., 1998). Established \"wild\" ant colonies produce several winged queens (flying ants) each year, which individually leave their colony and start new colonies alone. However, under natural circumstances, the mortality of these queens is high (> 99%) and they are therefore difficult to obtain. Furthermore, it takes, for the few survivors, approximately 2 years before their colony contains enough ants to be used for pest control (Vanderplank, 1960;Peng et al., 2004) or for ant larvae production (Offenberg & Wiwatwitaya, 2010). So far all implementation has been based on collection of wild colonies or natural establishment in orchards which also takes several years (Peng et al., 2005a).Therefore, to make the Oecophylla technology accessible to non-specialists and to implement it on a large scale, cheap production of live colonies in ant nurseries is needed. Artificial rearing of colonies from newly mated queens may lead to a stable and quick production of Oecophylla colonies (Krag et al., 2010) and improve the chances of a wide implementation.For an effective production of live weaver ant colonies in ant nurseries faster growth of young colonies is desired. Two different ways may be used to boost early colony growth. Firstly, Oecophylla (Peeters & Andersen, 1989) and other ant species (Bernasconi & Strassmann, 1999) are known to found new colonies with multiple queens (pleometrosis) in order to increase the probability of survival during the initial phase of colony development via a faster production of more workers. Secondly, the adoption of non-nestmate brood from other colonies may increase colony growth as several ant species are known to rob intraspecific brood from neighbor colonies and in this way accelerate colony growth by adding these robbed individuals to their worker force (Bartz & Hölldobler, 1982;Rissing & Pollock, 1987).It is not known if O. longinoda uses pleometrosis during colony founding nor is it known if they accept and adopt pupae transplanted from foreign colonies. In this study we tested if more than one queen could be merged in founding colonies of O. longinoda (pleometrosis) and we tested the effect of pupae transplantation on the growth of newly founded colonies.In a mango plantation in the Parakou area (09° 37' 01\"N/02° 67' 08\"E) of Benin 54 O. longinoda queens were collected after their nuptial flight with the use of artificial nests during the wet season in 2012. Artificial nests were made on 15 mango trees by rolling a single leaf together, fixing it with a plastic ring (1.3 cm in diameter) in the middle part and sealing the tip end with a paper clip. Nests were colonized by founding queens right after their nuptial flight as they constitute safe nesting sites (J. Offenberg, unpublished data). Nests were inspected 2-3 times a week and all queens were collected 1-3 days after their mating flight. At this developmental stage all colonies were composed of a single queen and her eggs, as no pleometrotic founded colonies were found. After collection, the queens and eggs were put into open cylindrical transparent plastic containers (Φ = 4.5 cm; height = 10.5 cm) with a mango leaf inside to increase humidity and sealed with mesh nylon materials at the open end.The brood transplantation experiment was divided into two sub-experiments; one where queens were kept individually with their brood and transplanted pupae, and a second where two queens were artificially merged into one colony to test for pleometrosis, as has been observed for O. smaragdina (Peeters & Andersen 1989;Offenberg et al., 2012a;Offenberg et al., 2012b).In the first experiment with single queen colonies, 30 fertilized queens were used, which were divided into three pupae transplantation treatments with 0 (control), 50 or 100 non-nestmate pupae being transplanted to each colony, resulting in 10 replicates per treatment. In the first six replicates pupae were transplanted to the queens 7-14 days after they were collected in the field whereas in the last four replicates, pupae transplantation took place the day after they were collected. Every time a new queen was collected in the field, it was sequentially allocated to one of the three treatments (i.e. the first mated queen no transplantation, the next 50 pupae transplantation, the third 100 pupae transplantation etc.).In the second experiment with two queens per colony, colonies were divided into two pupae transplantation treatments with 0 (control) or 50 non nestmate pupae being transplanted, respectively, and with five replicates per treatment (= 20 queens in total). In both experiments transplanted nonnestmate pupae were obtained from a single mature O. longinoda colony. During transplantation, each colony was transferred to a cylindrical transparent plastic vial (Φ = 8 cm and height = 5 cm) with a mango leaf and the relevant number of pupae placed inside the vial. All colonies were kept at ambient temperature ranging between 24.3 °C and 29.7 °C (mean 27.5 °C) on a table protected from intruding ants by placing each table leg in a tray with water. During the experiment, all colonies were provided a few drops of pure water every day to allow the queens to drink. After the emergence of the first imago workers drops of 20% sucrose water were provided to each colony every day. One week after emergence of imago workers, protein food in the form of canned cat food and fish was provided to all colonies ad libitum.The transparent plastic containers allowed daily inspection and counting of brood in their different developmental stages. The numbers of intrinsic eggs, larvae, pupae and imago workers (defined as the brood produced by the resident queens) and adopted workers, were counted 50 days after the pupae transplantation in all the colonies. At this point all adopted pupae and the oldest intrinsic brood had developed into imago workers. However, intrinsic imagines could be distinguished from adopted individuals due to the size difference between the pupae from the mature colony and the much smaller nanitic workers produced by the founding queens (Porter & Tschinkel, 1986;Peng et al., 2004). Based on the number of live adopted imago workers, the survival rate from transplanted pupae into imago workers was calculated [(no. of emerged workers / no. of transplanted pupae) x 100] and mean numbers of brood and pupae survival were compared with ANOVAs using JMP 8.0.1 statistical software. Due to the difference in the number of days from queens were collected until pupae were transplanted, the total number of days from queen collection until the experiment was terminated (50 days after pupae transplantation) was recorded for each colony and used as a covariate in the subsequent analyses.In the single queen experiment the survival from transplanted pupae into imago workers ranged between 88 and 96% (mean % survival and SD = 92.05 and 2.52) and was not significantly affected by transplantation rate (mean % survival and SD, 50 pupae = 92.4 and 2.45, 100 pupae = 91.7 and 2.66; ANOVA including development time as a co-factor, F (2, 17) = 1.1; p = 0.36) indicating that non-nestmate pupae were readily accepted by the queens and suggesting that pupae required no or only minimal amount of nursing.Fifty days after the transplantation, intrinsic imago workers were present in all colonies, however, with significantly more individuals in colonies with more pupae transplanted (F (2,26) = 147.1, p < 0.0001). The mean (SD) number of intrinsic workers was 31.2 (4.37), 44.8 (3.04) and 74.5 (8.25) in the colonies that received 0, 50 and 100 pupae, respectively (Table 1). Pupae transplantation also led to increased production of the remaining developmental stages of intrinsic brood. This was true both for the number of eggs, larvae, pupae, workers and their sum (p < 0.0001 in all cases) at the end of the experiment (Table 1). The average total intrinsic production in colonies without added pupae was 46.5 (6.33) individuals during the first 50 days of colony development. In comparison, 50 pupae transplantation led to a 70 % increase in the per capita queen production, and a 100 pupae transplantation led to 190% increase compared with no pupae transplantation (Fig 1). Thus, the transplanted pupae stimulated the fertilized queen's egg production and increased her brood production with approximately 1.4 and 1.9% per adopted pupae, respectively.In addition, the total colony size (all intrinsic brood plus adopted workers) was 46.5 (6.33), 125.2 (11.01) and 226.7 (15.32), respectively, in the colonies that received 0, 50 and 100 pupae. In comparison to the treatment without pupae transplantation, the total number of individuals increased 169% with 50 transplanted pupae and 387% with 100 transplanted pupae (Fig. 1). Thus, adopted workers led to a considerably increase in total colony size.In the second experiment with two queens in each colony, one of the queens, in all cases, killed the other before the emergence of imago workers from the transplanted pupae, suggesting that pleometrosis induced in the laboratory is not possible. It should, however, be noticed that we found 5 claustral colonies with two queens out of a total of 87 collected in 2013 (all the others being singly founded)(I. Ouagoussounon, Table 1: Mean (± SD) number of intrinsic brood (egg, larvae, pupae, imago workers and their total) produced by the resident queen in the colonies 50 days after the transplantation of pupae. unpublished data), suggesting that pleometrosis is sometimes used under natural conditions as also described by (Dejean et al.,2007). Because all queens were involved in fatal fights, no further analyses were conducted on this experiment.The results showed no difference in survival between queens receiving 50 pupae and queens receiving 100. Pupae in both treatments were readily accepted by the queen ants and more than 88% were reared to the imago stage. This means that potentially colonies may be boosted with even higher numbers of pupae and boosting can take place before the emergence of the first workers as a worker force is not needed for nursing. Offenberg et al. (2012b) and Peng et al. (2013) obtained similar results with a mean survival rate of 84%, when transplanting 30 and 60 non-nestmate pupae to O. smaragdina queens in Darwin, Australia. Also in that case survival was unaffected by transplantation rate. The same pattern may not hold true if larvae were transplanted instead of pupae as they need to be fed and groomed by members of the receiver colony. Larvae may well be accepted by receiver colonies, as described by Krag et al. (2010) for O. smaragdina, however, it is questionable if they can be added in high numbers as with pupae, because of their need for food, which is available in only limited amounts, especially in very young colonies with only a single queen and no worker force. A further advantage to colonies adopting pupae from mature colonies derives from the fact that young ant colonies, in order to reserve resources, produce only smaller and slimmer workers (nanitics) with an associated narrow task repertoire compared to older and larger colonies that produce larger major workers (Peng et al., 2004). After pupae transplantation the workers eclosing from the transplanted pupae are of a larger size as they originated from a mature colony. As a consequence these transplanted individuals may conduct wider tasks compared to the nanitic imago workers intrinsic to the young colonies. If larvae were transplanted these may turn into smaller imagines due to food shortage if they are transplanted prior to the determination point of their final size. This is not the case with pupae as they have already attained their final size. Krag et al. (2010) showed that O. smaragdina nonnestmate larvae showed chemical insignificance (i.e. were without colony specific odor) as they were adopted by colonies containing mature workers (but no queens). Subsequently it was found that also O. smaragdina pupae seems to be chemical insignificant and that the presence of queens in the colonies did not hinder adoption of foreign brood as transplanted pupae developed into imagines in queenright colonies (Offenberg et al., 2012b). From the present study we conclude that the same holds true for O. longinoda suggesting that chemical significance does not develop until beyond the pupal stage as also suggested by Lenoir et al. (2001), to be the case for other ant species. Also the present study shows that the presence of the maternal queen does not preclude adoption of foreign brood.The addition of pupae to the colonies did not only increase colony size with the numbers added. In addition, the transplantation of pupae stimulated the fertilized queen´s own egg production and thereby increased the intrinsic brood production of the colonies. Thus, the presence of brood at the pupal stage (or beyond), increased egg laying rates. This seems to be adaptive to queens as younger brood is associated with expenditures to the queens in terms of nursing time and food allocation, whereas pupae will soon eclose and develop into workers that can take over the nursing of brood and forage for food. This result follows the findings by Gibson & Scott (1990) and Offenberg et al. (2012b), showing that pupae increased egg laying in Camponotus spp. and O. smaragdina queens, respectively. On the other hand, other researchers have shown that only the number of late stage larvae is responsible for queen fertility in e.g. Monomorium pharaonis and Solenopsis invicta (Tschinkel, 1988;Børgesen & Jensen, 1995;Cassill & Vinson, 2007). This suggests that different mechanisms may operate in different ant species. Further, the triggering of an increased fecundity in the present study shows that egg laying rates in O. longinoda are plastic and can be manipulated via the presence of pupae and/or workers.In the present study, the total population size (all brood stages) in the colonies that received 0 pupae was 1.99 times higher (mean = 46.5 ± 3.6 SE) compared to the results obtained by Offenberg et al. (2012a) in the hapleometrotic colonies of O. smaragdina (mean = 23.3 ± 2.0 SE) after 68 days. This lower production in O. smaragdina was likely affected by the fact that the colonies in that study were transported under cold conditions at the start of the experiment which may have delayed their development. On the other hand, the total population size (all brood stages) after 68 days was 1.6 times higher in the pleometrotic O. smaragdina (Offenberg et al., 2012a) colonies (mean = 74.9 ± 10.5 SE) compared to the haplometrotic colonies in this study (mean = 46.5 ± 3.6 SE). This highlights the strong effect of multiple queens in founder colonies.Under natural circumstances, it takes approximately two years before a colony contains enough ants to be used for pest control (Vanderplank, 1960;Peng et al., 2004) as each colony is expected to occupy approximately 10 trees in the receiver plantation (Peng et al., 2004). This minimum colony size may be achieved more quickly by boosting the growth via pupae transplantation. In the present study colony size increased up to almost 5-fold in only 50 days and with only a single pupae transplantation event. Multiple transplantations with potentially even higher numbers of pupae being transplanted may lead to much higher boosting, considerably shortening the otherwise slow development to an acceptable colony size. Secondly, it is evident that the biological control efficiency of weaver ants depends on the density of the worker ants (Van Mele et al., 2007;Peng & Christian, 2005b, 2007). Thus, keeping high densities of O. longinoda is essential in biocontrol programs and may be accomplished by pupae transplantation during critical periods.This study suggests that queen right O. longinoda colonies accept foreign brood and that pupae transplantation facilitate colony growth. This knowledge may ease the implementation of the weaver ant technology in Africa where the ants can be used to control pest species on various crops. Future studies should test if the immediate presence of pupae will trigger higher egg-laying rate by the queen before the pupae emerge as workers. Also it would be interesting to test if pupae transplantation and the following higher numbers of larger workers will lead to the production of a larger intrinsic worker caste in receiver colonies compared to colonies that develops naturally.","tokenCount":"3221"}

data/part_3/0129917513.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"94df99b32038eaf8ac38125605371a05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb99791c-2f12-4481-b9c7-a301b7742262/retrieve","id":"-855987502"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"efa05003-bb02-4324-9b60-df75a88eb308","pagecount":"8","content":"La industria pesquera involucrada en la captura de peces y otros animales acuaticos en estado natural, juega muy a menudo un papel importante en la busqueda del sustento diario, no siendo reemplazada a cabalidad por el desarrollo de la agricultura irrigada, A pesar de esto, raramente se considera el impacto del desarrollo de la irrigacion y el manejo de las industrias pesque~as, Si la industria pesquera y la irrigacion se vieran dentro de un marco de manejo participativo e integrado, se asegurarfa que el sustento y la seguridad alimenticia aumentaran en vez de ser afectadas por el desarrollo de la irrigacion, Tarnbien daria la oportunidad de incrementar toda la produccion de los sistemas de irrigacion a un pequeno costo adicional.,Los gestores de polfticas y planeamiento se han desentendido de las industrias pesqueras artesanales-a pesar del hecho de que en zonas rurales, las industrias pesqueras contribuyen a menudo significativamente con la dieta y con los ingresos de la poblacion. Se estima que 50 mil/ones de personas en paises en desarrollo obtienen sus ingresos y el alimento de industrias pesqueras tierra adentro. En lugares tan diversos como en las cuencas del Mekong, el Amazonas y el Lago Chad, los investigadores encontraron que los hogares rurales usualmente obtienen entre el lOy 30 por ciento de sus ingresos totales de las industrias pesqueras tierra adentro. Y, para los hogares particularmente pobres, el pescado es usualmente la principal fuente de protefna.EI manejo y el desarrollo de la irrigacion pueden tener impactos directos e indirectos en la industria pesquera. Estos pueden cambiar los patrones de las corrientes, el tamaRa y la conexi on de los habitats acuaricos y la calidad del agua-Io cual afectarfa la produccion y la diversidad de la industria pesquera. Tambien pueden cambiar el acceso y los derechos de acceso a zonas acuaticas-afectando a los que se pueden beneficiar de este recurso.Pero, contrariamente a 10 que se cree, las industrias pesqueras pueden perfectamente coexistir con los sistemas de irrigacion contribuyendo a la productividad total de los sistemas, asf como al sustento y la seguridad alimenticia de las comunidades cercanas. Una reciente investigacion en Laos y Sri Lanka, ha demostrado que con el manejo apropiado del agua y con el apoyo de polfticas, el desarrollo de la irrigacion puede en realidad aumentar la producci6n de las industrias pesqueras.Beneficios del rnanejo participativo e integrado de la irrigacion y las industrias pesqueras Las consideraciones sectoriales prevalecientes con respecto al manejo de los recursos naturales, tienden a impedir eI uso optimo del agua para la irrigacion y las industrias pesqueras. La irrigacion usual mente recae en un departamento y las industrias pesqueras en otro, con muy pocos vinculos institucionales, si es que existen algunos, entre las dos agencias responsables -a pesar del vinculo entre la productividad de la industria pesquera en areas irrigadas y el manejo de la irrigacion. Con un enfoque de un manejo participativo e integrado, la industria pesquera a menudo pu ede alcanzar el nivel necesario para obtener los beneficios suministrados por la irrigacion . Tambien puede afrontar las necesidades de grupos pobres y vulnerables, quienes de otra manera serian desatendidos 0 afectados negativamente por el desarrollo de la Iffigacio n.La identificacion de las principales interacciones entre sistemas sociales, economicos y biofisicos, proporciona una nueva y mas amplia perspectiva para el manejo tanto de la irrigacion, como de la industria pesquera. A su vez, estas necesitan ser consideradas dentro del contexto de los usos competitivos y multiples del agua en cuencas fluviales, como se trata dentro del marco de Manejo Integrado de Recursos Hfdricos (MIRH). En \"El manejo de agua yecosistemas: Viviendo con el cambio\", Malin Falkenmark describe el primer orden empresarial para el manejo responsable del agua, al identificar bienes y servicios esenciales de ecosistemas y pasos a seguir para la proteccion de tales recursos. Es importante recordar que \"ecosistema\" se aplica a ambientes \"naturales\", asi como a los modificados. La proteccion ecologica lIsualmente se ha enfocado hacia los rios y lagos, pero los habitats hechos por el hombre, son igualmente importantes y quiza mas importantes desde una perspectiva enfocada al sustento de la poblacion .El impulso para asegurar el bienestar de la vida humana significa que muy pocos paisajes permanecen intactos. El reto es encontrar formas para \"vivir con el cambio\" -\"asegurar la capacidad para absorber el cambio continuo, sin perder la capacidad dinamica para que los ecosistemas mantengan el suministro de bienes y servicios ecologicos\".' Cn!ditos: Esta sesi6n informativa sobre la Politica del Agua, fue auspiciada por el Centro Consultivo ,je Global Water Partnership (GWP) en el Instituto Internacional para el Manejo del Agua (lWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka. Se basa en los info ~l1~ de fondo del Comite Tecnico de GWP: \"Manejo de agua y ecosistemas: vivien do con el cam~io\" por Malin Falkenmar, \"Reducci6n d:, la pobreza y MIRH,\" Y\"EI manejo de los recursos hfdricos integrados (MIRHr Presenta conclusiones de las investigaciones de\"Los impactosoe la irrigacion en las industrias pesqueras tierra adentro y el papel que juegan en el sustento de areas rurales\"por Sophie Nguyen-Khoa de MIRH y Laurence Smith y Kai Lorenzen de Imperial College, Londres. Esta investigacion fue posible gracias al Departamento para el Desarrollo Internacional del Reino Unido (DFID) -Conocimiento e Investigaci6n en el Programa Sectorial de Ingenierfa (KaR) yal apoyo del Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture (www.iwmi.orgiassessment).Traduccion al espanol: Linda Holland; Revision: Marianela Arguello January, 2005 1 ser irrelevante desde el punto de vista de una contribuci6n a los modos de sustento dependientes de la producci6n pesquera.Debido a que el desarrollo de la irrigacion modifica los habitats acuaticos y la hidrologfa, a menudo tiene efectos negativos en por 10 menos algunos de los componentes de la biodiversidad acuatica local. Pero esto no significa que el impacto en la industria pesquera sea tambien negativo: algunas especies pueden en realidad beneficiarse -por ejemplo, si la construccion de represas aumenta la extension de su habitat. Dependiendo en las condiciones locales y del diseno de la infraestructura y su operaci6n, la irrigaci6n puede aumentar los niveles de produccion de la mayor parte de las industrias pesqueras. En los dos estudios de caso reportados aquf, el desarrollo de la irrigacion creo nuevos habitats acuiiticos, sin afectar sustancialmente el grado 0 la capacidad de producci6n de los habitats existentes que apoyan la industria pesquera: arrozales regados con agua pluvial en laos y antiguos tanques (pequenas represas) en Sri lanka.Otra creencia popular que ha causado malas politicas en el pasado, es que la industria pesquera es una actividad que se desarrolla como ultimo recurso y que puede ser facilmente \"reemplazada\" por la agricultura irrigada. En laos, los investigadores encontraron que la mayor parte de los miembros de hogares de la localidad pescaban como una estrategia tradicional para conseguir el sustento -la cmil tambien inclufa la siembra de cultivos, la recoleccion de productos en el bosque y trabajos ocasionales remunerados. las respuestas a las poHticas necesitan ser adaptadas a las condiciones locales y al reconocimiento de que las industrias pesqueras pueden lograr una amplia gama de funciones, desdq, una actividad como • ultimo recurso, dentro de otras varillis actividades para • conseguir el sustento, hasta una ocup aci'~n especializada y bien remunerada.Es cierto que el desarrollo de la irrigacion puede causar la disminucion de la cantidad de trabajadores en la industria pesquera, pues en comparacion con la cosecha regada con agua pluvial, la demand a de trabajo de la agricultura irrigada es usual mente mayor, menos variable y por periodos mas largos durante el ano. Por otra parte, los hogares pobres sin acceso a los beneficios de la irrigacion y tal vez marginados economica y socialmente a causa de la falta de desarrollo en ellugar, estan expuestos a una mayor dependencia de la pesca como elemento de la estrategia diversificada para ganarse la vida.Para poder lograr un planeamiento y un manejo responsable, los gestores de decisiones necesitan la informaci6n precisa sobre al papel que juega la industria pesquera en una comunidad y los impactos potenciales para los interesados. Si no se reconoce la importancia de la industria pesquera, el desarrollo de la irrigaci6n puede efectivamente incrementar la pobreza y la inseguridad alimenticia entre grupos de interesados.• La industria pesquera puede coexistir con la irrigaci6n -en muchos casas, fortalece la producci6n de los sistemas de irrigaci6n.• EI manejo de la irrigaci6n y las practicas para los cultivos, pueden tener un impacto mayor en las industrias pesqueras que en el desarrollo de la infraestructura.• La producci6n de la industria pesquera y las consideraciones para el sustento de la gente no son necesariamente identicas a los asuntos de la biodiversidad. Se requieren diferentes herramientas para valorar el impacto del desarrollo de la irrigaci6n ya menudo se requieren diferentes medidas para mitigar los efectos negativos.• La industria pesquera puede jugar diferentes papeles en las estrategias para conseguir el sustento de una comunidad.• Para poder lograr captar adecuadamente los asuntos relacionados con el sustento, la evaluaci6n del impacto de la irrigaci6n necesita ser desagregada espacialmente y por grupos socioecon6micos.• Los enfoques sectoriales -cuando la irrigaci6n y la industria pesquera son manejadas por agencias que tienen relaciones institucionales de biles -pueden hacer que las comunidades no logren conseguir los beneficios maximos de los recursos acuaticos y pueden causar conflictos entre los pescadores y los campesinos. Se necesita un enfoque integrado del manejo de los recursos hidricos para mejorar la productividad y el ~Ianteamiento para lograr el sustento en las industrias pesqueras y los sistemas de irrigaci6n.Estudie de case: Sri LankaLos investigadores estimaron el impacto que produjo el Proyecto de Irrigaci6n y Asentamientos en Kirindi Oya (KOISP) a la industria pesquera en Sri Lanka . Los resultados, que destacaron muchas oportunidades para aumentar la productividad de la industria pesquera al cambiar las practicas de cultivo y el manejo de la irrigaci6n, demuestran 10 valioso que es la realizaci6n de tales evaluaciones, aun despues de que un esquema de irrigaci6n haya estado operando por algun tiempo.La evaluaci6n demostr6 que el 7 por ciento de todos los hogares en la comunidad se involucraba en la pesca como una actividad habitual -estimando una producci6n de 2.550 toneladas de pescado por ano. EI ingreso brute estimado de la pesca fue $'.4 millones por ana -'3 por ciento del ingreso total del area. La escala de captaci6n de la producci6n de las industrias pesqueras aument6 en aproximadamente 75 por . ciento desde la implementaci6n del KOISP. Pero el valor de la producci6n ha aumentado solamente dell 0 al 25 por ciento, debido a la baja en el precio del camar6n que es alta mente valorado y que se pesca en las lagunas.En relaci6n al KOISP, los interesados identificaron las siguientes preocupaciones en la industria pesquera:• Reducci6n de la corriente y de las inundaciones.• Disminuci6n de la retenci6n de agua en tanques y represas durante la epoca seca.• Reflujo_de agua de drenaje hacia las lagunas -impactando negativamente la industria de camarones al cambiar la salinidad. (Para enfrentar este problema, los pescadores usualmente hacen agujeros desde la laguna hasta el mar).• Conflictos entre los pescadores y los agricultores, y• Relaciones debiles entre las empresas .pesqueras y las empresas encargadas de las irrigaci6n.Los resultados finales sugieren que mientras el KOISP contribuy6 a aumentar la producci6n pesquera por medio de la creaci6n de una nueva y mas grande represa, el esquema de la operaci6n y el manejo del agua han tenido un impacto negativo en la producci6n preexistente de represas y lagunas. Si se mejora la irrigaci6n y se reutiliza el agua de drenaje, se ayuda a tratar estos impactos negativos, reteniendo mas agua en los tanques y represas y reduciendo el flujo del drenaje irrigado a las lagunas. Otra recomendaci6n clave de la evaluaci6n, es que se deben desarrollar objetivos para minimizar la retenci6n de agua en tanques (10 que reduciria las incidencias de un \"extremo drenaje\").Es necesario desarrollar una polftica apropiada mi xta qye permita que las industrias pesqueras sigan jugando el papel de \"redes de seguridad\" (por 10 menos a corto plazo), as! como promover pequenas industrias pesqueras comerciales en los grandes embalses y regular el criterio ambiental de estas industrias rehabilitadas en las lagunas.Incorporaci6n de las industrias pesqueras en el planeamiento y 1a evaluaci6n del impactoLa consideraci6n del impacto ambiental, aunque es util al tratar asuntos relacionados con la biodiversidad y la integridad ecol6gica, no llama necesariamente la atenci6n en asuntos relacionados con la productividad y el sustento. Y mientras la biodiversidad puede estar relacionada con el sustento y la productividad en algunos casos, en otros no 10 esta. La perdida de algunos tipos de habitat 0 la conexi6n con el habitat, puede causar la perdida de la biodiversidad sin afectar los niveles de la producci6n de la pesca, mientras que la perdida de gran parte del habitat puede causar un descenso en la producci6n de la pesca, sin afectar enronemente la biodiversidad.Se requieren diferentes herramientas para estimar los impactos de la biodiversidad y el sustento y muy a menudo se necesitan diferentes medidas para mitigar cualquier consecuencia negativa del desarrollo de la irrigaci6n. En Sri Lanka y Laos, debido a que ambos sistemas fueron modificados desde el principio, antes del desarrollo moderno de la irrigaci6n, el rio, el cual era el habitat acuMico dominante antes de la interferencia del ser humano, ahora solo responde a un pequeno porcentaje de la producci6n de industrias pesqueras. En estos casos, si el objetivo es preservar 0 aumentar las ganancias, la prioridad debe ser el mantenimiento de las industrias pesqueras en los habitats creados por el hombre. Si el objetivo es preservar la biodiversidad, la mejor opci6n es Ja restauraci6n de los patrones de flujo originales del rio y el enlace lateral. Llamada de atenci6n sobre asuntos relacionados con el sustento El impacto relacionado al sustento diario depende de los objetivos que haya en los hogares de pescadores, la funci6n de la pesca en las estrategias de los hogares y el acceso a las industrias pesqueras. Para juzgar adecuadamente las funciones de las industrias pesqueras dentro de las estrategias de los hogares, las evaluaciones se deben dividir por grupos socioecon6micos y por genero. Comunmente se cree que los pescadores pertenecen a un grupo especiaJizado y facilmente reconocible. Pero la pesca puede jugar papeles diferentes aunque igualmente criticos dentro de los diferentes segmentos de la comunidad. Puede ser una actividad suplementaria para la mayor parte de la comunidad, pero un componente critico para conseguir el sustento dentro de las estrategias de un grupo. Tambien puede ser una parte integral de las estrategias para el sustento diario de toda una comunidad.Debido a que las industrias pesqueras realizan una gama de funciones para conseguir el sustento aun dentro de grupos socioeconomicos, las evaluaciones deben ir mas aHa de los ingresos. Por ejemplo, los beneficios provistos por la pesca como parte de la estrategia diversificada para lograr el sustento, pueden incluir: Intentar amortiguar los eventos inesperados, manejar la inestabilidad de los ingresos y mantener un balance de la mana de obra. El pescado puede ser una fuente importante de proteina y una forma de ingresos rapida. La pesca puede servir como medio de intercambio, promover relaciones sociales y ofrecer recreacion.Tambien deben considerarse las decisiones fisicas, temporales e institucionales disponibles para los diferentes grupos. El acceso a los beneficios que brinda la industria pesquera en epocas criticas del ano 0 la ubicaci6.n de estas cerca de un lugar residencial, podrian ser mas importantes que los niveles de producci6n -especial mente para mujeres que pescan, quienes, debido al cuido de los ninos 0 ala seguridad personal, deben mantenerse cerca de la casa.La imporlancia de la partieipaei6n de grupos inlerc, ados Durante el proceso de evaluacion, la participaci6n de los grupos interesados puede ayudar a enfocar la estimaci6n (0 a ampliarla, dependiendo de la perspecciva tecnica y cientffica a priori), al identificar rapidamente rc~;-asuntos clave y las prioridades para la mitigaci6n 0 amplia-c~on. El hecho de poder identificar los asuntos clave y las prioridades, es particularmente util en el caso de que no haya suficientes fondos 0 tiempo para una evaluaci6n mas completa. La participaci6n de los interesados puede tambien ayudar a tratar las preocupaciones Water Policy Briefing Estudio de caso: LaosEn Laos, la evaluaci6n se hizo para determinar los posibles impactos debido al nuevo desarrollo de la irrigaci6n en un area buena para la pesca y donde la pesca juega un importante papel en el sustento de mas del 85 por ciento de los hogares rurales.De acuerdo a la evaluaci6n, el proyecto propuesto para la irrigaci6n debera tener un leve impacto positivo en la producci6n de las industrias pesqueras. Este es posiblemente un resultado contra intuitive porque:• La producci6n natural de la pesca es principalmente el resultado de los arrozales regados por el agua pluvial y puede sostenerse dentro del sistema de irrigaci6n, siempre que se mantengan los cultivos de arroz regados por el agua pluvial. • EI embalse que se creara para la pesca debera ser suficiente para por 10 menos compensar las perdidas de la producci6n que se derivan rfo abajo y en las \"anura, de inundaci6n.Tambien se espera que el impacto total que se tenga en el modo de sustento de los habitantes del area del proyecto sea positivo. Ademas de los beneficios causados por la agricultura irrigada y el estfmulo que de a la economfa local, tambien se podran beneficiar del habitat generado por el nuevo embalse.Pero estos resultados positivos esconden algunos impactos potenciales negativos en ciertos segmentos de la sociedad. Los que posiblemente seran afectados son los miembros de los hogares que no tienen terrenos 0 que tienen pocos terrenos, los cuales dependen mayormente de la pesca, pero viven lejos del embalse. En este caso, para resguardar los intereses de los grupos vulnerables, sera necesario controlar los impactos dependiendo de la localidad de la captaci6n, estatus socioecon6mico y genero.Aunque el desarrollo de la irrigaci6n puede proveer nuevas oportunidades para el sustento de la poblaci6n, la semisubsistencia y la economfa rural atrasada, se mantendra por algun tiempo, siendo necesario mantener las contribuciones a las personas que obtengan su sustento por medio de la pesca. La pesca podra seguir siendo parte del sustento de la mayor parte de los hogares en zonas rurales, y seguira asi mismo jugando un papel como \"red segura\" para las zonas mas pobres de la poblaci6n. Ademas, algunos esfuerzos gerenciales podran ser dirigidos a actividades de pesca mas comerciales, aunque de menor escala.de la r.pmunidad y los posibles conflictos, establecer el sentido de pertenencia y compromiso respecto a clIalqllier medida acordada y crear los cimientos para' continuos dialogos y negociaciones. Como se subray6 en el informe GWP TEC, \"Manejo integrado de recursos hfdricos\", el hecho de involucrar a los interesados es para concienciarios, aportaries informacion e indicarles como conseguirla. Para las mujeres y otros grupos marginados, la adquisici6n de confianza es un componente adicional. \"La creacion de oportunidades participativas no servira de nada para los grupos desfavorecidos a no ser que su capacidad para participar sea ampliada\".2 La representacion de diferentes grupos de interesados, incluyendo a la sociedad civil y agencias gubernamentales, es necesaria, no solo desde el punto de vista de propiedad y equid ad, sino que tambien el conocimiento y la percepci6n de impactos se diferencia entre los grupos.Por su puesto, es un riesgo que los interesados introduzcan en la evaluacion informaciones sesgadas 0 informaciones equivocadas. Pero si se combina la experiencia tecnica con el conocimiento de los diferentes grupos de interesados de la localidad, se podnl. minimizar el riesgo y se asegurani que los asuntos tengan una cobertura objetiva y adecuada.Los planificadores y gerentes de esquemas de irrigacion deben estar abiertos a la posibilidad de proteger y sostener indus trias pesqueras 0 industrias pesqueras en desarrollo, en habitat nuevos 0 modificados. Aun en sistemas existentes, puede haber oportunidades para aumentar los beneficios de las industrias pesqueras 0 mitigar los impactos negativos. La evaluacion de impacto descrita precedentemente es util para identificar y dirigir estas oportunidades. Que el impacto de ~, las industrias pesqueras sea positivo 0 negativo depende del esquema del modo de operacion de la irrigaci6n, as! como del disefio del mismo esquema.De hecho, el manejo de la irrigaci6n y las practicas agrfcolas pueden tener un mayor impacto en la producci6n de pescado que en el desarrollo de la infraestructura. En el caso de Laos, la subsistencia de las industrias pesqueras depende si se mantiene una cosecha de anoz bien mojada durante la epoca de Huvia. Cualquier modificaci6n en el cicio de la cosecha que reduzca la retencion de agua en los arrozales, causanl. una drastica reducci6n en la producci6n de la industria pesquera. En Sri Lanka, la merma drastica en los tanques reduce dramaticamente la produccion en la industria pesquera.Eficacia del Agua• Las industrias pesqueras pueden ayudar a que se consiga mas producci6n de alimentos por medio de goteo de los sistemas de riego, incrementando de esa manera la eficacia del agua .• Si se integran las industrias pesqueras y el manejo de la irrigaci6n, se lograra cosechar beneficios significativos con poca inversi6n.• EI anal isis del acceso al agua para 105 pobres de zonas rurales necesita ir mas alia del agua potable y la irrigaci6n.• La evaluaci6n del impacto para el desarrollo de la irrigaci6n y otras intervenciones que pueden afectar la hidrologia de una determinada zona, debera considerar no 5010 el habitat creado por el hombre, sino tambien, los habitats acuaticos naturales.• La evaluaci6n del impacto ambiental con un enfoque hacia la biodiversidad, no es suficiente para captar la atenci6n sobre 105 asuntos vinculadosJ! I~ industria pesquera relacionados con el sustento de la Jlent:e.• EI valor de la induswia pesquera, en terminos de estrategias para lograr el sustento y la nutrici6n para los pobres de zonas rurales, asi como la economia directa, deben ser considerados cuando se toman decisiones sobre la repartici6n del agua.Uno de los resultados de la Cumbre Mundial para el Desarrollo Sostenible (CMDS) de 2002, fue la recomendaci6n a todos los paises de desarrollar para el ano 2005 la GIRH y Estrategias Eficaces del Agua. La recomendaci6n menciona que todos los paises deben tener una estrategia -sin importar su nivel financiero 0 sus recursos hidricos -y que los paises en vias de desarrollo deben ser ayudados en el proceso de preparaci6n de sus estrategias. EI contenido de estas estrategias debe ser amplio, cubriendo cambios institucionales, financieros y tecnol6gicos.Una vez que se han evaluado las condiciones minimas requeridas para sostener la produccion y los diversos recursos acu<iticos, asf como las oportunidades para el sustento que proporcionan, se podnin evaluar a la luz de los canjes y compromisos que se impongan sobre el manejo de agua de irrigacion y otras actividades. Bajo condiciones favorables, las industrias pesqueras pueden afiadir valor al uso del agua en la agricultura y se Ie debeni dar la debida consideracion cuando se tomen decisiones sobre la reparticion de agua -particularmente en situaciones de escasez de agua.Tanto en Laos como en Sri Lanka, los proyectos de irrigacion evaluados ofrecieron la oportunidad para aumentar la produccion en las indus trias pesqueras, con muy poca inversion adicional 0 impacto en la produccion de cultivos. Pero para sacarle mayor provecho a estas oportunidades, los sectores de la irrigacion, industrias pesqueras y agricultura, necesitan trabajar conjuntamente -tanto en la etapa del disefio, como en la del manejo del desarrollo de la irrigacion. Las consideraciones positivas de las industrias pesqueras en eI planeamiento y disefio de la irrigacion, incluyen la seguridad de que haya una conexion del habitat a traves de \"escalas de peces\" y acceso fisico allugar donde se pesca. Los gerentes de los trabajos de irrigacion necesitan considerar los patrones del flujo y la calidad del agua. Ademas, las intervenciones agricolas para controlar el uso de pesticidas pueden reducir los impactos negativos en las indus trias pesqueras.Las industrias pesqueras en sistemas de irrigaci6n pueden tam bien beneficiarse de las medidas p,specfficas de manejo de la industria pesqllera, tales como la c~t,;acion 0 restauraci6n de habitat de desove, restricciones para la pesca en escalas de peces 0 en condllctos donde la cosecha es muy eficiente y puede reducir la pesca debido al exceso de pesca 0 al abastecimiento de especies de peces que estan bien adaptadas a los habitats creados por la infraestructura de la irrigacion.Publicaciones de GWP (disponibles en www.gwpforum.org) Informes preliminares de TEC • EI manejo del agua y de los ecosistemas: viviendo con el cambio (No.9)• Manejo integrado de los recursos hidricos (No.4) ","tokenCount":"4049"}

data/part_3/0253596289.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"54f1c31a59503f0d79b4100a9c3723e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/faea3192-9386-4b2a-8ae2-253870363b9c/content","id":"1269128699"},"keywords":["synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW)","sub-genomes","epistasis","genomic prediction"],"sieverID":"9defa9dc-2f92-46ce-b07d-198bfd8ad62d","pagecount":"14","content":"Common wheat (Triticum aestivum) is a hexaploid crop comprising three diploid subgenomes labeled A, B, and D. The objective of this study is to investigate whether there is a discernible influence pattern from the D sub-genome with epistasis in genomic models for wheat diseases. Four genomic statistical models were employed; two models considered the linear genomic relationship of the lines. The first model (G) utilized all molecular markers, while the second model (ABD) utilized three matrices representing the A, B, and D sub-genomes. The remaining two models incorporated epistasis, one (GI) using all markers and the other (ABDI) considering markers in sub-genomes A, B, and D, including inter-and intra-sub-genome interactions. The data utilized pertained to three diseases: tan spot (TS), septoria nodorum blotch (SNB), and spot blotch (SB), for synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW) lines. The results (variance components) indicate that epistasis makes a substantial contribution to explaining genomic variation, accounting for approximately 50% in SNB and SB and only 29% for TS. In this contribution of epistasis, the influence of intra-and inter-sub-genome interactions of the D sub-genome is crucial, being close to 50% in TS and higher in SNB (60%) and SB (60%). This increase in explaining genomic variation is reflected in an enhancement of predictive ability from the G model (additive) to the ABDI model (additive and epistasis) by 9%, 5%, and 1% for SNB, SB, and TS, respectively. These results, in line with other studies, underscore the significance of the D sub-genome in disease traits and suggest a potential application to be explored in the future regarding the selection of parental crosses based on sub-genomes.Common wheat (Triticum aestivum) is an allohexaploid crop with three diploid subgenomes, named A, B and D. The spontaneous hybridization of the A genome ancestor (Triticum urartu Tumanian ex Gandylian) and the B genome ancestor (Aegilops speltoides Tausch) formed the tetraploid species, Triticum turgidum L. (2n = 4x = 28, AABB). Another hybridization of Triticum turgidum L. with a single lineage of goat grass, Aegilops tauschii Coss, (2n = 2x = 14, DD) generated today's hexaploid common (bread) wheat T. aestivum (2n = 6x = 42, AABBDD). The D genome shows less genetic variation than either the A or B genomes [1]. Common wheat was first domesticated in the Fertile Cresent, and spread from there to North Africa, Europe, and East Asia [2]. The International Maize and Wheat Genes 2024, 15, 262 2 of 14 Improvement Center (CIMMYT) started to explore the potential of synthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW) in the 1980 ′ s by crossing tetraploid durum wheat (DW, Triticum turgidum subsp. durum or Triticum durum) with Ae. tauschii accessions [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]. Many of these SHWs have shown resistance or tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, indicating the potential of Ae. tauschii for breeding purposes [8,10].Today, the use of molecular markers is common practice in plant breeding programs, such as in the context of marker-assisted selection, association studies [11][12][13], or genomic prediction [14][15][16]. With genomic selection illustrating its potential in animals, particularly in dairy cattle breeding, today's most used additive genomic relationship matrix has originally been defined in the animal breeding literature by VanRaden [17]. For wheat, Bonnett [18] and Dreisigacker [19] presented empirical research on genomic-selection-enabled rapid cycling and reported increases in genetic gain over time compared to phenotypic selection.For genomic prediction, additive and non-additive genetic effects can be estimated in statistical linear regression models based on (tens of) thousands of molecular markers using high-throughput genotyping platforms of target populations. For wheat, the inclusion of statistical non-additive effects in prediction models, either in the form of a general \"non-additive relationship\", for instance a Gaussian kernel [20], or by modeling pairwise interaction effects between markers explicitly [21,22], has been shown to have the potential to increase predictive ability. A model with explicit pairwise interaction terms is equivalent to the use of Hadamard product of the additive relationship matrix, but correction terms may be required if one aims at a specific exact interaction effect model instead of an approximation [23,24].When working with molecular markers in a context of quantitative genetics, for instance for genomic prediction, the hexaploid common wheat has usually been treated as diploid with 21 chromosomes, addressing the set of sub-genomes jointly without modeling a structural relation or separation of the three sub-genomes A, B, or D. However, the positions of molecular markers, and particularly their affiliation with the respective subgenome, are usually known. This information would allow us to estimate additive and epistatic genetic covariances and effects at the level of sub-genomes. Santantonio [1] partitioned the additive and epistatic variances to the sub-genomes A, B, and D of wheat and predicted breeding values for each sub-genome. The authors determined the importance of inter-sub-genomic epistasis and concluded that estimating sub-genome breeding values will help breeders to better assess breeding goals by developing new strategies for the selection of additive effects and to exploit genomic epistasis.In a recent study, Dreisigacker [19] applied hybrid prediction to the allopolyploidization event of SHW for wheat diseases, tan spot (TS), septoria nodorum blotch (SNB), and spot blotch (SB). The authors showed that prediction abilities were high when estimating the performance of untested SHWs, indicating that the method can guide the use of genetic resources available in gene banks.In this study, we present results for various genome-based prediction models assessing the epistatic interaction within and between sub-genomes A, B, and D of SHW. We use the data of 443 synthetic SHWs that were genotyped and phenotyped for resistance to three different diseases in a previous study by Lozano-Ramirez [25,26]. In contrast to Dreisigacker [19], we do not use a hybrid prediction model including general and specific combining abilities of different parental groups-durum and Ae. tuschiibut we do use the genotypic data of SHW lines and split the effects into additive effects and additive interactions between the three sub-genomes.A total of 443 SHW lines were generated by the CIMMYT Wheat Wide Crosses Program via the hybridization of 40 durum wheat (DW) parents, and 277 Ae. tauschii accessions were used in this study. The DW parents were involved in 1 to 54 crosses and the Ae. tauschii accessions were used in 1 to 7 crosses. The SHWs were selected from a larger collection of 1524 SHWs for their resistance to diseases such as Fusarium head blight, Septoria tritici blotch, rust, and acceptable phenology such as plant height and days to heading. Full details are given in Lozano-Ramirez [25,26].The disease screening was carried out in a greenhouse at CIMMYT, El Batán, Mexico (19 • 31 ′ N, 98 • 50 ′ W, elevation 2249 m above sea level) in 2018-2019. All 443 SHW, along with the 40 DW parents, were evaluated for SB, TS, and SNB resistance at the seedling stage, while the Ae. tauschii accessions could not be screened due to their nature and growth as a wild species. The seed of SHW lines was vernalized to break down seed dormancy and to obtain an even germination. As described in Lozano-Ramirez [25,26] and Dreisigacker [19], the experiments were arranged in the greenhouse with 12 replicates for diseases TS and SNB, and 6 replicates for the disease SB, measured following the 1-5 ordinal lesion rating scale developed by Lamari and Bernier [27]. For each SHW entry, four plants were grown in plastic containers as experimental units to derive mean values used on the phenotypic model. The seedlings were grown under controlled conditions with an ambient temperature of 22-25/16-18 • C (day/night) and with a 16 h photoperiod [25,26]. Seedlings were inoculated at the two-leaf stage, when the second leaf was fully expanded, or two weeks after sowing.Genomic DNA was extracted from the second leaf of 10-day-old seedlings of each line of the SHWs using the modified cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) method described in the CIMMYT laboratory protocols [28]. The high-throughput genotyping method DArTseq TM [29] was applied to all samples in the Genetic Analysis Service for Agriculture (SAGA) at CIMMYT, Texcoco, Mexico.Out of the complete set of 443 SHW lines, 438 were genotyped and used for GWAS [25,26]. A total of 67,436 markers were scored, out of which 50% (34,790) could be aligned to reference genomes. Quality control was carried out based on the minimum lack of alleles, resulting in 5800 markers to be used for GWAS. The reference genomes used in this study were Chinese Spring IWGSC RefSeq v1.0 genome assembly [30] and durum wheat (cv. Svevo) Ref Seq Rel. 1.0 [31], along with the reference genome of Ae. tauschii (v.4, 2017) [32].Before applying the genomic predictive model, we estimated the effects of the cultivars using a linear model for ordinal traits, where the response can take values on C ordered values, y ij ∈ {1, . . . , C}. We used the probit link, and the probability of each observation belonging to each category is given by:where Φ(•) corresponds to the cumulative distribution function of a standard normal random variable η ij = r j + l i , which corresponds to the linear predictor, which includes the effect of replicates (r j ) and SHW cultivars (l i ), and γ c are threshold parameters, withFor further details about the threshold model, see Gianola [33]. Note that the effects of the cultivars (l i ) or adjusted means computed are considered as response variables in the genomic prediction models.In these models, the genome markers are considered as a whole, without separating the three sub-genomes (A, B, and C). The first model is model G, which accounts for additive effects, and the second model is model GI, which includes additive effects and epistatic effects, similar to those presented by Santantonio [1].This is the traditional general model for additive effects used in genomic prediction and selection, known as GBLUP:where vector y represents the phenotypic observations, the overall mean of the intercept is µ, matrix Z is an incidence matrix that relates the observations to the genomic random effects (g G ). These are assumed to follow a normal distribution g G ∼ N (0, σ 2 g G G G ) with a mean of zero, a variance component σ 2 g G , and a known covariance matrix G G constructed with the (p) genomic markers X G according to VanRaden [17] and adjusted by López-Cruz [34] to achieve a mean of one in the diagonal and zero in the off diagonal on G G using a marker matrix X G scaled with a mean of zero and variance equal to one.Finally, the random errors of model ε are assumed to follow a normal distribution with a mean of zero and homogeneous variance σ 2 ε . Model GI Model GI considers additive and the interaction of additive × additive epistatic effects:The interaction of random additive × additive effect Zg GI aims to capture the epistatic effects and is assumed to follow a normal distribution g GI ∼ N (0, σ 2 g GI G G #G G ), with a variance component to be estimated as σ 2 g GI , and a known variance covariance matrix constructed as the Hadamard (#) of matrix G G containing the additive relationship information. The rest of the elements of model GI were already defined.In these models, the markers are divided by sub-genomes A, B, and D to capture their additive and epistatic effects within and between sub-genomes. The first model, ABD, is similar to the additive model proposed by Santantonio [1], and the second, ABDI, differs from Santantonio [1] by incorporating inter-sub-genome interactions. To achieve this, it is essential to have a reference map of the sub-genomes to separate markers for each sub-genome. In this study, markers are appended as X A , X B , X D for each sub-genome (refer to the Data Availability Statement section for details).Model ABD This model considers the additive effects of each sub-genome:where g A , g B , g D denote the additive random effects of sub-genome A, B, and D, and it is assumed that they follow a normal distribution In this model, the additive effects within each sub-genome, the interaction effects within sub-genomes, and the interaction effects between sub-genomes are represented by:where random effects g A , g B , g D represent the additive genomic effects within each subgenome, individually defined in the previous model. The random interaction effects within each sub-genome are represented by vectors g AA , g BB , g DD , which follow a normal distribution like the GI model, i.e., g AA ∼ N (0,Finally, the random interaction effects between sub-genomes are represented by vectors g AB , g AD , g BD , which are assumed to follow a normal distribution, i.e.,Three types of prediction problems were assessed (CV1, CV2, and CV3), like those used by Basnet [35] and Dreisigacker [19]. In each case, 50 random samples were obtained for the training (Training) and testing (Testing) groups to make predictions for the test group. For each sample, the Pearson correlation between the predicted values and the test values was calculated. The means of the correlations and their standard errors are reported. The 50 random samples were composed of five folds according to the type of cross-validation (CV), with 10 repetitions of this process.We performed a CV1 random cross-validation analysis, which considered that certain proportion SHWs were assessed for disease resistance, whereas for others, SHW phenotypic values are unobserved (missing). CV1 reflected the problem breeders face of usually not having the full capacity to evaluate all possible cultivars (germplasm) for all types of target traits. The cross-validation scheme CV2 assessed the problem of predicting an SHW whose DW parent has not yet been observed in any SHW combination. The training set included all the SHW lines obtained when using 80% of the DW lines crossed with Ae. tauschii and predicting the remaining 20% of the DW parents crossed with the Ae. tauschii. The crossvalidation scheme CV3 was similar to CV2; we performed cross-validation assigning the Ae. tauschii wheat parents to folds. Here, the training set included all the SHWs obtained when using 80% of the Ae. tauschii crossed with durum wheat and predicting the remaining 20% of the SHW. This CV scheme reflected the problem of predicting SHW using DW parents whose crosses with any of the Ae. tauschii accessions have not yet observed.In each case, 50 random samples were obtained for training (Training) and testing (Testing) groups to make predictions for the testing group and calculate the Pearson correlation between the predicted values and the observed values (Testing group) for each sample. The 50 random samples were organized into five folds according to the type of cross-validation (CV1, CV2, or CV3), with 10 repetitions of this process.Models were fitted using the R library BGLR 1.1.1 (Pérez and de los Campos [36]) with 100,000 iterations and a burn in of 10,000 and a thinning of 10, to minimize random errors as much as possible.In Table 1, the estimated genomic and residual variance components for each of the statistical models G, GI, ABD, and ABDI are shown for the analyzed traits TS, SNB, and SB. Considering the residual variances, one observes the pattern of the residual variance being reduced when transitioning from G to ABD, that is, when splitting the overall additive variance into the three sub-genome variances. This is true for TS, where the residual variance decreases from 0.330 to 0.326, as well as for SNB, where it decreases from 0.403 to 0.396, and for SB (from 0.535 to 0.503). When considering model GI, which includes a whole-genome additive effect and a whole-genome interaction effect, the residual variance is reduced further to 0.261, 0.259, and 0.416 for the traits TS, SNB, and SB respectively. Here, for the transition from G to GI, which means adding one term describing pairwise marker interactions, the reduction in the residual variance is between 20% and 35%. This observation indicates that the structure of the phenotypic data can be captured better when including statistical epistasis in the model. The results indicate that epistasis makes a significant contribution to explaining genomic variation in the inbred wheat populations, accounting for approximately 50% in SNB and SB, and only 29% for TS.When splitting additive effects and interactions according to sub-genomes in the ABDI model, the residual variance components are further reduced to 0.234 (TS), 0.235 (SNB), and 0.353 (SB), which means that overall, the residual variance is reduced by 29% (TS), 42% (SNB), and 39% (SB) compared to model G. We also observe (1) that the contributions of intra-and inter-sub-genome interactions of the D sub-genome in epistasis are 49% (TS), 60% (SNB), and 60% (SB), and (2) that the contributions of the intra-sub-genome interactions (AA, BB, and DD) are approximately 51%, 49%, and 54% of the epistasis for the diseases TS, SNB, and SB, respectively.Figures 1-3 illustrate the genomic variance components, displaying the components of one trait at a time for each model, along with the total genomic variance (TGV). The estimated variance components may vary when using different definitions of genomic (epistatic) relationship matrices. Therefore, for comparisons, we mainly focus on a certain class of effects, such as on the variance components of the three additive sub-genome matrices, or on comparisons across traits, for which the analyses are based on the same matrices.Considering the trait TS (Figure 1), we see an expected behavior for models G and GI: When introducing the epistatic effects, the additive variance component of G is reduced to around 4/5 of its size in GI (from 0.555 to 0.440). The main part of the estimated variance component remains as \"additive variance\", yet 1/5 of the additive variance of G is captured by the interaction effects in GI. Moreover, we see that the additive variance component related to the D genome is smaller than the additive variance components of A and B in both ABD and ABDI. The variance components attributed to the different pairwise interactions of the ABDI model are on a similar level. These results suggest that the A and B sub-genomes are more relevant than the D sub-genome for the trait TS. When considering the variance components for SNB (Figure 2), we see a different pattern. First, the instruction of an epistatic relationship matrix (from G to GI) reduces the estimated additive variance component from 0.724 to 0.386, which means that more than 55% of the additive variance component in G is attributed to interactions when including both additive effects and pairwise interaction effects in model GI. Moreover, comparing the additive variance components of the three sub-genomes, the variance component of sub-genome B is smaller than that of A and D in the ABD model. Also, the within-subgenome interaction of sub-genome D stands out of the epistatic interactions and even exceeds the additive variance components. These results suggest that the D sub-genome plays a more important role for SNB.  When considering the variance components for SNB (Figure 2), we see a different pattern. First, the instruction of an epistatic relationship matrix (from G to GI) reduces the estimated additive variance component from 0.724 to 0.386, which means that more than 55% of the additive variance component in G is attributed to interactions when including both additive effects and pairwise interaction effects in model GI. Moreover, comparing the additive variance components of the three sub-genomes, the variance component of sub-genome B is smaller than that of A and D in the ABD model. Also, the within-subgenome interaction of sub-genome D stands out of the epistatic interactions and even exceeds the additive variance components. These results suggest that the D sub-genome plays a more important role for SNB. The tendency described for SNB of (i) sub-genome D having a more important role and (ii) statistical interactions being more relevant can also be observed for SB (Figure 3). Here, once again, the additive variance component of G drops from 0.608 to 0.339 when using model GI. Moreover, the sub-genome additive variance of sub-genome D is higher than for the other sub-genomes in model ABD, which is mainly captured by within-D interactions in the ABDI model. The average predictive abilities and their standard error (SE) per trait and model are shown in Table 2. As a first observation, it is evident that for each trait and each type of CV, the highest predictive ability is always obtained by a model including interactions, that is, model GI or ABDI. Moreover, out of the nine traits by CV combinations, GI has the highest predictive ability in three cases, compared to seven cases in which ABDI showed the highest predictive ability (for TS and CV1, both models GI and ABDI showed the same predictive ability). These results indicate that the inclusion of statistical interaction epistatic effects not only fits the data better, as indicated by the reduction in the error variances as described earlier, but it also leads to a higher predictive ability. The highest predictions for two traits (TS and SB) for CV1 and CV3 correspond to model ABDI (0.724 and 0.715 for CV1 and CV3, respectively, for disease TS; 0.506 and 0.500 for CV1 and CV3, respectively, for disease SB). When considering the variance components for SNB (Figure 2), we see a different pattern. First, the instruction of an epistatic relationship matrix (from G to GI) reduces the estimated additive variance component from 0.724 to 0.386, which means that more than 55% of the additive variance component in G is attributed to interactions when including both additive effects and pairwise interaction effects in model GI. Moreover, comparing the additive variance components of the three sub-genomes, the variance component of subgenome B is smaller than that of A and D in the ABD model. Also, the within-sub-genome interaction of sub-genome D stands out of the epistatic interactions and even exceeds the additive variance components. These results suggest that the D sub-genome plays a more important role for SNB.The tendency described for SNB of (i) sub-genome D having a more important role and (ii) statistical interactions being more relevant can also be observed for SB (Figure 3). Here, once again, the additive variance component of G drops from 0.608 to 0.339 when using model GI. Moreover, the sub-genome additive variance of sub-genome D is higher than for the other sub-genomes in model ABD, which is mainly captured by within-D interactions in the ABDI model.The average predictive abilities and their standard error (SE) per trait and model are shown in Table 2. As a first observation, it is evident that for each trait and each type of CV, the highest predictive ability is always obtained by a model including interactions, that is, model GI or ABDI. Moreover, out of the nine traits by CV combinations, GI has the highest predictive ability in three cases, compared to seven cases in which ABDI showed the highest predictive ability (for TS and CV1, both models GI and ABDI showed the same predictive ability). These results indicate that the inclusion of statistical interaction epistatic effects not only fits the data better, as indicated by the reduction in the error variances as described earlier, but it also leads to a higher predictive ability. The highest predictions for two traits (TS and SB) for CV1 and CV3 correspond to model ABDI (0.724 and 0.715 for CV1 and CV3, respectively, for disease TS; 0.506 and 0.500 for CV1 and CV3, respectively, for disease SB).Table 2. Genomic prediction ability represented by the average (mean) correlation between observed and predicted values from models G, GI, ABD, and ABDI for five-fold random cross-validation for cross-validations CV1, CV2, and CV3 (standard errors, SEs, are in parenthesis). The best means of models for each disease trait and cross-validation are given in bold for each trait. Moreover, we see that for almost all model and trait combinations, CV2, that is, when the DW parent has not been included in any combination in the training set, has the lowest predictive ability compared to CV1 and CV3. This may be related to the relevance of the A and B sub-genomes, but is more likely enhanced by the data structure, and reduces the training set more strongly when restricted to 80% of the DW parents (recall that DW parents were used in between 1 and 54 crosses, whereas the Ae. tuschii lines were not used in more than 7 crosses).Comparing the behavior of the predictive abilities across traits, we also see that for most models, CV1 has the highest predictive ability, the predictive ability of CV2 decreases, and the predictive ability of CV3 increases again. Figures visualize the average correlations (bars) and a one-standard-error interval (whiskers), organized by cross-validation type (CV1, CV2, or CV3), and within each figure, predictive results by trait and model.For the trait TS, we can observe that in the GI model, the interaction component I (Figure 1, Table 1) has a relatively small proportion of influence (0.163) compared to the additive component G (0.406). This may explain why the average predictions (Table 2) for the GI model (0.724) are not as high as those for the G model (0.702) for CV1. In the ABD model, the major variance components correspond to the A and B sub-genomes, with 0.196 and 0.244, respectively, while the D sub-genome only has 0.131. This behavior is different from the other traits in the ABD model. In the ABDI model, the additive components of the A and B sub-genomes show significant influence at similar magnitudes (0.105 and 0.187, respectively), while the epistatic components (AA, BB, DD, AB, AD, and BD) are similar and close to 0.05, reducing the residual component to 0.234. This may explain the increase in prediction for the ABDI model to 0.724 for CV1 (Figure 4). The intervals in the figures represent the standard error (SE) for each model and thus establish the significant differences between the genomic ability of the models. The bars represent the mean of the predictive correlations, and the whiskers denote distance intervals of one standard error from the mean, which aligns with the concept of a box plot where the bars signify the mean or median, and the whiskers represent a certain range or dispersion, typically one standard error.For the SNB trait, the interaction component of the GI model is similar (0.383) to the additive component G (0.386) (Table 1, Figure 2), reducing the residual component to 0.259 compared to 0.403 for the G model. This seems to explain the better prediction of the GI model (Table 2, Figure 5) with an average of 0.647, compared to 0.597 for the additive G model. In the ABD model, additive components A and D have higher values of 0.321 and 0.265, respectively, compared to 0.176 for B. In the ABDI model, the additive component A and epistatic components DD, AD, and BD have higher values of 0.109, 0.100, and 0.091, although the intra-sub-genome interaction (epistasis) of AA and AB is low, 0.067 and 0.065, respectively, showing the best average predictive correlations of 0.650 for CV1 (Table 2, Figure 5) For the SNB trait, the interaction component of the GI model is similar (0.383) to the additive component G (0.386) (Table 1, Figure 2), reducing the residual component to 0.259 compared to 0.403 for the G model. This seems to explain the better prediction of the GI model (Table 2, Figure 5) with an average of 0.647, compared to 0.597 for the additive G model. In the ABD model, additive components A and D have higher values of 0.321 and 0.265, respectively, compared to 0.176 for B. In the ABDI model, the additive component A and epistatic components DD, AD, and BD have higher values of 0.109, 0.100, and 0.091, although the intra-sub-genome interaction (epistasis) of AA and AB is low, 0.067 and 0.065, respectively, showing the best average predictive correlations of 0.650 for CV1 (Table 2, Figure 5)  For the SNB trait, the interaction component of the GI model is similar (0.383) to the additive component G (0.386) (Table 1, Figure 2), reducing the residual component to 0.259 compared to 0.403 for the G model. This seems to explain the better prediction of the GI model (Table 2, Figure 5) with an average of 0.647, compared to 0.597 for the additive G model. In the ABD model, additive components A and D have higher values of 0.321 and 0.265, respectively, compared to 0.176 for B. In the ABDI model, the additive component A and epistatic components DD, AD, and BD have higher values of 0.109, 0.100, and 0.091, although the intra-sub-genome interaction (epistasis) of AA and AB is low, 0.067 and 0.065, respectively, showing the best average predictive correlations of 0.650 for CV1 (Table 2, Figure 5) For the SB trait, the global epistatic component of the GI model is similar (0.337) to the additive component (0.339). Similarly, in the other cases, the average predictive correlations of the GI model are 0.500, which is higher than the G model's 0.482. The influence of the D sub-genome is very pronounced in the ABD model with a component of 0.343, and the DD interaction component also stands out in the ABDI model with an estimated value of 0.146 (Figure 3), followed by, in order of importance, the AD, BD, AB, AA, and BB interactions, with values of 0.092, 0.077, 0.075, 0.07, and 0.069, respectively. The latter model has an average prediction of 0.506, making it the best among the models for CV1 (Figure 6).of the D sub-genome is very pronounced in the ABD model with a component of 0.343, and the DD interaction component also stands out in the ABDI model with an estimated value of 0.146 (Figure 3), followed by, in order of importance, the AD, BD, AB, AA, and BB interactions, with values of 0.092, 0.077, 0.075, 0.07, and 0.069, respectively. The latter model has an average prediction of 0.506, making it the best among the models for CV1 (Figure 6). With the increasing number of diseases affecting cultivated wheat plants, the option of developing resistance SHW lines has been widely used. Lozano-Ramirez [26] studied significant marker-trait association from a diverse collection of 443 SHW lines, and 41 significant markers and a range of SHW lines with high SB resistance were identified. In the analysis, the authors identified a subset of markers and SHW lines that are more suitable for future breeding and pre-breeding activities. Lozano-Ramirez [26] identified 41 significant markers related to SB resistance, distributed on 15 wheat chromosomes, and many of them were novel. The authors were able to identify highly resistant SHWs with the most resistance alleles of the significant markers, and this can be used in future wheatbreeding programs. Intrinsically, the genes from sub-genome D contributed by Ae. tauschii activate (interact, epistatic) genes from sub-genomes A and B. Chu [37] found that the expression of several resistance genes in DW is suppressed but becomes activated when  With the increasing number of diseases affecting cultivated wheat plants, the option of developing resistance SHW lines has been widely used. Lozano-Ramirez [26] studied significant marker-trait association from a diverse collection of 443 SHW lines, and 41 significant markers and a range of SHW lines with high SB resistance were identified. In the analysis, the authors identified a subset of markers and SHW lines that are more suitable for future breeding and pre-breeding activities. Lozano-Ramirez [26] identified 41 significant markers related to SB resistance, distributed on 15 wheat chromosomes, and many of them were novel. The authors were able to identify highly resistant SHWs with the most resistance alleles of the significant markers, and this can be used in future wheat-breeding programs. Intrinsically, the genes from sub-genome D contributed by Ae. tauschii activate (interact, epistatic) genes from sub-genomes A and B. Chu [37] found that the expression of several resistance genes in DW is suppressed but becomes activated when DW is crossed with Ae. tauschii. This type of activation function of resistance genes existing in the A and B sub-genomes when joining with the D sub-genome could be due to epistasis (inter-locus interaction) (epistasis effects).Lozano-Ramirez [25] identified new sources of genetic resistance in SHWs that can provide enhanced resistance to TS disease in elite bread wheat SHW at CIMMYT. The authors found around 30 significant marker-trait associations, of which some fell into one common QTL. Lozano-Ramirez et al. [25] found significant epistatic effects, (1) mainly activation interactions driven by the D sub-genome of hexaploid wheat; (2) epistasis effects increased resistance in the SHW in comparison to their direct susceptible DW parents. The authors concluded that a few of their MTAs were novel and significantly increase the number of resistance sources, specifically derived from Ae. tauschii accessions in the D genome.VanRaden's [17] method to compute the additive genomic relationship matrix is used as in López-Cruz [34], with markers scaled to a mean of one and a variance of zero, with the intention that the variance components represent the proportion of their contribution, and the sum of these approximates to one. To build the inter-genomic epistasis, we use Hadamard products [21,22].In the statistical models used, it is assumed that each marker is an independent covariate. In this sense, grouping markers to form relationship matrices for analysis is accepted, as in Akdemir [38] and in Santantonio [1], which partitions the genomic covariance matrices according to their A, B, and D sub-genomes, assuming they are independent, and it is possible to form multi-components that are also statistically assumed to be independent from each other.The desirable outcome is for the random components of the additive and epistatic effects to be completely independent and uncorrelated, so that the additive variation obtained in the G and ABD models is not reduced or combined with the variation of epistatic effects in the GI and ABDI models, respectively, masking the exact value of the variation of epistatic effects. However, total independence and a lack of correlation cannot be guaranteed between markers or between additive and epistatic effects, as pointed out by Vitezica [39]. This may be due to the strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) characteristic of wheat, which generates non-independence between loci. Vitezica [39] conducted a simulation where the zero correlation between additive and epistatic effects disappeared with a strong LD compared to the linkage equilibrium, where the correlation was close to zero. Like this work, where the additive variation obtained in the G and ABD models was reduced and combined with the epistatic components of GI and ABDI, it was also reported in Santantonio [1], although this author did not consider the inter-sub-genome epistasis.The simple way to identify epistatic variation from G to GI is by calculating the difference in variation in residuals from G to GI. However, for ABD to ABDI, it represents the total epistatic variation. The results of this study on three diseases, TS, SNB, and SB, show the importance of the D sub-genome in modeling genomic variation, which seems to be specific to the conception of the SHW [19]. In other studies, such as those presented in González-Diéguez [40], similar results were obtained regarding variance components for disease traits. However, in yield traits, their findings suggested that sub-genomes A and B were predominantly dominant.The ABD additive model fits better than the G model because the ABD model has three variances that weigh each of the sub-genomes and considers three weights for the markers, allowing greater flexibility. In contrast, the G model assumes that all markers have the same weight. The ABD model better represents the structure of the phenotypes; however, in the results, there is no statistical evidence that this fact improves the predictions of unobserved lines. The comparison is similar to ABDI, which better represents the phenotypic variation compared to the ABD model, and the results are better without sufficient statistical evidence.In the analysis of variance components, it is observed that additive epistasis is more pronounced in SNB (50%) and SB (50%) compared to TS (27%). The influence of intraand inter-sub-genome interactions of the D sub-genome on the contribution of epistasis is significant in SNB (60%), SB (60%), and TS (49%). This indicates that the influence of sub-genome D on disease traits favors epistasis and enhances predictive ability, with an increase from the G model to the ABDI model for CV1 by 1%, 9%, and 5% for TS, SNB, and SB, respectively. These results, consistent with other studies, underscore the importance of the D sub-genome in disease traits and suggest a potential application to be explored in the future regarding the selection of parental crosses based on sub-genomes.Funding: We are thankful for the financial support provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation [INV-003439, BMGF/FCDO, Accelerating Genetic Gains in Maize and Wheat for Improved Livelihoods (AG2MW)], the USAID projects [USAID Amend. No. 9 MTO 069033, USAID-CIMMYT Wheat/AGGMW, AGG-Maize Supplementary Project, AGG (Stress Tolerant Maize for Africa], and the CIMMYT CRP (maize and wheat). We acknowledge the financial support provided by the Foundation for Research Levy on Agricultural Products (FFL) and the Agricultural Agreement Research Fund (JA) through the Research Council of Norway for grants 301835 (Sustainable Management of Rust Diseases in Wheat) and 320090 (Phenotyping for Healthier and more Productive Wheat Crops). We acknowledge the support of the Window 1 and 2 funders to the Accelerated Breeding Initiative (ABI).Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.","tokenCount":"6185"}

data/part_3/0255983150.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"5525b4e3b7ce0e0cfd8063a8bfdd3682","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dbfc85c2-b5cd-4bd0-ad8b-f9a09f27f549/retrieve","id":"-1344554569"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a6c0139d-a450-41c6-9e53-c8e7a319d68b","pagecount":"1","content":"La biodiversidad es esencial para la nutrición y la seguridad alimentaria Desde cuando comenzó la agricultura, hace unos 12,000 años, el hombre ha usado para su sustento unas 7000 especies vegetales y varios miles de especies animales. Si bien algunas comunidades continúan utilizando la diversidad de plantas que cultivan, la tendencia mundial es hacia simplifi car la dieta con consecuencias negativas para la salud, el equilibrio nutricional y la seguridad alimentaria. El 'hambre oculta', causada por la defi ciencia de micronutrientes, está afectando a la población rural y urbana de muchos países, independientemente de su nivel de recursos.Una dieta rica en energía pero carente de otros componentes esenciales puede llevar a la aparición de enfermedades cardíacas, diabetes, cáncer y obesidad. Una dieta más diversa es clave para combatir la tendencia a la desnutrición y vivir una vida más sana. De ahí que la agrobiodiversidad tenga un papel crucial que jugar en mitigar los efectos de las defi ciencias de micronutrientes, que debilitan a cientos de millones de personas en los países en desarrollo, especialmente a niños y mujeres. La agrobiodiversidad contribuye directamente a la seguridad alimentaria, a la nutrición y al bienestar puesto que proporciona una variedad de alimentos provenientes de plantas y animales silvestres y domesticados. Además, puede servir de red de seguridad a hogares vulnerables en tiempos de crisis, ofrece oportunidades de ingreso para la población rural pobre, y mantiene productivos los ecosistemas agrícolas.Bioversity International (antes International Plant Genetic Resources Insitute, IPGRI), el Secretariado del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica y la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO) están desarrollando conjuntamente una iniciativa mundial, intersectorial, para promover el uso sostenible de la agrobiodiversidad en programas que mejoren la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición de la población humana. Esta iniciativa contribuye a los Objetivos de Desarrollo para el Milenio, particularmente al de reducir a la mitad, para el 2015, la proporción de personas que padecen hambre en el mundo.La iniciativa se concentra en 1) sustentar los vínculos entre la biodiversidad, la alimentación y la nutrición 2) elevar el nivel de conciencia pública sobre estos temas; 3) canalizar la conservación y el uso sostenible de la biodiversidad en agendas y programas relacionados con la nutrición y la agricultura, y la reducción de la pobreza; y 4) promover actividades que contribuyan a mejorar la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición humana mejorando el uso sostenible de la biodiversidad.Una campaña de divulgación que despierte la conciencia sobre los vínculos entre la agrobiodiversidad y el bienestar de las comunidades puede ayudar a crear un ambiente favorable a la adopción de una dieta sana y diversa. La investigación sola no induce cambios en los patrones de consumo de alimentos de una población.A pesar de que muchas variedades cultivadas tienen un alto contenido nutricional, son estigmatizadas como 'comida de pobres' por ser producidas por pequeños agricultores y muchas veces ignoradas por el mercado y los consumidores urbanos. Por eso hay que cambiar la opinión de distintos sectores de la población sobre los alimentos tradicionales y cómo pueden contribuir a una dieta sana y diversa. Si la agrobiodiversidad va a tener un impacto en la nutrición, productores y consumidores deben conocer las bondades de los alimentos; además, estos productos deben estar disponibles en los mercados, y presentados de manera que inviten al consumo.La campaña para Perú, como país piloto, está diseñada para despertar la conciencia de diversas partes interesadas en el valor de la agrobiodiversidad del país para la nutrición, la salud, el ingreso y el bienestar de la población rural y urbana. Se escogió Perú para la experiencia piloto en América Latina por ser uno de los países más ricos de América del Sur en términos de agrobiodiversidad y porque, a pesar de esta riqueza y del orgullo de la población en su diversidad ancestral, la población continúa sufriendo hambre, desnutrición y pobreza. Sin embargo, el modelo de la campaña se puede aplicar prácticamente en cualquier país de América Latina.Un elemento clave de la campaña es educar a los consumidores sobre la importancia de conocer la relación entre una dieta diversa, basada en alimentos tradicionales, y una vida sana y productiva. Otro elemento es crear un espacio de discusión de diversos sectores o partes interesadas para que discutan los problemas y ofrezcan soluciones para el país, desde la perspectiva de su trabajo o disciplina en particular. Es una campaña de 'peruanos hablando a peruanos'.La campaña está en fase preliminar. El International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) se ha mostrado interesado en fi nanciarla. Participan como socios de la campaña organismos nacionales de Perú como la Comisión Nacional del Ambiente (CONAM), la Escuela de Gastronomía Gastrotur, los socios de la segunda fase del Proyecto sobre Cultivos Subutilizados (fi nanciado por el IFAD), el Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de Ucayali (CODESU) y varias organizaciones no gubernamentales.","tokenCount":"805"}

