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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_consulting | Trial consulting | ["1 Overview","2 References","3 Further reading","4 In fiction"] | Trial consulting is the use of social scientists, particularly psychologists and communication experts, and economists, to aid attorneys in the presentation of a criminal trial or civil lawsuit. Modern trial consultants help prepare witnesses, improve arguments and rhetoric, focus group and mock trials, change of venue surveys, and select juries.
Overview
Traditionally sophisticated jury selection methods were a mainstay of trial consultants, they now "place far less emphasis on jury selection than they did in the past", and many in the field now prefer the term "trial consulting" to "jury consulting". Since many cases are now settled out of court or decided by arbitration, some trial consulting firms have diversified to include mock mediation and arbitration sessions. This is also the reason that many jury/trial consultants are now referring to themselves as "litigation consultants".
The traditional mainstays of trial consulting remain important. They include witness preparation, shadow juries, mock trials, focus groups, community attitude surveys, and expert assistance with trial presentation.
References
^ Brodsky, Stanley L. (2009). Principles and practice of trial consultation. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-254-5. OCLC 436034162.
^ Hutson, Matthew (March–April 2007). "Unnatural Selection". Psychology Today. Retrieved February 23, 2017.
^ Kressel, Neil J. & Kressel, Dorit F. (2004). Stack and Sway: The New Science of Jury Consulting. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. pp. 86–87. ISBN 9780813342412. OCLC 55858096.
^ Strier, Franklin & Shestowsky, Donna (1999). "Profiling the Profilers: A Study of the Trial Consulting Profession, Its Impact on Trial Justice, and What, if Anything, to Do About It". Wisconsin Law Review. pp. 450–51.
^ Shapiro, Ari (June 9, 2005). "Jury Consultants and Arbitration of Civil Lawsuits". Day to Day. National Public Radio. Retrieved July 14, 2006.
^ Posey, Amy J. & Wrightsman, Lawrence S. (2005). Trial Consulting. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195183092. OCLC 819414718.
^ Prosise, Theodore O. "Shadow Juries: A Unique Advantage in Civil Trials". Litigation News. American Bar Association Section of Litigation. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
^ Posey, Amy J. (2005). Trial consulting. Lawrence S. Wrightsman. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-804036-1. OCLC 65178143.
Further reading
Strier, Franklin (1999). "Whither Trial Consulting? Issues and Projections". Law and Human Behavior. 23 (1): 93. doi:10.1023/a:1022378824280. S2CID 143751371.
Smith, R. Craig (2006). Championship Law: Seven Keys to Winning Performance in the Courtroom. Victoria, BC: Trafford Publishing. ISBN 9781412093729. OCLC 72981787.
In fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Surcouf | Édouard Surcouf | ["1 Biography","2 Partial list of publications","3 References","4 External links"] | Édouard Surcouf, detail from a photograph taken in Prague in 1891
Édouard Surcouf (1862–1938) was a French engineer, maker and pilot of dirigibles, and industrialist.
Biography
The dirgible Lebaudy.
The Ville de Paris in 1906.
The Astra-Torres dirigible No. 1 from 1911.
Astra CM biplane
Astra triplane, participant at the military concours d'aviation, 1911
Édouard Surcouf, an aeronautics enthusiast from an early age, made his first flight in a hot-air balloon in 1879 at the age of 17.
The following year, 1880, he started as an apprentice at the "Grands Ateliers Aérostatiques du Champ-de-Mars", the biggest aeronautic manufacturer at the end of the 19th century. He collaborated with engineers Eugène Godard, his brother Louis Godard and Gabriel Yon.
In 1889 he was named president of the School of Aeronautics. With Gabriel Yon he published a reference work, Aérostats et aérostation militaire à l'Exposition universelle de 1889 (éditions Bernard et Cie., Paris, 1889). Surcouf married Marie Surcouf who became the first French woman to gain her sporting pilot's license. She later set up La Stella, a women's ballooning organisation.
In 1889 he became the successor to his godfather (see Urania, a balloon made by the Ateliers Surcouf, Crystal Palace 1889)
This new company would be a pioneer in the introduction of rubberised fabric for the construction of envelopes of dirigibles. He continued Gabriel Yon's enterprise in providing equipment for the Spanish Army.
On 27 July 1900 he was appointed Technical Instructor at the first Swiss military aérostiers training school in Geneva.
In 1902 Surcouf built his first dirigible, the Astra I, Lebaudy I, for the brothers Paul and Pierre Lebaudy (see fr:famille Lebaudy), designed by fr:Henri Julliot and nicknamed "le Jaune" ('Yellow'). The fr:Le Lebaudy (dirigeable) was a hydrogen-filled, cigar-shaped airship pointed or thinning at the sides, 57 metres (187 ft) long, powered by a 40 horsepower (30 kW) engine with a propellers on each side. In 1904 the industrialist Henry Deutsch de la Meurthe ordered the dirigible Le Ville de Paris (Astra II), which had a bad accident during its inaugural flight in December 1904. It was rebuilt, and Le Ville de Paris flew again in 1906.
Henry Deutsch de la Meurthe joined with Surcouf in 1908 to found the Société Astra (Société Astra de constructions aéronautiques). This new company increased production, making Wright brothers aircraft under licence and their own models such as the CM. The firm also made dirigibles, notably at Meaux and at the industrial site of Boulogne-Billancourt. Surcouf surrounded himself with aeronautical engineers, among which fr:Henry Kapférer would become the administrator of this new industrial firm. New dirigibles appeared:
1909
Ville de Nancy (Astra III)
Clément Bayard (Astra IV)
Colonel Renard (Astra V)
l'Espagne (España) (Astra VI)
Ville de Pau-Ville de Lucerne (Astra VII)
Frédéric Airault, technical director of Compagnie générale transaérienne (later Air France), was associated with Astra from 1909. He skilfully avoided a disaster while flying in l'Espagne (VI), and piloted Ville de Lucerne (VII) on commercial flights in Switzerland in 1910 as Transaérienne's chief pilot.
1910
Ville de Bruxelles (Astra VIII)
Ville de Pau (Astra IX)
Lieutenant Chaura (Astra X)
Adjudant Réau (Astra XI) - made a record-breaking round flight of 850 km from Paris to the German border and back, piloted by Surcouf.
Éclaireur Conté (Astra XII),
(Astra XIII)
On 6 July 1911 Surcouf inaugurated the l'Institut aérotechnique de Saint-Cyr, affiliated with the University of Paris. De la Meurthe bought the Société Générale d'Aéro-Locomotion Deplante-Nieuport when Édouard N. died in 1911, renaming it the Société Anonyme des Établissements Nieuport.
From 1911 Surcouf collaborated with the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo on a new non-rigid dirigible in the Issy-les-Moulineaux works. Their Astra-Torres airship was much faster with better performance than previous airships. Other Astra-Torres dirigibles followed, including the Pilâtre de Rozier (Astra-Torres XV) named after the aerostier Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, which at 23,000 m3 was the same size as a Zeppelin.
On 18/19 September 1911 Surcouf piloted the Adjutant Reau (Astra XI) on a record-breaking non-stop round flight of 850 km from Paris (Issy-les-Moulineaux) - Chalons - Verdun - Nancy (Meurthe-et-Moselle) -Epinal - Versoul - Troyes -Paris.
During World War I Surcouf's firms supplied war material.
After the Great War, the company continued to produce dirigibles. In 1919 Henri de la Meurthe died. The Astra company merged with Nieuport to form Astra-Nieuport. In 1923 he retired from the company in favour of Gustave Delage.
Partial list of publications
Aérostats et aérostation militaire. Marine et arts militaires, Paris, Bernard et compagnie, 1889 (with Gabriel Yon) — Extrait de la « Revue technique de l'Exposition universelle de 1889 »
L'aéronautique militaire, 1910
Les aéroplanes marins (hydroaéroplanes), 1913
References
Notes
^ Urania, a balloon made by the Ateliers Surcouf - See the aerial acrobat Leona Dare, flying beneath a balloon in 1887 at the Crystal Palace, London. See Leona Dare
Citations
^ Biguet, Adeline (2010). "Une famille illustre: les Godards". L'aérostat nantais (in French). archives.nantes.fr. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
^ a b "Histoire : biographies". Aéronautique Club de France à Meaux (in French). Retrieved 2021-10-12.
^ Described as a sort of catalogue raisonné of the aerial navigation Exposition. See Labrousse 1891, p. 56
^ Cailliez, Jean-Claude (14 August 2006). "Création de la 1ère compagnie suisse d'aérostiers aux ordres de Théodore Schaeck (1897)" (in French). Retrieved 23 March 2016.
^ Les dirigeables Lebaudy Archived 2009-01-05 at the Wayback Machine. Blimp Europa N2A (in French). Retrieved 23 March 2016
^ "Le Raid du Lebaudy" Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine Lecture pour tous, October 1904. Aero-mondo.fr (in French).
^ a b Hoernes 1912, pp. 433–4.
Sources
Labrousse, Ch. (1891). Navigation aérienne en 1889 (in French). Paris: Michelet.
Hoernes, Hermann (1912). Das Buch des Fluges, Volume III (in German). Vienna: G. Szelinski.
External links
Création de la première compagnie d'aérostiers suisses.
Les dirigeables Astra-Torres
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
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He collaborated with engineers Eugène Godard, his brother Louis Godard and Gabriel Yon.[1]In 1889 he was named president of the School of Aeronautics.[2] With Gabriel Yon he published a reference work, Aérostats et aérostation militaire à l'Exposition universelle de 1889 (éditions Bernard et Cie., Paris, 1889).[3] Surcouf married Marie Surcouf who became the first French woman to gain her sporting pilot's license. She later set up La Stella, a women's ballooning organisation.[2]In 1889 he became the successor to his godfather (see Urania, a balloon made by the Ateliers Surcouf, Crystal Palace 1889) [n 1]\nThis new company would be a pioneer in the introduction of rubberised fabric for the construction of envelopes of dirigibles. He continued Gabriel Yon's enterprise in providing equipment for the Spanish Army.On 27 July 1900 he was appointed Technical Instructor at the first Swiss military aérostiers training school in Geneva.[4]In 1902 Surcouf built his first dirigible, the Astra I, Lebaudy I, for the brothers Paul and Pierre Lebaudy (see fr:famille Lebaudy), designed by fr:Henri Julliot and nicknamed \"le Jaune\" ('Yellow').[5] The fr:Le Lebaudy (dirigeable) was a hydrogen-filled, cigar-shaped airship pointed or thinning at the sides, 57 metres (187 ft) long, powered by a 40 horsepower (30 kW) engine with a propellers on each side.[6] In 1904 the industrialist Henry Deutsch de la Meurthe ordered the dirigible Le Ville de Paris (Astra II), which had a bad accident during its inaugural flight in December 1904. It was rebuilt, and Le Ville de Paris flew again in 1906.Henry Deutsch de la Meurthe joined with Surcouf in 1908 to found the Société Astra (Société Astra de constructions aéronautiques). This new company increased production, making Wright brothers aircraft under licence and their own models such as the CM. The firm also made dirigibles, notably at Meaux and at the industrial site of Boulogne-Billancourt. Surcouf surrounded himself with aeronautical engineers, among which fr:Henry Kapférer would become the administrator of this new industrial firm. New dirigibles appeared:1909\nVille de Nancy (Astra III)\nClément Bayard (Astra IV)\nColonel Renard (Astra V)\nl'Espagne (España) (Astra VI)\nVille de Pau-Ville de Lucerne (Astra VII)Frédéric Airault, technical director of Compagnie générale transaérienne (later Air France), was associated with Astra from 1909. He skilfully avoided a disaster while flying in l'Espagne (VI), and piloted Ville de Lucerne (VII) on commercial flights in Switzerland in 1910 as Transaérienne's chief pilot.1910\nVille de Bruxelles (Astra VIII)\nVille de Pau (Astra IX)\nLieutenant Chaura (Astra X)\nAdjudant Réau (Astra XI) - made a record-breaking round flight of 850 km from Paris to the German border and back, piloted by Surcouf.[7]\nÉclaireur Conté (Astra XII),\n(Astra XIII)On 6 July 1911 Surcouf inaugurated the l'Institut aérotechnique de Saint-Cyr, affiliated with the University of Paris. De la Meurthe bought the Société Générale d'Aéro-Locomotion Deplante-Nieuport when Édouard N. died in 1911, renaming it the Société Anonyme des Établissements Nieuport.From 1911 Surcouf collaborated with the Spanish engineer Leonardo Torres Quevedo on a new non-rigid dirigible in the Issy-les-Moulineaux works. Their Astra-Torres airship was much faster with better performance than previous airships. Other Astra-Torres dirigibles followed, including the Pilâtre de Rozier (Astra-Torres XV) named after the aerostier Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, which at 23,000 m3 was the same size as a Zeppelin.On 18/19 September 1911 Surcouf piloted the Adjutant Reau (Astra XI) on a record-breaking non-stop round flight of 850 km from Paris (Issy-les-Moulineaux) - Chalons - Verdun - Nancy (Meurthe-et-Moselle) -Epinal - Versoul - Troyes -Paris.[7]During World War I Surcouf's firms supplied war material.After the Great War, the company continued to produce dirigibles. In 1919 Henri de la Meurthe died. The Astra company merged with Nieuport to form Astra-Nieuport. In 1923 he retired from the company in favour of Gustave Delage.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"L'aéronautique militaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hdl.handle.net/1908/3698"}],"text":"Aérostats et aérostation militaire. Marine et arts militaires, Paris, Bernard et compagnie, 1889 (with Gabriel Yon) — Extrait de la « Revue technique de l'Exposition universelle de 1889 »\nL'aéronautique militaire, 1910\nLes aéroplanes marins (hydroaéroplanes), 1913","title":"Partial list of publications"}] | [{"image_text":"Édouard Surcouf, detail from a photograph taken in Prague in 1891","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/%C3%89douard_Surcouf.jpg"},{"image_text":"The dirgible Lebaudy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Luftskib1902.jpg/220px-Luftskib1902.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Ville de Paris in 1906.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ville_de_Paris-1906.jpg/220px-Ville_de_Paris-1906.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Astra-Torres dirigible No. 1 from 1911.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/1911_AstraTorres_airshipNo1_crop.jpg/220px-1911_AstraTorres_airshipNo1_crop.jpg"},{"image_text":"Astra CM biplane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Astra_CM_sk.jpg/220px-Astra_CM_sk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Astra triplane, participant at the military concours d'aviation, 1911","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Triplan_Astra_concours_militaire_Champagne_1911.jpg/220px-Triplan_Astra_concours_militaire_Champagne_1911.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Biguet, Adeline (2010). \"Une famille illustre: les Godards\". L'aérostat nantais (in French). archives.nantes.fr. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003347/http://www.archives.nantes.fr/PAGES/DOSSIERS_DOCS/aerostats_nantais/pages/famille_godard.html","url_text":"\"Une famille illustre: les Godards\""},{"url":"http://www.archives.nantes.fr/PAGES/DOSSIERS_DOCS/aerostats_nantais/pages/famille_godard.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Histoire : biographies\". Aéronautique Club de France à Meaux (in French). Retrieved 2021-10-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://acdf-meaux.fr/histoire-biographies/","url_text":"\"Histoire : biographies\""}]},{"reference":"Cailliez, Jean-Claude (14 August 2006). \"Création de la 1ère compagnie suisse d'aérostiers aux ordres de Théodore Schaeck (1897)\" (in French). Retrieved 23 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1/spip.php?article179","url_text":"\"Création de la 1ère compagnie suisse d'aérostiers aux ordres de Théodore Schaeck (1897)\""}]},{"reference":"Labrousse, Ch. (1891). Navigation aérienne en 1889 (in French). Paris: Michelet.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/navigationarien00labrgoog#page/n60/mode/2up","url_text":"Navigation aérienne en 1889"}]},{"reference":"Hoernes, Hermann (1912). Das Buch des Fluges, Volume III (in German). Vienna: G. Szelinski.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_94jmAAAAMAAJ#page/n453/mode/2up","url_text":"Das Buch des Fluges, Volume III"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://hdl.handle.net/1908/3698","external_links_name":"L'aéronautique militaire"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003347/http://www.archives.nantes.fr/PAGES/DOSSIERS_DOCS/aerostats_nantais/pages/famille_godard.html","external_links_name":"\"Une famille illustre: les Godards\""},{"Link":"http://www.archives.nantes.fr/PAGES/DOSSIERS_DOCS/aerostats_nantais/pages/famille_godard.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://acdf-meaux.fr/histoire-biographies/","external_links_name":"\"Histoire : biographies\""},{"Link":"http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1/spip.php?article179","external_links_name":"\"Création de la 1ère compagnie suisse d'aérostiers aux ordres de Théodore Schaeck (1897)\""},{"Link":"http://www.blimp-n2a.com/lebaudy.htm","external_links_name":"Les dirigeables Lebaudy"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090105235644/http://www.blimp-n2a.com/lebaudy.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.aero-mondo.fr/aviation-grand-papa/le-raid-du-lebaudy","external_links_name":"\"Le Raid du Lebaudy\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171916/http://www.aero-mondo.fr/aviation-grand-papa/le-raid-du-lebaudy","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/navigationarien00labrgoog#page/n60/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Navigation aérienne en 1889"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_94jmAAAAMAAJ#page/n453/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Das Buch des Fluges, Volume III"},{"Link":"http://www.pionnair-ge.com/spip1/spip.php?article179","external_links_name":"Création de la première compagnie d'aérostiers suisses."},{"Link":"http://aeronavale-porteavions.com/viewtopic.php?f=104&t=2207","external_links_name":"Les dirigeables Astra-Torres"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000045478017","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/12297627","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmtwWx8X3VHtgjrCcDTHC","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb10418699j","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb10418699j","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/no2001008753","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_5 | Socket 5 | ["1 External links","2 See also","3 References"] | CPU socket
Socket 5TypeZIFChip form factorsSPGAContacts320FSB protocolproprietaryFSB frequency50, 60, or 66 MT/sVoltage range3.1 to 3.6 VProcessorsIntel P5 Pentium (75 - 133 MHz)Intel Pentium Overdrive (125 - 180 MHz)Intel Pentium Overdrive MMX (125 - 200 MHz)AMD K5 (PR75 - PR200)IDT WinChip (180 - 200 MHz)IDT WinChip-2 (200 - 240 MHz)IDT WinChip-2a (233 MHz) and compatiblePredecessorSocket 4SuccessorSocket 7This article is part of the CPU socket series
Socket 5 was created for the second generation of Intel P5 Pentium processors operating at speeds from 75 to 133 MHz as well as certain Pentium OverDrive and Pentium MMX processors with core voltage 3.3 V. It superseded the earlier Socket 4. It was released in March 1994. Consisting of 320 pins, this was the first socket to use a staggered pin grid array, or SPGA, which allowed the chip's pins to be spaced closer together than earlier sockets. Socket 5 was replaced by Socket 7 in 1995.
External links
Differences between Socket 5 and Socket 7 (archived)
See also
List of Intel microprocessors
List of AMD microprocessors
References
^ "Pentium OverDrive Processor Socket Specification: Introduction". Intel Pentium Processor Family Developer's Manual (PDF). Intel. September 22, 1997. p. 17-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 14, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011. Socket 5 has been defined for the Pentium processor-based systems with core frequencies from 75 MHz to 120 MHz.
^ "OverDrive Processor Socket Specification: Socket 5". Datasheet for Intel Pentium processor 75/90/100/120/133/150/166/200 (PDF). Intel. September 22, 1997. p. 69. Retrieved September 21, 2011. Socket 5 does not support upgradability for 133 MHz or higher processors.