data/part_3/0293193323.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"53180ecdc228ae84ad95ffc8613d6d7b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc0fc82b-e3f8-48e5-9f1e-82490819cb88/retrieve","id":"-637033692"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"4fecfb4a-1854-4be6-9d50-0927f566919d","pagecount":"9","content":"further program development and re-submission of a revised proposal. The following elements should receive special attention in that revision and should be presented in greater depth: Better characterization of target dryland systems. The proposal must define dryland areas of the developing world and identify geospatial distribution using a water balance approach that quantifies risk and severity of water shortage as the basis for categorizing regions that fall into the \"reduce vulnerability\" focus of SRT1, or the \"sustainable intensification\" focus of SRT2. Geospatial demographics on poverty and malnutrition, and on agricultural systems (crops, farming systems, livestock) can then be used as a basis for prioritization of research within and among SRTs;  Establishment of a clear set of hypotheses as an organizing principle to help prioritize the research and results agenda. This may extend to provide sub-hypotheses for many of the research components listed under the Strategic Research Themes.  The criteria for choice of benchmark sites and the development of relevant data to inform research requirements in both the biophysical and social sciences, and their synthesis  A process of engagement with program partners to refine site selection and characterization and prioritize activities to be carried out, the outcomes to be expected and the assessment mechanisms for adjustment and outcome/impact assessment, working backwards from impacts to activities as suggested by the proponents  More detail on the underpinning science and agronomic, genetic, and farming system approaches to be evaluated once the first phase has progressed  A more comprehensive theory of how social change will result from the livelihood, gender and innovations systems approaches espoused in the current proposal.The Drylands proposal (CRP 1.1) is an example of the CGIAR transition at work. It is evident that a number of CGIAR Centers have come together with other partners to identify how best to deliver developmental impact from CGIAR efforts in major dry areas, particularly addressing the needs of poor and vulnerable people. The nature and magnitude of the agricultural development needs and underpinning constraints are addressed in the proposal. Many of the past barriers to uptake by the poor have been explored and the proposal identifies what some of the missing elements should be. The proposal spells out a set of research needs and objectives that are directly linked to the Strategy and Results Framework (SRF) of the CGIAR and the system level outcomes in the SRF. The proponents plan to build on current research, but also considered linkages with other CRPs. These strong points, however, have not led to identification of integrative biophysical research that will take place as part of this CRP. While gender issues are taken into consideration and capacity strengthening forms a core component of the implementation plan, a realistic assessment or theory of how social change will be brought about remains to be developed. The program intends to involve different kinds of partners in framing the research applicable to the specific constraints and problems in the dryland agro-ecological and social context. However, until steps towards such a participatory research framework are taken, the proposal remains at a strategic level. It is thus inevitable that detail on measurable outcomes is imprecise at this time.The proposed research focuses on risk management strategies intended to enhance productivity through the diversification, and sustainable intensification of production systems. Combining the strengths of multiple Centers in pursuing this research program in a coordinated fashion is a clear improvement over individual Centers operating in isolation. It is also clear that the developmentdriven research proposed is complex, and is itself a risky agenda in the sense that research, policy and development expectations (and therefore approaches) do not automatically fit neatly together. Because it is crucial that the program is well targeted, the dry areas should be well characterized, which they are not in the proposal. This is important not only for targeting the activities of CRP1.1 but also for informing priorities in the commodity focused CRPs to ensure that use of their research outputs can have impact on the poor in dryland areas. The Program\"s ability to establish priorities and monitor progress also depend on using and updating data on biophysical, agricultural, demographic and social variables that characterize the target domains and serve as benchmarks to quantify change.The ISPC finds that the proposal describes more of a CGIAR research platform for dry areas than a research plan. Many of the activities and modes of working are indicative and several aspects of the proposal can only be worked out as the CRP unfolds and engages with partners. In consequence, the proponents can promise a strategic results theme to measure impacts and cross-regional syntheses, but it cannot show in a convincing way what the value-added impacts will be from the collaborative and integrated approaches espoused. A full endorsement of the approach and budget for 2012 and beyond should await development of a more concrete proposal of activities after a further year of planning.The ISPC understands that the coordinated planning of research for development activities at the agro-ecosystem level, especially those incorporating the potential contributions of a number of CGIAR Centers, is both at the heart of the anticipated CGIAR change (as highlighted by the Consortium Board) and potentially more challenging than the development of commodity-or sector-specific programs in which the CGIAR has prior experience. While the efforts of the proponents to develop new ways of doing business are commended, this CRP is not ready for approval. However, the ISPC encourages the Fund Council to provide sufficient first year funding forJustification for devoting significant attention to dry areas is compelling and the nature and magnitude of the agricultural development needs and challenges are made throughout the proposal. The way in which the Strategic Research Themes are formulated suggests new ways of addressing the key issues of uptake by the poor in dry areas which aligns with the developmental needs proposed for reform of the CGIAR. The CRP1.1 proposal incorporates a potentially wide research agenda that goes way beyond simply the production of new technologies for dissemination to an unspecified group of agricultural producers.However, the proposal is not clear about the description and characterization of its target domain. This prevents appropriate priority setting for subsequent implementation of the program. The characterization of dry areas is lacking. Justification for inclusion of irrigated areas or areas where water control and flooding are the problems is not provided, and it is critical to quantify the water balance limits that distinguishes dryland production systems that fall within the remit of CRP1.1 vis-àvis subhumid agro-ecological zones. This will be particularly helpful in overlap with other CRPs. Inclusion of portions of the Gangetic Plain appears to be outside the normal definition of drylands and inflates the estimates of poor people potentially reached by this CRP.Effective linkages with other CRPs would also be helped by greater clarity in exactly what is meant by the term \"systems\". Definitions for agro-ecosystems (which include landscape elements that production system descriptions do not include) are available in FAO/WB study from 2005. This would increase the consistency across CRPs, for instance CRP 3.2 on Maize, which uses the FAO systems and CRP 6 which uses Sentinel sites. In addition, the characterization of sectors should include the non-farm sector, discussion on migration and market access that add considerable dynamism. Eventually selection of the systems across the regions should ensure inclusion of important common elements, notably related to water scarcity and risk to allow better knowledge sharing across sites.The SRTs provide a reasonable and appropriate framework for pursuing the Program objectives. Evidence from past studies, criteria appropriate to the SRF System level outcomes and an analysis of the spectrum of situations across drylands have been used to prioritise two target systems: one on the reduction of vulnerability and risk (SRT 2) and the other on sustainable intensification (SRT 3). These are appropriate. However, there is a lack of apparent cross-cutting linkages between SRTs. The characterization and foresight work of SRT4 should be central to the CRP and designed to influence the other SRTs. The proposal presents potential options for a research agenda, but at this level the proposal is necessarily imprecise about the component research under the SRTs.Identifying target regions is to be encouraged but the five regions appear to have been chosen largely on the basis of using sites of current research within the target regions (\"Benchmark Areas\"). While there is need for all CRPs to incorporate transition mechanisms from existing programs, a more rigorous attempt than currently shown should be made to apply the targeting criteria posited for CRP1.1. It would be unfortunate if accommodating existing programs of stakeholders overruled the consideration of other criteria. Of potentially great importance is the ability to use these sites as a starting point for impact assessment (including environmental impact assessment). Benchmark Areas should be chosen with knowledge of pre-existing modifications to the physical and socio-economic environments, representativeness and the possibility of research findings to other areas. Otherwise the potential for generating IPGs will be limited.The impact pathway is detailed for two distinct target groups: (i) those with the highest levels of absolute poverty and vulnerability, and (ii) those with greater potential for impact through market-led intensification and diversification. The basis for this distinction is that these two systems will require somewhat different approaches, and different mixes of technologies and social/institutional processes and policies. Through these two target groups, consistency with other CRPs is claimed and linkages to them are presented (Table 5, Annexes 1 and 2).Although the impact-pathways are well presented, the description of expected outcomes is weak. Along with putting together a detailed plan for research activities and expected outputs, the program needs to elaborate much better how combinations of outputs will lead to the expected outcomes and subsequently impact at scale. Currently, insufficient description is offered of the activities of the CRP to judge whether the future research outputs will materialize, and at what scale impacts might be expected. The activities are described as potential options only. As such the lists of activities and outputs include duplication (e.g. between 2.2 and 2.3, and between 3.2 and 3.3) where the difference seems to be only in scale. It is difficult to see how up-scaling can be done without analyzing trade-offs simultaneously. It will be essential to tackle head-on the potential conflicts between environmental and socio-economic goals and objectives that may be associated with specific research outcomes. Scaling up will need explicit consideration in the design of the site-specific work.The basis on which future impact assessments can be conducted is lacking. As stated on P88, the considerable stakeholder consultations and the substantial experience among partners should allow identification of some indicators at the initial workshops and these should be recorded in the revised proposal against which progress can be measured. These of course may be modified as the program is implemented, based on experience obtained.Development progress in resource-challenged dry areas is envisaged to follow an impact pathway with a progressive spiral of improvements that result from integrated approaches and cross-learning with multiple feed-back loops. However, given the nature of poverty and disadvantage more broadly, there is need for a greater focus on continuous assessment of change (both positive and negative). Learning should also reflect a more realistic assessment of past development experience and, at the same time, retain some flexibility in research approaches and focus, and perhaps have more modest expectations of impact on food security, poverty reduction and environmental sustainability. For each specific research location, questions about the nature of social reality and including changes over time will need to be addressed. The absence of a clear theory of social change underpinning the two separate strategies (encompassing two distinctly defined target groups) tends to reduce the credibility of estimated benefits for specific categories of rural men and women in each dryland environment considered. There is also no risk analysis of potential failure for these groups, e.g. the capture of benefits by elite groups etc.The proposal provides five examples from past CGIAR work (Boxes 1-5) of the sort of sector-specific outputs deriving from integrated approaches that the future CRP would hope to emulate. However the examples are very small in scale and not uniformly very illustrative of earlier successes. The program should include in its analyses of lessons some cases that have been implemented on relatively large scale, such as some of the watersheds in India, the project on greening the Sahel, and the Fadama program in Nigeria, often with little R4D input.The timeframe within which change might be clearly identified is likely to be long and unpredictable, but the six + six years timeframe seems appropriate for producing significant outputs. Although the proposal itself talks about quick wins, six years alone to include out-scaling will be unrealistic, particularly regarding target systems with endemic poverty and vulnerability. It is quite unlikely that major systems changes at scale could simply be fine-tuned. Thus a very realistic timeframe should be developed and argued for.The explicit attention paid to monitoring environmental impacts is commendable, particularly given that environmental degradation is such a crucial element of the dilemma(s) involved in pursuing AR4D in dryland areas. The central role of Benchmark Areas as venues for pursuing the research has significant promise for facilitating quasi-experimental approaches to measuring environmental changes (both positive and negative). The specific examples of impact assessment from alley cropping and index-based livestock insurance provide mixed evidence that substantial impacts will emerge in the longer term. There has been very little farmer uptake of alley cropping and the proposal should give evidence to support the hypothesis that it will achieve greater impact in this context. Simply getting an appropriate tree cover on farms might be a better way to express this objective.The emphasis on participatory research throughout the proposal is commendable although there are challenges in applying these approaches with disadvantaged groups. The SRF describes technologies as \"blunt instruments\" for reducing rural poverty that depend on changes in access to markets, credit, insurance etc. to be effective. Yet at the core of this research is technology uptake which in itself is risky with levels of risk related to specific technologies rarely being specified except in the context of controlled research situations. In line with this risk the proposal includes a program to enhance innovation capacity and the creation of an enabling environment for these target groups. There is no clear reference to the structural underpinnings of disadvantage that is regarded as central to the disadvantaged position of women. While addressing social structural issues would add another level of complexity to the research and certainly to expected outcomes in the long term, some reference to this understanding of how disadvantage is maintained or challenged would be valuable. A full proposal and description of activities would have to demonstrate therefore the means and relevant social science expertise required to produce coherent approaches.The general hypotheses relating to the needs of the dry areas are convincing. The most important constraints are identified, particularly regarding areas/systems with the deepest endemic poverty and most vulnerable populations. It is recognized that development strategies in vulnerable systems will have entry points related primarily to livelihood strategies rather than productivity per se. The science-based approaches and linkages proposed through local institutions in benchmark sites to development programs addressing issues of social, financial and other capital, institutional support programs and capacity strengthening are appropriate.The actual science which will be undertaken is not well described, although attempts were made in the text to show the room for innovative research to be designed. It is thus very difficult at this stage to assess the quality of the science which will be undertaken. In the absence of a predetermined detailed agenda for research, presentation of a range of clear testable hypotheses for each SRT would allow better assessment of the potential quality of the science. For instance the proposal raises several significant, testable hypotheses that could underpin much of CRP1.1, and these should be given emphasis in an overarching framework, with sub-hypotheses linked to each Output. One broad hypothesis is that (pg 22) \"some dryland production systems have been identified as having the greatest potential to increase food production. Sub-Saharan and North Africa, West, Central and South Asia and the dry Andes in particular have large productivity gaps, where relatively quick wins would be possible (Cooper et al. 2009). A follow-up hypothesis (also from pg 22) is that \"These areas have not yet benefited substantially from research innovations. One of the major reasons why research has not delivered more to drylands is that research has mostly been reductionist: conducted on isolated single components of an agro-ecosystem, while farmers, communities and policy makers operate in complex systems, with high levels of integration of many components.\" Note that to test the hypothesis of Cooper et al ( 2009) requires the kind of biophysical database that is needed to delineate the two major dryland categories and to prioritize research opportunities.Whilst the dry areas characterizations are largely technical, this ambitious research program would require a range of research approaches. Several on social research are described in the proposal (participatory research concepts expanded to whole value chains; community-led integrated adaptive research; social learning). For each specific research location, questions about the nature of social reality and including changes over time, will need to be addressed. The absence of a clear theory of social change underpinning the two separate strategies for two distinctly defined target groups tends to reduce the credibility of estimated benefits for specific categories of rural men and women in each dryland environment considered.Whilst many of the approaches seem sound, some of the descriptions of how systems/agro-ecosystem approaches will be adopted are rather superficial. The descriptions on sustainable intensification options (3.2) are also disappointing at this stage: a lot of options are already known or are being developed in the CRPs that have more of a commodity orientation. Due regard needs to be paid to information already collected and synthesised. It would be relevant for CRP1.1 to enhance understanding of the context in which the different options might work and how the rapidly changing environment (biophysical and economic) influences the risk of success in the future. That said, the recognition of the need for out-scaling to deliver IPGs is welcome and output 3.3 on trade-offs does offer a useful analysis.There is the perennial question of what levels of impacts may be derived from research in pastoral and steppe lands per se rather than the diversification of farming systems in rainfed areas (although these are argued simultaneously in the discussion on target system 2, p. 23). The interaction between systems is likely to be a fertile research area, including the transition and tensions between transhumance and sedentary systems, and particularly conservation agriculture and fodder supplies for livestock.SRT 4 with its emphasis on measuring impact is welcome; including Output 4.3 which indicates how lessons learnt on impact will feed back in to the design of the other SRTs. Given the evolutionary nature of this CRP and need for continual learning of lessons, it might be useful to consider how a peer-review process of the proposals at the project level might be conducted by the Steering Committee.The intention to select benchmark sites for the four to five focus regions, some with contrasting satellite sites is welcomed. The issue will be to do this at the appropriate scales and in an efficient and cost effective manner (and Tables 3 and 4 are a good beginning). There are indications that CRP1.1 will make use of existing sites where CGIAR and relevant stakeholders are operating and future benchmark or sentinel sites, as are also being anticipated by CRPs 6 and 7. It will be necessary for the CGIAR to optimise the choice of such sites across the CRP portfolio. However, the site selection for this CRP needs to confirm the targeting of truly dryland areas.Attention given to the strengthening of innovation systems and linkages to policy actions is very welcome. However, this approach requires particular competencies and partners to be included with sound track records in these kinds of research approaches, particularly integrating policy and social science issues with the agro-ecological issues. Many of the participating Center-based research teams are staffed by individuals who have made significant contributions to the development of research in dry areas. As such, the capabilities of the research teams have been well-demonstrated but this proposal calls for another level of social sciences research and development. Promoting livelihood strategies that feature (partial) exit from agriculture might be the best course of action for some particularly difficult agro-environments. However, the participating Centers\" comparative advantage may not be in identifying (or even promoting) non-agricultural alternatives. For example, Payments for Environmental Services schemes are identified as being one potential alternative, but there is really no elaboration on how such schemes would amount to anything more than income support transfer payments to residents fortunate enough to live in areas associated with such schemes.The proposal\"s partnership strategy and management reflect the inherent value as well as the complexity of the proposal\"s underlying integrated systems approach. The number and missions of the participating CGIAR Centers model this approach, and the proposal itself details the effort to identify the ways in which it will relate to and integrate other CRPs.In the broader discussion of proposed and potential partners, partners and stakeholders are considered together, rather than defined or circumscribed by their financial contribution to the CRP or their relative standing within a hierarchy of organizations. While some partners are critical for their ability to invest in the research or leverage its results, many more are critical because of their proximity to the ground and their ability to provide near term input or demonstrate long term impact. While the obvious partners are cited, there is an assumption that the most promising configuration of partners will be revealed as the work itself moves forward. This notion, of building the plane while flying it, is undoubtedly true of all programs intent on achieving results, but it was admirable to include such a frank assertion of uncertainty in the proposal.The proposed program management includes a number of formal mechanisms, including the Steering Committee and Regional Stakeholder Advisory committees, which will bring partners and stakeholders together on a systematic basis. In addition, the budget includes significant allocations for partner engagement, particularly on the part of the two largest participating Centers (ICARDA and ICRISAT). Nevertheless, given the importance of communications and knowledge sharing to the success of the partnership strategy, the lack of a more detailed description of these activities and how they will align to further the goals of the program is problematic. While the overall design may emerge from the proposed inception workshops, some elements of the strategy and the need for related investments are surely evident even at the start of the program. The proposal makes the case for investing heavily in face-to-face communications, but simply itemizes all the other necessary approaches that will be needed. The lack of a separate budget for program management, including communications, is a further handicap to assessing whether partnership management will be as effective at it needs to be at the CRP level.Particularly with respect to the out-scaling segments of the impact pathways, some consideration should be given to changing the balance of identified partners by incorporation of more clearly strategic partners, e.g. a multi-national development bank, an international private sector seed company, a global Foundation etc. The absence of IFPRI is notable, particularly given the strong emphasis on social research and the importance of policy to outcomes.A large number of institutions with pre-eminence in addressing the research themes have been involved in developing this proposal. However, an explicit analysis of alternative suppliers of research is missingdeveloped country research and development institutions, international NGOs, etc. All the CGIAR Centers with activity in dry areas are included without a discussion of their comparative advantage in this particular program. The leadership arrangements need to reflect the specific competencies required from research management oversight bodies to steer a successful program of a kind where the CGIAR does not have much prior experience or demonstrated success.CRP 1.1 adopts a multi-level structure for program management that includes mechanisms for consultation, general program administration and oversight, and independent research review. Program management is organized principally along regional lines, where interdisciplinary teams implement activities and deliver results within each of four strategic research themes. ICARDA serves as the lead Center for CRP 1.1, with coordination of each target region assigned to an appropriate participating Center.The single largest challenge facing effective management of the program is to maintain the structure\"s many moving parts. There is a welcome effort to quantify the time required to perform a role in this structure effectively and to extend accountability for performance beyond the CRP Leader. The four Independent Scientific Advisors (ISAs) accept an appointment that involves 30-45 days a year. A regional coordinator is considered a part-time appointment with performance evaluated annually by the Steering Committee. The CRP Leader is expected to remain active in research for 10 percent of his/her time.The first three years of the CRP are dedicated to uncovering and defining the most effective research activities, benchmarks and partnership strategies to achieve the goals of the program. Given this substantial period of potential flux, the Steering Committee, ISAs and Research Management Committee provide a good framework for evaluation, priority setting and resource allocation during that initial three-year period.The Steering Committee composition is described in general terms but does not indicate the criteria for inclusion of partners and stakeholders, other than the participating CGIAR Centers, and there is no suggestion that terms of some kind might be used to facilitate turnover in the either Steering Committee or the ISA. A governance and management review is proposed as well as a comprehensive external evaluation of the CRP [p.89], but it is not clear whether the Steering Committee or the ISAs will be responsible for commissioning such evaluations.No budget is provided for the direct costs of program management or for the achievement of CRPlevel convening and communication functions. The proposal states that CRP 1.1 \"has a simple and cost effective management mechanism that will rely almost entirely on the capabilities of participating centers [p.69].\" This strategy appears with some variation in many of the CRP proposals to the Fund Council. However, management is not a negligible element of a proposal\"s success.While all management functions are assumed to be cost sensitive, the proposal acknowledges that the effective use of Regional Stakeholder Advisory Committees might be hampered because of the expense of convening five different regional advisory bodies on a regular basis. The proposal envisions using technology and other means to bridge this challenge, and relying on the chairs of the RSACs to provide the Steering Committee periodically with direct feedback and advice. In a program that must be exquisitely sensitive to how partners are engaged and the extent to which their participation is honoured, it will be important not to over-promise or under-deliver on the most visible, formal platform the proposal identifies for partner input and advice.CRP Leader: CRP 1.1 provides an explicit and well rounded executive function for the general management and administration of the program. The CRP Leader has a role that parallels that of a Center DG. Although there is the usual accommodation for the legal and fiduciary responsibilities of the lead Center, the recruitment, appointment and performance evaluation of the CRP Leader rely on the Steering Committee with the lead center providing the formal mechanism for hiring the CRP Leader, and reporting to the Consortium Board.In addition to the expected management and administrative responsibilities, the CRP Leader is also expected to serve as the public representative of the CRP and is given explicit responsibility for resource mobilization as well as partner and donor relations. The proposal also envisions that the position will be held by a \"world-leading scientist\" to give the CRP credibility and influence [p. 70]. Recruitment of a \"world-class leading scientist who is also good at managing the complex partner and donor relations is a tall order. Experience elsewhere suggests that the skills required for effective coordination and management should be paramount, whilst ensuring that there is at least one worldleading scientist on the Steering Committee.The balance of the budgets between Centers is interestingthe emphasis on ICARDA and ICRISAT is expected because of their mandates, but given the number of times that livestock and forestry are mentioned as an important part of dry area systems, the relatively modest budgets for ILRI and ICRAF and lack of budget for WorldFish (explained in part) are surprising. Presumably the relevant technologies will be picked up from the other CRPs in which they are active, but it is difficult at this stage to envisage how the team will ensure a balanced discussion at the systems level.In general, the independence of the Steering Committee could be enhanced by describing its role more specifically to distinguish it from management as well as considering whether its leadership and composition should be adjusted to minimize the potential for conflicts of interest. Although the ISA is clearly intended to assure independence and accountability, the Steering Committee should also be seen as a mechanism for increasing the confidence of donors and partners in the CRP\"s value and impact. Instead of establishing the lead Center\"s DG as the standing chair of the Steering Committee, that position should include a term of service, and a mechanism for election from among the committee\"s members.  In order to maintain a functional size for the Steering Committee, the non-Center members should be given a reasonable, non-renewable term (3 years). This would increase the opportunities among stakeholders to participate and also minimize the quid pro quo quality the present proposal implies.The ISA is small but also powerful. The proposal does not indicate the term of the appointment, although it does include an important expectation about performance in specifying the number of days an advisor would be expected to dedicate to the assignment. Establishing a term for the appointment provides for additional accountability, and also enables the scientific expertise of the panel to adapt to the needs of the CRP.","tokenCount":"5009"}

data/part_3/0294725020.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"cb6ac17200f289a63789a3e92b7b1363","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b59d5e3c-061f-4263-ba4c-75b3a9c578a9/retrieve","id":"1855813341"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c17088e8-1a05-49a1-a72d-ac5bec5e3ffa","pagecount":"48","content":"Without question, agricultural training and capacity building are now back on the development agenda. In recent years, a number of very infl uential initiatives have pointed out the critical role of agricultural S&T in poverty alleviation, food security, and broad-based economic growth. Given the changing global, regional and national R&D context ILRI's most signifi cant challenge is to provide a sharply focused high quality research and outreach programs including capacity strengthening that support food and agricultural innovations in developing countries by enhancing their capacity to improve the livelihoods of the poor and marginalized people and constituencies which depend on their livestock as the primary asset. ILRI strongly believes that building capacity within the livestock innovation system is critical for broad based sustainable development and economic growth.The spirit of this revised strategy is to continue to carry out training and capacity strengthening and promote learning compatible with ILRI's research priorities and outputs and develop implementation of programs to do so in ways that strengthen, mobilize and sustain its partners capacities. The important strength of this strategy is that the preparation process was participatory, all inclusive, demand driven and is based on fi ve sub-regional training needs assessment studies of the livestock sector completed in 2007. The proposed strategy provides the fl exibility to develop targeted programs based on the priorities and it explicitly recognizes the inherent diversity in the capacity development needs. Systematic efforts are also made to identify gaps in both technical as well as soft skills needed to implement an effective, effi cient and impact oriented capacity strengthening program. The important departure is the explicit recognition of the need for ILRI to reorient its capacity strengthening activities to 'changing institutes' by 'changing individuals' rather than the latter alone as has been in the past. In addition to supporting the current research portfolio of ILRI, every effort will be made to address the emerging issues and contemporary challenges facing the livestock innovation systems in the developing countries and the associated capacity needs. To keep the strategy relevant and dynamic it will be updated periodically to refl ect the changing circumstances and needs of our partners.ILRI would like to thank the WK Kellogg Foundation and the ASARECA-AAARNET for the partial funding support provided. The contribution of Prof Carl K Eicher to the development of this strategy is also acknowledged and very much appreciated.I also would like to congratulate Dr Anandajayasekeram, the Manager of CaSt and his team for their efforts in developing this strategy. We look forward to your support and input in the successful implementing of this strategy.Director, Partnerships and Communications ILRIInternational Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) is one of 15 future harvest centres, which conduct food and environmental research to help alleviate poverty and increase food security while protecting the natural resource base. Building on three decades of experience, ILRI works at the crossroads of livestock and poverty by bringing high quality science and capacity building to bear on poverty reduction and sustainable development. As part of its researchbased outreach and capacity strengthening, ILRI assists its partners by offering opportunities for long-and short-term training for researchers and development practitioners.Capacity building is a core priority of ILRI because of the important role it plays in economic growth and development as well as addressing the rapid changes in the bio-physical, socio-cultural, technological and policy environments of the agricultural innovation systems in the developing as well as the developed world. To ensure that ILRI is well-positioned among capacity building organizations, it commissioned a CCER (Centre Commissioned External Review) on capacity strengthening in 2004. Despite ILRI's recognized success stories, the review concluded that the current capacity strengthening activities of ILRI are not directly related to the needs of ILRI's partners. The review recommended that the Capacity Strengthening Unit (CaSt) should expand its operations. The 2006 CGIAR System-Wide Evaluation of the Impact of Training in CGIAR Centres also identifi ed a number of capacity strengthening issues that need to be addressed. Further, the 2006 External Programme and Management Review (EPMR) of ILRI recommended that ILRI should not only make its Capacity Strengthening activities explicit and measurable in program design, but also should report results on its training programs and follow-up activities.ILRI's new livestock research and development strategy calls for the joint development of the capacities of a broader range of partners and stakeholders, including governmental organizations (GOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), civil society organizations (CSOs), farmers organizations, private sector agencies, and consumers. ILRI needs to develop a capacity strengthening strategy that includes, innovative, strategic, long-term partnerships with NARS and other collaborators in the livestock based innovative system. This revised capacity building strategy has been prepared as a response to these identifi ed needs and emerging challenges. The strategy is missionoriented, participatory and demand-driven. It has been shaped by the internal and external needs of the various stakeholders, as well as the rich experience of past capacity strengthening activities of ILRI and other CGIAR centres. This document outlines the medium-term strategy of the Capacity Strengthening Unit (CaSt). The strategy addresses the concerns of ILRI management, CCER, EPMR, the CGIAR System-Wide Evaluation of the Impact of Training.Any strategy development process is based on four essential components: the analysis of the environment, including opportunities and threats; evaluation of the current status to identify strengths and weaknesses; assessment of the client needs and the participation of the stakeholders to validate the output and outcome of the process and priorities. This strategy sets out the need for capacity strengthening activities, discusses the strengths and weaknesses of CaSt's current activities and emerging opportunities and outlines the strategic objectives to be pursued for the coming years which draw lessons in a learning by doing manner. To keep the strategy relevant and dynamic, it will be updated periodically to refl ect the changing circumstances.Since its inception, the capacity strengthening efforts of ILRI (and its predecessors ILCA and ILRAD) have contributed to human and institutional development. But declining core funding has resulted in reducing the size and scope of capacity strengthening activities which are now largely integrated into donor-restricted project funding. This has made it diffi cult to maintain high quality training programs. This approach does not allow ILRI to adequately address the priority needs of its partners. In fact the weakest NARS may have a double disadvantage since they neither have the capacity to formulate fundable projects nor to pay for training. The recent internally-commissioned external review concluded that the current activities of ILRI are neither large enough nor responsive enough to meet the needs of its partners in the developing world. ILRI's new R&D (research and development) strategy calls for new programs to be jointly developed with a broad range of stakeholdersgovernmental and non-governmental organizations, civil society organizations, farmer organizations, private sector agencies and consumers. The CCER review urged ILRI to develop a capacity strengthening policy and strategy to guide the activities of the CaSt unit.The most recent EPMR noted that CaSt activities were not suffi ciently connected with ILRI's research. It recommended that ILRI should make capacity strengthening activities explicit and measurable in its research program design.In many countries, there is increased pressure to undertake livestock research in such a manner that the output is benefi cial to resource-poor farmers. Increasingly, there is a need for ILRI to reorient its capacity strengthening activities to 'changing institutes' by 'changing individuals', rather than the latter alone as has been in the past.Why is there a renewed interest in capacity strengthening? Without question, agricultural training and capacity building are now back on the development agenda. There is now a common agreement in the development community that without adequate human, scientifi c and institutional capacity, the Millennium Development Goals cannot be realized. Five reasons help explain the renewed debate and growing importance of training and capacity strengthening within ILRI.The lack of capacity has been a major limiting factor in a wide range of • development programs and initiatives that have failed in the past (NEPAD 2002;FAO 2003;Swaminathan 2003;Eicher 2004;IAC 2004 In a rapidly changing world, the R&D systems in developing countries • are confronting new and increasingly complex challenges such as global warming, the use of bio-fuels, the livestock revolution and changing paradigms. Because of calls for market-driven development, the architects of the dominant public extension, research and education models in both Africa and Asia are being challenged to look for less costly models including partnership to serve emerging needs.The growing recognition that research, extension and educational institutes • must go beyond developing and disseminating new crop and livestock technologies to farmers and must focus on agricultural diversifi cation, rural employment, and helping farmers gain access to biotechnology (Pingali 2007), as well as participation in value added chains in national, regional and export markets.with the developmental impacts of their investments. ILRI is also moving away from output to outcome measures to assess its performance.The critical issue is the systematic assessment of research outputs to outcomes to broader developmental impacts and the needs of partnership and capacity building along those outputs to impact pathway. It is absolutely necessary that all stakeholders along the innovation chain have the necessary expertise and skills to effectively contribute to the innovation process. Often the capacity of our partners has been one of the major constraints to achieve the ultimate developmental impacts of ILRI. This calls for strengthening the capacity of our partners-a mandate of the CaSt unit.In recent years, a number of very infl uential initiatives have pointed out the critical role of agricultural S&T in poverty alleviation, food security and broad-based economic growth. Capacity building is one of the cross-cutting issues identifi ed as a priority in the Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) in the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD). The action plan of the Sirte Declaration of African Union also identifi ed the development of human resource potential in the continent through education, training, skills development and exchange of expertise as a priority area for action by the Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture (Economic Commission for Africa 2005). The action plan of FARA (Jones 2005) requires investment in education, building centres of excellence, capacity building, and institutional reforms as potential areas for addressing capacity constraints in SSA. Currently, FARA is initiating two specifi c programs (BASIC and SCARDA) to address the critical capacity needs of SSA countries. In addition there are other CGIAR centre initiated capacity strengthening activities such as Go-FAU. ILRI could actively participate and contribute to these initiatives, as they apply to the livestock innovation systems.Capacity is the engine for enhancing performance. Capacity strengthening can be defi ned as the process by which individuals, groups, organizations, and societies increase their ability to perform core functions, solve problems, defi ne and achieve objectives, and understand and deal with their development in a sustainable manner. There are three interlinked dimensions of capacity building: individuals, organizations and communities. Personal capacity calls for individuals to be empowered to contribute effectively to the organizational goals. Organizational capacity deals with public, private and civil organizations and enables them to attract fi nancial assistance and human capital and put it into productive use to achieve the overall goals and purpose. The capacity of communities is often referred to as social capital and it encompasses organizations, relationships and customs that shape the quality and quantity of social interactions. Growing evidence shows that social capital is critical in empowering communities to demand services and promote decision making that inspires people to undertake collective action to address their needs. Although we recognize the importance of capacity building at all levels, given its mandate and resources, ILRI believes that it can make an effective contribution directly at individual and organizational levels and indirectly at the community level.Each year, the World Bank publishes a voluminous report on a critical development problem such as poverty, health or the environment. The title for the 2008 report is World Development Report, Agriculture, 2008(World Bank 2007). Agriculture's role in promoting development is analysed in the 2008 report because of empirical evidence of the 'special powers' of agriculture in reducing rural and urban poverty.Turning to the critical question of whether GDP growth originating in agriculture can reduce rural poverty, the World Bank (2007) report on agriculture in 2008 assembled data from all types of developing countries and found that 'GDP growth originating in agriculture is at least twice as effective in reducing poverty as GDP growth originating outside agriculture' (World Bank 2007, 6). In China, aggregate growth originating in agriculture is estimated to have been 3.5 times more effective in reducing poverty than growth originating outside agriculture. More recently in Ghana, rural households accounted for a large share of a steep decline in rural poverty, induced in part by agricultural growth (World Bank 2007).What does this new and compelling evidence about agriculture's 'special powers' mean for the CGIAR and ILRI? The answers are derived from recent research:The CGIAR should stay the course and continue producing international • and regional public goods that have a proven track record in reducing rural poverty and contributing to development.Both technological and institutional innovations can spur agricultural • growth. For example, it is well known that rapid agricultural growth in India in the 1960s and 1970s was fuelled by technological innovations.By contrast, in China, institutional innovations such as replacing the communal system with private farms and the pursuit of market liberalization were responsible for a major decline in rural poverty over the past two decades. Learning opportunities are offered within these broad research areas as well as other emerging issues and challenges (see section V and Annex 1 for more details).The capacity strengthening unit (CaSt) of ILRI is designed to build and strengthen the scientifi c knowledge and technical capacity for NARS scientists, technicians and policymakers and other relevant stakeholders in the livestock innovation system in developing countries. The objective of the Capacity Strengthening (CaSt) unit is to contribute to the mission of ILRI, through strengthening the capacity of individuals, organizations and systems to apply the skills and resources to accomplish their goals, satisfy the needs of the stakeholders and to improve the performance and impact of the livestock sector.ILRI's capacity building initiatives are based on the following fi ve principles:Broad participation and a client-driven agenda; • Building on local capabilities; • On-going learning and adaptation; • Long term commitment and partnerships; and, • Integration of activities to address complex problems. • ILRI is not a university nor a training college and therefore guards against providing courses which could be offered by other institutions. The strength and advantage that ILRI presents for learning is its strong research base.Training at ILRI stresses practical work (both in the fi eld and laboratory), team/ group work, experiential learning, and personal development.ILRI offers individual and group training courses. Both are aimed at largely building the capacity of individuals. Some of the group training may be in an organizational context but this is not very systematic. However, there are also some recent capacity building activities within projects (ASARECA Livestock Network, Biosciences for Eastern and Central Africa, and the Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian farmers project in Ethiopia) that are meant to enhance ILRI's ability to strengthen both institutional as well as individual capacities.This type of training is focused on harnessing the skills and abilities of individuals to contribute to the realization of developmental goals, which may include improved livestock management systems and enhanced research outputs and outcomes. ILRI has fi ve categories of individual trainees; Attachment Associate, Student Associate, Technical Associate, Research Fellow, and Graduate Fellow.are university or polytechnic students who come to ILRI for a period of up to three months as a requirement of their course.ILRI identifi es opportunities for work attachments and relays this to any enquiring institution.• Student Associates are young students from either developed or developing countries (usually doing their fi rst degree), who work on an established ILRI research program for a period of up to six months.Applications may be made by individuals but must be endorsed by their university.are technical or scientifi c staff from the NARS who come to ILRI at the request of their employer for a period of up to six months. The candidates' employer includes a statement of the techniques or methods the trainee is to learn.are staff scientists of universities and research institutes in developing countries, who undertake non-degree related training on research issues and methodologies for a period of up to 18 months. Nominations should come from the employer of the applicant.are mostly NARS employees undertaking MSc or PhD studies, who are required to work on a project related to existing ILRI research protocols for a period of up to three years. ILRI scientists identify projects within their existing or planned research protocols that are suitable for Graduate Fellows. ILRI strives to select the best and most appropriate applicant (considering both academic excellence and their ability to further ILRI's collaboration and research goals).Group training ILRI's group training programs are focused on the staff of the national livestock innovation system; particularly those working with ILRI associated networks and institutes with a mandate to train livestock scientists and policymakers.Group training courses are often offered in close collaboration with national and regional partners who have the mandate to pursue learning and capacity strengthening. The training of trainers is also used to build capacity. ILRI offers three categories of group training courses:Core Courses are focused on building soft skills across program boundaries to enhance the effectiveness, effi ciency and performance of R&D investments. ILRI's partners are encouraged to adopt/adapt these courses for their own use.Program/project Courses are aimed at scientists and trainers who are involved with ILRI associated research themes. Course content is specifi c to the purpose and objectives of a particular research program, and is designed and implemented jointly by CaSt and the respective program.Network Courses are targeted and tailor made for network partners. They are often initiated by a specifi c network and implemented by CaSt. Depending on the need, the network may decide to provide training on topics related to the mandate of ILRI but often specifi cally dealing with the purpose and objectives of the network.In the past, CaSt activities were mainly focused on individual higher degree training for post-graduate students, but recently the focus is also on building capacity of institutes and organizations.One of the key elements in the development of a strategy is to critically examine existing programs and to maintain the strengths while trying to eliminate weaknesses. The strengths and weaknesses of the current capacity strengthening activities of ILRI are summarized below. To support capacity strengthening activities in the fi eld of livestock-related sciences, ILRI is well placed to provide opportunities for:Developing country scientists work with ILRI colleagues in applying cutting • edge science to contemporary livestock problems.Building professional connections between scientists in the national • agricultural innovation systems.Through cutting edge research, ILRI produces information and materials for • tertiary agricultural education institution in developing countries.The BecA hub based at ILRI in Nairobi has excellent facilities for capacity • strengthening for research and support staff from our partner institutes in biosciences.Thus ILRI is well placed to identify new partners and develop new modes of interactions with them, while at the same time working closely with traditional partners who seek to strengthen their research and capacity strengthening activities.A number of weaknesses have been identifi ed in ILRI's current capacity strengthening program (CCER 2005). These are summarized below:The most critical weakness is reduced core funding for capacity • strengthening activities. There is a lack of policy guidance and defi ned targets for CaSt. The existing • training manual was produced in 1996. Despite ILRI's collaboration with many universities in developing • countries, there is little follow up with students because of budget and time constraints.The limited number of ILRI scientifi c staff available to cope with increasing • demand for supervision of graduate students.For example, one ILRI scientist in Addis Ababa is currently supervising the research of 15 MSc students.The important issue here is to see how ILRI's outputs lead to tangible and measurable outcomes. In order to achieve this there is a need for partnership and capacity building not only to generate the outputs, but also along the output impact pathway. The innovation systems and value chain approach adapted by ILRI will enable us to address this gap. One of the key elements in the preparation of a strategy is the analysis of the environment, including opportunities and threats. Any element from the external environment that can benefi t the output and performance should be considered as an opportunity and must be known and exploited. Any element that can partially or totally interfere with performance and outcome should be seen as a threat and must be avoided to reduce their impact. Opportunities and challenges are two sides of the same coin.Over the years, the R&D arena has seen a number of paradigm changes and transformation and there are a number of emerging issues that pose new challenges to research and development practitioners. Some of the key changes that will have a profound effect on the priorities of ILRI's capacity strengthening activities are: changing R&D paradigms and demand for soft skills; changing organizational landscape and subregional initiatives; technological advances in biotechnology and ICT; trade, market liberalization and emerging agri-food system; emerging diseases in the changing livestock systems; intensifi cation of mixed crop-livestock production system, vulnerability and environmental sustainability of the livestock production systems; food retail revolution; climate change and its implications to livestock production systems, the growing global environmental concerns and the increasing emphasis on bio-fuel (see Annex 1 for more details) Given the changing context, ILRI's most signifi cant challenge is to provide a sharply focused, high quality research and outreach programs (including capacity strengthening) that support food and agricultural innovations in developing countries by enhancing their capacity to improve the livelihoods of the poor and marginalized people and constituencies which depend on their livestock as the primary asset. Since ILRI is the only CGIAR centre working on the livestock based production systems, this will open up new agendas and opportunities for research, capacity strengthening and outreach activities of ILRI based on its comparative and competitive advantage.VI What is new about ILRI's approach? Although ILRI's mandate is global, the priority regions for ILRI's CaSt activities are sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Expansion into Asia is justifi ed on a number of grounds: there are lots of poor livestock dependent people in those regions; and there are considerable benefi ts from learning across Southeast Asia, South Asia and SSA. One of the opportunities is that the Asian livestock systems are much more closely linked to market demand and a more dynamic environment. Supporting capacity development requires context-specifi c and indepth understanding of existing capacities at the individual, organizational and societal levels. There is a growing awareness that ILRI needs to continue to provide a variety of training types, themes and delivery modes to suit the heterogeneous needs of its partners. While recognizing this diversity to be cost effective, it was decided in 2007 to conduct a livestock training needs analysis of fi ve subregions: West Africa (CORAF region), Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA region), Southern Africa (SADC region), South Asia and Southeast Asia. The objectives of these fi ve need assessment studies are to establish the gaps and to identify the priority capacity strengthening activities to be facilitated and/or undertaken by CaSt in SSA, Southeast Asia and South Asia. ILRI recognizes that there are other national and regional players strengthening the capacity of the actors in the national livestock innovation systems. ILRI wants to reinforce and add value to the on-going national, regional and global initiatives by using innovative partnership and networking arrangements. The important strength of this strategy is that it is based on fi ve subregional training needs assessment studies of the livestock sector completed in 2007.In four of the fi ve subregions, the fi ndings of the initial needs assessment studies were presented and validated through multi-stakeholder workshops during September-October 2007. In addition, the key elements of CaSt's proposed strategy were also presented during these workshops to ensure that the strategy preparation process is participatory, all inclusive and demanddriven.The proposed strategy provides the fl exibility to develop targeted programs for the fi ve subregions based on the priorities identifi ed and it explicitly recognizes the inherent diversity in the capacity development needs. The strategy preparation process also benefi ted from the experiences of past successful capacity strengthening efforts of the CGIAR systems (Anandajayasekeram 1993(Anandajayasekeram , 2007)). Systematic efforts are made to identify gaps in both technical as well as soft skills needed to implement an effective, effi cient, relevant and impact-oriented capacity strengthening program.Another feature of this proposed strategy is that it explicitly attempts to integrate the core competencies of ILRI based on its research (the supply side); the needs of our partners (the demand side) and the broader communication and knowledge management with the activities of CaSt as shown in Figure 1. It is important to note that the primary clients of ILRI's capacity strengthening activities are our external partners.In a nutshell, the proposed strategy is based on the mission and mandate of ILRI, current status of the R&D capacity of the fi ve subregions, needs of the collaborating partners while giving adequate consideration to heterogeneity, issues raised by the training impact study of CGIAR and emerging challenges, as well as the recommendations of the CCER and EPMR reports. Finally, the key elements have been reviewed and shaped by the participants of the multistakeholder groups. In that sense, the process employed by CaSt is unique. A strategy is a course of action, chosen from a number of possibilities to reach the long-term vision and mission of the institute and the unit. It is important to ensure that the proposed CaSt Strategy should be consistent with ILRI's mission and core values. The spirit of this strategy is to continue to carry out training and capacity strengthening and promote learning compatible with ILRI's research priorities and develop implementation of programs to do so in ways that strengthen, mobilize and sustain its partners' capacities. The major shift in emphasis is building the necessary critical capacity within the various institutes (building capacity to build capacity) to achieve the desired outcomes of ILRI's and its partners R&D investments. This chapter outlines the guiding principles in the development and implementation of the strategy of CaSt; goals and purpose and the strategic objectives to be achieved.The goal of ILRI is 'By positioning itself at the crossroads of livestock and poverty and by bringing to bear high quality science and capacity building, ILRI and its partners will reduce poverty and make sustainable development possible for poor livestock keepers, their families and the communities in which they live.'One of the major guiding principles in the planning of ILRI's strategy to 2010 is to strengthen the capacity of ILRI and its partners to contribute to identifi ed research themes and priorities. Hence, the current themes and emerging issues that are considered to be ILRI priorities determine CaSt's strategic agenda and priorities. Consistent with ILRI's vision and strategy, the development and implementation of CaSt strategy and capacity strengthening activities will effectively contribute to ILRI's research agenda and core capabilities.A number of additional principles guide the development and implementation of the proposed strategy. These are summarized in Box 1.The overall mission of the Capacity Strengthening unit is to strengthen the capacity of the livestock R&D community to contribute to the mission of ILRI to achieve livestock-mediated poverty alleviation.The purpose is to strengthen ILRI's and its partners' capacity to apply skills and resources toAccomplish Within the broader framework of ILRI's strategy to 2010 and the proposed Medium Term Plan, the fi ve strategic objectives to be pursued by the Capacity Strengthening unit are outlined in this section.Currently, the majority of ILRI's capacity strengthening activities are linked to its research base and this arrangement is expected to continue. The current role of CaSt in project planning and implementation is passive and reactive; with very little or no input in the planning, and implementation process. In the future, CaSt will play a pro-active role and will actively participate in the design stage, to assist in the explicit identifi cation of capacity strengthening activities and outputs, ensure that adequate resources are allocated for implementation and that mechanisms are put in place for quality assurance and feed back with relevant training-related outputs produced and widely disseminated. Where relevant CaSt will directly participate in the design and implementation of capacity strengthening activities. In developing and disseminating the training related outputs CaSt will work very closely with the other units of the Department of Partnerships and Communications and the broader knowledge management system within ILRI.Capacity strengthening is a continuous and dynamic process. The long-term solution to address this need for continuous capacity strengthening is to develop sustainable capacity within the relevant organizations mandated to build capacity of those stakeholder groups engaged in the livestock innovation systems. ILRI can contribute to short-run capacity building, but in the longrun, building national capacity should be the responsibility of the local, national and regional institutes. This proposed strategy focuses on four sets of interrelated activities which can contribute to sustainable capacity building.In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in and commitment to regional and subregional approaches to research and development of those regions of the world. CaSt will identify an existing institute, network, livestock capacity hub in each of subregion with a mission, mandate and willingness to make a long-term commitment to build capacity in its own subregion. Partnerships will be developed to use these 'hubs' for ILRI's capacity strengthening activities in each of the subregions. ILRI will also facilitate development of and access to a pool of national and regional experts in implementing its training activities, providing space for ILRI to work on emerging issues and challenges.ILRI recognizes that learning institutions can make a signifi cant contribution in building the capacity of the next generation of R&D practitioners. To be relevant, the curricula of these institutes should respond to emerging challenges and needs. Therefore, research results will be converted into learning outputs and disseminated to the learning institutions to facilitate the integration into the learning curricula of universities, colleges and farmer training institutes. This will enable real life research results, lessons and best practices to be effectively integrated in the formal education curricula. Supporting local learning institutes is strongly justifi ed as the most sustainable road to impact.Given its limited resources, it is not feasible for ILRI to be directly involved in training the various stakeholder groups. One effi cient way to address this issue is to train the trainers. This will create not only a sustainable capacity, but also an effi cient multiplier effect. ILRI will focus on facilitating the development of training materials (regional and international public good) and training the trainers. Subsequently, ILRI will focus on facilitating the implementation, monitoring, evaluation, and assessment of the impacts of these initiatives. Opportunities will also be provided for South-South collaboration, sharing of experiences and development of best practices. This could be achieved in collaboration with other CGIAR Centres, advanced research institutes and northern universities. ILRI will contribute to the livestock component of these on-going/planned initiatives.The outputs of this strategic objective will contribute to the generation of regional and global public goods.The revolution of ICT technologies and increased access to them by (some) developing countries is enabling a variety of new approaches to capacity building and knowledge sharing. Thus emphasis will be placed on distance education and e-learning activities using multi-media. This will be accomplished in close collaboration with other ILRI's units and external partners involved in such activities. ILRI will continue to provide a variety of training types, themes and delivery modes to suit the heterogeneous needs of its partners and subregions. However, it is also important to note that e-courses have been known to be very demanding on staff time and generally unsuited to subjects with strong practical content.Activities related to this strategic objective will use a two-pronged approach:Existing materials: ILRI has developed a number of training-related outputs. Efforts will be directed towards updating the available material and placing them in the public domain for wider adoption and use. The potential candidates are: dairy technology, forage seed production, milk hygiene and processing, diagnosis of tick borne diseases.The contemporary livestock-related issues and other changing paradigms require both technical and soft skills in a number of areas.CaSt will bring ILRI researchers and other collaborators together to conduct research-based capacity strengthening and learning events including distance education programs-to design and produce publicly available learning modules and develop information networks that support higher education institutions and other stakeholders involved in the livestock based innovation systems.Currently, ILRI is conducting a number of individual and group training programs as outlined in section four.Post-Graduate Training will continue to be a priority activity; as it contributes signifi cantly to the research agenda of ILRI and to the regional human resource pool. Post-graduates form a multifaceted input to CaSt by their multinational background, and support an increase in post-doctoral graduates in its development of North-South relationships. ILRI believes that while the total number of graduates could be slightly increased, the major change should be increasing global geographic representation and advancing the strategic goal of building relationship between national livestock innovation systems (NLIS) and ILRI. This group should form the core for future collaborative research with ILRI's partners. Thus as suggested by CCER, every effort will be made to expand and diversify (both in terms of geography, and the number) the graduate training programs at ILRI. This will have signifi cant implications in terms of funding for fellowship programs, but ILRI will try to fi nd innovative ways to mobilize the additional funding required. Another limiting factor for expansion of this program is the already stretched capacity to supervise graduate students.All of the fi ve subregional needs assessment studies identifi ed the need (see Box 2) for developing soft skills to complement the scientifi c knowledge to enhance the contribution of research to development. The West African needs assessment study recommended that ILRI should resuscitate the old, highly successful ILCA training program and short courses offered during the 1970s and 1980s and use past trainees as partners for ILRI's capacity building and outreach programs. In addition, training in new areas are also needed to address the emerging issues and challenges within the livestock sector.The livestock training needs assessment report for East and Central Africa (September, 2007) identifi ed the highest need for training research staff in post-confl ict countries such as Burundi, Rwanda, Congo and Southern Sudan. A number of soft skills were identifi ed as the major gap in the region. Planning and priority setting, participatory research methods, monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment were rated highest in importance (by 90-100% of respondents) followed by strategic planning, intellectual property right policy, interaction of crop-livestock-water and innovation systems perspective and implications to R&D (identifi ed by 80-90% of the respondents).The livestock training needs assessment report for South Asia (August, 2007) highlighted the fragmented nature of the existing capacity building efforts in the subregion. More than 80% of the respondents rated the following additional skills as extremely important in group training programmes for South Asia: strategic planning, facilitation skills, monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment; planning and priority setting, gender analysis, scientifi c writing and effective communication. These observations were also confi rmed by the training needs assessment studies conducted in Southeast Asia and SADC regions. Thus, every efforts will be made to devolve the responsibilities of implementing some of the on-going group training activities to our subregional and national partners (ILRI playing a facilitating and catalytic role) while ILRI focusing its energy to develop and implement new 'fl agship' courses in collaboration with ILRI's strategic partners both in the North and South.Accountability, transparency and impact orientation is one of the guiding principles in the development and implementation of the capacity strengthening strategy of ILRI. The recently concluded evaluation and impact of training in the CGIAR identifi ed a number of issues with respect to monitoring and evaluation of training activities and made several recommendations. The CCER report suggested that ILRI implement an on-line mechanism to monitor the career of former alumni as a source for establishing impact and partnership for collaboration. EPMR also noted that in the most recent Medium Term Plan (ILRI 2007), CaSt activities are not connected with research.This strategic objective will address some of these concerns and will aim to establish a need based, functional M&E system for CaSt which will allow us to track resources allocated as well as the outputs and outcomes of capacity strengthening activities, assure quality and provide the necessary feed back to learn from experiences.Capacities are developed within individuals and organizations through learning processes and the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitudes. The results of capacity development efforts are best measured by observing changes in behaviour and performance of people and organizations. Monitoring and evaluating of capacity development are of critical importance to ensuring that capacity development initiatives are cost-effective and lead to improved performance. Self assessment is an important aspect of the evaluation process. Self-assessment involves an organization's managers, staff, and stakeholders in the evaluation process, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and then applying fi ndings to set new directions (Horton et al. 2003).There are two types of learning that occur as a result of the carefully planned evaluations: an evaluation can yield specifi c insights and fi ndings that can change practices to build capacity; and those who participate in the entire process learn to think more systematically about their capacity to further learning and improvement. Thus, capacity strengthening efforts need to clarify objectives and be monitored and evaluated. Every evaluation of a capacity strengthening effort should contribute to the capacity development of our partners and ultimately to the performance of ILRI. resources. In practice, this process of priority setting involves a combination of supply and demand oriented methods, intensive consultation with various stakeholders and vigorous resource mobilization program. Given the fact that different regions and countries are at different stages of economic and organizational development and institutional reforms; diversity will be given due consideration in setting the unit's strategic agenda and priority activities.Building critical mass in post-confl ict countries and smaller NARS with weak R&D capacity will also be given high priority in capacity strengthening.The implementation of the proposed strategy will expand the activities of CaSt considerably and require additional fi nancial and human resources. Current resources of CaSt are grossly inadequate to effectively implement the proposed strategic plan. Therefore, one of the key activities of the unit for the immediate future is mobilization of additional resources.It is unrealistic to expect signifi cant increase in unrestricted funding support to implement the various activities proposed in the strategic plan. Therefore CaSt will have to identify innovative means to mobilize the additional resources. CaSt is planning to develop a number of collaborative proposals, and aggressively mount a resource mobilization campaign to support the proposed expansion of activities. Separate proposals will be written to support the activities of the proposed subregional hubs, and the expansion and diversifi cation of the graduate fellowship program. CaSt will also work very closely with ILRI staff at the design stage so that resources are ear-marked for Capacity Strengthening related activities within the projects.Currently CaSt is staffed with one full time international staff supported by the equivalent of three nationally recruited administrative support staff. Implementation of CaSt activities is largely based on expertise from other ILRI staff and ILRI's partners. The CCER report proposed the following staffi ng as critical minimum for the unit. The training administrator can also handle the monitoring and evaluation responsibilities. Initially CaSt will depend on visiting scientists and junior professional offi cers but as the program of activities evolves, there is a need to recruit additional staff.Flagship courses to support livestock innovation systems ILRI's predecessor ILCA had a track record in running highly successful 'fl agship' courses in the 1970s and 1980s to support the livestock production systems. Currently ILRI in collaboration with other CGIAR centres and ARIs are implementing a limited number of fl agship training courses. Good examples include the collaboration with Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences to strengthen the skills of scientists teaching students in animal breeding and genetics and the collaboration between ILRI and IFPRI/ISNAR division in running a course on monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment of R&D investments.Given the emerging challenges, greater demand in the future is nevertheless foreseen for specialized short courses, individual's non degree and higher degree training. Potential candidates for short fl agship courses for the next two to three years include: climate change; implication and adaptation strategies for the livestock sector; participatory veterinary public health approaches for disease surveillance and control; crop-livestock-water interactions; livestock policy analysis and management of networks and partnership for R&D within the livestock innovation system. All fi ve subregional needs assessment also concluded that there is a greater demand for the 'soft skills' to complement the scientifi c knowledge in effectively implementing R&D programs within the livestock sector. Given the multidisciplinary nature of most of these tasks, CaSt activities will be designed and implemented in collaboration with other CGIAR centres and Northern/Southern universities. Here ILRI will focus on the special considerations with respect to the livestock related issues.To be successful it is important to build the activities of CaSt based on experience. Although considerable past experience exist in many areas identifi ed in the strategic plan; some initiatives may require experiential learning as part of the implementation process. Most new programs of CaSt will include researchers, policy makers, and practitioners operating at global, national, regional and subregional levels. While recognizing the need for launching CaSt program in all fi ve regions identifi ed one or more pilot programs will be used to generate best practices and revise other ongoing programs.Despite the fact that ILRI's mandate is global in nature; the focus of CaSt will be on SSA and Asia where rural poverty is still a major issue. Thus, initially CaSt will focus on developing one subregional hubs in each continent. Building such facilities in other three subregions will benefi t from experiences and lessons learned from these two pilot programs.Other potential candidates for pilot case studies will include capacity building in post confl ict countries, establishing e-learning and distance education courses; and ARI-ILRI partnership in graduate fellowship programs. Documenting, synthesising and disseminating such experiences will be given a high priority in implementing the proposed plan.EPMR recommended that ILRI should make capacity strengthening activity of ILRI explicit and measurable in research program design and report research results for both training and follow-up activities.The CaSt unit is committed to institutionalizing a comprehensive need based planning, monitoring and evaluation system for the capacity strengthening activities of ILRI. This will include periodical review of priorities, externally and internally commissioned program management reviews, and regular impact assessment studies. The lessons learned through the refl ective monitoring and evaluation will be used to enhance the effectiveness and effi ciency of future CaSt activities.Using the available data and the experiences of others as the base, CaSt will develop a fully functional monitoring evaluation system for the unit. To facilitate this process, learning objectives should be written explicitly into all new projects with adequate resources and suitable monitoring and evaluation procedures.An effective communication mechanism to widely distribute the outputs, lessons learned and best practices in CaSt as it relates to the livestock innovation system is vital to enhance the outcome and impact of ILRI's investments in research based capacity strengthening. Effective use of the available information and communication technology is essential in this process. The CaSt unit in close collaboration with the other units of Partnership and Communication will develop and implement initiatives to effectively communicate its outputs within a broader knowledge management and communication system of ILRI.Finally the Medium Term Plan (MTP) and the annual work plan of CaSt will be guided by the strategic objectives set out in this document and the priorities identifi ed by the subregional needs assessment studies. However, the actual portfolio of activities in any given times will be largely determined by the availability of additional resources. The MTP will also clearly identify the expected outputs and outcomes of CaSt activities.There are a number of emerging challenges confronting the livestock sector that may offer new opportunities for ILRI's research based capacity strengthening. Some of the key challenges are outlined and discussed below.Changing paradigms and demand for soft skills •The policy and institutional context in which agricultural research and innovation occurs have changed dramatically. Rapid changes are taking place in the structure and authority of governments, the global economy, the structure of the farming sector, and in the global and local food industries and retail businesses. The institutional landscape is also changing dramatically. For example, civil society, farmer organizations and NGOs are playing important roles in agricultural R&D. Cross-sectoral linkages (such as water, health, energy and education) are becoming more important. The agricultural sector is expected to play a signifi cant role in poverty alleviation and food and nutrition security, while protecting the environment. With reduced funding, the agricultural R&D system is forced to raise questions about their continuing relevance, approaches, accountability and impact. Funding research for support services can no longer be separated from the broader development questions.The reform agenda in R&D debates include: redefi nition of the role of government in agricultural R&D; decentralization and privatization of agricultural R&D activities; broader and active stakeholder participation in service provision; networks and partnerships; and new funding arrangements such as the separation of fi nancing from service provision and research execution and changing the funding base to competitive funding. Given the sweeping reforms that are taking place, the R&D systems are facing a transition period in which they will need to restructure themselves, confront new demands, and adjust to new political, scientifi c, institutional, and economic environments.Managing this complex environment requires a range of skills, tactical planning and shifts in paradigms. Since independence of much of SSA, a number of paradigm shifts have occurred within the R&D arena. These include farming systems perspective; participatory research methods (including action research); the Agricultural Knowledge and Information System (AKIS); rural livelihoods; Agri-Food systems/value chain; knowledge quadrangle; 'Doubly Green Revolution' and innovation systems perspective (including networks and partnerships).There is a growing realization that while agricultural research is necessary, it is not suffi cient to create the innovation capacity needed to achieve the needed economic growth in many countries. The innovation process involves not only research, but also a wide range of other activities, actors and relationships associated with the creation and transmission of knowledge and its productive use (Hall et al. 2006).The reality of the new agriculture is characterized by the emergence of new players, needing to respond rapidly to changing conditions, often in increasingly knowledge intensive sectors. While traditional agricultural research organizations still have a role to play in providing some of this knowledge, what is now required is a much more fl exible arrangement in which dense networks of entrepreneurs, farmers, research and training and policy organizations interact and respond to new circumstances. New skills are required to work with partners in multi-stakeholder process and networks. These reforms and paradigm shifts have great potential in enhancing the signifi cance and effi ciency of agricultural research but in practice, their success will depend on how well they are applied and modifi ed to the diverse local conditions (Chema et al. 2003;Eicher 2007). The application of these various concepts and procedures requires additional skills on the part of the various stakeholders. These changing perspectives offer both challenges and opportunities for ILRI's capacity strengthening efforts.In recent years, there has been renewed interest in regional and subregional approaches to agricultural research and development in the developing world. The subregional agricultural research and co-ordination has changed considerably over recent decades. Networks are more successful at sharing information than jointly identifying and putting into practice regional research programs on approved regional priorities. However, reaching agreement on regional priorities has been diffi cult as countries continue to pursue self-suffi ciency in those fi elds of agricultural R&D in which they feel weak (IAC 2004). This regional approach to R&D and the emerging new partnerships calls for different types of skills in developing and implementing research programs.Biotechnology has provided unparalleled prospects for improving the quality and productivity of crops, livestock, fi sheries and forestry. Conventional biotechnologies have been around for a long time, while genetic modifi cation (GM) technologies have emerged more recently. GM technologies are making rapid progress worldwide. Africa lacks capacity and resources to move biotechnology research forward. Countries have not yet developed proper legislative frameworks on bio-safety of GM organisms (Eicher et al. 2006).The revolution in ICT technologies and increased access to them in developing countries is enabling new approaches to capacity building and knowledge sharing. E-learning, for example, can be a valuable complement within many kinds of training and learning activities alongside other forms of face to face delivery, experimental learning etc. Specifi c e-courses can also be suitable for certain kinds of learners and for certain kind of contents.Without question it is necessary to improve the capacity of public sector R&D organizations to assess the risks and benefi ts to harness and deploy new agricultural technologies. The BecA hub based at ILRI/Nairobi provides excellent facilities for strengthening capacity for research and support staff from NARS in the area of bio-sciences. This will facilitate the use of more advanced bioscience technologies in NARS.To address the expected climate change challenges and impact on livestock sector, R&D must play a major role in increasing the adaptive capacity of the most vulnerable groups in different regions. Climate change could alter geographical production patterns as well as the deterioration of the natural resource base due to scarcity of water and rising temperature. Pressure on resources will lead to degradation of land, water and animal genetic materials. Climate change will also affect parasites like the tsetse fl y and parasitic diseases such as malaria. A major challenge is to ensure that livestock growth opportunities do not marginalize smallholder producers and other poor people dependent on livestock for their livelihoods.Climate change both infl uences and is infl uenced by agricultural systems. The negative effects of climate variability and projected climate change will be felt predominantly in the tropics and subtropics, which are areas of interest to ILRI. The Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have concluded that although SSA produces less than 4% of the world greenhouse gases, the regions diverse climates and ecological systems have already been altered by global warming and will undergo further damage in the years ahead. The Sahel and other arid and semi-arid regions are expected to become even drier. A third of Africa's people already live in drought-prone regions and climate change could put the lives and livelihoods of an additional 75-250 million people at risk by the end of the next decade (United Nations Department of Public Information 2007). It is crucial to mitigate GHG emissions from agriculture and to increase carbon sinks and enhance adaptation of agricultural systems to climate change impacts. Research and development efforts can play a signifi cant role in responding to the challenges of climate change by mitigating and adapting to climate-related production risks in the livestock based farming systems. This will require further research and capacity strengthening.Trade, market liberalization and emerging agri-food system • Emerging market liberalization, trade reforms and globalization are transforming national and regional economies and the farming sector. Global and national food systems are increasingly being driven by consumer interests, changing consumption patterns, quality and safety concerns, and the infl uence of transnational corporations and civil society organizations.In the recent past, there have been structural changes in livestock production systems in many parts of the world. Structural changes in the livestock sector have signifi cance for social equity, the environment and public health. It has been estimated that substantial growth in livestock production will occur in most of the developing world.Managing the emerging complex environment requires a range of skills, tactical planning and shift in paradigms. These changing perspectives offer both challenges and opportunities for ILRI's capacity strengthening efforts.Rapid rise and economic concentration, supermarkets and a shift towards non-price competition and the development of new forms of (contractual) relationships between suppliers and buyers, can either squeeze small producers out of certain markets or can offer new sources of income and market improvement in the quality and safety of food. In order to take advantage of this emerging situation, the capacity of stakeholders need to be enhanced along the value chain (Tschirley 2006).Approximately 75% of emerging diseases are transmitted between animals and human beings; the increasing demand for meat increases this risk of transmission. Serious socio-economic consequences occur when diseases spread widely within human and animal populations. Even small-scale animal disease outbreaks can have major economic repercussions in pastoral communities.Control of zoonotic diseases requires training and strengthening of coordination between veterinary and public health infrastructure. Identifying emerging infectious diseases within the livestock sector and responding effectively to them requires enhancing epidemiologic and laboratory capacity and providing training opportunities.Building sustainable capacity for innovations in emerging zoonotic disease surveillance and control by institutionalizing, harmonizing and targeting participatory veterinary public health approaches at national, subregional and continental levels is another challenge confronting livestock R&D practitioners. This is an area of vital concern for ILRI.Greater concern for environmental sustainability, vulnerability and risk • In the recent past, there have been structural changes in livestock production systems in many parts of the world. Structural changes in the livestock sector have signifi cance for social equity, the environment and public health. It has been estimated that substantial growth in livestock production will occur in most of the developing world.The anticipated intensifi cation of smallholder production systems, emerging diseases, changing climatic conditions and market requirements are expected to impact the environment and contribute to greater vulnerability and risks of the smallholder production system. This calls for new skills in risk and vulnerability assessment as well as market assessment.Bio-fuel/bio-energy •In the recent past bio-energy has received considerable public attention. Rising costs of fossil fuels, concerns about energy security, increased awareness of climate change all contribute to its importance. The economics of bio-energy, particularly the positive or negative social and environmental externalities, depend on the source of biomass, type of conversation technology and on local circumstances.Many questions in development of bio-fuels will require further research. Complementary efforts are needed in the areas of policies, capacity building, and investments to facilitate a socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable food, feed, fi bre and fuels economy that benefi ts rural communities and society.A number of studies have reported that gender inequality in education and employment have a negative impact on economic growth. It has also been shown that the absence of gender balance impacts much more on economic growth rates than on overall income inequality (Klasen 2007). Large gender gaps in education and employment opportunities still remain a central constraint on pro-poor growth. Gender inequality is an issue in all countries, but the nature, extent and effect of gender inequality differs greatly by regions. In most of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, the contribution of women to pro-poor growth is particularly constrained by gender inequality. Poverty alleviation requires special focus on poultry and goats, the livestock species kept by women and vulnerable groups. ILRI should focus its attention on gender balance and gender focused capacity strengthening.Managing this complex environment and challenges requires a range of skills, tactical planning and shifts in paradigms.","tokenCount":"9249"}

data/part_3/0302335786.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9039f3ef32f84d34a546b96f2a16fa54","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.worldagroforestry.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.34725/DVN/SQA0DU/ZRSSIK","id":"848789414"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5dd9d4ed-09ab-4589-a706-f62065087eb9","pagecount":"10","content":"Soil respiration (SR) plays an important role in the global carbon cycle. The widespread and continued conversion of tropical forests to plantations is expected to drastically alter CO 2 production in soil, with significant consequences for atmospheric concentrations of this crucial greenhouse gas. In Southeast Asia, rubber plantations are among the most widespread monoculture tree plantations. However, knowledge of how SR differs in rubber plantations compared to natural forests is scarce. In this study, surface CO 2 fluxes and soil CO 2 concentrations (at 5 cm, 10 cm, 30 cm and 70 cm depths) were measured at regular intervals over a one-year period along slopes at three sites in paired natural tropical forests and mature rubber plantations. Annual surface soil CO 2 fluxes were 15% lower in the rubber plantations than in natural forest. This difference was due to substantially lower SR during the dry season in rubber plantations compared to natural forest. During the wet season, SR did not differ significantly between rubber plantations and natural forests. In rubber plantations, soil moisture increased from lower and middle to upper slope positions, but this did not significantly impact SR. Throughout the year, net CO 2 production per unit volume in the topsoil (2.5-7.5 cm) exceeded by 2-3 orders of magnitude net CO 2 production in the subsoil (7.5-50 cm). However, CO 2 originating from 5 cm depth and below in both land cover types could only explain up to 30% of the aboveground measured CO 2 flux, indicating that > 70% of the total CO 2 respired and emitted to the atmosphere originated from the uppermost few cm of the soil. Net CO 2 production at different soil depths did not differ significantly between rubber plantations and natural forests. Our results indicate that SR characteristics in mature rubber plantation and natural forest were broadly similar, although dry season soil surface CO 2 fluxes were lower in rubber plantations. However, further information on the drivers of CO 2 production in the uppermost topsoil layers which are responsible for most CO 2 emissions is needed to understand the extent to which these results are generalisable.Soil respiration accounts for up to 80% of total terrestrial respiration and is the largest flux of CO 2 from terrestrial ecosystems to the atmosphere (Hanson et al., 2000;Raich et al., 2002). Processes in the soil that contribute to the emission of CO 2 into the atmosphere include respiration of heterotrophic and autotrophic microorganisms and roots (Hanson et al., 2000;Schlesinger and Andrews, 2000). Compared to forests in other climate zones, tropical forests have the highest soil respiration rates (Raich and Potter, 1995) but at the same time act as an important sink for CO 2 due to their high productivity (Ahlström et al., 2015). The worldwide conversion of tropical forests into agricultural land therefore has critically important consequences for the global carbon cycle (Drescher et al., 2016;Yang et al., 2016) as well as numerous other negative impacts on ecosystem services.In Southeast Asia, large areas of rain forest have been converted into rubber plantations, which were estimated to account for 84% of total global rubber plantation area in 2012 (Ahrends et al., 2015;Warren-Thomas et al., 2015). Through further expansion the area of rubber monoculture plantations is predicted to reach 4.3-8.5 million ha by 2024, in order to meet the global demand for natural latex (Warren-Thomas et al., 2015). This land use conversion has significant environmental consequences such as declines in regionally important biodiversity (Warren-Thomas et al., 2015), reduced annual water discharge (Ziegler et al., 2009), and increased soil erosion (Liu et al., 2016). Regarding soil nutrient cycling, rubber plantations have been shown to reduce leaf litter input, fine root biomass, carbon stocks and soil microbial activity (de Blécourt et al., 2013;Martius et al., 2004;Pransiska et al., 2016;Sahner et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2013;Abraham and Chudek, 2008) and therefore most likely have reduced SR in comparison to natural forests. However, the number of studies on annual SR in rubber plantations is low (Fang and Sha, 2006;Satakhun et al., 2013;Zhou et al., 2008).Over the past 50 years, rubber has become an increasingly common crop in areas previously thought unsuitable for rubber cultivation, i.e. regions with distinct dry and wet seasons and in montane regions (at elevations above 300 masl and on slopes > 15°) (Ahrends et al., 2015;Warren-Thomas et al., 2015). In Xishuangbanna prefecture, Yunnan province, the area covered by rubber plantations increased to 22% (424,000 ha) of the total land cover in 2010 (Xu et al., 2014). Most of the rubber plantations in this area are on sloping land of up to 24°i ncline and 900 m elevation. Rubber plantations at higher elevations and on steeper slopes are not profitable (Ahrends et al., 2015;Yi et al., 2014). This topography causes gradients of soil physical and chemical parameters, such as soil moisture and soil organic matter distribution that in turn can result in differing soil respiration rates along the slope (Garrett and Cox, 1973;Hanson et al., 1993;Kang et al., 2003). However, only a few studies have investigated the effect of topography on soil respiration in tropical regions (Epron et al., 2006;Fang et al., 2009;Li et al., 2008;Takahashi et al., 2011;Wood and Silver, 2012) and to our knowledge no one has studied the impacts of topography on soil respiration in rubber plantations. In order to be able to upscale SR measurements from landscape to regional levels and on an annual scale, it is essential to improve our understanding of the temporal and spatial patterns of SR in complex topographic landscapes. Furthermore, landuse conversion from tropical forest to a monoculture plantation will most likely differently affect CO 2 production at different depths. It is therefore essential to analyze CO 2 production at various soil depths in these different land cover types in order to explain differences in soil CO 2 emissions that are measured aboveground.In this study, we compared annual SR in tropical natural forests and mature rubber plantations on land converted from natural forest in Xishuangbanna, China. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of slope position (upper, middle and lower) in rubber plantations and forests. Through CO 2 concentration measurements in soil air at different soil depths we aimed to identify net CO 2 production at different depths for the two land cover types and different topographic positions.The study was conducted in the Naban River Watershed National Nature Reserve (22°04′-22°17′ N, 100°32′-100°44′ E) in the Dai Autonomous Prefecture of Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China. The area has a tropical monsoon climate with distinct dry (November-April) and wet seasons (May-October). The annual mean  temperature is 19 °C and the annual precipitation is 1490 mm (Xu et al., 2005). Three different sites were chosen for the monitoring: Mandian (22°07′ N, 100°40′ E), Manlü (22°08′ N, 100°41′ E), and Manfei (22°09′ N, 100°41′ E). All sites were at an elevation ranging between 600 and 800 masl, and at slopes between 22 and 28°. For all sites, lower slopes were steeper than higher slopes. The distance between the sites was between 5 and 10 km. At every site, one natural tropical seasonal rain forest and one rubber plantation were chosen in close proximity (distance < 1 km). During our study, from November 2014 to November 2015, mean annual temperature was 21.1 °C and annual precipitation was approximately 1320 mm, of which the majority (1050 mm) fell during the wet season. Climatic data were obtained from a local weather station in one of the three sites (Mandian; Fig. 1).The sizes of the rubber plantations were 1 ha-2 ha, as is typical for this region, with an approximate length of 150-200 m. In each site and land cover type, three plots (10 m diameter) were established along the topographic gradient: upper slope, middle slope and lower slope. The difference in elevation between 2 plots was around 25 m. All plots were selected at least 20 m away from the forest edge to avoid edge effects. Soils of all sites were Ferralsols, according to FAO classification. Rubber plantations were first established in this nature reserve in 1970 after forest clearance and the age of the rubber plantations in this study was 20-25 years at the time of the observations. Sampling sites in this study were selected based on similar land use history and management practices. Management practices in rubber plantations include terrace establishment, fertilization, pest control, removal of understorey vegetation and rubber tapping. The terrace benches in the rubber plantations were constructed using a hoe. The mean tree spacing is 2.5 m in a row, and 6 m between rows. According to the local farmers, rubber plantations were fertilized with 45% compound fertilizer (N-P-K = 15-1-15) at a rate of 1.5 kg per tree in July. Rubber trees in this area are severely affected by powdery mildew disease. To control this disease, 10 kg ha −1 of 99% sulphur powder was applied once during January to March. Herbicides (30% glyphosate) were applied at a rate of 6 kg ha −1 twice a year in July and December and there was no groundcover throughout the year. Rubber trees are tapped after they are 6-7 years, and farmers tap from April to October, according to the onset and ending of the rainy season. Rubber latex is harvested every second day.The tropical monsoon forests had tall emergent trees of up to 40 m height with epiphytes, lichens and a rich herbaceous layer. Forests in this region can have over 100 tree species per hectare and dominant trees families include Burseraceae, Annonaceae and Euphobiaceae (Cao and Zhang, 1997). In the rubber plantations, mean tree height was 20 m.SR was measured using a closed dynamic system. Every plot was equipped with three PVC collars, 20 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height, that were installed haphazardly in September 2014; but at least 2 m away from trees. The collars were driven 5 cm into the soil. SR measurements were performed from end of November 2014 until November 2015. Measurements were made twice a month during the year. For each measurement, the collars were manually closed with a plastic lid and connected to a portable infra-red gas analyzer (LI-8100, LI-COR, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA). Air was circulated in this closed system by a pump at a constant flow rate of 0.5 l min −1 and the CO 2 concentration inside the chamber was logged every 10 s for a period of 5 min. CO 2 fluxes were calculated from linear regressions of increasing CO 2 concentrations.CO 2 concentrations in the soil profile were measured monthly over 1 year from November 2014 to November 2015. In September 2014, in each plot 4 gas probes were installed horizontally at 5, 10, 30, and 70 cm soil depths (Fig. S1). The probes were made up of plastic cylinders 54 cm in length and an inner diameter of 1.7 cm. In the backmost 10 cm the cylinders were perforated by drilling holes (∅ 3 mm), thereby allowing free gas exchange between the cylinder volume and the soil atmosphere. The part with the holes was covered by a stainless steel mesh sleeve (45 μm mesh width) to exclude soil and soil macrofauna from the cylinders. Cylinders were closed on both sides and two gas impermeable PUE tubes (inner diameter 1.5 mm, capillary volume depending on length but < 3 ml) were inserted into the cylinder at the end without the drill holes. The tubes were cut to a length so that they poked out of the forest floor up to a height of about 20 cm after the installation pit was refilled. Luer lock adapters (MedNet) with a lid (MedNet) at the protruding end of the capillaries permitted the connection of a syringe (Volume: 100 ml) via a three-way stopcock (MedNet). Air samples were taken with a syringe from the probe and stored in 200 ml multi-layer foil sampling bags (LB-101, Dalian Delin Gas Packing Co., Ltd., CN) that were evacuated prior to sampling. Samples were transferred to the laboratory and analyzed for CO 2 concentrations with a gas chromatograph (GC; HP 6890, Agilent Technologies, Inc., Santa Clara, CA) at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences.Net turnover R N of CO 2 (nmol cm −3 d −1 ) in the individual depth layers was calculated from mass balances of diffusive fluxes according to the following equation (Goldberg et al., 2008):The left-hand expression in parenthesis represents the diffusive flux of CO 2 at the upper boundary, the right-hand expression at the lower boundary of a layer (D A : apparent diffusion coefficient in soil, ΔC CO2 / Δx: concentration gradient at upper or lower end of segment, z: thickness of the layer). The diffusion coefficients D A for CO 2 in the soil were obtained using the temperature corrected gaseous diffusion coefficient (Massman, 1998) and a correction function α(a) = a 2 ϕ −2/3 (α: correction factor at air content a, ϕ: soil porosity; Jin and Jury 1996). Volumetric gas content was derived from total porosity and volumetric water content. In each plot, data loggers (Hobo U30) were installed for daily monitoring of soil water content (SWC) and soil temperature (ST). SWC (S-SMC-M005) and ST sensors (S-TMB-M002) were permanently installed at 5, 10, 30, and 70 cm depth. Data were logged in 30 min intervals and daily averaged.Soil samples were collected from each plot once during wet (21st September 2014) and dry season (23rd March 2015). At each plot, 10 samples were taken with an auger (2.5 cm diameter) from 0 to 10 cm and in the wet season additional from 10 to 20 cm depth and bulked into one sample for analysis. One part of the bulked soil was air-dried at room temperature prior to physical and chemical analysis and the other part was frozen at −20 °C prior to NO 3 − and NH 4 + analysis. Soil samples were sent to Biogeochemical laboratory, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences. All physical and chemical analysis stated below followed the protocols from the National Forest Service of China (1999). Soil particle size was examined by the pipette method which fractionated into clay (0-0.2 mm), silt (0.2-0.5 mm) and sand (0.5-2 mm) according to the USDA classification system. Soil pH was measured potentiometrically at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 in H 2 O. Organic matter (OM) was quantified by oxidation with a potassium dichromate solution in sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 -K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ). Organic carbon (OC) was calculated using the formula OM = OC × 1.724. Total nitrogen (TN) was measured using a CN Analyzer (Vario MAX CN, Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Germany). Total phosphorus (TP) was digested with perchloric acid and hydrofluoric acid (HClO 4 -HF) solution and determined using an inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometer (iCAP6300, Thermo Fisher Scientific, U.S.A). Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was exchanged with 1 M ammonium acetate (CH 3 COONH 4 ) (pH = 7.0) and tested by auto Kjeldahi unit (K370, BUCHI Labortechnik AG, Schweiz). Available nitrogen was measured as ammonia (NH 4 + -N) and nitrate (NO 3 − -N) concentrations in 2 M KCl extracts and concentrations were determined using a continuous flow analyzer (Auto Analyzer 3, SEAL Analytical GmbH, Germany).For the soil bulk density and porosity measurement, we used a cylindrical metal sampler of 100 cm 3 . 5 samples were taken per plot at the following depths: 0-5 cm, 5-10 cm, 25-30 cm, 65-70 cm. Soil samples were oven dried at 105 °C to calculate bulk density with constant volume. For the porosity measurement, we used the twice-infusion method (Liu, 1996), and oven-dried the soil samples at 105 °C for the calculation of total porosity.All analyses were conducted using R version 3.3.1. To assess significance, we calculated 95% confidence intervals (CI) of estimated parameters. If the CI did not overlap zero, we concluded the effect was significant at the 95% confidence level. In the results section of this paper, CIs are expressed on the original scale of the variable concerned (i.e. transformed variables were back transformed) to four significant digits. Note that for categorical variables the effect size is the difference of the group mean from the reference group mean (not the absolute value of the mean) and for continuous variables it is the slope.We characterised the difference among plots in terms of soil temperature, soil moisture content and soil chemical and physical properties. For soil temperature and soil moisture content we used the daily mean values and used linear mixed models with plot and day as grouping variables, and land cover and slope position and their twoway interactions as fixed effects. To examine the differences in soil chemical and physical properties between land cover types, we used linear models. NO 3 − data were square-root transformed.We used linear mixed models to identify parameters that significantly impacted SR, CO 2 turnover and calculated SR. SR values were log transformed, while for CO 2 turnover which had positive and negative values, we square-root transformed the absolute values. We defined sampling occasion and plot or collar as grouping variables. Season, slope position, land use type, soil depth and all two-way interactions of these factors were treated as fixed factors. Season was treated as a block term, as the dataset covers only one year.For model simplification, we used a likelihood approach based on the Akaike information criterion (AIC). To avoid over parameterizing models, we started with the main effects, and added and subtracted parameters until we arrived at the most appropriate model. Models with a ΔAIC of < 2 were considered equivalent. We checked model fit by plotting the standardized residuals against the fitted values and checked the normality of the residuals and random effects. If there was an obvious trend in the standardized residuals, we allowed the error variance to vary among levels of the fixed effect factors and selected the model with the best fit. In the results, we provide marginal R 2 (R 2 m) that is the variance explained by the fixed factors alone, as well as conditional R 2 (R 2 c) which is the variance explained by both fixed and random factors.In order to show the interrelated effects of soil water content and soil temperature on SR, we used the model suggested by Lang et al. (2017) that included ST, SM and a quadratic SM term:From the parabolic relationship between SWC and SR, we calculated the optimum level of SWC for SR as -c/2d, with c and d as fitted parameters in Eq. ( 2).Soil texture was clay-loam in the natural forest sites and clay in the rubber plantations (Table 1). The rubber plantations had significantly higher clay content (42-47%) compared to the forest sites (30-33%; CI: 9.736-17.94). Soil bulk density did not differ significantly between the different slope positions or land cover types, with values ranging between 1.05 to 1.26 g cm −3 (Table 1). Soil pH in 0-10 cm in the natural forests ranged from 5.5 to 5.8 and was significantly higher than pH in the rubber plantations with values of 4.9-5.0 (Table 2, CI: −0.9754 to −0.2124). SOC was higher during the wet season and in the upper slope position (CI: 1.036-7.298) as compared to the middle and lower slope in both rubber plantations and natural forest in the dry season, but did not differ significantly between the two land use During the investigation period from November 2014 to November 2015, daily mean air temperature ranged from 9.8 °C to 28.7 °C and was significantly higher in rubber plantations as compared to natural forest (CI: 0.4190-1.143). Daily mean relative humidity ranged from 56.1% to 100% and was significantly lower in rubber plantations (CI: −0.4037 to −0.3503). Mean soil temperatures at 5 cm soil depth ranged from 11.7 °C to 26.5 °C (Fig. 2) and were significantly higher in rubber plantations (CI: 0.3718-1.120), with mean annual values of 21.3 ± 0.2 °C in rubber plantations and 20.2 ± 0.1 °C in natural forests, but did not differ significantly between different slope positions. At 10 cm depth, ST ranged from 12.5 °C to 26.4 °C and was significantly higher in rubber plantations than in natural forests (CI: 0.3275-1.124). Similarly, at 30 cm depth ST ranged from 13.9 °C to 26.3 °C, and was also significantly higher in rubber plantations than in natural forests (CI: 0.3350-1.354). At 70 cm depth ST ranged from 16.1 °C to 25.6 °C but did not vary significantly among land use types. Rubber plantation soils were significantly wetter throughout the year compared to natural forest at all depths (5 cm CI: 0.0269-0.0758; 10 cm CI: 0.05889-0.1015; 30 cm CI: 0.06093-0.1031; 70 cm CI: 0.06775-0.1324). At 5 cm depth, annual mean SWC was 0.26 ± 0.04 m 3 m −3 in the rubber plantations and 0.21 ± 0.05 m 3 m −3 in the natural forests (Fig. 2).Particle size distribution and bulk density at 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm depths in rubber plantation and natural forest sites along a slope gradient. There were no significant differences for the listed parameters between different slope positions.Soil Soil respiration rates in both land use types showed the same seasonal pattern: Mean SR rates were lowest from January to March (NF: 1.9 ± 0.2 μmol m −2 s −1 to 2.6 ± 0.6 μmol m −2 s −1 ; RP: 1.6 ± 0.2 μmol m −2 s −1 to 2.1 ± 0.4 μmol m −2 s −1 ). During the dry-wet season transition period, from March to May, SWC and ST increased, followed by an increase in SR (Fig. 2). This increase in SR was observed for both natural forest and rubber plantation and across the different slope positions, with mean increases of 90% and 140% respectively.The optimal model for SR (R 2 C = 0.4447, R 2 m = 0.2717) retained just season (block effect), land use type and the interaction between season and land use as fixed effects (Fig. 3). During the wet season both SR and the variance in SR were higher, especially after the July measurement taken 3 days after fertilization. Therefore, we modeled the error variance separately for each season. Mean annual SR in rubber plantations was 15% less than in natural forests (land use effect, CI: −0.6812 to −0.9063; land use:season effect CI: 1.045-1.276) (Fig. 3). Variation in SR in both land cover types was significantly associated with ST (CI: 1.085-1.106), and marginally correlated with SWC (CI: −0.9612 to 3.459). The model we used to show the influence of SWC on temperature-driven SR (Eq. ( 2); Lang et al., 2017) did not give significant results for the annual (Fig. S2) and wet season data in RP. Therefore, we used only the dry season data in order to compare both land cover types. In the dry season, the model explained 62% of the variation in SR in RP and 63% of the variation in SR in NF (Fig. 4, Table 3). Due to the parabolic relationship between SWC and SR, we were able to calculate the optimum level of SWC in RP (0.27 m 3 m −3 ) and NF (0.21 m 3 m −3 ).Mean CO 2 concentrations at 5 cm soil depths were always above ambient concentrations (491-553 ppm, Fig. 5) with the highest values recorded at the end of the wet season. Throughout the year CO 2 concentrations in all plots increased from 5 cm to 70 cm depth, with the highest mean value in the subsoil being 19,500 ppm (Fig. 5). CO 2 turnover calculations (Table 4) showed that CO 2 production in both land use types was always one to two orders of magnitude higher at 2.5-7.5 cm depth compared to 7.5-20 cm and 20-50 cm.Net CO 2 turnover data were over-dispersed and had both positive and negative values, so we square root transformed the absolute values. In addition, variance in the data increased with CO 2 turnover, so we modeled the error variance separately for each depth and slope position. The optimal model retained all two-way interactions although many were not significant and the proportion of the variance explained by the model was relatively low (R 2 C = 0.1985, R 2 m = 0.1950). CO 2 turnover declined significantly with depth (7.5-20 cm, CI: −751.4--58.96; 20-50 cm, CI: −794.2 to −97.78). Net CO 2 production rates were also significantly higher in upper slope positions (CI:  and dry season (right) soil CO 2 emission in rubber plantation and natural forest (grey boxes). Data include all plots of the respective land cover type, since no significant difference existed between different slope positions. The portion of CO 2 derived from 5 cm soil depth to atmosphere (as calculated by CO 2 diffusion from 5 cm depth to atmosphere) is shown by the white boxes. Asterisks indicate significant differences in mean soil CO 2 emissions between rubber plantation and natural forest (* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01).3.532-537.6), as compared to lower slope positions. Replacing season with SWC resulted in minor improvement in the explanatory power of the model (R 2 C = 0.2062, R 2 m = 0.2026, including ST terms did not improve the model), but further simplification was not possible.Fig. 3 shows the contribution of the diffusive fluxes calculated from the CO 2 concentrations at 5 cm soil depths to the aboveground CO 2 emission from soil. In contrast to the total SR rate measured aboveground, CO 2 diffusive fluxes from 5 cm to atmosphere were not significantly affected by season. Accordingly, the contribution of CO 2 derived from 5 cm soil to the total soil respiration was substantially higher in the dry season for both natural forest and rubber plantation (24 and 29%, respectively) than in the wet season (20 and 24%, respectively).The contribution of the diffusive fluxes calculated from the CO 2 concentrations at 5 cm soil depths to the aboveground CO 2 emission from soil (square-root transformed) was not significantly associated Rubber with land use type or slope position, but was marginally significantly associated with SWC (CI: −0.03564 to 33.87).In this study we found that mean annual SR in the rubber plantation sites (1.23 ± 0.03 kg C m −2 yr −1 ) was 15% lower than in natural tropical forest sites (1.45 ± 0.05 kg C m −2 yr −1 ). The annual soil CO 2 emission rates in rubber plantations measured in this study are within the range of those reported by the few other studies that have measured SR in rubber plantations (0.68-2.02 kg C m −2 yr −1 ; Fang and Sha, 2006;Ishizuka et al., 2005;Lang et al., 2017;Satakhun et al., 2013;Zhou et al., 2008). Reported annual SR rates in seasonal tropical forests in SE Asia range from 1.58 to 2.56 kg C m −2 yr −1 (Hashimoto et al., 2004;Ishizuka et al., 2005;Sheng et al., 2010;Takahashi et al., 2011). Hence, our results are lower than these emission rates. However, they are substantially above the SR rates reported for primary tropical forests in our study region (Xishuangbanna, China): 0.72-1.01 kg C m −2 yr −1 (Fang and Sha, 2006;Lang et al., 2017;Sha et al., 2004). Lower SR in tropical forests in Xishuangbanna compared to other SEA tropical forests is likely a result of lower annual temperature and rainfall (Li et al., 2010;Tan et al., 2010).The difference in annual SR rates between the two land cover types was solely driven by SR differences during the dry season, with substantially lower SR in rubber plantations compared to the natural forests. The most likely explanation is defoliation of the rubber trees in our study area, which occurs annually during the dry season. Typically, leaf yellowing or reddening starts in November and rubber trees shed senescent leaves for about 1-2 weeks between the end of January and middle of February (Wu et al., 2016). Plant photosynthesis has been identified as an important controlling factor for soil rhizosphere CO 2 efflux (Fu and Cheng, 2004;Kuzyakov and Cheng, 2001). Furthermore, Chairungsee et al. (2013) found that almost 100% of fine roots in a rubber plantation in Thailand stopped growing during the dry season. With the onset of the wet season, root growth quickly resumed again, showing that the fine roots had not died. Respiring less C conserves energy when defoliation has limited the supply of photosynthates to the roots. In natural forests, where few plant species shed leaves (Li et al., 2011), root respiration is most likely reduced to a lesser extent than in rubber plantations.As reported in other studies in tropical seasonal forests (Akburak and Makineci, 2013;Bréchet et al., 2009;Cleveland et al., 2010;Davidson et al., 2000;Kosugi et al., 2007;Moyano et al., 2012), the SR in both land use types showed a clear seasonal pattern with SR rates in the warm wet season accounting for 60% (natural forest) and 70% (rubber plantation), respectively, of the annual soil CO 2 emissions. Mean annual, wet and dry season CO 2 turnover rates in nmol cm −3 d −1 at the respective soil depths in rubber plantation and natural forest. For both land-use types annual turnover rates in 2.5-7.5 cm were significantly higher in the upper slope position than the lower slope position. Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) between different soil depths. No significant differences existed between forest types and seasons. During the transition from the dry to the wet season (March-May), soil moisture and temperature increased, which was accompanied by increasing soil respiration rates in both land cover types. Numerous studies in the past on a wide range of ecosystems have shown that among the different chemical and physical factors influencing SR, temperature and soil moisture are the two main governing parameters (Davidson et al., 1998;Davidson and Janssens, 2006;Fang and Moncrieff, 2001;Lloyd and Taylor, 1994;Orchard and Cook, 1983). Both abiotic factors (SWC and ST) govern CO 2 production and thereby emissions by affecting microbial activity and decomposition processes in soils (Curiel Yuste et al., 2007;Franzluebbers, 1999). SWC furthermore determines diffusivity and therefore the speed of the gas transport to the atmosphere (Moldrup et al., 2003). Commonly, soil respiration increases with temperature and is highest at SWC close to field capacity, whereas it decreases on both sides of the optimum (Howard and Howard, 1993).Optimum SWC was higher in rubber plantations (0.27 m 3 m −3 ) compared to natural forest (0.21 m 3 m −3 ). Soil texture is an important determinant of the point at which SR is neither limited by a lack of soil moisture nor excess soil moisture (Wood et al., 2013). The rubber plantations in our study had significantly higher SWC than the natural forest, displaying up to 0.12 m 3 m −3 greater SWC during the dry season, when differences were most pronounced. Our observation that rubber plantations had higher levels of SWC year-round and a higher optimum SWC level for SR can both be explained by the higher clay content in the rubber plantation soils. SWC is known to have a linear correlation with soil clay content, although the smaller pore sizes result in a more negative matric potential (Balogh et al., 2011).The difference in clay content could also explain, why the rubber plantations in this study did not have decreased SOC contents, as has been reported for rubber plantations compared to natural forest (e.g., Blagodatsky et al., 2016;de Blécourt et al., 2013). SOC stocks and clay contents are positively correlated (McGrath et al., 2001;van Noordwijk et al., 1997), since clays increase the inaccessibility of SOM in soil aggregates, therefore hindering decomposition of SOM (Gunina and Kuzyakov, 2014). In accordance with our findings, Powers et al. (2011) showed that higher clay contents reduced C loss after conversion from natural forest to plantation. The consistent higher clay content in the rubber plantations in all our three study sites compared to the natural forest sites can be explained by the site selection of rubber farmers. Farmers likely prefer clayey soils for their increased nutrients and SWC, as SWC is also linked to latex production (Samarappuli et al., 2014). This difference in soil texture between the two land cover types is therefore not biased by the site selection in our study, but a result of farmer selection that has so far not been a focus of studies on this type of land use conversion. Further deforestation and conversion to rubber (and other crop) plantations is likely to entail shifts to forest soils that are increasingly less suited to agriculture. With regards to soil C stocks and C cycling, the non-random patterns of deforestation with respect to soils is an important research question that needs to be addressed in future studies.Slope position in our study significantly affected soil moisture in the rubber plantations. We found the highest SWC on the upper slope position. Previous studies in tropical forests reported on both, higher soil moisture on lower slopes compared to upper drier slopes (Epron et al., 2006;Tsui et al., 2004), and the opposite with highest soil moisture on upslope positions (Takahashi et al., 2011;Wood and Silver, 2012) as in our study. Our soil physical parameters (soil texture, soil porosity) could not explain why SWC was highest on upper slopes in the rubber plantations. Therefore, the difference in SWC between the different slope positions can only be explained by the increasing incline from lower to upper slopes. However, this difference in soil moisture apparently did not affect SR. In natural forest in our study neither soil moisture nor SR were affected by slope position. In contrast, Epron et al. (2006) showed a close relationship between SR and topography in a tropical rain forest in French Guinea along a 25-35 m elevation gradient, with increasing SR from the wet bottomlands to the better drained upper slopes. However, Fang et al. (2009) also did not find a significant correlation between SR and slope position along a transect with 25 m elevational change in a tropical forest in Southern China. They concluded that factors other than SWC must have stronger impacts on soil CO 2 emissions. In our study, in the wet season none of the analyzed soil parameters differed between slope positions in both land use types, although in the rubber plantations during the dry season, C and N concentrations were higher at the wetter upper slope position. Anyhow, the topographical range in our study with a total elevation range of 60 m is representative for natural forests and rubber plantations in our study sites.Although we did not find significant differences in SR between different slope positions, slope position nevertheless had significant impacts on CO 2 turnover in soil, with higher net CO 2 production in the topsoil of upper slopes compared to lower slopes. Further studies with higher spatial resolution are necessary to investigate the effect of slope position. However, we can conclude from our results that topography needs to be taken into account to obtain representative data for the whole landscape.Soil CO 2 concentrations in our rubber plantation and natural forest sites followed the same pattern as observed in other tropical forest soils (Davidson et al., 2004;Hashimoto et al., 2004) with increasing concentrations at increasing depth. However, measured soil CO 2 concentrations are a result of soil CO 2 production and its transport through the soil profile (soil gas diffusivity). Calculation of net CO 2 turnover showed that CO 2 production did not differ between both land cover types, even though soil CO 2 concentrations were higher in rubber plantations. These higher CO 2 concentrations despite similar CO 2 production are a result of higher SWC in the rubber plantations, which reduced soil gas transport (Millington, 1959;Moldrup et al., 2003). Furthermore, calculated net CO 2 production per volume was up to three orders of magnitude higher in the topsoil than the soil below, down to a depth of 70 cm.Our study is the first that compares net soil CO 2 production in rubber plantations with net soil CO 2 production in natural forest. Rubber plantations tend to have lower levels of fine root density (Sahner et al., 2015) and a lower abundance and diversity of microorganisms compared to natural forests (Abraham and Chudek, 2008;Martius et al., 2004). These differences might be expected to result in lower net CO 2 production in rubber plantations along the soil profiles. However, this was not the case in our study. Therefore, the difference in SR rates between natural forests and rubber plantations measured aboveground is due to higher SR rates in the shallow topsoil layer (0-5 cm) and the leaf litter in the natural forest. Aboveground litter decomposition has been shown to contribute up to 37% to soil respiration in tropical forests (Li et al., 2004, Valentini et al., 2008;Zimmermann et al., 2009). But there are high uncertainties due to huge variances between existing studies. In contrast to the CO 2 flux measured on top of the soil, the calculated CO 2 efflux derived from 5 cm soil depths did not vary between seasons. This shows that the observed seasonality effect (i.e., temperature and moisture) on SR is solely due to seasonal dynamics in the top few centimetres of the soil, where the majority (> 70%) of the soil emitted CO 2 was produced.Soil respiration can be used as a bioindicator of soil health. Deforestation has been shown to reduce microbial respiration in the long term through a reduced supply of organic carbon inputs to the soil. Additionally, the management practices after deforestation affect the microbial activity, with less intense management practices generally resulting in higher microbial activity. Therefore, the relatively small differences (15%) in soil respiration between natural forest and rubber plantation, and the similar levels of soil organic carbon found in the two different land cover types in our study together suggest that forest conversion to rubber plantations in Xishuangbanna, China, has relatively little effect on soil CO 2 emissions in the long term. However, in order to better understand these results, it is particularly important to further investigate soil respiration in the shallow topsoil layer (0-5 cm) and leaf litter, as our results indicate that these layers contributed over 70% to mean annual soil respiration.","tokenCount":"6334"}

data/part_3/0315117038.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0b1ad7411d262b1ad16e01ab4b3a6868","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bacb2685-04db-4572-9f75-7b55dba8b01e/retrieve","id":"-703075857"},"keywords":["theory-based evaluation","policy process evaluation","middle-range theory","biofortification"],"sieverID":"5672130d-5b15-4fa9-8e03-a608a458284d","pagecount":"38","content":"in 1975, provides research-based policy solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. IFPRI's strategic research aims to foster a climate-resilient and sustainable food supply; promote healthy diets and nutrition for all; build inclusive and efficient markets, trade systems, and food industries; transform agricultural and rural economies; and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is integrated in all the Institute's work. Partnerships, communications, capacity strengthening, and data and knowledge management are essential components to translate IFPRI's research from action to impact. The Institute's regional and country programs play a critical role in responding to demand for food policy research and in delivering holistic support for country-led development. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world.While the key role that policy plays in sustainable development has long been recognized, rigorously documenting the influence of research on policy outcomes faces conceptual, empirical and even political challenges. Addressing these challenges is increasingly urgent since improving policy is at the heart of the structural transformation agenda in international development. This paper describes the use of a new evaluation method-outcome trajectory evaluation (OTE)-to explore the influence of HarvestPlus, a large and complex research for development program focused on improving nutrition through agriculture, on a specific policy outcome, namely the establishment of crop biofortification breeding programs in national agricultural research institutes in Bangladesh, India and Rwanda. By building on both evaluation and policy process theory, OTE seeks to improve the rigor of policy influence evaluation by ensuring that the evaluation covers all factors that are hypothesized to influence policy outcomes, not only those factors targeted by the program. By systematically considering all factors that potentially contribute to policy change, the approach reduces the risk of overstating program influence on an observed policy outcome.The objectives of the paper are to describe a new approach to understanding and evaluating policy outcomes, provide an example of its use in a specific context, and reflect on some advantages and disadvantages of the approach that may be relevant to potential users. The paper is organized as follows.Section 2 describes the HarvestPlus program and Section 3 presents the OTE approach. Section 4 summarizes the key findings of the evaluative review and Section 5 reflects on the approach. Section 6 concludes with recommendations for program implementers, evaluators, and for further research.CGIAR and national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) have collaborated on crop improvement programs for decades. 1 Starting in the late 1990s, CGIAR breeders began looking at the potential for breeding to increase the micronutrient concentration in staple crops (a.k.a. biofortification) in an effort to contribute to a reduction in micronutrient malnutrition, also known as hidden hunger. In 2003, the HarvestPlus program was established to work on biofortification at the CGIAR system level. 2Once technical feasibility was established, the focus moved to breeding and testing varieties in practice and then to disseminating the varieties at scale and institutionalizing biofortification in national and international programs and policies. In 2016, four researchers behind biofortification were awarded the World Food Prize (World Food Prize Foundation).From the beginning, HarvestPlus also invested systematically in understanding, estimating and tracking the impact of biofortified crop varieties on nutrition outcomes. The goal was to build an evidence base to convince not only the agricultural community but also the public health nutrition community that biofortification could be a cost-effective nutrition intervention (Bouis and Saltzman 2017;Johnson et al. 2017). Initial ex ante economic impact studies (Meenakshi et al. 2010) were followed by nutritional efficacy studies, by studies of factors affecting uptake by producers and consumers, by effectiveness studies and ultimately, by documenting the dissemination, adoption and consumption of biofortified varieties at scale (see for example Saltzman et al. 2017;HarvestPlus 2014;HarvestPlus 2019).HarvestPlus' initial core research areas-crop breeding, nutrition, impact and policy, and reaching end 1 For the purposes of this paper, CGIAR and HarvestPlus are used interchangeably to describe the work with NARES on breeding programs for biofortified crops. HarvestPlus was established as a joint venture between two CGIAR Centers, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), in 2003. HarvestPlus is part of the CGIAR Research Program (CRP) on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) and is based at IFPRI. HarvestPlus' crop research and breeding work draws on the expertise and resources of partner CGIAR Centers for breeding the respective biofortified crops, which for the focus of this evaluation are the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), (zinc rice for Bangladesh), the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), (iron pearl millet for India), and CIAT (iron beans for Rwanda).2 https://www.harvestplus.org/ users-were increasingly complemented by efforts designed to build capacity, establish partnerships, jump start dissemination, and engage with and influence policy. 3   Consistent with Renkow (2018, p. 2), policy was broadly understood to include different types of policyoriented outcomes to which CGIAR research contributes:• Changes in laws and regulations governing economic incentives in agriculture or natural resource management-for example, agricultural, macro, trade, nutrition/health, and environmental policies;• Creation of institutions-for example, the formation of the Ethiopian Commodity Exchange or the agreement between India, Nepal, and Bangladesh to share rice varietal evaluation data among their respective countries to facilitate more rapid release and commercialization; Over the course of the program, HarvestPlus sought to influence policy outcomes from all these categories, from influencing regional and national agricultural and nutrition policies (Baral and Birol 2020;HarvestPlus no date;Foley et al. 2021) to contributing to the establishment of a definition for biofortification under Codex Alimentarius (Bouis and Saltzman 2017;Saltzman et al. 2017) to mainstreaming breeding for nutrition in CGIAR (Rijsberman 2014;Baral and Birol 2020).As mentioned earlier, the most recent phase of HarvestPlus' program was focused on scaling up biofortified varieties in target countries. To achieve this HarvestPlus worked with and supported breeders in NARES to develop, test, and release biofortified varieties. For biofortification breeding to become sustainable, these programs would need to become institutionalized meaning that they were no longer special projects funded by external donors but rather core parts of the national breeding strategies and programs. This is the outcome that the CRP on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH), led by IFPRI, sought to assess when it commissioned an evaluative review of HarvestPlus' contribution to the development of national biofortification breeding programs in Bangladesh, India and Rwanda (Douthwaite 2021). 4 Since HarvestPlus funding to the programs ended in 2018, it was possible to assess the status of those programs, three years later in 2021.Influencing policy is important for development, in particular sustainable development and structural transformation, however documenting policy influence is hard. This is not because it is hard to know whether a policy change occurred, but rather because it is difficult to determine what factors led to the change. Quantitative methods for impact evaluation use statistical approaches to make causal claims, however, they require large sample sizes which are usually not possible in the case of policy influence.Thus, qualitative or theory-based approaches are often recommended (White and Phillips 2012).Theory-based approaches to evaluation are based on the program's theory of change (ToC) in order to draw conclusions about whether or how the program's activities led to the observed outcomes. While there is no explicit \"control\" against which to compare outcomes, the approach recognizes the need for a counterfactual and emphasizes the importance of considering alternative explanations for an observed outcome that are beyond the program's hypothesized contributions. Examples of theory-based approaches to evaluation include process tracing (Beach and Pedersen 2019) or contribution analysis (Mayne 2012).We have identified two shortcomings to the use of theory-based approaches in policy evaluation. Firstly, theories of change used in theory-driven evaluations are usually built from 'stakeholder theory' -the implicit or explicit ToCs held by those close to the program (Donaldson 2007;Breuer et al. 2015). Putting this theory at the centre of an evaluation risks overestimating the causal power of the program and underestimating other causal factors. As a result, some evaluators prefer more inductive approaches that do not start with theory (Carden 2009;Van Wessel 2018), for example outcome harvesting (Wilson-Grau 2019). Secondly, Scriven (1994), one of the best-known critics of theory-driven evaluation, argues that most evaluators lack the ability to develop a good ToC to evaluate because doing so requires state-of-theart subject matter expertise.To address these issues, this study uses a new hybrid approach called outcome trajectory evaluation (OTE, Douthwaite et al. forthcoming). OTE is hybrid in the sense that it uses both existing, published theory and stakeholder theory. The approach was first developed in an outcome evaluation carried out for the CRP on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB) and A4NH (Douthwaite 2020;Douthwaite et al., forthcoming).OTE is based on two core concepts. The first is the idea that outcomes, such as the establishment of a biofortification breeding program, are not single, one-off events, but rather are generated and sustained over time by an interacting and co-evolving system of actors, knowledge, technology and institutions. The second key concept in OTE is the idea of middle-range theories (Pawson 2010;Pawson 2013) that are positioned between universal social theories and more location-and context-specific program theory and/or ToC. Middle-range theories apply to clusters of similar programs and can therefore help develop program ToCs that are comparable at cluster level, and so can aid cross-case learning and insight. A number of broadly-applicable theories exist in the policy realm (Sabatier 2007) that have been simplifiedand described such that policy advocates and evaluators: 1) can choose which will best help their understanding and navigation of the policy processes in which they are involved (Stachowaik 2013; Resnick et al. 2018); and, 2) can specify them so as to function as middle-range theories applicable to clusters of projects. In the case of an evaluation of policy influence, starting with an existing policy process theory and adapting it to the specific program context can ensure that the evaluation is rooted in accepted understanding of how policy influence happens and that it considers the contributions of a program through this lens. The subsequent middle-range theory developed in the specification process can be used in subsequent evaluations of similar projects, saving the respective evaluators from the need to develop a ToC from scratch. Instead, their task is to use evidence and stakeholder theory to challenge, validate and/or further specify the selected middle-range theory, and in so doing alleviating the two constraints identified above.Operationalizing OTE in an evaluation involves six steps which are described below for the case of the HarvestPlus study. Before describing the steps, we briefly describe the focus and scope of the evaluative review.The main evaluation question addressed using OTE was how and to what extent did HarvestPlus contribute to the establishment and implementation of sustainable biofortification breeding programs in Bangladesh, India and Rwanda. 5 The outcome trajectories to be described, modeled and evaluated are the establishment and implementation of three biofortification breeding programs, namely:• Zinc rice in Bangladesh with the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI);• Iron pearl millet (IPM) in India with the All India Coordinated Research Project on Pearl Millet (AICRP-PM); and• Iron beans in Rwanda with the Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB).These 'crop x country' combinations were selected by HarvestPlus. The idea was to look at mineral crops (iron and zinc) in different crop x country contexts. In all cases, the programs were considered successful, and it was felt that sufficient information would be available on which to base the study. Details on how trajectories were constructed, including selection of interviewees, is described below in Step 2.Step 1: Select existing theory to focus description and understanding of the respective outcome trajectories Accordingly, the first step in the evaluative review was to select an existing theory to provide a framework to help construct and make sense of the three outcome trajectories (crop x country breeding programs) and the contexts in which they operated. We chose an existing middle-range theory that was interpreted by Stachowiak (2013). The theory proposes that changes in policy-related outcomes occur during windows of opportunity, which help champions successfully connect two or more components of the policy process. The components are the way a problem is defined; the policy solution to the problem;and the politics surrounding the issue (Stachowiak 2013;Zahariadis 2008). Windows of opportunity are moments when progress can be made. They can be created by natural events such as pandemics, droughts, or earthquakes. They can also be changes in government, budget cycles, or landmark meetings and summits held as part of ongoing national, regional, and global processes. Policy windows are often short in duration and may or may not be predictable.The attraction of using a middle-range theory specified and adapted from a similar previous study was that it allowed us to learn from and build on it. We would be able to use the results to identify the specific strategies that had proven useful to achieve outcomes numbered 1 to 3 (Shift in social norms, change in capacity, strengthened support base) in Figure 3.1, in different contexts for different types of policyrelated outcomes (i.e., establishment and functioning of biofortification breeding programs in three countries). Our expectation was that this would make our modified version of Figure 3.1 more broadly generalizable for future outcome evaluations of policy-oriented outcomes of CGIAR and partner research. Step 2: Identify and describe the outcome trajectory that has led to the respective biofortification breeding programs being in existence Desk review and key informant interviews began in June 2021 to develop timelines for the three respective outcome trajectories, based on interviews and reviews of available data, reports and online publications (Douthwaite 2021). Included in the data gathering was a detailed review of project documents carried out by HarvestPlus staff so as to identify:• The investments made into the respective breeding programs over the study period, including but not limited to investments in technical capacity;• The main outputs of the breeding programs in terms of the release of new biofortified varieties and provision of breeding material to other breeding programs; and In developing the timelines, we wove together information from interviews, reports and papers provided by HarvestPlus, and web-based keyword searches, to build a picture of the respective outcome trajectories. The lead author interviewed a total of 18 people about the three cases, six on zinc rice, six on iron beans, three on iron pearl millet and three on all three cases. Interviewees were largely suggested byHarvestPlus on the basis of being the most knowledgeable and representing a variety of perspectives.They represented organizations involved in the respective biofortification breeding programs and/or were individuals knowledgeable of the broader value chain context in which the breeding programs existed.Interviews were recorded and detailed notes made of them. Anonymized, detailed referencing was used to establish an audit trail such that facts and assertions made in the report could be checked back to their sources. Where pieces of data did not appear to fit, further clarification was sought and understanding adjusted.Our approach was essentially a case study one in which understanding flowed from rich, thick picture descriptions of events gleaned from interviews in particular. We used the middle-range theory shown in Figure 3.1 as the 'theory of the case' (Rule and John 2015) to help focus inquiry as we built annotated timelines of the three respective outcome trajectories. Specifically, we looked for manifestations of the three immediate outcomes -outcomes 1 to 3 shown in Figure 3.1 -together with the events and processes that may have contributed, which were recorded on the timeline, together with notes with regard to their significance (see for example Figure 3.2).Source: Douthwaite 2021, p. 39.Step 3: Validate the outcome trajectory timelines with key stakeholdersThe evaluator sent out the annotated outcome trajectory timelines for each case to the respective interviewees to validate, challenge and add to the timelines. The annotated timelines were adapted based on this feedback.Step 4: Identify specific strategies used to achieve the immediate outcomes, adapt and validateBased on the annotated timelines, the rich, thick description from interviews, and document review, we identified the specific strategies used to achieve the general strategies shown in Figure 3.1, i.e., the boxes linked to outcomes numbered 1 to 3 in the figure. For example, the specific strategies related to 'communication' were: (1) consumer marketing using print, radio, TV and social media and (2) field demonstrations and field days and shows. These two strategies were used in all three cases. The result is a complete list of specific strategies, and how they map-or not-to general strategies (Figure 4.1 lists the specific strategies and shows how they map onto the general strategies).Secondly, we adapted the generic descriptions of the immediate and intermediate outcomes to apply to the three cases (see Figure 4.1). For example, we refined the description of immediate outcome 3 'strengthened support base' from 'more enabling political and financial environment to support to the policy solution' to 'more enabling political and financial environments to support biofortification breeding programs alongside other efforts to disseminate and promote adoption.'The evaluation team (the lead evaluator, plus the two evaluation managers, all co-authors of this paper) organized a workshop on 23 September 2021 for interviewees to validate, challenge and add to the specific strategies mapped onto the general strategies.Step 5: Use the validated timelines and three-case ToC to answer the evaluation questionFor each outcome trajectory, the evaluator used the conceptual framing, the case-specific timelines, the adapted ToC, notes from the in-depth interviews, and information from the document reviews to answer the evaluation question.Step 6: Subject the draft report to review for fact and inference checking before finalizing A first draft of the full evaluative review was provided to the evaluation managers 13 October 2021 to coordinate a review process to check facts and the legitimacy of inferences made. Comments and suggestions from reviewers outside the evaluation team were collated and considered. The changes made and not made were recorded and explained. The final evaluation was published in the following month (Douthwaite 2021).Key information on HarvestPlus activities in each country, including outcomes achieved, is summarized in Table 4.1. In all three, the policy-oriented outcome sought was a national biofortification breeding program established in each country for each crop. HarvestPlus funding for IPM in India was much higher than for iron beans in Rwanda and zinc rice in Bangladesh. The difference is that funding was distributed among 30 organizations, including State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) and private sector seed companies.As described under Step 4, three data sources -the timelines, interviews and document review -were used to adapt and specify the middle-range theory (Figure 3.1). This was done by systematically looking across the data sources for evidence of the use of specific strategies that contributed to the general strategies shown in Figure 3.1. This was a deductive process, driven to a large extent by the evaluator's understanding of how change happens, built on three decades of experience. To help reduce the risk of confirmation bias, the specific strategies identified were validated with the people interviewed, and modified accordingly.It is important to note that outcome trajectory actors, including HarvestPlus, may not have understood that they were employing those strategies at the time. However, looking back, in the evaluator's view, and validated by key participants, the specific strategies do a plausible job of explaining how HarestPlus, and other trajectory actors, contributed to the implementation of the respective general strategies.We made some adaptations to the general strategies, to better match the findings:• Under 'strengthened support base,' we added 'advocacy' as a strategy to create more enabling political and financial environments for the breeding, dissemination and adoption of biofortified crops.• Under change in capacity: 'building formal and informal capacity for advocacy' is considered as one strategy. 'Training' is replaced with two general strategies: 'building capacity for advocacy;' and, 'building technical capacity among breeders and value chain actors.'• Reworded the two strategies-'champions taking advantage of policy windows' and 'driven by coalitions sharing common vision' as 'advocating for enabling policies' and 'holding events to generate policy windows,' respectively, as better descriptions of what happened in practice.The mapping of specific strategies onto general strategies onto immediate outcomes is shown in Table 4.2. The first column of the table shows the general strategies, organized by the immediate outcomes to which they contribute. The second column shows the specific strategies that map onto the general strategies. The third column specifies the cases that used the specific strategies and the fourth column provides links to summaries of the findings related to the specific strategies found later in the text. The full findings are provided in the evaluative review report (Douthwaite 2021). Taken together Figure 4.1 and Table 4.2 can be considered as a ToC of how HarvestPlus contributed to achieving the outcomes in the three cases. The ToC can serve as middle range theory for future outcome evaluations of similar projects, and so on. In this way, middle range theory offers a way to accumulate insight and learning from one evaluation to the next. The finding relates to the specific strategy that of \"funding biofortification breeding in national programs\" which in turn maps onto the general strategy of \"funding support.\" Funding support is one of two general strategies shown to contribute to immediate outcome 3: strengthened support base, in the RTB-A4NH middle-range theory shown in Figure 3.1. If evidence is not found, or if the strategy does not apply to the cases, this is also noted as a finding.  We consider in turn how the specific strategies, identified and validated in Step 4, worked to bring about the three immediate outcomes across the three cases. The order in which the specific strategies are presented depends on the general strategies they map onto, which in turn depends on the immediate outcomes the general strategies map onto as shown in Table 4.2. Figure 4.1 shows that the immediate outcomes influence each other and can happen at the same time. In the same way, it can be assumed that the general and specific strategies influence each other and may have happened simultaneously.Summaries of findings with respect to specific strategies are given throughout the following text, to help provide an indication of where links between findings exist. More details of the individual findings can be found in Douthwaite (2021).Finding 1: HarvestPlus funded national partners to undertake biofortification breeding starting in 2009 in the three respective countries. Without this funding, it is highly unlikely that the biofortification breeding programs would have ever been set up.Finding 2: Once the biofortified varieties were approved for release, HarvestPlus subsidized the price of biofortified seed to allow greater farmer access in Rwanda and Bangladesh. While initially very successful in Rwanda, this led to a gap in the market when the indirect HarvestPlus subsidy was removed, and criticism that HarvestPlus should have worked to support value chain actors rather than become one itself. However, if HarvestPlus had been less interventionist, it may not have achieved such high adoption levels in a such a short period of time. In Bangladesh, HarvestPlus also initially guaranteed a market for a portion of the private sector production and subsidized the price for any seed that the private sector marketed directly to consumers.Finding 3: HarvestPlus took different approaches to engaging with other trajectory actors depending on the size and governance structure of the country. In India, to reach the states growing pearl millet, HarvestPlus worked through the umbrella of ICAR's AICRP-PM, a consortium of 12 SAUs involved in breeding pearl millet. HarvestPlus also worked through the ICRISAT-led PMHPRC that included 30 seed companies. In Rwanda, HarvestPlus could have worked through the long-established International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)-led Pan-Africa Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) network, but chose instead to work directly with RAB, taking a more interventionist approach to ensure rapid iron bean seed distribution and uptake in Rwanda.Finding 4: In Rwanda, HarvestPlus supported the development of a specification for iron beans to be used as part of iron bean seed certification. In India, the program was party to the decision by AICRP-PM to set the threshold of 42 ppm of iron and screen all new hybrid IPM candidate varieties to equal or exceed the level before promoting to the next level of testing and approving their release. HarvestPlus supported the varietal release process in Bangladesh and Rwanda by helping to implement and fund necessary multi-locational trials and their analysis.Finding 5: Biofortification and the three case crops are supported in policy documents in all three countries. Perhaps not surprisingly, the direct contribution of HarvestPlus to the policy process appears to have depended on the size of the country. In India and Bangladesh -two large countries -the main policy conduits were the national lead organization for biofortification, that is, ICAR's AICRP-PM for India and BRRI for Bangladesh. In Rwanda, a much smaller country in which the HarvestPlus intervention was much more significant, HarvestPlus appears to have had more direct influence, together with RAB.Promotion of iron beans are supported more often and more specifically in Rwanda's policy documents than in the other two countries.Finding 11: As with the previous finding, the general strategy did not apply to the three cases.Biofortification had been established globally as a solution to micronutrient malnutrition prior to 2009, in part through HarvestPlus running a 'gold standard' effectiveness study on orange flesh sweetpotato in Mozambique and Uganda and the resonance the results found, manifest in the Copenhagen Consensus ranking biofortification as the fifth best investment to tackle the world's most pressing development issues.Finding 12: At country level, the most important step to establish biofortification as a viable solution to micronutrient malnutrition in the minds of trajectory actors was to breed and distribute biofortified crops and demonstrate that farmers and consumers would find them acceptable (more in Finding 17). Of the three cases, the first release of an approved biofortified variety was in Rwanda in 2010. One of the five varieties released, MAC-44, went on to become the most widely distributed high iron climbing bean variety in the region.Finding 13: In India, HarvestPlus and the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) commissioned the global consultancy firm Dalberg to carry out a commercialization assessment (Dalberg 2019).Although it was too late to influence the establishment of the breeding program, it was potentially relevant to its sustainability. The report estimated that by 2024, about 60 percent of on-farm consumption and 85 percent of rural and urban consumption will be of varieties with greater than 42 ppm of iron. The fact that all 17 of the pearl millet varieties released through government channels since 2017 have greater than 42 ppm of iron supports the estimate. HarvestPlus' own global baseline to qualify as IPM is 47 ppm of iron and the breeding target is 77 ppm of iron. In India, the baseline and breeding targets are currently 42 ppm and 72 ppm of iron, respectively.Finding 14: The barrier to commercialization identified in the Dalberg report that no competitive biofortified alternatives exist for farmers using open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) would appear to be at odds with the launch and promotion of the Dhanashakti OPV by HarvestPlus as the first IPM, which performed better than the variety it was bred from. Moreover, the adoption of IPM reported byHarvestPlus was largely of this variety. Adoption of nine hybrid varieties supported by ICRISAT/HarvestPlus, was delayed by difficulties in licensing public sector-bred varieties to the private sector, a high-level issue that deserves further attention. The value of ICAR's relatively low iron threshold of 42 ppm may be to signal that the government seed system will set more and higher thresholds in two or three years and seed companies would do well to start breeding accordingly. HarvestPlus' approach was very successful in providing iron bean seed to farmers. By 2018, an estimated 420,000 farmers were growing iron beans with 15 percent of the population of Rwanda eating them. This took place in the context of a very low seed replacement rate among bean farmers. However, becoming a large institutional buyer and then leaving the market created, or at least led to the return of, a number of seed value chain issues, not least poor communication between institutional buyers and seed producers and the high cost of certified seed, unaffordable to most farmers.Finding 16: HarvestPlus supported at least four efficacy trials in the three cases, carried out either by Cornell University or the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Only two studies provided links to published results, both of which found significant positive health effects. Of the other two studies, no mention of their existence was found in the information HarvestPlus has made easily available online. In contrast, much mention is made by HarvestPlus of the two positive studies, to help frame biofortification as an effective solution to hidden hunger.Finding 17: In each case HarvestPlus conducted adoption studies in part to document and understand the popularity of the respective biofortified crops. In all three cases, multiple studies were conducted in each country and adoption rates varied from one study to the next. For example, in Bangladesh, published estimates in 2018-2019 of farmers who had ever grown zinc rice ranged from 250,000 to 500,000 to 1.5 million. In Rwanda, published papers and reports were more in agreement that about 15 percent of the population was eating iron beans in 2018, a level of adoption that is an order of magnitude higher than in Bangladesh or India.Finding 18: While field demonstrations, field days and shows were important communication and awareness building strategies in all three cases, how they were run and by whom differed from country to country in terms of the role of the public versus the private sector, and the level of direct engagement by HarvestPlus.Finding 19: HarvestPlus employed consumer marketing using print, radio, TV and social media in all three cases. As with the previous finding, the specific strategies used varied from case to case.Bangladesh made most use of print media and television. India relied heavily on the private sector, and on one company in particular. In Rwanda, much of the marketing happened in local markets, helped by celebrity endorsement.The starting assumption that outcomes emerge from a system -an outcome trajectory -to which HarvestPlus contributed, proved useful. It helped broaden the scope of the review and in countering the tendency to assign too much causal power to the program being reviewed, rather than the system to which the program contributed.OTE encourages the evaluator to look at the broad range of factors that might have influenced the outcome. This was certainly important in this evaluative review. In the original proposal for this study, the desired focus was on the role of capacity building in the NARES, what would have been one set of strategies relevant to only one immediate outcome that contributed to setting up the biofortification breeding programs. Instead, in the end, by using OTE, the evaluative review results unpacked specific strategies HarvestPlus used that were relevant to three immediate outcomes that influenced the outcome of interest.Using an existing theory also identified some generalizable findings. For example, identifying and building the capacity of \"champions\" is often considered an essential part of policy influence. HoweverHarvestPlus does not appear to have used that strategy to support the establishment of NARES-led biofortification breeding programs. A possible interpretation is that for types of policy influence that are more technical in nature, people who are already considered experts (e.g., crop breeders) can be more effective in this role and just need more venues in which to exert their existing influence. They may already have good 'soft skills' without having been trained in them, nor even knowing they possess them.Another possible interpretation is that the enabling environment was already primed or aware that micronutrient malnutrition was a problem and biofortification was a potential solution. Even if it wasn't explicitly employed for this policy change, HarvestPlus had engaged champions in complementary outcome trajectories that had a positive effect on this outcome trajectory (Douthwaite 2020).In a case like HarvestPlus, with a long history of careful monitoring, evaluation, learning, and impact assessment (MELIA) activities , information was available with which to assess the outcomes. The systematic way that the program went about building its research, advocacy and MELIA agenda over time resulted in the production of information that was relevant for this case. In addition, the amount of information available online made it easier for the evaluator to corroborate information given by interviewees, and vice versa.OTE is for looking backwards, and is probably best to use in cases where the trajectory is long and somewhat complex. Program evaluators should invest in OTE when it is needed to make the case and where there is an opportunity for lessons that can be generalized. For programs that are not ongoing for multiple years without interruptions or lack the thorough documentation and evidence generation modelled by HarvestPlus, OTE could be more challenging.A shortcoming of the approach is that it doesn't necessary allow us to say whether all strategies were necessary. It might have been possible for HarvestPlus to achieve the outcomes with fewer strategies, however as noted above most of the strategies were not undertaken for the purpose of this policy outcome but rather for other outcomes. Therefore, questions related to \"cost effectiveness\" are not necessarily relevant in OTE.Having said that, there are lessons from OTE for future studies focused on other outcomes. For example, the issues identified with incomplete or inconsistent findings from efficacy or adoption studies emphasizes the importance of being transparent about reporting results because it could have consequences beyond simply accounting for those results to the immediate stakeholders in the studies.The study conclusions (Douthwaite 2021, p 34 -36) show that OTE was able to answer three questions relating to contribution: how did the program contribute, was the contribution necessary and was it sufficient? An OTE approach begins with the premise that program outcomes emerge from an outcome trajectory made of up of more than the program. Hence it will nearly always find that program contribution was insufficient.This paper describes the experiences of using OTE to assess the contribution of HarvestPlus to the establishments of NARES biofortification breeding programs. Use of the method resulted in a much broader and more detailed understanding of the program's contribution than would have been the case if the study had focused only on the most proximate program activities, namely building capacity of NARES breeders and programs.The paper also identifies advantages and disadvantages of OTE, including where it might best be used and how it could be improved.","tokenCount":"5701"}

data/part_3/0337232163.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"e2679d81bce38556cded34c6d28d7d40","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/36ba7a04-9b8e-4e6f-941b-d40c040c934e/retrieve","id":"-1760886357"},"keywords":["genomic-assisted breeding","molecular markers","pedigree information","rapid-cycle recurrent genomic selection","wheat","genomic prediction","GenPred","shared data resources"],"sieverID":"928a6da4-0e47-44fe-8383-3ee9b8b402d9","pagecount":"10","content":"Genomic selection (GS) in wheat breeding programs is of great interest for predicting the genotypic values of individuals, where both additive and nonadditive effects determine the final breeding value of lines. While several simulation studies have shown the efficiency of rapid-cycling GS strategies for parental selection or population improvement, their practical implementations are still lacking in wheat and other crops. In this study, we demonstrate the potential of rapid-cycle recurrent GS (RCRGS) to increase genetic gain for grain yield (GY) in wheat. Our results showed a consistent realized genetic gain for GY after 3 cycles of recombination (C 1 , C 2 , and C 3 ) of bi-parental F 1 s, when summarized across 2 years of phenotyping. For both evaluation years combined, genetic gain through RCRGS reached 12.3% from cycle C 0 to C 3 and realized gain was 0.28 ton ha −1 per cycle with a GY from C 0 (6.88 ton ha −1 ) to C 3 (7.73 ton ha −1 ). RCRGS was also associated with some changes in important agronomic traits that were measured (days to heading, days to maturity, and plant height) but not selected for. To account for these changes, we recommend implementing GS together with multi-trait prediction models.The widespread adoption of genomic selection (GS) in plant and animal breeding has strongly been driven by new sequencing technologies that generate abundant and inexpensive molecular markers (Meuwissen et al. 2001;Bernardo and Yu 2007;Lorenzana and Bernardo 2009). GS significantly increases prediction accuracy over marker-assisted selection for low heritability traits (de los Campos et al. 2009Campos et al. , 2010Campos et al. , 2012;;Crossa et al. 2010Crossa et al. , 2011Crossa et al. , 2013Crossa et al. , 2014Crossa et al. , 2017;;González-Camacho et al. 2012, 2016;Heslot et al. 2012Heslot et al. , 2014;;Pérez-Rodríguez et al. 2012;Riedelsheimer et al. 2012;Windhausen et al. 2012;Zhao et al. 2012;Hickey et al. 2014;Dreisigacker et al. 2021). GS involves predicting breeding values that comprise the parental average (half the sum of the breeding values of both parents) and a deviation of Mendelian sampling. GS can therefore be applied in 2 different contexts: (1) predicting additive effects in early generations of a breeding program such that a rapid selection cycle with a short breeding interval (i.e. GS at the F 2 level of a bi-parental cross) is achieved (Crossa et al. 2014) and (2) predicting the genotypic values of individuals where both additive and nonadditive effects determine the final commercial value of the lines (i.e. lines established in a sparse multi-environment field evaluation). Gaynor et al. (2017) clearly suggested separating the use of GS for parental selection or population improvement for crosses based on breeding values from product development that consists of testing lines and deriving varieties based on total genetic values. Gholami et al. (2021) emphasized that plant breeders traditionally focus on product development, rather than identifying parents for new crosses. In other words, plant breeders have been more inclined to use total genetic values comprising the complete genetic contribution to the phenotype than the additive genetic value necessary for line improvement and crossing of new parental lines.The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT, https://www.cimmyt.org) has explored GS as a new applied breeding tool since 2009 (de los Campos et al. 2009;Crossa et al. 2010Crossa et al. , 2019Crossa et al. , 2021;;Dreisigacker et al. 2021). Genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) are routinely implemented and used as a decision tool by breeders. Studies at CIMMYT have evaluated using GEBVs for germplasm that have not been included in trials, for applying GS in early selection to shorten cycle time, and for using sparse testing (Atanda et al. 2022). CIMMYT has also built the basis for a more informed screening of novel allelic diversity in germplasm collections by genotyping a substantial part of the available accessions from its gene banks (Sansaloni et al. 2020;Martini et al. 2021). Extensive studies utilizing the GEBVs of traits from wheat germplasm bank accessions (Crossa et al. 2016) were performed to explore its potential for harnessing genetic resources (Gholami et al. 2021;Martini et al. 2021). The practical application of GS has been studied and applied based on the individual breeder's decision. However, most recently, there has been a clear focus on shortening the breeding cycle by advancing and selecting lines quickly up to the F 4 and F 5 generations, sparse testing these lines at several locations (some belonging to the target population of environments already defined), and recycling them based on total genetic values.The CIMMYT Global Maize Program has been highly successful in achieving important genetic gains in bi-parental populations in drought environments (Beyene et al. 2015(Beyene et al. , 2019)). Gains were achieved from significant decreases in the breeding cycle, and just as importantly, hybrids from lines developed using GS have proved to be productive, high yielding, and stable across several drought and optimal environments. The achievements reported by Beyene et al. (2015Beyene et al. ( , 2019) ) concluded that genetic gain in maize hybrids developed with GS was remarkable, considering the commercial checks used in the studies were the best in the multienvironment trials. Beyene et al. (2015) concluded that \"the average gain observed under drought in our study using GS was two-to four folds higher than what has been reported from conventional phenotypic selection\". Moreover, Zhang et al. (2017) designed rapid-cycle recurrent GS (RCRGS) of multi-parental crosses with important significant gains per cycle in tropical maize in Mexico.The CIMMYT Global Wheat Program started implementing GS as a routine breeding tool in 2013, and, since then, has made important contributions by developing and testing several new genomeenabled prediction models (Dreisigacker et al. 2021) including G × E interaction and multi-trait, multi-environment genome-based predictions. For decades, CIMMYT wheat breeders have been using a standard pedigree system for crosses, which makes it possible to accurately predict breeding values based on the additive relationship matrix (A) and its incorporation in the statistical analyses of multienvironment trials by modeling G × E interaction with the factor analytic model as shown in Crossa et al. (2006) and Burgueño et al. (2007). These authors concluded that epistatic interaction in wheat is important, and it is necessary to correctly assess additive, additive × additive, additive × environment, and additive × additive × environment interactions in wheat breeding. Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2012) assessed the predictive ability of linear and nonlinear models on the marker effects using highdensity genotypic data in wheat. The linear models were Bayesian LASSO, Bayesian ridge regression, Bayes A, and Bayes B, whereas the nonlinear models were the reproduced kernel Hilbert space (RKHS) regression, Bayesian regularized neural networks (BRNN), and radial basis function neural networks (RBFNN). It was found that the 3 nonlinear models had consistently better prediction accuracy than the linear regression specification. Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2012) concluded the importance of epistasis in wheat and coincided with the results of Crossa et al. (2006) and Burgueño et al. (2007) using the additive relationship matrix A. The results also agreed with Gianola et al. (2006), Long et al. (2010), andGonzález-Camacho et al. (2012), which concluded that nonparametric treatment of markers may account for epistatic effects not captured by linear additive regression models and seemed to be useful for predicting quantitative traits with different complex underlying gene action under varying types of interaction in different environmental conditions.Early GS studies utilizing CIMMYT wheat datasets have already shown that molecular markers increased genome-wide prediction abilities over the pedigree-derived models (de los Campos et al. 2009;Crossa et al. 2010). Furthermore, when molecular markers and pedigree information are jointly considered, the prediction abilities are slightly, but consistently, superior to the marker or pedigreederived models on their own. The CIMMYT Global Wheat Programhas not yet applied GS at early breeding stages for population improvement. Nevertheless, as early as 2009, an extensive proof-of-concept experiment was established with the objective of incorporating genomic predictions for increased grain yield in an early breeding generation (Bonnett et al. 2022) to compare the realized response to selection based on 3 prediction models. Experiment 2 in the study of Bonnett et al. (2022) compared the predictive ability of the different GEBV calculation methods in F 2 using a set of single plant-derived F 2:4 lines from randomly selected F 2 plants. Results showed a significant positive correlation between the observed yield of F 2:4 lines and the predicted yield GEBVs of F 2 single plants based on the nonlinear RKHS method. For the first time in wheat, results showed the potential for the application of GS in early generations of wheat breeding and the importance of using the appropriate statistical model for GEBVs calculation.Based on the initial results of Bonnett et al. (2022), a second RCRGS experiment was established. The main objective of this study was to perform 3 genomic-assisted recurrent selection cycles in the greenhouse based on a training population of F 4 lines and to estimate realized genetic gains for grain yield in each cycle and across cycles.The training population (C 0 ) consisted of 1,609 F 4 lines derived from 14 F 2 families, which were based on 16 parents from the CIMMYT spring bread wheat breeding program. Eleven F 2 families comprised 94 to 95 F 4 lines and 3 F 2 families included 186 to 190 lines. F 2 individuals were genotyped with the Infinium iSelect 90K SNP genotyping array (Wang et al. 2014) and genotype calling was performed using GenomeStudio Software v2011.1 (https://www.illumina.com). The F 2 individuals were phenotyped as F 4 lines at the Campo Experimental Norman E. Borlaug (CENEB) in Ciudad Obregón, northern Mexico. The F 4 trial was sown as an augmented block design with 2 replications, including the line \"BORLAUG100 F2014\" as a repeated check. The phenotypic data included grain yield (GY, ton ha −1 ), days to heading (DTH, days), and plant height (PH, cm). Agronomic traits (DTH and PH) were only measured in one replication. Best linear unbiased estimators (BLUEs) for GY were assessed for all genotypes. A numerical relationship matrix (A) derived from the pedigree was also available for all individuals in the training set. This relationship matrix was computed by the \"coefficient of parentage (COP)\" using the BROWSE software (McLaren et al. 2000(McLaren et al. , 2005)).In cycle 0 (C 0 ), the 10 highest yielding lines of 6 F 4 families each were selected as parents to form cycle 1 (C 1 ). The 6 F 4 families were selected based on several criteria: their rank in GY (BLUEs) in the training population, GY heritability, and the estimated genomic prediction ability within and between F 4 families. The agronomic traits (DTH and PH) were not considered when making selections. The 60 selected F 4 lines were planted in the greenhouse on 3 different dates (3 pots with 6-7 plants per F 4 line at each date). C 1 was formed by intermating the F 4 s (Fig. 1). Six crosses were performed within each selected F 4 family (36 crosses) and 10 crosses between 11 pairs of F 4 families (110 crosses), which were chosen based on the average genomic prediction ability between them. Each F 4 family was used in intercrosses at least 3 times. The F 1 seed of each cross was harvested and threshed to form C 1 .In C 1 , 136 F 1 s were planted at 2 different dates in the greenhouse (1 pot with 3 plants per F 1 at each date). DNA was extracted from bulked tissue and shipped to TraitGenetics GmbH, Germany, for genotyping with the Illumina 20K microarray (https://www. traitgenetics.com). GEBVs were calculated for all 136 F 1 s. The top 26 C 1 F 1 s were selected and intermated to form the cycle 2 (C 2 ) population. Like C 1 , crosses were performed within and between families (19 and 69 crosses, respectively), C 2 F 1 seed of each cross was harvested and threshed. In C 2 , the recombination protocol was repeated. The top 29 C 2 F 1 s were intermated to form cycle 3 (C 3 ). The number of F 1 s planted per cycle, the number of parents selected for next cycle recombination, and the number of crosses performed are shown in Fig. 1. After C 2 recombination, C 3 F 1 were genotyped and GEBVs calculated, but they were not recombined.After recurrent selection, 32 to 35 F 1 s from each cycle (C 1 to C 3 ) were selfed to derive F 6 lines. Not all F 1 s within a selection cycle had sufficient seed for selfing. Therefore, a distributed set of F 1 s was chosen. The GEBVs of the selfed F 1 s ranked between 1 and 58 in each cycle, and about 50% of F 1 s were used in recombination, while the residual F 1 s were not crossed (Supplementary Table 1). F 1 s were advanced to the F 4 breeding generation in the greenhouse via \"selected bulks.\" Residual F 1 seed was planted in trays in the greenhouse, and several visually \"good\" spikes were bagged to derive F 2 seed. This advancement procedure was repeated up to the F 4 generation. F 5 seed was harvested and planted for seed multiplication at CIMMYT in El Batan, Mexico, in 0.5 m plots; plant offtypes were eliminated.A total of 118 lines were field tested together with the cv. \"BORLAUG100 F2014\" as standard check for 2 crop cycles (2020-2021 and 2021-2022) at CENEB. The lines were grown in 2 trials of 60 entries (59 lines + check) in an incomplete block design with 2 replications. The evaluations were conducted under optimal conditions, i.e. 500 mm of irrigation water, mechanized and chemical control of weeds, diseases, and pests. The 240 plots were of dimension 2.8 × 1.6 m and sown at a seed rate of 120 kg ha −1 . The same agronomic traits as in the training population were measured, GY, DTH, and PH, in addition days to maturity (DTM). Lines included 101 F 6 lines derived from the recurrent GS cycles and 17 of the 60 C 0 parents and the check. Means of GY BLUEs of each recurrent selection cycle were compared, and differences were determined using the least significant difference (LSD at 5% significance). The heritability of the trials was estimated from the variance components using the equation:with r = number of replications, e = number of environments (years), σ 2 = error variance, σ 2 g = genotypic variance, andAs described above, the initial training population was genotyped with the Infinium iSelect 90 K SNP genotyping array for wheat and the recurrent selection F 1 plants with the lower-density Illumina Infinium 20 K wheat SNP array. A total of 7,815 markers overlapped between platforms. We imputed missing marker genotypes at random according to allele frequencies and subsequently removed monomorphic markers and markers with a minor allele frequency smaller than 0.05. After this quality control, 7,139 markers were available for further analysis. The 101 derived F 6 lines were also genotyped with the Illumina Infinitum array (TraitGenetics) to compute the genetic diversity maintained in each selection cycle.We considered 4 different prediction models to fit the training population for selecting the best parents to be crossed and initiate Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/article/13/4/jkad025/7005387 by guest on 20 June 2023 the RCRGS as well as for selecting the best F 1 s in each recurrent cycle: (1) the genomic best linear unbiased prediction model (GBLUP), ( 2) GBLUP including the pedigree information (P + GBLUP), (3) Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Spaces with Kernel Averaging (RKHS-KA) method, and (4) Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Spaces with Kernel Averaging and Pedigree (P + RKHS-KA). While all models were computed, selections during the RCRGS scheme were based only on Model 4.For the prediction (GEBV) and selection of the best parental candidates for the next cycle, we focused on (1) assessing additive effects by including the pedigree (P) information (numerator relationship matrix) and thus emphasizing between family variance, and (2) including genotypic values of individuals where both additive and nonadditive are included on the genomic information (RKHS-KA). Using pedigree and marker information together has been successful in decreasing the interval cycle at the early stages of population improvement (Crossa et al. 2017;Bonnet et al. 2022).The GBLUP model has become widely used in genomic prediction (e.g. Endelman 2011). The model can be written as:where y is a vector with the response variable of dimension n × 1 (phenotypes), μ is an intercept, 1 is a vector of ones, u ∼ N(0, σ 2 u K) corresponds to the random effect of wheat lines, σ 2 u is the variance parameter associated to the wheat lines, and K = MM ′ /p is a genomic relationship matrix derived from markers (e.g. Lopez-Cruz et al. 2015) with M the matrix of markers centered and standardized by columns and p the number of markers, e ∼ N(0, σ 2 e I) the vector of random error terms, with σ 2 e the variance parameter associated to the error, and I denotes the identity matrix.The pedigree + molecular marker model takes into account the pedigree information of the wheat lines represented by the numerical relationship matrix (A) and the genomic relationship matrix derived from markers described before (Eq. 1). The full genetic model is:where a ∼ N(0, σ 2 a A) is the vector of additive random effects for wheat lines whose variance-covariance matrix is obtained from the numerator relationship matrix (A) derived from the coefficient of co-ancestry between the wheat lines and σ 2 a is a variance parameter associated with the additive relationship matrix derived from pedigree information and the rest of the terms has been described before.The Gaussian kernel commonly used in genomic prediction is Pérez-Rodríguez et al. 2012), where d ii ′ is the distance based on markers between individuals i, i ′ (i = 1, …, n), the bandwidth parameter controls how fast the covariance function drops as a function of the distance. The estimation of the bandwidth parameter is computationally demanding and to overcome this problem, de los Campos et al. (2010) proposed to fit a model that includes several kernels, each one with its own bandwidth parameter. The RKHS-KA with 3 kernels is given by:where) and e distributed independently, with 3 different Gaussian kernels computed with bandwidth parameters h 1 = 1 5m , h 2 = 1 m , h 3 = 5 m , with m that corresponds to the median squared Euclidean distances between lines without including the diagonal entries (Pérez-Rodríguez and de los Campos 2014), σ 2 u1 , σ 2 u2 , σ 2 u3 corresponds to variance parameters associated to u 1 , u 2 , u 3 respectively. The rest of the terms has been already described.This model is an extension of model ( 3) where we include a random effect to take the additive relationship matrix derived from pedigree into account, the model is given by:where all terms have been described previously and a ∼ N(0, σ 2 a A) distributed independently from u 1 , u 2 , u 3 , and e.Models ( 1)-(4) were fitted using the \"BGLR\" statistical package (Pérez-Rodríguez and de los Campos 2014) using the R Software (R Core Team 2018).Based on the genomic data, we computed Nei's standard genetic distance D (Nei 1972) between the 60 parents in C 0 and the phenotypically evaluated F 6 lines from the different selection cycles C 1 , C 2 , and C 3 . Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to assess the genetic relationship between lines. The matrix of genetic distances and PCA were generated with the packages \"adegenet\" and \"ggplot2\" using the R Software (R Core Team 2018).The average GY of the evaluated F 4 families in the training population ranged from 5.91 to 7.23 ton ha −1 (Table 1). Low-to-high GY heritability was observed in the F 4 families, with an h 2 of 0.01 for family 8 (WAXBI/3/ATTILA*2/PBW65*2// MURGA) to an h 2 of 0.73 for family 4 (NELOKI//KACHU/ KIRITATI). To select the parents for rapid cycle recombination, we implemented random cross-validation within and between the F 4 families. Prediction abilities using the P + RKHS-KA model within the families were significantly higher than between the families but varied widely. The highest prediction ability within families was 0.496 for family 12 (MUTUS*2/JUCHI/6/COPIO) and, between families, it was 0.310 for family 3 (NELOKI//KFA/ 2*KACHU). We further assessed the COP between families. Mean COPs had an overall lower range compared with prediction abilities, the most distinct family being family 2 (NELOKI/ WAXBI) with a value of 0.483 (Table 1). Out of the 14 F 4 families, we selected 6 families (families 2, 3, 4, 11, 12, and 13) with the overall highest GY heritability and good prediction ability within and between families. The 10 highest-yielding F 4 lines of each family were selected as parents in C 0 (Supplementary Table 2). The average GY of the 10 F 4 lines per family varied, Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/g3journal/article/13/4/jkad025/7005387 by guest on 20 June 2023 with 2 families each showing higher, medium, and lower GY when compared to all families.F 1 individuals in each recombination cycle were predicted using the entire training population, which was not updated throughout the study. GEBVs calculated using the P + RKHS-KA model ranged from 6.42 to 7.50 ton ha −1 among F 1 s across cycles. The mean of the GEBVs constantly increased with each cycle from 6.71 ton ha −1 in C 0 to 7.20 ton ha −1 in C 3 , with an average increase of 0.16. GEBV means between cycles were, however, not always significantly different (Supplementary Table 3). This steady increase of GEBVs was not apparent for the F 1 individuals that were selected as parents and the individuals that were selected to be advanced to F 6 for yield evaluation (Supplementary Tables 1-3). In both sets of selected lines, the mean GEBVs were slightly lower in C 2 compared to C 1 and increased again in C 3 . In recombination cycle C 2 , the smallest number of F 1 s was generated, and the selected sets of parents and individuals advanced included only 30-40% of the total number of F 1 s, which might explain this result.In addition to the P + RKHS-KA model, which was the only model applied for the selection of parents in each recombination cycle, GEBVs using the RKHS-KA model without the numerical relationship matrix A and the standard GBLUP model with and without A were calculated to corroborate the correlation between GEBVs of different models in an RCRGS setting (Supplementary Table 3). The GEBVs of the 3 additional models showed very similar trends across the recombination cycles regarding the P + RKHS-KA model, while the significance between cycles varied. Interestingly, the GEBVs of the models without A showed lower predicted GY values and lower and nonsignificant means in cycle C 3 compared to cycle C 1 for the selected parents and the individuals that were advanced. The P + GBLUP model predicted the highest yields. The correlations between the GEBVs of the models were positive and ranged on average from 0.32 to 0.94. The correlations were highest in C 0 (0.91) and declined in the subsequent cycles. Correlations also declined in the selected subsets of F 1 s in comparison to the entire F 1 population.Four groups of entries derived from C 0, C 1, C 2 , and C 3 and the repeated check were used for field evaluation at CENEB across 2 crop cycles. The mean GY for each cycle and the average gain per cycle are shown in Fig. 2 and also presented in Table 2. Overall, GY in the trial was slightly lower in Year 1 (2020-2021), reaching 7.42 ton ha −1 , but not significantly different from Year 2 (2021-2022) with an average of 7.51 ton ha −1 (Table 2). In Year 1 and over the 2 years combined, the entries of the base selection cycle C 0 , (using 17 out of the 60 initial parents) had the lowest GY, with an average of 6.88 ton ha −1 across years. The same 17 parents revealed an average GY of 7.31 ton ha −1 in the original training population, which was the same as the 60 initial parents used in C 0 (7.31 ton ha −1 ) and higher than the average GY (6.71 ton ha −1 ) across all entries in the training population (1,609 entries). In Year 2, C 0 entries showed a higher GY average than C 1 and C 2 entries (Table 2).In both years, the performance of the 35 C 3 entries surpassed the GY of all the other cycles. The average GY among C 3 entries was 7.73 ton ha −1 in both years and across years. The higher GY in C 3 was not significant in Year 1 but in Year 2 and for both years combined.The average gain per cycle for each year and combined across years ranged from −0.39 ton ha −1 to 1.47 ton ha −1 . Across both years, the realized genetic gains were 0.28 ton ha −1 , with the highest gains in C 1 followed by C 3 and C 2 .In the training population, genetic correlations of PH, DTH, and DTM with GY were in general low (−0.07, 0.11, and 0.02, respectively) and high levels of indirect selection were not expected. The effects of GS on the unselected agronomic traits PH, DTH, and DTM are presented in Supplementary Table 4. All 3 traits were only evaluated in one replication in each of the yield trials. Some plots showed segregation for one of the traits, likely since lines were derived from selected bulks. On average, lines flowered Across recombination cycles, GS on average shortened the growing cycle of the selected lines. In Year 2, no significant differences were observed between recombination cycles. Across both years combined, DTH and DTM decreased by 2.8 and 1.5 days with respect to cycle C 0 , including the subset of the initial parents.During the first recombination cycle, GS produced significantly taller plants (on average 3.7 cm from C 0 to C 1 ), while in the subsequent cycles, PH slightly increased, but with no significant change. For all 3 traits, C 0 showed nonsignificant values compared to the check.The genetic diversity in each of the selection cycles computed by Nei's standard genetic distance is displayed in Table 3. The overall mean genetic distances within and between cycles were very similar. Mean genetic distances between the initial parents in C 0 were higher than between the F 6 lines in each recombination cycle, but mean distances between the F 6 lines did not significantly decline from cycle C 1 to C 3 . The largest genetic distance was observed between the group of C 0 parents and the F 6 lines in C 3 . Principal component analysis at a 2-dimensional scale depicted 3 groups for the initial 60 parents (Fig. 3). The 2 smaller groups (groups 1 and 3) each comprised the 10 selected parents of one F 4 family (families 2 and 12). The larger group (group 2) included the parents of the 4 additional F 4 families (families 3, 4, 11, and 13) characterized by their common parent \"KACHU.\" Lines in each of the selection cycles follow approximately the same, but wider patterns driven by intercrossing.Accelerating the genetic progress of major cultivated crops such as wheat, maize, and rice is necessary to increase production in response to the global food crisis (Bentley et al. 2022). In autogamous crops, bulk and pedigree methods of breeding, which are based on inbred line selection, are commonly used in genetic improvement programs. These methods, however, produce limited novel combinations of genes in a breeding population. Recurrent selection promotes recombination and produces novel combinations of genes in a breeding population, but it requires accurate single-plant evaluation. GS, which can predict the breeding value of individuals based on their marker genotype, provides the potential to give a higher reliability of single-plant evaluations and to, therefore, be effective in recurrent selection. In this study, we implemented RCRGS in bi-parental spring wheat populations of CIMMYT spring bread wheat to evaluate its feasibility and estimate potential realized genetic gain. RCRGS was applied for GY in  Our results showed a consistent genetic gain for GY when summarized across 2 years of phenotyping. Genetic gain varied in percentage per cycle and in individual years and was not significant from C 1 to C 2 . The highest gain was revealed from C 0 to C 1 and the lowest from C 1 to C 2 . For the 2 years of phenotyping combined, genetic gain reached 12.3% from C 0 to C 3 and realized gain was 0.28 ton ha −1 per cycle. This genetic gain was slightly higher than expected from the GEBVs reported in each selection cycle, with an estimated realized genetic gain of 0.26 ton ha −1 . These differences in genetic gain are anticipated and might be explained by additional G × E interactions during field evaluation, as well as other factors for example the choice of the prediction model and the genotyping platform. GEBVs indicated a slight decline for GY from C 1 to C 2 for the F 1 individuals that were selected as parents and advanced to F 6 . However, this decline was not apparent for the observed GY in field evaluations in Year 1 and across the 2 years combined, while in Year 2, GY was lower in C 1 and C 2 .To further compute the realized genetic gain per year (ton ha −1 year −1 ), it is necessary to account for the number of cycles per year (2-3 cycles per year in this study) and for the time from the initial cross to the last cycle (theoretically 3.5 years from F 1 development to the harvest of the C 3 F 6 lines in this study, but extended to 5 years as 2 cycles were repeated due to logistical constraints). Therefore, given that GY from C 0 (6.88 ton ha −1 ) to C 3 (7.73 ton ha −1 ) increased by 12.3%, the average genetic gain of 0.28 t/ha per cycle is equivalent to 0.187 ton ha −1 year −1 [i.e. (3 • 0.28)/5] under our conditions and equivalent to 0.242 ton ha −1 year −1 under optimal theoretical conditions. Crespo-Herrera et al. (2017) analyzed genetic gain in CIMMYT Elite Spring Wheat Yield Trial in a period of 8 years from 2006-2007 to 2014-2015 and across 426 international locations classified in 3 target populations of environments. The highest genetic gain reached 0.102 ton ha −1 year −1 in optimally irrigated environments relative to a widely grown cultivar \"ATTILA\" and 0.044 ton ha −1 year −1 relative to several local checks. Mondal et al. (2020) reported the grain yield progress in CIMMYT spring bread wheat over 50 years determined in field trials during 5 crop seasons performed at CENEB under simulated field conditions. The highest genetic gains per year accounted for 0.035 and 0.031 ton ha −1 year −1 under irrigated and rainfed (limited drip irrigation) conditions, respectively. Therefore, the shortterm genetic gain from RCRGS observed in the populations used in this study (0.187 ton ha −1 year −1 ) is higher (up to six times) than observed in previous CIMMYT studies under phenotypic selection, which, however, were longer-term studies between 8 and 50 years and were achieved in national trials in the case of Crespo-Herrera et al. (2017). The results we obtained reinforce the results by Bonnett et al. (2022) and highlight the potential of GS-assisted recombination at early breeding generations for achieving high genetic gain for GY.Our study presents the second empirical report of RCRGS in wheat and the first for a complex trait such as GY. In a previous study, Veenstra et al. (2020) reported the improvement in nutritional quality of wheat via recurrent GS. The authors determined the realized genetic gain from GS for wheat grain fructan content by applying truncated selection (TS) and optimized contribution selection (OCS). GS led to a 25 ± 12% and 24 ± 6.4% increase in wheat grain fructans using TS and OCS, respectively. OCS showed a simultaneously greater retention of genetic variance and lower inbreeding levels.High rates of inbreeding per breeding cycle with GS have been observed in simulations and empirical studies (Jannink et al. 2010;Rutkoski et al. 2015;Lin et al. 2017;Gorjanc et al. 2018). Rutkoski et al. (2015) found significant increases in inbreeding after 1 and 2 cycles of GS when compared with C 0 , significantly greater than the expected value under random genetic drift for all populations. Several methods to control the rate of inbreeding have, therefore, been proposed, including OCS (Meuwissen 1997) or optimal cross-selection (Gorjanc et al. 2018), in the population improvement context to improve selection and crossing plans. In this study, we only used TS and did not specifically consider maintaining genetic diversity in our crossing plans. Genetic diversity declined comparing cycle C 0 with the subsequent recombination cycles but was well maintained from cycle C 1 to C 3 . Thus, our results only partially agree with the findings reported in earlier studies with a reduced genetic variation. Zhang et al. (2017) reported similar results deploying rapid-cycle GS in multi-parental tropical maize populations, with a slightly narrowed genetic diversity only during the last GS cycles (C 3 and C 4 ). In this study, we balanced crosses within and between bi-parental F1s for each recombination cycle, generating 3 times more crosses between bi-parental F1s than within F1s, which we propose to be a reason that genetic diversity remained at a similar level throughout recombination cycles.RCRGS was associated with a change in agronomic traits that were measured (DTH, DTM, and PH) in our study. Lines in cycle C 3 had a shorter crop cycle, and lines in cycles C 1 to C 3 were taller. We, therefore, suggest that selection should be applied through a selection index to optimize selection of multiple traits. Each additional trait added to a selection index usually takes away some of the selective pressure that can be applied to other traits. Furthermore, tradeoffs exist between progress in one trait versus others. Nonetheless, several recently published studies show an increase in the prediction accuracy of genomic multi-trait selection over genomic single-trait selection (Montesinos-López et al. 2016, 2019). It will be important to further investigate multi-trait selection to optimize the predictive power of RCRGS.We calculated GEBVs based on the nonlinear Gaussian kernel function, including the relationship matrix A (P + RKHS-KA) for the selection of new parents in each cycle. We favored this model because it demonstrated a significant positive correlation between observed yields of F 2:4 lines and predicted GEBVs of F 2 single plants in the study of Bonnett et al. (2022). The predictions of F 2 s in Bonnett et al. (2022) derived from crosses between inbreds that were part of the training population showed very little to no correlation between models. In contrast, the correlation of GEBVs derived from different models in this study was positive and still moderate after 3 cycles of recombination. Models including the pedigree information predicted higher yields and genetic gain calculated from the GEBVs in each selection cycle. These were closer to the observed realized genetic gain than models only using the marker information, which underlines our previous results that when molecular markers and pedigree information are considered jointly, prediction abilities are slightly but consistently superior to the marker or pedigreederived models alone (de los Campos et al. 2009;Crossa et al. 2010).Rapid generation advance or speed breeding can achieve up to 6 generations by year for spring wheat (Watson et al. 2018) with adequate infrastructure and trained staff in place. In this study, we achieved 3 to 4 crop cycles per year by taking several practical considerations in the RCRGS scheme into account. A very fast crop cycle provides only a short time from planting to flowering. In an RCRGS breeding scheme, breeding teams need to acquire DNA from seedling tissue, receive genotypic data, and run the statistical models to make parental predictions prior to the plants reaching the flowering stage, demonstrating a logistical challenge that requires careful planning and good communication within the team and with external genotyping providers, which are regularly used in public breeding programs. In addition, for repeated crossing in recombination cycles, male and female parents need to be sown at 2 to 3 different dates, to match the flowering of the selected parents. This extends the length of the greenhouse cycle, and some crosses might fail, making a full standardization of the scheme (with a constant number of crosses and offspring) difficult. Also, greenhouse-grown plants in pots are usually smaller and produce less seed. For the 3 recombination cycles in this study, the seed of the F 1 individuals was limited in several cases. Being potential new parents, F 1 s were sown at 3 dates for subsequent crossing, and insufficient seed remained for selfing. It could, therefore, be recommended to apply GS at the F 2 or F 3 breeding generation to bypass the limited amount of seed for selfing (Gorjanc et al. 2018). We performed 3 recurrent GS cycles and evaluated derived lines at the end of the experiment. In a 2-part strategy as suggested by Gaynor et al. (2017), selected plants should be advanced directly for product development. This implies that recurrent cycles in the greenhouse must be aligned to the crop cycles of product development in the field. Overall, these and other logistical constraints remain a barrier to the practical application and implementation of RCRGS for many breeding programs.Different GS strategies are likely to be relevant in individual breeding programs and each program must determine which strategy is the best choice. This will be specific to the biological specificities of a crop, the breeding organization itself, and its economic context. Wheat breeding programs tend to use GS to control for G × E interaction, predicting the total genetic values of individuals, where both additive and nonadditive effects determine the final commercial value of the lines. Practical implementation of rapidcycling GS strategies in wheat is still lacking and our study shows the potential of RCRGS to increase genetic gains for GY. Further work is needed to evaluate and optimize these GS strategies in wheat and other crop species in order to support the acceleration of current breeding progress.","tokenCount":"6426"}