^ Torres, Gabriel. "A Complete List of CPU Sockets". Hardware Secrets. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
^ Intel Socket 5 Specification, pcguide.com, retrieved 2009-03-31
vteEarly CPU socketsOther packages
DIP
PLCC
PGAs
486 Socket
Socket 1
Socket 2
Socket 3
Socket 4
Socket 5
Socket 6
Socket 7
Socket 8 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"P5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P5_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_(brand)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Pentium OverDrive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_OverDrive"},{"link_name":"Pentium MMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_MMX"},{"link_name":"Socket 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"pin grid array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_grid_array"},{"link_name":"SPGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPGA"},{"link_name":"Socket 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Socket 5 was created for the second generation of Intel P5 Pentium processors operating at speeds from 75 to 133 MHz[1][2] as well as certain Pentium OverDrive and Pentium MMX processors with core voltage 3.3 V. It superseded the earlier Socket 4. It was released in March 1994.[3] Consisting of 320 pins, this was the first socket to use a staggered pin grid array, or SPGA, which allowed the chip's pins to be spaced closer together than earlier sockets. Socket 5 was replaced by Socket 7 in 1995.[4]","title":"Socket 5"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Gateway_Intel_586_133_MHz_PCI_MB_-Part_-MBDSAC010ADWW-_%2816446782191%29_%28cropped%29_Socket_5.jpg/200px-Gateway_Intel_586_133_MHz_PCI_MB_-Part_-MBDSAC010ADWW-_%2816446782191%29_%28cropped%29_Socket_5.jpg"}] | [{"title":"List of Intel microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_microprocessors"},{"title":"List of AMD microprocessors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_microprocessors"}] | [{"reference":"\"Pentium OverDrive Processor Socket Specification: Introduction\". Intel Pentium Processor Family Developer's Manual (PDF). Intel. September 22, 1997. p. 17-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 14, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011. Socket 5 has been defined for the Pentium processor-based systems with core frequencies from 75 MHz to 120 MHz.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111014203214/http://download.intel.com/design/intarch/manuals/24142805.pdf","url_text":"Intel Pentium Processor Family Developer's Manual"},{"url":"http://download.intel.com/design/intarch/manuals/24142805.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"OverDrive Processor Socket Specification: Socket 5\". Datasheet for Intel Pentium processor 75/90/100/120/133/150/166/200 (PDF). Intel. September 22, 1997. p. 69. Retrieved September 21, 2011. Socket 5 does not support upgradability for 133 MHz or higher processors.","urls":[{"url":"http://download.intel.com/support/processors/pentium/sb/24199710.pdf","url_text":"Datasheet for Intel Pentium processor 75/90/100/120/133/150/166/200"}]},{"reference":"Torres, Gabriel. \"A Complete List of CPU Sockets\". Hardware Secrets. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 23 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140924043456/http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/A-Complete-List-of-CPU-Sockets/373/2","url_text":"\"A Complete List of CPU Sockets\""},{"url":"http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/A-Complete-List-of-CPU-Sockets/373/2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Intel Socket 5 Specification, pcguide.com, retrieved 2009-03-31","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/char/socketSocket5-c.html","url_text":"Intel Socket 5 Specification"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070504165927/http://support.intel.com/support/processors/sb/CS-001826.htm","external_links_name":"Differences between Socket 5 and Socket 7"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111014203214/http://download.intel.com/design/intarch/manuals/24142805.pdf","external_links_name":"Intel Pentium Processor Family Developer's Manual"},{"Link":"http://download.intel.com/design/intarch/manuals/24142805.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://download.intel.com/support/processors/pentium/sb/24199710.pdf","external_links_name":"Datasheet for Intel Pentium processor 75/90/100/120/133/150/166/200"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140924043456/http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/A-Complete-List-of-CPU-Sockets/373/2","external_links_name":"\"A Complete List of CPU Sockets\""},{"Link":"http://www.hardwaresecrets.com/article/A-Complete-List-of-CPU-Sockets/373/2","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.pcguide.com/ref/cpu/char/socketSocket5-c.html","external_links_name":"Intel Socket 5 Specification"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_foreign_aid | United States foreign aid | ["1 History","1.1 Earliest instances","1.2 World War I","1.3 World War II","1.4 Cold War","1.5 After the Cold War","2 Allocation","2.1 By country","2.2 By agency","3 Public opinion","3.1 Opinions change","3.2 Recipients of foreign aid","3.3 Amount spent and destination","4 See also","5 References","6 External links","7 Further reading"] | This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2024)
Aid given by the United States to other countries
US foreign aid by country 2022 $66.27 billion in 2022
United States foreign aid Ukraine Israel Ethiopia Afghanistan Jordan Egypt
United States foreign aid, also known as US foreign assistance consists of a variety of tangible and intangible forms of assistance the United States gives to other countries. Foreign aid is used to support American national security and commercial interests and can also be distributed for humanitarian reasons. Aid is financed from US taxpayers and other revenue sources that Congress appropriates annually through the United States budget process. It is dispersed through "over 20 U.S. government agencies that manage foreign assistance programs," although about half of all economic assistance is channeled through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
The primary recipients of American foreign aid are developing countries, countries of strategic importance to the United States, and countries recovering from war. While the United States has given aid to other countries since 1812, government-sponsored foreign aid was expanded during World War II, with the current aid system implemented in 1961. The largest aid programs of the post-war period were the Marshall Plan of 1948 and the Mutual Security Act of 1951-61.
Quantitatively, the United States spends the most on foreign aid of any country; however, as a percent of GDP, American foreign aid spending ranks near the bottom compared to other developed countries. Foreign aid typically receives bipartisan support in Congress as it is seen to promote global economic development and in turn, American national security. However, foreign aid remains unpopular with the American public, possibly due to overestimations of the scale of aid spending by the federal government.
History
US foreign aid by year 1946-2022 (adjusted for inflation)
Earliest instances
One of the earliest and least known instances of US foreign aid is also a good example of how aid has a long history of being used as a tool of foreign policy. On May 6, 1812, despite continued hostilities over independence from British colonial rule, US Senator from Kentucky Henry Clay signed a bill appropriating $50,000 for disaster relief food aid to Venezuela after a massive earthquake devastated the capitol, Caracas, that was enacted on May 8 by the 12th Congress (Chap. LXXIX). Coincidentally, Venezuela was also fighting a war for independence from Spanish colonial rule, from 1810 to 1823. The food aid was accompanied by diplomat Alexander Scott, who stated that this aid was “strong proof of the friendship and interest which the United States…has in their welfare…and to explain the mutual advantages of commerce with the United States.” A case may be made that some motivation for this act of generosity was diplomatic (i.e.: transactional) in nature, insofar as that both nations were seeking diplomatic recognition as sovereign from colonizers, and that this gesture would elicit such a desired reciprocal response. Later, in 1927, the US Congress appropriated $41,000 for the creation and transportation of a statue in Henry Clay's likeness to be erected in Caracas, where by all accounts it remains to this day, memorializing Clay as a symbol of US generosity abroad.
World War I
During World War I, the Committee for Relief in Belgium (CRB), which sent food to the hungry in that war-torn country, received $387 million from the U.S. government (as well as $314 million from the British and French governments and about $200 million from non-governmental sources). These government monies were given in the form of loans, but a considerable portion of those loans was forgiven.
After the war, the American Relief Administration, directed by Herbert Hoover who had also been prominent in the CRB, continued food distribution to war-devastated European countries. It also distributed food and combated typhus in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic during its famine of 1921–23. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20 million for the ARA under the Russian Famine Relief Act of 1921.
World War II
Levels of United States aid increased greatly during World War II, mainly on account of the Lend-lease program. United States government aid remained high in the decade after the war because of contributions to European reconstruction, and competition for influence versus the Communist powers in the first years of the Cold War. By 1960, the annual aid amount had receded to about half of what it was in the early post-war years, and, in inflation-adjusted terms, it has remained at that level—with some fluctuations—until the present.
The Lend-lease program, which began in 1941 (before the U.S. entrance in the war) was an arrangement whereby the United States sent large amounts of war materials and other supplies to nations whose defense was considered vital to the defense of the United States. It began with the passage by Congress of the Lend-lease act (PL 77-11) on 11 March 1941.
Initially, the main recipient was the United Kingdom; the Soviet Union began receiving supplies (paid for in gold) in June 1941 outside of Lend-lease, and was included in the Lend-lease agreement in November 1941. By the end of the war, most of the Allied countries had been declared eligible for Lend-lease aid, although not all received it. By the time the program was ended by President Harry S. Truman in August 1945, more than $50 billion worth of supplies had been disbursed, of which the Commonwealth countries received $31 billion and the Soviet Union $11 billion. Although formally the material was loaned, in the end only partial repayment was demanded.
A second wartime aid program, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), was founded in November 1943, by 44 Allied governments, for the purpose of assisting and resettling displaced victims of the war.
Its initial focus was on assisting people in areas the Allies had captured from the Axis powers: distributing food, clothing and other essentials, and helping with medical care and sanitation. Later it also assisted in the resumption of agriculture and industry. Each of the 44 signatories was supposed to contribute one percent of its national income.
The chief beneficiaries were China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Poland, the Ukrainian SSR and Yugoslavia. UNRRA returned about 7 million displaced people to their countries of origin and provided refugee camps for about one million who were unwilling to be repatriated. UNRRA ceased operations in Europe in mid-1947; some of its activities in Asia continued under other auspices until early 1949. In the end 52 countries had contributed as donors. Contributions from governments and private organizations during the four years of the program totaled over $3.8 billion; more than half of that was from the United States.
Cold War
After the war, the United States began giving large amounts of aid to Greece and Turkey under the Truman doctrine. Both countries were experiencing civil strife between communist and anti-communist factions, and the President and his advisors feared that their efforts to keep European countries from adopting communism might be about to suffer a serious setback. In December 1946, Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Tsaldaris visited Washington and requested additional United States aid. Truman promulgated his containment doctrine in early 1947, a major component of which was to be aid to the world's poor countries in order to blunt the appeals of radicalism to their hungry peoples and to bolster their anti-communist political elements. In May 1947 the U.S. government granted Greece $300 million in military and economic aid. Turkey received $100 million. The U.S. government gave Greece $362 million in 1949, and U.S. aid to Greece generally remained over $100 million annually until 1998. After the Chinese Civil War and the Korean War, U.S. military aid both to Europe and the developing "Third World" increased, with military aid composing 95 percent of all U.S. aid by 1954 and going largely to countries in Cold War proxy conflicts against communist forces.
The most well-known, and largest, United States aid program in the immediate post-war years was the European Recovery Program (ERP). More often known as the Marshall Plan, it was the creation of George Kennan, William Clayton, and others at the U.S. State Department under Secretary of State George Marshall. Publicly suggested by Marshall in June 1947, and put into action about a year later, the Plan was essentially an extension of the Greece–Turkey aid strategy to the rest of Europe. The U.S. administration considered the stability of the existing governments in Western Europe vital to its own interests. On 3 April 1948, President Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act, establishing the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program, and actual disbursements got underway. The focus was on promoting production, stabilizing currencies, and promoting international trade. To be eligible for the aid, a country had to sign an agreement with the United States government committing itself to the Act's purposes. The Communist countries were formally invited to participate in the Plan although Secretary Marshall thought it unlikely that they would accept and they did in fact decline the aid. Also in 1948, the United States and the recipient countries created the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC – it became the OECD in 1961) to coordinate the use of the aid. A large portion of the money given was used to purchase goods from the United States, and the ships used to transport the goods had to be of U.S. nationality. Military aid was not part of the plan. The Marshall Plan ended in December 1951. The United States government gave out about $12.5 billion under the Plan during its three-and-a-half-year existence. The countries receiving the most were Great Britain ($3.3 billion), France ($2.3 billion) and West Germany ($1.4 billion).
Meanwhile, President Truman had started the practice of giving aid for the development of poorer countries. This was signalled in the famous Point Four of his second-term inauguration speech. Initially this assistance was mainly in the form of technical cooperation, but during the 1950s, grants and concessional loans came to play a large role in development aid, within the framework of the Mutual Security Act and alongside foreign military assistance and defense support.
From 1945 to 1953 – U.S. provides grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially Republic of China/Taiwan ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.44 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. The main category was economic aid, but some military aid was provided. All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan.
After the Cold War
Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act on 4 September 1961, reorganizing U.S. foreign assistance programs and separating military and non-military aid. The Act was established by President John F. Kennedy two months later. USAID became the first U.S. foreign assistance organization whose primary focus was long-term economic and social development. As the Cold War waned foreign aid spending was cut dramatically from 0.44% of GDP in 1985 to 0.16% of GDP in 2002.
President Barack Obama announced to the UN Millennium Development Goals summit in September 2010 that the United States was changing its policy towards foreign aid. The President said the country would focus more on effectiveness, and make sure donated food, medicine, and money help countries get to the point where they no longer require such aid. Infrastructure set up for the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief would be used to build capacity in local health care systems to improve maternal and child health, and also fight tropical diseases. The new policy would increase the profile and participation of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which would coordinate more directly with the National Security Council and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. Some observers criticized the link with national security and foreign policy as unhelpful for the impoverished, and others lamented the attempted streamlining as only adding more bureaucracy.
A study in 2006 found that U.S. foreign assistance to a country rose by an average of 59% when that country occupied one of the rotating seats on the UN Security Council, and fell back to normal levels when it vacated the seat.
Allocation
In fiscal year 2020 (October 1, 2019 - September 30, 2020), the US government allocated $51.05 billion US dollars in economic and military assistance to foreign countries. Of this total, $39.41 billion dollars was spent on economic assistance, $25.64 billion of which was dispersed by USAID. The remaining $11.64 billion dollars was spent on military assistance. Foreign aid obligations are listed by recipient country and implementing agency in the tables below.
By country
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2024)
Top 25 Recipient Countries of U.S. Foreign Aid FY 2020, Reported in $US millions, Obligations
Country
Economic and Military Assistance FY 2020, $US millions
Economic Assistance FY 2020, $US millions
Military Assistance FY2020, $US millions
Afghanistan
3,951.093
1,189.363
2,761.464
Israel
3,310.857
10.857
3,300.000
Jordan
2,593.955
2,089.982
503.973
Egypt
1,471.127
169.108
1,302.018
Ethiopia
1,213.189
1,209.417
3.771
Iraq
1,180.527
632.379
548.148
Nigeria
1,114.808
1,104.902
9.906
South Africa
1,114.214
1,114.011
.203
Democratic Republic of the Congo
964.590
959.518
5.072
Syria
837.125
837.125
0
Lebanon
830.594
586.085
244.508
Kenya
830.483
826.394
4.088
Colombia
812.554
745.032
67.521
Uganda
800.424
797.641
2.783
South Sudan
759.675
739.175
20.500
Somalia
689.600
551.237
138.362
Ukraine
679.883
395.874
284.009
Tanzania
622.291
620.801
1.489
Mozambique
567.741
566.516
1.224
Bangladesh
559.076
542.151
16.925
Yemen
556.544
555.380
1.163
Zambia
451.289
450.941
.348
Sudan (according to info given after the civil war began
450.570
398.919
150.220
Philippines
387.446
222.361
165.085
Malawi
367.366
366.843
.522
By agency
U.S. Foreign Aid by Implementing Agency FY2015-FY2020, Reported in $US millions, Obligations
Implementing Agency
2015
2016
2017
2019
2020
U.S. Agency for International Development
19,412.06
19,358.09
20,548.50
21,150.410
25,643.616
Department of Defense
14,823.81
15,347.51
14,500.82
14,079.172
11,797.270
Department of State
7,508.35
5,836.87
7,664.03
7,007.194
7,905.923
Department of Health and Human Services
2,640.30
4,217.89
2,659.52
2,318.239
2,759.851
Department of the Treasury
2,647.78
2,286.03
1,846.36
1,556.923
1,875.993
Peace Corps
441.56
440.16
479.34
458.592
377.720
Department of the Interior
233.56
280.88
240.84
294.063
274.024
Department of Energy
590.62
535.09
432.48
154.646
163.086
Department of Labor
81.18
44.17
24.58
45.673
57.998
Inter-American Foundation
26.41
27.47
30.09
28.739
42.621
Department of Agriculture
211.57
382.06
290.26
332.245
39.911
Trade and Development Agency
51.11
58.10
67.77
30.340
34.805
Millennium Challenge Corporation
429.57
963.23
1,012.08
646.470
33.664
African Development Foundation
20.34
27.15
20.23
22.470
22.127
Department of the Army
117.87
85.72
2.09
14.970
8.614
Department of the Navy
20.49
7.56
0
14.784
7.894
U.S. International Development Finance Corporation
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
4.957
Department of the Air Force
181.00
8.59
7.00
7.207
3.670
Environmental Protection Agency
16.79
17.96
21.48
12.131
2.465
Department of Justice
13.04
(4.81)
10.21
3.359
1.436
Department of Transportation
1.15
0.29
0.03
.112
1.129
Department of Commerce
6.45
6.42
7.63
.120
.866
Department of Homeland Security
2.78
11.43
4.44
3.391
.297
Federal Trade Commission
0
0
0
.167
.034
Public opinion
This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)This section may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The talk page may contain suggestions. (December 2017)
Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting government-funded foreign aid much more than conservatives do, who tend to prefer to provide foreign aid privately.
Several Interviews with 1,012 adult Americans were conducted by telephone by Opinion Research Corporation in January 2011. Published by CNN, the response was that 81% felt that reducing aid to foreign countries was a good way to reduce the federal budget deficit, while 18% thought aid was more important than reducing deficit. Thomas Pogge, Director of the Global Justice Program and Leitner Professor of Philosophy and International Affairs at Yale University, has predicted that public opinion will not change even while the hardships suffered by poor people are rising, partly as a result of the Great Recession. Some claim the U.S. is helping corrupt governments with the aid.
Worldwide opinion of the United States improves with contributions to developing countries.
Public knowledge of aid polls have been done assessing the knowledge of the US Public in regards to how much they know about the government's foreign aid spending. A poll conducted by World Public Opinion in 2010 found that the average estimate for how much of the government's budget is spent on foreign aid was 25 percent. The average amount proposed by the public was 10 percent of the federal government's budget be used on foreign aid. In actuality, less than 1 percent of the US federal budget goes towards foreign aid. Less than 19 percent of respondents thought that the percent of the budget that goes towards foreign aid was less than 5 percent. Steven Kull, director of PIPA, relates this overestimation towards an increase in hearing about foreign aid efforts during the Obama administration, but estimates of foreign aid have always been high.
A poll conducted in 2013 by the Pew Research Center found that the majority of Americans wanted to either maintain or increase spending on all US government initiatives except foreign aid. This is attributed, by Alice C. Hu, to a gross misconception of how much of the federal budget is actually spent on foreign aid.
Opinions change
A study by The Washington Post from 2017 shows that Americans can change their opinions on U.S. foreign aid, depending on how it is presented to them. The percentage of people who were provided no argument regarding foreign aid and thought the United States spends too much on it was 67 percent. The percentage of people who were provided a positive argument for foreign aid and thought the United States spent too much on it was 28 percent. The percentage of people who were provided a negative argument against foreign aid and thought that the United States spends too much on it was 88 percent.
Because the U.S. public's attitude toward foreign aid is impacted by the positive or negative tone of messages on aid, Steven Kull, Director of the Program on International Policy Attitudes, laid out steps to preserve or create a positive outlook on U.S. foreign aid.
Understand the attacks on foreign aid.
Do not frame questions about public opinion in terms of priorities because people are likely to prioritize domestic issues.
Emphasize that only 1 percent of the federal budget goes towards foreign aid, as the Clinton administration did in the 1990s.
Americans feel that the United States does more than its fair share on the world stage, so differentiate between foreign aid and military spending.
Note that other countries, as part of multilateral frameworks, are doing their part in contributing to foreign aid efforts.
Address concerns about aid effectiveness, including sharing success stories in providing aid, articulating the role of international and local NGOs in implementing foreign aid, and mobilizing trusted public figures to address effectiveness.
Point out that foreign aid is a safe way to improve U.S. relations with other nation-states, therefore promoting self-interest.
Recipients of foreign aid
A study by Andy Baker, a political scientist at the University of Colorado at Boulder, found that Americans are more likely to support foreign aid going to an African country than they are to support foreign aid going to an Eastern European country. Respondents wanted to cut aid going to those of European descent by 40 percent more than of those of African descent. Baker attributes this to a paternalistic view Americans have of themselves over those of African descent.
Amount spent and destination
Due to the size of the U.S. federal budget, the 0.7 percent put towards foreign aid composes a significant proportion of all foreign aid flows including other donors. Most U.S. foreign aid does not go to other governments due to skepticism about corruption in other countries. There is a fear among the American people that foreign aid is funneled and used to increase the personal wealth of corrupt government leaders of foreign countries. However, about 85 percent of foreign aid goes to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and U.S.-government contractors, meaning that most of foreign aid is not being given directly to foreign governments.
See also
Compact of Free Association
Criticism of United States foreign policy
Development Assistance Database
Feed the Future Initiative
Foreign Assistance Act
Foreign policy of the United States
Millennium Challenge Corporation
United States Foreign Military Financing
United States military aid
USAID
Canadian International Development Agency
General:
List of development aid country donors
References
^ https://www.foreignassistance.gov/
^ https://www.foreignassistance.gov/aid-trends
^ Morgenster, Emily M.; Brown, Nick M. (January 2022). Foreign Assistance: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy (Report). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
^ "Agencies | ForeignAssistance.gov". www.foreignassistance.gov. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2020.
^ a b c "How Does the U.S. Spend Its Foreign Aid?". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
^ Liz Schrayer (3 September 2016). "The Surprise Bipartisan Success Story of Congress: American Aid". Archived from the original on 9 February 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2017.
^ "Most See U.S. Foreign Aid As A Bad Deal for America". Rasmussen. 20 March 2017. Archived from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
^ Klein, Ezra (7 November 2013). "The budget myth that just won't die: Americans still think 28 percent of the budget goes to foreign aid". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
^ Annotated CRB documents Archived 2 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved September 2009. The U.S. aid commenced after April 1917; Britain had been contributing since 1914. The amounts contributed by the governments are from the table near the beginning of the web page. 200 million is calculated as 22 percent (100 – 78 percent) of the 900 million distributed by the committee (mentioned in the discussion preceding the table).
^ This paragraph refers to inflation-adjusted ("constant-dollar") levels. Generally, the other data in this section is in historical dollars. USAID, Greenbook, interactive version, "Program Reports"; then selecting "Custom Report" allows you to get data going back to 1946. Retrieved September 2009.
^ United States government (ourdocuments.gov), Lend-Lease Act (1941), essay about the Act Archived 16 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, and transcript of the Act Archived 13 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved September 2009.
^ Although the UNRRA was called a "United Nations" agency, it was established prior to the founding of the United Nations. The explanation for this is that the term 'United Nations' was used at the time to refer to the Allies of World War II, having been originally coined for that purpose by Roosevelt in 1942.
^ Assisting the victims of war: 'nations will learn to work together only by actually working together.' (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration). U.N. Publications, 1994.
^ United Nations, Assisting the victims of war ..., op cit., says the UNRRA decided on 16 August 1947 to liquidate itself, "a process completed in 1948;" Infoplease (Columbia Encyclopedia), "United Nations Relief and Rehabilitatin Administration" Archived 26 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine, says UNRRA discontinued its operations in Europe on 30 June 1947.
^ These amounts are in historical (not inflation-adjusted) dollars. USAID, Greenbook Historical query Archived 25 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine, select Country Reports >> Greece, Custom Report >> the data you want, and the year (Ctrl+A selects all years). Retrieved September 2009.
Also, Time Magazine, "Greece: The Poly-Papadopoulos", 3 April 1972; retrieved September 2009.
^ Westad, Odd Arne (24 October 2005). The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 26–27. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511817991.002. ISBN 978-0-521-85364-4. Archived from the original on 20 April 2023. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
^ This and the information about U.S. goods and ships is from u-s-history.com "Marshall Plan" Archived 20 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved September 2009.
^ Spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk, "Marshall Plan" Archived 9 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved September 2009.
^ Other sources on the Marshall Plan used here include infoplease.com "Marshall Plan" Archived 20 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine, and The Marshall Foundation, "The Marshall Plan" Archived 22 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Haviland, H. Field (September 1958). "Foreign Aid and the Policy Process: 1957". American Political Science Review. 52 (3): 689–724. doi:10.2307/1951900. ISSN 1537-5943. JSTOR 1951900. S2CID 144564474. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
^ Morgner, Aurelius (1967). "The American Foreign Aid Program: Costs, Accomplishments, Alternatives?". The Review of Politics. 29 (1): 65–75. doi:10.1017/S0034670500023731. ISSN 0034-6705. JSTOR 1405813. S2CID 145492668. Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
^ All data from the official document: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1954 (1955) table 1075 pp 899–902 online edition file 1954-08.pdf Archived 3 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ Harry Bayard Price, The Marshall Plan and its Meaning (Cornell UP, 1955), pp 179–219.
^ Farrell, Tiffany; Friedman, Marcia A.; Kolb, Pherabe; Walker, Tim (2005). Current Issues. Alexandria, VA: Close Up Foundation. p. 208. ISBN 1-930810-15-6.
^ a b Archived 24 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Bristol 2010.
^ Kuziemko, Ilyana; Werker, Eric (1 October 2006). "How Much Is a Seat on the Security Council Worth? Foreign Aid and Bribery at the United Nations". Journal of Political Economy. 114 (5): 905–930. doi:10.1086/507155. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 38308185. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 5 March 2021.
^ a b c "FA.gov". ForeignAssistance.gov. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
^ Sharp, Jeremy M. (10 April 2018). "U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel ". Archived from the original on 1 July 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2019. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Gries, Peter (16 April 2014). Peter Hays Gries, The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs (Stanford, 2014), pp. 108–112. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-8935-6. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
^ "Cnn Research Poll" (PDF). CNN. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
^ Pogge, Thomas (2014). "Are We Violating the Human Rights of the World's Poor?" (PDF). Yale Human Rights & Development Law Journal. 17 (1): 31. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
^ Goldsmith, Benjamin E.; Horiuchi, Yusaku; Wood, Terence. "Doing well by doing good: foreign aid improves opinions of the U.S." Washington Post. Archived from the original on 4 June 2015. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
^ a b c d e WPO Admin (29 November 2010). "American Public Vastly Overestimates Amount of U.S. Foreign Aid". World Public Opinion. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
^ a b c Hu, Alice C. (11 March 2015). "Foreign Aid and the 28 Percent Myth". Harvard International Review. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
^ a b c d Hurst, Hawkins, Tidwell, Reuben, Darren, Taylor (4 May 2017). "Americans love to hate foreign aid, but the right argument makes them like it a lot more". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ a b Kull, Steven. “Preserving American Public Support for Foreign Aid.” Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Brookings Blum Roundtable Policy Briefs, pp. 53–60.
^ a b Baker, Andy. 2015. “Race, Paternalism, and Foreign Aid: Evidence from U.S. Public Opinion.” American Political Science Review 109 (1): 93–109.
External links
U.S. Foreign Assistance dashboard
Brief Chronology and Highlights of the History of U.S. Foreign Assistance Activities
Criticism of U.S. Foreign Aid from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Rethinking U.S. Aid from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Further reading
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: formatting and linking. Please help improve this section if you can. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
USG sources of data on United States aid are:
Foreign Aid Explorer
U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants: Obligations and Loan Authorizations, July 1, 1945 – September 30, 2013
ForeignAssistance.gov
Non-USG sources of data on United States aid are:
Publications of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The OECD offers large amounts of data on line. Complete access is by subscription, but useful amounts are made available free. The DAC does not include private aid in its main category, "Official Development Assistance (ODA)", but reports some of it under other headings.
AidData provides free access to a searchable database of foreign aid activities by donor, recipient, sector, and other criteria. Using the AidData database, it is possible to search for U.S. foreign aid activities financed between 1973 and 2008, and download them as a CSV file.
Congressional Research Service. Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy (2011) 37 pp online
Guess, George M. The Politics of United States Foreign Aid (2013)
Lancaster, Carol. Foreign aid: Diplomacy, development, domestic politics (University of Chicago Press, 2008)
Morgner, Aurelius. "The American Foreign Aid Program: Costs, Accomplishments, Alternatives?," Review of Politics (1967) 29#1 pp. 65–75 in JSTOR
Bristol, Nellie. 2010. "US Foreign Aid Restructuring: is it "a very big deal?" From World Report. Accessed 19 April 2010.
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_foreign_aid_by_country_2022.webp"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_foreign_aid.webp"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"commercial interests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"humanitarian reasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarianism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"appropriates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"United States budget process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_budget_process"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"United States Agency for International Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development"},{"link_name":"developing countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-5"},{"link_name":"Marshall Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan"},{"link_name":"Mutual Security Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_Security_Act"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Aid given by the United States to other countriesUS foreign aid by country 2022[1] $66.27 billion in 2022[2]United States foreign aid Ukraine Israel Ethiopia Afghanistan Jordan EgyptUnited States foreign aid, also known as US foreign assistance consists of a variety of tangible and intangible forms of assistance the United States gives to other countries. Foreign aid is used to support American national security and commercial interests and can also be distributed for humanitarian reasons.[3] Aid is financed from US taxpayers and other revenue sources that Congress appropriates annually through the United States budget process. It is dispersed through \"over 20 U.S. government agencies that manage foreign assistance programs,\"[4] although about half of all economic assistance is channeled through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).The primary recipients of American foreign aid are developing countries, countries of strategic importance to the United States, and countries recovering from war. While the United States has given aid to other countries since 1812, government-sponsored foreign aid was expanded during World War II, with the current aid system implemented in 1961.[5] The largest aid programs of the post-war period were the Marshall Plan of 1948 and the Mutual Security Act of 1951-61.Quantitatively, the United States spends the most on foreign aid of any country; however, as a percent of GDP, American foreign aid spending ranks near the bottom compared to other developed countries.[5] Foreign aid typically receives bipartisan support in Congress[6] as it is seen to promote global economic development and in turn, American national security.[5] However, foreign aid remains unpopular with the American public,[7] possibly due to overestimations of the scale of aid spending by the federal government.[8]","title":"United States foreign aid"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_foreign_aid_by_year.webp"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"}],"text":"US foreign aid by year 1946-2022 (adjusted for inflation)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Henry Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Clay"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"massive earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812_Caracas_earthquake"},{"link_name":"Caracas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caracas"},{"link_name":"Chap. LXXIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/12th-congress/c12.pdf"},{"link_name":"war for independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"strong proof of the friendship and interest which the United States…has in their welfare…and to explain the mutual advantages of commerce with the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.afsa.org/extending-american-revolution-overseas-foreign-aid-1789-1850"},{"link_name":"a statue in Henry Clay's likeness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.loc.gov/law/help/statutes-at-large/69th-congress/session-2/c69s2ch188.pdf"}],"sub_title":"Earliest instances","text":"One of the earliest and least known instances of US foreign aid is also a good example of how aid has a long history of being used as a tool of foreign policy. On May 6, 1812, despite continued hostilities over independence from British colonial rule, US Senator from Kentucky Henry Clay signed a bill appropriating $50,000 for disaster relief food aid to Venezuela after a massive earthquake devastated the capitol, Caracas, that was enacted on May 8 by the 12th Congress (Chap. LXXIX). Coincidentally, Venezuela was also fighting a war for independence from Spanish colonial rule, from 1810 to 1823. The food aid was accompanied by diplomat Alexander Scott, who stated that this aid was “strong proof of the friendship and interest which the United States…has in their welfare…and to explain the mutual advantages of commerce with the United States.” A case may be made that some motivation for this act of generosity was diplomatic (i.e.: transactional) in nature, insofar as that both nations were seeking diplomatic recognition as sovereign from colonizers, and that this gesture would elicit such a desired reciprocal response. 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These government monies were given in the form of loans, but a considerable portion of those loans was forgiven.[9]After the war, the American Relief Administration, directed by Herbert Hoover who had also been prominent in the CRB, continued food distribution to war-devastated European countries. It also distributed food and combated typhus in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic during its famine of 1921–23. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20 million for the ARA under the Russian Famine Relief Act of 1921.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Lend-lease program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend-Lease"},{"link_name":"Communist powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Relief_and_Rehabilitation_Administration"},{"link_name":"displaced victims of the war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_evacuation_and_expulsion"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Axis powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Czechoslovak_Republic"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic"},{"link_name":"Ukrainian SSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic"},{"link_name":"Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"World War II","text":"Levels of United States aid increased greatly during World War II, mainly on account of the Lend-lease program. United States government aid remained high in the decade after the war because of contributions to European reconstruction, and competition for influence versus the Communist powers in the first years of the Cold War. By 1960, the annual aid amount had receded to about half of what it was in the early post-war years, and, in inflation-adjusted terms, it has remained at that level—with some fluctuations—until the present.[10]The Lend-lease program, which began in 1941 (before the U.S. entrance in the war) was an arrangement whereby the United States sent large amounts of war materials and other supplies to nations whose defense was considered vital to the defense of the United States. It began with the passage by Congress of the Lend-lease act (PL 77-11) on 11 March 1941.[11]\nInitially, the main recipient was the United Kingdom; the Soviet Union began receiving supplies (paid for in gold) in June 1941 outside of Lend-lease, and was included in the Lend-lease agreement in November 1941. By the end of the war, most of the Allied countries had been declared eligible for Lend-lease aid, although not all received it. By the time the program was ended by President Harry S. Truman in August 1945, more than $50 billion worth of supplies had been disbursed, of which the Commonwealth countries received $31 billion and the Soviet Union $11 billion. Although formally the material was loaned, in the end only partial repayment was demanded.A second wartime aid program, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), was founded in November 1943, by 44 Allied governments, for the purpose of assisting and resettling displaced victims of the war.[12]\nIts initial focus was on assisting people in areas the Allies had captured from the Axis powers: distributing food, clothing and other essentials, and helping with medical care and sanitation. Later it also assisted in the resumption of agriculture and industry. Each of the 44 signatories was supposed to contribute one percent of its national income.[13]\nThe chief beneficiaries were China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Poland, the Ukrainian SSR and Yugoslavia. UNRRA returned about 7 million displaced people to their countries of origin and provided refugee camps for about one million who were unwilling to be repatriated. UNRRA ceased operations in Europe in mid-1947;[14] some of its activities in Asia continued under other auspices until early 1949. In the end 52 countries had contributed as donors. Contributions from governments and private organizations during the four years of the program totaled over $3.8 billion; more than half of that was from the United States.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Truman doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_doctrine"},{"link_name":"Konstantinos Tsaldaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantinos_Tsaldaris"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Chinese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"U.S. military aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military_aid"},{"link_name":"Third World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_World"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"proxy conflicts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"European Recovery Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Recovery_Program"},{"link_name":"Marshall Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Plan"},{"link_name":"George Kennan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_F._Kennan"},{"link_name":"William Clayton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_L._Clayton"},{"link_name":"George Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Marshall"},{"link_name":"Economic Cooperation Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Administration"},{"link_name":"Organisation for European Economic Cooperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_European_Economic_Cooperation"},{"link_name":"OECD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic"},{"link_name":"West Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Point Four","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_Four_Program"},{"link_name":"second-term inauguration speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"Mutual Security Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_Security_Act"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Republic of China/Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_India"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Republic_of_Korea"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1946%E2%80%931965)"},{"link_name":"went to Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_aid_to_Israel"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Cold War","text":"After the war, the United States began giving large amounts of aid to Greece and Turkey under the Truman doctrine. Both countries were experiencing civil strife between communist and anti-communist factions, and the President and his advisors feared that their efforts to keep European countries from adopting communism might be about to suffer a serious setback. In December 1946, Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Tsaldaris visited Washington and requested additional United States aid. Truman promulgated his containment doctrine in early 1947, a major component of which was to be aid to the world's poor countries in order to blunt the appeals of radicalism to their hungry peoples and to bolster their anti-communist political elements. In May 1947 the U.S. government granted Greece $300 million in military and economic aid. Turkey received $100 million. The U.S. government gave Greece $362 million in 1949, and U.S. aid to Greece generally remained over $100 million annually until 1998.[15] After the Chinese Civil War and the Korean War, U.S. military aid both to Europe and the developing \"Third World\" increased, with military aid composing 95 percent of all U.S. aid by 1954 and going largely to countries in Cold War proxy conflicts against communist forces.[16]The most well-known, and largest, United States aid program in the immediate post-war years was the European Recovery Program (ERP). More often known as the Marshall Plan, it was the creation of George Kennan, William Clayton, and others at the U.S. State Department under Secretary of State George Marshall. Publicly suggested by Marshall in June 1947, and put into action about a year later, the Plan was essentially an extension of the Greece–Turkey aid strategy to the rest of Europe. The U.S. administration considered the stability of the existing governments in Western Europe vital to its own interests. On 3 April 1948, President Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act, establishing the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program, and actual disbursements got underway. The focus was on promoting production, stabilizing currencies, and promoting international trade. To be eligible for the aid, a country had to sign an agreement with the United States government committing itself to the Act's purposes. The Communist countries were formally invited to participate in the Plan although Secretary Marshall thought it unlikely that they would accept and they did in fact decline the aid. Also in 1948, the United States and the recipient countries created the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC – it became the OECD in 1961) to coordinate the use of the aid. A large portion of the money given was used to purchase goods from the United States, and the ships used to transport the goods had to be of U.S. nationality. Military aid was not part of the plan.[17] The Marshall Plan ended in December 1951.[18] The United States government gave out about $12.5 billion under the Plan during its three-and-a-half-year existence. The countries receiving the most were Great Britain ($3.3 billion), France ($2.3 billion) and West Germany ($1.4 billion).