data/part_3/0358481203.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"62e8de6c4221617599b56e2986394212","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3b95bc0-5534-48cc-81ea-20e2a4141578/retrieve","id":"-877042776"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"3cd3fcf6-ad9b-4223-97ba-61906b5e2e4a","pagecount":"5","content":"This list consists of an initial set of characterization and evaluation descriptors for breadfruit utilization. These, together with passport data, will form the basis of the global accession level information system being developed by the Bioversity-led project, Global Information on Germplasm Accessions (GIGA). It will facilitate access to and utilization of breadfruit accessions held in genebanks. Additional descriptors may be added later if information becomes available.Record the average weight of at least three fruitsObserve three fruits at least, and record which shape best describes them Observe five leaves and record the average number of lobesObserve five leaves and record the predominant degree of dissection 1 Leaf entire (no dissection) 2Leaf slightly dissected on upper half 3Leaf moderately dissected on upper half 4Entire leaf moderately deeply dissected 5Leaf deeply dissected 6Leaf deeply dissected with wide spaces between lobesObserve five leaves and record the texture that best describes them 1 Glossy 2 DullRecord the average seed number of three fruitsRecord the average of five male inflorescences Key access and utilization descriptors for breadfruit genetic resourcesRecord the average of five male inflorescencesFruiting time/time of maturity ","tokenCount":"182"}

data/part_3/0377177260.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"af020682d69dca485f6de09a416b41ed","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/795249e4-3d5f-4026-aecb-ef7737395b4b/retrieve","id":"1078251243"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cd51633c-116e-4115-8c82-52bb6bcff4b0","pagecount":"9","content":"Millions of small-scale farmers efficiently supply the great majority of the meat and milk market in Africa. Surging demand for livestock products (the \"livestock revolution\") is an unprecedented opportunity for setting poor farmers on pathways out of poverty, but to gain maximum benefit they must be able to produce safe food of acceptable quality. Currently, most smallholder livestock products are sold in informal markets where conventional regulation and inspection methods have failed and where private or civil sector alternatives have not emerged: as a consequence, most livestock-derived food products contain high levels of hazards. Quantitative risk-based approaches for assessing and managing food safety offer a powerful new method for reducing the enormous health burden imposed by food borne disease, while taking into account other societal goals such as pro-poor growth. However, application to food safety problems in Africa has been limited. We discuss some of the constraints and a new approach which can help overcome these: Participatory Risk Analysis, and give examples of its current application in west, east and south Africa (R RA AS SP PA A, , 8 8 (S) : 3-11). K Ke ey y --W Wo or rd ds s: A An ni im ma al l --S Sa af fe et ty y --F Fo oo od d --R Ri is sk k a an na al ly ys si is s --P Pa ar rt ti ic ci ip pa at ti io on n --I In nf fo or rm ma al l. . R Ré és su um mé é A Al li im me en nt ts s s sa ai in n, , A Al li im me en nt ts s é éq qu ui it ta ab bl le es s : : A An na al ly ys se e p pa ar rt ti ic ci ip pa at ti iv ve e d de es s r ri is sq qu ue es s p po ou ur r l l' 'a am mé él li io or ra at ti io on n d de e l la a s sé éc cu ur ri it té é d de es s a al li im me en nt ts s p pr ro od du ui it ts s e et t v ve en nd du us s d da an ns s l le e s se ec ct te eu ur r i in nf fo or rm me el l e en n A Af fr ri iq qu ue e s su ub b--s sa ah ha ar ri ie en nn ne e Les millions de petits producteurs offrent efficacement la viande et le lait à la majorité de la population en Afrique. La forte demande en produits animaux (révolution de l'élevage) est non seulement une opportunité sans précédent pour les paysans dans leur processus de sortie de la pauvreté, mais pour maximiser leurs bénéfices, ils devraient être capables de produire des aliments sûrs et d'une qualité acceptable. Aujourd'hui, la plupart des produits vendus dans les marchés informels où les méthodes conventionnelles réglementaires et d'inspection ont échoué et où les alternatives du secteur privé ou civile n'ont pas émergé. Comme conséquence, les denrées d'origine animale contiennent des niveaux élevés de dangers. En prenant en compte les objectifs sociaux émergeant comme le pro-pauvre, l'approche quantitative du risque utilisée dans l'évaluation et la gestion de la sécurité des aliments offre une nouvelle méthode robuste dans la réduction du fardeau des maladies imposées par les pathologies d'origine alimentaire. Pourtant, l'application aux problèmes de la sécurité alimentaire est très limitée en Afrique. Nous discutons de certaines des contraintes et les nouvelles approches : Analyse Participative des Risques qui pourraient aider à juguler ces problèmes et donner des exemples d'applications en Afrique de l'Ouest, Est et Sud. M Mo ot ts s--c cl lé és s : : A An ni im ma al l --S Sé éc cu ur ri it té é --A Al li im me en nt t --A An na al ly ys se e d de e r ri is sq qu ue e --P Pa ar rt ti ic ci ip pa at ti io on n --I In nf fo or rm me el lPopulation increase, urbanization and changing consumption habits are driving the so-called Livestock Revolution in which millions of small-scale farmers, many of them women, supply the surging demand for livestock products [11]. Most meat, milk, eggs, and fish is sold in informal markets where food safety regulation and inspection has failed and alternatives have not emerged. The result is high levels of unsafe food amongst poor consumers and increasing threats of constrained access to higher value markets for small-scale producers. In short, the food we consume is neither safe nor fair. Safer food can generate both health and wealth for the poor, but attaining safe food and safe food production in developing countries requires a radical change in food safety assessment, management and communication. This review paper traces key issues of food safety in sub-Saharan Africa and argues that while risk analysis is in general linear and a promising approach it requires adaptation to the context of informally marketed food in poor countries.In developing countries, incomes are low, governments weak, and enforcement of regulation poor; as a result, the informal sector is large, accounting for 39% of GDP [16]. Previously undervalued, the informal sector is now recognised as an important provider of employment and engine of economic growth. During the 1970s and 1980s, the informal sector was widely defined as unregulated economic enterprises or activities [27]. Recent definitions have expanded to include small businesses, employment without worker benefits or social protection (both inside and outside informal enterprise); own account workers; unpaid family workers (in informal and formal enterprises); and members of informal producers' cooperatives [30]. In the food sector, informality has the additional meaning of escaping any systematic sanitary inspection [5] and tax payment. In Africa, agriculture, petty trading of agricultural products, and selling food have always been largely informal activities. By these definitions, most food in Africa is produced, processed, and sold in the informal sector. For example, in Kenya, Uganda, and Mali, raw milk produced by smallholders and sold by vendors or small-scale retailers, accounts for an estimated 80%, 90%, and 98% of marketed milk in each country, respectively [8], [42]. This isan important source of income not only for small-scale producers (e.g. 600,000 farm households in Kenya) but also for intermediaries along the milk value chain such as transporters, hawkers and processors (365,000 intermediaries in Kenya) [49]. Food processing and vending is especially important for women: in Ghana and Mali, small-scale processors, exclusively female, produce a wide range of products including: ghee, soft cheese, hard cheese, fermented milk, yoghurt, and porridge [48]. Qualitative studies in east and west Africa showed the importance of informal sector production to poor households and how this varies by gender: In Bamako women are gradually marginalized in dairy sector and develop resilience to sustain their livelihood [48] while in Ibadan, Nigeria, men reared livestock to solve immediate problems like paying school fees or medical expenses, purchasing foodstuffs and paying house rent while women discussants said that they reared livestock to assist their husbands in feeding the household in times of hardship [41].As a rule of thumb, all studies that have looked for problems in informally marketed food have found them Food-borne disease is one of the most important health problems in developing countries. Responsible for an estimated 2 billion annual episode of gastrointestinal disease each year (18), as much as 70% of deaths among children under 5 are linked to biologically contaminated food and water (51). In countries where detailed attribution data exists, most of the burden of food-borne disease is the result of zoonotic pathogens (35). For example, of the nine most important cultureconfirmed pathogens in the USA, seven have an animal reservoir and more than 75% of identified illness is caused by just three zoonotic, food-borne pathogens: Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Toxoplasma gondii. Between 1998 and2002, most (69%) food-borne disease outbreaks with an identifiable vehicle were caused by animal-source foods. Poultry was the food most often implicated (25%) but beef, pork, shellfish and finfish were also important, each causing over 10% of the total. In the United Kingdom a similar pattern is seen. There, food safety authorities have developed a method for estimating the relative risks associated with specific foods, dividing the number of cases due to a specific food (as derived from their outbreak database) by the estimated total servings of that food consumed in a year. In the four years from D. GRACE et al 1996 to 2000 most illness was attributed to eating poultry (30%), complex foods (27%), and red meat (17%)(2).The impacts of food-borne disease include fatalities in vulnerable groups (e.g. malnourished infants and people with HIV/AIDS) and, in 2-3% of cases, severe and disabling long-term effects such as joint disease, kidney failure, cardiac, retinal and neurological disorder. The latter chronic sequelae, of which many policy-makers are unaware, probably represent a greater health and economic burden than the acute disease [33]. Evidence is growing that in developing countries, ill health can not only be a personal and household tragedy, but a major factor in causing and perpetuating poverty [13].All of above studies focused on the identification of hazards in animal-source foods, but did not estimate the impacts of the hazards in terms of human sickness and death. Without this information it is difficult for decision makers to rationally allocate resources for risk management. Furthermore, identification of hazards has led to media scares and consequent loss of confidence in livestock resulting in dramatic drops in consumption with negative impacts on the livelihoods of those engaged in the food value chain and consumer nutrition.Hence, the need for approaches that identifies risk to human health rather than the presence of hazards, and which include risk management appropriate for poor producers and other intermediaries. For example, studies on milk in East Africa found that although zoonotic hazards were present in as much as 1% of household milk samples, infections in people were at least two orders of magnitude less common [23].Consumers' widespread practice of boiling milk dramatically reduced the risk of disease, while the small volumes of milk produced and handled per informal sector agent decreased risk of cross-contamination.Another study on Cryptosporidium parvum, a zoonosis whose main reservoir is cattle, found that the major source of risk was not from consuming milk or direct contact with cattle but rather from eating vegetables [22].examples show how common-sense management which focuses on controlling the level of zoonotic hazards in milk and other foods may not have much effect on decreasing the risks to human health whereas other approaches that focus not on the hazard but on the risk to human health and its sources may be more fruitful. These 'command and control' regulations might be justified if they were demonstrably effective in improving food safety. However, this may not be the case. A study on peri-urban dairying in Kampala, found that farmers' who (incorrectly) believed that urban dairying was legal, were more likely to carry out risk mitigating procedures such as use of metal milk containers and washing with hot water and disinfectant [21]. This paradoxical effect of food safety legislation was also found in a Brazilian study of the meat sector: the rationale being that illegality chills investment, blocks access to information on, and reduces social incentives to follow good practices [5].Faced with this complex challenge of high levels of hazards in informal food ,but little understanding of the risks these represent to human health along with the empirical evidence that small scale food production and processing is an important pathway out of poverty and that existing food safety regulation is often ineffective and anti-poor, we argue new approaches are needed.Historically, hazards associated with livestock and animal-source foods were managed through 'command and control' regulation involving inspection of production, transformation and sale backed with litigation in the event of harm. This approach was increasingly unable to deliver food safety, as demonstrated by highly-publicized tragedies (such as the E. coli outbreak in USA in which four children died and the BSE epidemic in the UK) [3]. This led to a shift in approach from compliance with procedures enforced by external inspection to selfmanagement of risk by empowered organizations. Riskbased approaches brought new insights and are now standard for food-safety issues in developed countries, as well as being the basis of rules governing international trade in food products and are endorsed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), World Health Organisation (WHO) and World Animal Health Organisation (OIE). One of the first risk-based methodologies was Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), a structured approach to assessing potential hazards, deciding which points are critical to safety, monitoring these and taking specified remedial action in the event of deviations [29]. HACCP is widely recognized as an effective and economically efficient approach to food safety control in food processing operations, predominantly because it is based on risk assessment and process control rather than end-product testing: it is starting to be applied to traditional food production systems in developing countries and preliminary results are encouraging [52]. Microbial risk assessment (MRA) is an emerging tool for evaluating the safety of food and water supplies; it takes a systems and pathway approach (farm to fork) allowing an assessment to be made of the health risk to the population of interest from specific pathogens, foods or pathogen/food combinations [20]. For the last decade risk analysis has convincingly dominated food safety and trade in animals and animal products. It offers a science-based, structured, transparent method for answering the questions that matter to policy makers and public alike: Is this food safe? Is the risk big and important? What efforts are appropriate to reduce the risk? Risk analysis has three components: risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication (Figure 1). The first step is risk assessment, which provides both an estimate of harm and the probability of harm occurring.To be useful, risk assessment must be followed by action to mitigate those risks which are unacceptable to stakeholders. Risk management uses pathway approaches (from stable to table) and probabilistic modelling to identify critical control points and apply strategies to remove or minimise risk. The third component and integral component of risk analysis, is risk communication -the iterative process ofcommunicating risk to those affected by it and incorporating their feedback into risk assessment and management Risk analysis offers a new approach to managing food safety. Not only is it more effective at decreasing risks, but it can also be a bridge joining food safety and livelihood concerns. The first component of risk analysis, risk assessment, generates an estimate of negative health impacts of a hazard as well as the likelihood of their occurrence. This information can then be compared with economic data on the costs and benefits of smallholder production and marketing (including externalities such as income opportunities for poor women or environmental degradation from abattoirs), and the costs and benefits of risk mitigation. This allows decision-makers to set appropriate levels of protection based on evidence rather than anecdote and subjective preference. Moreover, the focus on a 'farm to fork' pathways approach allows the identification of risk mitigation points along the food value chain. This can help identify interventions that maintain market access for smallholders. Risk analysis is also compatible with the development aims of African governments as shown by a recent regional conference in which African countries, recognising the importance of food safety and their limited capacity to assure it, called for a risk analysis approach and capacity building at national level [17]. Quantitative microbial risk analysis (QMRA) is a new discipline but it is grounded in the disciplines of chemical and toxicological risk analysis which were developed around the middle of the last century. The first papers applying these methods to the problem of human health risks from exposure to pathogens were published in the 1970s [19] and since then the methods have been extensively applied to problems of food and water safety [14], [26].Like all dominant ideas, risk analysis is not without its critics. These vary from those who think risk analysis is a sound methodology but requires some improvements, to those who regard it as deeply flawed and liable to abuse.In the latter category, are some citizens groups that oppose a particular industry or decision and frequently criticize the methods and results of risk assessment. They argue that risk analysis is overly quantitative and reductionist and doesn't take into account people's legitimate concerns and that information emerging from risk assessments are meaningless or invalid. Some go even further, believing that risk assessment is part of a conspiracy organized by agro-business. While many of these concerns refutable on technical grounds, this does not address the underlying fears and concerns that lead many to reject, for example, vaccines, genetically modified foods, pasteurized milk or fluoridated water. This is partly a problem of lack of trust in authorities and is symptomatic of exclusion of stakeholders from decision making and power. Based on previous analysis and research, we believe that incorporating participatory methodologies can improve stakeholder engagement in risk analysis. Since their introduction in the 1970s, participatory methods and techniques have become central tools for community development and have been applied in a variety of contexts and sectors. They are promoted on the basis that they are more effective, more sustainable and less costly and more ethical in their inclusion of the poor in the planning and decisions that affect them [15], and have been extensively used by in livestock research. Sophisticated participatory methods acknowledge power imbalances, vested interests and incentives and employ methods such as stakeholder analysis, outcome mapping and various participatory tools such as power mapping and triangulating with different groups to better incorporate viewpoints while preventing capture of the agenda. Another objection to risk analysis, which is commonly encountered in discussions with food safety experts in developing countries, is that risk analysis is a method for making improvements at the margins. That is, when food standards are already quite high it may be useful, but at the very low levels of hygiene and safety found in the informal sectors of most poor countries, attention should focus on basic hygiene and good practices. Although there is some merit in this, we have earlier in the paper argued that without a structured, systematic and riskbased decision making process, stakeholders may make decisions which are obvious, but wrong. It has been long known that people are very poor at assessing probability and risk [44], [50]: to highlight just a few of the commonly identified biases we exaggerate spectacular but rare risks and downplay common risks (food poisoning versus cancer); we underestimate risks we feel in control over and overestimate those we can't control (microbial hazards versus chemical hazards in food); and we are more concerned by visible, dramatic signs (cysticercosis Safe Food, Fair Food: Participatory Risk Analysis for improving the safety of informally produced and marketed food in sub Saharan Africa versus salmonella in pork). We occasionally hear that in countries which are food insecure, food safety cannot and should not be a priority. This attitude is being replaced with a more holistic perspective that sees food security and food safety as inter-dependent. However, there is a plausible case that attitude towards risk depends upon stage of social development. In Risk Society, BECK [6] argued that modern science and technology have created a society in which the creation of wealth has been overtaken by the production of risk; the primary concerns of \"industrial\" or \"class\" societies -the production and equitable distribution of wealth -have been replaced, he said, by the quest for safety. In the former risk is seen as natural or intrinsic while in the latter risk is often viewed as man-made or extrinsic. The implication is a) the current attitude towards food safety in post-industrial societies is often dysfunctional even for them and b) this is not a model which it will be useful to extend to developing countries.Despite these objections, in rich countries risk analysis iscurrent best practice and the keystone of both domestic food safety regulation and international trade. However, its use in developing countries has been limited. In particular, it has not been applied to the domestic markets where most poor people sell and buy food, yet where levels of hygiene and safety are lowest, and vulnerability to food-borne disease highest. The failure to put risk analysis into practice, despite support from the highest levels, has been attributed to lack of appropriateness for developing country circumstances [24]. Microbial risk assessment originated in the very different context of food-production in developed countries. These systems tend to be large-scale, high-volume, mechanised, standardised, and well-documented, while developing countries have diverse, non-linear, shifting, and data-scarce systems in which formal and informal (or traditional) food supply systems co-exist and overlap; views of various stakeholders on food safety objectives diverge; there is low consumer willingness or ability to pay among consumers for improved food quality, and low enforcement capacity. It is hardly surprising that radical adaptation is needed for risk-based approaches to work in these environments. Recent years have seen much interest in adapting risk analysis for developing countries. In Africa, two research groups are currently working on this: one at the Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques en Cote d'Ivoire and the other at the International Livestock Research Institute in Kenya.The project aims to support intensifying livestock production by improving the management of safety of livestock food products, thus maximising market access for the poor dependent on livestock while minimising the food borne disease burden for poor consumers, by adapting the risk-based approaches successfully used for food safety in developed countries and international trade to domestic informal markets where most livestock products are sold. The main strategies are: building capacity in risk analysis through post graduate training linked to proof of concept studies; winning-over key decision makers through participation in project activities; raising awareness of stakeholders through workshops and generation and dissemination of research results on food safety. A central concept of the project is that capacity building is only effective when people get the chance to put their knowledge and skills into practice. Hence the project links training in Participatory Risk Analysis with proof of concept studies that not only build core capacity in risk analysis but produce evidence that can convince decision makers of the value of this approach. Table 1 shows the research topics being covered; the projects range from risk assessment to management to communication and include quantitative and qualitative (including participatory methods). Multidisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity are key to this newapproach to risk analysis: anthropologists, economists, sociologists, microbiologists, veterinarians and food chain stakeholders have all been involved in these projects. Although the project is still in the implementation phase some interesting research results are already emerging, as the following examples show. A study on game meat sold by street food vendors in South Africa found microbiological quality was adequate: a reminder that even though there are often problems in informal markets they can deliver safe food. It also showed that although price was the most important criterion for poor consumers around half were also concerned over meat freshness, a proxy for safety [28]. A study on brucellosis in peri-urban Nairobi found that although brucellosis was present, the risk to human health was very low because of the universal practice of boiling before consumption. However, consumption of fermented unboiled milk was identified as a potentially risky practice requiring further investigation [38]. A study on home produced dried meat in South Africa found that changing consumer preferences (for moister meat) was driving changes in processing (to increase moisture content). This means that previous understanding of the safety of dried meat and existing regulations are no longer relevant. The results generated, though with wide margins of error and limitations to generalisation, represented a major improvement on the pre-existing situation, where stakeholders had essentially no information on the harms present in informally marketed foods and base regulations on practices at best on the presence of hazards and more commonly on the basis of opinion and tradition. The case-studies mentioned in this paper,though not yet completed, support the hypothesis that risk-based approaches may be a useful way of addressing food safety problems in informal markets. However, these approaches will need continued adaptation, testing and dissemination.","tokenCount":"4089"}

data/part_3/0380973057.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3375133bc11347dad599a93915786b56","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/MHG945/PRQNGV","id":"-1125725028"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"490391dd-ab6e-4d31-a505-59bd25bc6492","pagecount":"9","content":"Comment administrer le rappel alimentaire de 24 heures ouvert? Il s'agit ici d'un rappel alimentaire qualitatif qui vise à recueillir les informations sur les aliments consommés la veille par les individus sans pour autant mesurer ou estimer les quantités réellement consommées par ces derniers.L'administration de ce type de rappel utilisera 4 des 5 étapes souvent recommandées dans la méthodologie standard (une des étapes étant réservée à l'estimation des portions et quantités consommées, ce qui n'est pas le cas ici). Les informations recueillies seront notées dans les Tableaux 1 et 2 ci-dessous.   Remarque :Il est important que l'enquêteur puisse avoir une bonne connaissance des aliments et plats cuisinés dans la localité de l'enquête de manière à aider la femme participante à se rappeler certains ingrédients connus, qui sur le fait de l'exercice du rappel peuvent être oublié.L'enquêteur demandera alors à la mère si les ingrédients qu'elle cite sont suffisants et si lui en connait que cette dernière a oublié, il pourrait lui demander si elle n'en a pas utilisé. Aussi, les informations recueillies au moyen des focus group discussions (FGDs) pourraient s'avérer très utiles ici. L'enquêteur devrait donc les avoir en sa possession avant l'administration du questionnaire.L'enquêteur pourrait aussi faire un travail en amont de collecte des principales recettes utilisées dans la localité de l'enquête et s'en servir UNIQUEMENT pour aider la femme participante à se rappeler des détails.  Ici, il faut se rappeler très vite que la mère lors de son rappel a mentionnée qu'à 16H, qu'elle avait mangé de la patate douce à chair orange vendu par une femme du village. On reproduit donc cette information dans le rappel du fils. Elle reconnait aussi qu'elle a mangé le fruit sec du baobab juste après le repas de midi et qu'elle en a aussi donné une bonne part à son fils qui était là avec elle. On peut aussi par exemple apprendre que l'enfant a eu à prendre du Coca-cola chez les voisins avec deux bonbons au caramel. On va ajouter ces informations en bas de la liste du tableau ci-dessus. Le Coca-cola et les bonbons sont des produits manufacturés dont la mère ne connait pas la composition ou les ingrédients. Dans ce cas-là, il faut juste mettre le nom de l'aliment et ne pas remplir la colonne (c) des ingrédients ; toutefois, il faut compléter la source de l'aliment. Dans ce cas-ci, les aliments ont été offert par le voisin, donc la source sera « 4 ».On reporte le tout dans le tableau ci-dessous en précisant la source de chaque aliment et ingrédient utilisé. Ici, les repas principaux ont été pris avec la mère, donc on reporte sur la fiche de l'enfant les informations détaillées déjà collectées chez la mère. Si l'enfant avait eu à manger d'autres plats différents de ceux de la mère, on devait recueillir les informations sur les ingrédients utilisés dans ce cas-là.","tokenCount":"477"}

data/part_3/0392889356.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"170bec1d91369b514bd4afb47a77b1fc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27929215-782c-475d-9b4d-866f39c2ea22/retrieve","id":"868853022"},"keywords":["Climate change","food systems","food security"],"sieverID":"89322368-d575-48a5-bc67-7a7357e56b28","pagecount":"42","content":"Feeding and nourishing a growing and changing global population in the face of rising numbers of chronically hungry people, slow progress on malnutrition, environmental degradation, systemic inequality, and the dire projections of climate change, demands a transformation in global food systems. Policy change at multiple levels is critical for catalysing an inclusive and sustainable transformation in food systems; global and regional policy are transformative only insofar as they are translated into ambitious national action with adequate support, including both public and private investment.Three areas of policy change show potential to be catalytic: 1) reducing emissions and increasing resilience, 2) tackling food loss and waste, and 3) shifting diets to promote nutrition and sustainability. Trade-offs mean a multi-sectoral approach to policymaking is needed, while inequalities in food systems necessitate transparent, inclusive processes and results. Gender inequality, in particular, must be addressed.Transformation demands participation and action from all actors.Our global systems are failing to deliver basic food and nutrition needs while exacting a heavy environmental cost. The number of people facing chronic hunger has increased in the last few years, progress to reduce stunting and wasting is slow, and overweight and obesity is a growing challenge everywhere, creating a heavy, double or triple burden for most countries. Precise estimates vary depending on what sectors are included in the calculation, but 'food systems' account for as much as 30 percent of greenhouse gas emissions. Nearly a third of the food produced is lost or wasted, resulting in lost income, lost nutrients, wasted resources, and significant greenhouse gas emissions. Looking ahead, global food systems are expected to feed and nourish a growing global population with diets shifting toward higher consumption of animal products as incomes increase. As food system value chains contribute to global warming, they in turn become increasingly vulnerable to its impacts. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been clear that climate change will impact all aspects of food security.Systemic inequality, including in food systems, traps nearly a billion people in poverty, hunger, and malnutrition, and leaves billions vulnerable to climate change.While there are over 750 million producers and 7 billion consumers, there are far fewer actors in between (processors, wholesalers, retailers) and even fewer who wield significant power in food systems and markets. Women in particular face systemic inequality within food systems in terms of equal access to land, credit, and extension training, reflecting broader inequalities in society. In poor households, they are often responsible for homestead agriculture, making them the 'guardians' of household food security. In some societies, women are not recognized as 'farmers,' so services and technologies are not designed to meet their needs. They bear a disproportionate labor burden, often in the form of unpaid care work, leaving little or no time to expand their income generation activities, to seek further education, or to participate in decisionmaking processes.While the number of chronically hungry people increased in the last two years, it did fall in the early part of the 21st century. Technological advances reduced the drudgery of agricultural work, but access to technology is unequal. In many countries, progress resulted in safer food supplies and reduced the share of household budgets spent on food. However, even in countries where progress has been made, poverty, hunger, malnutrition, and obesity still exist, and food prices do not reflect the true environmental and social costs of food.The challenge is significant and the goals the global community has set itself are ambitious. In 2015, countries adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). SDG 2 pledges to end hunger and malnutrition and achieve food security, while SDG 13 and the Paris Agreement commit actors to building resilience and adaptive capacity and keeping the increase in global temperatures below 2 o C and, ideally, below 1.5 o C. All seventeen SDGs reflect the interdependence of environmental, social, economic, and political dynamics and many goals depend on or impact food systems. Achieving any one goal is not possible without progress on the others and yet in the short term, progress may entail trade-offs among them.Feeding and nourishing a growing and changing global population in the face of current challenges and the dire projections of climate change demand a transformation in global food systems. No transformation can succeed without a robust effort to tackle and redress unequal power dynamics in food systems. The challenge we face and the goals we have set demand sustainable, resilient, climate smart, inclusive food systems that deliver affordable, culturally appropriate, healthy diets for all, today and tomorrow. To achieve these goals requires policy that will bring about genuinely transformative change.For a genuine transformation in food systems, policy has to remove barriers and provide incentives to shape the behaviour of actors. Policy for transformation must foster a level playing field, facilitate equitable access to resources, and ensure that the heavy lifting is done by those best able to bear the costs, while ensuring transparency and accountability. It must also mobilize and direct resources, both private and public, to priority areas.To create systems that promote sustainability, growth, equity, and resilience, policy change is needed beyond agriculture, as food systems cut across most sectors.National policy plays a critical role in shaping food systems and must reflect varying contexts, resources, and capabilities. Subnational policy is needed to address local challenges, catalyse citizen action, and demonstrate the potential for scaling out and up. Global and regional policy frameworks capture commitments and standards for national and local action, which must then be translated into regional, national, and local initiatives with policy coherence to ensure coordination. National and local policy priorities in turn shape countries' engagement in multilateral processes. Figure 1 illustrates this complexity of scales and actors. Without effective coordination, communication, and collaboration, the multiple scales and actors that shape global food systems policy can lead to chaos: conflicting approaches, elite capture of benefits, and an entrenchment of poverty, hunger, and malnutrition. Policy coherence means policies are mutually reinforcing, create synergies that help achieve common objectives, and avoid or minimize duplication, contradiction, or negative consequences in other policy arenas. Transformation implies there will be trade-offs among different actors in food systems and will require that policy does not forget those left behind. There will also be trade-offs among economic, social, and environmental goals. Furthermore, in the face of unequal power dynamics in food systems and political processes, there is always the risk of policy being set by those with power at the expense of those without. Policy making for transformation must, therefore, be grounded in a commitment to equity and sustainability. Policies themselves must be inclusive, and policy processes must engage the wide range of actors in food systems, ensuring effective participation by marginalized groups.While the concept of food systems has gained significant traction in global dialogues, policy appears to lag. Governments have not set policy and strategy to address food systems specifically, but rather tackle particular issues, challenges, or actors within food systems, like agriculture or nutrition, farm support or marketing regulation. This piecemeal approach is much like chipping away at an iceberg. Below, we highlight examples of policies that show potential to catalyse transformation in one or more areas. This paper is not intended to be exhaustive but to share ideas and stimulate discussion of the opportunities and the imperatives for facilitating a transformation in food systems grounded in sustainability and equity.A food system includes growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consuming, and disposing of food and food-related items by numerous food system actors, all influenced by drivers and processes determining how these activities are performed. Activities by actors in food systems result in outcomes (Figure 2) that feed information back to environmental and socioeconomic driving forces. Food systems are a continuum, and no classification can fully account for the huge diversity within each type. Multiple food systems co-exist within any given country. Typologies are useful because they illustrate the complexity of food systems and allow researchers and policy makers to consider the diversity within systems when designing policies and interventions.For a food systems approach to be effective, those using it must be mindful that food systems are dynamic and comprise multiple actors with multiple motives who face a range of policy, market, social, technological, and biophysical environments and other drivers that influence their activities. The 2017 High Level Panel of Experts Report on Nutrition and Food Systems (HLPE) classifies food systems as modern, mixed, and traditional. Each considers the food supply chain and food environment and classifies countries based on dietary energy in the food supply, the extent of urbanization, food affordability, and food-based dietary guidelines. iii The HLPE is one of many such classifications and reflects the underlying reality that there is a great deal of diversity among different kinds of food systems. All such classifications imply there are different challenges and therefore different priorities for where, when, and how policy can catalyse change. While the HLPE classification does not take into account greenhouse gas emissions or climate vulnerability, it remains a useful device for framing policy considerations. Food systems, including the consumption patterns that drive production, have a considerable role to play in mitigating climate change and are at the same time highly vulnerable to its impacts. We identify three areas where policy could: 1) reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase resilience in food systems, 2) tackle food loss and waste, and 3) shift diets to promote nutrition and sustainability. We also reflect on several cross-cutting policy considerations to address inequality, unequal power dynamics, and trade-offs in food systems.Mitigation and adaptation measures will need to respond to the unique physical, Investment and policies for extension can also address issues of equity and equality, including equal access to services for men and women.Beyond extension and provision of information to enable adoption of practices, regulatory and financial policy can incentivise actions and behaviours to increase resilience and/or reduce greenhouse gas emissions in food systems. Carbon pricing can serve as both a market-based and regulatory approach to shaping practices. Applied across food systems, carbon pricing can address emissions beyond the farm and along the supply chain, including in transport and energy sectors. In 2008, ten north-eastern states in the USA implemented a carbon cap and trade system to reduce their carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the power sector by 10% by 2018. In the first two years, the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) -the first mandatory GHG emissions trading system in the United States -generated USD 789 million through the auctioning and direct sale of CO2 emissions allowances. xvi   Good governance and a level playing field are a critical foundation for the success of these financial and regulatory approaches. Land tenure is a prerequisite to incentivize the adoption of practices that can not only reduce emissions and increase resilience but also improve the health (and value) of land. The 'greening of Sahel' in Sub-Saharan Africa has been, in part, a response to improved land tenure policies, such as the policy in Niger that repealed a colonial era law on government ownership of trees. xvii Similarly, inclusive market access is critical, particularly for small-scale food producers, to source inputs and sell the surplus from increased productivity. In The Climate Resilient Farming (CRF) Program (New York, USA) xix aims to support farmers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture and to build the resilience of their farms in the face of a changing climate. Before the CRF, farmers using an Agricultural Environmental Management (AEM) framework to plan for and address environmental risks could access funding only related to water quality issues.The CRF program expands support to farmers to address both climate risks and GHG emissions, providing cost sharing for farms who complete an AEM Plan to adopt new technologies and practices such as manure storage covers. This kind of program helps farmers to address needs they have identified and provides opportunities to capitalize on potential synergies by supporting approaches that address both mitigation and adaptation needs.The NAMA Café (Costa Rica) xx . Costa Rica's Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) for the coffee sector -NAMA Café -is part of a wider effort to attain carbon neutrality by 2021. This collaboration between the public, private, financial and academic sectors aims to reduce GHG emissions and improve resource use efficiency in the coffee sector, targeting the entire value chain from farmers to exporters. Support to coffee plantations and coffee mill operators includes capacity building and awareness raising to increase technical knowledge of low-carbon production; market studies to facilitate access to markets for differentiated coffee at favourable prices; and financial support and incentives, such as partial guarantee for low interest credit, Costa Rica's payment for environmental services systems, and subsidies for capital investment to facilitate adoption of practices and technologies. The NAMA's ten-year goal is to reach the entire coffee production area and set the stage for expansion to different agricultural systems and other sectors.The Women Extension Volunteer Approach (Ghana) xxi . In Ghana, women farmers account for over 70 percent of total food production and are responsible for household nutrition. xxii Women farmers receive only a fraction of the inputs and support their male counterparts receive. xxiii This pilot program aimed to provide affordable extension delivery systems and increase service coverage to women farmers in remote areas. As a collaboration between the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and the Voluntary Service Overseas Ghana, xxiv the initiative continues to have the support of VSO Ghana and local and national MoFA staff members. VSO hopes to expand the program to more communities and regions in Ghana. Given the importance of women in agriculture in middle and low-income countries, no policy can claim to be transformative without explicitly addressing gender.The Agricultural Sector Development Support Program (Kenya) xxv scales up a participatory scenario planning approach to disseminate annual weather forecasts and enable farmers, governments, and other actors to jointly formulate action plans. This approach, developed by CARE, brings together multiple stakeholders, including the Kenya Meteorological Department as well as community members, to discuss available weather forecasts and local experience with past weather patterns. Together, stakeholders develop actionable scenarios. The approach not only builds the capacity of community members to access and interpret weather information, but also brings together scientific and local knowledge and enables collective development of climate resilient plans and advisories, thus promoting good governance and inclusivity.The policies highlighted are not necessarily ground-breaking but represent approaches that need significantly more investment and scaling up -approaches that reach farmers directly and that meet the needs they identify in the face of climate change.These policies can also capitalize on techniques, information, and practices that address both adaptation and mitigation. They might also tap into the tremendous potential of technology, such as mobile phone apps, to engage with small-scale farmers. xxvi In all policy, gender needs continued emphasis to ensure the differential roles and needs of men and women are addressed.Policy to further reduce emissions and build resilience would include supply chain approaches to address emissions and resilience beyond the farm and reflect the continuum from production to consumption and the role of consumption as a significant driver of production. Governments might consider price premiums for products with environmental benefits. For instance, organic agriculture is rapidly expanding but currently occupies only 1% of global cropland. At least one studyshows that despite lower yields, organic agriculture can be significantly more profitable than conventional agriculture. Moreover, with its environmental benefits, organic agriculture can contribute a larger share in sustainably feeding the world. xxviiFrom a regulatory perspective, governments might also institutionalise supply chain sustainability requirements that some private sector actors have voluntarily adopted. xxviii These requirements, as regulatory mechanisms, send a clear signal to food systems actors of government priorities regarding the sustainability of food systems.Tackling food loss and food waste requires integrated, cross-sectoral action along the food supply chain and policy interventions that address the drivers of unsustainable production and consumption practices. Measures for tackling food waste can be 1) information-based (e.g. social campaigns), 2) market-based (e.g. subsidies or lower prices for blemished or 'imperfect' produce xxix ), 3) regulatory (e.g. legal requirements to donate surplus foods), 4) voluntary commitment (e.g. undertaken by companies or university campuses), and 5) 'nudging' (e.g. choice architecture such as putting healthy food choices within easy reach and providing take-home food bags and controlling portion size in restaurants). xxx   Food loss in mixed and traditional food systems occurs mainly in the field, postharvest, and during transport. There are hundreds of studies showing how simple, low-cost technologies reduce such losses, as well as child malnutrition and selfreported food insecurity, and increase household income. Wide-scale adoption, however, has not materialized and is often hampered by market distortions, such as a lack of investment incentives or a lack of financial services products tailored to farmers to purchase storage equipment.The Fight Against Food Waste Law (France) xxxi bans stores larger than 4,305 square feet from throwing away unsold food and makes it compulsory to donate it to charities and food banks. Failure to comply can result in fines of up to €75,000 or two years' imprisonment. This legislative step, passed unanimously, has the potential to cut food waste and benefit low-income households. The French food waste law, with its concrete legal consequences, is the first of its kind in the world, making the country a leader in the movement against food waste. Early experience indicates that food donations are higher in quantity and quality. By focusing on large supermarkets, the law targets a key pivot point in the food supply chain where waste occurs.The Resource Efficiency, Reducing Food Waste, and Improving Food Safety Resolution (European Parliament) xxxii urges a coordinated policy response to tackle food waste, including agreed definitions, measurement methodologies, and consideration of binding targets for European member states. The resolution calls on member states to take action now to achieve an EU-wide reduction in food waste of 30 percent by 2025 and 50 percent by 2030. The resolution further asks the Commission to update the list of foods exempt from \"best before\" labelling and to propose changes to establish tax exemptions on food donations. While work remains to translate the resolution into policy, it shows promise, given the variety of measures included for tackling food waste.The This makes coordination between donor-funded initiatives and national policy important, in order to build capacity of government institutions rather than create parallel structures and to foster long-term sustainability of programs.Food systems must respond to climate change and, at the same time, deliver on food and nutrition security. There is a real need for more national policies across all three food system types that support diets for both people's health and planetary health, including diets rich in diverse plant foods, moderate intake of animal-source foods, and low consumption of ultra-processed foods.Policies that shape food environments to help consumers make healthy choices and improve nutrition knowledge are critical. Easy-to-understand, front-of-pack labelling of both human health and environmental health information can be transformative and effective for many consumers. Policies must also shape the food supply. Action is needed to reverse the trend of the growing supply of a few crops and foods that are harmful to dietary quality and the environment and instead increase productivity and support for a diversity of food items often missing in diets, namely vegetables, fruits, and legumes. Policies and investment should support farmers, particularly in traditional food systems, to diversify production. In the face of climate change impacts, climate-proofed infrastructure and transportation are critical to protect the safety and nutritional value of perishable foods and reduce food loss and waste.Public campaigns can promote understanding of the need to incorporate sustainability into dietary guidelines. Beyond informing consumers about healthy food choices, dietary guidelines signal a government's stance on the latest dietary advice and serve as the foundation for information on food and nutrition policies and programs within a country. Furthermore, the food and beverage industry often responds to changes in dietary guidelines by reformulating products to meet new consumer demands. xxxviFinally, dietary guidelines provide a beacon to align diet policy with agriculture policy in sustainable ways that do not overextend the natural resource base and limits.As our examples for modern food systems show, this marks a new area for dietary guidelines and shows how mechanisms in the public health domain can be used to convey sustainability information. 'Fair trade' and organic package labelling is indicative of a move in the same direction.Dutch Dietary Guidelines (2015) xxxvii recommend people eat no more than 500 grams of meat per week and of that no more than 300 grams should be red or 'high carbon' meat. The new guidelines are a good example of evidence-based policy.The limit on meat consumption was based on 29 systematic reviews of English language meta-analyses in PubMed summarizing randomized controlled trials and prospective cohort studies on nutrients, foods and food patterns, and the risk of 10 major chronic diseases. The authors of the guidelines also make it explicit that, \"Limiting meat consumption is also desirable from an ecological perspective…For fish consumption, it is recommended…[that fish] are cultivated in an environmentfriendly manner…to limit the food-related ecological burden, measures are also needed in the production lines.\" xxxviiiThe Law on nutritional composition of foods and their advertising (Chile) xxxix mandates food package labelling on foods high in sugar, fat, and salt and restricts marketing of these foods. Nutrition experts applaud the law, while the private sector argues that it is too strict and that the Ministry of Health has not been clear regarding the logistics of implementing the law and did not consult with industry before enacting the law. xl While the Chilean labelling law has drawn criticism from industry, the labelling policy gives consumers the information they need in a very clear format. It also targets actors in the food system with significant market power. While rigorous evaluation studies have not been conducted yet, the early sense is that the policy is shifting consumer and industry behaviour substantially. xliThese policy examples illustrate the promising nature of promoting environmentally sustainable diets. While dietary guidelines can serve as a signal to consumers and the food industry, they remain voluntary, and leave a question of how best to shift consumer behaviour, particularly around something as individual and culturally embedded as food. Addressing healthy diets, let alone sustainable diets, will require significant effort to raise awareness to inform consumers and to shift food industry approaches. Labelling laws so far do not address environmental considerations, but by merging certification schemes (organic, fair trade, sustainable) with health labelling, climate-smart labelling systems could provide multiple benefits for consumers and the planet. The examples cited also focus largely on the food environment and on public campaigns about diet. While consumer demand can shift the food supply, a transformation in food systems calls for policy that also directly targets and promotes more diversified and sustainable food production, including a reduction in the heavy reliance on rice, wheat, and maize as food staples.As noted above, inequality and unequal power dynamics in food systems shape who is hungry and malnourished and who is more vulnerable to climate change. Similarly, transformations in food systems will entail trade-offs among actors and goals. Therefore, policy must address these inequalities and improve governance to ensure that those left behind now are not left further behind in a transformation.Food systems policy cuts across multiple sectors, from agriculture and health to water and land to transport and energy to markets and gender. A whole-of-government approach enables discussion across these sectors. Engaging relevant ministries in policy making also supports more effective budgeting and management of trade-offs between sectors. Collective, coordinated effort across ministries can foster a shared sense of goals and an awareness of the value of each ministry's contribution, sobudgeting is less about competing for resources and more about finding synergies.Like multi-sectoral policy making, multi-level policy helps avoid conflicts, overlaps and duplications. Multi-level policy processes, from municipal to subnational to national, can facilitate scaling up of successful municipal policies.The experience of Peru in reducing child stunting demonstrates the value and potential impact of multi-sectoral, multi-level policy planning and implementation.After nearly a decade of little to no progress, between 2005 and 2010, child stunting in Peru dropped by five percentage points overall and ten percentage points in rural areas. An IDS paper xlii argues that the critical factors in Peru's success under its coordinated National Strategy for Combating Poverty and Chronic Child Malnutrition, CRECER, included 1) the high-level leadership of the Office of the Prime Minister, 2) the horizontal coordination across numerous ministries and alignment of social programs with the national nutrition strategy, 3) the vertical integration of national, regional, and municipal government efforts, and 4) donor support and civil society advocacy for the first three. xliiiIn designing policies to address transformations toward low-carbon, climate resilient, equitable food systems that deliver food and nutrition security for all, trading off some level of achievement of one goal for another will be inevitable. This requires negotiation and making tough choices about priorities. The advantage of a food system perspective is that it allows for evaluation of how specific actions or decisions could affect people or dynamics, and what trade-offs are central to making decisions about moving toward more sustainable trajectories. xliv What we need are new tools for visualizing trade-offs and synergies of proposed actions and innovations across all goals set by food system actors and new ways of communicating food system complexity. These tools need to include food system assessments and metrics to evaluate food status with respect to societal goals together with tools to simulate food system innovations and their effects. Only then can informed debate take place about choices and the costs societies are willing to make, not just for reaching one goal, but across all societal goals for food systems transformation. xlvIn the face of unequal power dynamics in food systems, policy processes need to be transparent and inclusive. Effective participation, particularly of those most affected by policies and consistently marginalized, requires conscious action and targeted investments. Without genuine participation, policy can entrench or exacerbate existing inequalities. Policy processes can support consultation to engage communities. Such processes can help build the capacity of governments and citizens to work together to identify and formulate policies in priority areas.Policymakers need to be mindful that power shapes who benefits from any given food system. Applying a power lens to policy requires analysis of who a policy may benefit or harm, how policy can level the playing field, and how those left behind can be supported. And it demands acting on that analysis to craft progressive policies. While reality seldom achieves this ideal, if designed to do so, global and regional policies can offer guidance and to some extent accountability.Addressing inequality and power dynamics determines how a policy is targeted or In the face of climate stresses and trade-offs, social protection can keep vulnerable populations from falling further into poverty and ensuring minimum access to food, but it is not sufficient to counter inequality nor will it end hunger and malnutrition.Leveraging policy to redress inequality and unequal power dynamics in food systems requires pushing back on the vested interests who benefit from the asymmetries in food systems. This may be uncomfortable, but it is imperative if we want to see a genuine transformation in food systems.While policy change at local and national level is critical for transformations in food systems, change at a global level is needed to establish core principles and set standards, collective goals, and directions for national and local transformations.The International trade plays a major role in shaping the food environment and is perhaps even more fraught with difficulty than global climate policy. It does, however, present challenges that food system policy makers must at least acknowledge. Trade greatly increases the diversity and range of products available, as well as lowering their cost.But competition from producers in other countries can make governments reluctant to raise environmental or health standards for their own food producers. International agreements to phase out particular pesticides and to limit greenhouse gas emissions are a good start on ensuring that all producers compete on a level playing field.International trade rules can also recognize the right of countries to restrict imports based on differences in production methods (process standards) where there is a legitimate environmental aim and efforts have been made to involve all principal suppliers. But, as with multilateral climate change policy, negotiating international agreements is time-consuming and challenging. In the absence of global policy, national, unilateral border measures to enforce a domestic environmental policy are highly contested (e.g. use of border carbon adjustments in the case of climate policy).Policymakers will need to grapple with developing international trade rules to clarify the circumstances in which 'environmental tariffs' can be justified.A good starting point might be OECD's Working Paper on Climate Change and Trade Policy Interaction. xlvi The working paper \"…examines the implications of regional climate governance for international trade and conversely the implications of regional trade governance for climate change action.\" Chapter 5 outlines ways in which regional agreements can further contribute to achieving both trade and climate change goals and points to several knowledge gaps. First, although information about environmental provisions related to climate change is available, it is not always clear what the effect is of such provisions in practice, and second, although there are many ways in which climate change considerations could be incorporated into regional trade agreements, their feasibility in practice remains unclear.A transformation in food systems requires investment by both public and private entities. Policies discussed above can signal government priorities for investment, but policy is also needed to mobilize finance, incentivize and de-risk investment, and ensure finance reaches those who need it most.While policy is needed to incentivize and de-risk investment across food systems, existing finance, such as farm subsidies, can be re-targeted to support and promote transformation in food systems. Worldwatch Institute reported xlvii that agricultural subsidies totalled an estimated USD 486 billion in the top 21 food-producing countries in the world. Some of that money could be redirected to incentivize farmers to adopt adaptation and mitigation measures. Subsidized crop insurance, for instance, could promote sustainable, resilient practices by providing insurance premium rebates for farmers who undertake beneficial practices; incentivizing improved soil management practices, diversified crops, and manure management; or writing soil health requirements into insurance policies.The policies we cite demonstrate the challenge of catalysing transformation in food systems through policy change. In some ways, new policy is not needed: some of the policy examples show that long-standing approaches like improving extension services have great potential to address challenges in food systems under a changing climate. What is lacking is adequate investment, implementation, and equitable approaches. For those challenges that are emerging or about which awareness is increasing, policy needs to catch up. Examples around food waste and sustainable diets reveal policy makers' growing willingness to tackle issues with hard hitting policy or to take on more intractable challenges that require changing consumer behaviour.This innovation and boldness is encouraging. However, by and large, the policies we cite are focused on specific challenges often in a particular sector. As the need for transformation in food systems grows, so too must the realization that food systems policy will be imperative. The range of actors, activities, outcomes, and drivers that interact to shape food systems -including who benefits and who does not -are myriad, complex, and at times contradictory. Food systems policy may not be easy but only through multi-sectoral and inclusive processes and policies can a true transformation be achieved. The examples we give are a starting point for discussion of challenges, opportunities, and priorities. The considerations we offer around tradeoffs and equality are fundamental to inclusive, resilient, and sustainable food systems.No two food systems will follow the same path toward transformation. The dynamics within any given food system are unique, the challenges vary, and priorities for action will differ. One country or municipality may be ready to adopt a holistic approach that brings numerous stakeholders together for open dialogue about tough choices. Others, in the face of trade-offs, may sequence policy change to first address chronic hunger and poverty or to close the gap between men and women farmers or small-scale and large-scale producers. Yet keeping a food systems approach in mind is important to ensure awareness of longer-term trade-offs and to craft policy that not only responds to today's challenges but also anticipates tomorrow's. Different food systems also demonstrate different capabilities and responsibilities. Layering current and historic greenhouse gas emissions onto the characteristics of food systems can inform the differentiated priority actions that some countries must take, particularly with regard to mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions.While we have endeavoured to include a variety of policies regarding several critical issues, we have also strived for an approachable, brief paper intended to spark discussion. Undoubtedly, there are more examples of policy to support transformation and some issues warrant further discussion. We have not covered but are aware of the importance of policy to de-risk or to incentivize investment for a transformation in food systems. Deeper analysis of policies would also likely uncover challenges or areas for improvement in the policies we highlight. We have also aimed for a balance between bold action and realism.Transformation in food systems under a changing climate -to ensure food and nutrition security for all, today and tomorrow -will demand action from all actors.Policy change can guide and catalyse that action but requires political and public will and a shift in mindsets toward a more collective and shared approach. The challenge we face is significant, but so is the imperative to address it.","tokenCount":"5590"}

data/part_3/0403426264.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"2ec51fe788e1cfd47424838f8bf936d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4c970492-e288-4b6e-850b-bbeed6c576f6/retrieve","id":"1656439329"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"996d9072-159f-45ad-9401-412e6a9e94fe","pagecount":"3","content":"Fiche descriptive de l'outil 1. Objectif : comprendre et décrire comment les semences d'une nouvelle variété ou d'une nouvelle qualité sont distribuées aux agriculteurs-utilisateurs à partir de leur source, c'est-à-dire à partir d'un projet (dons, essai de démonstration) ou d'un Multiplicateur décentralisé (DM). © Centre international de la pomme de terre pour le compte de la RTB • Août 2024 Cette publication est autorisée à être utilisée sous la licence internationale Creative Commons Attribution 4.0. Avis de non-responsabilité : Ce document a pour but de diffuser les recherches et les pratiques concernant la production et l'utilisation des racines, tubercules et bananes et d'encourager le débat et l'échange d'idées. Les opinions exprimées dans les articles sont c elles de l'auteur ou des auteurs et ne reflètent pas nécessairement la position officielle de RTB, du CGIAR ou de l'institution éditrice.4. Résultats de l'outil : une compréhension claire des liens entre les acteurs clés du système semencier 5. Participants à l'atteinte des résultats : les utilisateurs mentionnés ci-dessus, ainsi que les décideurs, les lobbyistes, les bailleurs de fonds 6. Taille minimale de l'échantillon : l'outil identifie les liens entre les acteurs dans un système des semences. On peut établir un lien entre un minimum de 2 acteurs. Plus on identifie liens, plus la vue d'ensemble du système des semences est précise. Les études portant sur le traçage des semences qui donnent des résultats significatifs et sont encore réalisables sur le plan de la collecte de données nécessitent une représentation de 50 à 500 sondés. À cet égard, les petits échantillons permettent de visualiser un système de semences à un petit niveau (par exemple, le village ou le district), contrairement aux grands échantillons qui sont utiles du point de vue national ou même au-delà des frontières.7. Ressources a. Nombre de personnes : 1 à 2 personnes b. Matériel : outil d'enquête numérique, logiciels de transport, R ou Excel c. Expertise : il est important que les recenseurs qui collectent les données parlent la langue locale et comprennent les termes agronomiques clés tels que les types de variétés. Par ailleurs, les chercheurs qui analysent les données doivent savoir comment traiter les données de réseau dans R. L'on peut analyser les données provenant de petits échantillons avec d'autres logiciels tels qu'Excel même si ce processus peut s'avérer difficile avec de grands ensembles de données. Si l'étude de traçage des graines constitue la base d'une Analyse des réseaux d'impact, il convient de saisir les données dans R.","tokenCount":"410"}