[19]Meanwhile, President Truman had started the practice of giving aid for the development of poorer countries. This was signalled in the famous Point Four of his second-term inauguration speech. Initially this assistance was mainly in the form of technical cooperation, but during the 1950s, grants and concessional loans came to play a large role in development aid, within the framework of the Mutual Security Act and alongside foreign military assistance and defense support.[20][21]From 1945 to 1953 – U.S. provides grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially Republic of China/Taiwan ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.44 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. The main category was economic aid, but some military aid was provided.[22] All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foreign Assistance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Assistance_Act"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"UN Millennium Development Goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_Millennium_Development_Goals"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Emergency_Plan_for_AIDS_Relief"},{"link_name":"United States Agency for International Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development"},{"link_name":"National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lancet-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lancet-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"After the Cold War","text":"Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act on 4 September 1961, reorganizing U.S. foreign assistance programs and separating military and non-military aid. The Act was established by President John F. Kennedy two months later. USAID became the first U.S. foreign assistance organization whose primary focus was long-term economic and social development. As the Cold War waned foreign aid spending was cut dramatically from 0.44% of GDP in 1985 to 0.16% of GDP in 2002. [24]President Barack Obama announced to the UN Millennium Development Goals summit in September 2010 that the United States was changing its policy towards foreign aid. The President said the country would focus more on effectiveness, and make sure donated food, medicine, and money help countries get to the point where they no longer require such aid. Infrastructure set up for the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief would be used to build capacity in local health care systems to improve maternal and child health, and also fight tropical diseases. The new policy would increase the profile and participation of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which would coordinate more directly with the National Security Council and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton.[25] Some observers criticized the link with national security and foreign policy as unhelpful for the impoverished, and others lamented the attempted streamlining as only adding more bureaucracy.[25]A study in 2006 found that U.S. foreign assistance to a country rose by an average of 59% when that country occupied one of the rotating seats on the UN Security Council, and fell back to normal levels when it vacated the seat.[26]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-27"}],"text":"In fiscal year 2020 (October 1, 2019 - September 30, 2020), the US government allocated $51.05 billion US dollars in economic and military assistance to foreign countries. Of this total, $39.41 billion dollars was spent on economic assistance, $25.64 billion of which was dispersed by USAID. The remaining $11.64 billion dollars was spent on military assistance.[27] Foreign aid obligations are listed by recipient country and implementing agency in the tables below.","title":"Allocation"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"By country","title":"Allocation"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"By agency","title":"Allocation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Opinion Research Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_Research_Corporation"},{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Thomas Pogge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Pogge"},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"Great Recession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Recession"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yalev14-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wpforeign-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-33"},{"link_name":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"}],"text":"Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting government-funded foreign aid much more than conservatives do,[29] who tend to prefer to provide foreign aid privately.Several Interviews with 1,012 adult Americans were conducted by telephone by Opinion Research Corporation in January 2011. Published by CNN, the response was that 81% felt that reducing aid to foreign countries was a good way to reduce the federal budget deficit, while 18% thought aid was more important than reducing deficit.[30] Thomas Pogge, Director of the Global Justice Program and Leitner Professor of Philosophy and International Affairs at Yale University, has predicted that public opinion will not change even while the hardships suffered by poor people are rising, partly as a result of the Great Recession.[31] Some claim the U.S. is helping corrupt governments with the aid.Worldwide opinion of the United States improves with contributions to developing countries.[32]Public knowledge of aid polls have been done assessing the knowledge of the US Public in regards to how much they know about the government's foreign aid spending. A poll conducted by World Public Opinion in 2010 found that the average estimate for how much of the government's budget is spent on foreign aid was 25 percent.[33] The average amount proposed by the public was 10 percent of the federal government's budget be used on foreign aid.[33] In actuality, less than 1 percent of the US federal budget goes towards foreign aid.[33] Less than 19 percent of respondents thought that the percent of the budget that goes towards foreign aid was less than 5 percent.[33] Steven Kull, director of PIPA, relates this overestimation towards an increase in hearing about foreign aid efforts during the Obama administration, but estimates of foreign aid have always been high.[33]A poll conducted in 2013 by the Pew Research Center found that the majority of Americans wanted to either maintain or increase spending on all US government initiatives except foreign aid. This is attributed, by Alice C. Hu, to a gross misconception of how much of the federal budget is actually spent on foreign aid.[34]","title":"Public opinion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-35"},{"link_name":"Program on International Policy Attitudes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_on_International_Policy_Attitudes"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-36"}],"sub_title":"Opinions change","text":"A study by The Washington Post from 2017 shows that Americans can change their opinions on U.S. foreign aid, depending on how it is presented to them.[35] The percentage of people who were provided no argument regarding foreign aid and thought the United States spends too much on it was 67 percent.[35] The percentage of people who were provided a positive argument for foreign aid and thought the United States spent too much on it was 28 percent.[35] The percentage of people who were provided a negative argument against foreign aid and thought that the United States spends too much on it was 88 percent.[35]Because the U.S. public's attitude toward foreign aid is impacted by the positive or negative tone of messages on aid, Steven Kull, Director of the Program on International Policy Attitudes, laid out steps to preserve or create a positive outlook on U.S. foreign aid.[36]Understand the attacks on foreign aid.\nDo not frame questions about public opinion in terms of priorities because people are likely to prioritize domestic issues.\nEmphasize that only 1 percent of the federal budget goes towards foreign aid, as the Clinton administration did in the 1990s.\nAmericans feel that the United States does more than its fair share on the world stage, so differentiate between foreign aid and military spending.\nNote that other countries, as part of multilateral frameworks, are doing their part in contributing to foreign aid efforts.\nAddress concerns about aid effectiveness, including sharing success stories in providing aid, articulating the role of international and local NGOs in implementing foreign aid, and mobilizing trusted public figures to address effectiveness.\nPoint out that foreign aid is a safe way to improve U.S. relations with other nation-states, therefore promoting self-interest.[36]","title":"Public opinion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Colorado at Boulder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-37"}],"sub_title":"Recipients of foreign aid","text":"A study by Andy Baker, a political scientist at the University of Colorado at Boulder, found that Americans are more likely to support foreign aid going to an African country than they are to support foreign aid going to an Eastern European country.[37] Respondents wanted to cut aid going to those of European descent by 40 percent more than of those of African descent. Baker attributes this to a paternalistic view Americans have of themselves over those of African descent.[37]","title":"Public opinion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. federal budget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_budget"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-34"}],"sub_title":"Amount spent and destination","text":"Due to the size of the U.S. federal budget, the 0.7 percent put towards foreign aid composes a significant proportion of all foreign aid flows including other donors.[34] Most U.S. foreign aid does not go to other governments due to skepticism about corruption in other countries. There is a fear among the American people that foreign aid is funneled and used to increase the personal wealth of corrupt government leaders of foreign countries. However, about 85 percent of foreign aid goes to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and U.S.-government contractors, meaning that most of foreign aid is not being given directly to foreign governments.[34]","title":"Public opinion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foreign Aid Explorer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//explorer.usaid.gov/"},{"link_name":"U.S. Overseas Loans and Grants: Obligations and Loan Authorizations, July 1, 1945 – September 30, 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pbaaa800.pdf"},{"link_name":"ForeignAssistance.gov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.foreignassistance.gov/web/default.aspx"},{"link_name":"Development Assistance Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_Assistance_Committee"},{"link_name":"Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development"},{"link_name":"AidData","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AidData"},{"link_name":"AidData database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.aiddata.org/search/index"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R40213.pdf"},{"link_name":"in JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1405813"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7892491#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531363705171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85040770"}],"text":"USG sources of data on United States aid are:Foreign Aid Explorer\nU.S. Overseas Loans and Grants: Obligations and Loan Authorizations, July 1, 1945 – September 30, 2013\nForeignAssistance.govNon-USG sources of data on United States aid are:Publications of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The OECD offers large amounts of data on line. Complete access is by subscription, but useful amounts are made available free. The DAC does not include private aid in its main category, \"Official Development Assistance (ODA)\", but reports some of it under other headings.\nAidData provides free access to a searchable database of foreign aid activities by donor, recipient, sector, and other criteria. Using the AidData database, it is possible to search for U.S. foreign aid activities financed between 1973 and 2008, and download them as a CSV file.\nCongressional Research Service. Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy (2011) 37 pp online\nGuess, George M. The Politics of United States Foreign Aid (2013)\nLancaster, Carol. Foreign aid: Diplomacy, development, domestic politics (University of Chicago Press, 2008)\nMorgner, Aurelius. \"The American Foreign Aid Program: Costs, Accomplishments, Alternatives?,\" Review of Politics (1967) 29#1 pp. 65–75 in JSTORBristol, Nellie. 2010. \"US Foreign Aid Restructuring: is it \"a very big deal?\" From World Report. Accessed 19 April 2010.Authority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"US foreign aid by country 2022[1] $66.27 billion in 2022[2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/US_foreign_aid_by_country_2022.webp/220px-US_foreign_aid_by_country_2022.webp.png"},{"image_text":"United States foreign aid Ukraine Israel Ethiopia Afghanistan Jordan Egypt","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/United_States_foreign_aid.webp/220px-United_States_foreign_aid.webp.png"},{"image_text":"US foreign aid by year 1946-2022 (adjusted for inflation)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/United_States_foreign_aid_by_year.webp/220px-United_States_foreign_aid_by_year.webp.png"}] | [{"title":"Compact of Free Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_of_Free_Association"},{"title":"Criticism of United States foreign policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_United_States_foreign_policy"},{"title":"Development Assistance Database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_Assistance_Database"},{"title":"Feed the Future Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed_the_Future_Initiative"},{"title":"Foreign Assistance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Assistance_Act"},{"title":"Foreign policy of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States"},{"title":"Millennium Challenge Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Challenge_Corporation"},{"title":"United States Foreign Military Financing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Foreign_Military_Financing"},{"title":"United States military aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military_aid"},{"title":"USAID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAID"},{"title":"Canadian International Development Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_International_Development_Agency"},{"title":"List of development aid country donors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_development_aid_country_donors"}] | [{"reference":"Morgenster, Emily M.; Brown, Nick M. (January 2022). Foreign Assistance: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy (Report). Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/download/R/R40213/R40213.pdf/","url_text":"Foreign Assistance: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220712224543/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/download/R/R40213/R40213.pdf/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Agencies | ForeignAssistance.gov\". www.foreignassistance.gov. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.foreignassistance.gov/agencies","url_text":"\"Agencies | ForeignAssistance.gov\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200121215550/http://www.foreignassistance.gov/Agencies","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"How Does the U.S. Spend Its Foreign Aid?\". Council on Foreign Relations. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eden_point | Eden point | ["1 See also","2 References"] | Form of chipped stone projectile points associated with a sub-group of the larger Plano culture
Eden Points are a form of chipped stone projectile points associated with a sub-group of the larger Plano culture. Sometimes also called Yuma points, the first Eden points were discovered in washouts in Yuma County, Colorado. They were first discovered in situ at an ancient buffalo kill site near Eden, Wyoming by Harold J. Cook in 1941. The site, named after discoverer O. M. Finley, eventually yielded 24 projectile points, including eight Eden points, eight Scottsbluff points and one complete Cody point, both other sub-groups within the Plano group. Eden points are believed to have been used between 10,000 and 6,000 years ago by paleo-indian hunters in the western plains.
Eden points have been discovered across the western plain states, including Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, and Montana.
See also
Other projectile points
References
Howard, Edgar (January 1943). "The Finley Site: Discovery of Yuma Points, in Situ, near Eden, Wyoming". American Antiquity. 8 (3). Society for American Archaeology: 224–234. doi:10.2307/275902. JSTOR 275902. S2CID 162251643.
Minnesota State University Museum. "Eden Points". Archived from the original on December 3, 2007. Retrieved 2008-01-05.
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Prehistoric warfare
Symbols
symbolism | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"projectile points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile_point"},{"link_name":"Plano culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plano_culture"},{"link_name":"Yuma County, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuma_County,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"buffalo kill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_drive_system"},{"link_name":"Eden, Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eden,_Wyoming"},{"link_name":"Scottsbluff points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottsbluff_point&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Cody point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plano_point"},{"link_name":"paleo-indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-indian"},{"link_name":"Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana"}],"text":"Eden Points are a form of chipped stone projectile points associated with a sub-group of the larger Plano culture. Sometimes also called Yuma points, the first Eden points were discovered in washouts in Yuma County, Colorado. They were first discovered in situ at an ancient buffalo kill site near Eden, Wyoming by Harold J. Cook in 1941. The site, named after discoverer O. M. Finley, eventually yielded 24 projectile points, including eight Eden points, eight Scottsbluff points and one complete Cody point, both other sub-groups within the Plano group. Eden points are believed to have been used between 10,000 and 6,000 years ago by paleo-indian hunters in the western plains.Eden points have been discovered across the western plain states, including Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, and Montana.","title":"Eden point"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/S.E.C.C._hero_twins_3_HRoe_2007-transparent.png/110px-S.E.C.C._hero_twins_3_HRoe_2007-transparent.png"}] | [{"title":"Other projectile points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projectile_points#See_also"}] | [{"reference":"Howard, Edgar (January 1943). \"The Finley Site: Discovery of Yuma Points, in Situ, near Eden, Wyoming\". American Antiquity. 8 (3). Society for American Archaeology: 224–234. doi:10.2307/275902. JSTOR 275902. S2CID 162251643.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F275902","url_text":"10.2307/275902"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/275902","url_text":"275902"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162251643","url_text":"162251643"}]},{"reference":"Minnesota State University Museum. \"Eden Points\". Archived from the original on December 3, 2007. Retrieved 2008-01-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071203114550/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/artifacts/eden_points.html","url_text":"\"Eden Points\""},{"url":"http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/artifacts/eden_points.html","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F275902","external_links_name":"10.2307/275902"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/275902","external_links_name":"275902"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162251643","external_links_name":"162251643"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071203114550/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/artifacts/eden_points.html","external_links_name":"\"Eden Points\""},{"Link":"http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/artifacts/eden_points.html","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auzentech | Auzentech | ["1 Products","1.1 Based on C-Media chipsets","1.2 Based on Creative Labs' X-Fi chipset","1.3 Others","1.4 See also","2 References","3 External links"] | Auzentech, Inc.Company typePublicIndustryConsumer ElectronicsFounded2005; 19 years ago (2005)FounderStephane BaeHeadquartersUnited States, Japan, South Korea, Silicon Valley, California, United States of AmericaKey peopleStephane Bae, (President)ProductsMultimedia, IT, Consumer electronicsWebsitewww.auzentech.com
Auzentech was a Korean computer hardware manufacturer that specialized in high-definition audio equipment and in particular PC sound cards.
Auzentech has its origins in March 2005, when under the company name HDA (HiTeC Digital Audio), the company launched the X-Mystique 7.1, the first consumer add-in sound card to feature Dolby Digital Live.
Initially only a manufacturer, HDA's products were commercialized worldwide by a network of local distributors, including BlueGears as their vendor in the United States.
In 2006 the company took distribution into their own hands, ceasing relations with BlueGears, and subsequently changing their brand name to Auzen (a name which originates from "Audio" and "Zen") and their company name to Auzentech.
Since that time the company continued to incorporate new sound cards into their lineup in an effort to compete in a market dominated by Creative Labs. Auzentech sought to provide customers with features not present in Creative's sound cards at that time, such as real time multi-channel audio encoding and built-in TOSLINK connections. These features enable users to have multichannel realtime audio (like that originating in PC games) over a single digital line, instead of the previously unavoidable three analog lines running from the PC to the speakers. Also present in all Auzentech sound cards are user-replaceable opamps, which offer the possibility to further improve the out-of-the-box quality of analog outputs.
Eventually expansion led Auzentech to broaden their range of products to include items such as speakers, microphones and PC cases among others.
Auzentech has recently switched from the C-Media audio processors used in their earlier cards to the X-Fi audio DSP, licensed from their competitor, Creative Labs.
Since early 2014, Auzentech's official web site has been directing to a park page, and their technical support department ceased to provide any service.
Products
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2010)
Based on C-Media chipsets
X-Mystique 7.1 GoldBased on the CMI 8768+ chipset. Launched in June 2005. First PC consumer add-in sound card to feature Dolby Digital Live.
X-Plosion 7.1 DTS ConnectBased on the CMI 8770 chipset. First PC consumer sound card to feature DTS Connect certification. In June 2009, the card was re-released, with its name changed to X-Plosion 7.1 Cinema (discontinued).
X-Meridian 7.1Based on the CMI 8788 chipset. Launched in February 2006, it was the first card launched with the Auzentech brand.
X-Meridian 7.1 2GBased on the CMI 8788 chipset. Launched in December 2010
X-Raider 7.1Based on the CMI 8768 chipset. Launched in July 2009, the X-Raider is a 24-bit, 96 kHz PCI 2.2 compliant card, supporting bus mastering modes.
Based on Creative Labs' X-Fi chipset
X-Fi Prelude 7.1Launched in August 2007, the Prelude was the first time the X-Fi chip was used in a product not manufactured by Creative Labs.
X-Fi ForteWith all previous Auzentech sound cards being PCI cards, launched in January 2009, the Forte was Auzentech's first low-profile native PCI Express 1.1 sound card. DTS Interactive support was added through a later driver upgrade.
X-Fi Home Theater HDReleased in August 2009, it was the first HDMI 1.3a compliant sound card and the first Dolby TrueHD compatible sound card. PCI Express 1.1 interface. Seeking to provide the best possible performance, Auzentech and Creative Labs collaborated to modify the X-Fi processor to optimize it for operating over the PCI Express bus. The Home Theater HD was conceived to work with future video card offerings from NVIDIA, providing what NVIDIA and Auzentech call the "ultimate in audio and visual entertainment".
X-Fi BravuraLaunched in January 2010, the X-Fi Bravura is a PCI Express x1 card. X-Fi Bravura has 5x user replaceable OPAMPs.
Others
X-Studio 5.1Launched in July 2009, alongside the X-Raider, the X-Studio is based on the VIA High Quality ICE 1723 audio processor. The card is capable of outputting 24-bit, 96 kHz audio and is presented as a PCI 2.2 card.
See also
Op-amp swapping
References
^ a b "About Auzentech: Provider of World First Sound Cards". Auzentech. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ "HiTeC Digital Audio". 2005-05-14. Archived from the original on 2005-05-14.
^ "HITEC DIGITAL AUDIO INC". Archived from the original on 2013-01-26.
^ a b "HDA X-Plosion 7.1 DTS Connect, Page 2". Rage3D. March 11, 2006.
^ "BlueGears X-Mystique 7.1 Review". PentarSys. Archived from the original on December 6, 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ "Sound Card FAQ". Auzentech. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ "AUZENTECH challenges Creative Labs with the release of HDA XPLOSION 7.1 DTS Connect". Auzentech. 2006-02-14. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
^ "HDA X-Plosion 7.1 DTS Connect, Page 2", Rage3D, March 11, 2006, archived from the original on 14 April 2010, retrieved March 8, 2010
^ "Auzentech X-Meridian 7.1". TechGage. 2007-02-28. Archived from the original on 31 January 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ "X-Mystique 7.1 Gold". Hot Hardware. 2005-12-15. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
^ "Auzentech X-FI Prelude 7.1 Sound Card". Overclock3D. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ "06.26.2009 - X-Plosion 7.1 Cinema in Stock". Auzentech. 2009-06-26. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ "Auzentech X-fi Forte 7.1 Soundcard review". Guru3D. 2009-03-25. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ "Auzentech's first Low Profile native PCI Express Audio Card: Auzen X-FiTM Forte 7.1". Bit-Tech.net. 2009-01-23. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ "Auzentech HDMI X-Tension First Card To Support HDMI 1.3 And Dolby TrueHD". ConnectedInternet.co.uk. April 11, 2008. Archived from the original on February 14, 2009. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
^ a b "Auzentech Announces The X-Fi HomeTheater 7.1". Tom's Hardware. 2008-06-20. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
External links
Official website
Sound cards at Auzentech.com
Auzentech on X
vte Electronics industry in South KoreaCompaniesCurrent
Cowon
Cuckoo Electronics
Freenex
iRiver
LG Electronics
Pantech
Samsung Electronics
Hanwha Vision
Winia Electronics
Defunct
Auzentech
Game Park
GamePark Holdings
VK Mobile | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea"},{"link_name":"computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"sound cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Dolby Digital Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_Digital_Live"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rage3dqa-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rage3dqa-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Creative Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Labs"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"TOSLINK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOSLINK"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"opamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opamp"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"analog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_audio"},{"link_name":"speakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"microphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone"},{"link_name":"PC cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_case"},{"link_name":"C-Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-Media"},{"link_name":"X-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Fi_(audio_chip)"},{"link_name":"DSP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"}],"text":"Auzentech was a Korean computer hardware manufacturer that specialized in high-definition audio equipment and in particular PC sound cards.Auzentech has its origins in March 2005, when under the company name HDA (HiTeC Digital Audio),[2] the company launched the X-Mystique 7.1, the first consumer add-in sound card to feature Dolby Digital Live.\nInitially only a manufacturer, HDA's products were commercialized worldwide by a network of local distributors, including BlueGears as their vendor in the United States.[3][4][5]In 2006 the company took distribution into their own hands, ceasing relations with BlueGears, and subsequently changing their brand name to Auzen (a name which originates from \"Audio\" and \"Zen\")[4] and their company name to Auzentech.[6]Since that time the company continued to incorporate new sound cards into their lineup in an effort to compete in a market dominated by Creative Labs.[7] Auzentech sought to provide customers with features not present in Creative's sound cards at that time, such as real time multi-channel audio encoding and built-in TOSLINK connections.[8] These features enable users to have multichannel realtime audio (like that originating in PC games) over a single digital line, instead of the previously unavoidable three analog lines running from the PC to the speakers. Also present in all Auzentech sound cards are user-replaceable opamps,[9] which offer the possibility to further improve the out-of-the-box quality of analog outputs.Eventually expansion led Auzentech to broaden their range of products to include items such as speakers, microphones and PC cases among others.Auzentech has recently switched from the C-Media audio processors used in their earlier cards to the X-Fi audio DSP, licensed from their competitor, Creative Labs.Since early 2014, Auzentech's official web site has been directing to a park page, and their technical support department ceased to provide any service.","title":"Auzentech"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dolby Digital Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_Digital_Live"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inquirer-10"},{"link_name":"DTS Connect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTS_Connect"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oc3d-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"bus mastering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_mastering"}],"sub_title":"Based on C-Media chipsets","text":"X-Mystique 7.1 GoldBased on the CMI 8768+ chipset. Launched in June 2005. First PC consumer add-in sound card to feature Dolby Digital Live.[10]\nX-Plosion 7.1 DTS ConnectBased on the CMI 8770 chipset. First PC consumer sound card to feature DTS Connect certification.[11] In June 2009, the card was re-released, with its name changed to X-Plosion 7.1 Cinema (discontinued).[12]\nX-Meridian 7.1Based on the CMI 8788 chipset. Launched in February 2006, it was the first card launched with the Auzentech brand.\nX-Meridian 7.1 2GBased on the CMI 8788 chipset. Launched in December 2010\nX-Raider 7.1Based on the CMI 8768 chipset. Launched in July 2009, the X-Raider is a 24-bit, 96 kHz PCI 2.2 compliant card, supporting bus mastering modes.","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"X-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Fi_(audio_chip)"},{"link_name":"Creative Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Labs"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_PCI"},{"link_name":"PCI Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"DTS Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTS_Interactive"},{"link_name":"HDMI 1.3a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI#Version_1.3"},{"link_name":"Dolby TrueHD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_TrueHD"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tomshardware-16"},{"link_name":"NVIDIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVIDIA"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tomshardware-16"}],"sub_title":"Based on Creative Labs' X-Fi chipset","text":"X-Fi Prelude 7.1Launched in August 2007, the Prelude was the first time the X-Fi chip was used in a product not manufactured by Creative Labs.[13]\nX-Fi ForteWith all previous Auzentech sound cards being PCI cards, launched in January 2009, the Forte was Auzentech's first low-profile native PCI Express 1.1 sound card.[14] DTS Interactive support was added through a later driver upgrade.\nX-Fi Home Theater HDReleased in August 2009, it was the first HDMI 1.3a compliant sound card and the first Dolby TrueHD compatible sound card.[15] PCI Express 1.1 interface. Seeking to provide the best possible performance, Auzentech and Creative Labs collaborated to modify the X-Fi processor to optimize it for operating over the PCI Express bus.[16] The Home Theater HD was conceived to work with future video card offerings from NVIDIA, providing what NVIDIA and Auzentech call the \"ultimate in audio and visual entertainment\".[16]\nX-Fi BravuraLaunched in January 2010, the X-Fi Bravura is a PCI Express x1 card. X-Fi Bravura has 5x user replaceable OPAMPs.","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Others","text":"X-Studio 5.1Launched in July 2009, alongside the X-Raider, the X-Studio is based on the VIA High Quality ICE 1723 audio processor. The card is capable of outputting 24-bit, 96 kHz audio and is presented as a PCI 2.2 card.","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Op-amp swapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op-amp_swapping"}],"sub_title":"See also","text":"Op-amp swapping","title":"Products"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"About Auzentech: Provider of World First Sound Cards\". Auzentech. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved March 7, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100328083555/http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/about.php","url_text":"\"About Auzentech: Provider of World First Sound Cards\""},{"url":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/about.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"HiTeC Digital Audio\". 2005-05-14. 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Retrieved March 7, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/pressrelease_02142006_auzentech_.php","url_text":"\"AUZENTECH challenges Creative Labs with the release of HDA XPLOSION 7.1 DTS Connect\""}]},{"reference":"\"HDA X-Plosion 7.1 DTS Connect, Page 2\", Rage3D, March 11, 2006, archived from the original on 14 April 2010, retrieved March 8, 2010","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rage3d.com/reviews/sound/auzentechxplosion/","url_text":"\"HDA X-Plosion 7.1 DTS Connect, Page 2\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100414033518/http://www.rage3d.com/reviews/sound/auzentechxplosion/","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Auzentech X-Meridian 7.1\". TechGage. 2007-02-28. Archived from the original on 31 January 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://techgage.com/article/auzentech_x-meridian_71/","url_text":"\"Auzentech X-Meridian 7.1\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100131091433/http://techgage.com/article/auzentech_x-meridian_71/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"X-Mystique 7.1 Gold\". Hot Hardware. 2005-12-15. Retrieved January 4, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://hothardware.com/News/XMystique-71-Gold/","url_text":"\"X-Mystique 7.1 Gold\""}]},{"reference":"\"Auzentech X-FI Prelude 7.1 Sound Card\". Overclock3D. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.overclock3d.net/reviews/audio/auzentech_x-fi_prelude_7_1_sound_card/1","url_text":"\"Auzentech X-FI Prelude 7.1 Sound Card\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100325161459/http://www.overclock3d.net/reviews/audio/auzentech_x-fi_prelude_7_1_sound_card/1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"06.26.2009 - X-Plosion 7.1 Cinema in Stock\". Auzentech. 2009-06-26. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/pressrelease_06262009_x-plosion_.php","url_text":"\"06.26.2009 - X-Plosion 7.1 Cinema in Stock\""}]},{"reference":"\"Auzentech X-fi Forte 7.1 Soundcard review\". Guru3D. 2009-03-25. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.guru3d.com/article/auzentech-xfi-forte-71-soundcard-review-test/","url_text":"\"Auzentech X-fi Forte 7.1 Soundcard review\""}]},{"reference":"\"Auzentech's first Low Profile native PCI Express Audio Card: Auzen X-FiTM Forte 7.1\". Bit-Tech.net. 2009-01-23. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bit-tech.net/news/industry/2009/01/23/auzentech-s-first-low-profile-native-pci-express-audio-card-auzen-x-fitm-forte-7-1/1","url_text":"\"Auzentech's first Low Profile native PCI Express Audio Card: Auzen X-FiTM Forte 7.1\""}]},{"reference":"\"Auzentech HDMI X-Tension First Card To Support HDMI 1.3 And Dolby TrueHD\". ConnectedInternet.co.uk. April 11, 2008. Archived from the original on February 14, 2009. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090214142633/http://www.connectedinternet.co.uk/2008/04/11/auzentech-hdmi-x-tension-first-card-to-support-hdmi-13-and-dolby-truehd/","url_text":"\"Auzentech HDMI X-Tension First Card To Support HDMI 1.3 And Dolby TrueHD\""},{"url":"http://www.connectedinternet.co.uk/2008/04/11/auzentech-hdmi-x-tension-first-card-to-support-hdmi-13-and-dolby-truehd/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Auzentech Announces The X-Fi HomeTheater 7.1\". Tom's Hardware. 2008-06-20. Retrieved March 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tomshardware.com/news/X-Fi-HomeTheater-7.1,5723.html","url_text":"\"Auzentech Announces The X-Fi HomeTheater 7.1\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/","external_links_name":"www.auzentech.com"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Auzentech&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100328083555/http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/about.php","external_links_name":"\"About Auzentech: Provider of World First Sound Cards\""},{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/about.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050514015702/http://www.hidiaudio.com/","external_links_name":"\"HiTeC Digital Audio\""},{"Link":"http://www.hidiaudio.com/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130126003511/http://www.importgenius.com/shipments/hitec-digital-audio.html","external_links_name":"\"HITEC DIGITAL AUDIO INC\""},{"Link":"http://www.importgenius.com/shipments/hitec-digital-audio.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.rage3d.com/reviews/sound/auzentechxplosion/index.php?p=2","external_links_name":"\"HDA X-Plosion 7.1 DTS Connect, Page 2\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101206143242/http://www.penstarsys.com/reviews/sound/bluegears/xmystique/index.html","external_links_name":"\"BlueGears X-Mystique 7.1 Review\""},{"Link":"http://penstarsys.com/reviews/sound/bluegears/xmystique/index.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/support/FAQ.php","external_links_name":"\"Sound Card FAQ\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100328100718/http://www.auzentech.com/site/support/FAQ.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/pressrelease_02142006_auzentech_.php","external_links_name":"\"AUZENTECH challenges Creative Labs with the release of HDA XPLOSION 7.1 DTS Connect\""},{"Link":"http://www.rage3d.com/reviews/sound/auzentechxplosion/","external_links_name":"\"HDA X-Plosion 7.1 DTS Connect, Page 2\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100414033518/http://www.rage3d.com/reviews/sound/auzentechxplosion/","external_links_name":"archived"},{"Link":"http://techgage.com/article/auzentech_x-meridian_71/","external_links_name":"\"Auzentech X-Meridian 7.1\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100131091433/http://techgage.com/article/auzentech_x-meridian_71/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://hothardware.com/News/XMystique-71-Gold/","external_links_name":"\"X-Mystique 7.1 Gold\""},{"Link":"http://www.overclock3d.net/reviews/audio/auzentech_x-fi_prelude_7_1_sound_card/1","external_links_name":"\"Auzentech X-FI Prelude 7.1 Sound Card\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100325161459/http://www.overclock3d.net/reviews/audio/auzentech_x-fi_prelude_7_1_sound_card/1","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/company/pressrelease_06262009_x-plosion_.php","external_links_name":"\"06.26.2009 - X-Plosion 7.1 Cinema in Stock\""},{"Link":"http://www.guru3d.com/article/auzentech-xfi-forte-71-soundcard-review-test/","external_links_name":"\"Auzentech X-fi Forte 7.1 Soundcard review\""},{"Link":"http://www.bit-tech.net/news/industry/2009/01/23/auzentech-s-first-low-profile-native-pci-express-audio-card-auzen-x-fitm-forte-7-1/1","external_links_name":"\"Auzentech's first Low Profile native PCI Express Audio Card: Auzen X-FiTM Forte 7.1\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090214142633/http://www.connectedinternet.co.uk/2008/04/11/auzentech-hdmi-x-tension-first-card-to-support-hdmi-13-and-dolby-truehd/","external_links_name":"\"Auzentech HDMI X-Tension First Card To Support HDMI 1.3 And Dolby TrueHD\""},{"Link":"http://www.connectedinternet.co.uk/2008/04/11/auzentech-hdmi-x-tension-first-card-to-support-hdmi-13-and-dolby-truehd/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.tomshardware.com/news/X-Fi-HomeTheater-7.1,5723.html","external_links_name":"\"Auzentech Announces The X-Fi HomeTheater 7.1\""},{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://www.auzentech.com/site/products/cards.php","external_links_name":"Sound cards"},{"Link":"https://x.com/auzentech","external_links_name":"Auzentech"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Date_Warp | Date Warp | ["1 Gameplay","2 Plot","2.1 Characters","3 Development","4 Reception","5 References","6 External links"] | 2010 video gameDate WarpDeveloper(s)Spiky Caterpillar Hanako GamesPublisher(s)Hanako GamesEngineRen'PyPlatform(s)Windows, Mac OS X, LinuxReleaseMay 22, 2010Genre(s)Visual novelMode(s)Single-player
Date Warp is a science fiction visual novel video game developed by Spiky Caterpillar and Hanako Games, and published by Hanako Games for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and Linux in 2010. The game uses anime-style graphics and is written in English and tells a story of a young Indian-American college female student who goes on a date and disappears.
Gameplay
As Date Warp is a visual novel, the player reads through the story and makes choices at crucial points to change the outcome, leading to eleven different endings. The game also contains small puzzles which must be solved in order to make those choices.
Plot
The story begins with Janet and Bradley, the young couple on their first date, arriving by chance at a mysterious mansion in the woods after their car breaks down in the rain. They seek shelter inside and find a mismatched group of handsome young men staying at the mansion. After staying the night, they try to leave, and the story takes the first of many surprise turns. Each path through the game reveals only a fraction of the story until finally all the elements are in place and the true ending is unlocked.
Characters
Janet Bhaskar: A freshman at Brook College, previously a socially-isolated student at the top of her high school class.
Bradley Dalton: A cheerful jock who's been asking every freshman girl on exactly one date each.
Nathaniel: A polite and wealthy gentleman offering assistance to those in need.
Alben: A mysteriously hostile young man.
Linds: A lecherous scientist.
Rafael: A soft-spoken young man who takes care of others but dodges questions about his past.
Development
The game was created with the visual novel engine Ren'Py. On May 15, 2010 the opening trailer was released on YouTube. Hanako Games released a free demo of the game on their website. The opening theme is What Lies Beyond composed by Matthew Myers from LeetStreet Boys. On September 6, 2014, an updated version called Date Warp: Silver Edition was released, following the release on Steam. One puzzle and plot element has been changed, the user interface has been changed to a more sci-fi style, and a new CG and an epilogue was added. Furthermore, the engine has been upgraded to a new version.
Reception
Date Warp received moderate to positive reception. Gamertell gave 92/100 to the game writing: "The character art is appealing, the puzzles to unlock answers are a nice diversion and, most importantly, it is well written. Hanako Games and Spiky Caterpillar did a wonderful job of creating a visual novel that both men and women will enjoy." GameZebo gave 3 of 5 stars and wrote: "If you're part of that niche audience that Date Warp caters to then you'll enjoy the branching storylines and cute art style, and will no doubt have fun trying to unlock all of the endings." Gamasutra wrote: "Date/Warp is trying to do some cool things through its interactivity, but it could have stood to be a good deal more procedural."
References
^ "Date Warp - Game OP trailer". YouTube. 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ "Theme Song from "Date Warp"". YouTube. 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
^ "Gamertell Review: Date Warp for Windows, Mac and Linux". 2010. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
^ "Date Warp Review (Gamezebo)". 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-06-18. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
^ "Analysis: Warped Structures - Story In Date/Warp". 2011. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
External links
Official website
Date Warp at The Visual Novel Database
vteHanako GamesVisual novels
Date Warp
Fatal Hearts
The Royal Trap
Life simulation
Magical Diary
Long Live the Queen
Cute Knight
Summer Session
Black Closet | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"visual novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_novel"},{"link_name":"Hanako Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanako_Games"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Mac OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"anime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime"},{"link_name":"Indian-American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian-American"}],"text":"Date Warp is a science fiction visual novel video game developed by Spiky Caterpillar and Hanako Games, and published by Hanako Games for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and Linux in 2010. 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Each path through the game reveals only a fraction of the story until finally all the elements are in place and the true ending is unlocked.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Characters","text":"Janet Bhaskar: A freshman at Brook College, previously a socially-isolated student at the top of her high school class.\nBradley Dalton: A cheerful jock who's been asking every freshman girl on exactly one date each.\nNathaniel: A polite and wealthy gentleman offering assistance to those in need.\nAlben: A mysteriously hostile young man.\nLinds: A lecherous scientist.\nRafael: A soft-spoken young man who takes care of others but dodges questions about his past.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ren'Py","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%27Py"},{"link_name":"YouTube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_(service)"}],"text":"The game was created with the visual novel engine Ren'Py. On May 15, 2010 the opening trailer was released on YouTube.[1] Hanako Games released a free demo of the game on their website. The opening theme is What Lies Beyond composed by Matthew Myers from LeetStreet Boys.[2] On September 6, 2014, an updated version called Date Warp: Silver Edition was released, following the release on Steam. One puzzle and plot element has been changed, the user interface has been changed to a more sci-fi style, and a new CG and an epilogue was added. Furthermore, the engine has been upgraded to a new version.","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"GameZebo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameZebo"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gamasutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Date Warp received moderate to positive reception. Gamertell gave 92/100 to the game writing: \"The character art is appealing, the puzzles to unlock answers are a nice diversion and, most importantly, it is well written. Hanako Games and Spiky Caterpillar did a wonderful job of creating a visual novel that both men and women will enjoy.\"[3] GameZebo gave 3 of 5 stars and wrote: \"If you're part of that niche audience that Date Warp caters to then you'll enjoy the branching storylines and cute art style, and will no doubt have fun trying to unlock all of the endings.\"[4] Gamasutra wrote: \"Date/Warp is trying to do some cool things through its interactivity, but it could have stood to be a good deal more procedural.\"[5]","title":"Reception"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Date Warp - Game OP trailer\". YouTube. 2011. 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Retrieved 2011-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/32592/Analysis_Warped_Structures__Story_In_DateWarp.php","url_text":"\"Analysis: Warped Structures - Story In Date/Warp\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvLPA1qO134","external_links_name":"\"Date Warp - Game OP trailer\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TU44rtmXSPg","external_links_name":"\"Theme Song from \"Date Warp\"\""},{"Link":"http://www.gamertell.com/technologytell/article/date-warp-gamertell-review-hanako-games-windows-mac-and-linux/","external_links_name":"\"Gamertell Review: Date Warp for Windows, Mac and Linux\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110618160839/http://www.gamezebo.com/games/date-warp/review","external_links_name":"\"Date Warp Review (Gamezebo)\""},{"Link":"http://www.gamezebo.com/games/date-warp/review","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/32592/Analysis_Warped_Structures__Story_In_DateWarp.php","external_links_name":"\"Analysis: Warped Structures - Story In Date/Warp\""},{"Link":"http://www.hanakogames.com/datewarp.shtml","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://vndb.org/v4134","external_links_name":"Date Warp"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducted_fan | Ducted fan | ["1 Design","1.1 Fan","1.2 Duct","1.3 Powerplant","1.4 Ducted propulsor","1.5 Limitations","2 Applications","3 See also","4 References"] | Air moving arrangement
Bell X-22
In aeronautics, a ducted fan is a thrust-generating mechanical fan or propeller mounted within a cylindrical duct or shroud. Other terms include ducted propeller or shrouded propeller. When used in vertical takeoff and landing
(VTOL) applications it is also known as a shrouded rotor.
Ducted fans are used for propulsion or direct lift in many types of vehicle including aeroplanes, airships, hovercraft, and powered lift VTOL aircraft. The high-bypass turbofan engines used on many modern airliners is an example of a very successful and popular use of ducted fan design.
The duct increases thrust efficiency by up to 90% in most cases, in comparison to a similar-sized propeller in free air. Ducted fans are quieter, and offer good opportunities for thrust vectoring. The shroud offers good protection to ground personnel from accidentally contacting the spinning blades, as well as protecting the blades themselves from external debris or objects. By varying the cross-section of the duct the designer can advantageously affect the velocity and pressure of the airflow according to Bernoulli's principle.
Drawbacks include increased weight due to the added structure of the shroud, a need for precision in tolerances of blade-tip to shroud clearance, a need for better vibration control compared to free-air propellers, and complex duct design requirements. Lastly, when at high angles of attack, the shroud can stall and produce high drag.
Design
A ducted fan has three main components; the fan or propeller which provides thrust or lift, the duct or shroud which surrounds the fan, and the engine or motor which powers the fan.
Fan
Like any other fan, propeller or rotor, a ducted fan is characterised by the number of blades. The Rhein Flugzeugbau (RFB) SG 85 had three blades, while the Dowty Rotol Ducted Propulsor had seven. The blades may be of fixed or variable pitch.
Duct
The duct or shroud is an aerodynamic ring which surrounds the fan and closely fits the blade tips. It must be made rigid enough not to distort under flight loads nor touch the blades as they turn. The duct performs several functions:
Principally, it reduces the vortices created by air flowing round the ends of the blades. This reduces the aerodynamic losses or drag, thus increasing the overall efficiency of the fan. Because of this, the fan can either be used to provide increased thrust and aircraft performance, or be made smaller than the equivalent free propeller.