data/part_3/0433457064.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"86ada9ed1f8c59c8c7a951807a10ce36","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a3ad3c7-a38d-4fff-b40b-d1e68432322b/retrieve","id":"-1906281750"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c7ad99d5-d00c-4be7-8695-14e97a4366d1","pagecount":"13","content":"The applications of modern biotechnology to crops are in:• Improved diagnosis of pests and diseases • Tissue culture/micropropagation techniques • The construction of transgenic plants with improved yields, disease, pest, and stress resistance, and/or nutritional quality • The use of genetic markers, maps, and genomic information in marker-assisted and gene-assisted selection and breeding.The use of monoclonal antibodies and nucleic acid technologies has improved the specificity, sensitivity, and ease of diagnosis of plant pests and pathogens. These new diagnostics have also greatly assisted in the study of the ecology of pests and diseases, their more rapid identification in quarantine, and in the propagation of disease-free planting material.Tissue culture and other in vitro micropropagation technologies provide a practical means of providing disease-free plantlets of current varieties with significantly improved yield gains by the removal of pests and pathogens. Micropropagation, when linked with new diagnostics, has been especially useful in vegetatively propagated crops such as sweet potato and banana and for the rapid propagation of tree species. Tissue culture is also a critical step in the construction of transgenic plants by enabling the regeneration of transformed cells containing a novel gene.The application of biotechnology to agriculturally important crop species has traditionally involved the use of selective breeding to bring about an exchange of genetic material between two parent plants to produce offspring having desired traits such as increased yields, disease resistance, and/or enhanced product quality. The exchange of genetic material through conventional breeding requires that the two plants being crossed be of the same, or closely related, species. Such active plant breeding has led to the development of superior plant varieties far more rapidly than would have occurred in the wild due to random mating.Traditional methods of gene exchange, however, are limited to crosses between the same or closely related species. It can take considerable time to achieve desired results, and frequently, genes conveying desirable traits do not exist in any closely related species. Modern biotechnology, when applied to plant breeding, vastly increases the precision and reduces the time with which these changes in plant characteristics can be made, and greatly increases part3rev.p65 5/2/2000, 2:20 PM the potential sources from which desirable traits can be obtained. The application of recombinant DNA technology to facilitate genetic exchange in crops by transformation techniques has several features that complement traditional breeding methods. The exchange is far more precise because only a single specific gene that has been identified as providing a useful trait is being transferred to the recipient plant. There is no inclusion of ancillary, unwanted traits that need to be eliminated in subsequent generations, as often happens with traditional plant breeding. There has been some debate over the transfer of antibiotic marker genes with the single trait gene, and considerable research has now gone into eliminating the antibiotic marker genes from the final products prior to commercial use. Better still is to use markers that do not require antibiotics, such as new sugar-based markers.The technical ability to transfer genes from any other plant or other organism into a chosen recipient means that the entire span of genetic capabilities available among all biological organisms has the potential to be genetically transferred or used in any other organism. This markedly expands the range of useful traits that ultimately can be applied to the development of new crop varieties.The use of genetic markers, maps, and genomic information will improve both the accuracy and time to commercial use of single and polygenic traits in plant breeding (for example, the use of marker-aided selection in breeding for disease resistance in rice is illustrateded in Box 5).The present major technical limitation on the application of recombinant DNA technology to improving plants is insufficient understanding of exactly which genes control agriculturally important traits and how they act to do so. This is the constraint that can be addressed through studies of plant genomes, as an aid to crop improvement.The rapid progress being made in genomics should greatly assist conventional plant breeding, as more functions of genes are identified and able to be manipulated. This may enable more successful breeding for complex traits such as drought and salt tolerance. This would be of great benefit to those farming in marginal lands worldwide. Breeding for such complex traits has had limited success with conventional breeding in the major staple food crops.Another important trait of great potential benefit to smallholder farmers would be apomixis. This is the ability to propagate plants asexually through seed. This would confer the benefits of hybrid vigor without the need to purchase new seed each season. Research is underway by scientists at CIMMYT, Mexico, working with other collaborators in France and the USA, to identify the genes conferring this trait.Substantial commercial cultivation of the first generation of new genetically improved plant varieties commenced in the mid-1990s. In 1999, approximately 40 million hectares of land were planted worldwide with transgenic varieties of over 20 plant species, the most commercially important being cotton, corn, soybean, and rapeseed (James 1999). These new crop varieties are planted in Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, France, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, and, predominantly,  Marker-assisted selection is the application of molecular landmarks-usually DNA markers near target genes-to assist the accumulation of desirable genes in plant varieties. There are many reasons why molecular markers are useful in plant breeding. Improved disease resistance in rice is a good example.Bacterial blight is a widespread disease in irrigated rice-growing areasand can cause widespread yield loss. The incorporation of host-plant resistance through conventional breeding has been the most economical means of control, and has eliminated the need for pesticides. There are now over 20 genes available for use in rice improvement, but not all of these genes are equally effective in different environments. The pathogen eventually overcomes the resistant gene. Using conventional approaches the plant breeder must be continually adding and changing genes just to maintain the same level of resistance. Breeding effort spent in \"maintenance\" is a potential loss to gains in other traits.A more sustainable system can be developed by deploying more than one resistance gene at a time. The challenge is to find the right combination of genes and put them into varieties most suitable for local production. When two or more genes are incorporated into a variety it is called \"gene pyramiding.\" Up to four genes for bacterial resistance have been pyramided in rice, and there is evidence that collectively they are more effective than would be ascribed to their additive effects. Because each gene may mask the presence of another gene, it is difficult to pyramid more than two genes by conventional breeding and selection; but it can be done with molecular markers.Over the past several years, scientists at the International Rice Research Institute and its national partners in the Asian Rice Biotechnology Network have applied DNA marker technology to address the bacterial blight problem. First, DNA markers are used to tag nearly all the bacterial blight resistance genes in available genetic stocks. Second, DNA markers are used to describe the composition of pathogen populations unique to each region. This parallel analysis of the host and the pathogen has enabled scientists to determine the right combination of genes to use in each locality.In Asia, a number of resistance genes (Xa4, xa5, Xa7, xa13, Xa21), all with molecular tags, have been introduced in various combinations into locally adapted varietiesThe Asian Rice Biotechnology Network is promoting sharing of these elite lines and gene pyramids from different countries with other countries in Asia. This will allow the useful marker-assisted selection products to be rapidly disseminated through collaborative field testing across the region.Marker-assisted selection has delivered some of the promises of biotechnology, and there are other examples of use in rice. The impact of new selection techniques will continue to be significant, particularly in an increasingly intellectual property-conscious environment. Marker technology is based on knowledge of endogenous DNA sequences; this has important practical implications, as the rice genome will be completely sequenced by an international effort, led by the Rice Genome Research Program of Tsukuba, Japan. As long as there is a public commitment to maintain all rice sequences in the public domain, useful genes for marker-assisted selection should be readily accessible to national and international rice breeding programs. Thus, because of their relative simplicity, easy integration into conventional breeding, and minimal background intellectual property, DNA marker technology and marker-assisted selection are expected to be strong driving forces in crop improvement in the future.Ken Fischer, Hei Leung and Gurdev Khush (International Rice Research Institute, Philippines) part3rev.p65 5/2/2000, 2:20 PM the area is in emerging economies. The value of the global market in transgenic crops grew from US$75 million in 1995 to US$1.64 billion in 1998.The traits these new varieties contain are most commonly insect resistance (cotton, maize), herbicide tolerance (soybean), delayed fruit ripening (tomato) and virus resistance (potato). The main benefits of these initial varieties are better weed and insect control, higher productivity, and more flexible crop management. These benefits accrue primarily to farmers and agribusinesses. There are also economic benefits accruing to consumers in terms of maintaining food production at low prices. Benefits also accrue to the environment through reduced use of pesticides, and the reduction in carcinogenic mycotoxins caused by fungal contamination in food crops.Other crop/input trait combinations presently being field-tested include virus-resistant melon, papaya, potato, squash, tomato, and sweet pepper; insect-resistant rice, soybean, and tomato; disease-resistant potato; and delayed ripening chili pepper. Research is aimed at modifying the oil content (rapeseed), increasing the amount and quality of protein (maize), or increasing vitamin content (rice) (James and Krattiger 1999).Much greater emphasis is now being given to improving the nutritional value of foods. There also is work in progress to use plants such as corn, potato, and banana as bio-factories for the production of vaccines and biodegradable plastics.Genes and gene combinations selected in the past in nature and by humans will re-main a vital source for germplasm improvement. They need to be conserved in seed banks, and in situ where possible and desirable. Genomics can play a key role in the characterization and conservation of genetic resources. It can be used to determine which genes and chromosome segments are duplicated, which are unique, and how easy it will be to recreate the various combinations of chromosome segments in modern plant breeding programs (Flavell 1998).Comparative genetics can enhance exploitation of genebank collections. The CGIAR has an opportunity to become an important player in the field, by exploiting its own comparative advantages of germplasm management and enhancement and its international network of research centers and collaborators. The location of the Centers and their international network of collaborators coincide well with the centers of origin of the world's major food crops (see Map). Jointly, the CGIAR, national programs, and advanced laboratories now have an historic opportunity to work together to make optimal use of new developments in science, for the molecular characterization of agriculturally important species and their wild relatives amongst plant, livestock, and microbial genetic resources to achieve their goals.The application of comparative studies to enhance the use and management of plant germplasm collections was the focus of an international workshop in The Hague in August 1999. The major finding was that the CGIAR centers must take advantage now of the latest technologies in genomics research to apply comparative genetics to the germplasm collections that they hold in trust (System-Wide Genetic Resources Program 1999).The principal conclusions from the workshop were that:• Comparative genetics can provide the most precise, unambiguous and comprehensive tool for germplasm characterization • Cross-species comparisons will allow identification of the germplasm sources of superior, potentially optimal genetic sources for specific traits. Comparative genetics will provide a multilateral flow of knowledge between major and minor crops • CGIAR centers need to take the initiative to develop comparative genetics research for several crops, including cereals, roots/tubers, and legumes • Use of comparative genetics will help reposition CGIAR genebanks for the future and enhance use of germplasm in crop improvement programs • The strong comparative advantage of CGIAR centers to conserve, phenotype, and use germplasm should be linked with expertise in comparative genetics existing in many laboratories worldwide. This will require innovative investment and institutional arrangements • Additional investment by the CGIAR in comparative genetics and bioinformatics will ensure that the results and benefits are available as international public goods.The initial potential of comparative genetics may best be demonstrated with traits where gene action is simple and well understood, such as resistance to some pests and diseases, submergence tolerance, starch accumulation, nutritional qualities, phosphate uptake, resistance to soil toxicity, weed competitiveness, and flowering response. Comparative studies may facilitate:• The systematic search for useful genes that contain these traits in germplasm accessions without having to discover the genes for each crop • Identification of genetic resources containing useful genetic combinations • Understanding of the genetics underlying important traits • Better understanding of the structure of biodiversity that will enhance management of germplasm collections.Comparative genetics provides the potential for trait extrapolation from a species where the genetic control is well understood, and for which there are molecular markers, to a species that has a limited amount of information. Rice, for example, is regarded as a model for cereal genomics because of its small genome. The similarity of cereal genomes means that the genetic and physical maps of rice can be used as reference points for the exploration of the much larger and more difficult genomes of the other major cereal crops, and be applied to the minor cereals. Conversely, decades of breeding work and molecular analysis of maize, wheat, and barley can now find direct application in rice improvement. These studies are much more advanced for cereals than for roots/tubers, and legumes. This reflects the large public and private sector investments in the rice genome project, coordinated by Japan. This has recently been strengthened by the decision of Monsanto to donate its knowledge on the rice genome to the public sector effort. Other investments on the maize and wheat genomes in Europe and North America are making rapid progress.The opportunities to apply comparative genetics now are furthest advanced in the cereals in which considerable research investment has already been made.Investment in other agriculturally important species, especially for tropical crops such as cassava, banana, and food legumes, is limited. Without significant investment in the immediate future, the research gap between the CGIAR centers, national research institutes, and advanced laboratories already heavily involved in comparative genetics will widen. Collaboration with advanced laboratories is essential to exploit fully the potential of comparative genetics on all the agriculturally important species.The CGIAR centers have gathered a huge resource of phenotypic data through the germplasm collections and the crop improvement and international testing programs conducted over the past 30 years. Research in molecular biology, genome sequencing, functional genomics, and comparative genetics are producing large amounts of new genomic data. Bioinformatics is essential for the management, integration, and analysis of phenotypic and genomic data if the promise of molecular biology for genetic improvement is to be realized.New discoveries in comparative genetics indicate a high degree of conservation of genetic material across the genomes of many species. This applies in terms of gene order and gene structure and has important implications for the ability to translate findings in molecular biology in one species to others. This process will not be possible unless the bioinformatics tools are also compatible across species.Numerous research projects worldwide are collecting genomic data. These are often made available for bioinformatic analysis in public databases. The task of linking these data resources, integrating the CGIAR' s own contributions, and analyzing the products is too great for any one CGIAR center to handle. People with skill and experience in this new and rapidly changing field are rare and dispersed.The CGIAR centers have a unique role to play in the design and deployment of a bioinformatics system for use by the international centers and their collaborators. CGIAR centers need to work together and with advanced research institutes and NARS partners to develop, deploy, and extend an integrated bioinformatics system for the major food crops. This will require new investments, new skills, and innovative organizational arrangements that cut across traditional commodity, discipline, and Center responsibilities.Three groups of technical constraints need to be overcome to improve livestock productivity in the developing world. These relate to improvements in genetic potential, part3rev.p65 5/2/2000, 2:20 PM 23 health, and management practices, including nutrition. In some cases these constraints are specific to tropical and subtropical environments, such as specific diseases and stresses. In others, the constraints are shared by industrial and developing countries.Infectious diseases of livestock not present in the industrial countries, and for which there are as yet no sustainable means of control, present a formidable barrier to increasing the efficiency of livestock productivity in developing countries.Disease is one of the major factors contributing to poor productivity of livestock in developing countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, animal losses due to disease are estimated to be US$4 billion annually, approximately a quarter of the total value of livestock production.Tsetse fly-transmitted trypanosomosis and tick-borne diseases are the most important disease problems in developing countries. Therapeutic agents are available for some of these diseases, but problems remain. Chemotherapy, based on the use of trypanocides, has problems due to toxicity, residues in milk and meat, and the excretion of large quantities in feces that are then applied to crops. Some of the trypanocides are potential carcinogens and would not be licensed for use in industrial countries. Intensive application is creating drug-resistant organisms.Current drugs have been in use for over 30 years. The problem of drug resistance is becoming acute in some regions, and the likelihood that new drugs will be developed is low due to development costs and lack of return on investment. Vaccination offers a potentially more effective and sus-tainable method of disease control (Morrison 1999), but technical challenges remain to be resolved.There has been limited success in exploiting the genetic potential of indigenous livestock breeds to resist disease and environmental stresses and to better utilize the available natural feed resources. Further improvements in livestock genotypes now need to relate more to the quality of the final product and the efficiency of its production rather than simple increases in quantity. Improvements in animal health are moving from interventions at the level of the individual animal to interventions at the herd and flock health level, with a focus on prevention rather than treatment and subclinical rather than clinical disease. Vaccines play an important role in disease management by developing herd immunity to target diseasesThe main applications of new biotechnologies to livestock are in the areas of genetic improvement, reproductive technologies, and animal health. These new technologies speed up the reproductive process in animals and enable the more efficient selection of breeds with improved productivity. Animal genome projects are also shortening the gene discovery process and demonstrating many potential applications where the manipulation of the genome may be useful in livestock improvement.The fundamental differences in reproduction between plants and animals are reflected in the significant differences in the costs and efficiency of effecting production increases through breeding programs. These differences favor investments in crop rather than livestock breeding and for short-term rather than long-term returns.Phenotypes of commercial livestock breeds that are highly productive in temperate climates and intensive production systems do not realize their production potential in subtropical/tropical production systems. This is due to a number of factors including dietary constraints, adaptability to local environmental conditions, and susceptibility to disease.National structures in developing countries, whether public or private, have often been unsuccessful in commercially exploiting the production capacities of indigenous livestock, which are adapted to the local environment and diseases, by selective breeding or some form of crossbreeding with exotic genotypes. This has been due to the need for long-term investment in such breed improvement programs and their complexity of management, especially when only small numbers of livestock are present on individual farms. Performance recording schemes are difficult to initiate and maintain, making breeding, selection, and expansion of improved livestock an expensive and inefficient process (Doyle 1993).Advances have been made in overcoming the genotypic constraints to increased production efficiency. Improvements have been made both in genetic characterization at the molecular level, and in technology to expand rapidly the available numbers of improved genotypes. In molecular characterization, linkage maps of sufficient resolution for use in breeding improvement schemes based on marker-assisted selection are now available for cattle, pigs, poultry, and fish. These maps are being refined, and the process of identi-fying molecular markers with desirable biological and commercial traits is under way. The applications of these technologies to fish are illustrated in Box 6.Another example of the use of molecular markers has been in tracing the origins of different cattle breeds. Genomes contain the history of the origin and evolution of the different cattle breeds and modern molecular techniques have been used to rapidly decipher their story (Bradley and others 1996;Hanotte and others 2000).The physical location of individual genes on chromosome maps is also well advanced. The rapid development of both linkage and physical maps of the genomes of domestic livestock is a clear example of how the large investment in basic biology (the construction of genetic maps of mouse and humans) can effectively and economically be captured to the benefit of domestic livestock improvement.The International Livestock Research Institute (and previously the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases) has been involved for the past decade in a worldwide collaborative effort to create and improve the genetic maps of the bovine genome and to identify markers associated with genetic resistance to trypanosomosis. The use of such maps will significantly reduce the generation time for developing improved breeds, as compared to conventional breeding procedures based solely on phenotype selection. The determination of genetic distances, together with genetic maps, also will increase the effectiveness of measures for conservation of endangered livestock species by allowing characterization at the genetic rather than phenotypic level.The application of comparative genomics between breeds and species may mean that such selection strategies in one part3rev.p65 5/2/2000, 2:20 PM 25 species/breed may be more easily adapted to that of other species/breeds, when looking for similar traits. However, because of the high cost, genomics technology is presently being applied more to the lucrative markets, breeds, species, and production environments of the industrial world than to the needs of livestock improvement in the developing countries.This is because of present lack of funding, the low commercial value of the breeds, lack of effective conventional breeding programs in developing countries, and the requirements to conduct selection in the relevant production environments due to high genotype x environment effects in animal breeding.The applications of biotechnology to fisheries and aquaculture offer the prospect of increasing the efficiency of protein production, and the speed of conversion of feed to protein. They may also enable economically efficient protein production in enclosed aquaculture, and reduce problems of effluent disposal (see Box 6 for applications). The feasibility of developing and using transgenic species of fish is being explored by several research institutes and companies in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors on various species including tilapia and salmon. It is anticipated that there will be an increase in the number of species and strains into which genes are introgressed, and the number of gene constructs available for transgenesis (governing biological functions in addition to growth) will also be increased. Transgenesis may become a cost-effective means of enhancing indigenous species important to one or a few countries and not covered by international breeding efforts. Sex manipulation (for example the production of all male populations of fish, especially tilapia) is also an active area of research, designed to avoid the detrimental production effects of early maturation and cessation of growth. In carp species, however, all-female populations are required. It is also anticipated that sex reversal will be used more widely in breeding programs to increase the speed of production of inbred lines. Haploid fish will be important for similar reasons.A wide range of new molecular diagnostic techniques is being developed for applications such as disease diagnosis, sexing of juvenile fish, and for assessing progeny relationships in large populations of fish raised together to reduce environment-specific variations in production. Other techniques include tissue culture, or other manipulations of embryos or embryonic cells, for the isolation of viruses, bacteria, and fungi pathogenic to fish. Technology exists for the creation of transgenic livestock including mammals, birds, and fish. Practical applications of the technology are presently restricted to production of human biological pharmaceuticals in the milk of sheep. Small herds of transgenic animals are likely to be able to produce sufficient quantities of high-value biological products, such as pharmaceuticals, in the immediate future. There has also been work on the creation of transgenic lines of virus-resistant poultry, which contain a modified virus gene that confers disease resistance. A similar strategy has proved useful to introduce virus resistance in plants.In the future, transgenic pigs may be used as a source of tissue and organ transplants to humans, provided safety and ethical concerns are met. The major health issue for review and research at present is the possible trans-species movement of viruses from pig tissue to humans.The impact of transgenic animals on animal breeding and production is presently limited by the dearth of single gene traits in livestock, and the fact that the propagation process of a transgene in an animal population is relatively slow (Cunningham 1999). There is also a risk that the desired gene may not be inherited by subsequent generations or may be turned off in the offspring from a transgenic animal.If desired genes controlling a trait can be identified and transferred, their expression physiologically controlled and the trait is heritable, then a quantum leap in improvements in livestock productivity can be envisaged.There is potential to find genes for disease tolerance and other adaptive traits such as heat tolerance in wildlife and transferring these to domestic livestock. In disease resistance, for example, this would have greater impact in developing than in industrial countries.There are possible opportunities for the developing countries, through the analysis of the genomes of their unique animal genetic resources, to identify genes encoding traits that may be of benefit to both developing and industrial countries. Although the animal genetic resources in developing countries are plentiful, they have not been tapped to any great extent. The characterization of these genetic resources may offer opportunities for developing countries to benefit from their appropriate use and agreed benefit sharing (FAO 1999).Molecular technologies are also applicable to the study of livestock parasites and other pathogens. They provide effective means for identifying, isolating, characterizing, and producing molecules that can be used to induce protective responses against the parasite (Morrison 1999). The new technologies can also be used to generate products and gene sequences, which can form the basis of improved diagnostics. They also provide effective means of elucidating the metabolic pathways of pathogens that confer drug resistance or drug sensitivity on these organisms. Genetic markers are increasingly being used to identify with part3rev.p65 5/2/2000, 2:20 PM 27 greater precision the species, subspecies, and types of pathogenic agents. Recombinant or genetically modified pathogens also offer new approaches to vaccine delivery, as does direct injection of DNA into animals.Disease, however, is the result of the interactions of two genomes -the pathogen and the host. To exploit the new technologies, particularly for the development of vaccines and for the exploitation of disease resistance traits, it is important to understand the biology of the pathogen as well as the host.The use of vaccines in disease control has the advantage of using an already existing domestic animal gene pool. From a management/breeding point of view this is logistically easier to consider as a disease control strategy than using marker-or gene-assisted selection to breed disease-resistant strains of improved domestic animals. Vaccines developed using traditional approaches have had a major impact on the control of the epidemic viral diseases of livestock, such as foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest. There are many other important diseases, notably parasitic diseases, for which vaccines have not been developed successfully.Rapid advances in biotechnology and immunology over the last two decades have created new opportunities to develop vaccines for parasitic diseases. Initial optimism in the early 1980s that vaccine products would quickly emerge from applications of recombinant DNA technology has not been fully realized. Subsequent experience has demonstrated that, unlike traditional approaches to vaccine development, effective exploitation of recombinant DNA technology requires knowledge of the target pathogens and the immune responses they induce, as well as an understanding of how those immune responses can be manipulated. Such information was lacking in the early 1980s. There has been a series of fundamental discoveries in immunology that have led to a detailed understanding of how the immune system processes and recognizes pathogenic organisms, and the different ways that infections are controlled by immune responses. This new knowledge is directly relevant to all stages of vaccine development, from identification of the genes or proteins that need to be incorporated into a vaccine, to the design of a vaccine delivery system that will induce a particular type of immune response. These advances, coupled with further developments in the application of DNA technology, now provide a strong conceptual framework for the rational development of new vaccines (Morrison 1999).Two main approaches are being pursued to develop vaccines using recombinant DNA technology. The first of these involves the deletion of genes that are known to determine virulence of the pathogen, thus producing attenuated organisms (nonpathogens) that can be used as a live vaccine. This strategy is presently more appropriate for viral and bacterial diseases than for protozoan parasites. Attenuated live vaccines have been developed for the herpes viruses that cause pseudorabies in pigs and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in cattle.The second strategy is to identify protein subunits of pathogens that can stimulate immunity. This is the preferred approach to many of the more complex pathogens. It requires knowledge of the Live attenuated vaccines stimulate immune responses similar to those induced by the parent pathogen, and usually provide long-lasting immunity. Vaccines using killed organisms require incorporation of adjuvants (agents that enhance immunitygiving characteristics), and the immune responses they induce are usually more limited and of shorter duration than with live vaccines. Advances in biotechnology have provided a number of alternative vaccine delivery systems for subunit proteins that overcome these shortcomings and offer some of the advantages provided by live vaccines. Two of the most promising approaches are the use of attenuated organisms as live vectors and vaccination with DNA (Morrison 1999).Live-vectored vaccines involve the incorporation of a gene encoding a subunit protein into the genome of an attenuated organism, which itself may be in use as an attenuated vaccine. The protein is then produced when the organism replicates in the animal.A vaccine containing a rabies virus gene has been used to protect foxes against rabies and its use has resulted in the eradication of rabies from northern continental Europe.The use of DNA for vaccination is based on the discovery that injection of genes in the form of plasmid DNA can stimulate immune responses to the respective gene products. This occurs as a result of the genes being taken up and expressed by cells in the animal following injection. Stimulation of immune responses and partial protection have been reported for a number of pathogen genes in livestock species, but none of these has yet led to a fully effective vaccine. The live vector and DNA vaccination systems are amenable to further manipulation to enhance the immunity-conferring characteristics of the gene products. Experimental studies have demonstrated that these systems have enor- New vaccines are likely to be produced against some or all of the major animal diseases, given the necessary scientific and financial resources. The complexity of the problems that are being addressed should not be underestimated. The opportunities presented by advances in biotechnology can only be exploited effectively if there is a thorough understanding of the biology of the target pathogens and the diseases they produce. The new technologies allow detailed studies on the two interacting genomes, the pathogen and the host, the identification of genes essential for causing infection and disease and thus the identification of targets for vaccine development.Vaccine development for domestic livestock could benefit from technology spillovers from vaccine development for humans because the same research concepts and approaches can be applied, albeit to different pathogens. Public-private sector cooperation emerging in the eradication of polio, and in the search for a malaria vaccine, may yield innovative research cooperation models and knowledge that could be applied to vaccine development and delivery for the benefit of smallholder livestock producers in the developing world. ","tokenCount":"5429"}

data/part_3/0436993777.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"b30da1eefcf2043d573ef010b7087abc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/56530751-c997-4cd0-91b1-b8017625729e/retrieve","id":"1623659325"},"keywords":["livelihoods","indigenous peoples","forest governance","payments for environmental services","social capital"],"sieverID":"e9fd7e7b-0187-4756-82d7-90c7a0d42f1b","pagecount":"8","content":"Los territorios indígenas bribri y cabécar de la Alta Talamanca en el sureste de Costa Rica, constituyen una región estratégica desde el punto de vista del uso y de la conservación de los recursos forestales y de la diversidad cultural. Los medios de vida de la población local se basan, en gran medida, en el capital natural que sostienen sus actividades agroforestales y en el capital social local reflejado en múltiples formas de organización local y relaciones con el mundo externo. Con el fin de identificar las barreras que limitan el mejoramiento de los medios de vida y proponer elementos para removerlas, se estudió el papel de la gobernanza forestal y los arreglos institucionales correspondientes entre indígenas y agentes externos en Alta Talamanca. Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas (n=34) a informantes claves, tales como representantes de las organizaciones indígenas locales y de las instituciones de cooperación externa, en combinación con observación participante y análisis de información secundaria. Se identificaron cinco arreglos institucionales: 1) Consejo Directivo Indígena, plataforma donde convergen varias organizaciones locales, las cuales toman decisiones relacionadas con los recursos forestales e intervenciones externas; 2) Comité Local Forestal de Talamanca como foro para la coordinación entre organizaciones locales y gubernamentales que velan principalmente por el control de la tala y comercialización ilegal de madera; 3) pagos por servicios ambientales financiados por Fonafifo para la conservación de bosques y manejados por las Asociaciones de Desarrollo Integral de Alta Talamanca; 4) Comité Coordinador del Proyecto Captura de Carbono que acordó procedimientos y métodos de ejecución de este proyecto y 5) la Red Indígena de Turismo, la cual impulsa la formación de emprendedores indígenas como operadores de etnoturismo. Si bien varios de estos arreglos buscan controlar prácticas adversas e incentivar prácticas adecuadas para la gestión de los recursos forestales en Alta Talamanca, aun persiste el problema de la tala y comercialización ilegal de madera. Se concluye que se requiere mayor coordinación entre las organizaciones locales y los actores externos en los diferentes niveles de toma de decisión para que la gobernanza forestal en la Alta Talamanca sea más efectiva.Palabras clave: Medios de vida, indígenas, gobernanza forestal, pagos por servicios ambientales, capital socialThe Bribri and Cabécar indigenous territories of Alta Talamanca in southeastern Costa Rica constitute a strategic region from the point of view of the use and conservation of forest resources and cultural diversity. The livelihoods of local people are largely based on the natural capital their agroforestry activities sustain and on the local social capital reflected in their many forms of local organization and relations with the outside world. In order to identify the barriers to improving their livelihoods and proposing actions for their removal, we studied the role of forest governance and appropriate institutional arrangements between indigenous people and external agents in Alta Talamanca. Semi-structured interviews were conducted (n = 34) with key informants, including representatives of local indigenous organizations and foreign cooperation agencies, combined with participant observation and analysis of secondhand information. We identified five institutional arrangements: 1) Indigenous Steering Council, a platform that convenes several local organizations for making decisions related to forest resources and external interventions; 2) Talamanca Local Forest Committee as a forum for coordination between local and governmental organizations that mainly monitor logging and the illegal timber trade; 3) payments for environmental services funded by FONAFIFO for forest conservation, managed by the Integral Development Associations of Alta Talamanca; 4) Carbon Capture Project Coordinating Committee that makes agreements regarding procedures and methods of implementation for this project; and 5) Indigenous Tourism Network, which promotes the training of indigenous entrepreneurs as ethno-tourism operators. While several of these arrangements seek to control harmful practices and encourage good practices for the management of forest resources in Alta Talamanca, there is still the problem of illegal timber logging and trafficking. We conclude that greater coordination is required between local organizations and external actors at different decision-making levels to make forest governance in Alta Talamanca more effective.Los territorios indígenas bribri y cabécar tienen relevancia en el contexto nacional e internacional para la conservación de los recursos naturales por cubrir diferentes biomas y por su localización estratégica limítrofe entre el sureste de Costa Rica y el noreste de Panamá. Sus territorios abarcan la Reserva Biológica Hitoy Cerere y el Parque Internacional La Amistad (PILA) sector Caribe; también forman parte de la zona de amortiguamiento del PILA, del Corredor Biológico Mesoamericano (CBM), de la Reserva de la Biosfera La Amistad (RBA) y del Corredor Biológico Talamanca Caribe (CBTC).En la Alta Talamanca, Costa Rica, los recursos forestales cumplen un papel importante en la conservación de la biodiversidad local (Orcherton 2005), en la complejidad estructural de los sistemas agroforestales (Deheuvels et al. 2011) y en el mantenimiento del capital natural como base de los medios de vida de las familias indígenas (Whelan 2005). Aunque para las autoridades indígenas el manejo sostenible de sus recursos ha sido una prioridad (Suárez 2001), aun persisten varios problemas que afectan los recursos forestales; entre ellos, la sobreexplotación de los recursos naturales (Dahlquist et al. 2007), el cambio de uso del suelo (Whelan 2005), la apropiación de terrenos por parte de personas no indígenas (Guevara y Vargas 2000) y el incremento de la población en el Valle de Talamanca (BID 2003, Suárez 2001). Todos estos factores inciden en la disponibilidad y calidad de los recursos forestales.En Costa Rica, la política de descentralización, la legislación nacional y los compromisos con convenios internacionales han propiciado un marco institucional dentro del cual las organizaciones indígenas y externas han establecido relaciones multifacéticas que inciden en la gestión de los recursos naturales (Borges 2004). Por ejemplo, los bribris y cabécares han conformado organizaciones civiles (generalmente asociaciones de desarrollo integral, ADI) con el propósito de defender sus derechos y tomar decisiones con respecto a sus territorios y, en especial, a sus recursos naturales. Además, hay organizaciones externas (organismos internacionales y organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales) que ofrecen alternativas de desarrollo con el fin de mejorar la productividad de sus productos básicos (cacao, banano y plátano) y la oferta de servicios ambientales (mediante ecoturismo y pagos por servicios ambientales), con el fin de conservar los recursos naturales y abastecer las demandas por productos agroforestales en el mercado nacional e internacional.Entre los recursos naturales se destacan los recursos forestales en los bosques y los sistemas agroforestales por su alta importancia en los medios de vida de las poblaciones indígenas. Así, se han establecido una serie de arreglos institucionales definidos por las organizaciones indígenas y externas que, en su conjunto, constituyen la gobernanza forestal en Alta Talamanca. Por ejemplo, entre las ADI y organizaciones externas hay arreglos que buscan mediar entre los intereses locales y externos con respecto a los recursos forestales en los territorios indígenas (Candela 2007). Estos arreglos pueden contribuir al mejoramiento de los sistemas agroforestales donde hay árboles maderables (Altieri 2004) y a la gobernanza forestal. Sin embargo, se desconocen los efectos (positivos y negativos) de estos arreglos sobre el uso y la conservación de los recursos forestales en Alta Talamanca.Mediante esta investigación se buscó identificar los principales arreglos institucionales entre las organizaciones indígenas y externas y sus efectos sobre la gestión de los recursos forestales en Alta Talamanca y la forma de maximizar estos efectos mediante mejoras en la gobernanza forestal.mARCo ConCEPtuAL Y mEtoDoLóGÍCo Para entender el papel de los arreglos institucionales relacionados con la gobernanza forestal en Alta Talamanca es necesario comprender la diversidad de las estrategias de vida de los indígenas bribris y cabécares, manifestada en diferentes dotaciones y usos de los activos de medios de vida (capitales natural, humano, social, físico y financiero). Uno de los capitales más importantes en los territorios ha sido el capital social (Whelan 2005, Candela 2007); por ello, se identificaron las organizaciones indígenas locales y sus lazos con organizaciones externas, tanto gubernamentales como no gubernamentales, que inciden en el uso y conservación de los recursos forestales. Los arreglos institucionales entre las diferentes organizaciones inhiben o facilitan el ejercicio de las capacidades y de las decisiones de individuos y familias (Ellis 2000) y definen el acceso a bienes comunes, los derechos de uso, el desarrollo de mercados y el manejo de conflictos (North 1991, Varughese y Ostrom 2001, Jütting 2003, Prins 2005).Para identificar los arreglos institucionales relacionados con la gobernanza forestal y sus efectos, se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a informantes claves (representantes de 21 organizaciones: nueve indígenas y doce externas), seleccionados según su liderazgo en las organizaciones y sus responsabilidades en cuanto a la gobernanza forestal; se seleccionaron hombres y mujeres indígenas y no indígenas. Se buscó conocer el tipo de relacionamiento entre las organizaciones indígenas y externas y, específicamente, las oportunidades y amenazas en dicha relación en cuanto al uso y la conservación de los recursos forestales. Además se aplicó el método de observación participante durante talleres, asambleas y otros eventos con la finalidad de indagar sobre las relaciones entre los actores. Esto permitió la elaboración de preguntas acerca de formas de alianzas, mecanismos y procesos de operación en cuanto a los arreglos institucionales. Dada la posible subjetividad en las respuestas de los informantes, se trianguló la información con la observación participante y el análisis de información secundaria.La jurisprudencia de Costa Rica en materia de desarrollo comunitario, indígenas y recursos naturales, junto con el compromiso del país con convenios internacionales, ha establecido o ratificado varias disposiciones, las cuales han incidido en la gobernanza forestal en Alta Talamanca. Entre ellas están la Ley de Desarrollo de la Comunidad (1967), la cual otorga funciones legales a las ADI; la Ley Indígena de 1977 y el Convenio 169 de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT), que reconoce los derechos de los pueblos indígenas en cuanto a organización y autonomía frente al resto de la sociedad. Además, existen varios arreglos para el uso y la conservación de los recursos forestales; entre ellos, la Ley Forestal (1995) que incluye la participación de la sociedad civil en la gestión de los recursos naturales y la prohibición del cambio de uso de suelo en bosques, y el Reglamento de aprovechamiento de madera en territorios indígenas (Decreto Ejecutivo No. 27800 del 16 de marzo de 1999), el cual establece la gestión conjunta entre las ADI y AC 4 para el aprovechamiento de árboles caídos o en pie en terrenos sin cobertura boscosa, con fines domésticos. Según el decreto, solamente se pueden eliminar y/o aprovechar 3 árboles ha -1 año -1 por inmueble. Por otro lado, la Procuraduría General de la República prohíbe extraer y comercializar madera fuera de los territorios indígenas, y solo permite la comercialización de productos procesados.A continuación se resumen los cinco arreglos principales según el siguiente esquema: surgimiento, actores involucrados (indígenas y no indígenas de organizaciones locales, nacionales e internacionales), propósitos y actividades realizadas para lograrlos, así como elementos que fueron funcionales y las dificultades encontradas en su implementación.Entre 1994 y 2001, el proyecto Desarrollo Sostenible de las Reservas Indígenas de Talamanca y Protección de los Parques Nacionales de Talamanca (Sector Atlántico) y Cahuita (proyecto Namasö 5 ) logró que el Consejo Directivo Indígena de Alta Talamanca alcanzara visibilidad. Durante el periodo del estudio, este Consejo se encargaba de la administración de los bienes donados por el proyecto y los ingresos provenientes de la ebanistería, también donada por Namasöl. Un aspecto importante que definió la visión del Consejo fue el convenio establecido entre la Fundación Iriria Tsöchök (responsable del manejo de recursos financieros) y las organizaciones indígenas coejecutoras del Proyecto Namasöl: Aditibri (Asociación de Desarrollo Integral de los Territorios Indígenas Bribris) y Aditica (Asociación de Desarrollo Integral de los Territorios Indígenas Cabécares). Mediante ese convenio se definió el funcionamiento del Consejo para el uso racional de los recursos forestales. El Consejo articuló a las organizaciones indígenas existentes en ese momento, en torno al ejercicio de liderazgo y control de los territorios indígenas. Dentro del Consejo se tomaron decisiones relacionadas con el aprovechamiento y manejo de la madera, control de las propuestas de desarrollo de agentes externos con lo cual se garantizaba la defensa de los derechos indígenas.En cuanto al control del aprovechamiento de la madera, desde el año 2003, la Unidad Ambiental de Aditibri se ha encargado de avalar e inspeccionar los trámites para la corta de árboles (máximo 25 permisos de corta mensual). Los guardarrecursos (dos personas) se trasladan a las fincas para verificar que se cumpla con las normas establecidas por la ley y las definidas por el Consejo y su junta; entre ellas: • Ser indígena • Vivir dentro de los territorios indígenas de Alta Talamanca 4Las AC (las áreas de conservación) son los componentes territoriales del Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC), el cual forma parte del Ministerio de Energía, Medio Ambiente y Telecomunicaciones (MINAET).• Los árboles destinados a la corta deben ser de especies sin amenaza de desaparición, ubicados en lugares alejados de las fuentes de agua o en sistemas agroforestales dentro de los límites de la finca del solicitante.Estos consejos funcionan a nivel de cada comunidad; su función ha sido la de autorizar pequeñas cortas. La coordinación entre los Consejos de Vecinos y las ADI ha permitido la de toma de decisiones que ha funcionado en la práctica. El Consejo opera como una organización que permite el aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales y organiza actividades sociales dentro de las comunidades, establece sanciones y resuelve problemas de cierta magnitud. Cuando no los puede resolver, los pasa a Aditibri y esta, a su vez, a los tribunales de justicia, si no logra resolver el conflicto. El papel del CLFT en el control de los recursos forestales en el cantón de Talamanca ha sido relevante, pues se ha ocupado de los conflictos de intereses originados entre la demanda por madera y la protección de la fauna silvestre y de especies forestales de interés particular. El CLFT busca mediar entre los objetivos de los productores y la jurisprudencia costarricense relacionada con la conservación y el manejo de los recursos naturales. Entre las tareas que el Comité desempeña están: recibir y tramitar denuncias relacionadas con el incumplimiento de la Ley; avalar y proponer alternativas de solución en materia forestal; solicitar rendición de cuentas sobre permisos forestales para hacer posible la asignación de los pagos por servicios ambientales (PSA).A pesar de las múltiples actividades del Comité para controlar el cumplimiento de las leyes ambientales, su labor se ha visto limitada por factores como la dificultad para aplicar sanciones a partir de la legislación vigente; el funcionamiento centralizado de los tribunales correspondientes en la capital; la falta de recursos económicos para realizar investigaciones que orienten a las instancias de decisión en materia ambiental.El Programa Ecomercados del Fondo Nacional de Financiamiento Forestal (Fonafifo) ha operado con recursos donados por la Fundación para la Protección del Ambiente y un préstamo del Banco Mundial, mediante convenio firmado con el Gobierno de Costa Rica. Como parte del interés del Banco Mundial por el mejoramiento de los medios de vida de los indígenas, Fonafifo otorgó los incentivos económicos a las ADI de Alta Talamanca a través del PSA para la conservación de Talamanca (Figura 1).Cada año, entre el Fonafifo y las ADI se celebran nuevos contratos para la protección de diferentes áreas de bosque. Las ADI pueden recibir varios pagos por diferentes contratos, pero el monto asignado a cada contrato depende de criterios presupuestarios del Fonafifo.Por sus servicios, las ADI de Alta Talamanca han pagado regularmente al regente del CBTC el 10% del monto anual, aunque según el reglamento del Fonafifo debiera pagarse el 18%.Las ADI de Alta Talamanca definieron las áreas a someterse al programa PSA, según criterios establecidos por los miembros del Consejo Directivo Indígena. Antes se someter un territorio a la consideración de Fonafifo, los propietarios de las áreas deben haber manifestado su aceptación de ingreso al Programa. Aunque las dos organizaciones indígenas hacen parte del mismo arreglo, los beneficios y la distribución de los fondos han dependido de las decisiones tomadas por cada organización, según la magnitud de su sistema operativo (Aditibri) y las necesidades de inversión identificadas en las comunidades y familias más pobres (Aditica).Pese al avance logrado con esta experiencia, aun no se ha concretizado un mecanismo diferenciado para los pueblos indígenas en materia de servicios ambientales.Durante los años 2004 y 2005, estas organizaciones no participaron del incentivo debido a que los territorios indígenas bribris y cabécares aparecían legalmente bajo un solo título de propiedad. Fue necesario hacer estudios técnicos para la delimitación de las áreas y tramitar títulos de propiedad para cada grupo indígena. En el año 2005, en la junta directiva de Aditibri se dio una división interna por el tema del PSA y, entonces, ese año no se logró concretar un contrato con Fonafifo.El Banco Internacional para la Reconstrucción y el Desarrollo, como administrador de donaciones del Gobierno de Japón y a través del Banco Mundial otorgó, mediante convenio con el gobierno de Costa Rica, una donación para la realización e implementación del Proyecto Captura de Carbono y Desarrollo de Mercados Ambientales en Cacaotales y Otros Sistemas Agroforestales Indígenas en Talamanca (2004Talamanca ( -2006)).Este proyecto fue ejecutado por el CATIE y otros socios, e involucró a diversos actores en los ámbitos local, nacional e internacional. La meta del proyecto era diseñar una estrategia para el establecimiento del mercado regional de carbono capturado en sistemas agroforestales de cacao multiestratos.La alianza entre el CATIE y Minaet permitió el diseño, elaboración e implementación del Proyecto en forma conjunta con las organizaciones indígenas locales (Aditibri, Aditica, Acomuita) y una organización regional (Acicafoc), mediante convenios subsidiarios. La consolidación de este proyecto incluyó una carta de entendimiento entre Minaet y CATIE y dos convenios (CATIE con ADI-Aditibri y ADI-Aditica y CATIE con Acomuita). Se nombró un Comité Coordinador del Proyecto (CCP), integrado por estas organizaciones, el cual tenía como propósitos el mejoramiento de la coordinación de las acciones entre todos los actores, la gestión para asegurar el logro de los resultados esperados y la participación de sus miembros en la planeación y administración del Proyecto. Durante las reuniones se compartieron y discutieron los presupuestos asignados, de manera que hubiera transparencia en la administración. El papel de los proyectos en Alta Talamanca ha sido importante en la dinamización de los roles y las reglas de juego. A través de la conformación de arreglos interinstitucionales se han aplicado herramientas participativas y modelos de cogestión mediante diferentes estrategias.En el sector Atlántico del PILA, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) identificó prácticas agrícolas y forestales incompatibles con la conservación de la biodiversidad y la preservación de sitios arqueológicos, como amenazas para la conservación según la Planeación Ecorregional Centroamericana. Por ello, desde el año 2004, TNC apoyó la conformación de la Red Indígena de Turismo, la cual se compone de organizaciones que han operado de manera informal, movilizando a los turistas que desean interactuar con la cultura indígena. La Red ha reunido a los grupos de las comunidades bribris -en especial de la comunidad de Yorkín-para coordinar, gestionar, asesorar, desarrollar y controlar la actividad turística en el territorio; a la vez, mantiene una relación cercana con Aditibri como autoridad territorial.TNC y AFE (Asociación Finca Educativa) firmaron una carta de entendimiento con el fin de diseñar una estrategia de intervención que abarcara la promoción, fortalecimiento institucional, capacitación y elaboración de planes de negocios para mejorar los servicios que ofrecen y la capacidad de recepción de turistas. La legalización de los grupos comunitarios como operadores de turismo ha sido una condición importante para los donantes y para el reconocimiento de la Red en el ámbito internacional.Desde la perspectiva de la conservación, este enfoque se ha centrado en la creación de alternativas productivas basadas en recursos naturales y paisajes que sustentan los medios de vida locales. Se identificaron los retos que enfrentan las organizaciones indígenas; entre ellas, la introducción de nuevas formas de organización ajenas a su cultura, la débil organización a nivel de las comunidades que incide en la poca participación en la toma de decisiones y la descoordinación entre diferentes instituciones responsables de la implementación de las políticas ambientales.En Costa Rica, la normativa ambiental y de desarrollo comunitario ha fomentado el control de los recursos naturales por parte de actores locales (Ferroukhi et al. 2001). En Alta Talamanca, los arreglos institucionales relacionados con la gobernanza forestal juegan un papel importante en la aplicación de esta normativa, así como en el reconocimiento de los derechos indígenas y la distribución de los costos y beneficios de los incentivos y proyectos (Poteete y Ostrom 2004). Sin embargo, algunos de estos arreglos se han manifestado en formas no tradicionales de control sobre los recursos naturales (Borges 1997), ante todo cuando se trata de problemas que sobrepasan los límites del territorio indígena.A nivel nacional, a pesar de que se disponen de incentivos para las plantaciones forestales, existe desabastecimiento de madera debido a normativas que han incidido en la reducción de plantaciones forestales, han desestimulado la industria forestal, han reducido el manejo de bosques naturales con fines maderables, y han limitado la respuesta de control de las AC sobre la corta ilegal (OET 2008). Como consecuencia, los territorios indígenas de Alta Talamanca y las áreas protegidas, como el PILA, están sufriendo una fuerte demanda local por madera, lo que pone en peligro el capital natural y los medios de vida de las familias indígenas. La madera que se comercializa en forma clandestina ha sido uno de los problemas principales para los líderes indígenas, ya que afecta los intereses de las organizaciones indígenas y varios de los capitales de la comunidad: en cuanto al capital social, la legitimidad del control sobre sus recursos naturales; en cuanto al capital físico y financiero, el crecimiento de la ebanistería en Süretka, y en cuanto al capital natural y financiero, el empobrecimiento de los recursos forestales de los usuarios directos.El Consejo Indígena ha constituido un arreglo institucional, aunque no permanente, que ha contribuido en crear convergencias entre las organizaciones indígenas locales en aspectos forestales, ambientales, políticos y de sostenibilidad financiera. Además, ha cumplido un papel importante como administrador de la ebanistería, a través de la cual y en articulación con la Unidad Ambiental de Aditibri, contribuye al control de la comercialización ilegal de madera dentro de los territorios bribri y cabécar de Alta Talamanca, en coordinación con el CLFT. Este último ha constituido un elemento permanente en la gobernanza forestal de carácter formativo y coercitivo, que no ha generado incentivos económicos a sus involucrados, pero sí conocimiento y fiscalización de los problemas ambientales, principalmente en cuanto a la tala y comercialización ilegal de madera, la legislación relacionada con temas forestales y el manejo de sanciones preestablecidas en los procedimientos legales.El PSA para la conservación de bosques ha contribuido al capital financiero y social de las organizaciones indígenas (ADI) y ha permitido cubrir los costos de la regencia forestal bajo el mismo esquema. Sin embargo, no ha tenido incidencia directa en el uso y control de los recursos forestales en los territorios debido a que muy pocas veces se realizan inspecciones y, las pocas que ha habido, consistieron en observar el mantenimiento de los carriles que delimitan las áreas sometidas a PSA. Los proyectos que operaron a corto plazo (2 a 4 años con posibilidades de extensión) tuvieron amplia cobertura en cuanto a capacitación y asistencia técnica. Entre otros propósitos, buscaron el mejoramiento de los productos y servicios provistos por los sistemas agroforestales y bosques más cercanos a los poblados indígenas y, de esta manera, incidieron en los capitales natural, físico, humano, social y financiero. Sin embargo, los PSA y los proyectos no tuvieron incidencia directa en las decisiones relacionadas con el aprovechamiento y la comercialización de los recursos forestales.Por su parte, las familias indígenas de Alta Talamanca se encuentran en la disyuntiva de decidir entre participar en el mercado ilícito de madera o captar los incentivos por la conservación de sus bosques y sistemas agroforestales, lo cual implica ajustarse a las normas establecidas por los entes gubernamentales, hacer más productivos sus sistemas e insertarse en las cadenas de valor.Las organizaciones externas, entre ellas ONG, entes gubernamentales y organismos internacionales, han fomentado un sistema de incentivos y control de los recursos naturales en Alta Talamanca mediante el involucramiento directo de las organizaciones indígenas locales (ADI) en los territorios indígenas de los bribris y cabécares. Sin embargo, los esquemas de jurisprudencia, incentivos y control no han sido suficientes ni adecuadamente articulados para frenar la tala y comercialización ilegal de la madera y mejorar los medios de vida de la población local.El Consejo Directivo Indígena y el Comité Local Forestal de Talamanca se han destacado por su papel en el control de la tala y comercialización ilegal de madera a nivel local y cantonal, respectivamente. Por su parte, los proyectos Captura de Carbono y Turismo Indígena han promovido la conservación y el uso de los recursos forestales a través de capacitación, asistencia técnica e investigación. Lo que hace falta para un control más efectivo de la tala y comercialización ilegal de madera en los territorios indígenas son mecanismos adecuados para la toma de decisiones articulada entre las organizaciones indígenas y externas a nivel local (familias indígenas), territorial y nacional (gobierno y sector forestal).En la actualidad existe una demanda insatisfecha por recursos forestales en Alta Talamanca, pero aun así las familias indígenas involucradas no perciben beneficios económicos interesantes. Como primer paso, es importante revisar cuáles formas de aprovechamiento y comercialización de madera deben ser consideradas ilegales. Por ejemplo, existen barreras legales para el aprovechamiento y procesamiento de los recursos forestales provenientes de los sistemas agroforestales en Alta Talamanca; no obstante, este impedimento no se fundamenta en datos científicos sobre posibles amenazas a la conservación, ni considera los efectos adversos sobre el bienestar de las familias locales. La extracción y comercialización que debe ser considerada como ilegal debe incluir la madera aprovechada en bosques naturales cuya extracción no considera los controles socioculturales y la realizada por personas o empresas ajenas a los territorios indígenas.Promover mayor participación en la toma de decisiones por parte de las familias y los líderes indígenas y fortalecer los mecanismos y reglas de juego informales, propias de la forma de uso y manejo de los recursos naturales de estos grupos. Esto permitiría un mayor grado de apropiación y la construcción de capital social dentro de las comunidades locales, entre ellas y con los agentes externos.Para robustecer la gobernanza forestal en los territorios indígenas se requiere mejorar la coordinación interinstitucional entre organizaciones indígenas y externas, el manejo y la resolución de conflictos, y el reconocimiento de los derechos indígenas en los diferentes niveles de gobernanza (local, nacional, regional). Si las decisiones en todos los niveles se basan en la apreciación realista de los principales problemas, será más fácil identificar cuáles soluciones podrían darse a través de mecanismos transitorios (p.e. proyectos) y cuáles requieren el uso y fortalecimiento de mecanismos locales que suelen ser más duraderos e integrales.Es preciso un sistema efectivo de sanciones para contrarrestar la tala y comercialización ilegal, como otra cara de la moneda de los incentivos forestales para las buenas prácticas. Finalmente, será importante investigar el uso cultural de los bosques por las familias indígenas como estrategia de conservación. Suponemos que allí hay un potencial inexplorado que permitiría construir relaciones ganar-ganar entre el aprovechamiento y la conservación de los recursos forestales en Alta Talamanca.Se requieren estudios sobre los sistemas de manejo de los recursos forestales por parte de los grupos indígenas para definir cuáles formas deben ser consideradas ilegales o ilegítimas por sus efectos adversos en términos ambientales y socioculturales, así como aquellas prácticas benignas para las cuales se deben eliminar las barreras legales. También es necesario determinar los volúmenes y valores de las especies maderables de alto valor comercial y menos conocidas que están siendo aprovechadas y comercializadas en los territorios indígenas de manera legal e ilegal para establecer la oferta de recursos forestales.Al Proyecto Captura de Carbono por su colaboración en el trabajo de campo. Al programa IGERT (Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship) de la National Science Foundation of the United States, por el financiamiento del estudio. Al grupo de investigadores de doctorado de la Universidad de Idaho (USA) por sus contribuciones. A todos los indígenas de la Alta Talamanca que nos permitieron indagar sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales.BIBLIoGRAFÍA CItADA","tokenCount":"4681"}