It provides acoustic shielding which, together with the reduced energy waste, significantly cuts noise emissions from the propeller.
It acts as a protective device, both to protect objects such as ground staff from being hit by the whirling blades, and to protect the blades from damage during such an impact.
The reduced tip vortices also mean that the fan wake is less turbulent. With careful design, the heated discharge from the engine cooling system can be injected into the low-turbulence fan wake to increase thrust.
Powerplant
A ducted fan may be powered by any kind of motor capable of turning the fan. Examples include piston, rotary (Wankel), and turboshaft combustion engines, as well as electric motors.
The fan may be mounted directly on the powerplant output shaft, or driven remotely via an extended drive shaft and gearing. In the remote arrangement, several fans may be driven by a single powerplant.
Ducted propulsor
An assembly designed throughout as a single integrated unit is referred to as a fan pod or ducted propulsor.
An advantage of the pod approach is that the design of each component can be matched to the others, helping to maximise performance and minimise weight. It also eases the vehicle designer's task of integration with the vehicle and its systems.
Limitations
Good efficiency requires very small clearances between the blade tips and the duct.
Efficiency advantages are reduced, and may even be reversed, at lower rotation speeds, thrust levels and airspeeds.
Requires reduced vibration levels compared to a free propeller or rotor.
Complex duct design, and weight increase even if constructed from advanced composites.
At high angle of attack, parts of the duct will stall and produce aerodynamic drag.
Applications
Dirigible airship with ducted fans
In aircraft applications, the operating speed of an unshrouded propeller is limited since tip speeds approach the sound barrier at lower speeds than an equivalent ducted fan. The most common ducted fan arrangement used in full-sized aircraft is a turbofan engine, where the power to turn the fan is provided by a gas turbine. High bypass ratio turbofan engines are used on nearly all civilian airliners, while military fighters usually make use of the better high-speed performance of a low bypass ratio turbofan with a smaller fan diameter. However, a ducted fan may be powered by any source of shaft power such as a reciprocating engine, Wankel engine, or electric motor. A kind of ducted fan, known as a fantail or by the trademark name Fenestron, is also used to replace tail rotors on helicopters.
Avian Gyroplane with ducted pusher prop (but no tail-boom)
Ducted fan on an Air Cushion Landing Craft
Ducted fans are favored in VTOL aircraft such as the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, and other low-speed designs such as hovercraft for their higher thrust-to-weight ratio.
In some cases, a shrouded rotor can be 94% more efficient than an open rotor. The improved performance is mainly because the outward flow is less contracted and thus carries more kinetic energy.
Among model aircraft hobbyists, the ducted fan is popular with builders of high-performance radio controlled model aircraft. Glow plug engines combined with ducted-fan units were the first achievable means of modeling a scaled-size jet aircraft. Despite the introduction of model-scale turbojet engines, electric-powered ducted fans remain popular on smaller, lower-cost model aircraft. Some electric-powered ducted fan airplanes can reach speeds of more than 320km/h (200mph).
Most cooling fans used in computers contain a duct integrated into the fan assembly; the duct is also used for mechanically mounting the fan to other components.
The Martin Jetpack personal aircraft with ducted fans
See also
Geared turbofan (a form of jet engine)
Ducted propeller (in marine applications)
RFB Fantrainer (example of a ducted fan aircraft)
Avian Gyroplane (example of a ducted fan autogyro)
References
^ Anita I. Abrego and Robert W. Bulaga; "Performance Study of a Ducted Fan System", NASA, 2002.
^ Kotwani, Kailash; "Ducted Fan or Shrouded Rotor Aerodynamics and its Application in Miniature VTOL Aerial Vehicles", 2009. (retrieved 22 March 2022).
^ a b Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1980-81, Jane's, 1980. p.704.
^ a b c d Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1980-81, Jane's, 1980. p.725.
^ "Jon Longbottom - Mechanical aeronautics, thesis in PDF format" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2014-01-02.
^ Pereira, Jason L. Hover and wind-tunnel testing of shrouded rotors for improved micro air vehicle design p147+p11. University of Maryland, 2008. Accessed: 28 August 2015. | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:X-22a_onground_bw.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bell X-22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-22"},{"link_name":"mechanical fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_fan"},{"link_name":"propeller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propeller_(aeronautics)"},{"link_name":"duct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/duct"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"VTOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOL"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotwani-2"},{"link_name":"aeroplanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroplane"},{"link_name":"airships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airship"},{"link_name":"hovercraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovercraft"},{"link_name":"powered lift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_lift"},{"link_name":"thrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_(physics)"},{"link_name":"cross-section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Bernoulli's principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle"}],"text":"Bell X-22In aeronautics, a ducted fan is a thrust-generating mechanical fan or propeller mounted within a cylindrical duct or shroud. Other terms include ducted propeller or shrouded propeller.[1] When used in vertical takeoff and landing\n(VTOL) applications it is also known as a shrouded rotor.[2]Ducted fans are used for propulsion or direct lift in many types of vehicle including aeroplanes, airships, hovercraft, and powered lift VTOL aircraft. The high-bypass turbofan engines used on many modern airliners is an example of a very successful and popular use of ducted fan design.The duct increases thrust efficiency by up to 90% in most cases, in comparison to a similar-sized propeller in free air. Ducted fans are quieter, and offer good opportunities for thrust vectoring. The shroud offers good protection to ground personnel from accidentally contacting the spinning blades, as well as protecting the blades themselves from external debris or objects. By varying the cross-section of the duct the designer can advantageously affect the velocity and pressure of the airflow according to Bernoulli's principle.Drawbacks include increased weight due to the added structure of the shroud, a need for precision in tolerances of blade-tip to shroud clearance, a need for better vibration control compared to free-air propellers, and complex duct design requirements. Lastly, when at high angles of attack, the shroud can stall and produce high drag.","title":"Ducted fan"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"A ducted fan has three main components; the fan or propeller which provides thrust or lift, the duct or shroud which surrounds the fan, and the engine or motor which powers the fan.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jane1980r-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jane1980d-4"}],"sub_title":"Fan","text":"Like any other fan, propeller or rotor, a ducted fan is characterised by the number of blades. The Rhein Flugzeugbau (RFB) SG 85 had three blades, while the Dowty Rotol Ducted Propulsor had seven.[3][4] The blades may be of fixed or variable pitch.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jane1980d-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jane1980d-4"}],"sub_title":"Duct","text":"The duct or shroud is an aerodynamic ring which surrounds the fan and closely fits the blade tips. It must be made rigid enough not to distort under flight loads nor touch the blades as they turn. The duct performs several functions:Principally, it reduces the vortices created by air flowing round the ends of the blades. This reduces the aerodynamic losses or drag, thus increasing the overall efficiency of the fan. Because of this, the fan can either be used to provide increased thrust and aircraft performance, or be made smaller than the equivalent free propeller.It provides acoustic shielding which, together with the reduced energy waste, significantly cuts noise emissions from the propeller.[4]It acts as a protective device, both to protect objects such as ground staff from being hit by the whirling blades, and to protect the blades from damage during such an impact.The reduced tip vortices also mean that the fan wake is less turbulent. With careful design, the heated discharge from the engine cooling system can be injected into the low-turbulence fan wake to increase thrust.[4]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Powerplant","text":"A ducted fan may be powered by any kind of motor capable of turning the fan. Examples include piston, rotary (Wankel), and turboshaft combustion engines, as well as electric motors.The fan may be mounted directly on the powerplant output shaft, or driven remotely via an extended drive shaft and gearing. In the remote arrangement, several fans may be driven by a single powerplant.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jane1980r-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jane1980d-4"}],"sub_title":"Ducted propulsor","text":"An assembly designed throughout as a single integrated unit is referred to as a fan pod or ducted propulsor.[3][4]An advantage of the pod approach is that the design of each component can be matched to the others, helping to maximise performance and minimise weight. It also eases the vehicle designer's task of integration with the vehicle and its systems.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angle of attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_attack"},{"link_name":"aerodynamic drag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamic_drag"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Limitations","text":"Good efficiency requires very small clearances between the blade tips and the duct.\nEfficiency advantages are reduced, and may even be reversed, at lower rotation speeds, thrust levels and airspeeds.\nRequires reduced vibration levels compared to a free propeller or rotor.\nComplex duct design, and weight increase even if constructed from advanced composites.\nAt high angle of attack, parts of the duct will stall and produce aerodynamic drag.[5]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GR_SK_Propeller.jpg"},{"link_name":"sound barrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_barrier"},{"link_name":"turbofan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan"},{"link_name":"gas turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_turbine"},{"link_name":"airliners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airliners"},{"link_name":"fighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft"},{"link_name":"reciprocating engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocating_engine"},{"link_name":"Wankel engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_engine"},{"link_name":"electric motor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"Fenestron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenestron"},{"link_name":"tail rotors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_rotor"},{"link_name":"helicopters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Avian_2-180_Gyroplane.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_060817-N-1467R-042_A_Sailor_assigned_to_Assault_Craft_Unit_Four_(ACU_4)_stationed_at_Little_Creek_Amphibious_Base,_Va.,_checks_the_propeller_of_a_Landing_Craft_Air_Cushion_(LCAC).jpg"},{"link_name":"Air Cushion Landing Craft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landing_Craft_Air_Cushion"},{"link_name":"VTOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTOL"},{"link_name":"Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_F-35_Lightning_II"},{"link_name":"hovercraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovercraft"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pereira-6"},{"link_name":"model aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_aircraft"},{"link_name":"radio controlled model aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-controlled_aircraft"},{"link_name":"Glow plug engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_engine"},{"link_name":"turbojet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbojet"},{"link_name":"cooling fans used in computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Jetpack_Unveiling,_Liftoff!_(2714934801).jpg"},{"link_name":"Martin Jetpack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Jetpack"}],"text":"Dirigible airship with ducted fansIn aircraft applications, the operating speed of an unshrouded propeller is limited since tip speeds approach the sound barrier at lower speeds than an equivalent ducted fan. The most common ducted fan arrangement used in full-sized aircraft is a turbofan engine, where the power to turn the fan is provided by a gas turbine. High bypass ratio turbofan engines are used on nearly all civilian airliners, while military fighters usually make use of the better high-speed performance of a low bypass ratio turbofan with a smaller fan diameter. However, a ducted fan may be powered by any source of shaft power such as a reciprocating engine, Wankel engine, or electric motor. A kind of ducted fan, known as a fantail or by the trademark name Fenestron, is also used to replace tail rotors on helicopters.Avian Gyroplane with ducted pusher prop (but no tail-boom)Ducted fan on an Air Cushion Landing CraftDucted fans are favored in VTOL aircraft such as the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, and other low-speed designs such as hovercraft for their higher thrust-to-weight ratio.In some cases, a shrouded rotor can be 94% more efficient than an open rotor. The improved performance is mainly because the outward flow is less contracted and thus carries more kinetic energy.[6]Among model aircraft hobbyists, the ducted fan is popular with builders of high-performance radio controlled model aircraft. Glow plug engines combined with ducted-fan units were the first achievable means of modeling a scaled-size jet aircraft. Despite the introduction of model-scale turbojet engines, electric-powered ducted fans remain popular on smaller, lower-cost model aircraft. Some electric-powered ducted fan airplanes can reach speeds of more than 320km/h (200mph).Most cooling fans used in computers contain a duct integrated into the fan assembly; the duct is also used for mechanically mounting the fan to other components.The Martin Jetpack personal aircraft with ducted fans","title":"Applications"}] | [{"image_text":"Bell X-22","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/X-22a_onground_bw.jpg/300px-X-22a_onground_bw.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dirigible airship with ducted fans","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/GR_SK_Propeller.jpg/220px-GR_SK_Propeller.jpg"},{"image_text":"Avian Gyroplane with ducted pusher prop (but no tail-boom)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Avian_2-180_Gyroplane.jpg/170px-Avian_2-180_Gyroplane.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ducted fan on an Air Cushion Landing Craft","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/US_Navy_060817-N-1467R-042_A_Sailor_assigned_to_Assault_Craft_Unit_Four_%28ACU_4%29_stationed_at_Little_Creek_Amphibious_Base%2C_Va.%2C_checks_the_propeller_of_a_Landing_Craft_Air_Cushion_%28LCAC%29.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Martin Jetpack personal aircraft with ducted fans","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Martin_Jetpack_Unveiling%2C_Liftoff%21_%282714934801%29.jpg/220px-Martin_Jetpack_Unveiling%2C_Liftoff%21_%282714934801%29.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Geared turbofan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geared_turbofan"},{"title":"Ducted propeller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducted_propeller"},{"title":"RFB Fantrainer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFB_Fantrainer"},{"title":"Avian Gyroplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_Gyroplane"},{"title":"autogyro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyro"}] | [{"reference":"\"Jon Longbottom - Mechanical aeronautics, thesis in PDF format\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-02. Retrieved 2014-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140102191951/https://paraplan.ru/forum/files/11300/744546825.pdf","url_text":"\"Jon Longbottom - Mechanical aeronautics, thesis in PDF format\""},{"url":"https://paraplan.ru/forum/files/11300/744546825.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/Abrego2_AHS02.pdf","external_links_name":"Performance Study of a Ducted Fan System"},{"Link":"https://issuu.com/jeanlulu/docs/ducted-fan-or-shrouded-rotor-aerodynamics-and-its-","external_links_name":"Ducted Fan or Shrouded Rotor Aerodynamics and its Application in Miniature VTOL Aerial Vehicles"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140102191951/https://paraplan.ru/forum/files/11300/744546825.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Jon Longbottom - Mechanical aeronautics, thesis in PDF format\""},{"Link":"https://paraplan.ru/forum/files/11300/744546825.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/8752/1/umi-umd-5771.pdf","external_links_name":"Hover and wind-tunnel testing of shrouded rotors for improved micro air vehicle design"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value_decomposition | Singular value decomposition | ["1 Intuitive interpretations","1.1 Rotation, coordinate scaling, and reflection","1.2 Singular values as semiaxes of an ellipse or ellipsoid","1.3 The columns of U and V are orthonormal bases","1.4 Relation to the four fundamental subspaces","1.5 Geometric meaning","2 Example","3 SVD and spectral decomposition","3.1 Singular values, singular vectors, and their relation to the SVD","3.2 Relation to eigenvalue decomposition","4 Applications of the SVD","4.1 Pseudoinverse","4.2 Solving homogeneous linear equations","4.3 Total least squares minimization","4.4 Range, null space and rank","4.5 Low-rank matrix approximation","4.6 Separable models","4.7 Nearest orthogonal matrix","4.8 The Kabsch algorithm","4.9 Signal processing","4.10 Other examples","5 Proof of existence","5.1 Based on the spectral theorem","5.2 Based on variational characterization","6 Calculating the SVD","6.1 One-sided Jacobi algorithm","6.2 Two-sided Jacobi algorithm","6.3 Numerical approach","6.4 Analytic result of 2 × 2 SVD","7 Reduced SVDs","7.1 Thin SVD","7.2 Compact SVD","7.3 Truncated SVD","8 Norms","8.1 Ky Fan norms","8.2 Hilbert–Schmidt norm","9 Variations and generalizations","9.1 Scale-invariant SVD","9.2 Bounded operators on Hilbert spaces","9.3 Singular values and compact operators","10 History","11 See also","12 Notes","13 References","14 External links"] | Matrix decomposition
Illustration of the singular value decomposition UΣV⁎ of a real 2 × 2 matrix M.Top: The action of M, indicated by its effect on the unit disc D and the two canonical unit vectors e1 and e2.Left: The action of V⁎, a rotation, on D, e1, and e2.Bottom: The action of Σ, a scaling by the singular values σ1 horizontally and σ2 vertically.Right: The action of U, another rotation.
In linear algebra, the singular value decomposition (SVD) is a factorization of a real or complex matrix into a rotation, followed by a rescaling followed by another rotation. It generalizes the eigendecomposition of a square normal matrix with an orthonormal eigenbasis to any
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix. It is related to the polar decomposition.
Specifically, the singular value decomposition of an
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
complex matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is a factorization of the form
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U\Sigma V^{*}} ,}
where
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
is an
m
×
m
{\displaystyle m\times m}
complex unitary matrix,
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
is an
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
rectangular diagonal matrix with non-negative real numbers on the diagonal,
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
is an
n
×
n
{\displaystyle n\times n}
complex unitary matrix, and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
is the conjugate transpose of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
. Such decomposition always exists for any complex matrix. If
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is real, then
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
can be guaranteed to be real orthogonal matrices; in such contexts, the SVD is often denoted
U
Σ
V
T
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{\mathrm {T} }.}
The diagonal entries
σ
i
=
Σ
i
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}=\Sigma _{ii}}
of
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
are uniquely determined by
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
and are known as the singular values of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
. The number of non-zero singular values is equal to the rank of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
. The columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and the columns of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are called left-singular vectors and right-singular vectors of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
, respectively. They form two sets of orthonormal bases
u
1
,
…
,
u
m
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {u} _{m}}
and
v
1
,
…
,
v
n
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {v} _{n},}
and if they are sorted so that the singular values
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
with value zero are all in the highest-numbered columns (or rows), the singular value decomposition can be written as
M
=
∑
i
=
1
r
σ
i
u
i
v
i
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\sum _{i=1}^{r}\sigma _{i}\mathbf {u} _{i}\mathbf {v} _{i}^{*},}
where
r
≤
min
{
m
,
n
}
{\displaystyle r\leq \min\{m,n\}}
is the rank of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The SVD is not unique, however it is always possible to choose the decomposition such that the singular values
Σ
i
i
{\displaystyle \Sigma _{ii}}
are in descending order. In this case,
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
(but not
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
) is uniquely determined by
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The term sometimes refers to the compact SVD, a similar decomposition
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U\Sigma V} ^{*}}
in which
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
is square diagonal of size
r
×
r
,
{\displaystyle r\times r,}
where
r
≤
min
{
m
,
n
}
{\displaystyle r\leq \min\{m,n\}}
is the rank of
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
and has only the non-zero singular values. In this variant,
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
is an
m
×
r
{\displaystyle m\times r}
semi-unitary matrix and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
is an
>
n
×
r
{\displaystyle >n\times r}
semi-unitary matrix, such that
U
∗
U
=
V
∗
V
=
I
r
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ^{*}\mathbf {U} =\mathbf {V} ^{*}\mathbf {V} =\mathbf {I} _{r}.}
Mathematical applications of the SVD include computing the pseudoinverse, matrix approximation, and determining the rank, range, and null space of a matrix. The SVD is also extremely useful in all areas of science, engineering, and statistics, such as signal processing, least squares fitting of data, and process control.
Intuitive interpretations
Animated illustration of the SVD of a 2D, real shearing matrix M. First, we see the unit disc in blue together with the two canonical unit vectors. We then see the actions of M, which distorts the disk to an ellipse. The SVD decomposes M into three simple transformations: an initial rotation V⁎, a scaling
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
along the coordinate axes, and a final rotation U. The lengths σ1 and σ2 of the semi-axes of the ellipse are the singular values of M, namely Σ1,1 and Σ2,2.
Visualization of the matrix multiplications in singular value decomposition
Rotation, coordinate scaling, and reflection
In the special case when
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is an
m
×
m
{\displaystyle m\times m}
real square matrix, the matrices
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
can be chosen to be real
m
×
m
{\displaystyle m\times m}
matrices too. In that case, "unitary" is the same as "orthogonal". Then, interpreting both unitary matrices as well as the diagonal matrix, summarized here as
A
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ,}
as a linear transformation
x
↦
A
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \mapsto \mathbf {Ax} }
of the space
R
m
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} _{m},}
the matrices
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
represent rotations or reflection of the space, while
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
represents the scaling of each coordinate
x
i
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{i}}
by the factor
σ
i
.