data/part_3/0475931190.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f325c6ea419651235692fcb2fca301bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/500182da-2455-4f21-8411-2ad0dfc30482/retrieve","id":"208505550"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6a439b82-b364-4f5b-8768-11eef55e72db","pagecount":"16","content":"Academic institutions are well positioned to use a range of ICT delivery channels The agricultural sector can make good use of the private sector's creativity Using animated videos to deploy educational content to teach low-literate farmers 4-8 November 2013 Kigali, Rwanda www.ict4ag.org for inclusive agriculture the digital springboard More than mobile Guest editor Contents http://ictupdate.cta.int This license applies only to the text portion of this publication.A cross the African, Caribbean and Pacific group of states (ACP), almost 200 million people make their living directly from agriculture, most of them in sub-Saharan Africa. Many of these are smallholder farmers, representing some of the world's poorest people. Living outside urban centres, smallholder agricultural workers are hard to reach with services like agricultural extension support and formal financial services. ICTs can help to mitigate these gaps. Mobile offers a portable and relatively inexpensive communication mechanism which can be used to access information and financial transactions for previously underserved people. GSMA Intelligence estimates that almost 50% of the developing world population owned a mobile phone in the first quarter of 2015. However, mobile need not act in a vacuum. Creating mobile services that are strengthened by alternative media channels such as TV, radio and increasingly the internet can only expand the addressable market for much-needed services.There are three key areas where smallholder farmers are typically underserved and where mobile phones can play an important role.First, mobile phones can help to address agricultural workers' information deficit. Smallholders rely on traditional sources of knowledge about crops, livestock, marketing and weather, which might not be easy to access and are often not reliable.Agricultural value-added services (Agri VAS) can help to overcome this challenge. In Tanzania, for example, mobile operator Tigo, a grantee of the GSMA mFarmer initiative, delivers agronomy information alongside market prices and short-term weather forecasts through its Tigo Kilimo service. The service had around 400,000 registered users in December 2014.Mobile can also help to tackle supply chain inefficiencies: poor logistics and weak infrastructure in rural areas can cause waste of agricultural produce and other resources. Business-tobusiness (B2B) solutions like Syngenta's Farmforce allow agricultural businesses to manage the relationships and transactions with their smallholder suppliers via feature phones (SMS) and smartphones (apps), while increasing standards and efficiency of production and improving traceability through the supply chain.Finally, mobile can facilitate access to financial services. Farmers do not always have ready access to capital, which makes it difficult for them to invest in new farming technologies.Mobile financial services (MFS) can offer loans, interest-bearing savings and e-subsidies for fertilizers, which target smallholders. Mobile agriculture insurance could reduce the risks associated with agricultural production, such as changing weather patterns and harsh weather events.Driving adoption of mobile money in the rural market is a new and promising area for mobile operators, which also means that few examples of best practice are currently available in this space. However, mobile operator Vodafone are forging the way with Connected Farmer in east Africa, using M-Pesa to enable farmers to save and invest.Mobile agriculture has contributed successfully to the current developments in ICT4Ag sector. This issue's guest editors predict further impact in the sector if crosschannel partnerships in ICT4Ag projects are achieved.Benjamin Kwasi Addom ([email protected]) is ICT4D programme coordinator at CTA in Wageningen, the Netherlands.Daniele Tricarico ([email protected]) is mAgri market insights manager, and Tegan Palmer ([email protected]) is mAgri business intelligence manager. They both work at the GSMA in London, United Kingdom.The GSMA deployment tracker follows 124 live mobile agriculture (mAgri) services worldwide. Early mAgri services were predominantly in South Asia, with the first African services launching in 2008. The number of mAgri service launches began to increase in 2009, and peaked in 2013 with 27 mAgri services launched that year. The majority of the services in these regions are business-to-consumer (B2C) services providing information on local weather, market prices for agricultural products and information on crops and livestock.In the four GSMA focus regions (sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean) there will be an estimated 47 million potential Agri VAS users at the end of 2015. Fifty-seven percent of these users, or 27 million, are in South Asia. Sub-Saharan Africa represents close to 16 million potential Agri VAS users. Latin America and the Caribbean follow with just over four million. As mobile operators and VAS providers focus more on underserved rural areas, the number of Agri VAS users is expected to almost double, from 47 million in 2015 to over 90 million in 2020, representing growth of 14% per year in this five-year window.According to GSMA Intelligence analysis, India is the largest market globally with an addressable market of 22 million Agri VAS users in 2015.After India, the most potential lies in East Africa: Kenya, where GSMA is tracking 19 Agri VAS and Agri mobile financial services (MFS), and Ethiopia both have around two million estimated users.In ACP states, two markets to watch are Ghana and Haiti. Ghana has benefited from the presence of pan-African technology and content providers like Esoko, whose services target smallholder farmers. If more operators embrace the mobile agriculture opportunity, the country could reach close to two million Agri VAS users by 2020. There is great potential for mobile to address the poverty challenge in Haiti. Mobile penetration approaches 75% of the population and over 50% of the active labour force work in agriculture. Mobile services targeting the rural population could play an important role in increasing agricultural productivity, which to date is extremely low with cereal yield at just over one ton per hectare.GSMA's experience suggests that services are scaling more rapidly in those markets where the content ecosystem is more advanced. Public investment and public-private partnerships are becoming essential tools for extending connectivity, services and information. Partnerships between mobile operators, Agri VAS providers, content providers and government institutions, as well as agri-businesses and other value chain players, are fundamental to create these ecosystems. However, such partnerships are often complicated to broker, as different players bring different objectives to the table.Ongoing activity at the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in Wageningen, the Netherlands to build an Apps4Ag Database reveals a wide range of ICT solutions using ICT channels outside mobile such as video, radio, web, and animations. The initiative shows the highly diverse nature of ICT applications with little coherence in their development process, resulting in huge overlaps in the services offered in some areas and leaving gaps in others. Instead of maximising their target audience by leveraging several channels, most VAS focus on the power of a single channel to reach their users.As within the mobile agriculture ecosystem, partnerships between ICT providers are not always easy: differing time scales, competition for resources, and clashes in organisational values and culture can inhibit these relationships. However, a CTA conference in October 2014 suggested that the outlook was hopeful for cross-channel ICT4Ag products. There is a willingness to collaborate between different channels to increase impact. Participants resolved to explore new ways to partner and generate learnings and insights that can be shared with the broader community.Inspiration can be taken from projects outside of ICT4Ag, such as BBC Janala. This service driven by BBC Media Action combines a TV soap opera with a mobile learning platform across all the major network operators, as well as online and via printed resources. By offering a variety of channels BBC Janala has reached 28 million users, relying on a number of valuable partnerships with mobile network operators and content providers. Brokering partnerships between different organisations can be challenging, but where it can be achieved the potential impact for end users is greater. ◀If you wish to deliver agriculture extension information to rural farmers, an audio-based solution may be your most effective option, particularly if you are trying to reach the more marginalised or vulnerable farmers. Both Literacy Bridge and Farm Radio International (FRI) have been using audio to reach farmers for seven years and 35 years, respectively. FRI delivers audio content through its network of radio station partners, while Literacy Bridge does the same through its Talking Book device, a robust audio device designed to deliver health and agriculture recordings to rural villages.Most of the world's poorest farmers have never had the chance to attend let alone complete basic education and are therefore illiterate. Not only does this mean they cannot read, but they are also unable to take notes when they have the rare opportunity to learn from an extension visit. Many literate farmers in oral cultures also prefer to learn through audio compared with video or text. FRI and Literacy Bridge both create audio recordings of expert interviews as well as peer endorsements, songs, stories and dramas. Providing the same information in a variety of audio forms helps farmers to understand and retain more than through a single format.When delivering this sort of audio content it is critical to get feedback and ideas from farmers. One of the ways FRI does this is by creating radio programmes that include a period of time for listeners to call and text-in to engage in a discussion with the agriculture experts or participate in radio polls. Literacy Bridge's Talking Books do not allow for this type of live discussion. Instead they allow farmers to record their questions and comments, which are reviewed monthly to guide future content. The Talking Book also captures usage statistics to allow Literacy Bridge and its partners to see exactly which messages are most popular and which communities are most engaged.Running a successful agriculture education programme requires more than great technology and content. FRI and Literacy Bridge both work with community listener groups to engage listeners and promote group discussion. This is also a forum for the occasional need for a visual display. However, in oral cultures, visual display is far less important for most topics than in other cultures.In some programmes, such as Literacy Bridge's collaboration with UNICEF in Ghana, Talking Books loaded with seasonally applicable content are provided to each and every household in a village for one week every month. This allows men, women, and children to listen and learn when their time allows. The approach has consistently demonstrated four to eight hours of listening per family each week. However, this type of programme has additional expenses compared to group engagement.If the majority of your target audience owns a smartphone, providing audio over smartphone along with video enhancements would be worth exploring, but there are a few challenges to this approach. Smartphones must be kept charged in villages without electricity. Smartphones also have a limited volume that most groups strain to hear in the typical outside village listening environment. But the biggest problem with smartphones today is that many organisations are trying to reach people who do not already own them, and the cost of equipping each person with a smartphone is many times the expense of either radio or Talking Books.Feature phones are much more commonly owned, but they have additional drawbacks. Mobile phone programs typically use content one minute in length. This can be enough to disseminate a concept, but is no substitute for the depth of instruction that one can achieve through a 10-or 20-minute interview or drama. There are three reasons typically given for why mobile voice content does not go much beyond one minute: the perminute cost of a voice call, the administration of the billing schemes used by mobile network operators and the usability concerns from listeners after holding a phone to their ear for more than a few minutes.In addition, while phone ownership may be relatively high across a district, one will find that the most marginalised people are the ones who do not own their own mobile phone. This is why the government of Ghana's 2010 census showed that only 11% of women in rural areas of the northern half of the country owned their own phone. Even today, many women rely on the use of their husband's phone, which inherently leads to reduced access to knowledge delivered over a mobile phone.In time, many of these issues will slowly be resolved and more and more audio content produced today for radio and Talking Books will be repurposed for mobile phones. But for hundreds of millions of people today, these realities have made radio and Talking Books a much more usable and cost-effective solution. ◀Cliff Schmidt ([email protected]) founded Literacy Bridge in 2007 in Seattle, United States.Bartholomew Sullivan ([email protected]) is radio & ICT specialist at Farm Radio International, Arusha, Tanzania.Soon audio content produced for radio will be more efficiently repurposed for mobile phones.Given the high illiteracy rates of smallholder farmers in developing countries and their lack of access to timely and relevant information for improved agricultural productivity, development agencies have been exploring the audiovisual medium to augment the impact of extension services targeted at this group. Although broadcast television, a trusted tool of traditional extension systems, has proven reach, the viewers' ability to connect with and actually use the information beamed at them can be limited. The need to give voice to and involve the community in content production and the distribution process for extension services to be truly impactful paved the way for the participatory video approach, an approach which empowers the community to create and share the information they require.Digital Green has found that mediated screenings of localised videos can transcend the limitations of oldschool extension systems in terms of generic one-size-fits-all content and sub-optimal communication skills of the extension agents. An evaluation conducted by Microsoft Research India in 2009, entitled Digital Green: Participatory Video for Agricultural Extension found that facilitated or mediated video viewing can motivate farmers to adopt new agricultural practices for about one-tenth of the cost of traditional extension services.Localising videos is a way of encouraging communities to try new ways of treating seeds or ditching commercial pesticides. Digital Green's videos feature community members who typically belong to the same district as the viewers, demonstrating best practices in their own fields and homes, adding to the credibility of the messaging. The video screenings are mediated by trained community members who help to improve the audience's recall of the messages shared. These videos are produced on low-cost equipment by community members, so the videos are of, by and for the community.The approach goes beyond videos, encouraging the community to cocreate knowledge. Farmers are more likely to adopt solutions they are a part of. The approach must respond to community feedback, channelling data and feedback received from the community at the individual level (during video screenings) into the video production and screening and dissemination processes and overall programme performance.Along with details like name and gender, the farmers' attendance at video screenings, interests, queries, comments and any impact on their behaviours as a result of adopting a new practice or technology are recorded. The farmers share their thoughts freely, from the videos they would like to watch to the viewing experience to the challenges they face in their daily routines. This feedback is used to inform further iterations of not just the videos, but also of essential background processes such as storyboarding, the messaging or even the way a screening is organised.This community-driven content production and delivery process can be effortlessly integrated with existing public and private extension services, using functional local forums and units such as farmers' groups and women's self-help groups. Frontline agricultural and health workers who are part of existing development interventions can be trained to use community-sourced videos as job aids to change behaviours. The approach is fluid enough to converge with other ICT channels such as community radio, mobile messaging and interactive voice response (IVR) systems, laying the foundation for potential integrated ICT-supported extension and knowledge exchange systems with superior reach and depth of information on agricultural best practices. The video channel can be used to inform farmers of scheduled radio broadcasts, which in turn reinforce the practices promoted through the videos, while IVR allows farmers who have watched a video to share comments and queries, receiving a call back with relevant answers, vetted by experts.Technology in itself, though, is not the solution for development issues. It can at best magnify human intent and capability. Digital Green's approach has been successful only through partnerships with organisations that already engage with farmers, where its technology helps improve the efficiency of their efforts and broadens the participation of the communities that they work with. It is thus critical for Digital Green to identify the right organisations to partner with -those that have existing community networks and extension services at scale, are engaged with a cadre of frontline workers and provide linkages to resources required for the promoted practices. For such a communitycentric learning approach to work, it is also essential to identify and engage with key influencers, local individuals who are respected and trusted within the community, who will go on to feature in the videos as 'actors' promoting best practices or serve as mediators screening the videos and catalysing discussions which could improve behaviours impacting the community's well-being. ◀ Rikin Gandhi and Aishwarya Pillai explain how video-based learning can encourage communities to be co-creators of knowledge and not just passive recipients.Rikin Gandhi ([email protected]) is chief executive officer at Digital Green in New Delhi, India.Aishwarya Pillai ([email protected]) is deputy director of communications at Digital Green in New Delhi, India.O ne of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals is to eradicate hunger, with agriculture being a major pillar of this objective. Subsistence farmers in developing countries still lack access to agricultural information, however, a problem that is further complicated by the fact that many are low-literate learners who often speak different languages. The resources for addressing these issues, in relation to the magnitude of the problem, are miniscule. However, there are global changes occurring that may impact how knowledge can be shared with low-literate learners. The advent of Bluetooth® and video-capable cell phones, along with other video-capable devices in the global marketplace, has given rise to a variety of new strategies, including two broad-stroke approaches to develop educational content: live-action filming and animations. Even better, these approaches do not compete with each other: they are potentially highly complementary strategies to help deliver solutions.The problems of educating subsistence farmers on improved agricultural techniques are vast compared to the financial resources available. So we must find ways to involve more players in the process of creating and deploying content related to agricultural best practices. The individuals and groups in this process can be broadly identified as 'insiders' and 'outsiders' . The insiders include those who are professionally involved full-time or even part-time in international development and have financial support. The 'outsiders' include those that can assist others in their or other communities, but are not financially supported or primarily focused on international development. These 'outsiders' could be small NGOs or volunteers. The 'outsider' community is vast and has been a traditionally untapped resource. So the question is, how do we connect the 'insiders' and 'outsiders' in an efficient and cost-effective manner to create and share useful content for subsistence farmers?Animations emerge as a logical strategy to 'connect the dots' of people globally, in order to develop efficient and cost-effective content. Online interaction makes it possible to create scripts, storyboards, animations and voice-overs cost effectively in different languages. Animations can be entertaining and easily comprehensible, but most importantly they get around cultural and generational barriers. Once created, the content can be made available for organisations to use with target groups from highly divergent places, cultures and languages. In addition, content can be easily modified for new situations through online interactions of partners across the globe.Scientific Animations Without Borders (SAWBO) is an ongoing 'rethink' of how to bring together these 'insider'Julia Bello-Bravo and Barry Robert Pittendrigh outline an emerging strategy to connect local and global experts to create and deploy educational content for low-literate learners in the form of animated videos.and 'outsider' groups to benefit end users. SAWBO relies largely on expert volunteers from around the globe to make sure its animations are accurate. Once created, animations are made freely available through multiple online and offline platforms. The organisation's approach also democratises access to information by making it available to all.Diverse individuals and organisations have used these animations in their programmes and their deployment pathways. One example is a young man who lives in Burkina Faso. He downloaded animations onto his cell phone, which he then used to show the videos to farmers, who were able to understand and adopt the techniques shown in the animations.SAWBO has also worked with larger NGOs, academic institutions and government organisations to create and deploy content. The organisation's animations have also been used on TV stations. Recently, SAWBO released the Deployer App for select Android devices. It allows users connected to the internet to find and access videos from the programme's complete library of animations, download videos one at a time, and store them on their cell phones for easy Bluetooth® transfer when the user is offline and in the field.Although there is an emerging global community creating live-action and animated agricultural educational videos, the resources available to create such content are insufficient, especially if one considers the global needs of subsistence farmers. In the future, the 'outsiders' and the 'insiders' will be concentrating on ways of getting these diverse groups to work together to come up with solutions that address these needs. ◀ Julia Bello-Bravo ([email protected]) and Barry Robert Pittendrigh ([email protected]) are co-director and director, respectively, of Scientific Animations Without Borders at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States. The ICT4Ag sector is still very much in its early stages. We are all still learning about what works best, and that means experimenting with products and business models. As we experiment, however, we need to make sure we are planning for long-term success, which means creating business models that are both sustainable and scalable. Sustainability is about making enough money to survive -ideally this is revenue from farmers, agribusinesses, or other private sector stakeholders, and not long-term funding from donors. Scalability is ensuring there are sufficient revenuegenerating customers for your product, and that you can reach them in a cost-effective manner.Most of the products that I see in the market today can be defined as either direct-to-farmer (the majority of products) or business-to-business (a growing segment). The direct-to-farmer model was the focus for many of the first generation of ICT4Ag products -many of which were donor or NGO driven, focused more on farmer impact than on sustainability and scalability. Direct-to-farmer products are exciting because of the large potential customer base, but very few businesses have been able to translate that potential into reality, even those with clear value and low costs. I think we will see more experimentation with alternative revenue models (those that do not depend on farmers paying for the service). The models that look at monetising farmer data and integrating digital financial services are some of the most exciting.Business-to-business models targeted at agricultural business are starting to get more attention now. These businesses are often better positioned to understand and quantify the value of ICT solutions (e.g. transparency, visibility, farmer loyalty and cost of sourcing), and thus can justify paying for them. Even for ICT4Ag providers who are most interested in farmer data and farmer relationships, a B2B solution can be a great starting point -as agribusiness enrol their farmers in your platform, you are expanding your farmer user base. Per-farmer acquisition costs in this model are much lower than large-scale marketing and education campaigns.Much of the donor and NGO-driven efforts have focused on direct-to-farmer models -typically providing agronomy content, weather content, or market prices directly to farmers for a small fee or for free. Private sector players are a bit more varied -you have mobile network operators that are offering a similar direct-to-farmer content product, and are banking either on direct revenue from the product (via subscription or per-piece fees) or are looking for indirect benefits linked to their core business (e.g. more subscribers, stickier SIMs, mobile money transactions, reduced churn and increased average revenue per user). You also have private sector players using B2B models targeting businesses in the value chain -we have seen Farm Force, mFarm, Connected Farmer and others play in this space.The reality is there are very few clear winners yet in the ICT4Ag space -few businesses that have achieved scale and sustainability. I think that many of the products that eventually succeed will be the result of PPPs -private sector owning the IP/product and contributing funds, donors contributing additional funds to buy down the risk, and NGOs providing initial technical assistance and field staff.The key is to have the private sector involvement at the outset and to ensure they contribute a sufficient portion of the funding -by having skin in the game, they will be incentivised to develop and own the business model.How can business models increase the scale, sustainability and impact of ICT4Ag-enabled services? I think we need to be more creative about how we go to market. It is easy to get excited about the large numbers of underserved farmers, but they can also be a challenging customer to acquire and monetise. We need to think about other value-chains actors, particularly businesses that will more easily understand the value of ICT solutions and have money to pay, and think about how to create products that serve their needs while also providing value to farmers. If we can leverage existing market actors to register farmers (by providing them value for doing so), we can drive down our farmer acquisition costs dramatically.I am also excited about the possibilities for integrating digital financial services into ICT4Ag products. Digitising value-chain payments should be a quick-win -simply by moving existing cash payments onto mobile money or digital platforms, we can increase transparency and safety for businesses and farmers, and decrease costs of sourcing. We also drive transactions, which is a core revenue stream for mobile network operators and financial institutions. We should also look at integrating savings, credit, and insurance products that are leveraging mobile phones, as they can drive financial inclusion for farmers.We also need to think through how to monetise the data we collect on farmers. An ad-based business model is probably not feasible in most markets today, but there are other ways to monetise data, some of which could have incredibly positive impacts for farmers. If we think about sharing ag-payment data with financial institutions, we have the potential to make those farmers creditworthy and drive financial inclusion for millions. Obviously we must be vigilant about misuse and privacy concerns, and I expect the industry as a whole to actively address this. ◀Michael Elliott ([email protected]) is TechnoServe regional programme director of the Connected Farmer Alliance covering Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique.The web is becoming an increasingly strong channel for reaching users. Studies show that there are more than one billion websites online and more than 550 websites created worldwide every single minute. Though mobile is progressing quickly, the web seems here to stay. In terms of the web channel's usability and functionality, some of the strong arguments for growth are the fact that the web is cross-platform and can be accessed from any device, as long as a web browser is available. It can also integrate and map important volumes of information on a single screen. It can resize and adapt to any screen, whether on a tablet or smartphone.It also supports the functions of intermediaries such as agricultural extension officers, international development and NGO field staff, representatives of farmer organisations as well as some progressive farmers. These intermediaries use the web to optimise their information exchange with end users, most of whom are illiterate. Their use of the web also supports the argument that ICTs are not here to replace the human aspect of extension but to complement it. Indeed, an ongoing activity at the Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) in the Netherlands to build an Apps4Ag Database reveals a wide range of ICT solutions that combine the web with other channels such as video, SMS and radio.Examples of the use of web with other channels for agricultural information exchange include: • Advisory services to inform farmers about good agricultural practices. CTA, in collaboration with eLEAF, are using the web (e.g. FieldLook, a custom web portal for growers and crop management advisors) in combination with SMS to support extension services delivery for theThe web: a thing of the past, or here to stay?How relevant and useful are web tools for ICT4Ag today? Are they on their way out, or on the contrary, is the web a nucleus from which other channels spread?Gezira Irrigation Project in Sudan. On the other hand, several powerful search engines on the web are enabling easy access and exposure to a wealth of agricultural information. Searches may result in useful tools, such as Garden Planner, iCow or mFisheries.Since the creation of the first web page in the 1990s, the tools and environment used to develop web content has not stopped improving, and this has allowed a high and increasingly easier level of linkages and integration of many types of content, such as audio, video, photo and maps, and services.Thinking web, you will get more with less: more information and services from a single universal platform; more information in a single screen (no intermittent scrolling); more types of content in a unified environment and a single graphical screen. Web applications keep working: no matter what device you use, you will always get more clients, even if they are using different platforms. For now at least, the web is here to stay. ◀ Sanjay Sembhoo ([email protected]) is an extension officer at the Agricultural Research and Extension Unit Mauritius.Andrianjafy Rasoanindrainy ([email protected]) is a systems engineer-cum-permaculture trainer and the initiator of the Ecovillage Madagascar Network.Benjamin Kwasi Addom ([email protected]) is ICT4D programme coordinator at CTA in Wageningen, the Netherlands.Is the web still a relevant environment for communicating agricultural information to users? Or is it doomed to collapse in the future -to be replaced by other channels? The question we raise is about the interest and relevance of web tools, applications and services (simply called web solutions) for agriculture today.Timely access to critical information and knowledge has become a necessity to sustain competitive levels of agricultural production. Traditionally, farmers have relied on extensionists, NGOs and traders to acquire agricultural know-how. However, due to the limitations of this traditional approach -the frequency, cost, quality and timeliness of interactionsfarmers' expectations are rarely met. To fill this gap, people are turning to new ICTs to provide farmers with tailormade information, mostly via the internet.This turn of events has witnessed the emergence of several agricultural information management systems (AIMSs) in the past decade. This seems to be the result of initiatives and efforts undertaken by development agencies and the private sector trying to improve production and market conditions of agricultural stakeholders.Other key factors to have triggered this development include the availability of new, cheaper devices combined with internet access. entrepreneurs highly focused and deliberate in their efforts.For entrepreneurs with a passion for agriculture, ICT4Ag is a stimulating and satisfying new and organic evolution of the agricultural sector. We have entered an era in which a variety of technologies have become available to educate and support farmers, enabling them to increase productivity and income. For an agricultural information service such as iCow, which predominantly relies on ICT4Ag over mobile phones, this has been an interesting space because partners from both agriculture and technology need a period of time to acclimatise before either can understand cross-over innovations like iCow.The iCow application uses SMS, video and web as direct channels, but the iCow model incorporates partners who use other channels for ICT4Ag, including radio and TV. The iCow platform provides a one-stop shop for farmers that enables them to build their agricultural knowledge of specific topics through service subscriptions. This reservoir of knowledge also increases their agricultural acumen and provides them with 24/7 access to experts and expertise. And the iCow platform sends farmers pertinent reminders about their livestock needs.When N'Kalô, an initiative by RONGEAD to improve the marketing of agricultural products in West and Central Africa, begun developing its information and advisory service, it had to think hard about the kind of information it was able to provide and whether people were interested enough in it to buy it. Providing agricultural prices, for example, would not be difficult, but few people are willing to pay money for agricultural prices. So N'Kalô decided to develop a new kind of market information: market intelligence.Once N'Kalô decided what to bring to agricultural stakeholders, it began to think about what the most suitable andThe private sector is well placed to contribute to the agricultural sector through its creativity and passion in partnership with other players in the sector.affordable technology would be to convey the information. You have to keep in mind that farmers, even if they know how to use mobile phones, are not used to codes and apps. So that means adapting the technology and cost to your target audience.N'Kalô partnered Orange Côte d'Ivoire to develop an easy way of proving farmers with agricultural information. They only needed to send the name of their region to subscribe to the service. N'Kalô, aware of which crops are grown in a given region, then sent them information about those crops only. After one month, subscribers receive a message with a proposal for automatic renewal.The main challenge now is to increase the network of partners to generate more information about agriculture in Côte d'Ivoire. Another challenge is mobile sector regulation. N'Kalô is currently not allowed to advertise, even though more and more services and input providers who want to take advantage of its network of 23,000 subscribers. The focus now is to improve the subscriber network.The best way to have a lasting impact in the agricultural sector is by understanding the problems facing farmers and designing simple but effective solutions to these problems. That is where the private sector can help. It knows how to make these solutions cost effective. It knows how to make them work in real time for an affordable price for the end user as well. And perhaps most crucially, these solutions have to be driven by consumer demand. ◀ ICTs offer opportunities to introduce new services and increase the reach of these and existing services to a larger population, in particular in the agricultural value chain. The private sector, driven by entrepreneurs, is well placed to convert these opportunities. In particular, it can contribute in three areas: sustainability, creativity and passion.Entrepreneurs thrive on success. Failure rarely pays. Success rests on sustainability, and sustainability results in value-added services with longevity. The value and hence sustainability of a service ultimately depends on the end user. If the product is deemed to have no value, users simply will not pay for it. In the private sector, goods and services are usually exchanged through the transfer of money. Essentially, this is no different in ICT4Ag. A farmer, like any customer, is more likely to part with cash if there is a worthwhile return. The name of the game is demand and supply of value, in ICT4Ag as elsewhere.The private sector brings entrepreneurial creativity and out-ofthe-box thinking to ICT4Ag valueadded services. Entrepreneurs seek to solve problems in unique and innovative ways. This approach, used in ICT4Ag, is creating new ways of finding scalable solutions for old problems. It is in the nature of entrepreneurs to see beyond what is immediately visible and join the dots across multidisciplinary sectors, combining technology and agriculture, to cite one example. The entrepreneurial way of thinking is different than institutional or public sector thinking, and has the potential to be a real game changer in the agricultural sector.Entrepreneurs are often fuelled by passion and persistence. This volatile mix is a great driver of innovation, and entrepreneurs generally have a longterm holistic approach to problems that they are passionate about fixing. Being answerable to bankruptcy makes Julien Gonnet ([email protected]) is ICT expert at RONGEAD in Lyon, France. Su Kahumbu Stephanou ([email protected]) is CEO of Green Dreams in Nairobi, Kenya.Agricultural extension services refer to organisations that support people engaged in agricultural production. These services play a major role in disseminating knowledge, technologies and agricultural information to improve livelihoods in rural areas. Agricultural information resource centres, agricultural shows, demonstration farms and plots are all important sources of knowledge. Investments in agricultural extension services generally compare favourably with those made in agricultural research, which suggests its importance in overall agricultural development. All the more reason, then, to continue to warm authorities to the idea of e-extension, which is a more efficient alternative to traditional extension because it maximises the use of ICTs.The Agricultural Information Resource Centre (AIRC) in Kenya is a semi-autonomous government agency. Set up in 1996, the centre's primary role was to provide agricultural information through media channels such as radio and video and the distribution of printed technical materials. The centre also provided extension skills training to farmers, extension staff and other stakeholders. Recent educational AIRC videos have been uploaded to YouTube for easy access and have attracted 2,580 subscribers and over 700,000 viewers, mainly from Kenya, Canada, the United States and India. AIRC's website also provides technical digital material and is connected to several national andThe authors discuss the public sector's efforts to introduce e-extension at the county level in Kenya.Grace Agili ([email protected]) is director of the Agricultural Information Resource Centre (AIRC) in Nairobi, Kenya.Stephen Rono ([email protected]) works in information acquisition and processing at AIRC. international credible sources of agricultural information.The former ministry of agriculturenow the State Department of Agriculture -started an e-extension project in 2013 to use ICTs to make extension service delivery more efficient and effective. Since then, AIRC staff have teamed up to develop an e-extension training curriculum that uses Web2forFDev tools and mobile apps to adopt ICT innovations in agricultural development. The manual was then used to train frontline extension workers, and by June 2014, more than 600 staff had been trained and equipped with e-extension kits comprising a smartphone, a minilaptop and a modem.Since Kenya adopted a new constitution in 2010, agricultural extension services have been devolved to the county level, while policy formulation has been left in the hands of the national government and AIRC. AIRC conducted an assessment in March 2015 to gauge e-extension adoption in various counties. The assessment showed that county politics undermined e-readiness in these counties to adopt e-extension services.To begin with, the main agenda of political authorities in Kenya's counties is re-election in 2017. They tend to prefer infrastructure development projects -ones that are physically tangible for citizens-such as roads, cattle dips, agri-business industries and the provision of farm inputs. These kinds of 'hardware' projects are given priority over more intangible 'software' projects and technology transfer services, such as extension services and farmers' field days. The prospect of reelection means that funds are often directed to these physically tangible projects. Indeed, most of the county staff interviewed complained that they were demoralised because they lacked the facilities to implement their extension work plans. Some staff were trained in e-extension, however, and learned how to use Web2forDev tools and innovative and cost-effective means of reaching out to farmers. This approach has reduced the overall cost of extension in their respective wards. One such extension worker is Daniel Kefa, who has made a name for himself by using Twitter to communicate with extension staff and farmers. He is an agricultural officer in Nakuru county and has overcome the odds by using social media tools to provide sorely needed agricultural extension services in the area. His success has not come easy, however. He has to contend with a lack of internet bundles and the low awareness among farmers on the use of mobile apps to access extension services.The most notable change in the staff that received training in e-extension is a different attitude towards adopting ICTs in their daily work. Perhaps not surprisingly, those who did not receive training in e-extension were apathetic towards the initiative. There were exceptions. Viginia Gitau, senior chief agricultural officer in a sub-county in Nakuru county embraced the concepts of the initiative and is learning about e-extension tools from her trained colleagues. She has even started to incorporate these tools in her activities, especially during field days.The results of the assessment complement previous studies on e-readiness, which showed that implementing e-extension not only requires physical infrastructure and technical expertise but also psychological readiness. In other words, the public sector has to assess how people across the entire agricultural extension value chain perceive and respond to e-extension, and invest in creating the right mindset to welcome e-extension in their communities. ◀ Shaun Ferris ([email protected]) is director for agricultural livelihoods at Catholic Relief Services, Baltimore, the United States.Shaun Ferris discusses how different technologies have transformed the way NGOs work in communities affected by poverty and injustice.T echnology is rapidly changing methods, support systems and the way NGOs work with communities and their service providers. This transformation is creating new opportunities in communities around the world, changing the day-to-day lives of many people affected by poverty and injustice, as they gain access through mobile devices to a wide range of digital information and services. Technology is also driving a new era of evidence-based decision making and accountability for development organisations enabled by faster, more accurate data collection, analysis and dissemination. Powered by technology, NGOs can strengthen project delivery, gauge impact, and improve programming across the NGOs over time.Not many local businesses in emerging economies could support new apps and ICT4D innovations 15 years ago, apart from telecom companies. Governments were just beginning to explore the benefits of technology, and so infrastructure to support the ICT community was limited. In the following decade, mobile phone usage exploded across the developing world. Inspired by the tech transformation in the industrial world, NGOs began experimenting with technology and this led to a great deal of pilot testing. Most ICT products tested in the 2000s were experimental, offered free of charge and were proof of concept rather than setting out products with a clear client base and business model.Therefore, few ideas were sustainable or ready for commercialisation. Scaling ideas with merit also proved difficult, as costs in ICT usage outside of the capital cities was often prohibitively expensive, investments were short term and ability to pay for the new services was weak. That situation is changing, as infrastructure is gaining momentum along with the strong economic growth in many emerging economies and local IT talent is emerging. Examples such as the use of voice communications, and the rapid rise of mobile money has had a profound change in the way people do business across Africa.NGOs who once attempted to build their own products are now working to establish partnerships with both external and local IT business firms. This blend of experience, capital, knowledge and localised business solutions is giving rise to a new generation of products, entrepreneurs and services. Such partnerships are also exploring new business models. Some of these are free and support critical public sector services, whereas other services that support rural enterprise initiatives are shifting from free-to fees-based models.Similarly the NGO world is also working more closely with government sectors and the private sector, to strengthen local systems to support areas such as input supply, natural resource management, early warning systems and market development. Each of these players work in their area of expertise and are increasingly linking their operations through some form of technology, which may support improved supply chain operations, better mapping, decision support tools, communications and more rapid information gathering.Catholic Relief Services (CRS), the humanitarian agency of the Catholic community in the United States, uses ICTs to improve the way it designs and implements programmes. In the agricultural sector, CRS has been building its understanding of the ICT4Ag space for the past 7-8 years.It has found that pilot testing is an essential part of the learning process, making it possible to match technologies to specific types of projects. CRS is developing tools to harness technology to help farmers and farmer extension services gather information, develop decision support tools, map their work and monitor business performance. For example, farmers are given e-vouchers which they can use to purchase seeds to help them replant their fields. Mobile devices and cloud-based services make it possible to register beneficiaries, seed vendors, provide bar-coded vouchers and report on vendor payments.CRS also works with field agents to support farmers to improve their market performance. Using Farmbook, a field-based business app that was built and tested at the request of a consortium of NGOs working in the Southern African Agro-Enterprise Learning Alliance, in this process, field agents learn new marketing and business skills using an e-learning platform. They record farmer business plans using a digital business ledger, and a monitoring tool enables them to record their activities.Real-time market prices and weather updates are provided to farmers via text messages. In central Niger, CRS reported prices of peas and beans to farmers and in the Philippines, text messages delivered coffee and cacao prices which led to a 13% gain in revenue. Access to this information helps farmers to decide when and where to sell.CRS emphasises the importance of working closely with all the actors in the technology to client eco-system, taking the time to listen and share the successes and failures that it encounters in its networks. Technology is already helping to transform the way people work in agriculture, and by further integrating digital systems into the way the sector works, better services will be delivered to communities in the future. ◀Academic institutions play a key role in addressing the challenges facing the agricultural sector.A cademic institutions play a key role in addressing the challenges facing the agricultural sector by providing science-based content and understanding how to best use the diverse range of ICT delivery channels.Every night, a billion people go to sleep hungry, and 70% of these are small-scale farmers and their families. Lack of credit and access to markets and information often lie at the core of their problems. To try and fix these problems, millions of dollars are provided each year not only to help poor farmers, but also to protect the environment and promote broad economic development.What may not always be clear is that universities like the University of California, Davis, and The University of the West Indies (The UWI) in St Augustine, Trinidad, play an enduring role in global development. Today these universities are focusing on using ICT4Ag to address the vexing challenges of food security and the environment by expanding information access and connecting small-scale farmers and fishers, vendors, markets, policy-makers and natural resource users.Universities provide long-term threads of disciplinary and crossdisciplinary research that underpins agriculture policy, best practice and programming. In many cases, they have research, education and outreach mandates at all levels. The establishment of the World Food Center at UC Davis and the rebranding of UWI's Faculty of Food & Agriculture (FF&A) with existing units such as the Cocoa Research Centre are examples of the type of institutional commitment many universities make to contribute globally. These facilities work to improve food access, reduce poverty and protect our fragile environment.Focusing on agriculture, UC Davis has worked with over 100 countries to strengthen technical, extension and information development and delivery services. Many recent initiatives involve ICTs. For example, in response to the often-observed farmer knowledge gaps, UC Davis has established online information repositories such as e-Afghan Ag (see page 11 in this issue), e-China Apple and e-Pak Ag. Indeed, 'content is king' is the catchphrase -these information assets are developed to provide credible, relevant information to those helping farmers. Several related activities have worked to understand how to best use the diverse range of possible ICT delivery channels. The principles of effective communication leading to behaviour change so developed are then shared to strengthen national capacity and information delivery.In addition to a long and rich tradition of research and extension by UWI FF&A, the university's computing and information technology (DCIT) and electrical and computer engineering (ECNG) departments have developed a variety of ICT applications for agriculture and fisheries. DCIT has applied intelligent decision support around agriculture data in the development of AgriNeTT, a mobile application for small-scale farmers to enhance crop management, for example. The Caribbean ICT Research Programme (CIRP) in ECNG has developed the mFisheries suite of mobile applications for at-sea safety, navigation, a virtual marketplace, and various information and communications services using different media. CIRP is also collaborating with the Caribbean Network of Fisherfolk Organizations on the use of multimodal web channels for regional engagement with the ultimate aim of participatory governance.We have identified successful underlying principles for ICT interventions for farmers and fishers. While these principles may not appear particularly new to those working in the ICT field, they are all essential for success. For example, programmes need to start by clearly knowing their audience's needs. Information must be widely available and is best delivered through multiple channels appropriate to the audience. The information needs to be clearly, concisely and attractively packaged so that it delivers evident and compelling value at a logical and aspirational level. Underlying all this is the need for trust -trust in the message and the messenger. Delivery is not a 'fly-in fly out' activity. Local partnerships with trusted intermediaries are critical for longterm success.Universities play a key role in the ecosystem of agents necessary to address the many challenges faced by the agricultural sector. While their unique strengths lie in areas such as teaching, training, research and analysis, operationalising interventions requires a great many other agencies whose strengths lie in complementary areas. Partnerships within the ecosystem are essential. For example, while some partners can promote joint knowledge resources at the target group level, others can facilitate greater interaction with target groups. These target groups themselves must be key partners in the provision of ongoing feedback essential to improving the tools, materials and delivery channels. Improved strategies and channels for building relationships and engagement amongst partners are essential for synergy, efficiency and increased impact. ◀ Mark Bell ([email protected]) is director of the International Learning Center, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences at the University of California, Davis.Kim Mallalieu ([email protected]) is leader of the Communication Systems Group, at The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad.F armer organisations (FOs) play a key role helping farmers in Africa and Asia to empower themselves. They give poor and illiterate farmers a voice. One thing all FOs have in common is their commitment to a common aim and their effort to maintain continuous contact with members. The effectiveness of an FO depends on its having a strong communication channel. While traditional means of communication are important, technology has a major role to play in enhancing the scale of services that FOs can offer to their members. Indeed, ICT4Ag can be a major enabler for FOs.Despite the key role that FOs play in the lives of their members, farmers still face several challenges, which, once removed, will go a long way to improving their lives. Access to timely and relevant information in villages, many of which are remote and inaccessible, is expected to empower rural citizens. Increasing awareness and knowledge through information on government schemes and welfare measures can improve the quality of living in rural areas. FOs have been striving to address these issues but often through conventional means. ICTs are a sure-fire way to complement, and in many situations surpass, the effectiveness of conventional means.FOs can deliver ICT-based services. The situation would be win-win for all: farmers would benefit from being able to use the services. FOs would find a means to engage more deeply with their constituents, while service providers would benefit from having achieved their basic objective.One recent successful initiative is the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO). The IFFCO cooperative has more than 40,000 cooperative societies as members. IFFCO's estimated reach is thought to be 50 million farmers, who own IFFCO through the share contribution system of their respective societies, as well as the consumers of the fertilizers produced by IFFCO's various plants.Apart from distributing quality fertilizer to farmers through the cooperative societies, IFFCO also organises various promotional activities so that farmers can learn about the latest technology in agriculture.To more effectively leverage technology for the benefit of farmers, IFFCO launched a joint venture called IFFCO Kisan Sanchar Ltd (IKSL) in 2007 with Star Global Resources and Bharti Airtel. IKSL's mission is to empower Indian farmers by converting the ubiquitous mobile phone into a powerhouse of knowledge. IKSL uses mobile phone technology to provide timely agro-advisory services to farmers to improve income and yield and reduce cost and wastage. The agricultural advisories are provided as voice messages in local languages to ensure that even illiterate farmers can benefit from the services.The IKSL model is based on the idea of engaging with farmers by showing them how to use their mobile phones in two new ways. The 'PUSH' approach ensures that farmers receive the latest relevant updates. The information is provided in the form of one-minute voice messages in the pertinent localdialect. These voice messages are provided free of charge to IKSL Green Card subscribers. The 'PULL' approach enables farmers to call a helpline for extra information about the data they have been provided with or seek solutions for their specific problems. This example shows how farmer organisations have managed to effectively use ICT4Ag provided by a service provider.In Kenya, the Eastern Africa Farmer Federation (EAFF) is working on bringing together different service providers providing various mobile applications on different aspects of the different value chains for the purposes of creating complete clusters of these providers. In partnership with a private investor, EAFF have embarked on developing a virtual platform similar to the one run by IFFCO for the purpose of linking farmers to both input and output markets as well as making them access credit and insurance products tailor-made for them. EAFF has already developed a prototype and is currently planning a pilot phase that will initially start in Kenya targeting the rice and maize value chains.Once the pilot is finalised, and after its analysis and evaluation, EAFF plans to roll it out commercially with a target of more than 100,000 farmers in the first year. EAFF intends to continuously engage IKSL and is organising an exchange visit to IKSL to learn first-hand how they make their mobile platform work and use their expertise to make EAFF's platform work as well. Technology has the potential to unleash a revolution in the agriculture sector, especially because it will transcend the architecture of fragmentation that is characteristic of smallholder agriculture in Africa and Asia, and develop a financial history of the farmers, thereby making them creditworthy. ◀ Subrahmanyam Srinivasan ([email protected]) was CEO of IFFCO Kisan Sanchar in India 2009-2015.Stephen Muchiri ([email protected]) is CEO of the Eastern Africa Farmers Federation, Nairobi, Kenya.Farmer organisations are an ideal medium for delivering ICT-based services to improve farmers' incomes, and expand their marketsThe Rudi Multi Trading Company, supported by the Self-Employed Women Association (hence SEWA-RUDI), is a marketing company in India of rural farm produce, such as spices and staples, procured directly from farmers and processed, packed and marketed by rural women. The company uses a unique supply chain model of procurement, processing, packaging and distribution for its products through a rural self-help group of women. This model has been creating substantial employment opportunities for rural women.SEWARUDI also internally rotates the rural producer groups that it uses in order to enhance the quality, capacity and efficiency of production through the use of better technology. SEWARUDI currently distributes its products to 14 districts in Gujarat, India. It sells products through a rural distribution network of women called Rudiben. This system reduces incidental expenses, increases the availability of good quality products to rural consumers, eliminates middle men and improves the livelihoods of underprivileged people in rural areas.Rudi Multi Trading and SEWA are also involved in a number of events. Ananta, for example, puts the skills and talents of poor rural female artisans under a broader spotlight, which helps these women to convert their traditional skills into a means of livelihood. KVIC, the Khadi and Village Industry Commission, is charged with planning, promoting and implementing programmes for the development of Khadi (hand-spun and hand-woven cloth) and other village industries in rural areas in coordination with other development agencies.Visit the URL below for more information on SEWARUDI's work. ➜ http://goo.gl/URy0F8The BEAM Exchange BEAM stands for Building Effective and Accessible Markets. The BEAM Exchange is a 'one-stop shop' for sharing knowledge and learning about market systems approaches for reducing poverty. By improving the impact and effectiveness of programmes that use these approaches, BEAM can help create jobs, raise incomes and improve access to basic services. BEAM uses a variety of tools, such as its website, a variety of different social media networks, workshops and events, to support practitioners in the field of development cooperation who work with business -helping them to fight poverty by making markets work better for poor people. Another aim is to tap into the strength of the growing market systems community -a global network of policy decision-makers, programme advisors, consultants and implementers -who share their professional knowledge and experiences with each other. BEAM's scope includes sectors where marketoriented strategies are still new and emerging (such as health, education, sanitation and energy services), as well as the more established sectors of agriculture and financial services. ➜ http://goo.gl/ZYvdZxThe Agribusiness Innovation Challenge is organised by ICCO, an international Dutch development organisation, and is being facilitated by Enviu and FIT Uganda Ltd.The aim is to attract innovative agri-business models that can substantially improve the quality of life of smallholder farmers in Uganda. The main focus lies on agri-tools and technologies that have already been proven in similar contexts, but which lack a sustainable business model or successful implementation in Uganda.These existing agri-businesses can address any issue in the value chain that holds back smallholder productivity and profitability in both crops and livestock. A challenge running from 29 May to September 2015 will attempt to find suitable entrepreneurs and ideas. The top 3 businesses will be awarded cash prizes to roll-out their business models to the tune of 20,000, 10.000 and 5,000 euros respectively. For more details, visit the URL below. ➜ http://goo.gl/BpIqFlDispatches from the Consom'Acteurs film festival T he Consom'Acteurs film festival held in Ouagadougou from 1 to 3 May, initiated by the Burkina Faso Association of Agricultural Journalists and Communicators (ABJCA) aimed to arouse people's interest in food and agriculture. Documentary films to arouse the interest and awareness of the people of Burkina Faso regarding issues related to food and agriculture: that is the venture initiated by a film festival called Consom'Acteurs held from 1 to 3 May 2015 in Ouagadougou. Consom'Acteurs is a contraction of two French words: consommateurs (consumers) and acteurs (actors). The concept is a vehicle for the idea that today, more than ever, each citizen of Burkina Faso must question his or her consumption in order to become a genuine contributor to the development of our country.This first edition of the festival comprised four screenings followed by discussions, four thematic panels and tasting sessions with dishes made from local agricultural products. One of the films, Paysans d'ici et d'ailleurs blues sans frontières, draws a parallel between realities experienced by farmers in two Burkina Faso villages and farmers in Luxembourg. It shows that farmers in both places go through the same hardships and feel the same attachment to the land.In the case of Burkina Faso, the film reveals that more and more young people are leaving life on the farm, which no longer appeals to them. 'I don't want my child to be a farmer. ItThe first Consom'Acteurs film festival turned food and agriculture into popular topics of discussion among young people in Burkina Faso.Inoussa Maïga ([email protected]) is director of MediaProd and president of Burkinabé Association of Agricultural Journalists and Communicators in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. would be much better if he became a teacher or a nurse, ' says one woman farmer in the film. 'This reflects the true mentality of our parents today, of those of us who have been to school, of you journalists, and of the students. It's only when you've failed in everything else that you go back to agriculture, ' says Souleymane Ouédraogo regretfully, former directorgeneral for the promotion of the rural economy. And so this raises the crucial question: how can we make the occupation of farmer more attractive in Burkina Faso in order to attract and keep young people in the profession?In search of change Paul Taryam Ilboudo, chairman and CEO of the Société Agropastorale et de Services, says that 'farming is a job for both the present and the future. I believe that is how we can work things out. If young farmers manage to produce, be self-sufficient and have a surplus, and market their goods, then they'll be able to make money. They can use this money to improve their houses, thereby providing work for village builders, and install solar panels, which will provide work for young village engineers. It is through agriculture that we will be able to provide jobs for our young people, and that is how we will be able to pave the way for our future, ' Ilboudo added.Souleymane Ouédraogo is convinced that young people need something novel in agriculture. 'If they have to practice subsistence farming like our parents used to, young people will not turn to agriculture. Youngsters need something else. That is why we now have to accept that the world has changed and that young people need to move towards entrepreneurship. We have to create the conditions for farming to become a real business for young people, ' according to the researcher.Yennenga Kompaoré, a young entrepreneur working in the field of communication, believes that young people need more inspiration. 'We need to be inspired, to have people alongside us, opposite us, who motivate us through the pertinence of what they do, ' she says. Kompaoré never misses an opportunity to call on the people of Burkina Faso to employ their skills in the service of the rural environment. 'In my view, farming is not just a matter of being in a field with a tractor. Those who, after their studies, work in a bank, in insurance, marketing or aeronautics, who are managers in certain institutions, can all use their skills on behalf of the rural environment and small farmers.The Consom'Acteurs film festival is intended to turn food and agriculture into popular topics of discussion. This first edition was a huge success, due in large part to the public debate it inspired. For ABJCA, the gamble paid off. The association brought in 10 communication and journalism students who took part in reporting and providing on-line coverage of the event. These students and the young professionals involved in ABJCA have thus become genuine agents for change. They have been encouraged and enriched by the organisation of this festival.And that is not all. A film report and radio shows on the festival are being produced in several local languages. These tools will be broadcast as part of a campaign following the festival to provide further support of the Consom'Acteurs concept. For real change in agriculture in Burkina Faso, it is imperative that every citizen takes action, working to promote the occupation of the farmer and to encourage increased consumption of local agricultural products. ◀","tokenCount":"10581"}

data/part_3/0499463561.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"f15e0f6a7a5d51d50c7bba77b7dd4745","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9cff15d9-2c58-40ea-be28-874e9083bde0/retrieve","id":"-574010830"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"c6d0bcae-0492-4b83-84cd-7fa5bd66ba94","pagecount":"24","content":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).The Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia Initiative (TAFSSA)is a CGIAR Regional Integrated Initiative to support actions that improve equitable access to sustainable healthy diets, improve farmers' livelihoods and resilience, and conserve land, air, and water resources in South Asia.Note: This document is a compilation of six extension leaflets on cultivation of different fodder crops, fodder management and use of green fodder for goat production in the Mid-Hills of Nepal.The leaflets (in Nepali language) were distributed to participants of trainings on the topic in Surkhet and Khotang districts organized by the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative in June-July 2023. The training participants included farmers as well as local government (ward) representatives, and agricultural/livestock technicians from the respective municipalities.Teosinte / Makaichari (Euchlaena maxicana) About the crop: Teosinte is an important summer fodder crop. It is an annual and non-legume crop like maize. The plant grows up to 3 meter high. The foliage is succulent, nutritious and contains about 8% crude protein. The recommended variety of Teosinte is \"Makaichari 1\".Teosinte is mainly grown as a summer fodder but can be cultivated throughout the year. As a summer crop it is sown in March -April, whereas as in winter, it is sown in September -October. The recommended seed rate is 1.5 kg/ropani 1 .The land should be ploughed 2-3 times, and the weeds and clots should be removed. Application of compost manure at the rate 1000 kg/ropani during the last ploughing is recommended for higher yield.Seed can be broadcasted evenly in the field or sown in rows with 50 cm row to row distance.Teosinte can be cut multiple times.• 1 st cut: ~60 days after sowing (DAS),• 2 nd cut: ~30 days after the 1 st cut (or 90 DAS) and • 3 rd cut: ~30-45 days after the 2 nd cut (or 120-135 DAS). Across the three cuts, the total green fodder yield is about 3 metric tons/ropani.To produce seed, the plant should be left to flower after the first harvesting of fodder and/or the seed sowing should be delayed by one month. Teosinte bears inflorescences and it takes about 120 days for seed ripening. The average seed yield is ~50 kg/ropani.Teosinte fodder can be used for all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes, and goats. teosinte is used as green fodder; it is very palatable. The green fodder can also be preserved as silage. However, being a non-legume teosinte alone doesn't meet the nutritional requirements for optimal growth and production of the animal. A mixture of teosinte and legumes like cowpea, stylo or forage-peanut should be offered in the fodder mixture at the rate of• 2/3 parts of teosinte and• 1/3 cowpea / stylo / other legumes. If the legume fodder is not available, supplementation of concentrated feed is needed, which increases the cost of feeding. Cowpea is grown successfully in warm climates in the Terai and Mid-hills of Nepal. It requires well-drained loamy soil. It does not tolerate water logging conditions as well as prolonged drought. Similarly, it does not tolerate severe cold and frost.The most popular variety of cowpea is \"Fodder Cowpea\" 2 introduced from India but not officially registered in Nepal.Cowpea can be grown both in summer and winter season. As a summer fodder cowpea is sown in May -June, whereas as in winter, it is sown in October -November. The recommended seed rate is 2 kg/ropani.The land should be ploughed 2-3 times, and weeds and clots should be removed. Being a legume, cowpea does not require a heavy dose of manure; however, for good yield compost manure at the rate 500 kg/ropani should be mixed into the soil thoroughly during the final land preparation.The seed should be broadcasted evenly in the field or sown in rows with a row-to-row distance of 25 cm. cowpea can be grown either as a sole crop or as intercrop with teosinte, sorghum, or maize.Harvesting and fodder yield: Cowpea grown as green fodder can be cut twice:• 1 st cut: ~60 days after sowing (DAS) and • 2 nd cut: ~30 days after the 1 st cut (or 90 DAS). On average the cowpea fodder yield is about 2 metric tons/ropani.When growing cowpea for seed production, sowing should be delayed by one month or the plant should be left to flower after the first harvest. The cowpea plants bear pods and take about 120 days for seed ripening. Average seed yield is ~30 kg/ropani.Cowpea fodder is liked by all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes and goats including pigs, fish, and poultry. Cowpea can be used as cut and carry green fodder as well as grazed in situ. However, cowpea fodder should be offered mixed with other non-legume fodders like teosinte, sorghum, maize, napier and/or straws. As it is a legume with high protein content, solo feeding of cowpea may create nutritional problems to the livestock. For the optimal animal growth and production, a mixture of cowpea and non-legumes like teosinte should be offered with a ratio of 1/3 cowpea and 2/3 of non-legume fodder crop.  Oat can be grown in all geographic regions of Nepal from the Terai to the mountain regions. Further it can be grown in a wide range of soils but the most suitable are well drained loamy soils.Recommended varieties: Different varieties of oat are recommended depending on the agro-ecological region. The recommended varieties for Terai and Mid-hills are \"Kamdhenu\" and \"Amritdhara\", whereas for the high mountains the recommended varieties are \"Ganesh\" and \"Parwati\".Oat is propagated from seeds. As a winter season fodder it is sown during the months of September and October. If sown late the fodder yield may be reduced. The recommended seed rate is 5 kg/ropani.The land should be ploughed 2-3 times and weeds and clots should be removed. To ensure good germination sufficient moisture is needed.The seed can be broadcasted evenly in the field or sown in rows with a row-to-row distance of 25cm. Oat can be sown as a solo crop or in mixtures with other winter legumes like vetch or lucerne (alfalafa).Oat as a fodder crop is ready to harvest 50-60 days after sowing (1st cut). A second cut can be harvested after about one month from the first cut. The total green fodder yield of oat is about 1 metric ton/ropani.If oat is grown for seed production, the green fodder should not be harvested. When the kernels are ripe, the whole plant should be harvested and threshed for seed collection. The seed should be sun dried and stored in a dry place. The average seed yield is ~40 kg/ropani.Oat can be used as fodder for all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes and goats and sheep. It can be used as green fodder or can be preserved as a silage or hay. Being a non-legume oat alone doesn't meet the nutritional requirements of the animals. For an optimal growth and production, a mixture of oat fodder and legumes like vetch, stylo or forage-peanut should be offered. The ratio of the mixture should be 2/3 parts of Oat and 1/3 parts of the legume crop. If the legume fodder is not available, supplementation of concentrated feed is needed, which may increase the cost of feeding. Climate and soil: Vetch can be grown in all geographic regions of Nepal from the Terai to the mountains up to an altitude of 2500 m above sea level. The most suitable soil is well drained loam.Agricultural Research Council (NARC) in 2017, is a suitable variety of Vetch for Terai and Mid-hills. The usual seed rate is 1 kg/ropani.As a winter season fodder vetch is sown during the months of September and October.The land should be ploughed 2-3 times and weeds and clots should be removed. Adequate moisture in the field during sowing is crucial for good crop establishment.The seed is to be broadcasted evenly or sown in rows with 25 cm distance between the rows. Vetch can be sown as a solo crop or mixed with other winter non-legumes like oat.Vetch is ready to harvest 50-60 days after sowing. A second harvest can be cut about one month after the first cut. Total green fodder yield is ~1 metric ton/ropani.For seed production, the fodder should not be harvested. When the seed pods ripen, the whole plant should be harvested and threshed to collect the seed. Average seed yield is ~40 kg/ropani.Vetch fodder is liked by all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes, goats and sheep including pigs and fish. Vetch can be used as green fodder or can be preserved as silage or hay. As Vetch is a legume with higher protein content, solo feeding of may create nutritional problems to the livestock. Thus, it should be offered mixed with other non-legume like green oat fodder, napier and/or straws, The optimal ratio is 1/3 of vetch and 2/3 of non-legume fodder crop. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum)About the crop: Napier grass is a perennial fodder similar to sugarcane. Once planted it gives green fodder yield up to 8-10 years. napier is a high yielding nonlegume fodder crop, that contains about 8% crude protein.Napier requires warm climate and can be grown in from the Terai to the mountain regions of Nepal. In the mountains, during the cold season, the crop remains dormant and when temperature rises, the plants start to re-grow again. The most suitable soil is well drained loam. Napier can be planted on the bunds of fields and ponds, terrace risers, riverbanks, roadsides, and other waste lands.The recommended variety of napier for the Terai and Midhills is \"Hathigans-1\". Recently a hybrid giant napier (also referred to as Super Napier) variety called \"Packchong\" has been introduced in Nepal from Thailand and is increasingly popular among the farmers.The best season for planting napier is the rainy season during the months of June -July. Where irrigation is available, napier can be planted throughout the year.The land should be ploughed 2-3 times and weeds and clots should be removed. Napier is a heavy feeder, thus a dose of compost manure of 1000 kg /ropani should be applied thoroughly in the field during the last ploughing. Planting method: Napier is propagated vegetatively via stem cuttings (or alternatively also via root spitting):1. The stem cuttings (also called setts) are harvested from the mother plants by cutting mature branches with 3 nodes.2. The setts are planted in the prepared seedbed at a 45° angle; 1 m apart from each other. While planting, two nodes have to be buried under the soil and one node has to remain above the ground. A total of 2000 setts /ropani are required.Napier is a multi-cut species that can give up to 8 cuttings a year. The first harvest of the green fodder can be harvested three months after planting. While harvesting, the stems should be cut 15 cm above the ground, so that the plant produces rhizomes from the basal parts. The subsequent harvests can be cut approximately every 45 days; in this way napier can be harvested up to 8 times in a year, however this depends on availability of water for the plant to grow. Napier is a high yielder that can give up to 10 metric tons of green fodder per ropani of land. Hybrid napier varieties are higher yielding than common Napier.Napier can be used for all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes, and goats. It can be used as green fodder or preserved as a silage or hay. Being a nonlegume Napier alone doesn't meet the nutritional requirements for optimal animal growth and production. A mixture of napier and legumes like stylo or forage-peanut should be feed. The ratio for the mixture should be 2/3 parts of napier and 1/3 stylo or another legume. If the legume fodder is not available, supplementation of concentrated feed is needed, which may increase the cost of feeding.Other perennial fodders like Seteria, Broom, etc. can be cultivated in a similar way to napier grass.  Recommended variety and seed rate: \"Palpa Stylo\" is the recommended variety.The usual seed rate is 250 g/ropani.Sowing season: Under rain-fed conditions stylo is to be sown in the months of June -July. Where irrigation is available, it can also be sown in March -April (summer) and September. -October (winter).The land should be ploughed 2-3 times and weeds and clots should be removed before broadcasting the seed. As a legume, stylo does not need additional manure. If cultivated in slopy, barren, infertile, and/or afforestation sites, instead of ploughing the entire area, the most suitable sites can be selected as small patches of convenient sizes. The seed bed can be prepared using hand tools before broadcasting the seed.Stylo can be cut up to 4 times per year.• 1 st cut: ~70-80days after sowing (DAS),• 2 nd . 3 rd and 4 th cut: ~45 days after the previous cut Across the four cuts, the total green fodder yield is about 5 metric tons/ropani. Due to its deep root system, stylo remains comparatively green in winter when the native grasses dry out.For seed production, after the first harvest of green fodder, the crop should be allowed to set seed. When the seed is ripe it can be collected in a bucket by shaking the branches with a small stick; alternatively, the whole plant can be harvested and threshed. Stylo produces ~10 kg of seeds per ropani.Stylo fodder can be used for all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes, and goats. It can be used green fodder or can be preserved as a silage or hay. The plant residue after seed collection is also very nutritious and can be offered to cattle and goats. Like for other legumes stylo fodder should be offered mixed with non-legume fodder like napier and/or straws, as solo feeding of may create nutritional problems to the livestock. For the optimal animal growth and production, a mixture of 1/3 stylo and 2/3 of non-legumes should be feed.Other perennial fodders like Desmodium can be cultivated in a similar way to stylo. About the crop: Ipil-ipil is a popular leguminous fodder species. The foliage of this tree is highly nutritious and contains 27-34% of crude protein.Ipil-ipil is a tropical -sub-tropical tree species, suitable for the Terai and Mid-hills of Nepal.The best season for sapling transplanting is June -July. If irrigation is available, the saplings can be transplanted in any season of the year.The recommended species for Terai and Mid-hills is \"leucocephala\", while for the high hills it is \"diversifolia\". The Ipil-ipil seeds or seedlings are planted maintaining about 250 plants per ropani keeping them at least one meter apart. About 250 gm seed is adequate for one ropani depending on germination rate.For normal cultivation, the land is ploughed 2-3 times and weeds and clots should be removed. As a legume, Ipil-ipil does not need additional manure. If Ipil-ipil is planted in barren and slopy land, patch plantation in pits is recommended.Planting methods: Ipil-ipil is propagated from seed as well as saplings.During the rainy season ipil-ipil can be sown directly in the field. As the seed coat is hard, hot water treatment 3 is recommended to ensure good germination. Transplanting 3-5 months old nursery raised saplings is recommended to ensure a good plant stand. Plant (or seed) spacing: one meter between plants and 1-2 meters between rows; on slopy land the saplings should be planted in a pit of about 30*30*30 cm. Ipil-ipil can be successfully established on bunds, terraces, roadsides, riverbanks, barren, infertile, and slopy land as well as afforestation sites.The foliage of ipil-ipil can be harvested starting from a tree age of nine months, once the plant is ~1.5 m tall. Thereafter harvesting of foliage can be performed every 45 days; thus, an established ipil-ipil crop can be harvested six times a year. Ipil-ipil has a high coppicing and regeneration ability, the production of foliage is higher in coppiced plants than those left to grow naturally. Under well managed conditions with good soil fertility and assured irrigation, ipil-ipil can give up to 25 metric tons of green fodder per ropani in a year.Ipil-ipil plant start to bear flowers at the age of six months and the seed pods mature within a year. Ipil-ipil bears new flowers simultaneously with the ripening of seed pods. Collect ripe seed pods manually to avoid that they burst and seed scatters. On an average an Ipil-ipil plantation can produce 10 kg/ropani of seed.The foliage of Ipil-ipil can be used for all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes, and goats. However, it contains a secondary substance known as Mimosine, which may be harmful to young animals and sheep. Ipil-ipil can be used green or in the form of powdered dried leaves, mixed with gruels. Like other leguminous crops Ipil-ipil foliage should be offered mixed with non-legumes at a ratio of 1/3 Ipil-Ipil to 2/3 non-legume crop (e.g. napier grass). Its higher percentage of protein may create a nutritional problem to the livestock if feed on its own. About the crop: Flemingia, known as \"Bhatmase\" in Nepali, is a popular leguminous fodder tree. The foliage is highly nutritious and contains 15-24% of crude protein.Flemingia requires warm climate and can be planted in the Terai and Mid-hills of Nepal. The growth of flemingia is vigorous when planted along irrigation channels or the bunds of fishponds as it requires adequate moisture to thrive.The best season for transplanting flemingia is in the rainy season during the months of June -July. If irrigation is available, saplings can be transplanted in any season of the year. Alternatively, flemingia seed can be sown directly in the field.The common flemingia variety is used as a fodder crop. A total of 250 saplings or 250 gm of seed is required for one Ropani of land.Normally the land is ploughed 2-3 times and weeds and clots should be removed. However, if flemingia is planted in barren and slopy land, patch plantation in pits is recommended.Flemingia is best propagated by planting saplings. The saplings are grown in the nursery and are ready for transplanting when they reach ~10-12 cm height within 45 days from sowing. Plant (or seed) spacing: one meter between plants and 1-2 meters between rows; on slopy land the saplings should be planted in a pit of about 30*30*30 cm. Ipil-ipil can be successfully established on bunds, terraces, roadsides, riverbanks, barren, infertile, and slopy land as well as afforestation sites.Like Ipil-ipil, the foliage of flemingia can be harvested starting from a tree age of nine months, once the plant is ~1.5 m tall.Thereafter harvesting of foliage can be performed every 45 days; thus, an established flemingia plant can be harvested six times a year. Flemingia has a high coppicing and regeneration ability, the production of foliage is higher in coppiced plants. Under well managed conditions with good soil fertility and irrigation, flemingia can give up to 25 metric tons of green fodder per ropani in a year.Seed production: Flemingia starts bearing flowers at the age of six months and seed pods mature within a year. Average seed production is about 10 kg/ropani.Flemingia foliage is used as fodder for all kinds of animals like cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats. It can be used green or in the form of powdered dried leaves, mixed with gruels. As for other leguminous crops, flemigia foliage should be offered mixed with non-legumes at a ratio of 1/3 flemigia to 2/3 non-legume crop (e.g. napier grass). Its higher percentage of protein may create a nutritional problem to the livestock if feed on its own.Silage Why producing silage.Green fodder is the most ideal feed for cattle and buffalos, but it is not always available in sufficient quantities throughout the year. In the absence of green fodder, cattle and buffaloes are often fed with paddy & wheat straw, which are low quality feed, while still quite pricy. In the absence of green fodder or fresh tree foliage, conserved forage is a good alternative to ensure appropriate nutrition of livestock especially during the dry season.One way to conserve green fodder is by producing silage. When making silage the green fodder is conserved in a succulent stage without affecting the nutritional value of the fodder. Recently, in Nepal, silage is becoming popular among commercial dairy farmers as it is cheaper and more nutritious than paddy straw.a) Suitable crops:The most suitable fodder crops for silage production are maize, teosinte, sorghum, napier grass and other non-leguminous crops, which are sweet in taste and have a high carbohydrate content. Legume fodder crops like berseem and vetch, which have high protein content, are not suitable for silage production. Further, fodder crops with hollow stems like oat are not suitable either. b) Harvesting stage of fodder:To produce silage the crop should be harvested at flowering stage, as this is when nutrient content is optimal. Silage quality is low when made from fodder harvested when mature due to its high percentage of fibre content. c) Wilting of fodder:To obtain good quality silage the green fodder should contain 60-65 percent of moisture. As freshly cut green fodder contains a higher amount of moisture (80% or more), after harvesting the fodder should be wilted for 4-5 hours in the sun. Important: The chance of decay of the produced silage is high if the moisture of the fodder is too high. d) Chaffing of fodder:The fodder should be chopped in pieces of about 2-2.5-centimetre length with the help of Chaff-cutter or fodder chopper. e) Containers for silage production:To make silage a special container is required to create airtight conditions for the chaffed fodder; such a container is called \"Silo\". A silo can be made in a soil pit, concrete trench, metal tower, or plastic bags. i.A pit silo is made in a field, close to the cattle shed, the site should be well drained compact soil and free from rainwater runoff. Size: 2 meter deep by 2 meter wide, while the length can be adjusted according to the need. One cubic meter of pit silo contains about 400 kg of green fodder. Fermented silage contains only half the moisture of fresh green fodder; thus 10 tons of green fodder yield 5 tons of silage (=~12.5 cubic meter; for which the pit length would have to be a little more than 3m). The pit silo is to be layered from all sides with plastic (50-micron thickness) prior to filling and covered with it too. ii.A trench silo is made of a concrete trench erected in the field. Size: 2-2.5 meter wide by 2 meter deep; with the length adjusted according to the need. The trench silo is to be covered with plastic (50-micron thickness). iii.Plastic bag silo: Plastic bags of 50-micron thickness of the preferred length are used for silage production. f) Filling of the silo and fermentation of the fodder:Independent from which type of container is used to produce silage, the chaffed fodder is packed into the pit, trench, or bag and compressed to remove all air and create anaerobic conditions. The silo should then be closed tightly to prevent any air and sunlight to enter otherwise the silage will spoil (rotting, decomposing). Good compression of the fodder is crucial for producing good quality silage. g) Completing the fermentation and silage quality:The fermentation process requires three weeks. Thereafter feeding of the silage can start. Be careful to always close the bag or silage pit tightly, after removing the required amount for feeding, to minimize air entry. As long as it is kept airtight silage can be stored up to one year. Good quality silage has an acidic taste, an alcoholic aroma, is green in colour and pH is 3.5-4.2.Almost all nutrients found in the green fodder are conserved in the silage. Silage is consumed by all kinds of livestock; it can be fed to all kind of ruminants as an alternative to green fodder or dry plant residues. Up to 50% of the diet of high yielding dairy cattle or buffalo can be covered by feeding silage, that is about 20 kg of silage per day. Never feed spoiled (foul smelling, black in colour or mouldy) silage. Hay is the dry form of green fodder; it is a way to preserve and store the fodder for use during times of shortage. Traditionally, hay is prepared in mountain regions from native grasses to store fodder for the wintertime. This hay is called \"Gajyo\" in the local language.To produce hay the green fodder is harvested, dried and thus conserved. In this way the nutrient content of the green fodder is concentrated \\ as the moisture content of the green fodder is reduced to less than 15 percent during drying. As it is dry, hay can be stored for a longer period.The following points need to be considered when making hay.Hay can be prepared from all kinds of forage species, however, fodder crops with soft and hollow stems are most suitable for hay making. Further leguminous crops that cannot be conserved as silage but are crucial for a balance diet of the livestock should be conserved as hay. if it is not possible to always have some fresh green fodder of these crops. Fodder crops with thick stems are not suitable for hay production. A good and nutritious hay can be made from mixed fodder species for example oat and vetch. Oat is rich is carbohydrate and the vetch (legume) is rich in protein.Goats are herbivore animals, feeding on grasses and foliage. They can survive and reproduce even with low quality feed. The stomach of the goat has four chambers, one of which contains rumen bacteria, these rumen bacteria can digest low quality fibrous food and convert into essential nutrients required for physical growth and production.Traditionally, goats are raised grazing on fallow cropland and forest, feeding on natural grasses and tree foliage. Most of these native herbaceous species are non-legumes and are low in nutritional value. These forage species grow fast within a short period, and contain a higher percentage of fibre, with low protein percentage (6% or lower).Similarly, local fodder tree species grow slowly, are low yielding in edible foliage, and contain various kinds of secondary substances too. The overall feed value and the digestibility of these foliage is low. Thus, goats raised under traditional systems, grow slowly, with low production.To meet the optimum growth rates and body weight gain, local goat herds can be supplemented with additional grains like maize, soybean, and grain by-products. On the other hand, the use of food grains and pulses as supplementary feed for goats competes with human food security, increasing the production cost too. As an alternative goats should be raised on fodders, which are nutritious, much cheaper and have the potential to grow successfully even on degraded land such as stylo, desmodium, ipil-ipil and others. An experiment carried out to estimate the body growth rate of local goats found that a herd raised on native foliage gained body weight at a rate of 45 g/day (16.4 kg in a year). The same goat herd when fed with nutritious fodder legume gained body weight at a rate of 100 g/day (36.5 kg/year) (McTaggart & Wilkinson, 1981 4 ). This shows that the body weight gain of local goats can be doubled if nutritious fodder is offered. Green fodder crops are the most nutritious and economical fodders for goats and other ruminants. Different fodder species vary in nutritional value; non-legume grass (like oat, teosinte and napier) contain 8-9% protein, whereas legume fodders (like cowpea, vetch and stylo) contain 16-24% protein, with a digestibility (TDN) of 70-75%.The market price of the green fodder is Rs 2-3/kg depending on the type. On dry matter basis, 5 kg of green fodder is equivalent to 1 kg of dry matter (average moisture percentage is 80% in green fodder); thus, 5 kg of green fodder worth Rs 15 is equivalent to 1 kg of concentrated feed 5 (worth Rs 100). Generally, goats and other ruminants do not require supplementary feeding if green fodder is offered in a balanced mixture of legumes & non-legumes (1 part of legumes and 2 parts of non-legumes) without reduction in body weight. Nutritious fodder can be grown on the farm. Table 6.1 summarizes potential fodder crops for goats in different agro-ecologies of Nepal. Goat production based on green and nutritious forage is the most economical, healthy, profitable, and sustainable practice. The green fodder supplies all essential nutrients required for animal growth and production. A balanced diet enhances body growth, improves meat quality, increases milk yield, improves reproduction, and ensure good health.Area required for fodder-based goat production.An adult local Khari goat requires one kilo of dry matter per day, which is equivalent to 5 kg green fodder. Thus, an adult Khari goat requires about 2 metric tons of green fodder per year. Cultivation of mixed fodder crops in one ropani of land can yield ~7.5 metric tons of green fodder and browse materials (Table 6.2). For the cultivation of fodder, the 5 Concentrated feeds are prepared in factories mixing grain by-products like rice/wheat brans, maize flour, soybean cakes, fish meal, minerals, and vitamins. Most of the raw materials needed for these feed mixtures are imported to Nepal from overseas; for example, 60-70% of maize, 90-100% of soybean cakes, and fish meal are imported. This concentrated feed, contain 14-16% protein, and 65-70% Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN). The present market price for this feed is Rs. ~100/kg. About 250 g of feed/day for an adult goat.","tokenCount":"4993"}

data/part_3/0522694449.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"ce60e1ec639a9f9259a265573480eaf5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1f221097-cdfb-46a4-928b-d5b05be8ab88/retrieve","id":"-1730008424"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"451b69ee-fdab-43f8-8bb7-830b8564b79a","pagecount":"25","content":"Vector: Citrus greening disease Only an estimated 2 to 6% of all cargo entering a country can be effectively screened (Work et al., 2005Establishes an area as \"free from\" a given P&D.Trade and quarantine purposes.Detects and diagnoses all pests, not just those that are regulated. Increase coordination in high-consequence disease detectionThe GSS would function though five interconnected networks (i)Diagnostic labs network• Promote and extend standardized diagnostic protocols already used by the regulatory sector (IPPC),• Network diagnosticians with regional experts to promote faster and more accurate results and standardized information management and reporting.• Coordinated by \"regional hubs\" that support the \"spoke\" diagnostic labs in a region, focusing specifically on diagnostic labs and extension services in LICs.• Contribute to update and coordinate existing standard operating procedures for diagnostics, sampling methods, and surveillance approaches.• Regional hubs located at six CGIAR Centers in collaboration with RPPOs and the IPPC, to facilitate consensus with regional partners.Germplasm Health Units located at 11 CGIAR centers across the globe ","tokenCount":"161"}

data/part_3/0549850203.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c761501524901a223953571d6d5f7d34","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e0e1ee11-d252-4405-bf44-d3143094e27c/retrieve","id":"-2065190929"},"keywords":["50 focal persons of CGIAR Institutions/Centers in SEA (Bioversity","CIAT","CIFOR","CIP","ICRAF","IRRI","IFPRI","ILRI","IWMI","WorldFish)","MARDs' Departments","National/Local partners and selected NGOs and donors Nguyen Viet Hung ILRI VN Country Representative"],"sieverID":"57f44823-e57a-4b96-a52e-889d5689f6ef","pagecount":"24","content":"For more than four decades, CGIAR CGIAR Institutions/Centers (i.e., CIFOR, CIAT, ICRAF, IRRI, ILRI etc.) have been collaborating with Vietnam. CGIAR is a global partnership engaged in agricultural research for development, whose work contributes to the global effort to address poverty, hunger and malnutrition and environmental degradation. Carried out by 15 Centers of its Consortium, CGIAR carries out R4D work in close partnership with hundreds of partners across the developing world, including Vietnam. After the first Vietnamese scientist studied in a Center in the 1960s, several CGIAR Institutions/Centers signed a Memorandum of Agreement with Vietnam that laid the foundation for succeeding decades of close R4D collaboration. During 1990s-2000s, CGIAR Institutions/Centers established their offices in Hanoi to support further collaboration. Along with this, Vietnam (through MARD) and CGIAR Institutions/Centers have worked hand in hand in areas of sustainable farming systems, developing technologies to enable farmers, mainly smallholders, in improving their crop and livestock production, managing natural resources and adapting to climate change.In this context, MARD has requested IRRI to convene a CGIAR coordination meeting with CGIAR Centers on 6 November 2015 with the following objectives:1) Update MARD on the current activities and plans of CGIAR Institutions/Centers in Vietnam.2) Familiarize MARD with the various Vietnamese institutions working with the CGIAR Institutions/Centers.3) Explore approaches and mechanisms to facilitate complementation, synchronization and integration of CGIAR activities with MARD policies, plans and programs.The meeting was designed to liaise with targeted participants who have a good understanding of MARD research needs/priorities and the capacity of CGIAR in Vietnam. Participants were key members of CGIAR's institutional partners who hold management functions. The meeting brought together officials and representatives from CGIAR Centers, MARD, its Department and key research institutes and universities. Other partners from selected donors and NGOs also attended the meeting (The list of participants is in annex).The morning session was co-chaired by the Vice-Minister Le Quoc Doanh (in charge of international collaboration and crop production) and the IRRI DG Dr Robert Zeigler and the afternoon session by the Minister Cao Duc Phat and Dr Zeigler.Dr. Chu Van Chuong -Vice Director of ICD -introduced the participants and briefly mentioned the meeting's rationale, objectives and expected outputs.Vice Minister Le Quoc Doanh and Dr. Robert Zeigler gave the welcome and opening remarks:Vice Minister Doanh mentioned CGIAR's presence and work in Vietnam and MARD's wish for CGIAR's continued commitment and investment in developing a joint strategic partnership plan with MARD for research for development activites in line with the Agricultural Sector Restructuring Plan for 2016-2020. He expected that this formal meeting is an opportunity to discuss MARD's interests and to explore further strategic research collaboration between CGIAR and MARD in Vietnam.On behalf CGIAR Centers, Dr. Zeigler described the long, fruitful history of collaboration during the last succeeding decades between CGIAR with Vietnam. He also mentioned the contribution of CGIAR Centers in in Vietnam in the past, especially the contribution of IRRI in rice varietal improvement (rice breeding, germplasm material exchange, varietal releases), resource management, and capacity building. He acknowledged the request of MARD's leadership to develop a long-term partnership plan between MARD and CGIAR in agricultural research for development and how this could be integrated in the strategies/policies of Vietnam. He trusted that the coordination meeting would lead to taking the current MARD-CGIAR collaboration to a new level that will benefit the development of the agriculture sector and rural areas in Vietnam.1. After the presentation providing an overview of the CGIAR, 10 CGIAR's Centers (Bioversity, CIAT, CIFOR, CIP, ICRAF, IRRI, IFPRI, ILRI, IWMI, WorldFish) successively gave an overview of current research activities in Vietnam. They presented centers' objectives, projects/research programs (what and where they are implementing the CRPs and projects), partners (local and International) they are working with in Vietnam.Currently, 2 Centers (CIAT, ILRI) have their regional/country office and 3 Centers (ICRAF, CIFOR, IRRI) have country offices in Vietnam. Five other Centers (Bioversity, CIP, IFPRI, IWMI, WorldFish) have implemented their activities in Vietnam but they don't have offices. In the end of 2014, IRRI was officially recognized as an international organization operating in Vietnam. IRRI also supported Vietnam developed it's rice re-structuring masterplan. Earlier this year, CIAT and ILRI had a regional partnership meetings to refine their research priorities in the country.2. MARD's representative from Department of Planning (DOP) and Department of Science, Technology, and Environment (DOSTE) gave a presentation on \"Master plan of agricultural sector development in the period 2016-2020\" and \"Scientific research orientation of MARD in the period 2016-2020\". These agencies also proposed the priorities and identified areas of MARD-CGIAR collaboration in Vietnam.Most of the areas are from the Agriculture Restructuring Plan of Vietnam (ARP), focusing on:Sustaining the growth of the agriculture sector; raising the efficiency and competitiveness by increasing productivity, quality, and added values; satisfying the demands of consumers in Vietnam and boosting exports.Improving income and living standards of rural residents, ensuring food and nutrition security in both the short term and the long term basis, and contributing to the reduction of poverty.natural resource management, reducing negative impacts on the environment/climate change, utilizing environmental benefits, raising capacity for risk management, enhancing disaster preparedness, increasing forest coverage to 45% by 2020; and contributing to the National Green Development Strategy.3. After the presentations, the plenary discussion focused on drafting the areas of collaboration and needs proposed by MARD and capacities and interests offered by CGIAR Centers. The points discussed were the main areas of common interest and focused on smallholders or/and large producers.During the discussion, VM Minister Le Quoc Doanh mentioned some main key points of achievement, difficulties and development orientation of the agriculture sector in the next period.In the period 2000 -2015, the output value of agriculture, forestry and fisheries continued to increase with agricultural GDP growth rate of 3.4% / year. The structure of agricultural production has gradually shifted to the higher efficient sector which is associated with market demand. From 2000-2015, the share of seafood rose from 16% to 22% while the share of cultivation and livestock declined from 80% to 75% of the total value of production. Exports in agriculture, forestry and fisheries reached $ 30.8 billion with 9 groups netting more than USD 1 billion (2 seafood groups: catfish and black tiger shrimp; 7 crop product group/goods: Coffee, rice, cashew nut, rubber, fresh and processed vegetables and fruits, pepper, cassava and cassava products).Despite these impressive achievements and substantial contributions to national food security, poverty reduction, trade and social stability, Vietnam has not benefited fully from its potential and advantages in the agricultural sector. The agricultural production in Vietnam is still described as low with unstable profitability; low-quality products; insignificant value addition; high rate of postharvest losses; intensive natural resource, misuse of fertilizers, plant protection drugs and veterinary medicines, imbalance and depletion of natural resources and low value and competitiveness.-Increase investments in development and application of agricultural science and high technology to raise the efficiency and competitiveness by increasing productivity, quality, and added values of centralized/targeted product group/goods; -Promoting investments in science, technology including research and application of new seeds, fertilizers, plant protection products, agricultural machines and processing (focus on national products: rice, mushroom & medical mushroom, catfish & processed-catfish products).-Creating mechanisms and feasible incentives to establish \"commodities producing regions\" and \"large-field model\", and integration of the whole value chain from production, processing, trade promotion and market development.-Besides large-scale agriculture development, small farmers will be supported to integrate local and regional supply chain.-Linkages among stakeholders in agricultural production: not only provide incentives for enterprises to associate with farmers in production but also requires new efforts to build and strengthen the discipline in linkage models, to improve the awareness, responsibility and capacity of the farmers in applying advanced technologies and participating in business activities as well.MARD proposed CGIAR research to address:1. Breeding new rice varieties with high-yielding, high quality, pests/diseases tolerance and unfavorable environmental conditions-resistance (especially drought-tolerant, floodingtolerant and salt-tolerant rice varieties).2. Sustainable and intensive farming practices to reduce input costs, save material and raise higher income for rice farmers.3. Breeding short-growth corn, vegetables, and bean varieties with high-yielding, pests/diseases resistance.4. Technical solutions, high-tech production processes to increase productivity and quality of some major fruit trees (mango, mangosteen, longan, litchi, orange, grapefruit ...) for exporting.1. Conserve and develop indigenous animal genetic resources;2. Enhance/strengthening competitiveness of small-scale producers/farmer in market;3. Enhance the value-added in chain of livestock production (from breeding, feeding, raising technology, animal cage/house, veterinary and waste disposal/management);4. Address constrains in food safety and hygiene and improve the quality of livestock products;5. Mitigate/minimize air/water pollution and reduce GHG emissions from livestock; Forestry 1. Genetic conservation of rare timber tree species with high economic and scientific value; international exchange of genetic resources; 2. Investigation of infield resources, management and development of potential use of the water surface from rivers, lakes, reservoirs (hydroelectric, irrigation) for aquaculture (integrated management approach).3. Science-based practices to propose an income-expenditure counting-method for forming the fund the protection or regeneration of marine resources.4. Planning and management of regional fisheries development.5. Analysis and forecast of market's demand and supply and factors of international/global integration for aquaculture development (preferably MRD).CGIAR Centers also proposed/added some more areas in collaboration that was not listed in the identified areas from MARD:1. Only focusing only technical aspect, gender and social inclusive has not been paid attention properly across the R4D projects/programs -> collaboration in gender research in agriculture & rural development.2. Due to a long time of focusing only on increasing quantity (yield, productivity), nutrition has not been guaranteed and nutritional imbalances remain issues in Vietnam -> collaboration in nutrition security.3. Agricultural growth in Vietnam is based on intensive natural resource, misuse of fertilizers, plant protection drugs and veterinary medicines -> collaboration in biosecurity, assurance of food safety and hygiene.4. In order to achieve economic targets, agricultural production causes adverse environmental effects, imbalance and depletion of natural resources (soil, groundwater, surface water, minerals, biodiversity, etc.). Weaknesses in the management of water resources and agricultural residues also cause increasing pollution and greenhouse gas emissions -> collaboration in mitigation of risks in environmental management of agriculture production and climate-smart agriculture.5. Diseases on crops and livestock are becoming more complicated while plant protection and veterinary control have not been adequately invested -> collaboration in developing pest and diseases early-forecast/warning systems, and epidemic surveillance systems.After the presentations, the discussion focused on exploring areas of collaboration and needs proposed by MARD and capacities and interests offered by CGIAR Centers. The following points were discussed: (1) what would be possible areas of collaboration between CGIAR Centers and MARD for the following years? (2) What are possible joint activities to facilitate complementation, synchronization and integration with MARD plans, programs, and policies?Three discussion groups with MARD and other partners within MARD's institutional have outlined the following priority areas of interest/collaboration:(The list of each group member is in annex 1)","tokenCount":"1791"}

data/part_3/0553822855.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"83d4d351d4480ca91041ed440a74b90a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1191b02d-67f9-4fe2-90f6-d58463de6448/retrieve","id":"-1964184458"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"6e1cd9a4-265d-4eae-b838-da5532c134cd","pagecount":"5","content":"In Vietnam, 1 Must 5 Reductions (1M5R) is certified by a Presidential decree (532-QD-TT-CLT) as the national policy to promote best management practices in lowland rice cultivation. The use of 1M5R focused on reduction of seed and pesticide inputs. This management reduced the production costs by 23% reducing the production by 203 US$/ha per season, and generating 19% additional income, 175 US$/ha more. The adoption of this technology was 28% more beneficial compared to farmers who did not follow 1M5R.In Vietnam, the best practice package of 1 Must Do, 5 Reductions developed during the Irrigated Rice Consortium (led by IRRI) Phase IV was promoted by the The RICE-projects CORIGAP (Closing rice yield gaps in Asia) and the Agricultural Competitiveness Project (ACP) of the World Bank. The ACP was extended to the Mekong Delta in November 2012 and rolled out in 2013. In 2013, data collected from just eight provinces in the Mekong Delta (MKD) indicated that 34,500 farmers participated in training and an estimated 240,000 farmers were implementing 1 Must Do, 5 Reductions over 300,000 hectares. The economic model had estimated 425,000 hectares for adoption nationally by 2016, for a benefit of US$27 million for the period 2013-16. These estimates are not for mean impact per farmer reached and were very conservative at 5% input cost reduction. Given that 70% of the projected area had adopted the technologies already in 2013, and a 10% input cost reduction is assumed, then on average the 240,000 Vietnamese farmers would benefit by $160 each per crop or $128/hectare. This is conservative because no yield increase is assumed. To further elucidate the benefits of 1M5R, IRRI and its partners in Vietnam conducted a household survey of among farmers in Can Tho province in the MKD and established replicated production-scale field trials of 1M5R.We demonstrated that application of 1M5R with clear limits for input use can substantially improve the sustainability of rice production in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam through reducing inputs that can have environmentally negative impacts (i.e. fertilizers and pesticides). In the treatment fields, mean total production cost per season fell by 23% (203 USD ha−1) and mean net income increased by 19% (175 USD ha−1), resulting in a 28% increase in the benefit: cost ratio. Five of eight farm-level SRP indicators showed an improvement in sustainability performance, whilst yield, labor productivity and water productivity were maintained. Farmers implementing GAP and SFLF management approaches were slightly more sustainable than CNV farmers, although there is scope for further improvement, especially with regards to reducing rice seed and pesticide application rates. We propose possible strategies to increase adoption of more sustainable crop management practices in the MKD.• https://tinyurl.com/y2on2hf6 The intensification of rice production in the Mekong delta (MKD) has helped to address food security in Vietnam and in the region. However, the overuse of inputs coupled with the rising production costs are making it increasingly difficult for smallholder rice farming in the MKD to remain economically and environmentally sustainable. Thus, there is a widely recognized need to improve the sustainability of rice cultivation in the delta. Since 2003, the Vietnam Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development has led several initiatives to improve rice crop management practices in the MKD, including the 'One Must Do, Five Reductions' (1M5R) integrated technology package and the 'Small Farmer Large Field' (SFLF) model. Under the SFLF model, some contract farming with high-quality rice exporters in MKD are also based on Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) standards, such as GlobalGAP and VietGAP, that farmers must follow for accreditation.As part of an adaptive research platform, we conducted a household survey of GAP (VietGAP and GlobalGAP), SFLF and conventional (CNV) farmers in Can Tho province in the MKD and established replicated production-scale field trials of 1M5R, with an emphasis on further reducing seed and pesticide inputs by applying limits on their use. We assessed the sustainability performance of 1M5R and the three different management approaches for rice production (i.e. GAP, SFLF and CNV) over two rice cropping seasons using eight farm-level Sustainable Rice Platform (SRP) performance indicators.We demonstrated that application of 1M5R with clear limits for input use can substantially improve the sustainability of rice production in the MKD through reducing inputs that can have environmentally negative impacts (i.e. fertilizers and pesticides). In the treatment fields, mean total production cost per season fell by 23% (203 USD ha−1) and mean net income increased by 19% (175 USD ha−1), resulting in a 28% increase in the benefit: cost ratio. Five of eight farm-level SRP indicators showed an improvement in sustainability performance, whilst yield, labor productivity and water productivity were maintained. Farmers implementing GAP and SFLF management approaches were slightly more sustainable than CNV farmers, although there is scope for further improvement, especially with regards to reducing rice seed and pesticide application rates. We propose possible strategies to increase adoption of more sustainable crop management practices in the MKD.","tokenCount":"813"}