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}.}
Thus the SVD decomposition breaks down any linear transformation of
R
m
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{m}}
into a composition of three geometrical transformations: a rotation or reflection (
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
), followed by a coordinate-by-coordinate scaling (
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
), followed by another rotation or reflection (
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
).
In particular, if
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
has a positive determinant, then
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
can be chosen to be both rotations with reflections, or both rotations without reflections. If the determinant is negative, exactly one of them will have a reflection. If the determinant is zero, each can be independently chosen to be of either type.
If the matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is real but not square, namely
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
with
m
≠
n
,
{\displaystyle m\neq n,}
it can be interpreted as a linear transformation from
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{n}}
to
R
m
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{m}.}
Then
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
can be chosen to be rotations/reflections of
R
m
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{m}}
and
R
n
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{n},}
respectively; and
Σ
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ,}
besides scaling the first
min
{
m
,
n
}
{\displaystyle \min\{m,n\}}
coordinates, also extends the vector with zeros, i.e. removes trailing coordinates, so as to turn
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{n}}
into
R
m
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{m}.}
Singular values as semiaxes of an ellipse or ellipsoid
As shown in the figure, the singular values can be interpreted as the magnitude of the semiaxes of an ellipse in 2D. This concept can be generalized to
n
{\displaystyle n}
-dimensional Euclidean space, with the singular values of any
n
×
n
{\displaystyle n\times n}
square matrix being viewed as the magnitude of the semiaxis of an
n
{\displaystyle n}
-dimensional ellipsoid. Similarly, the singular values of any
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix can be viewed as the magnitude of the semiaxis of an
n
{\displaystyle n}
-dimensional ellipsoid in
m
{\displaystyle m}
-dimensional space, for example as an ellipse in a (tilted) 2D plane in a 3D space. Singular values encode magnitude of the semiaxis, while singular vectors encode direction. See below for further details.
The columns of U and V are orthonormal bases
Since
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
are unitary, the columns of each of them form a set of orthonormal vectors, which can be regarded as basis vectors. The matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
maps the basis vector
V
i
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{i}}
to the stretched unit vector
σ
i
U
i
.
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}\mathbf {U} _{i}.}
By the definition of a unitary matrix, the same is true for their conjugate transposes
U
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ^{*}}
and
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ,}
except the geometric interpretation of the singular values as stretches is lost. In short, the columns of
U
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ,}
U
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ^{*},}
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ,}
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
are orthonormal bases. When
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is a positive-semidefinite Hermitian matrix,
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are both equal to the unitary matrix used to diagonalize
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
However, when
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is not positive-semidefinite and Hermitian but still diagonalizable, its eigendecomposition and singular value decomposition are distinct.
Relation to the four fundamental subspaces
The first
r
{\displaystyle r}
columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
are a basis of the column space of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
.
The last
m
−
r
{\displaystyle m-r}
columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
are a basis of the null space of
M
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}}
.
The first
r
{\displaystyle r}
columns of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are a basis of the column space of
M
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}}
(the row space of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
in the real case).
The last
n
−
r
{\displaystyle n-r}
columns of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are a basis of the null space of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
.
Geometric meaning
Because
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are unitary, we know that the columns
U
1
,
…
,
U
m
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {U} _{m}}
of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
yield an orthonormal basis of
K
m
{\displaystyle K^{m}}
and the columns
V
1
,
…
,
V
n
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1},\ldots ,\mathbf {V} _{n}}
of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
yield an orthonormal basis of
K
n
{\displaystyle K^{n}}
(with respect to the standard scalar products on these spaces).
The linear transformation
T
:
{
K
n
→
K
m
x
↦
M
x
{\displaystyle T:\left\{{\begin{aligned}K^{n}&\to K^{m}\\x&\mapsto \mathbf {M} x\end{aligned}}\right.}
has a particularly simple description with respect to these orthonormal bases: we have
T
(
V
i
)
=
σ
i
U
i
,
i
=
1
,
…
,
min
(
m
,
n
)
,
{\displaystyle T(\mathbf {V} _{i})=\sigma _{i}\mathbf {U} _{i},\qquad i=1,\ldots ,\min(m,n),}
where
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
is the
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th diagonal entry of
Σ
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ,}
and
T
(
V
i
)
=
0
{\displaystyle T(\mathbf {V} _{i})=0}
for
i
>
min
(
m
,
n
)
.
{\displaystyle i>\min(m,n).}
The geometric content of the SVD theorem can thus be summarized as follows: for every linear map
T
:
K
n
→
K
m
{\displaystyle T:K^{n}\to K^{m}}
one can find orthonormal bases of
K
n
{\displaystyle K^{n}}
and
K
m
{\displaystyle K^{m}}
such that
T
{\displaystyle T}
maps the
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th basis vector of
K
n
{\displaystyle K^{n}}
to a non-negative multiple of the
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th basis vector of
K
m
,
{\displaystyle K^{m},}
and sends the left-over basis vectors to zero. With respect to these bases, the map
T
{\displaystyle T}
is therefore represented by a diagonal matrix with non-negative real diagonal entries.
To get a more visual flavor of singular values and SVD factorization – at least when working on real vector spaces – consider the sphere
S
{\displaystyle S}
of radius one in
R
n
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{n}.}
The linear map
T
{\displaystyle T}
maps this sphere onto an ellipsoid in
R
m
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{m}.}
Non-zero singular values are simply the lengths of the semi-axes of this ellipsoid. Especially when
n
=
m
,
{\displaystyle n=m,}
and all the singular values are distinct and non-zero, the SVD of the linear map
T
{\displaystyle T}
can be easily analyzed as a succession of three consecutive moves: consider the ellipsoid
T
(
S
)
{\displaystyle T(S)}
and specifically its axes; then consider the directions in
R
n
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{n}}
sent by
T
{\displaystyle T}
onto these axes. These directions happen to be mutually orthogonal. Apply first an isometry
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
sending these directions to the coordinate axes of
R
n
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{n}.}
On a second move, apply an endomorphism
D
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }
diagonalized along the coordinate axes and stretching or shrinking in each direction, using the semi-axes lengths of
T
(
S
)
{\displaystyle T(S)}
as stretching coefficients. The composition
D
∘
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} \circ \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
then sends the unit-sphere onto an ellipsoid isometric to
T
(
S
)
.
{\displaystyle T(S).}
To define the third and last move, apply an isometry
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
to this ellipsoid to obtain
T
(
S
)
.
{\displaystyle T(S).}
As can be easily checked, the composition
U
∘
D
∘
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \circ \mathbf {D} \circ \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
coincides with
T
.
{\displaystyle T.}
Example
Consider the
4
×
5
{\displaystyle 4\times 5}
matrix
M
=
[
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
]
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&2\\0&0&3&0&0\\0&0&0&0&0\\0&2&0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}}
A singular value decomposition of this matrix is given by
U
Σ
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
U
=
[
0
−
1
0
0
−
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
−
1
0
0
−
1
0
]
Σ
=
[
3
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
]
V
∗
=
[
0
0
−
1
0
0
−
0.2
0
0
0
−
0.8
0
−
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
−
0.8
0
0
0
0.2
]
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {U} &={\begin{bmatrix}\color {Green}0&\color {Blue}-1&\color {Cyan}0&\color {Emerald}0\\\color {Green}-1&\color {Blue}0&\color {Cyan}0&\color {Emerald}0\\\color {Green}0&\color {Blue}0&\color {Cyan}0&\color {Emerald}-1\\\color {Green}0&\color {Blue}0&\color {Cyan}-1&\color {Emerald}0\end{bmatrix}}\\\mathbf {\Sigma } &={\begin{bmatrix}3&0&0&0&\color {Gray}{\mathit {0}}\\0&{\sqrt {5}}&0&0&\color {Gray}{\mathit {0}}\\0&0&2&0&\color {Gray}{\mathit {0}}\\0&0&0&\color {Red}\mathbf {0} &\color {Gray}{\mathit {0}}\end{bmatrix}}\\\mathbf {V} ^{*}&={\begin{bmatrix}\color {Violet}0&\color {Violet}0&\color {Violet}-1&\color {Violet}0&\color {Violet}0\\\color {Plum}-{\sqrt {0.2}}&\color {Plum}0&\color {Plum}0&\color {Plum}0&\color {Plum}-{\sqrt {0.8}}\\\color {Magenta}0&\color {Magenta}-1&\color {Magenta}0&\color {Magenta}0&\color {Magenta}0\\\color {Orchid}0&\color {Orchid}0&\color {Orchid}0&\color {Orchid}1&\color {Orchid}0\\\color {Purple}-{\sqrt {0.8}}&\color {Purple}0&\color {Purple}0&\color {Purple}0&\color {Purple}{\sqrt {0.2}}\end{bmatrix}}\end{aligned}}}
The scaling matrix
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
is zero outside of the diagonal (grey italics) and one diagonal element is zero (red bold, light blue bold in dark mode). Furthermore, because the matrices
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
are unitary, multiplying by their respective conjugate transposes yields identity matrices, as shown below. In this case, because
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
are real valued, each is an orthogonal matrix.
U
U
∗
=
[
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
]
=
I
4
V
V
∗
=
[
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
]
=
I
5
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {U} \mathbf {U} ^{*}&={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {I} _{4}\\\mathbf {V} \mathbf {V} ^{*}&={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0&0\\0&0&1&0&0\\0&0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {I} _{5}\end{aligned}}}
This particular singular value decomposition is not unique. Choosing
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
such that
V
∗
=
[
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0.2
0
0
0
0.8
0.4
0
0
0.5
−
0.1
−
0.4
0
0
0.5
0.1
]
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}={\begin{bmatrix}\color {Violet}0&\color {Violet}1&\color {Violet}0&\color {Violet}0&\color {Violet}0\\\color {Plum}0&\color {Plum}0&\color {Plum}1&\color {Plum}0&\color {Plum}0\\\color {Magenta}{\sqrt {0.2}}&\color {Magenta}0&\color {Magenta}0&\color {Magenta}0&\color {Magenta}{\sqrt {0.8}}\\\color {Orchid}{\sqrt {0.4}}&\color {Orchid}0&\color {Orchid}0&\color {Orchid}{\sqrt {0.5}}&\color {Orchid}-{\sqrt {0.1}}\\\color {Purple}-{\sqrt {0.4}}&\color {Purple}0&\color {Purple}0&\color {Purple}{\sqrt {0.5}}&\color {Purple}{\sqrt {0.1}}\end{bmatrix}}}
is also a valid singular value decomposition.
SVD and spectral decomposition
Singular values, singular vectors, and their relation to the SVD
A non-negative real number
σ
{\displaystyle \sigma }
is a singular value for
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
if and only if there exist unit-length vectors
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
in
K
m
{\displaystyle K^{m}}
and
v
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
in
K
n
{\displaystyle K^{n}}
such that
M
v
=
σ
u
,
M
∗
u
=
σ
v
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {Mv} &=\sigma \mathbf {u} ,\\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {u} &=\sigma \mathbf {v} .\end{aligned}}}
The vectors
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
and
v
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
are called left-singular and right-singular vectors for
σ
,
{\displaystyle \sigma ,}
respectively.
In any singular value decomposition
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
the diagonal entries of
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
are equal to the singular values of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The first
p
=
min
(
m
,
n
)
{\displaystyle p=\min(m,n)}
columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are, respectively, left- and right-singular vectors for the corresponding singular values. Consequently, the above theorem implies that:
An
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
has at most
p
{\displaystyle p}
distinct singular values.
It is always possible to find a unitary basis
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
for
K
m
{\displaystyle K^{m}}
with a subset of basis vectors spanning the left-singular vectors of each singular value of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
It is always possible to find a unitary basis
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
for
K
n
{\displaystyle K^{n}}
with a subset of basis vectors spanning the right-singular vectors of each singular value of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
A singular value for which we can find two left (or right) singular vectors that are linearly independent is called degenerate. If
u
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1}}
and
u
2
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{2}}
are two left-singular vectors which both correspond to the singular value σ, then any normalized linear combination of the two vectors is also a left-singular vector corresponding to the singular value σ. The similar statement is true for right-singular vectors. The number of independent left and right-singular vectors coincides, and these singular vectors appear in the same columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
corresponding to diagonal elements of
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
all with the same value
σ
.
{\displaystyle \sigma .}
As an exception, the left and right-singular vectors of singular value 0 comprise all unit vectors in the cokernel and kernel, respectively, of
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
which by the rank–nullity theorem cannot be the same dimension if
m
≠
n
.
{\displaystyle m\neq n.}
Even if all singular values are nonzero, if
m
>
n
{\displaystyle m>n}
then the cokernel is nontrivial, in which case
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
is padded with
m
−
n
{\displaystyle m-n}
orthogonal vectors from the cokernel. Conversely, if
m
<
n
,
{\displaystyle m<n,}
then
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
is padded by
n
−
m
{\displaystyle n-m}
orthogonal vectors from the kernel. However, if the singular value of
0
{\displaystyle 0}
exists, the extra columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
or
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
already appear as left or right-singular vectors.
Non-degenerate singular values always have unique left- and right-singular vectors, up to multiplication by a unit-phase factor
e
i
φ
{\displaystyle e^{i\varphi }}
(for the real case up to a sign). Consequently, if all singular values of a square matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
are non-degenerate and non-zero, then its singular value decomposition is unique, up to multiplication of a column of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
by a unit-phase factor and simultaneous multiplication of the corresponding column of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
by the same unit-phase factor.
In general, the SVD is unique up to arbitrary unitary transformations applied uniformly to the column vectors of both
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
spanning the subspaces of each singular value, and up to arbitrary unitary transformations on vectors of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
spanning the kernel and cokernel, respectively, of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
Relation to eigenvalue decomposition
The singular value decomposition is very general in the sense that it can be applied to any
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix, whereas eigenvalue decomposition can only be applied to square diagonalizable matrices. Nevertheless, the two decompositions are related.
If
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
has SVD
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*},}
the following two relations hold:
M
∗
M
=
V
Σ
∗
U
∗
U
Σ
V
∗
=
V
(
Σ
∗
Σ
)
V
∗
,
M
M
∗
=
U
Σ
V
∗
V
Σ
∗
U
∗
=
U
(
Σ
Σ
∗
)
U
∗
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} &=\mathbf {V} \mathbf {\Sigma } ^{*}\mathbf {U} ^{*}\,\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}=\mathbf {V} (\mathbf {\Sigma } ^{*}\mathbf {\Sigma } )\mathbf {V} ^{*},\\\mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}&=\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}\,\mathbf {V} \mathbf {\Sigma } ^{*}\mathbf {U} ^{*}=\mathbf {U} (\mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {\Sigma } ^{*})\mathbf {U} ^{*}.\end{aligned}}}
The right-hand sides of these relations describe the eigenvalue decompositions of the left-hand sides. Consequently:
The columns of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
(referred to as right-singular vectors) are eigenvectors of
M
∗
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} .}
The columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
(referred to as left-singular vectors) are eigenvectors of
M
M
∗
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}.}
The non-zero elements of
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
(non-zero singular values) are the square roots of the non-zero eigenvalues of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
or
M
M
∗
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}.}
In the special case of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
being a normal matrix, and thus also square, the spectral theorem ensures that it can be unitarily diagonalized using a basis of eigenvectors, and thus decomposed as
M
=
U
D
U
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {D} \mathbf {U} ^{*}}
for some unitary matrix
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and diagonal matrix
D
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }
with complex elements
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
along the diagonal. When
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is positive semi-definite,
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
will be non-negative real numbers so that the decomposition
M
=
U
D
U
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {D} \mathbf {U} ^{*}}
is also a singular value decomposition. Otherwise, it can be recast as an SVD by moving the phase
e
i
φ
{\displaystyle e^{i\varphi }}
of each
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
to either its corresponding
V
i
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{i}}
or
U
i
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{i}.}
The natural connection of the SVD to non-normal matrices is through the polar decomposition theorem:
M
=
S
R
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {S} \mathbf {R} ,}
where
S
=
U
Σ
U
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {S} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {U} ^{*}}
is positive semidefinite and normal, and
R
=
U
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
is unitary.
Thus, except for positive semi-definite matrices, the eigenvalue decomposition and SVD of
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
while related, differ: the eigenvalue decomposition is
1
{\displaystyle {1}}
where
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
is not necessarily unitary and
D
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }
is not necessarily positive semi-definite, while the SVD is
1
{\displaystyle {1}}
where
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
is diagonal and positive semi-definite, and
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
are unitary matrices that are not necessarily related except through the matrix
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
While only non-defective square matrices have an eigenvalue decomposition, any
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix has a SVD.
Applications of the SVD
Pseudoinverse
The singular value decomposition can be used for computing the pseudoinverse of a matrix. The pseudoinverse of the matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
with singular value decomposition
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
is,
M
+
=
V
Σ
+
U
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{+}=\mathbf {V} {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}\mathbf {U} ^{\ast },}
where
Σ
+
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}^{+}}
is the pseudoinverse of
Σ
{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Sigma }}}
, which is formed by replacing every non-zero diagonal entry by its reciprocal and transposing the resulting matrix. The pseudoinverse is one way to solve linear least squares problems.
Solving homogeneous linear equations
A set of homogeneous linear equations can be written as
A
x
=
0
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} =\mathbf {0} }
for a matrix
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
and vector
x
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} .}
A typical situation is that
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
is known and a non-zero
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
is to be determined which satisfies the equation. Such an
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
belongs to
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
's null space and is sometimes called a (right) null vector of
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
The vector
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
can be characterized as a right-singular vector corresponding to a singular value of
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
that is zero. This observation means that if
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
is a square matrix and has no vanishing singular value, the equation has no non-zero
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
as a solution. It also means that if there are several vanishing singular values, any linear combination of the corresponding right-singular vectors is a valid solution. Analogously to the definition of a (right) null vector, a non-zero
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
satisfying
x
∗
A
=
0
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{*}\mathbf {A} =\mathbf {0} }
with
x
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ^{*}}
denoting the conjugate transpose of
x
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} ,}
is called a left null vector of
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
Total least squares minimization
A total least squares problem seeks the vector
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
that minimizes the 2-norm of a vector
A
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} }
under the constraint
‖
x
‖
=
1.
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {x} \|=1.}
The solution turns out to be the right-singular vector of
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
corresponding to the smallest singular value.
Range, null space and rank
Another application of the SVD is that it provides an explicit representation of the range and null space of a matrix
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The right-singular vectors corresponding to vanishing singular values of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
span the null space of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
and the left-singular vectors corresponding to the non-zero singular values of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
span the range of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
For example, in the above example the null space is spanned by the last row of
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
and the range is spanned by the first three columns of
U
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} .}
As a consequence, the rank of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
equals the number of non-zero singular values which is the same as the number of non-zero diagonal elements in
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
. In numerical linear algebra the singular values can be used to determine the effective rank of a matrix, as rounding error may lead to small but non-zero singular values in a rank deficient matrix. Singular values beyond a significant gap are assumed to be numerically equivalent to zero.
Low-rank matrix approximation
Some practical applications need to solve the problem of approximating a matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
with another matrix
M
~
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {M} }}}
, said to be truncated, which has a specific rank
r
{\displaystyle r}
. In the case that the approximation is based on minimizing the Frobenius norm of the difference between
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
and
M
~
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {M} }}}
under the constraint that
rank
(
M
~
)
=
r
,
{\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} {\bigl (}{\tilde {\mathbf {M} }}{\bigr )}=r,}
it turns out that the solution is given by the SVD of
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
namely
M
~
=
U
Σ
~
V
∗
,
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {M} }}=\mathbf {U} {\tilde {\mathbf {\Sigma } }}\mathbf {V} ^{*},}
where
Σ
~
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {\Sigma } }}}
is the same matrix as
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
except that it contains only the
r
{\displaystyle r}
largest singular values (the other singular values are replaced by zero). This is known as the Eckart–Young theorem, as it was proved by those two authors in 1936 (although it was later found to have been known to earlier authors; see Stewart 1993).