data/part_3/0562474340.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4bf453c8dd0a43b41184e173d0a12f3d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/20257c4b-9271-4f38-acda-47e1bf9db7d0/retrieve","id":"679805664"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"28a5c2cd-f708-4ca6-b963-3dc0547ec42f","pagecount":"32","content":"This study examines the evolution of public policy and institutions shaping the agrifood systems in Haryana, India, from 1850 to the present. Public policy is conceptualized as representing state intent (Narain 2018; Dye 2002); in the context of this study, this includes a historical review of public policy spanning the colonial as well as postcolonial eras. Institutions are conceptualized as regularized practices, norms, and codes of conduct that structure repeated human interactions (North 1990). Thereby, in this study, institutions refer to both statutory (enforced and legitimized by the state) and non-statutory (legitimatized by sources other than the state) institutions.1.Present-day Haryana, a part of the Punjab Province during British rule, was discriminated against in matters of agricultural development by the British administration, as the people from this area had participated in the First War of Independence in 1857.The mahalwari land revenue system used here during the British period was oppressive and rendered the local population impoverished and indebted.The irrigation systems constructed by the British in the region were limited to protecting it from famine and social unrest; therefore, these systems were characterized by low irrigation intensities. The introduction of green revolution technology in the 1960s presented new challenges for protective irrigation systems because the existing low intensity irrigation design was inadequate to meet farming demands, especially for farmers who wanted to pursue productive irrigation. 4.The green revolution led to monocropping in favor of wheat and rice in the state. This practice was supported by the state's procurement policy as well as policies on flat-rate electricity pricing and subsidies for tube wells.Research note 15 December 2023Haryana is a state in northwest India, first recognized as a separate state in 1966. Though it was one of the major cradles of the Indian green revolution, it is currently undergoing a structural transformation and plays a key role in the industry and service sectors of the country. This note describes how policies and institutions shaping the state's agrifood systems have evolved between 1850 and the present.This study aims to describe the evolution of policies and institutions that have shaped agrifood systems in Haryana. During the colonial period, this mainly included the state's land revenue policy and policies for the expansion of arable land and irrigation.In the postcolonial period, this refers to forms of state intervention such as the continued expansion of arable area and irrigation, the introduction of green revolution technologies, policies for participatory irrigation management, and the state response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Agrarian institutions, such as systems of water rights and land tenure, and norms of cooperation and collective action, however, exist at a very micro level. This study seeks to capture elements of continuity and discontinuity between the colonial and postcolonial periods with regard to policy and institutions. It focuses on public policy (legitimized and enforced by the state) as well as micro-level statutory and non-statutory institutions (such as the system of water rights, allocation, and distribution) that underpin the state's agrifood systems.The study draws primarily on a review of the relevant published literature, archival material, and a few key informant interviews. Key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted mainly to validate and update some of the findings from the literature review. The relevant literature was selected using a snowballing technique. Given that the state's agrarian institutions operate at a micro level, this study draws on several micro-level case studies to show how such institutions have manifested and evolved. The initial search for pertinent literature was used to identify further literature to be reviewed to build a coherent storyline.The geography of present-day Haryana was captured by the East India Company on December 30, 1803, from Daulat Rao Sindhia. It then became a part of the Delhi Province under what was then known as the North-Western Province (NWP). The people of Haryana played a significant role in the first war of independence in 1857, resulting in many casualties. After the British suppressed the mutiny, the Nawab of Jhajjar, the Raja of Ballabhgarh, and Rao Tula Ram of Rewari were deprived of their territories. These were handed over to the rulers of Nabha, Jind, and Patiala of the Punjab Province as a reward for their loyalty to the British Empire (Sharma 2016). Thus, Haryana was separated from NWP and tagged to Punjab in February 1858.Consequently, the region became the sociocultural backyard of Punjab and was discriminated against in matters of development (Amrohi 2013;Sharma 2016;Parshad 2018). The fact that the people of Haryana had participated in the mutiny of 1857 was key in influencing British attitude and policy toward the state -the British took a hostile stand. On the one hand, they followed a repressive land revenue policy, and on the other, they accorded a low priority to the development of agriculture in the region. The state was seen mainly as a source of supply for soldiers for the British army and for draught animals. Haryana remained a part of Punjab (first under the administrative control of Punjab Province from 1858 to 1947 during British colonial rule, and then later as part of the Indian state of Punjab postindependence) until November 1966, when it came to be recognized as a separate state.The British introduced three distinct land revenue assessment systems in India -the zamindari settlement (permanent settlement) in Bengal; the ryotwari settlement in Madras and Bombay, and the mahalwari system in North India (Parshad 2018). Haryana witnessed the mahalwari system, where the settlement was made directly with the village community, or mahal (estate), under the instructions of a settlement officer, who would fix the land rent to be paid by the peasants with the help of a lambardar (village headman). The lambardar was solely responsible for all recommendations, the survey of lands, the preparation of records relating to land rights, the settlement of land revenue and demands in the mahals, and the collection of land revenue.A detailed account of the land revenue policy in the region is provided by Amrohi (2013), Singh (2012), andParshad (2018). During colonial rule, land revenue was one of the key revenue sources for the government and was used by the imperialistic power to secure its colonial ambitions. However, the land revenue policy followed by the British in Punjab was different from that of the rest of India. Besides, even within Punjab, the land revenue policy followed was different for south-eastern areas in Punjab (present-day Haryana).\"The experience of the south-eastern region under British Rule was both qualitatively and quantitatively different from that of the Punjab province as a whole. The process of agricultural expansion, which marked the entire region, and had a significant impact on all aspects of life, was somewhat absent in this part of the region. The continued backwardness and underdevelopment of the tract, despite overall economic development, brought about a situation with its own specific problems and variations peculiar to south-eastern areas alone\" (Amrohi 2013, 18).While the land revenue was fixed at 40% for India as a whole, it was approximately 50% in Punjab. Since south-eastern areas in Punjab were further discriminated against, land revenue was collected stringently. The land revenue extracted from Punjab increased periodically. Between 1817-1818and 1861, it increased 182%, 24% between 1860-1861and 1900-1901, and 20% between 1900-1901and 1931-1932(Amrohi 2013). Among all the districts in Punjab, Karnal contributed the most toward land revenue as a percentage of net income.Land revenue was a tax that the peasantry had to pay even under extreme circumstances, and it remained a compressing burden for the peasantry throughout the colonial period (Amrohi 2013; Sharma 2016; Parshad 2018). They were expected to pay their dues by the appointed time under stringent conditions, as defaulting on land revenue meant loss of land ownership. No excuses were accepted with regard to nonpayment of revenue.Consequently, land revenue became a major reason for farmer debt.The land revenue demanded from the south-eastern areas of Punjab rose steadily between 1860 and 1932 (Amrohi 2013). For instance, the total land revenue demand in 1860-1861 was 41 lakh rupees, which increased to 53 lakh rupees in 1900-1901 and further to 73 lakh rupees in 1931-1932, i.e., a 30% increase between 1860-1861 and 1900-1901 and a 37% increase between 1900-1901 and 1931-1932. Overall, the demand for land revenue increased by 85% between 1860-1861 and 1931-1932. In 1860, the highest revenues were collected from Gurgaon (11.5 lakh rupees), followed by Rohtak and Karnal (approximately 9 and 8 lakhs rupees, respectively). Comparatively, Hissar and Delhi paid less (approximately 4 lakhs rupees each), and Ambala and Sirsa paid the least (2 lakhs rupees each).On account of its political positioning and participation in the first war of independence of 1857, the region's agricultural development was not prioritized by the colonial state (Amrohi 2013; Parshad 2016). It was mostly seen as being only suited for the supply of draught animals to the rest of Punjab and other parts of the country. Animal husbandry emerged as a subsistence-level economic activity, yet it never reached commercial proportions because the emphasis was on draught cattle rather than dairy cattle or the commercialization of dairy products. Over time, the region became impoverished and emerged as a major recruiting ground for the British Indian army, which was the only source of employment and sustenance under conditions of economic stagnation and backwardness.In addition to the repressive land revenue policy, two other colonial policies affected the agrifood system in the south-eastern areas of the Punjab Province. These were the expansion of arable land and the construction of irrigation systems. Between 1850 and 1970, a steady expansion of arable land took place all over North India, including presentday Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and Chandigarh (Richards et al. 1985). The expansion of cultivable land was accompanied by the loss of woodlands. Though most of this expansion occurred during 1850-1890, amounting to a total increase of 28%, the expansion continued until 1970, adding another 16% of cultivable land. The districts on the desert fringe (especially Mahendragarh between 1890 and 1970) and the plains experienced the greatest growth (with Karnal, Jullundur, Patiala, and Sangrur showing the highest rates of expansion).While clearing new lands for plowing was the most common investment in agriculture in the colonial period, irrigation works, leading to land reclamation, were another (Richards et al. 1985). Some canals that were dug by the British were beneficial to the areas that constitute present-day Haryana (Kumar and Dangi 2018.). For instance, the Western Yamuna Canal, built by Sultan Feroz Shah in the fourteenth century, was renovated in 1886 since most parts of the canal had fallen into disuse. In 1868, another big canal irrigation project (Sirhind Canal) was launched by the British. This canal was planned to take water from the Sutlej and irrigate the districts of Hissar, Haryana, Ludhiana, and Ferozepur of the Punjab Province. Similarly, the Sirsa Branch Canal was dug during 1885-1895.The construction of these canals had an important effect on altering the local cropping patterns. For instance, the canals built by the British in the villages around Kakroi in Sonipat had an impact on agricultural production (pers. comm. Pratik Mishra, postdoctoral Research Associate, Lancaster Environment Center, Lancaster, England, United Kingdom, September 27, 2023). Because the water in the region was brackish, only chana (chickpea) and other millets or lentils were cultivated early on. However, with the building of the canal networks during the British time, there was enough water to even grow sugarcane.Genesis and Historical Evolution from the Colonial to the Postcolonial Period Apart from the expansion of arable land, the other element of continuity between the colonial and postcolonial periods was the construction and expansion of irrigation systems. Just as elsewhere in India, these constructions in areas of present-day Haryana were guided by the concept of protective irrigation (Jurriens andWester 1995a, 1995b;Mollinga 2003), which was part of the phase of planned economic development. This highlighted the continuity in state policy. Yet, the actual practice of protective irrigation evolved historically both during the colonial and postcolonial periods. This, on the other hand, represented the discontinuity in state policy.Another element of discontinuity was in terms of the relationship and compatibility between farming practices and the design assumptions of the protective irrigation systems. Till the British period, the state's protective irrigation systems functioned as intended. However, after the colonial period and the introduction of green revolution technology, there was a mismatch between the goals of protective irrigation and those of farmers, who now wanted to engage in productive irrigation. This created ideal conditions for institutional evolution on how water rights were realized in practice, pointing to a distinction between the concretization of water rights and their materialization.As opposed to productive irrigation systems, which match water availability from irrigation systems with the crop water requirements (and also the dominant practice worldwide), protective irrigation systems are designed to meet only part of the total crop water requirements. They have specific technical, organizational, and institutional characteristics. Appreciating the concept of protective irrigation, the foundation for which was laid during the colonial period, is essential in understanding the present agrarian context of Haryana and in assessing the performance of canal irrigation systems. Technological and institutional evolution within protective irrigation systems continues to characterize agrifood systems in the state.The fundamental idea behind the concept of protective irrigation during the British period was to spread the water thinly over a large area and reach out to a large number of farmers rather than meet the entire crop water requirements of only a few (Jurriens andWester 1995a, 1995b;Mollinga 2003). This was to prevent famine and political unrest and to encourage the cultivation of cash crops. The principle of protective irrigation has been adopted in India since the middle of the nineteenth century (Jurriens and Wester 1995a) and developed by the British administration at a time when the subcontinent frequently faced famines.Initially, irrigation was intended to benefit as many people as possible with a small but sufficient amount of water to protect them from total crop failure. This was in accordance with two of the official British development objectives for India: protection from famine and maintenance of political security. However, when protective irrigation systems were first built in India, colonial authorities did not use the term \"protective irrigation.\" Instead, the land with protective irrigation was referred to as \"area protected.\" It was not the same as an irrigated area as an area was considered protected even when only a part of it received water. In the 1860s, in Punjab, it was considered enough if 42.5% of the surface area received water. Thus, when an area was \"protected\" by irrigation, it meant that water was available for at least 42.5% of the surface area and there was sufficient water to guard it against famine and crop failure. It did not imply that there was enough water to irrigate all the crops of a particular holding.In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, however, protective irrigation acquired a second meaning when such systems came to be distinguished from productive irrigation systems (Jurriens and Wester 1995a;Mollinga 2003). In the first half of the nineteenth century, irrigation schemes were designed with the goal of maximum return with minimum investment. This approach proved to be quite profitable as capital expenditure could yield a return of up to 69.5% (Whitcombe 1983and Stone 1980cited in Bolding et al. 1995). These irrigation systems came to be referred to as productive irrigation systems. However, after 1860, when the Crown assumed direct control of India from the East India Company (Mollinga 1998), certain changes were introduced that had implications for irrigation development.This period also witnessed changes in the manner in which public works were financed. An independent public works department was established, and the irrigation policy underwent a change following the report of the Indian Famine Commission .In its report, the Indian Famine Commission drew attention to the benefits of irrigation in preventing famine. It defined the general policy that the British Government should adopt in dealing with famines (Narain 1922) and emphasized the need to anticipate famines and be prepared for them. It recommended that the government take direct measures to prevent famine and provide relief. The proposed solutions included expanding irrigation and railways and promoting the diversification of occupations.As a result, protective irrigation works came to play an important role during British rule. According to Narain (1922): \"Famines have been frequent under British rule, but thanks to the chain of protective railways, and the great irrigation works, they do not cause so much suffering now as they did in the past. Very great progress has been made in famine protection and famine relief\" (243). He continues:\"It would be difficult to overestimate the value to the country of these fine systems of irrigation works which may be said, with some slight reservations in respect of the Cauvery works in Madras, to have been entirely created by the British Government within the last eighty years. They irrigate annually over 11 million acres and completely protect from famine an area, which, except in the Madras and Orissa deltas, may be said to vary from two to four times the area annually irrigated. In some parts, as in Sind, there can be no cultivation, and therefore no population, without canal irrigation. In others, the effect of the works in maintaining or raising the level of the sub-soil water, on which the well irrigation depends, is of the utmost value and importance. The value of the crops irrigated by the canals in a single year is about equal to the whole capital cost of the works, and in years of famine, the produce of the irrigated area, being largely available for transport to distressed tracts, becomes an important item in the general food supply of the country\" (Report of the Indian Irrigation Commission 1901-1903cited in Narain 1922, 290). This notion of protective irrigation remained in use till 1964, when the benefit/cost (B/C) ratio was introduced as an investment criterion. Since then, it has not been used to indicate a formal category of irrigation scheme as intended by the Indian Famine Commission. In the 1990s, protective irrigation came to acquire a third meaning, indicating a form of irrigation that had certain technical, organizational, and socioeconomic characteristics specific to drought-prone areas of the subcontinent (Jurriens and Landstra 1989). The technical characteristics of protective irrigation systems involved spreading the water thin over a large area and a number of farmers. Farmers were expected to cultivate crops that required less water. Further, water was rationed based on available supplies. A supply-orientated approach implied that these systems were characterized by low irrigation intensities and high duties [1] (Jurriens and Landstra 1989). The intensity of irrigation in many systems was often less than 100% (Tilak and Rajvanshi 1991). By restricting irrigation by canals to a part of the irrigable areas, and by further limiting cultivation in those parts to one crop per year, the water was spread over a large area. Fine-tuning supply to demand, which is done to maximize yield, was not the objective. The supply-orientation approach resulted in maintenance costs being kept low (as these systems were unproductive systems and yielded little revenue). Such an approach also required fewer regulating devices for controlling water levels between the source (such as a weir or a dam) and the outlet command areas at the farmers' level (Mollinga 2003).  1996). Besides, the supply-oriented approach of protective irrigation systems fit well with the top-down organizational structure of the irrigation department and was based on the principle of an upward flow of information and a downward flow of instructions.Another organizational characteristic was the institutional system of water rationing, which appeared to operate as a system of designed scarcity (Jurriens et al. 1996). This system of rationing scarce water supplies took the form of warabandi irrigation in northwestern India and Pakistan, shejpali in western India, and localization in South India (Mollinga 2003). Warabandi is a system of water allocation in which water is allocated to farmers in proportion to the size of the land-holding; shejpali is a system of water allocation in which farmers make applications for water and these are sanctioned based on water availability in the reservoir. A detailed discussion of these systems follows in subsequent sections of this study.According to Jurriens andWester (1995a, 1995b), the protective irrigation schemes in India under British rule functioned more or less satisfactorily. This was because of several reasons. First, the population was smaller; second, agricultural production was mostly at the subsistence level, given the initial objectives of the irrigation system; and third, overall, production capacities had improved from what had been before the introduction of irrigation. Therefore, low irrigation intensities and agricultural yields were acceptable because they did offer protection from famine.After independence, however, the situation changed somewhat drastically. From the 1960s onward, the population explosion triggered a shortage of food and fiber. The situation was exacerbated due to several droughts during the monsoon period in the early years of planned economic development. Attaining selfsufficiency in food production became imperative for the newly independent India. With agriculture beginning to be remunerative for the rural population, farmers tried to increase production by irrigating more. Programs to improve seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and marketing had a considerable impact on production, especially after the introduction of higher-yielding varieties (HYVs) in the 1960s. The net outcome was an increased demand for water, which the protective irrigation systems were not designed to fulfill. This created conditions for an institutional evolution of the supplyconstrained irrigation systems of the north, including the warabandi system, which is still prevalent in Haryana.Warabandi is a form of protective irrigation prevalent in present-day Haryana and much of northwest India and Pakistan. As a system of water allocation, warabandi covers an area of approximately 24 million hectares (mha) in India and Pakistan (Bandaragoda 1998) [2].The genesis of the warabandi system stemmed from a process of trial-anderror allocation of water to farmers during British times (van Halsema 2002). It is a supply-based system where water is divided among landowners according to the size of their landholdings (Malhotra et al. 1984;Malhotra 1988;Berkoff 1990;Bandaragoda 1998;Narain 2008aNarain , 2008b)). Thus, water rights are defined in terms of a time schedule to receive water. This is an interesting and important dimension of the irrigation and agrarian context of the state and warrants a detailed discussion for three main reasons. First, most discourses on water rights and market creation (see, for instance, Anderson and Snyder 1997) assume volumetric definitions of water rights. Second, in mainstream discourses on irrigation and agrarian reforms in the country, the definition of water rights itself has been a blackbox. Third, a detailed understanding of how water rights are defined and materialized has conceptual significance in that it has the potential to impart a sociotechnical perspective on water rights, drawing attention to how the definition and materialization of rights is shaped by an interface of technology and institutions (Narain 2008a(Narain , 2008b)). Water rights are embedded in the design of irrigation systems in the state and do not exist in a sociotechnical silo.At the tertiary level, water is allocated to farms through ungated proportional modules, which draw a fixed allocation of water from the main and secondary systems. Farmers are expected to take this fixed discharge of water on the assigned date and time of the week as specified in the warabandi schedule prepared by the state's irrigation department. The distributaries are supposed to operate at full supply level (FSL). This basis of a water right is sanctioned under the Haryana Canal and Drainage Act of 1974.In principle, the warabandi system is not designed to be flexible in terms of duration, rate, and frequency of irrigation (Narain 2003a(Narain , 2003b)). The distributaries are designed to be operated at FSL, and water is drawn through fixed, ungated structures such as the adjustable proportionate module (APM) or open flume at the tertiary or chak (outlet or watercourse) level. Every farmer is assigned a specific time and date of the week when he is entitled to take the full flow of water flowing from the distributary. Calculations are based on 168 hours in a week. If there are, for instance, 168 hours in a chak, the allocation time for each acre is one hour, meaning an acre will get an irrigation turn of one hour. The amount of water allocated to a watercourse is calculated according to a predetermined, scheme-wide water allowance and the size of the area commanded by the watercourse.In practice, however, farmers work within the constraints of the warabandi system such that it operates as a quasi-demand-based system. As noted, the designed low irrigation intensities and high duties worked well till the period of colonial rule. However, this connection was broken in the post-independence era, especially with the introduction of the green revolution, which demanded the timely application of specific quantities of water in combination with HYVs of seeds and other agricultural inputs such as pesticides and chemical fertilizers. A conflict emerged between the goals of protective irrigation that was in practice and productive irrigation, which the farmers wanted to follow. Farmers started pursuing various strategies at the individual and group levels to reconcile the goals of protective irrigation with those of productive irrigation. An analysis of these strategies helps us understand the institutional evolution in the mediation of the 'designed scarcity' in the agrifood systems of the state and draws attention to the role of social capital in shaping the adaptive capacity of the state's farmers.The most detailed account of these strategies is provided by Narain (2003aNarain ( , 2003b)), which is based on an ethnographic study of two villages in the Rohtak and Jind districts of the state. One of the most prevalent practices observed among farmers was the exchange of allocated time turns for irrigation. The pucka warabandi (formal warabandi schedule made by the irrigation department) schedule for each outlet is prepared by the irrigation department. The legal basis of sanction is Section 55 (A) of the Haryana Canal and Drainage Act of 1974. The schedule specifies the day, time, and duration each week when a farmer is entitled to receive a prespecified quantity of water. Since such a specification may be inadequate for farmers to meet their crop water requirements, it is reconciled by exchanging or accumulating irrigation turns with other farmers to make the water right more effective. For instance, if a farmer's turn to irrigate is from 9 am to 9:15 am on Monday, but he finds that the water allocated to him during that period is insufficient, he may borrow 15 minutes from another farmer and perhaps another 15 minutes from another farmer, with a promise to return the 'turns' in the future. This way, he accumulates 45 minutes over his allotted time to irrigate at a stretch, which makes the water right more effective.It is important to note that time exchanges are prohibited under the Haryana Canal and Drainage Act of 1974. However, they are followed widely and legitimized based on bhaichaara, which translates to 'a form of brotherhood or fraternity.' Bhaichaara represents a form of social capital that is mobilized to overcome the constraints posed by the designed scarcity created by the warabandi system as a form of protective irrigation. Bhaichaara is an organic institution in that it is socially embedded.Respondents describe bhaichaara as giving up an individual good for a larger good; the term is used in various contexts, such as a bhaichaara panchayat, which refers to a form of local governance parallel to the statutory panchayat. There is an element of reciprocity in these time exchanges, captured by the expression commonly used to describe them: \"bhai ka diya, bhai ka liya\" (taken from brother, returned to brother) (Narain 2003a(Narain , 2003b)). As a consequence, bhaichaara-based time exchanges have become integral in shaping the adaptive capacity of farmers in response to a regime that is scarce by design.Though water rights are defined by the state, they are realized through normative systems outside the state. This is evident in the distinction between policy and practice of water rights as well as water allocation and distribution.Statutory and nonstatutory bases of legitimacy equally shape water access in the warabandi system, pointing to the existence of legal pluralism (von Benda Beckmann, 2001)   2003b). Accumulating timeshares is a particularly common strategy for farmers with very small landholdings, such as one acre or half an acre. For instance, if farmers A, B, and C have one acre of land and 15 minutes each to irrigate, they exchange and accumulate their turns such that each farmer gets 45 minutes to irrigate at a stretch. Time exchanges also cut across seasons. For instance, if, in the kharif season, farmer A has sown paddy and farmer B has sown sorghum, farmer A, who has a greater crop water requirement, borrows an irrigating turn from farmer B. In the rabi season, if farmer B has sown wheat, and has an extra water requirement, he takes his allowance back from farmer A. It is common for tailenders, who are usually deprived of a fair share of water due to head-tail differences, to skip irrigation in one season (kharif) and accumulate water shares so that one crop can be grown in the rabi season. In kharif, they concentrate on crops such as sorghum, millet, and cotton as they consume less water and also because farmers rely on the rains for kharif cultivation.The practice of time exchanges also cuts across tholas (ancestral family units), though it is more common among members of a thola who own adjacent pieces of land to swap allotted irrigation time across outlets as well as seasons.The institutionalization of time exchange, albeit informal, is attributable to 1) the design features of the canal irrigation systems that allocate water scarcely in relation to the crop water requirement; 2) welldefined water rights that have a basis under the Haryana Canal and Drainage Act of 1974; 3) the rigidity in the water allocation schedule and the small size of landholdings, which lead to short duration irrigation turns, making irrigation impractical and inefficient; and 4) the existence of plural legal repertoires (Narain 2003a(Narain , 2003b)).The study of time exchanges in the agrifood systems of Haryana points to an institutional evolution within a sociotechnical context of protective irrigation that has its roots in the colonial period but was shaped further with the spread of the green revolution technology in postcolonial India in response to the measures taken to overcome the agricultural stagnation created during the colonial rule.It is equally interesting to learn how the institution of time exchange works in relation to other institutional arrangements in agriculture, such as tenancy arrangements (Narain 2003a(Narain , 2003b)). When a landowner gives the land out to be tilled under a tenancy arrangement (theka), the arrangement is inclusive of the water rights share of the land. It is a common practice among small landowners in Haryana to take land on theka from other farmers. Larger farmers also give out their lands on theka in smaller parcels or fragments to more than one small farmer at once or simultaneously cultivate their lands and those of other farmers. Water rights, in these contexts, are maintained under sajedaari arrangements, wherein the landowner provides the piece of land and its concomitant share of water. The landowner and the tenant contribute equally to the agricultural inputs and share the produce equally. This arrangement is known as addha, literally meaning 'half-half.'Haryana, what can their study contribute to the neoliberal discourse on market creation? Narain (2003aNarain ( , 2003b) ) notes two different types of sale of water rights -one where the farmer sells off his water right share for an entire year when not intending to irrigate from the canal, and the other, when he sells a specific turn, for instance, for a week, when he does not need to irrigate in that turn. The rate varies depending on the demand; during the summer, this could be INR 200 per hour [3], and during the winter season, it is in the range of INR 100-150 per hour (Narain 2003a).However, time swapping is a more common practice than selling it because lending a timeshare creates the basis for future entitlement. Once a farmer lends his timeshare to another, the latter is under an obligation to return it. Since farmers would typically sell their turn only after meeting their requirements and obligations, Narain (2003a) posits that the possibility of vibrant water markets emerging under warabandi irrigation is very thin. This supports the results of other empirical studies on market creation in surface irrigation, such as those of Bauer (1997), who investigated the functioning of water markets in Chile after the creation of the National Water Code of 1987 and found the functioning of the water markets to be sluggish.Other strategies for increasing control over irrigation, over and above time exchanges, have been digging tube wells, pilfering water along the canal, or applying for rice shoots [4]  (Narain 2003a(Narain , 2003b)). Though it is common to supplement canal water irrigation with groundwater, farmers typically wait for the canal, as canal water is much cheaper. However, if a farmer needs to irrigate outside his schedule, he tends to pump groundwater. The farmer may still pump groundwater if he feels that his water entitlement is inadequate relative to his requirement. According to Narain (2003a) there is a tendency among farmers who buy groundwater for irrigation to dig their own tube wells to have even greater control over groundwater availability. Groundwater sale and purchase conditions vary, depending on the relationship between the buyer and the seller. It is often sold at a rate of INR 40 per hour. Alternatively, the buyer may provide the seller with the required amount of diesel. A third arrangement is a contractual annual arrangement where the seller provides groundwater at the rate of INR 1,000 per acre per annum. Tailenders rely more on groundwater irrigation on account of seepage losses. They buy groundwater from sellers closer to the head reaches where the groundwater is less saline owing to its proximity to the canal; seepage from the canal washes down some of the salts.An analysis of these forms of transactions points to the diversity of farmer responses to a regime of designed scarcity in the state's agrifood systems and also to the variety of institutional arrangements shaping farmers' access to groundwater. Though the literature on warabandi irrigation is extensive, there are few detailed ethnographic studies other than Narain (2003aNarain ( , 2003b) that offer insights into the actual irrigation practices in the state. Studies of warabandi irrigation in Pakistan also offer similar analyses and could be referred to for additional insights [5].Participatory irrigation management (PIM) is an important dimension of the agrifood systems of Haryana that helps trace the evolution of irrigation policy in the state. In the late 1990s, it emerged in response to the global trend of transferring the management of irrigation systems to farmers.  (Narain 2003a). The main role accorded to WUAs under policies for PIM was the lining of the water courses and the maintenance thereof. Interestingly, the irrigation department never came to be identified as a direct actor in the formation of WUAs.Several criticisms were made regarding the policies for PIM in the state. The first critique was the limited potential for reform through the formation of WUAs (Narain 2003a). This related to the technological context in which the policies for PIM were meant to be implemented. The prevalence of warabandi as a sociotechnical system comprising a certain physical infrastructure and corresponding institutions for water resource allocation (and not just as an institutional system of water rationing) in itself limited the potential for reform of the irrigation systems through PIM. Warabandi, as explained in earlier sections of this study, is a supply-driven system in which irrigators receive fixed supplies of water that are supposed to be appropriated in the time slots allotted to them as per the warabandi schedule. Users have a very limited role in the overall operation of the system. They are mere recipients of predetermined, fixed quantities of water. This is in contrast, for instance, to the shejpali system of Maharashtra, where there are several operational implications in terms of receiving water applications, sanctioning applications, and then releasing water through gated pipe outlets. The operational implications of the shejpali system are such that it has the potential for reform by transferring these functions from the irrigation department to the water users. The same cannot be said about the warabandi system of irrigation.State policy for the formation of WUAs further tended to deepen the effects of agrarian structures and social relations. Field studies show the domination of the WUA decision-making processes by the local village elite (Narain 2003a). A study of the organizational dynamics of the day-to-day functioning of WUAs in a watercourse in a village in the Rohtak district (Narain 2003a) draws attention to how the day-to-day functioning was dominated by three individuals who held positions of power and misused the WUA's financial resources. Other members complained of a lack of access to essential information regarding the functioning of the WUA. The three individuals were further able to evade accountability to other members due to their elite position in the village hierarchy and networks. The study, guided by an ethnographic approach and based on a prolonged period of observation and immersion in the site, found that the three individuals were bound by strong ties of friendship. The study is useful in demonstrating the social embeddedness of collective action shaped by social and power relations. There were conflicts inside the WUA that were socially embedded, i.e., they were reflective of other conflicts in the community. When the WUA was formed, it was done by choosing the eldest member from each thola, revealing the socially embedded and patriarchal nature of institutions for collective action.Another critique of the PIM strategy in Haryana was that it shifted the responsibility for irrigation system management to the farmers at the tertiary level when the main management challenges, such as poor functioning and maintenance and water thefts, were situated at levels above the outlet (Narain 2003a). It was argued that if irrigation reforms were to be meaningful in the context of Haryana, such reforms would have to be carried out above the outlet, at the level of the main system, where the more critical management challenges persisted. This led to explicit demands for reform of the main system, i.e., at the main canal and the distributary level rather than at the outlet or tertiary level. This drew attention to earlier debates in canal irrigation reforms about managing blind spots in canal irrigation (Wade and Chambers 1980).The term 'green revolution' is used to refer to the increase in cereal production experienced in a few developing countries as a result of the change in agricultural technology during the 1960s and 1970s (Parayil 1992). A discussion on the green revolution is central to that of agrifood systems in Haryana because the state was one of the cradles of the green revolution in the country and has remained a major contributor to India's food basket. The introduction of the green revolution lifted Haryana out of the trap of agricultural neglect and stagnation that had been characteristic of the period of colonial rule in the state.There was an international policy and institutional context within which the green revolution technology was introduced in India. Prior to the green revolution, Indian agriculture was characterized by subsistence farming and rudimentary markets for agriculture (Parayil 1992). A stagnation in agricultural productivity culminated in a near-famine situation in the 1960s. The imperatives of feeding one-fourth of the global population on just onesixteenth of the land area presented an important challenge.Agriculture had languished during the colonial period, characterized by disastrous droughts, relatively little technological change, and sluggish land reforms (Shetty et al. 2014). Modern agricultural technology was used during the British administration mainly to boost the production of exportable cash crops such as cotton, tea, coffee, jute, rubber, and spices. India was regularly struck by famine, the most acute of which was the Bengal famine of 1943. Against this backdrop, food security emerged as a dominant agenda for independent India. The first five-year plan strongly emphasized agricultural rehabilitation along with irrigation, fisheries, animal husbandry, and market development. Due to widespread drought from 1965 to 1966, India imported food grains from the United States under the PL-480 scheme. Unexpectedly, however, the United States decided not to export wheat to India due to domestic circumstances. This incident paved the way for launching a green revolution in India.This was also the time when semidwarf varieties had already been developed in China (for rice) and Mexico (for wheat). India's first HYV of rice, known as Jaya, was introduced in 1968. In wheat, Lerma Rojo 64 A and Sonora 64 were introduced directly from Mexico. Later two more varieties, Sharbati Sonara and Kalyan Sona, were released for cultivation. The introduction of these HYVs of seeds, along with appropriate government policies providing essential inputs, market facilities, and credit, sought to revolutionize Indian agriculture.The introduction and widespread adoption of green revolution technology in India had three distinct phases (Parayil 1992). The first phase (1952)(1953)(1954)(1955)(1956)(1957)(1958)(1959)(1960)(1961)(1962)(1963)(1964)(1965) was characterized by the development of a new and indigenous agricultural research system. In 1952, India signed its first contract with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) university. In the mid-1950s, the Indian government sought the support of the Ford and Rockefeller Foundation and USAID to establish a high-quality graduate school at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) in New Delhi.The second phase (1962)(1963)(1964)(1965)(1966)(1967) was marked by the overhaul and reform of the agricultural bureaucracy in India to facilitate the diffusion of HYVs in the domestic agrarian system. This required a reform of the agricultural institutions and commodity committees that had been established by the colonial administration. In 1962, Indian scientists successfully tested an HYV of Mexican wheat under Indian environmental conditions. An HYV of rice was tested in 1964. These HYVs were introduced for the first time in the Indian market during the 1965-1966 growing season.The third phase (1965)(1966)(1967)(1968)(1969)(1970)(1971)(1972)(1973)(1974)(1975) was marked by the change in agricultural practice as a result of the introduction of HYVs. Farmers began to adopt the new technology extensively, beginning with the 1965-1966 growing season. Agricultural productivity increased steadily until 1975 (Parayil 1992). Thereafter, the increase in productivity began to level off. By this time, farmers in different parts of India had achieved a two-to three-fold increase in agricultural yields compared to the 1965 base. Agricultural productivity began to register considerable growth again in the mid-1980s, which some analysts attribute to a second green revolution.Within the state of Haryana, the period of the green revolution saw a further expansion in the net sown and irrigated areas as well as a change in the cropping pattern. The task of clearing land in the state for agriculture had been initiated in the pre-colonial period, intensified during British rule, and continued until the early 1970s (Kumar and Dangi 2018;Richards et al. 1985). The introduction of the green revolution technology in Haryana influenced the cropping pattern and encouraged a move toward monocropping. However, the green revolution also came to be associated with severe long-term negative environmental consequences, such as a fall in the water table levels and diminishing soil productivity. Besides, it had a limited regional spread in the state, being confined mainly to the districts of Kurukshetra and Karnal. The net sown area in Haryana was approximately 78% in 1966-1967, and it increased to over 81% in 1990-1991(Singh 2000). During the same period, cropping intensification increased with a significant expansion in the areas that had more than one crop per year; in the 30 years between 1950-1951 to 1980-1981, this increased from 11% to 42%, and again to 53.6% in 1990-1991. Given the legacy of protective irrigation (discussed earlier in this study), this increase in cropping intensities did not agree with the low intensities of the protective irrigation systems that were in place as introduced during British rule. As land use intensity increased, the area of land under irrigation also increased -from approximately 61% in 1984-1985to 73% in 1990-1991(Singh 2000)).A significant impact of the new agricultural technology on the state was a change in the cropping pattern. In this context, new agricultural technology implies the use of HYVs of seeds, timely irrigation, and application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers. A shift in the cropping pattern was observed for both Kharif and Rabi crops. Monoculture emerged as the dominant cropping system.For instance, during Kharif, there was a shift away from jowar (sorghum) and bajra (pearl millet) toward rice. Likewise, wheat replaced barley and gram during Rabi. This change in the cropping pattern is attributed mainly to an expansion of irrigation facilities (Singh 2000), though farmers had also developed a preference for HYV seeds and more remunerative crops such as wheat and rice. Nonetheless, barley and gram continued to be grown in the rainfed areas of the state.Overall, following the introduction of the green revolution technology, rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum) replaced pulses, bajra, and jowar (syricum) as dominant food crops, while cotton (Gossypium) emerged as the key cash crop. The yields of rice and wheat in the state increased considerably from 1965-1966to 1992-1993(Singh 2000)). For instance, the Gurgaon district recorded the highest compound growth rate of 5.22% for wheat during 1986-1995.In recent years, however, the two dominant crops, rice and wheat, have faced severe constraints in terms of their sustainable productivity (Sharma and Mukhopadhyay 1999). The major challenges to rice productivity are inadequate irrigation due to a decline in the water table and poor discharge of tube wells; inadequacy of canal water supplies; poor quality of groundwater; and increasing problems of salinity and alkalinity. Other challenges to rice productivity are declining soil fertility due to the depletion of major-and micronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and zinc), which is attributed to the continuous rice-wheat cropping system; deterioration of the physicochemical soil conditions due to tillage and puddling; imbalanced use of fertilizers; delayed and prolonged transplanting of rice; excessive cultivation of basmati rice (which is susceptible to diseases and insect pests but cultivated nevertheless as it is remunerative); heavy losses due to diseases, insect and pests such as bacterial leaf blight, stem-rot, false smut, leaf folder, and stem-borer.The major constraints to the productivity of wheat come from the late plantation of wheat (10%-15% until December 25; 40% after December 25); the presence of weeds; reduced soil fertility with regard to both major-and micro-nutrients and soil organic matter; increase in soil salinity/alkalinity, especially in the western districts; and the rising problem of disease in popular varieties such as HD2329 and HD 2285. In addition, rust and heavy incidence of leaf blight are also identified as other constraints hampering the productivity of the crop.Over time, the green revolution technology in Haryana has come to be associated with serious negative environmental effects. Large parts of the land are affected by desertification, soil salinity, waterlogging, floods, and droughts due to deforestation-induced excessive soil erosion resulting from inappropriate agricultural practices. Besides, in India, the use of agrochemical fertilizers is the highest in Haryana (Singh 2000). There is an imbalance in the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) consumption ratio in rice and wheat crops. While the use of potassium is also lower in this region, a clear trend has been observed in the accumulation of nitrates in groundwater, reaching toxic levels.A major challenge has been the declining water table level, given the over-exploitation of groundwater. As much as 95%-98% of the areas under rice and wheat cultivated have to be irrigated, and irrigation from groundwater accounts for about 60%-65% of the total irrigation requirement, and the remaining is met through canals (Singh 2000). This excessive exploitation of groundwater has had a severe impact on the groundwater levels. Several districts in the ricewheat growing regions have recorded a decline in the water table in the range of 3-10 meters. For instance, the water table has dropped by 10 meters in Kurukshetra, 5 meters in Karnal and Panipat, and 3 meters in Ambala, Yamunanagar, and Kaithal (Singh 2000).A consistent decline in the groundwater table poses serious challenges to the sustainability of the green revolution. In Haryana, the impact of groundwater depletion is apparent in high tube well-density districts such as Panipat and low tube well-density districts such as Mahendragarh (Banerji and Meenakshi u.d.). This is attributable to the increased popularity of paddy and, to a certain extent, sugarcane, both of which have seen significant expansion in acreage since the 1980s. The popularity of the wheat-paddy combination is largely due to the credible output-price support system prevalent in the state through which the government is committed to purchasing grains that are offered it at the minimum support price. The cultivation of the post-monsoon waterintensive paddy crop has also been spurred on by the availability of subsidies for tube wells, subsidized diesel, and flat-rate electricity prices. The prevailing argument regarding the issue of groundwater depletion is focused on the increasing adoption of the wheat-paddy combination resulting from state policies that support minimum prices and various subsidies. However, in this discussion, the technological context of irrigation has been left unexplored and ignored. The boom in tube well irrigation and the subsequent fall in water table levels must be seen against the backdrop of the protective irrigation systems that were introduced in the state by the British designed to meet a fraction of the water requirements for crops and not aligned with the demands of the green revolution technology.Joshi and Tyagi (1991) compared the sustainability of the green revolution period (1972-1973 to 1979-1980) with that of the post-green revolution period (1980-1981 to 1987-1988) and found that in areas endowed with good-quality groundwater, such as the districts of Karnal, Kurukshetra, and parts of Jind, the resource was being over-exploited. On the other hand, regions with poor-quality groundwater, such as the districts of Hissar, Rohtak, and other parts of Jind, reported an overall rise in the water table rather than excessive groundwater extraction. Both these scenarios are undesirable for the sustainability of agriculture. Rice-wheat rotation is generally followed in good water quality zones, whereas cotton-wheat is practiced in most of the poor-quality groundwater areas. Sugarcane is a common crop in both instances.In their study, Joshi and Tyagi (1991) focused on four crops: rice, wheat, cotton, and sugarcane. They examined the compound rates of growth of production, area, and yield for the sample crops and concluded that in the majority of the districts of the state, the growth rate of production had had slowed down during the postgreen revolution period; the rates of yield had either become stagnant, negative, or insignificant. Their study further showed that crop substitution and reclamation of degraded soils contributed to the increase in the production of rice and wheat during the post-green revolution period; yet this contribution was rather slow and inadequate to compensate for the fall in the growth rate since the green revolution period, that is, the period of the green revolution associated with increases in agricultural growth rate.In general, the production and profitability of rice and wheat shrunk in the post-green revolution period. Similarly, the acreage of cotton declined, and sugarcane did not show any encouraging results either. Deteriorating soil health and stagnating technological innovation since 1966 were identified as the key constraints impacting production. Although fertilizer consumption had increased and irrigated areas expanded, the rates of growth of yield had slowed down. High private profitability of rice, along with state incentives on inputs and better output support prices, were responsible for acreage gains, that is, increases in the area under rice cultivation, in the Punjab and Haryana.Haryana, Karnal and Kurukshetra districts were dominated by tube well irrigation, and the area under tube well irrigation increased in both these districts over time (Joshi and Tyagi 1991). Since Jind, Hissar, and Rohtak had poor-quality groundwater, canal irrigation was the predominant source of irrigation in these districts. The overexploitation of groundwater in Karnal and Kurukshetra (as previously discussed) resulted in a drop in groundwater levels. The irrigation requirement of rice for this region is 130 cm/ha, while that of wheat is about four times less. Therefore, rice accounts for approximately 35% of the total irrigation requirement in Haryana (Joshi and Tyagi 1991). The canal seepage in these districts offsets some of these effects; otherwise, the water table level would have been even lower. In Karnal, the water table level fell from 4.8 meters in 1974 to 7.7 meters in 1989; in Kurukshetra, it fell from 7 meters to 10.7 meters during the same period.As a result of the economic and ecological factors described above, the state experienced fatigue from the green revolution (Shetty et al. 2014). Consequently, the regions where the benefits of the green revolution were harnessed in abundance faced the challenges of land degradation, yield plateauing, and a deceleration of their compound growth rate. At the same time, there was a regional imbalance in the spread of the green revolution in the state; it remained confined to Karnal, Kurukshetra, and their neighborhood, where the effects on agrarian relations and the agricultural wage rate were also more pronounced than elsewhere (Bhalla 1976).An important consequence of the introduction of the green revolution technology was a shift toward the cultivation of wheat and paddy. As high as 95% of the total cultivable area came under the rice-wheat cropping system (Sendhil et al. 2015). The share of rice in the total food grain production of Haryana increased sharply from 50% in 1966-1967 to more than 90% (Sendhil et al. 2015). In the preceding sections of this study, we have highlighted the factors that have led to stagnant or plateauing yields of these crops in recent years. In addition, several recent studies have emphasized the adverse impacts of climate change on agricultural production.Rice, a Kharif crop, is expected to be impacted more by the variability in rainfall, while wheat, which is grown in Rabi, is more likely to be affected by random variations in minimum temperature. Wheat is also likely to be affected by climate change-induced terminal heat stress, while rice will be affected by temperature and water availability (Sendhil et al. 2015). In general, changes in solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, and precipitation have been shown to affect crop yield, crop mix, cropping system, scheduling of field operations, grain moisture content, and, subsequently, farmer income. In addition, increasing rainfall and its erratic pattern will lead to more cloudy days, causing further yield reduction. Aggarwal (2008) analyzed the historical trend in rice and wheat yields in the Indo-Gangetic plains using archival data, fertility experiments coupled with conventional field experiments, and crop simulation models and found that rice yields over the last three decades show a declining trend, which may be partly related to the gradual change in weather conditions in the last two decades. Similarly, Kumar et al. (2019) found that an increase in rainfall and extreme temperatures negatively impacted rice production in Haryana. They also confirmed that an increase in maximum temperature was detrimental to rice and wheat.Farmers in Haryana are experiencing and are aware of a changing climate in terms of fluctuating temperatures and increasingly erratic rainfall. In their study, Aryal et al. ( 2018) identified excess heat at critical stages of crop growth, depletion of groundwater, waterlogging and excess moisture, and strong wind and storms as major climate risks. Erratic rainfall has had a severe impact on wheat production. During the harvest period, rainfall can cause waterlogging in the fields, which loosens the roots of wheat plants. This results in significant production loss as the roots are no longer able to support full growth (Aryal et al. 2018)  2020) have argued that a wheat production system that can reduce the vulnerability of wheat to damage caused by climatic risks can significantly reduce the farmers' loss as well as the government's economic burden. They also found that in Haryana, many farmers already followed the conservation agriculturebased wheat system (CAW) [7], which incurred less damage from untimely excess rainfall compared to the conventional tillage-based wheat production systems (CTW). Ironically, during the extreme climate event in 2014-2015, when the Haryana government compensated only those farmers whose crop yield loss was greater than 30%, it ended up disincentivizing farmers using CAW, as their losses were less than those using conventional practices. Therefore, Aryal et al. (2020) argue that compensation policies should also factor in wheat production practices rather than focus only on the percentage of actual loss. Their study concluded that learning and communication were the most crucial factors enabling CAW adoption. Therefore, providing support to agricultural education programs for farmers should be a priority for policymakers beyond focusing solely on input subsidies and credit.Designing an appropriate strategy to communicate scientific evidence to farmers, reshaping compensation policies, and strengthening local extension institutions are essential in enabling farmers to adapt to the negative effects of climate change on crop production. At the local level, farmer-to-farmer communication was found to be a critical factor in promoting technology adoption. CAW was adopted as a climate risk coping measure by farmers who learned climate change adaptation through their own experience and the experience of their neighbors. An earlier study (Aryal et al. 2016) compared wheat yield in good and bad years and found that CAW performed better than CTW. during both periods. Since farm mechanization is high in Haryana, the study found that CAW can cope better than CTW in extreme rainfall conditions during the wheat season. In a study of four villages in the Sohna district of Gurgaon, farmers reported a declining rainfall trend after 1982-1983, as well as the disappearance of the monsoon period (Narain 2023). Earlier, the rainfall was spread evenly across the four monsoon months from July to October. Now, farmers report only sudden and sporadic rains. Changing climatic patterns, particularly the current pattern of shorter winters and longer summers, are said to affect the viability of the wheat crop. According to Narain (2023), farmers complained that they needed a longer winter period for the wheat crop to mature. Similarly, in the Rabi harvest season of 2023, untimely rains caused the wheat crop to wilt. This meant a higher wage rate for labor engaged in harvesting wheat; it went up from 8 mann for harvesting one acre of wheat crop to 10 mann for this cycle [8]. This way, illtimed rains played a role in raising the cost of the harvest of the crop.Overall, climate change has a significant impact on agriculture, yet, it affects landlords and tenants differently, creating a differential vulnerability between them. Many landowners give land out to till on a contractual arrangement called kannbatai, wherein the tenant pays a preagreed amount to the landowner upfront. If the crop fails due to climate vagaries, the tenant bears the loss (Narain et al. 2016). Further, the geographical location of agricultural fields plays a critical role in shaping the differential vulnerability of tillers. For instance, lands located in low-lying areas or a depression are vulnerable to being flooded in times of high rainfall (Narain et al. 2016).A parallel body of literature has emerged on the impact of climate change on agriculture in peri-urban contexts. This literature focuses on how urbanization and climate change impact peri-urban agriculture. As flagged earlier, farmers in peri-urban areas such as Gurgaon have already complained about shorter winters, longer summers, declining frequency of rainfall, , and the disappearance of the chaumasa (four-month monsoon period) (Narain et al. 2016;Narain and Singh 2017) as a result of climate change. In the Sadrana village of Gurgaon, farmhouses popping up in the vicinity of agricultural fields intensified competition for groundwater; small and marginal farmers who could not afford the high costs of groundwater extraction were left chasing the water table. They responded by either leaving the land fallow or using sprinkler irrigation systems, given that the soil was sandy and the terrain was undulating (Narain 2014).Peri-urbanization and the changing and emerging rural-urban flows of water also have the potential to impact peri-urban agriculture. In the Budhera village of peri-urban Gurgaon, one impact of the in-flowing wastewater canal that carried the urban waste of Gurgaon was that farmers started cultivating wheat and paddy. Narain and Singh (2017) found elaborate norms of cooperation among irrigators in using wastewater; they cooperated by taking turns to irrigate. They contributed labor and capital for the construction of furrows for carrying wastewater to the fields. The reliance on wastewater as a source of irrigation has increased with changes in precipitation patterns. Irrigators wait for the monsoon for paddy irrigation, and if there is no rain or deficient rain when irrigation is needed, they resort to wastewater irrigation. A wide variety of technologies have been used to appropriate wastewater for irrigation: a pipe outlet at the bed of the canal, diesel and electric pump sets, and pump sets attached to tractors.There is considerable evidence that the state's farmers have the potential to self-organize for collective action in response to adapt to the combined effects of urbanization and climate change (Narain and Singh 2017;Mishra and Narain 2018). In Budhera, this is evident through the effort pooled to provide labor for digging furrows to transport water from a wastewater canal to the fields. Irrigators install a pipe outlet along the banks of a wastewater canal to collect wastewater. For the use of this service, they pay a nominal fee to the irrigation department annually. However, the wastewater is used by a large number of irrigators, as much as one km away from the wastewater canal and the pipe outlet. These farmers contribute labor to dig a furrow and cooperate in taking turns to irrigate from the wastewater canal. It is important to note that this practice is followed among irrigators and not necessarily among landowners.The basis of cooperation here is physical proximity rather than a unit of social organization such as caste. These cooperative initiatives are legitimized based on bhaibandi (brotherhood), which denotes a sense of cooperation and collective identity. It is somewhat akin to the notion of bhaichaara, which provides a legitimization to time exchanges under the warabandi system (Narain 2003a(Narain , 2003b)). In Budhera, the collective response in terms of cooperating in the use of wastewater is a response to the absence of an irrigation canal serving the region, the presence of saline groundwater, and changing precipitation patterns. With restrictions on the inter-district movement of people and resources, harvest operations became directly dependent on the supply of labor, equipment, and inputs at the local level and on the state's pre-existing agricultural marketing arrangements. The government of Haryana responded proactively to the situation by leveraging its market infrastructure and agent network to pursue a staggered procurement plan during the lockdown. This greatly eased congestion and the strain on the state's resources (Ceballos et al. 2020). Wheat procurement at mandis was delayed, with only 100 farmers entering the mandi per day, divided over one shift each in the morning and afternoon. Nonetheless, efforts were made to reach all farmers through existing databases and the commission agent network. The number of mandis increased from 477 to 2,000, and nearly 500,000 farmers (approximately 61% of the farmers) who had registered for the procurement system were able to sell their produce through this mechanism.Ceballos et al. ( 2020) did a comparative study of 1,275 farmers growing wheat in Haryana and 240 farmers growing black gram in Odisha during the COVID-19 period. Farmers in both states had adjusted the timing of their harvest. In Haryana, farmers reported harvesting earlier (11%) or later (32%) than normal. Since the harvest window only began in April, as it typically does, wheat farmers could not harvest and sell their crops before the lockdown was imposed. However, key informant interview (KIIs) respondents in the study reported that since the wheat crop had reached maturity later than usual, and it is a hardy crop, the timing of the harvest could be adapted to the availability of inputs and procurement, limiting economic losses. However, 41% of the farmers in Haryana reported having to spend more on harvest than usual due to the lockdown, with 25% of the farmers incurring higher labor costs and 23% spending more on machinery, likely due to reduced availability.During the lockdown, labor would have moved back to the home states, including Odisha. In principle, this would have increased wages in Haryana (due to deficit supply) and reduced wages in Odisha (due to surplus supply) (Ceballos et al. 2020). In contrast, the study found that farmers did not spend more on wages but rather on transport, food, and accommodation arrangements for their laborers during the lockdown. In addition, farmers in Haryana had the option of shifting to mechanized alternatives, which were not available to farmers in Odisha. In both states, most farmers (61% and 74%, respectively) were not able to sell their produce immediately upon harvest and had to store it for future consumption or sale. In Haryana, postharvest losses related to these delays remained limited: 85% of the sample respondents reported no storagerelated losses. The KIIs conducted during the study indicated that this was due to the effective storage facilities in Haryana that allowed farmers to safeguard their produce. None of the respondents had to sell the produce below the minimum support prices.The study found that, in Haryana, overall, the mechanized farming system and existing public procurement institutions, which helped the state government implement a timely and sound procurement process during the lockdown, prevented widespread losses in farm income. On the other hand, the absence of such institutions, combined with labor-intensive practices in Odisha, resulted in crop and income losses for many farmers in the state.When we look at the evolution of policy and institutions in the agrifood systems of Haryana across the colonial and postcolonial periods, we notice elements of continuity as well as discontinuity.The elements of continuity are seen mainly in the expansion of arable land and irrigated areas. The construction of canal irrigation systems started in the state in medieval times. During British rule, it evolved into the construction of protective irrigation systems. The philosophy of protective irrigation continued to guide the expansion of irrigated areas in the postcolonial period as well. However, the element of discontinuity is reflected in how the protective irrigation systems came to be conceptualized.The meaning of protective irrigation evolved over time. During the colonial period, protective irrigation emerged as a strategy to secure colonial rule by preventing famine, stalling social and political unrest, and securing the production of cash crops. The rationale for the construction of protective irrigation systems was strongly influenced by the recommendations of the famine and irrigation commissions, both of which proposed the construction of protective irrigation systems as a means of preventing famine. In the postcolonial period, protective irrigation came to be understood as a form of irrigation with specific organizational and technical characteristics, mainly suited to drought-prone areas. Its technical characteristics were represented by the intended irrigation intensities, capacity factors, and allowances. Until the end of the British period, these systems worked more or less as designed. The low irrigation intensities that were the basis of their design matched the cropping choices of the farmers.A massive expansion of arable land occurred during the colonial period, though this exercise had already begun during the medieval period. This expansion continued well into the postcolonial period of planned economic development and illustrates yet another element of continuity between colonial and postcolonial periods. However, by the 1970s, it was no longer possible to expand arable land, and the emphasis thus shifted from expanding cultivable land to improving agricultural productivity. This shift in emphasis represents an element of discontinuity in state policies between the colonial and postcolonial periods. Another significant element of discontinuity was the shift from cash crops of the British period to food grains postindependence. Both these shifts were necessitated by factors such as widespread famines and the massive expansion of arable areas that had occurred during British rule.A strong element of discontinuity is also evident in the working of the canal irrigation systems. Designed similar to the protective irrigation systems, these systems worked as intended during the colonial period. However, in the postcolonial period, their low irrigation intensities proved to be inadequate. With the introduction of HYV seeds and the policy of minimum support prices for food grains, farmers wanted to increase the production of wheat and paddy. A switch to monocropping was a significant effect of the introduction of the new agricultural technology; as much as 95% of the net sown area in the state had a wheatpaddy combination. Farmers wanted to pursue productive irrigation, seeking to maximize the production per unit of land, while protective irrigation sought to maximize production per unit of water.This conflict between the objectives of the farmers in response to the combined effects of the introduction of the new agricultural technology and the policies for input subsidies and minimum support prices led to the emergence of new technological and institutional responses in the state's agrifood systems. The farmers' technological responses ranged from the digging of tube wells and the use of rice shoots to water thefts along the canal. Their institutional responses took the form of innovative practices such as time exchanges. Time exchanges represent institutional evolution in the agrifood systems of Haryana at the interface of multiple legal repertoires. They are shaped by an intersection of both statutory law (which defines water rights in terms of the time for taking water sanctioned by the Haryana Canal and Drainage Act of 1974) and normative systems (such as those of bhaichaara, which have a strong social sanction).While considering the policy and institutional evolution of the agrifood systems of Haryana, or for that matter, anywhere else in South Asia, it is necessary to pay attention to the technological context within which such evolution happens. This study adopted a sociotechnical lens to explore the institutional evolution in Haryana's agrifood systems, drawing attention to the relationship between technology (irrigation infrastructure) and the institutions (forms of water allocation and distribution) (see also Kloezen and Mollinga 1992).The postcolonial literature on agrifood systems in the state has been dominated by discourses focused on the green revolution. The early narratives on the green revolution flag its impacts on increasing food security in the state; the latter narratives point to the consequent diminishing of soil productivity and the declining water table levels. The increase in the productivity of rice and wheat reached a plateau, the effects of which were further aggravated by climate change. Haryana emerged as a major cradle of the green revolution and an important contributor to the nation's food security, largely in response to the shift toward monocropping -i.e., the cultivation of wheat in Rabi (winter) season and paddy in the Kharif (monsoon) season. Though the procurement policy of the state is often blamed for encouraging farmers to grow water-intensive crops, thereby aggravating the stress on the groundwater table, it has been an important factor, along with the mechanized nature of the state's agriculture, in reducing the vulnerability of farm incomes to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.Haryana is currently in the midst of a structural transformation. From being the cradle of the green revolution, it is now being repositioned as a major center for industry, outsourcing, and real estate. This has implications for the nature of agriculture itself and necessitates a stronger focus on the dynamics and processes characterizing peri-urban agriculture in the years to come. This will include examining the implications of changing access to water and land; the emerging norms of cooperation or conflict around land and water; the diversity in the sources of irrigation; and the emergence of new institutional arrangements in periurban agriculture.","tokenCount":"11898"}

data/part_3/0564874222.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"4c1cc613ce02220fd82008fe49dcf7d6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a574f10c-a756-43f5-b73d-d029ffd0a450/retrieve","id":"-2111887534"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"e1b6a928-1d3c-4d3c-83cb-e3ae3928e667","pagecount":"20","content":"Key Achievement 1. SAH was successfully adapted from potato seed in Argentina. BASICS trained 42 technicians (including 17 women). Two SAH units produced over 600,000 plantlets and are now working on pencil stems. SAH is being rolled out in other countries too.The project management wanted to meet as a team, but COVID-19 travel restrictions made this impossible. So, this meeting was held virtually with 48 people logging in from the Bolivia, Canada, Nigeria, Peru, Tanzania, the UK and USA. The meeting consisted of ten sessions, most of which included question and answer sessions.The Building an Economically Sustainable Integrated Cassava Seed System in Nigeria (BASICS) project began in 2016 and formally ends on 30 June 2020. The project has made progress in demonstrating that commercially viable production and sale of breeder, foundation and certified seed is possible. Furthermore, the project has established a strong basis for building a sustainable seed system by developing building blocks across the seed value chain. This meeting had the following objectives: 1. To identify the achievements and lessons learned in each of the project components; 2. To identify the shortcomings in each component (what would I do differently, knowing what I know now?), remaining challenges and ideas to overcome them; 3. To assess and discuss the challenges and progress made in integrating the components into an integrated seed system and identify ways integration can be improved; 4. To assess and discuss the commercial sustainability of the seed system and identify options to promote its sustainability and further scaling; and 5. To make plans for the publication of the findings and lessons learned during BASICS-1• BASICS created a functioning, formal seed system for cassava in Nigeria, the world's largest cassava producer. • Commercial entities were set up for breeder and foundation seed (GoSeed & Umudike Seeds). • The Rapid Multiplication Technique (RMT) was adapted for cassava, with Semi-Autotrophic Hydroponics (SAH) labs producing hundreds of thousands of plantlets and allowing for realtime inventory management. • Village Seed Entrepreneurs (VSEs) are profitable, especially larger ones who also derive profits from roots. • There is a functional network of commercial seed producers.• There is demand for certified seed and interest in the 3-2-1 voice response system.• Processors are willing to invest in cassava seed units.• Created a functional seed certification system for cassava, in coordination with the National Agricultural Seeds Council (NASC). • Piloting third-party certification for cassava, to be applied to other crops in Nigeria.• Outgrowers are willing to pay for stems, and demand creation trials (DCTs) can help identify the most suitable varieties to scale out the model to other processors. • The BMGF (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) has approved a second phase of BASICS.• Breeder Seed Component (BSC)-improve access to tissue culture, mechanization, better market intelligence. • BSC should coordinate breeding and demand creation trials and involve stakeholders in variety naming. There is a need to expand use of ICT tools. • Produce foundation seed closer to VSEs; explore virtual options to manage VSEs.• Enhance involvement of processors in DCT. Ensure sustainable access to early generation seed (EGS), adapt PLM to be profitable for different types of processors. • Use the seed flow map to plan annual seed production.• Coordinate the SAH material into a seed system and seasonality.• Prepare to mitigate cassava brown streak disease with training and diagnosis.Lessons from BASICS can be applied to other crops, such as yam and sweetpotato by, for example, improving rapid multiplication, certification, and marketing. If a processor doesn't have a source of seed in-house, the Cassava Seed Tracker can help connect market players.BASICS project management unit -CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas (RTB)The original charitable purpose is still valid. Develop a sustainable cassava seed value chain with commercialized production and sale of cassava planting material.The strategy includes linking breeders with two new companies that produce breeder and foundation seed (GoSeed and Umudike Seeds). BASICS created two new types of certified seed producers: village seed entrepreneurs (VSE) and the processor-led model (PLM). Breeder seed is planted to produce foundation seed, which is used to grow certified seed and sold to farmers. These links create a value chain: money flows back in the opposite direction, communicating demand for seed of particular varieties to breeders. This doesn't happen if you give the seed away for free.Achievements. The PMU successfully coordinated the BASICS project. (See the following sessions by the respective components for details on their achievements.) The components worked well together, in an organized, coordinated fashion, to create a formal seed system for cassava in Nigeria, the world's largest producer of the crop.Way forward. RTB played a key role developing the concept for Phase 2 of BASICS. Phase 2 is appropriately transitioning to direct leadership by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), but BASICS is still part of RTB in the broader sense. This workshop is a key moment in transition, drawing lessons from Phase 1 to make Phase 2 even better and to ensure its sustainability.• Improve access to tissue culture for SAH and international germplasm exchange. • Work across RTB crops to build business case.• Increase mechanization to make labor more efficient and reduce production costs.• Improve weed management of seed fields.• Conduct more market research.Coordinate advanced breeding trials, on-farm testing, and demand creation trials for improved awareness and end-user feedback ahead of the variety release. Involve stakeholders in variety naming. Increase use of digital tools to integrate the value chain, for example, Seed Tracker, Cassava Business Connector, e-Commerce sites.Breeders have some varieties in their inventory that have little demand. These varieties had to be aggressively marketed. When breeders have better information about market demands, they can make better forecasts on production amounts. SAH helps to scale up clean seed. Once you have a box of SAH plantlets it can be cut six times or more and be continually propagated. You don't need to go back to the tissue culture plants unless you break the cycle. When you stabilize a new variety, you need to go back to start from tissue culture. It may be helpful to go back to tissue culture periodically.Regarding the breakeven point, the SAH plantlets are expensive, about ten cents per plantlet. Further cost reductions are possible through innovations in the production practices.Varieties should have names that are easy to remember, but such names must be acceptable across communities. The UMUCASS system of naming was proposed, but not adopted. IITA and the The SAH lab in the DR Congo is the largest in AfricaNational Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) will continue to work on this topic. Varietal naming is controlled by the varietal release committee.Key Achievement 1. Cassava seed was profitably commercialized. 186 VSEs were engaged, trained, and mentored in six states. VSEs established 700 ha of fields over four seasons and 90% passed certification. Profit was $1,000/ha for stems and roots in one season, and $1,600/ha for ratooned fields over two seasons. Third-party certification field inspection was piloted by NASC.Key Achievement 2. Commercial seed producers have been organized as a functional network. The apex union has an office manager, and office staff trained in field management, marketing and record keeping. The union has a constitution, bylaws and a gender-balanced set of leaders.Key Achievement 3. Demand was increased for certified cassava varieties by using over 100 market day promotions, 3-2-1 messaging, 150 demo plots, a website (www.cassavastems.org) and advertisements such as radio spots, promotional bags, billboards, and flyers. Over 40,000 bundles of certified seeds of seven varieties were sold in three seasons, from over 2,000 ha of VSE fields. SAH plantlets were planted directly in the field to produce 120 bundles of stems.• Select VSEs in clusters for better management and peer learning/support and do not aim to spread them throughout the whole state for ensuring coverage. • Only engage business-minded VSEs.• Select over 40% female VSEs and more mid-size VSEs.• Do more market day promotions and promote 3-2-1 messaging.• Reduce transport distances by producing foundation seed with GoSeed & Umudike Seeds in project states. • Innovate on virtual learning options for VSE capacity building, including Seed Tracker.• Encourage VSEs to provide other extension services.Recommendations. Introduce new varieties on a regular basis. Locate foundation seed production closer to VSEs. Scale up third-party certification. Create a wider network of seed producers for peer learning, support and competition.3-2-1 is an interactive voice response system run by the Viamo company. The user dials 321 from an Airtel phone network and is taken to various menus, including family planning. Under agriculture there is rice, cassava, cowpea, and other crops. Under cassava, if someone requests stems, the person who answers the call can send them to the nearest VSE. The first information will be ready in June.At market promotion days, CRS distributes flyers about the varieties and directs customers to the VSEs. The flyer has the addresses of VSEs. Catholic Relief Services (CRS) are reducing marketing expenses from the project while innovating with the VSEs to lower costs. Some states have demo plots.The profits listed in the presentation are from the top 50% of VSEs. Some are not business minded and they drop out. Most VSEs grow seed and roots and can produce 300 bundles per ha while maximizing revenue from both ends. In stem-only fields it is hard to increase the number of bundles produced. Less than 10% of seed purchases are from government; most are from farmers, farmer groups, or some agencies.Last year GoSeed and Umudike Seeds made a presentation to VSEs in Benue, so they are becoming linked into a network. Transporting seed 600 km from GoSeed in Ibadan or 300 km from Umudike to Benue cannot be done in a sustainable way. It is too expensive to take the SAH plantlets directly to the field. If foundation seed can be produced closer to Benue, (e.g., in Kogi) it would reduce the travel distance. • The reason to believe in this model is less about clean seed, and more about farmers getting new varieties quickly. Processors know that yield degrades slowly. • The business model is driven by differential starch revenue by variety.Recommendations. Leverage the DCTs to enhance variety adoption by processors and farmers. Engage processors in varietal selection, DCT design and implementation. Ensure sustainable access to early generation seed by demand planning and coordination between GoSeed, Umudike Seeds and processors. Encourage PLM design innovation.You don't need a high-cost, expat manager for the seed unit. Local managers can be trained. For direct labor costs at the nursery level, FMN assumed $800 per ha. But on a commercial side, it is half that amount. Those costs will be highly variable.Each processor has a different system with outgrowers. The new seed has an added cost, but profitability is not driven by stem sales. Where the processors provide stems to outgrowers, the cost of the stems can be deducted from the price of the roots. The outgrower does not need to pay cash for stems. The outgrowers may be willing to pay for stems if farmers have discussed it with the processor. The DCTs play a big role in selecting the right varieties. Some outgrowers for FMN are willing to pay for stems, if new varieties are attractive to the market. Some processors want to buy some seed and can support varietal launches. They are interested in the level of starch and dry matter and are willing to pay for these traits.The PLM can be attractive if processors have an irrigated nursery to produce planting material for the dry season to moderate the cost of roots. BASICS could engage processors better in the DCTs to scale the messaging. You can also produce pencil stems to get SAH to the field. This process is similar to what Flour Mills did with their nursery, but it is a more high-density way to produce.• We needed a better grip on the pipeline of production.• We said \"CST will do this at the touch of a button\" but it was not up and running. • More innovation to upscale SAH.• Improve contracting basis for QSC delivery. In Nigeria, inspectors had backgrounds in education, agriculture, and other fields. They must be willing to accept relatively modest fees. Nigeria has had two workshops, a learning lesson, and a walk-through a field being certified. The seed producers must pay the certification costs, as is done now in Tanzania.The minister burning fake seed to symbolize the importance of certified cassava seedCan CST be used for compliance and as a business connector? Sometimes entrepreneurs want to bend the rules a bit and there can be a conflict of interest. CST was developed as a modular platform, with different functionalities built into it (e.g., compliance and business). The business data is confidential. In BASICS, it is all in the same platform, but it is becoming independent. The certification part does not interact with the commercial part.GoSeed is learning how to transplant pencil stems without substrate. Such a breakthrough would provide many stems. SAH does survive in the field, but the plants are tender. You need a shaded area for light protection. The cassava pencil brings something to the field that is stronger. A wellfunctioning SAH can transplant 5,000 plants in a day. The batches can be big enough to establish a field over a few days.• During project design ensure a clear ownership of activity and links budgeting to activities.• Should have gone with larger VSEs.• Do market research on actual demand for seeds and varieties.• Farmers don't buy for cleanliness, because cassava is hardy. Farmers buy seed to get a variety.Recommendations. Work more with processors, including smaller ones who can help identify varieties they want. Populate the seed flow map at the beginning of seed system projects.Establish clear ownership of activities and budgeting for activities; some activities are done by different components. DCTs are done under PLM, but some parts were managed by BSC and this created some gaps. Variety combination had some gaps, like in the first year we had no control variety. The tables showed starch and productivity, but the data across seasons was confusing and inconclusive. There was an issue of VSE model for which NRCRI didn't have a budget.With the seed map, people sit down and populate it; this helps the players and the integration. So, the VSE will not fall short of foundation seed, and it helps NASC to plan for their resources needed for certification. The seed map is a simple Excel tool. Filling it in as part of a planning session should not take too long, but this will be a worthwhile exercise that will prevent gaps in the seed chain.There needs to be sustained advocacy to enhance the use of certified seed as a government regulatory push is required to move the stakeholders away from the informal markets of dubious quality seed while complementing it with a market pull through demonstration of value for money for purchasing certified seeds.If you do not know in one year what amounts will be needed for varieties A, B and C, just plan it: 40%, 40% 20%. Even if demand drops, and if you commit 10,000 bundles and only sell 5,000, that is only a risk of $5,000. If we had more seed, more would go to the farmers. Be bolder and take a risk.There are physical seed markets in the planting season. If some surveyors go there to collect data on what was sold by whom and at what price, that would help us map the whole seed market size and demand trends.What changed 1. We evolved from \"clean seed\" to insisting on NASC certification. All seed must be certified, not just cassava. NRCRI is no longer giving seed away for free.Umudike Seeds.VSEs.The SAH laboratory facility is a game changer. The network of seed producers was expanded.• Continue to backstop Umudike Seeds.• Enhance research for enabling technologies for sustainable seed systems.• Streamline seed production of other RTB crops: yam, sweetpotato, cocoyam. Moving from tissue culture to SAH, following NASC guidelines.• Cluster VSEs in areas with locational and agro-ecological advantages.• Create innovation platforms of cassava stakeholders where VSEs will play key role.What changed 1. Digitalization of seed certification services and operations. CST exposed NASC to digital advantages. NASC started digitalizing all operations, using CST for registration and certification.In line with international best practices, the NASC upgraded its certification process and began certifying cassava breeder seed. The NASC molecular facility successfully tested cassava samples from breeder seed fields.NASC began using certification agents trained and licensed by NASC as authorized by the amended seed act of 2019. Eighteen professionals identified with CRS to pilot third-party certification of cassava, with scope to expand to other crops.Seed Production with GoSeed and Umudike Seeds.Act 2019 provides for third-party certification, e-certification, breeder seed standards, and recognition of vegetative propagation for seed certification.• Digitalize fully all operations.• Commercialize molecular diagnostics facility by introducing tests for different crops.• Include all crops in third-party certification.• Set up standards for other vegetatively-propagated crops.• Prioritize seed systems of other orphan crops (e.g., yam, ginger).• Transform the Nigerian seed sector into a leading seed industry in Africa.Teams discussed business, scientific publications and communications with a view to develop an integrated, sustainable seed system for cassava. All institutional representatives provided twominute updates on what has been done and what is in progress.IITA has planned various scientific publications, including ideas on: 1) SAH; 2) certified seed; 3) DCT and CMD's impact on yield, according to symptomatic and asymptomatic plants; 4) for the first time, properly discuss the cassava seed cycle and the advantages of starting seed from tissue culture; 5) CST; and 6) user guides, EGS production, stem production, and a manual on CST application, and good agronomic practices.Social media promotes through the IITA website and GoSeed. IITA Radio is now broadcasting and promoting technologies of interest farmers. There is a new YouTube channel on IITA youth in agribusiness and regular blogs posts. We are focusing on awareness workshops.Six peer-reviewed papers are being prepared. Three of them will be merged to produce a paper entitled, \"Assessment of certified commercial cassava seed production in Southeast and South-South Nigeria: determinants of participation, challenges, supply and demand gaps.\"Other manuscripts from the Breeding Component are being prepared, as well as training materials and social media materials.The website www.cassavastems.com publishes CRS outputs. We also plan to have a virtual end of project meeting in June. A field book is being updated. Radio jingles continue to play on local stations. A documentary on VSEs is available on CRS YouTube channel. We continue to disseminate outputs through the CRS agricultural community of practice, a global group in 90 countries.There are some papers in the pipeline on the nuclear work. A Ph.D. student is working on a paper on certified seed, which will serve as his or her thesis.Context has submitted a business manual as its final document and hopes that IITA will be able to disseminate this information. Context will have a blog post to introduce its toolkit.Fera is writing a scientific publication. Also, in NRCRI, there is a publication in the works on viruses. Fera will present it again in Zambia. Fera has other diagnostic kits on CMD that can be branded and used. There is another kit on brown streak that can also be branded.The acknowledgments of publications must include the OPP project number and acknowledge support from the BMGF. BMGF generously funds the open access publication of review articles, but you must register through Chronos system.BASICS brought in Wageningen University to study the seed buying behavior by farmers. RTB is editing a book with Springer on innovations in RTB food systems and could feature BASICS in one of the chapters. It was suggested to have media communications frequently, perhaps every month, and to develop YouTube clips. Bringing in different stakeholders for communication efforts was deemed important, and physical communication, such as branding with T-shirts is important in a project aimed at changing behavior.By Alfred Dixon and Lateef Sanni -IITA Capitalizing on the achievements of the BASICS project (2016-2020), the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) graciously funded the commencement of Phase II under the overall leadership and responsibility of IITA.Budget: $14,325,899Duration: 5 years (60 Months)1. Ensuring integration of breeding and seed system activities.New cultivars from cassava breeding programs are integrated into seed systems in a manner that facilitates their marketing, production, sales, and uptake. We appreciate the intellectual framework that RTB provided for what a viable commercial seed system would look like. Can we turn that vision into a reality? You all made tremendous progress. BASICS 2 needs some consolidation, some fine tuning. Cassava is a slow growing crop, so it takes some time to work out the wrinkles. During this meeting we focused on BASICS, and Nigeria, the world's largest producer of cassava. In Tanzania, we have made good progress, guided by Lauren Good, who started on that team before he joined the BMGF.BASICS model… we need to get breeder, foundation and commercial seed all going. CRS in Nigeria did a good job of showing us that VSEs can work. The model is possible, and farmers will pay for cassava seeds. Where do VSEs get their material? We need to shore that up. Going up from foundation to breeder seed, we have seen IITA and NRCRI founding new companies. Experimenting with cassava pencils is a great way to produce breeder seed. There may be entrepreneurs out there ready to produce this seed. That would be great. It is good that GoSeed and Umudike are producing breeder seed.We had the regulatory framework to ensure quality control and Fera helped with that. We know that brown streak will come. We must keep it out of the seed system. RTB, the International Potato Center (CIP), Graham, Michael, Hemant… you have been flexible and kept this ship floating. Each component lead has done a great job. We learned that quality of seed is not as important as variety, so we need to release new varieties. The purpose of the BASICS project is to develop a sustainable cassava seed value chain in Nigeria, characterized by the commercial production and dissemination of cassava planting material. The project envisages benefits to farmers and the industry through higher returns from the use of clean planting material of superior stem quality that are made accessible to farmers at the right time and at an appropriate price.","tokenCount":"3718"}

data/part_3/0587768148.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"9cad2d64f14d616e9efc29371e7ecd14","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://repository.cimmyt.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/964bb62a-5c40-4b57-8774-1d80d0e8aced/content","id":"1482968964"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"f18591ae-9010-4cf8-a39e-9921a800885a","pagecount":"10","content":"Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research Editor-in~Chief is a quarterly journal highlighting original M. Shahidul Islam, Ph. D contributions on all disciplines of agricultural research conducted in any part of the globe. A \" t Ed\"t The 1st issue of a volume comes out in SSOCla e 1 ors .'March, the 2nd one In June, the 3rd one In M. A. Satter, M. Tech.September and .the 4th one in December.0 The same data must not be presented in both tables and graphs.Address for .Correspondence 0 Drawing should be in Chinese ink. The Editor (Technical) scale of figure, where required, may be BARI, Joydebpur, Gazipur 1701, Bangladesh indicated by a scale line on the drawing itself.Rate of Subscription 0 Phot°8.raphs must be on glossy papers Taka 50.00 per copy (home) ~ 0 References should be alphabetically US $ 10.00 per.copy (abroad) arranged conforming to the style of the journal. 0 A full paper exceeding 12 typed pages and a short communication exceeding eight typed pages will not be entertained.Cheques, Money Orders, Drafts or 00 Authors get no complimentary copy Coupons, etc. should be issued in favour of of the journal. Twenty copies of the Director General, Bangladesh reprints are supplied free of cost to the Agricultural Research Institute author (s) ~i i' ~' Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute ~ . l' Joydehpur, Gazipur 1701, BangladeshAgricultural machinery plays an important role to reduce drudgery of farm work as well as to sustain crop production at economic level. In the recent years, the number of power tillers is increasing day by day due to its versatile use in tilling, pumping, threshing, husking and transporting. Studies indicate that there is no alternate way to minimize labour shortage at peak crop season without using farm machinery.Crop establishment using bed planting system is a new technique in the farming system of Bangladesh. Generally farmers grow potato and some vegetables in beds. Bed planting system was originally developed in Mexico's Yaqui Velly, where more than 90% of farmers had adopted the practice. In the northwest of Mexico, where high yielding irrigated wheat is commonly rotated with soybean and the farmers increased crop yield dramatically by using this practice in the last decade (Meisner et al., 1992). Raised bed cultivation facilitates more optimum planting time provided by more timely field access because of better drainage and through new opportunities to reduce crop turn-around time by re-use of the same bed (Sayre, 2003). This system has many advantages, such as it reduces seed rate, ISenior Scientific Officer (Agric. Engg.), WRC, Dinajpur, 2CIMMYT NRG Agronomist, Bangladesh, 3Dir~ctor, WRC, Dinajpur, 4Chief Scientific Officer, WRC, Dinajpur and 5Senior Scientific Officer, IWM, BARI, J oydebpur, Gazipur 170 I, Bangladesh.increases crop yield, requires less water, imparts higher nitrogen use efficiency, reduces problem of crop lodging, etc over the conventional system (Hobbs et ai., 1997). The research findings showed that the benefits of the raised bed planting systems .with furrow irrigation compared with conventional flat planting with flood irrigation were saving water 30% by changing from flood to fuaow irrigation and also eliminated the formation of crust problem on soil surface (Fahong et ai., 2003). Th~ permanent raised bed irrigated planting system for wheat and other crops that is being develoed in Mexico and elsewhere may finally provide a coherent technology to extend marked tillage reductions with appropriate management of crop residues for surface irrigated production system including those where wheat is a major crop (Sayre and Hobbs, 2003). Manually bed forming is a laborious and time consuming operation. So, it will be very helpful for the farmers, if they are provided with a mechanical device which can perform bed making and seeding operations at a time. Therefore, this programme was undertaken to develop and evaluate the performance of a shovel type bed former with seeding arrangement on a toolbar frame. The whole unit will be attached to a power tiller for wheat, mungbean and maize cultivation.Terefore, the objectives of this study were: i. to develop and fabricate a shovel type bed former with seeding aaangement, ii. to make necessary aaangements for hitching the toolbar frame to a power tiller, iii. to test the performance of the bed planter for wheat, maize and mungbean cultivation.A tool bar frame was constructed with locally available mild steel materials. A pair of shovel type furrow opener was made and fitted to the tool bar frme. A bed shaper was also constructed and attached behind the furrow opener. A seed box with a metering device was also attached to the frame. The seed metering device was operated by a chain sprocket mechanism, which transmitted power from the tiller wheelbase. The bed planter was hitched to the power tiller. Detailed specifications are given in Table 1. The bed planter was tested at the experimental farm of Wheat Research Centre, Dinajpur for wheat, mungbean and maize cultivation in the year 2002. The bed planter was o~erated in the tilled soil. There could be two lines for wheat, two lines for~ Data collection: The following data were collected during the test. Regional Network of Agricultural Machinery (RNAM) test code was followed to collect the data.i) Depth of seed placement (cm), ii) Travel speed (km/hr), iii) Effective field capacity (ha/hr) , iv) Field efficiency (%), v) Fuel consumption (l/hr), vi) No. of plants/m2, vii) Yield/m2. of the six seed delivery tubes. The seeder was operated on a pre-measured 20m run, seeds collected through tubes were weighed separately and the total seed weight was also noted. This method was repeated by acceleration and decelaration of the lever of seed meter until the desired seed rate obtained.The seed rate was determined through calculation by using the following equation (Michael and Ojah, 1978).Where, Sd = Seed rate (kg/ha) W s = total wt. of seed (g) Am = measured experimental area, m2B. Travel speed: Two standing sticks fixed pre-measured distance. At the time of sowing, fixed distance passing time was recorded by stopwatch and simple calculation was done. RNAM test code was followed to collect data.Where, S = travel speed (krn/hr). d = pre-measured distance, m t = recorded time (sec)C. Theoretical field capacity: Theoretical field capacity was calculated as follows (Kepner et ai., 1987).Where, TFC = theoretical field capacity (ha/hr) W = width of t~e seeder (m) S = travel speed (krn/hr) D. Effective field capacity: It is the actual field coverage of the seeder per unit time. Effective field capacity was calculated as follows (Kepner et at. 1987).Where, EFC =. effective field capacity (ha/hr) A = total area sown by the machine (ha) T = Total recorded time (hr) E. Field efficiency: It is the percentage of the ratio of effective field capacity and theoretical field capacity (Kepner et al., 1987).. Field efficiency, Fe = ~ x 100Where, Fe = Field efficiency (%)F. Fuel consumption: The fuel tank was filled and re-filled before and after the sowing operation, respectively. Re-filled quantity was taken as the fuel consumption. The effective field capacity (0.10 ha/hr) of the planter was comparatively low for wheat sowing due to the lower travel speed compared to that of mungbean and maize sowing. Similarly the field efficiency of the machine was also higher (83.0%) during mungbean and maize seeding. This may be due to the use of the bed planter after modification in mungbean and maize sowing. It was observed from the field monitoring that growth of mungbean and maize on the bed were not hampered by excess rainfall. During the whole growing period, maize plants were not lodging in bed system. Fuel consumption of the machine was the same, at 1.2 lit./hr as normal tilling operation of the power tiller. Applied seed rates of wheat, mung bean and maize cultivation were 100., 30 and 20 kg/ha, respectively (Table 3), which were less than the recommended rate in conventional method. Depth of seed placement and line to 'line distance can be adjusted according to the agronomic requirement.Plant establishment in the machine sown plots were same as the conventional one. Yield of wheat, maize and mungbean on beds were comparatively high than that of conventional once. Cost curve was drawn according to the farm mechanization planning (Anonymous, 1991). Cost curve of yearly use of the machine is shown in Fig. 4. Cost per hectare utilization of the machine decreased as the cultivated land increased. It was estimated that 13 ha of land utilization is the break even point of the machine. Based on the results obtained in the field tests, following conclusions may be drawn:i) An efficient low cost toolbar frame with multicrop seed metering mechanism can be assembled with the frame.ii) Bed formation and seeding operation can be done in one operation by bed planter.iii) The bed planter can be used for ~heat, mungbean, maize cultivation successfully.iv) The toolbar can easily be hitched with power tiller. I","tokenCount":"1464"}

data/part_3/0606103185.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0d61d8c8f4db15c613dffda2dcf224d4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2866fa95-f1ce-44c9-a684-efb3e631c961/retrieve","id":"-1364401512"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"cf8d0b6b-1faa-4f5a-9254-fd8f106f5d60","pagecount":"2","content":"The International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) does envision this possibility and is conducting a pilot-scale project in several areas of Colombia that mainly aims to develop low-cost innovative systems to produce bioethanol (fuel alcohol), biodiesel, and pure vegetable oil that will generate rural employment while protecting the environment by reducing air pollution. The project's interinstitutional team, under the leadership of CIAT researcher John Loke, has made important advances in the area of biofuels. John is firmly convinced that it is possible to produce biofuels by tapping numerous energy crops of the tropics and their wastes and by involving small producers so that they produce raw alcohol of low purity that will serve as input to refineries that produce high-quality fuel alcohol.The Federation of Plantain Producers of Colombia (Fedeplátano) also participates in this project, and has already initiated the pre-market production of bioethanol based on coffee wastes in the country's coffee-growing region. Two prototype plants are currently being validated, one in Valle del Cauca and the other in Quindío. Another plant is mobile and can be strategically used to train producer associations anywhere in Colombia.\"The successful management of the prototype plant by Fedeplátano triggered a proposal to set up the same system in Tanzania (Africa)\", highlighted Silverio González, the Federation's President. This innovative way of producing bioethanol will be useful for farmer associations in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.Project activities include the establishment of castor bean (Ricinus communis) and Jatropha curcas, popularly known as physic nut or the tuba-tuba plant, both shrubs of the Euphorbiaceae family that produce between 1,600 and 3,400 liters biodiesel or pure vegetable oil (also a biofuel) per hectare per year. This alliance involves farmer groups represented by Fedeplátano in Colombia and producers of J. curcas in Tanzania, supported by researchers of CIAT and the Colombian Corporation for Agricultural Research (CORPOICA) as well as by experts of Diligent Energy Systems B.V., a Dutch company that facilitates the access to biofuel production with a farmer participatory approach.\"The production plants proposed are relatively small-scaled; they use renewable energy sources as well as new waste transformation and management techniques as biogas\", says Sanna Hogervorst, researcher of the University of Wageningen, who has been involved in the process. One of the new developments is the transportation of raw material in liquid form, facilitating its transfer in regions with poor road infrastructure.Over an 8-month period, different yeasts and enzymes that could be used to produce bioethanol from different raw materials have been evaluated at CIAT laboratories. Although sugarcane is a traditional source to produce this biofuel, according to experts it is also economically and technically feasible to obtain biofuel from cassava, sweet potato, banana, and coffee in regions not suitable for cane production.Several farmer associations have already expressed their interest in this project in view of the low investment costs in prototype plants. Funding was obtained to build two more processing plants, including demonstration-scale plants, and to establish energy crops at CIAT's headquarters in Palmira and at CORPOICA's facilities in Montería, with the support of Colombia's Ministry of Agriculture and Development, the Latin American and Caribbean Consortium to Support Cassava Research and Development (CLAYUCA), and other entities.Contact: Bernardo Ospina ([email protected]), phone: +57 (2) 4450000, ext. 3159, Cali, Colombia.","tokenCount":"537"}

data/part_3/0644684170.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"99cc66f2481d21471d89ba56af9d7cae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/24079bae-442d-459e-adbe-ea248377acbf/retrieve","id":"-372597931"},"keywords":["organic waste bioconversion","black soldier fly (BSF)","rearing temperature","development","growth","longevity","fecundity"],"sieverID":"18c21583-d8bf-44f9-9913-3036a3f3478f","pagecount":"14","content":"Rapid population growth and urbanization, continued economic growth, shifts in dietary patterns towards more animal source foods are major challenges that sub-Saharan Africa is currently facing. These challenges exert a high demand on agricultural production. Insect species such as the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) have been identified as potential alternatives for the traditional protein sources used in livestock feed due to their rich nutrient content and the fact that they can be reared on organic side streams. However, black soldier fly larvae are very sensitive to external environments such as temperature and rearing medium. Currently, little is known about the combined influence of temperature and organic waste streams that are readily available in the urban environments of sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of temperature and organic waste streams on the development of black soldier fly larvae reared on two different organic substrates, i.e., brewers' spent grain and cow dung. The results show that black soldier fly larvae reared on brewers' spent grain were more efficient and tolerated a wider range of temperatures in comparison with those reared on cow dung.In 2014, 54% of the world's population resided in urban areas, while in 1950, this number only constituted 30%; by 2050, two-thirds of the world's population will live in urban areas [1]. In particular, urban populations in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are projected to increase by 115% from today's figures, from 170 to 360 million, in the next 15 years [1]. As a result, it has been estimated that the global food supply will need to increase by 60% in order to meet the demand of the global population, which is expected to reach 10 billion people by 2050 [2]. Rapid urbanization and the growing human population are coupled with continued economic growth, as well as shifts in dietary preferences towards favoring more animal source foods (ASFs) [3][4][5][6]. Therefore, it is not surprising that both the production and consumption of ASFs in the developing world are forecasted to increase sharply [2]. However, this increase represents a major challenge due to the high ecological footprint associated with the production of meat and dairy products [7][8][9][10][11]. In addition, the level of productivity of many agricultural systems in the developing world is still quite low in terms of the efficiency of land and water resource use [12]. On the other hand, the level of malnutrition associated with insufficient protein consumption in developing countries is still very high [13][14][15][16][17]. Moreover, the costs of livestock production, such as poultry farming, in the developing world are increasing mainly because of the high feed costs, now more than 70% of the production costs [18][19][20]. The use of food ingredients in livestock feed production that are also directly consumed by humans, such as fish and soybean, create a food-feed competition, leading to further increases in ingredient costs and consequently to higher feed costs [19]. Moreover, the massive expansion of soybean cultivation has put pressure on land availability, especially in the tropics, often leading to deforestation and other negative effects for the environment [21]. Therefore, access to affordable feed is significant for more profitable and affordable poultry production.The current combination of inefficient production and unsustainable consumption patterns points to the need to adopt cost effective production systems, in which alternative protein sources for animal feed with lower ecological footprints are used in order to achieve more sustainable agricultural production and improved food security while safeguarding the already fragile ecosystems and natural resources in the developing world [22,23]. Mass-produced insects have emerged as some of the promising alternatives, as some species can be reared on various types of organic waste, including poultry, pig, and cattle manure, as well as on coffee bean pulp, vegetable residues, catering waste, municipal organic waste, straw, dried distillers' grains with solubles (DDGS), and fish offal [24][25][26][27]. Among the insect species identified as alternative ingredients for animal feed are the black soldier fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), the common house fly Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae), and the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) [28][29][30][31]. In addition, insects contain high amounts of energy, fatty acids, micronutrients, and especially proteins [32][33][34]. For instance, BSF larvae, which have been used as an accepted feed ingredient for poultry, pigs, and a number of fish and shrimp species, contain about 35-49% crude protein (CP) and 29-35% fat and have an amino acid pattern comparable to fishmeal [35][36][37][38].Insects are known to inhabit a wide variety of environments, including extreme ones, due to their adaptive behavioral and physiological mechanisms [39]. However, these tolerance mechanisms are not well understood [39]. Moreover, insects, along with other ectotherms, depend largely on ambient temperatures to regulate their metabolism and development rates [40]. Forecast modeling suggests that due to climate change, insects inhabiting more temperature-versatile geographic regions will survive elevated temperatures, while those inhabiting regions where little temperature variances occur will experience a decline in their populations as global warming proceeds [41,42]. BSF, originally traced back to the Americas, is currently known to be found in tropical, as well as temperate, regions across the globe [34]. Various studies have looked into the effects of different diets on laboratory-reared BSF [34,[43][44][45][46], as well as the influence of temperature on the development and survival of BSF larvae using laboratory-prepared diets [47]. Other studies have investigated the influence of organic waste streams as rearing substrates on the development and survival of BSF larvae [25,[48][49][50]. Yet, most of these studies were carried out with the aim of understanding and developing BSF larvae large-scale production systems in the developed world, where indoor climate-controlled facilities can be easily established. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study so far has investigated the combined influence of urban organic waste stream-based diets and temperature on the development and survival of BSF in the developing world context.Therefore, this study sought to investigate the influence of temperature on selected life-history traits of BSF reared on two different and readily available urban organic waste streams in the urban environment of a large city in SSA. This comparison allowed us to determine which of the two organic waste streams performs best, as well as the accompanying optimum temperatures. Information from this study is important for improving rearing methods in SSA, as well as for creating cost-effective and environmentally sustainable alternative livestock feeds that can buffer the impact of climate change, especially for small-scale livestock producers who are not connected to international feed markets and local feed producers who can neither afford nor implement sophisticated climate-controlled production facilities.The study was carried in the laboratories of the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), in Nairobi, Kenya.The tested substrates, cow dung (CD) and brewers' spent grain (SG), were both sourced locally. Fresh CD was collected from Farmers Choice slaughterhouse in Kahawa West in Nairobi; the bovines originated from different ranches in Kenya where they had been raised on natural grassland. SG was sourced from Tusker House, Kenya Breweries Ltd. off Thika Road in Nairobi after the fermentation of the barley in the beer production process. The substrates were chosen based on their availability in Nairobi with a view of their potential future use for large-scale industrial BSF larvae production. Fresh CD and SG substrates were oven dried at 60 • C for 48 h and then stored for subsequent experiments in a refrigerator at −20 • C.The stock population of BSF populations was maintained at the insectary in icipe. Adult BSF were housed in an outdoor, metal-framed cage with 1.5 mm screen mesh (1.8 × 1.8 × 1.8 m) with direct access to daylight to encourage mating. The flies were supplied with water to prolong their life. Corrugated cardboard and some SG were placed within the cage to attract adult females for oviposition. The colony was maintained in the insectary for over 8 generations before use in this experiment.First, 10 batches of eggs were collected from the stock colony and placed into smaller containers (15 × 9.4 cm) containing an oviposition substrate of moist-to-liquefied SG (100 g). Each setup was closely monitored 3 times a day to ensure egg hatching. After hatching, 100 3-5-day-old larval instars were transferred into different, clear, plastic, 500-mL containers with the 2 test substrates, CD and SG. Each container contained 100 g of the test substrate, which was mixed with water to achieve a moisture content of 70% by weight [51]. The experiment was conducted in incubators (MIR-554-PE, Sanyo/Panasonic cooled incubators, Osaka, Japan) with air humidity of 70% and a photoperiod of 12L: 12D. Each substrate was subjected to different temperature treatments of 15 • C, 20 • C, 25 • C, 30 • C, and 35 • C. Each substrate-temperature treatment was replicated 5 times and was aerated daily to ensure that the substrate was thoroughly turned and well moisturized.Each treatment was monitored daily, and the duration of the larval development was recorded. The recording of larval development stopped when all the larvae reached the prepupal stage. The prepupae were removed, weighed, and placed individually in separate, labeled, 35-mL plastic cups filled with moist sawdust. Each cup with the prepupae was covered with a breathable lid and returned to its respective temperature regime for daily monitoring and subsequently recorded for the numbers of puparia formed. Further, adult emergence was monitored daily. Upon emergence, 10 2-day-old adults (5 males and 5 females) from every replicate per substrate-temperature treatment were transferred into a cage (40 × 40 × 40 cm) and allowed to mate for 24 h at their respective temperatures. Thereafter, an oviposition device with a small bowl of moist chicken manure and 2-3 cardboards were placed in each cage to provide sites for oviposition. A 10% sugar solution in water was provided daily in a vial through a filter paper inserted into the vial's lid. The laid egg batches were recorded, and the numbers of eggs per batch were counted under a microscope. The adult flies' longevity was recorded daily until all the caged flies were dead. The collected data were subjected to Levene's test for normality, followed by a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear model (GLM) procedure. Where significant differences existed, Tukey Honest Significant Difference (HSD) or Least Significant Difference (LSD) post hoc was used to separate the means at the p < 0.05 level. For temperature-driven models, a parametrized square function [52] was fitted to the developmental time stage-specific data of the insect. The linear model expressed below evaluated the relationship between BSF developmental times and temperatures [51]:where b is the temperature for the minimum development time and c is the minimum development time.Both temperature and substrate type significantly influenced BSF larval development, with the SG-fed BSF larvae needing significantly less time to reach prepupal stage in the temperature treatments tested. The time needed for larval development decreased gradually with the increasing temperatures and was the shortest at 30 • C for the SG-fed larvae and 35 • C for the CD-fed larvae (Table 1). The CD-fed BSF needed 24%, 63%, 64%, and 65% less time at 20 Prepupal weight was significantly influenced by both temperature and substrate type, with the SG-fed BSF larvae weighing more than those fed with CD. Prepupal weights increased with the increasing temperatures, with the prepupae reared on CD substrate weighing the most at 30 • C, while those reared on SG were heaviest when reared at 25 • C and 30 • C (Table 2). At their heaviest (30 • C), the weight of the CD-fed prepupae increased by 33%, while that of the SG-fed prepupae increased by 20% in comparison with their lightest weight (15 • C). On the other hand, the weight of the SG-fed prepupae was 51%, 38%, and 46% greater than that of the CD-fed prepupae at 15  Pupal developmental time differed significantly across different temperatures for BSF pupae previously reared on both substrates. The pupal developmental time decreased gradually with increasing temperatures and was shortest at 35 • C and 30 • C for prepupae reared on CD and SG substrates, respectively (Table 3). Pupae reared on SG needed significantly less time to emerge as adults than those reared on CD. For instance, pupae reared on CD needed 28%, 70%, 72%, and 74% less time at 20  The longevity of BSF adult flies was significantly influenced by both temperature and substrate type, with BSF adults previously reared as larvae on SG living significantly longer than those previously reared on CD (Table 4). Longevity decreased with increasing temperatures, with all BSF adults irrespective of their larval rearing substrate living the longest at 15 • C. For instance, the longevity of BSF adults previously reared on CD at 20  Both temperature and substrate type significant affected the number of eggs laid or oviposited by adult BSF (Table 5). BSF adults obtained from larvae previously reared on both CD and SG produced more eggs at higher temperatures and the most eggs at 30 • C. However, at 35 • C, egg production by adult BSF previously reared on both CD and SG declined by 27% and 39%, respectively. The eggs produced by flies derived from the SG substrate produced 34% more eggs than those derived from the CD substrate at 30 • C.   6). For the pupae, the mean minimum development time was estimated to be 45 days (range 39.4-50.6 days) at 32.8 • C (range 39.1-50.9 • C) (Figure 1b, Table 7). The mean temperature threshold for SG-fed pupae was not significant.    6). For the pupae, the mean minimum   Temperature has proven to be a key factor in the development and survival of insects [53]. Moreover, it is well established that BSF larvae are sensitive to their external environments and that temperatures influence their development and survival [47,54]. On the other hand, temperature and nutrition interact to affect key life-history traits in insects, such as maturity, development rate, reproduction, and survival [55]. Several studies looked into the influence of either laboratory-reared diets at a constant temperature or organic side streams as feeding substrates on life-history traits of BSF larvae [44][45][46][47]56]. However, no previous study investigated the combined influence of temperature and urban organic waste material as rearing substrates in a developing world context. Those waste streams, cow dung and spent grain, were readily available in Nairobi, Kenya, and are arguably also available in other megacities in the developing world. We measured the influence of five different temperatures and two organic waste streams on the fitness of BSF larvae as a proposed alternative protein source for livestock feed. We measured the duration of development of immature BSF larvae, as well as BSF prepupae weights. We recorded significantly faster durations for BSF larvae and heavier weights for BSF prepupae reared on SG compared with those reared on CD even at the low temperatures of 15 • C and 20 • C. The development times of BSF immatures reared on both substrates decreased with increasing temperatures. The weights of BSF prepupae increased with increasing temperatures and were the heaviest at 25 • C and 30 • C.Several factors may have contributed to the differential development observed between the two rearing substrates. The most important contributing factor was the difference in the quality of the nutritional content between the rearing substrates. Several studies emphasized the importance of nutritional components, such as proteins and carbohydrates, in the development of insect larvae [57][58][59]. Therefore, we assume that SG better provided the BSF immatures with the nutritional resources and energy required to complete their development stage faster. This observation is supported by findings of Harnden and Tomberlin [60], who recorded faster development for BSF larvae reared on a grain-based diet in comparison with those reared on an animal tissue diet at 32.2 • C. Meneguze et al. [27] also reared BSF larvae on SG but recorded faster durations in comparison with what we report in this study. Yet, on the other hand, we noted heavier weights for BSF prepupae reared on SG than Tomberlin et al. [43] in a similar study. The main reasons for these discrepancies are differences in methodologies and experimental set-ups, as well as varying temperatures at which the BSF larvae were kept. Another factor that may have influenced the overall development of BSF could be related to its phenotypic plasticity. Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of an individual organism to alter its phenotype or to modify developmental events in response to changes in environmental conditions, allowing it to maintain high fitness regardless of the environmental variability [61,62]. Phenotypic plasticity permits organismal diversification within species without having to couple it with speciation through the evolution of environment-specific responses in phenotype expression [62]. The stock colony from which we obtained the BSF eggs was housed in an outdoor insectarium subjected to light cycles and temperature regimes reflective of the seasonality in Nairobi. Zhou et al. [63] collected BSF strains from three different climatic regions in the USA and China, reared them under identical conditions, and showed that they could reveal strikingly different BSF life-history traits. They attributed such differential development to the phenotypic plasticity of BSF. Further studies are needed to verify whether phenotypic plasticity in BSF is exclusively influenced by the environment or may also be genetically determined.Food availability and access to nutritional resources are other crucial factors affecting larval and adult life history traits [64,65]. For instance, the weight of BSF prepupae reared on CD in our study were lighter than those recorded by Myers et al. [56] for prepupae reared on a similar type of substrate. While Myers et al. [56] provided the larvae with fresh increments of CD on a daily basis, we opted for a lump sum amount of CD at the start of our experiment. Unlike fresh incremental diets, materials in lump sum diets age with time, leading to reduced amounts of nutritional components, such as proteins and carbohydrates, which are crucial for the development of insect larvae [57][58][59]. Facing such reductions in nutritional components, larvae refer to compensatory feeding, leading to faster development times and reduced weight gains [66,67]. This is also corroborated by Sheppard [68], who observed an optimal development of BSF reared on fresh CD provided at low increments. The consistency and physical texture of the rearing substrates used in our study may also have affected the results. Although, we did not specifically test the consistency and physical texture of the rearing substrates, it was visually evident during our experiments that CD was quite thick in texture and therefore may have limited the BSF immatures' mobility and access to the little amount of nutrients available, consequently affecting their life-history traits. Most importantly, the chemical composition of cow dung has been extensively summarized by Azevedo and Stout [69] and Graber [70], showing a high fiber ratio of about 27% and a proportionately lower percentage of protein. A complex set of factors influence the extent to which fiber will be digested by BSF, including the physical state of the cow dung, the level of intake, and the amount of readily fermented nutrients (i.e., carbohydrate and protein) in the ration. Moreover, cow dung constituent of largely non-nutritive elements and the variability of BSF ability to break down fiber might explain the considerable variation observed using the two substrates regardless of the rearing temperature. On the other hand, brewer's spent grain has been found to contain several essential nutrients, which are crucial for BSF growth. Couch [71] reported a proximate constituent of over 20% crude protein, about 6% ether extract, over 15% crude fiber, and 4% ash in brewer's spent grain. This is further supported by the National Research Council NRC [72], which reported that spent grain contains 25.3% crude protein (CP), 6.3% crude fat, and around 2080 Kcal/Kg of metabolizable energy and that spent grain is also a good source of B vitamins, thus rendering it a good potential substrate in BSF production. The use of spent grain in BSF diet compared with cow dung might be the reason for the improvement in the body weight gain of BSF prepupae, which translates to an increased profit margin. We did not conduct any tests on the influence of temperature and diet on food ingestion or substrate reduction, as our objective was to test the influence of temperature and diet on the development of BSF in terms of development duration, weight, longevity, and fecundity. However, based on our visual observations, BSF consumed SG more efficiently than CD, indicating that waste reduction might also be influenced by the nutritional quality, texture, and moisture content of the substrate.Pupation, a complex process involving significant morphological and physiological transformations, is essential for holometabolous insects [73]. Therefore, we additionally measured the duration of pupation, as well as the adult longevity and fecundity, as affected by the previously experienced temperature and substrate regimes. Adult emergence took longer at lower temperatures and was significantly shortest at 25-35 • C and shorter for BSF previously reared on SG than those reared on CD at those temperatures. The relationship between temperature and adult emergence observed in our study is not uncommon in insects. For instance, Telles-Romero et al. [73] studied the effects of four temperature regimes (18 • C, 20 • C, 25 • C, and 30 • C) on the West Indian fruit fly Anastrepha obliqua and found a decrease in the duration until adult emergence with increasing temperatures. Moreover, moist sawdust, the pupation substrate used in our study, may have also collectively accelerated the developmental time of pupae to adult emergence. Our results are further supported by Holmes et al. [48], who also observed low pupal mortality, a higher proportion of adult emergence, and increased adult longevity when using wood shavings and concluded that such a pupation substrate significantly enhances BSF development. The reason for this is most likely the high moisture content (70%) and low compaction density of wood shavings, which facilitates pupation and the emergence of BSF [48].Adult longevity significantly decreased with increasing temperatures, with BSF adults derived from larvae previously reared on SG recording higher longevity. This confirms our previously stated assumption regarding the influence of the nutritional content of the rearing substrate, as well as access to nutritional resources, on larval and adult life-history traits and explains why we observed -even at a similar temperature range (25-30 • C)-shorter adult longevity in comparison with Myers et al. [56], who also reared BSF on CD. However, they noted greater longevity in adults that were previously fed with higher increments of fresh CD as BSF larvae. Moreover, because adult BSF do not feed and only consume water, exposing them to high temperatures will cause dehydration leading to an increased mortality rate and reduced lifespan [44]. BSF fecundity was highest at 30 • C and was significantly affected by the type of substrate fed to the larvae. The higher weight gain recorded at the prepupal stage is likely to translate into larger adult body size in both males and females [74]. Several studies have reported that larger-sized females lay more eggs due to their greater energy reserves [74]. Although we did not measure the size of the BSF females, the fact that the females that emerged from larvae reared on SG had significantly higher fecundity compared with those from CD, could clearly point in this direction.Our study is the first to provide information regarding the influence of temperature on the life history of BSF reared on two diets readily available in urban SSA. Such information is necessary for developing BSF potential in the developing world, both as a tool for the bioconversion of organic waste and as an alternative protein source in feed stock. Our results demonstrate that both temperature and substrate type significantly influence the development, longevity, and fecundity of the flies. Black soldier flies needed less time to develop on higher temperatures during their immature and pupal stages, while adults' longevity decreased at higher temperatures. Similarly, BSF reared on spent grain outperformed the ones reared on cow dung by surpassing them in weight and requiring less time to develop. Regardless of the waste stream used, BSF production systems have to be designed in a manner that provides BSF with adequate access to fresh nutritional content. Also, considering that the BSF could be used to feed livestock that are part of the human food chain, it is important to assess the potential risks associated with contamination by pathogens and the bioaccumulation of heavy metals. Moreover, the influence of the rearing substrate influenced the fecundity of adult flies, with the ones reared on spent grain as larvae producing more eggs, underlining the importance of the nutritional quality of the rearing substrate. Considering that BSF is produced for feed and not only for the purpose of organic waste recycling, this interesting information suggests the need to introduce starter-culture production facilities with customized rearing substrates for the production of BSF eggs as compared with organic waste recycling facilities. Hence, future research should focus on the development of adapted technologies in terms of the following: (1) rearing temperatures, (2) feeding methods, and (3) substrate hygiene and safety measures for small-to medium-scale industrial mass production systems of insects, such as BSF, into which commonly available urban organic waste streams can be fed. The availability of such production systems would considerably lower the cost of livestock feeds and consequently would make animal protein more affordable for the growing urban populations in SSA, thereby improving food security and nutrition, especially for women, children, and other vulnerable members of society.","tokenCount":"4238"}

data/part_3/0658857687.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"982352453a6a032f689b35ad5dc4ac53","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bf4ef516-b2ce-4b93-9575-15db93984708/retrieve","id":"402817044"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"76f43e8c-6805-42de-82b3-0ea243155c76","pagecount":"12","content":"• Findings from the scoping studySearch terms \"Women's empowerment\", \"masculinities\", \"gender norms\", \"agency\" \"Power relations\", \"Rural masculinities\" \"male involvement in agriculture\" Content scope -Agricultural domains -Food security, nutrition and assets control and managementLiterature with a global perspective, Sub-Sahara Africa, South & Southeast Asia, local focus on Uganda.Peer reviewed open access journal articles  2021))• Ambler et al ( 2021) & their work is on Facilitating women's access to an economic empowerment initiative in Eastern Uganda -empowerment as a 'process' by which \"those who have been denied the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability\".• Power within-power to decide -acting in groups (Santoso et al (▪ Few studies that explicitly highlight & use the concept \"Masculinities\" -social expectations that define who a man is in particular contexts (Bonatti et al 2019; Cole et al 2015, )• Socially constituted, -context specific • Variations (toxicity, progressive behaviour, supportive men/husbands, couple collaborations -rural masculinities/agricultural masculinities…)• Hierarchy▪ WE Empowerment in relation to men: Both FAO, IFAD and WFP (2020) and Sraboni and others (2014) hint on the notion of empowerment in relation to men, even when this concept has historically been used in relation to women.▪ Using WEAI to measure women's empowerment in Bangladesh, Sraboni and others (2014, p. 21) argued \"[this] analysis has shown that the areas in which men and women are disempowered are quite different, with the implication that, depending on local context, different programmes and policies will need to be put in place to empower women and men alike\".▪ Masculinities and femininities closely connected -influence each other.Addressing one without the other creates tensions in HH relations (Bonatti et al 2019)Findings: WE & Masculinities linked ","tokenCount":"275"}

data/part_3/0662362881.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c069ff54fedc785bcbaf3d4ab43d03f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/Guide-PFES-EN.pdf","id":"-1966219953"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"2f6e303f-9e19-4927-bb6f-24d73e89f828","pagecount":"28","content":"We would like to thank all funding partners who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Fund. For a full list of the 'CGIAR Fund' funding partners please see: http://www.cgiar.org/our-funders/ Any views expressed in this publication are those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of CIFOR, the editors, the authors' institutions, the financial sponsors or the reviewers.The Government of Vietnam and donors have launched numerous programmes and policies to support vulnerable communities' livelihoods, nutrition and agency and to cope COVID-19. Payment for Forest Environmental Services (PFES) has a potential role in contributing to the government policy mix to address Covid-19 impacts. This research guideline was developed by Center for International Forestry Research to answer three research questions: 1. What impacts has Covid-19 had on forest dependent communities, particularly women and youth, in Vietnam? 2. What have been the impacts of PFES on women's livelihoods, nutrition and agency before and after Covid-19? 3. How can PFES and future forestry policies be implemented to better achieve their social goals, including gender equity, and support local livelihoods?To answer these research questions, we combined both qualitative and quantitative methods:1. Literature review: We reviewed policies and reports on PFES and policies supporting local communities, women and youth in coping with Covid-19 in order to identify current problems, narratives, discourses and solutions related to gender that these policies and projects aim to address. Group meetings will be held in each village for the following two groups:• Male groupEach group will consist of 9-12 randomly selected people and villagers that agree to take part in the meetings/study.Meetings should be organized in a comfortable environment without government officers or heads of villages presence.Researchers should inform villagers that they can stop and leave the meeting at any time.The facilitator starts the FGD and thanks participants.The facilitator gives a summary of the project, project staff, the objectives and content of the meeting. The facilitator explains that this group meeting is voluntary and based on the consent of all participants.The facilitator explains in detail the content of the FGD, procedures and time, and encourages participants to ask questions.The objectives of this step are to: i) understand comprehensively the history of the village; ii) understand the main events and projects that occurred in the village, including the PFES programme; iii) determine the impacts of PFES and other projects on socioeconomic life and the environment of the village.After this step, based on collected information, we will conduct an in-depth investigation to understand changes in the environmental, livelihood and social events of the village.Note: Participants may not exactly remember the timing of each event (e.g., when PFES first started). In this case, remind them of a big event (a serious drought or forest fire) then ask how long before or after PFES appeared in relation to these events.Main questions used in this step include:• When was your village founded? Cut out 12 pieces of cardboard and write the names of 12 participants, one on each piece. On the A0 paper, write three columns, titled: Poor household, Medium household, Wealthy household.Pick each card and discuss with a group how they would like this household to be placed in the Table . Facilitate the discussion amongst villagers and let the villagers themselves put the paper in the column they want. Then ask villagers why and what criteria they used to classify these households in different groups.They may, for example, consider having a home with a mode of transportation or arable land as a criterion for distinguishing between poor, average, and wealthy households. These criteria may be different from the criteria of the poverty standard being applied; however, it is important to understand these criteria to capture the local situation (see tables below).Record the criteria for poor household classification at the bottom of the page, then together draw the ladder chart showing the poverty escape strategy of the household (see Nguyen Thi Lan Nguyen Thi Lan Hong Thi My Hanh Hong Thi My Hanh The main questions for SWOT analysis are:• What are the strengths of PFES?• What are the weaknesses of PFES?• What are the opportunities for PFES?• What are the risks of PFES? Continue asking until they reach the 'wealthy' level, then stop (about 5-6 times = 5-6 steps. On the ladder chart, ask whether they think they have escaped poverty and to what extent they think that the household is actually wealthy.   ","tokenCount":"734"}

data/part_3/0668517931.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"c77221de17b16e35d3608ae2325b633d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7db901ad-7235-4cff-81ca-0c0b52c806ec/retrieve","id":"-764890975"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"5c4b24bd-ae63-4aad-8977-8853ec2e2589","pagecount":"32","content":"Institut internatianal d' agricu lture trapicale f-f>i~ © IITA 2001 L' IITA autorise 10 reproduction de ceHe publication a des fins non lucratives .Participation des agriculteurs a la recherche et au developpement : technique de recensement et de resolution de problemes S. Schulz    Les themes de recherche prioritaires sont identifies grdce Ce  (tape r : Les objec~Fs de la reunion de resolution des problemes sont les su ivants :    Historique de I'IITA L'i nstitut international d' ogriculture tropicale (IITA), etobl i en 1967 en tant qu 'i nstitut international de recherche agri cole a pour responsobilite d'accroitre Les gu ides de recherche de I' IITA sonl deslines \" de grande disseminolion d ' informalion sur loul d omain des acliviles de rech erche menees par I' IITA el pl us parliculiinemenl en mali,;,es des nouvelles lechnalogies . lis visenl \" un grand publ ic qui reside surloul en Afrique subsaharienne, y compris les chercheurs agronomes, les enseignanls, les slag ia ires, elles vulgarisaleurs .Pour 10 lisle camplele des gu ides de recherche, veuillez conlacler I' IITA .","tokenCount":"177"}

data/part_3/0671545654.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"0a1fab837245be8bedc108450fc3d7f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0525e1ce-b822-461b-909d-db1ff86e0838/retrieve","id":"-1354927955"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"a1d0c0fc-0dd8-4376-ab44-c1bd6b6ad1d4","pagecount":"4","content":"Gender and social inequalities are deeply entrenched within our global agrifood systems. This limits the potential of womenespecially those from agriculture-dependent communities -to be empowered to build social, economic and technological resilience to climate change. Women co-developing and co-designing solutions is essential to successfully transforming agrifood systems in a climate crisis.Structural gender inequalities such as harmful norms, unequal responsibilities and restrictive masculinities make women particularly vulnerable to shocks and stressors such as climate change, conflict, state fragility and pandemics. Although gendertransformative approaches mitigate these inequalities and can boost climate resilience among women, substantial inequalities persist.Socio-technical innovations targeting climate resilience are not adequately designed or bundled to encourage uptake by women, nor are they diffused at the pace or scale required for system transformation. Social protection systems often fail to address constraints faced by women, and agrifood system governance structures often significantly disfavor them. More research is needed on how to address these constraints and transform agrifood systems to reduce gender inequality.This objective will be achieved through:• Promoting gender transformative approaches targeting structures that create social inequalities by reducing normative constraints that limit women's capacity to build economic resilience to climate change challenges. • Co-designing and testing bundled innovations for women's empowerment as partners and drivers of climate change solutions, by identifying context-specific social and technical innovations that lead to equal uptake of and benefits for women, men and youth in agrifood systems.• Enabling gender-responsive social protection by co-designing and testing how social protection and complementary programs can inclusively address gender inequality and poverty, build resilience and support women in mitigating and adapting to effects of climate change.• Encouraging inclusive and responsive governance and policies whereby women, youth and marginalized groups are consulted and heard in the process of making policies and investments, including those related to climate change.This Initiative will work in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria and United Republic of Tanzania as a priority and will explore work in two additional focal countries: Egypt and Vietnam.Proposed three-year outcomes include:1. National agencies, civil society organizations and CGIAR Initiatives in at least two low-and middle-income countries target normative constraints that limit the capacities of women food system actors to build economic resilience to climate change challenges using gender-transformative approaches. 2. Learning Labs nested in other CGIAR Initiatives and downstream partners in two low-and middle-income countries, together with this Initiative, identify and model diverse scenarios for bundling climate-smart technologies to empower women to be partners and drivers of climate change solutions. 3. Stakeholders involved in social protection programs -including governments, international NGOs, UN agencies and donors -across at least three low-and middleincome countries use this Initiative's evidence to understand how social protection systems can be better leveraged to boost rural women's climate resilience and reduce gender inequality. 4. Government, NGOs, civil society organizations and/or private sector actors in at least three low-and middle-income countries use learning and guidance from the Initiative to better understand how social innovations, organizational strategies and government and private-sector policies can increase the voice and agency of women in agrifood system governance and their resilience to climate change.Projected impacts and benefits 1 include:Women, youth and other vulnerable groups become proactive agents of agrifood systems transformation, benefiting from enhanced agency in policy dialogues, greater participation in the co-design of innovations and programs, and a better ability to demand, access and control use of services and technologies, contributing to gender equality, empowerment and greater resilience to climate change for 3.5 million women.Inclusive take-up of climate-smart food production technologies, gender-responsive social protection to support women's food access and production, and strategies to increase women's voice and agency in climate-relevant nutrition and health services remove barriers to equality and elevate women's vital roles, both as entrepreneurs and producers of healthy foods and as decision-makers and consumers for their own and other household members' diets and health, benefiting 4.6 million people.Addressing gendered barriers to emerging from poverty and offering women opportunities to build resilience to climate change contributes to addressing key drivers of poverty and lack of livelihood opportunities and jobs in the context of climate change in target and focal countries, benefiting 5.6 million people.Women are empowered beyond accessing and using climate-smart technologies, moving towards designing and driving such technologies that include social protection and transformative solutions for 3.3 million people. Women are equipped to contribute to the development and implementation of genderresponsive actions beyond national adaptation plans and nationally determined contributions in the different target countries.Implementation of tried and tested socio-technical innovation bundles, which include digital support, enhanced decision-making, participatory development and application of context-specific strategies, has a positive impact on the status and management of natural resources in target sites, bringing 738,000 hectares under improved management.1 Projected Benefits are a way to illustrate reasonable orders of magnitude for impacts which could arise as a result of the impact pathways set out in the Initiative's Theories of Change. In line with the 2030 Research and Innovation Strategy, Initiatives contribute to these impact pathways, along with other partners and stakeholders. CGIAR does not deliver impact alone. These projections therefore estimate plausible levels of impact to which CGIAR, with partners, contribute. They do not estimate CGIAR's attributable share of the different impact pathways.The For more details on this Initiative, visit the Initiative website.Header photo: Female farmers attending an information meeting on solar pumps in India. Photo by C. de Bode/CGIAR.","tokenCount":"889"}

data/part_3/0671676469.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"dc189e077ca9812cc9334be3b44f78c8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45e0c3ff-af14-46f8-b5dc-5391d8681eed/retrieve","id":"-1770068502"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"d880acdf-0172-4619-9894-1e44f5f1745d","pagecount":"12","content":"Increasing formal employment for youth and women is a key goal of the Forsa pilot graduation intervention and Egyptian government policy in general. As detailed in Forsa evaluation reports, matching Takaful beneficiaries with jobs in the private sector is a major challenge from the perspective of households. In this policy note, we examine the challenges from the perspective of potential employers. We review literature of the market failures that may contribute to difficulties with job matching in rural Egypt and present results from a small telephone survey of Forsa employers.High rates of informality are one of the most persistent challenges prevailing in the Egyptian labor market. Stable full-time private sector employment is relatively rare, especially for youth and women. Informal work continues to be highly prevalent, despite informal workers expressing the least job satisfaction in the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS) and preferring a stable job with tenure (Assaad, Al-Sharawy, and Salemi 2019;The World Bank 2020). As of 2020, 56 percent of all workers in Egypt worked in the informal sector and another 17 percent had irregular employment (World Bank 2020). Seventy percent of jobs are created by micro-firms (1-5 employees) which are typically unregistered and unlicensed enterprises and lack the capacity to offer formal employment with written contracts and social insurances (The World Bank 2020).Both youth and women struggle at finding decent work. The youth unemployment rate of 17.5 percent is considerably higher than the average unemployment of 7.4 percent in 2021 (The World Bank 2021d). The female unemployment rate decreased from 25 percent in 2015 to 15.6 percent in 2021 (The World Bank 2021c), yet the share of women working is still small due to very low and falling rates of labor force participation. The share of female population ages 15 and older in the labor force decreased from 23 percent in 2015 to 15 percent in 2021 (The World Bank 2021b). Only 32 percent of women work inDecember 2023the private sector compared to 52 percent of men, and only 8 percent in the formal private sector (Amer, Selwaness, and Zaki 2021).At the same time, wages in the Egyptian private sector are low and slow to adjust to inflation. The mean formal private sector wage stayed at 2,500 EGP from February 2020 till June 2021, during which period there was an inflation rate of around 7 percent (Assaad et al. 2022). This is an urgent concern as inflation rates picked up again in 2023 and expectations of future inflation remain high.We review recent literature on market frictions and policy choices in the Egyptian labor market that may explain the patterns described above. A traditional explanation for the weakness of the private sector in Egypt has been the long dominance of the public sector. In recent years, however, public sector jobs have become scarcer, so this is likely no longer the main explanation. Based on 2018 ELMPS survey data, public employment accounted for only 5 percent of youth employment compared to one third of the oldest age group (Barsoum and Abdalla 2020;Amer, Selwaness, and Zaki 2021).One hypothesis for persistent low wages is that labor productivity is simply low. Despite high educational attainment, firms report that employees do not have the skills they need. This may be explained by both poor education quality and mismatch between educational content and skills demanded by the labor market.According to the 2019 Global Competitiveness Report, Egypt ranked 109th out of 140 countries on ease in finding skilled employees, and 136th in finding the right skill sets of graduates (Schwab 2019).An ECES survey of \"Manufacturing Sector Future Needs and Actual Labor-Related Problems in Egypt\" in 2019 revealed that low labor productivity and skill mismatch are two of the most dominant challenges facing private sector employers in all sectors, especially for technicians, machine, and assembly workers and that the education system does not teach soft skills which are also important in the workplace (ECES 2022). Other research based on employer surveys has also found that graduates of both secondary and postsecondary general and vocational schools lack both technical and soft skills needed by employers (Alattas and Alimam Haga 2022).The World Bank's Human Capital Index project calculated based on test scores that 11 years of schooling in Egypt is only equal to 6 years of education in a good quality educational system and that an adult coming out of the Egyptian educational system is only 49 percent as productive. The educational quality may improve over time as recent reforms have been implemented such as collaboration with private sector firms to develop and administer the new computer-based graduation system in education (IFC 2020).The difficulty in finding skilled employees increases costs for firms as employers are then forced to compensate for the low educational outcomes by implementing training programs.On the other hand, the declining female employment and labor force participation rates do not appear to relate to lower productivity as women surpassed men in educational attainment during the same period (Assaad 2015;Constant et al. 2020).In recent years, economic growth in Egypt was primarily led by capital intensive industries, such as construction and petroleum. Investment and growth and thus also job creation in labor-intensive industries such as manufacturing and tourism, by contrast, has been minimal (Said and Zaki 2023). In addition to being capital intensive, the construction sector creates primarily seasonal or temporary jobs, which increases underemployment. In the construction sector, 65 percent of employment is informal private waged work outside of establishment and the share has increased by 15 percent from 2008 to 2017 (Amer, Selwaness, and Zaki 2021).Formal jobs in the private sector tend to be concentrated in urban metropolitan areas and established industrial zones. By contrast, a large under-employed labor force in Egypt is located in remote, rural areas working in seasonal and irregular jobs in agriculture. More than half of Egypt's population is still located in rural areas and agriculture employs around 26 percent of the labor force (Amer, Selwaness, and Zaki 2021). Job seekers in these areas, especially women, are unwilling to accept manufacturing jobs given the long and costly commutes (Assaad 2015;Constant et al. 2020). Informal wage earners inside and outside of establishments work on average five and 14 hours less than formal workers per week, respectively (48 and 39 hours vs. 53) and have more freedom to choose locations convenient to their residence (Assaad et al. 2022).The main explanation in the literature for the low and dropping female labor force participation rate is that female reservation working conditions are generally not met by private sector jobs. Long working hours, long commutes, and the higher risk of harassment coupled with the burden of childcare and household work being mostly on the woman, cause the reservation conditions for women to work in the private sector to be rather high (Assaad 2015;Constant et al. 2020).Long commuting distances are perceived to pose a safety hazard for women. Women are not likely to migrate for employment and reside away from home for prolonged periods of time compared to men and they report more frequent incidences of sexual harassment and violence (Constant et al. 2020;ECES 2020). To circumvent this mobility issue, some efforts have been exerted by employers to provide gender-separated transportation options, especially in the textile sector where there has traditionally been a high share of women in the labor force (Constant et al. 2020).Concerns about sexual harassment not only discourage female employment in the case of long-distance commutes but can also discourage women working in alongside men in a small workplace with few or no other female colleagues. This is a potential reason why women tend to be more represented in medium and large enterprises compared to micro enterprises; larger workplaces with female colleagues offer a sense of protection from unwanted male attention or harassment (Assaad 2015;Barsoum, Rashed, and Hassanie 2009).A final working condition concern for women is the lack of flexible work arrangements or childcare support (Assaad 2015;Constant et al. 2020;Nazier and Ramadan 2016). On average, full-time working hours in the formal private sector are around 53 hours per week compared to 41 in public wage work. At the same time, women spend from 28 to 91 hours on direct and indirect care work per week depending on their marital status and the age of their children (Assaad et al. 2022), which is equivalent to at least another full-time job. Studies showed that men were three times more likely to engage in work that requires more than 48 hours of work per week, which affects women's participation as employers' expectations are fueled by men's willingness to work for more than 40 hours per week (Amer, Selwaness, and Zaki 2021).From the employers' side, employers are disincentivized from hiring women who are in the phase of starting a new family as they will require costly benefits and employment discrimination laws are not enforced. Benefits for mothers include 90 days paid maternity leave and workplaces with at least 100 female employees must establish a nursery school or childcare facility (Law No. 12 2003 Promulgating Labor Law). Employers are also reluctant to hire females in jobs that require some skill accumulation due to the risk of marriage and childcare interruptions (Assaad 2015).Another plausible hypothesis which has been less explored in the literature on Egypt is information asymmetries regarding wage growth. The high share of workers in the informal sector may reflect preferences for the higher entry-level wages offered compared to the formal sector. Job seekers in Egypt are described as focused on short-term benefits of higher wages offered by informal and unstable jobs in constructions compared to low paying formal sector jobs in the manufacturing industry even though the long-term benefits would appear to be higher from formal sector employment (Amer, Selwaness, and Zaki 2021).In Mexico, the private sector similarly tends to offer low entry-level salaries, however researchers note that while informal sector wages do not grow over time, formal sector employers offer substantial wage increases of 40 percent over the first year. A study of the impacts of offering a six-months wage incentive found significant impacts on permanent formal sector employment, suggesting that overcoming initial high discount rates can change preferences between formal and informal sector (Abel et al. 2021).The Forsa program, launched in 2021 by the Egyptian Ministry of Social Solidarity, has been designed as an economic inclusion program to graduate beneficiaries of Takaful and Karama to economic selfreliance by enabling them to engage in wage employment or small productive enterprises. The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with the Ministry of Social Solidarity (MoSS) conducted a baseline survey in January-February 2023 to ask partnering employers about their hiring practices. The analysis of survey responses provides a picture of the current labor market challenges faced by the private sector in Egypt.Out of 49 enterprises listed as FORSA Phase 1 partnering employers, 26 enterprises participated in the survey, forming a 53 percent response rate. The sample responses were collected via a phone-call survey conducted by \"Athar Impact\" consulting agency with the hiring representative of each establishment.Enterprises in the sample are located in seven governorates: eight enterprises in Cairo, six in Sharqiyah, four in Qalyubiyah, four in Minya, three in Giza, three in Faiyum, and one in El Behera. Only five enterprises are located in rural areas, mostly in Minya, with one exception in Qalyubiyah. Most sample enterprises work in the field of agriculture (5 enterprises), food services (5) and textile production (4).The remaining twelve enterprises are equally represented in the fields of security and protection, manufacturing, finance, insurance, and employment services as well as in healthcare services. All sample enterprises are private sector enterprises with no public ownership and all are mid to large size firms. Sixteen enterprises have less than or equal to 500 employees on site, while the remaining ten enterprises have from 500 to 3,500 employees.A large part of the survey questions was designed to be asked twice, once for medium-skilled workers and once for low-skilled workers. We define medium-skilled work as work that generally requires a more complex skill set compared to low-skilled work. The skill set can be acquired through a certain level of education, training, or experience. Some examples of medium-skilled work would be administration work, call center customer service, sales representationetc. Low-skilled workers, however, typically do repetitive tasks that can be learned in a short period of time and do not require a high level of education or years of experience.Our survey provides some evidence consistent with the theory of low labor productivity being a constraint on job matching.When asked about the most pressing hiring challenges they are facing, the most frequent response from employers was wages being insufficient rather than difficulty finding candidates with the needed skills (see Figure 1 below). Obviously, this raises the question of why employers are unable to raise wages to meet market expectations. When asked directly about the reasons, some respondents attributed the difficulty to the inability to afford higher salaries either due to country's economic situation and the rapidly rising inflation or due to being a smaller firm and not part of a larger establishment like some competitors.When asked directly about the skills demanded for low-skilled and for medium-skilled employees, the most frequently cited skills are literacy and soft-skills (see Figure 2 below). Surprisingly, employers do not seem to put much emphasis on computer skills, calculations and working with numbers or specific technical skills even for medium-skilled employees. The emphasis on literacy points to a potential source of low labor productivity in older generations. According to CAPMAS figures, illiteracy rates in young generations stands at only 6.5 percent, but is 57 percent in the oldest age group. Interestingly, while only 37 percent of FORSA household survey respondents described themselves as illiterate, 63 percent stated that they do not read any documents, such as bills, instruction manuals, newspapers…etc. This may point to a large gap between illiteracy as understood most broadly and functional literacy that would be useful on a job.Our survey supports the hypothesis that a major driver of unemployment in Egypt is geographic mismatch as all employers surveyed were based on urban areas in spite of the Takaful beneficiaries that Forsa aims to target being primarily in rural areas.Firms also frequently agreed that employee retention is a challenge (80 percent of firms) and after low wages, working conditions and transportation difficulties were the primary reason for employees leaving.Based on FORSA household survey results, the average lowest monthly wage Forsa participants were willing to accept for a formal full-time job was 26 percent higher if a 50 km commute is required (Shabrawy et al. 2022).  The employers survey results also confirm that workplace conditions are challenging for women balancing work and family commitments. While on average one in three employees is female in the sample enterprises, the distribution differs widely by location, field of activity, establishment size and skill-level occupations.For 20 of the 26 employers in the survey, full-time hours are defined as more than 40 hours per week, mostly between 42 and 56 hours. On top of that, only 7 enterprises reported allowing part-time arrangements and more than half of those enterprises define part-time hours as between 40 and 42 hours per week. The long part-time hours can explain the low level of female share in part-time employment in the sample (27 percent as opposed to 30 percent in full-time work). Additionally, when asked about the benefits provided by the firms, the two most frequently provided benefits are the traditional pension plan and health insurance, and none specified any form of childcare support as is shown in Figure 4, except for one company that mentioned providing one hour off per day for breastfeeding mothers.Also consistent with the hypothesis that women are primarily concerned about working conditions, our study finds that female employment is concentrated in large enterprises, in particular sectors of the economy, and in medium-skilled work. Women represented 47 of medium-skilled jobs compared to only 25 of low-skilled jobs. This result is persistent across all fields of activity, firm locations, and firm sizes as  As summarized in Figure 6, low shares of female employees tended to be common in agriculture and manufacturing, while higher shares of females were reported by textile firms and hospitals. In general, firms located in Lower Egypt also tended to have higher shares of female employees than those in Upper Egypt.We also see some evidence that women are less likely to be employed than men conditional on applying. In low skilled occupations, employers reported that 35 percent of job applicants are women, while only 25 percent of currently hired are female. For medium skilled jobs, women are applicants are less disadvantaged, with 43 percent of job applicants compared to 47 percent of employees.Employers in our sample on average reported a large potential for wage growth with years spent working in the specified position. Most of the differential between low-skilled and medium-skilled job wages actually comes in terms of wage growth rather than starting salary. On average, medium-skilled workers have a similar starting salaries to low-skilled workers (2,955 EGP vs. 2,875 EGP and 2,971 EGP vs. 3,128 EGP for the most recent hired employee), however, their average typical maximum salaries are considerably higher (8,056 EGP vs. 5,250 EGP). Notably, even low-skilled workers can almost double their salaries if they stay in the job long enough for maximum promotions. Some sectors show higher salary growth than others in the sample (see Figure 7 below): limited salary growth can be seen in the textile production and healthcare sectors for example (notably, the same sectors with the highest share of female employees). Most enterprises across all fields offer wages that are lower than 3,923 EGP, the average minimum acceptable wage for Forsa beneficiaries. This indicates that currently in 2023, a full-time job with 40 hours of work per week and a long commute that pays less than 4,000 EGP per month will not be attractive enough for beneficiaries to prioritize the formal job over other choices, such as household work or informal jobs. This is especially true since full-time hours are defined by most employers as between 42 and 56 hours per week.However, the employers survey does show that there are opportunities to improve the prospects for moving rural Takaful beneficiaries into wage employment via Forsa by better aligning with the current labor market:  Provide support for literacy and soft skills, including linking Forsa with existing literacy programs for Takaful beneficiaries. Address commuting costs directly by either subsidizing transportation or working more with employers in rural areas. Address concerns of women for safe working conditions by supporting childcare and/or transportation and assigning groups of women together  Provide information to participants about potential for wage growth.","tokenCount":"3107"}

data/part_3/0682484254.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"3a9239d942c4462ee889625fa40f71c7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4a8d3a22-49b1-4ce5-bb8a-f08aa81f1ca3/retrieve","id":"-1443724493"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"b0a2555d-3274-4cd5-8f93-dac8e62bfb5e","pagecount":"12","content":"Length: Approximately 4,350 km long; headwaters in the Tibetan Plateau of the Himalayas; flows through three provinces of China then through Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam to the South China Sea.There are few other places in the world, perhaps none, with such intensive dams development as the Mekong Basin.The major tensions in the Mekong revolve around dams and other infrastructure development and the shift from economies based on agriculture and primary production to manufacturing, industry and services.The main protagonists in this debate are governments, dam financiers, developers and operators, NGOs and civil society. Within each group there are multiple, often conflicting, perspectives. Much of the debate revolves around costs and benefits and issues of governance and transparency. Sek on g River Se sa n R iv e rCPWF's goals in the Mekong sought to ensure that reservoirs would be:1. Managed in ways that are fairer and more equitable to all water users.2. Managed and coordinated across cascades to optimize benefits for all.3. Planned and managed to account for environmental and social needs.4. Used for multiple purposes besides hydropower alone.5. Better governed and the benefits better shared. A scaled approach: local, catchment and basin.A robust and evolving research-for-development approach.Three regional Mekong Forums on Water, Food and Energy, and hundreds of workshops.A wide variety of impact pathways that saw changes in the ways dams were managed and monitored.One Using participatory rural appraisal, the team conducted consultations at the national, district and community level and identified gaps in information, coordination, compensation and resettlement. Solutions mainly took the form of communication tools and feedback mechanisms.Because government officials and civil society worked on solutions together, the outcomes are both practical and sustainable.There are plenty of protocols and safeguards for Mekong dams written into national policy and legislation. The World Commission on Dams offered guidelines, as does the International Hydropower Association in their hydropower sustainability protocol. Several CPWF Mekong projects directly address transparency and governance by promoting dialogue among and between government ministries and departments, dam operators and civil society.Transparency is a critical ingredient in hydropower planning. Protocols and safeguards are vital to implementing and monitoring dams. As hydropower development progresses, it will no longer be enough to address the impacts of a single dam in a localized area. A recent CPWF study on flood control challenges for large hydroelectric reservoirs showed that reservoirs in tropical climates present more challenging conditions for flood control than faced by dam operators in temperate climates.Using modeling tools, researchers illustrated how in the Nam Theun 2 reservoir a combination of mechanical failure and human/management error could result in water level conditions that would constitute an extreme hazard. In a contrasting scenario, the timely opening of spillway gates, combined with capability to release water from all gates at full capacity, allowed for reservoir levels to stay well within the safe range and allowed for a significant reduction in downstream flood discharge. Such research suggests the growing need for attention to management of cumulative impacts and an emerging role for river basin committees for emergency communications capability between dam operators and downstream stakeholders.The cumulative impact of dams will become an increasingly important issue. Hydropower development must be coordinated across cascades and political boundaries.Wetlands are essential to the livelihoods of poor people throughout the world and the Mekong is no exception. They are also central to the ecological productivity of riverine systems. Hydropower dams radically alter the local hydrology and often diminish the extent of existing wetlands thereby jeopardizing the livelihoods of the rural poor. A CPWF research paper conceptualizes creating wetlands in reservoirs that have a large drawdown zone. Such reservoirs often have relatively limited diversity of aquatic habitats and their productivity is limited by the rather barren shoreline areas in the drawdown. The team proposed developing permanent wetlands within the drawdown area through the construction of small dykes below the full supply level that would retain water as the water level falls and be recharged with water during the wet season filling of the reservoir. Such created wetlands would contribute to greater habitat diversity and allow areas for fish spawning and growth and hence increase the productivity of the reservoir and could also be used as more conventional fishponds for enhancing livelihood opportunities.A field trip was organized as a collaboration between the Theun Hinboun Power Company (THPC), a major supplier of hydroelectric power in Lao PDR, and two CPWF projects to carry out an initial survey of the possible locations where wetlands might be constructed. After the trip, surveyors and irrigation engineers from THPC developed designs for the dykes and spillways at five of the locations, together with cost estimates that have proven to be extremely useful.Rainwater harvesting, drip irrigation, conservation agriculture, farmer field schools. These and many other technologies are generally well known and known to work in many places under varied conditions. The barrier is always changing the way people think about using these technologies and involving the right partners. In the example to the left, the participation of the Theun Hinboun Power Company was a key factor.There are numerous agricultural and water-related technical applications that can contribute to livelihoods, recreation and environmental enhancement, thereby creating opportunities and increasing the benefits from hydropower development.The ecological productivity of reservoirs can be improved. In the Mekong, one of the major concerns is how to mitigate the impact of dams on fish migrations. Most of the existing work on fish passes has been done in temperate climates on only a few species such as salmon. One CPWF Mekong project is breaking new ground in research on fish passes for large numbers of tropical species. A Lao university researcher observing fish in a barotrauma chamber, where they will be subjected to a rapid pressure change similar to what they would experience as they pass downstream through a hydro turbine. Photo: Garry ThorncraftHydropower can be multi-purpose. Relatively simple strategies can result in more benefits to more people and the environment. During consultation meetings, the provincial and local authorities expressed concerns about their lack of experience in dealing with hydropower companies and in managing resettlement and compensation processes. People in communities upstream and downstream of the dam site expressed concerns about how to deal with the dam's impacts, especially in terms of coping with changes to their livelihoods. Few of the affected citizens had actually seen a hydropower dam, reservoir, or a resettlement village, and did not really know what to expect.At the Lao study site, the team observed and documented communities in the process of resettlement and struggling to re-establish their livelihoods in a new village. The team began to explore ways to facilitate exchanges between the stakeholders in Cambodia and their counterparts in Lao PDR through study tours.At the program level, CPWF Mekong has created six stakeholder platforms. Through these, a variety of notable outcomes have emerged. In China, the concession holder for the Lancang, having learned of the International Hydropower Association's hydropower sustainability assessment protocol through CPWF, has decided to implement the protocol at two of its dams. Similarly, an independent power producer in Lao PDR that participated in CPWF's stakeholder platforms has engaged with CPWFsupported experiments to improve the livelihoods of resettled people through integrated rice and fish farming systems. In Vietnam, the Yali Falls dam has agreed to experiment with short duration millet varieties cultivated in the drawdown zone of its reservoir. Platforms are a basis for obtaining knowledge and new ideas, thereby yielding changes in behavior.Two of the project partners, a national NGO and a government ministry, organized an exchange of provincial and district authorities, NGO staff and community members from Stung Treng Province to the Theun-Hinboun Expansion hydropower project in Laos. The group visited the dam site and resettlement villages and met with company staff and Lao authorities involved in hydropower dam development.As a result of the exchange, the participants from Stung Treng now have a much better knowledge of that will help them cope with the changes likely to result from new dams. Participants are able to talk more confidently about hydropower issues and are committed to sharing what they learned with their peers. Selected outcomesHydropower at the scale and scope of development in the Mekong is unprecedented and there is much yet to be learned. Four years is a too short a period to expect major outcomes in terms of changes in knowledge, attitudes and skills. Progress towards long-term goals can best be measured in small steps. The outcomes shown here are just some of the small steps indicating that change is taking place.Reservoirs will be managed in ways that are fairer and more equitable to all water users. Villagers trained to conduct research to catalog and value their resources.Reservoirs will be managed and coordinated across cascades to optimize benefits for all.Sustainable hydropower curricula development with Ubon Ratchathani University in Thailand.A new catchment strategy for the Nam Theun-Nam Kading River Basin Committee.Reservoirs will be planned and managed to account for environmental and social needs.Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol trailing at two major Chinese dams. Artificial wetlands construction in partnership with IWMI and Theun-Hinboun Power Company.Reservoirs will be used for multiple purposes.Reservoir fisheries may be more productive than the dominant narratives suggest. Drawdown zone agricultural solutions at Yali Falls.Multiple uses for small-scale irrigation weirs and groundbreaking research on fish ladders.Reservoirs will be better governed and the benefits better shared.Providing informal fora for China to engage south of the border. An emerging IWRM multi-stakeholder platform in Cambodia.CPWF dialogues and forums have created a new way to discuss hydropower and associated research.Photo: Ian TaylorThe CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food was launched in 2002. The CPWF aims to increase the resilience of social and ecological systems through better water management for food production (crops, fisheries and livestock). We do this through an innovative research and development approach that brings together a broad range of scientists, development specialists, policy makers and communities, in six river basins, to address the challenges of food security, poverty and water scarcity.The CPWF is part of the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems. WLE combines the resources of 11 CGIAR centers and numerous international, regional and national partners to provide an integrated approach to natural resource management research. ","tokenCount":"1698"}

data/part_3/0688361881.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"891cfb00422329047592f4eeffa549d7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dc7d034e-e0f6-4717-966c-34f81fd639b1/retrieve","id":"-971943764"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"223f71a4-7567-43e5-9663-d50828a50d19","pagecount":"4","content":"n contrast to cross-breeding, genetic transformation allows for enhancement of one trait in a variety while retaining other desirable traits or attributes. Host varieties can be hybrids bred by scientists or endemic types maintained by farmers. Varieties that are popular among farmers are those whose traits or attributes are appreciated by farmers. Inserting a gene into a host variety that is already popular among farmers will increase the transgenic variety's chances of being successful.The large number of distinct banana varieties grown on farms in Uganda suggests that insertion of transgenes into more than one background will be necessary for generating a broad-based impact on the productivity of the banana sector. Scientists at the National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO) have identified several varieties for initial transformation assays in order to represent the range of genomic and use group diversity found among clone sets in Uganda. Each transformation event, however, has an associated cost. In addition, transforming too many varieties within one genomic group could contribute to genetic uniformity for the trait and vulnerability to pathogens that overcome the resistance imparted by the genetic transformation. Choices will need to be made about the host variety or varieties into which the transgene will be inserted. In turn, the choice of host variety will affect the distribution of benefits among communities and farmers within communities.This point can be illustrated using an economic model to analyze the determinants of farmer demand for planting material from seven potential host cooking-banana varieties and then generate two pieces of information related to demand. Taking Nakitembe-the most widely grown variety in the major banana-producing areas of Uganda-as an example, first, client prototypes are identified by comparing the characteristics of farm households with high and low predicted demands for the variety. This exercise illustrates how the choice of host planting material can have social consequences. Second, changes in total industry demand for planting material of a genetically transformed host variety are simulated (a) when resistance traits are inserted, with varying degrees of effectiveness, and (b) when other supporting public investments are made in extension, market infrastructure, and education. The simulation demonstrates how the magnitude of the payoff resulting from research investment depends crucially on other types of investments.Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and was also a senior economist with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) at the time this research was conducted.Promising Crop Biotechnologies for Smallholder Farmers in East Africa: Bananas and MaizeThe seven varieties chosen for the analysis include two that are both widely grown and targeted for assays (Mbwazirume and Kibuzi), one that is widely grown but not targeted for assays (Nakitembe), and four that are targeted but not widely grown (Nakinyika, Enjagata, Kisansa, Mpologoma). Mbwazirume is the most extensively grown variety in high elevation areas, and Nakitembe is the most extensively grown in areas of lower elevation.Farmer demand for planting material includes a decision to use the material and a decision about the scale of use. Findings demonstrate that for banana varieties, both consumption and production attributes play prominent roles in these decisions. Given that the majority of farm households in Uganda consume bananas grown on their own farm as a staple food, farmers' opinions about the cooking quality of different varieties explain a great deal about which varieties they choose to grow and how much of each they grow. Clearly, the importance of bananas as a food staple is one reason why NARO has targeted cooking varieties for transformation. In addition, results demonstrate that farmers grow less of varieties that are more susceptible to biotic pressures, such as black Sigatoka disease or weevils. Hence, the resistant planting material now under development by NARO is likely to be attractive to them.Both the social and economic characteristics of farm households determine their demand for planting material. Larger households and households with a higher proportion of dependents grow more banana plants to meet their immediate consumption requirements. More experienced and educated farmers also tend to grow more banana plants in their groves. Women have at least as great a role as men in decisions related to banana production and use, and almost complete control over cooking-related issues. More frequent contacts with extension agents appear to induce farmers to grow more banana stands, perhaps due to the acquisition of better knowledge about each variety and production management practices. Greater numbers of banana stands per farm household are also found in low elevation areas, the historical locus of banana production in the country, where population densities are higher and plantations are more heavily beset by pests and disease. Wealthier households with more cash income grow fewer mats of cooking varieties. Better-off farmers either purchase cooking bananas to meet their consumption needs, or they substitute other foods for cooking bananas. As expected, larger banana groves are associated with larger numbers of banana stands. Greater availability of banana planting material of different varieties reduces the demand for any specific variety, which is reflected in the smaller numbers of stands planted to particular banana types. Households located farther from markets grow more banana stands, meeting their immediate household consumption needs through their own production. Farmers appear to respond to increases in the farmgate price and better market infrastructure by planting more banana stands and selling more bunches.To illustrate the possible social consequences of scientific innovation and supporting investments on farmer \"clients\" or potential adopters, the characteristics of farm households with high and low predicted demand for transgenic planting material were compared. For example, inserting resistance to black Sigatoka into Nakitembe would effectively target larger households with more dependents, who are poorer in cash transfers, livestock, and housing. These target households manage larger farms with a lower share of land allocated to banana groves. They tend to spend more time reaching banana markets, although they are not more distant from them, perhaps because of poor transport or road quality. These households are concentrated in the central region, the historical locus of banana production, where disease pressures and population densities are high, but urban markets are more developed. The results are consistent with our hypothesis that transgenic cooking varieties are a potentially pro-poor application of biotechnology.No differences in the profiles of farm households most likely to use transgenic planting material are evident when gene insertion alone is undertaken. However, when gene insertion is accompanied by other investments, differences in market participation emerge, with a lower proportion of households participating as net sellers and a higher proportion engaging as buyers. This is perhaps driven by on-farm specialization that, coupled with reduced transaction costs, may generate differential participation in markets.Simulations using the economic model demonstrate the relationship between changes in the effective resistance to biotic pressures and demand for planting material. Figure 1 illustrates this relationship when a single resistance gene (black Sigatoka) or multiple resistance genes (black Sigatoka and weevils) have been successfully inserted into suitable banana genotypes, as well as when gene insertion is supported by public investments. Public investments considered in the figure are those related to market access, improvements in human capital, and dissemination of information dissemination. Values in Figure 1 represent total aggregate demand, although they are lower bound estimates because they are based on major banana plots only.For a crop affected by a complex of biotic pressures, the marginal effect on expected demand for planting material will be much greater (in this case, close to a 50 percent increase in the total number of plants) when two or more resistance genes are successfully inserted and jointly expressed. However, these findings depend on farmers' ability to perceive the yield advantages of the resistant varieties. In practice, even if a gene-imparting resistance to a disease or pest is inserted and expressed, farmers may not perceive its effects, since disease or pest incidence tends to vary across banana plantations, and the mechanisms underlying some biotic pressures (such as weevils) are better understood than those underlying others (such as black Sigatoka, a more recently introduced disease). Where necessary, perceptions and understanding of losses from pests and plant disease can be enhanced by educating farmers. Public investments in education, extension, and market infrastructure can help to overcome impediments to the use of new varieties, thereby reinforcing the positive effect on variety demand induced by genetic improvement. About half of the shift in demand for a variety is attributable to the farmgate price response, with education and extension having a smaller, though important, influence on the magnitude of this shift. Shortening the time taken for a variety to get to the market has an offsetting but minor effect, by enabling farm families to purchase food rather than produce it. Improvements in market signals, such as price differentials that capture quality differences across banana bunches, could stimulate farmers to sell more at the market, with important implications for rural development. Improvements in road infrastruc-ture or better means of transportation would have a smaller relative effect than prices on the overall demand in the short term.","tokenCount":"1486"}

data/part_3/0694249974.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"gardian_id":"8df65a609bcdc7c1aba85969fa506695","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/GLGMJT/VGYBC4","id":"-1239183086"},"keywords":[],"sieverID":"7df78721-02ce-4e70-9ca0-5cc57546c4dd","pagecount":"34","content":"Good morning/afternoon. I am ________ from the Data Analysis and Technical Assistance Limited (DATA), a Research organization based in Dhaka. Together with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), we are conducting an evaluation of a BRAC's A&T project in this area. We want to talk with you about the health status of mother & child of your area. We will ask you some questions related to your jobtime commitment, motivation, self-efficacy, satisfaction and supervision. Also questions related to IYCF and nutrition knowledge, training exposure and socioeconomic status. The information that you will provide us will be used to set up a good health program in this community and in similar settings in other parts of the world.We are inviting you to be a participant in this study. We value your opinion. You will only be identified through code numbers. Your identity will not be stored with other information we collect about you. Your responses will be assigned a code number, and the list connecting your name with this number will be kept in a locked room and will be destroyed once all the data has been collected and analyzed. Any information we obtain from you during the research will be kept strictly confidential. We will use approximately 1 hour of your time to collect all the information. There will be no cost to you other than your time. Your participation in this research is completely voluntary. You are free to withdraw your consent and discontinue participation in this study at any time. You also have the right to refuse to answer specific questions. There will be no risk as a result of your participating in the study.The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and DATA are jointly conducting this survey. Your participation will be highly appreciated. The answers you give will help provide better information to policy-makers, practitioners and program managers so that they can plan for better services that will respond to your needs.The researcher read to me orally the consent form and explained to me the purpose of this survey. I agreed to take part in this research voluntarily. I understand that all information given by me will not be disclosed, that I am free to discontinue participation at any time if I so choose, and that the investigator will gladly answer any question that arise during the course of the research. Today we would like to ask you some questions about your job and about child nutrition. First, we would like to talk about your job itself. We would like to know some things about the kinds of activities you do, and the amount of time it takes for you to do them. Please be ensured that all this information will be kept confidential.    How many months ago did you last sell Pushtikona?[___][___] Months ago (current month=0)Why Have you read any article on infant and young child feeding issues?Yes ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, Instruction for Interviewer: Show PHOTO on each TVC one by one, and collect responses for each TVC. Now, I will show you photos of a TV advertisement to remind you about the content of that TV advertisement.  ","tokenCount":"521"}