Separable models
The SVD can be thought of as decomposing a matrix into a weighted, ordered sum of separable matrices. By separable, we mean that a matrix
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
can be written as an outer product of two vectors
A
=
u
⊗
v
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} =\mathbf {u} \otimes \mathbf {v} ,}
or, in coordinates,
A
i
j
=
u
i
v
j
.
{\displaystyle A_{ij}=u_{i}v_{j}.}
Specifically, the matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
can be decomposed as,
M
=
∑
i
A
i
=
∑
i
σ
i
U
i
⊗
V
i
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\sum _{i}\mathbf {A} _{i}=\sum _{i}\sigma _{i}\mathbf {U} _{i}\otimes \mathbf {V} _{i}.}
Here
U
i
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{i}}
and
V
i
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{i}}
are the
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th columns of the corresponding SVD matrices,
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
are the ordered singular values, and each
A
i
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{i}}
is separable. The SVD can be used to find the decomposition of an image processing filter into separable horizontal and vertical filters. Note that the number of non-zero
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
is exactly the rank of the matrix. Separable models often arise in biological systems, and the SVD factorization is useful to analyze such systems. For example, some visual area V1 simple cells' receptive fields can be well described by a Gabor filter in the space domain multiplied by a modulation function in the time domain. Thus, given a linear filter evaluated through, for example, reverse correlation, one can rearrange the two spatial dimensions into one dimension, thus yielding a two-dimensional filter (space, time) which can be decomposed through SVD. The first column of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
in the SVD factorization is then a Gabor while the first column of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
represents the time modulation (or vice versa). One may then define an index of separability
α
=
σ
1
2
∑
i
σ
i
2
,
{\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {\sigma _{1}^{2}}{\sum _{i}\sigma _{i}^{2}}},}
which is the fraction of the power in the matrix M which is accounted for by the first separable matrix in the decomposition.
Nearest orthogonal matrix
It is possible to use the SVD of a square matrix
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
to determine the orthogonal matrix
O
{\displaystyle \mathbf {O} }
closest to
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
The closeness of fit is measured by the Frobenius norm of
O
−
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {O} -\mathbf {A} .}
The solution is the product
U
V
∗
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \mathbf {V} ^{*}.}
This intuitively makes sense because an orthogonal matrix would have the decomposition
U
I
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \mathbf {I} \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
where
I
{\displaystyle \mathbf {I} }
is the identity matrix, so that if
A
=
U
Σ
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
then the product
A
=
U
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
amounts to replacing the singular values with ones. Equivalently, the solution is the unitary matrix
R
=
U
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
of the Polar Decomposition
M
=
R
P
=
P
′
R
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {R} \mathbf {P} =\mathbf {P} '\mathbf {R} }
in either order of stretch and rotation, as described above.
A similar problem, with interesting applications in shape analysis, is the orthogonal Procrustes problem, which consists of finding an orthogonal matrix
O
{\displaystyle \mathbf {O} }
which most closely maps
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
to
B
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} .}
Specifically,
O
=
argmin
Ω
‖
A
Ω
−
B
‖
F
subject to
Ω
T
Ω
=
I
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {O} ={\underset {\Omega }{\operatorname {argmin} }}\|\mathbf {A} {\boldsymbol {\Omega }}-\mathbf {B} \|_{F}\quad {\text{subject to}}\quad {\boldsymbol {\Omega }}^{\operatorname {T} }{\boldsymbol {\Omega }}=\mathbf {I} ,}
where
‖
⋅
‖
F
{\displaystyle \|\cdot \|_{F}}
denotes the Frobenius norm.
This problem is equivalent to finding the nearest orthogonal matrix to a given matrix
M
=
A
T
B
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {A} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {B} }
.
The Kabsch algorithm
The Kabsch algorithm (called Wahba's problem in other fields) uses SVD to compute the optimal rotation (with respect to least-squares minimization) that will align a set of points with a corresponding set of points. It is used, among other applications, to compare the structures of molecules.
Signal processing
The SVD and pseudoinverse have been successfully applied to signal processing, image processing and big data (e.g., in genomic signal processing).
Other examples
The SVD is also applied extensively to the study of linear inverse problems and is useful in the analysis of regularization methods such as that of Tikhonov. It is widely used in statistics, where it is related to principal component analysis and to correspondence analysis, and in signal processing and pattern recognition. It is also used in output-only modal analysis, where the non-scaled mode shapes can be determined from the singular vectors. Yet another usage is latent semantic indexing in natural-language text processing.
In general numerical computation involving linear or linearized systems, there is a universal constant that characterizes the regularity or singularity of a problem, which is the system's "condition number"
κ
:=
σ
max
/
σ
min
{\displaystyle \kappa :=\sigma _{\text{max}}/\sigma _{\text{min}}}
. It often controls the error rate or convergence rate of a given computational scheme on such systems.
The SVD also plays a crucial role in the field of quantum information, in a form often referred to as the Schmidt decomposition. Through it, states of two quantum systems are naturally decomposed, providing a necessary and sufficient condition for them to be entangled: if the rank of the
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
matrix is larger than one.
One application of SVD to rather large matrices is in numerical weather prediction, where Lanczos methods are used to estimate the most linearly quickly growing few perturbations to the central numerical weather prediction over a given initial forward time period; i.e., the singular vectors corresponding to the largest singular values of the linearized propagator for the global weather over that time interval. The output singular vectors in this case are entire weather systems. These perturbations are then run through the full nonlinear model to generate an ensemble forecast, giving a handle on some of the uncertainty that should be allowed for around the current central prediction.
SVD has also been applied to reduced order modelling. The aim of reduced order modelling is to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in a complex system which is to be modeled. SVD was coupled with radial basis functions to interpolate solutions to three-dimensional unsteady flow problems.
Interestingly, SVD has been used to improve gravitational waveform modeling by the ground-based gravitational-wave interferometer aLIGO. SVD can help to increase the accuracy and speed of waveform generation to support gravitational-waves searches and update two different waveform models.
Singular value decomposition is used in recommender systems to predict people's item ratings. Distributed algorithms have been developed for the purpose of calculating the SVD on clusters of commodity machines.
Low-rank SVD has been applied for hotspot detection from spatiotemporal data with application to disease outbreak detection. A combination of SVD and higher-order SVD also has been applied for real time event detection from complex data streams (multivariate data with space and time dimensions) in disease surveillance.
In astrodynamics, the SVD and its variants are used as an option to determine suitable maneuver directions for transfer trajectory design and orbital station-keeping.
Proof of existence
An eigenvalue
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
of a matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is characterized by the algebraic relation
M
u
=
λ
u
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {u} =\lambda \mathbf {u} .}
When
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is Hermitian, a variational characterization is also available. Let
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
be a real
n
×
n
{\displaystyle n\times n}
symmetric matrix. Define
f
:
{
R
n
→
R
x
↦
x
T
M
x
{\displaystyle f:\left\{{\begin{aligned}\mathbb {R} ^{n}&\to \mathbb {R} \\\mathbf {x} &\mapsto \mathbf {x} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} \mathbf {x} \end{aligned}}\right.}
By the extreme value theorem, this continuous function attains a maximum at some
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
when restricted to the unit sphere
{
‖
x
‖
=
1
}
.
{\displaystyle \{\|\mathbf {x} \|=1\}.}
By the Lagrange multipliers theorem,
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
necessarily satisfies
∇
u
T
M
u
−
λ
⋅
∇
u
T
u
=
0
{\displaystyle \nabla \mathbf {u} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} \mathbf {u} -\lambda \cdot \nabla \mathbf {u} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {u} =0}
for some real number
λ
.
{\displaystyle \lambda .}
The nabla symbol,
∇
{\displaystyle \nabla }
, is the del operator (differentiation with respect to
x
{\displaystyle \mathbf {x} }
). Using the symmetry of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
we obtain
∇
x
T
M
x
−
λ
⋅
∇
x
T
x
=
2
(
M
−
λ
I
)
x
.
{\displaystyle \nabla \mathbf {x} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} \mathbf {x} -\lambda \cdot \nabla \mathbf {x} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {x} =2(\mathbf {M} -\lambda \mathbf {I} )\mathbf {x} .}
Therefore
M
u
=
λ
u
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {u} =\lambda \mathbf {u} ,}
so
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
is a unit length eigenvector of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
For every unit length eigenvector
v
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
its eigenvalue is
f
(
v
)
,
{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {v} ),}
so
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
is the largest eigenvalue of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The same calculation performed on the orthogonal complement of
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
gives the next largest eigenvalue and so on. The complex Hermitian case is similar; there
f
(
x
)
=
x
∗
M
x
{\displaystyle f(\mathbf {x} )=\mathbf {x} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {x} }
is a real-valued function of
2
n
{\displaystyle 2n}
real variables.
Singular values are similar in that they can be described algebraically or from variational principles. Although, unlike the eigenvalue case, Hermiticity, or symmetry, of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is no longer required.
This section gives these two arguments for existence of singular value decomposition.
Based on the spectral theorem
Let
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
be an
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
complex matrix. Since
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
is positive semi-definite and Hermitian, by the spectral theorem, there exists an
n
×
n
{\displaystyle n\times n}
unitary matrix
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
such that
V
∗
M
∗
M
V
=
D
¯
=
[
D
0
0
0
]
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} ={\bar {\mathbf {D} }}={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {D} &0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}},}
where
D
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }
is diagonal and positive definite, of dimension
ℓ
×
ℓ
{\displaystyle \ell \times \ell }
, with
ℓ
{\displaystyle \ell }
the number of non-zero eigenvalues of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
(which can be shown to verify
ℓ
≤
min
(
n
,
m
)
{\displaystyle \ell \leq \min(n,m)}
). Note that
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
is here by definition a matrix whose
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th column is the
i
{\displaystyle i}
-th eigenvector of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
, corresponding to the eigenvalue
D
¯
i
i
{\displaystyle {\bar {\mathbf {D} }}_{ii}}
. Moreover, the
j
{\displaystyle j}
-th column of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
, for
j
>
ℓ
{\displaystyle j>\ell }
, is an eigenvector of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
with eigenvalue
D
¯
j
j
=
0
{\displaystyle {\bar {\mathbf {D} }}_{jj}=0}
. This can be expressed by writing
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
as
V
=
[
V
1
V
2
]
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {V} _{1}&\mathbf {V} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}}
, where the columns of
V
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1}}
and
V
2
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{2}}
therefore contain the eigenvectors of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
corresponding to non-zero and zero eigenvalues, respectively. Using this rewriting of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
, the equation becomes:
[
V
1
∗
V
2
∗
]
M
∗
M
[
V
1
V
2
]
=
[
V
1
∗
M
∗
M
V
1
V
1
∗
M
∗
M
V
2
V
2
∗
M
∗
M
V
1
V
2
∗
M
∗
M
V
2
]
=
[
D
0
0
0
]
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\end{bmatrix}}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \,{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {V} _{1}&\!\!\mathbf {V} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}&\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2}\\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}&\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {D} &0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}.}
This implies that
V
1
∗
M
∗
M
V
1
=
D
,
V
2
∗
M
∗
M
V
2
=
0
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}=\mathbf {D} ,\quad \mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2}=\mathbf {0} .}
Moreover, the second equation implies
M
V
2
=
0
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2}=\mathbf {0} }
. Finally, the unitary-ness of
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
translates, in terms of
V
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1}}
and
V
2
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{2}}
, into the following conditions:
V
1
∗
V
1
=
I
1
,
V
2
∗
V
2
=
I
2
,
V
1
V
1
∗
+
V
2
V
2
∗
=
I
12
,
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\mathbf {V} _{1}&=\mathbf {I} _{1},\\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\mathbf {V} _{2}&=\mathbf {I} _{2},\\\mathbf {V} _{1}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}+\mathbf {V} _{2}\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}&=\mathbf {I} _{12},\end{aligned}}}
where the subscripts on the identity matrices are used to remark that they are of different dimensions.
Let us now define
U
1
=
M
V
1
D
−
1
2
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}=\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}\mathbf {D} ^{-{\frac {1}{2}}}.}
Then,
U
1
D
1
2
V
1
∗
=
M
V
1
D
−
1
2
D
1
2
V
1
∗
=
M
(
I
−
V
2
V
2
∗
)
=
M
−
(
M
V
2
)
V
2
∗
=
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}\mathbf {D} ^{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}\mathbf {D} ^{-{\frac {1}{2}}}\mathbf {D} ^{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\mathbf {M} (\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {V} _{2}\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*})=\mathbf {M} -(\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2})\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}=\mathbf {M} ,}
since
M
V
2
=
0
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2}=\mathbf {0} .}
This can be also seen as immediate consequence of the fact that
M
V
1
V
1
∗
=
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\mathbf {M} }
. This is equivalent to the observation that if
{
v
i
}
i
=
1
ℓ
{\displaystyle \{{\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}\}_{i=1}^{\ell }}
is the set of eigenvectors of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
corresponding to non-vanishing eigenvalues
{
λ
i
}
i
=
1
ℓ
{\displaystyle \{\lambda _{i}\}_{i=1}^{\ell }}
, then
{
M
v
i
}
i
=
1
ℓ
{\displaystyle \{\mathbf {M} {\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}\}_{i=1}^{\ell }}
is a set of orthogonal vectors, and
{
λ
i
−
1
/
2
M
v
i
}
|
i
=
1
ℓ
{\displaystyle {\bigl \{}\lambda _{i}^{-1/2}\mathbf {M} {\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}{\bigr \}}{\vphantom {|}}_{i=1}^{\ell }}
is a (generally not complete) set of orthonormal vectors. This matches with the matrix formalism used above denoting with
V
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1}}
the matrix whose columns are
{
v
i
}
i
=
1
ℓ
{\displaystyle \{{\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}\}_{i=1}^{\ell }}
, with
V
2
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{2}}
the matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
with vanishing eigenvalue, and
U
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}}
the matrix whose columns are the vectors
{
λ
i
−
1
/
2
M
v
i
}
|
i
=
1
ℓ
{\displaystyle {\bigl \{}\lambda _{i}^{-1/2}\mathbf {M} {\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}{\bigr \}}{\vphantom {|}}_{i=1}^{\ell }}
.
We see that this is almost the desired result, except that
U
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}}
and
V
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1}}
are in general not unitary, since they might not be square. However, we do know that the number of rows of
U
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}}
is no smaller than the number of columns, since the dimensions of
D
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }
is no greater than
m
{\displaystyle m}
and
n
{\displaystyle n}
. Also, since
U
1
∗
U
1
=
D
−
1
2
V
1
∗
M
∗
M
V
1
D
−
1
2
=
D
−
1
2
D
D
−
1
2
=
I
1
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}^{*}\mathbf {U} _{1}=\mathbf {D} ^{-{\frac {1}{2}}}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{1}\mathbf {D} ^{-{\frac {1}{2}}}=\mathbf {D} ^{-{\frac {1}{2}}}\mathbf {D} \mathbf {D} ^{-{\frac {1}{2}}}=\mathbf {I_{1}} ,}
the columns in
U
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{1}}
are orthonormal and can be extended to an orthonormal basis. This means that we can choose
U
2
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{2}}
such that
U
=
[
U
1
U
2
]
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {U} _{1}&\mathbf {U} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}}
is unitary.
For
V
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{1}}
we already have
V
2
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{2}}
to make it unitary. Now, define
Σ
=
[
[
D
1
2
0
0
0
]
0
]
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } ={\begin{bmatrix}{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {D} ^{\frac {1}{2}}&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}\\0\end{bmatrix}},}
where extra zero rows are added or removed to make the number of zero rows equal the number of columns of
U
2
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{2},}
and hence the overall dimensions of
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
equal to
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
. Then
[
U
1
U
2
]
[
[
D
1
2
0
0
0
]
0
]
[
V
1
V
2
]
∗
=
[
U
1
U
2
]
[
D
1
2
V
1
∗
0
]
=
U
1
D
1
2
V
1
∗
=
M
,
{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {U} _{1}&\mathbf {U} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {} D^{\frac {1}{2}}&0\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {V} _{1}&\mathbf {V} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}^{*}={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {U} _{1}&\mathbf {U} _{2}\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {D} ^{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\0\end{bmatrix}}=\mathbf {U} _{1}\mathbf {D} ^{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\mathbf {M} ,}
which is the desired result:
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}.}
Notice the argument could begin with diagonalizing
M
M
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}}
rather than
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
(This shows directly that
M
M
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}}
and
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
have the same non-zero eigenvalues).
Based on variational characterization
The singular values can also be characterized as the maxima of
u
T
M
v
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} ^{\mathrm {T} }\mathbf {M} \mathbf {v} ,}
considered as a function of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ,}
over particular subspaces. The singular vectors are the values of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} }
where these maxima are attained.
Let
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
denote an
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix with real entries. Let
S
k
−
1
{\displaystyle S^{k-1}}
be the unit
(
k
−
1
)
{\displaystyle (k-1)}
-sphere in
R
k
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{k}}
, and define
σ
(
u
,
v
)
=
u
T
M
v
,
{\displaystyle \sigma (\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} )=\mathbf {u} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} \mathbf {v} ,}
u
∈
S
m
−
1
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} \in S^{m-1},}
v
∈
S
n
−
1
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \in S^{n-1}.}
Consider the function
σ
{\displaystyle \sigma }
restricted to
S
m
−
1
×
S
n
−
1
.
{\displaystyle S^{m-1}\times S^{n-1}.}
Since both
S
m
−
1
{\displaystyle S^{m-1}}
and
S
n
−
1
{\displaystyle S^{n-1}}
are compact sets, their product is also compact. Furthermore, since
σ
{\displaystyle \sigma }
is continuous, it attains a largest value for at least one pair of vectors
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
in
S
m
−
1
{\displaystyle S^{m-1}}
and
v
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
in
S
n
−
1
.
{\displaystyle S^{n-1}.}
This largest value is denoted
σ
1
{\displaystyle \sigma _{1}}
and the corresponding vectors are denoted
u
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1}}
and
v
1
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}.}
Since
σ
1
{\displaystyle \sigma _{1}}
is the largest value of
σ
(
u
,
v
)
{\displaystyle \sigma (\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} )}
it must be non-negative. If it were negative, changing the sign of either
u
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1}}
or
v
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}}
would make it positive and therefore larger.
Statement.
u
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1}}
and
v
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}}
are left and right-singular vectors of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
with corresponding singular value
σ
1
.
{\displaystyle \sigma _{1}.}
Proof. Similar to the eigenvalues case, by assumption the two vectors satisfy the Lagrange multiplier equation:
∇
σ
=
∇
u
T
M
v
−
λ
1
⋅
∇
u
T
u
−
λ
2
⋅
∇
v
T
v
{\displaystyle \nabla \sigma =\nabla \mathbf {u} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} \mathbf {v} -\lambda _{1}\cdot \nabla \mathbf {u} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {u} -\lambda _{2}\cdot \nabla \mathbf {v} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {v} }
After some algebra, this becomes
M
v
1
=
2
λ
1
u
1
+
0
,
M
T
u
1
=
0
+
2
λ
2
v
1
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {v} _{1}&=2\lambda _{1}\mathbf {u} _{1}+0,\\\mathbf {M} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {u} _{1}&=0+2\lambda _{2}\mathbf {v} _{1}.\end{aligned}}}
Multiplying the first equation from left by
u
1
T
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1}^{\textrm {T}}}
and the second equation from left by
v
1
T
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1}^{\textrm {T}}}
and taking
‖
u
‖
=
‖
v
‖
=
1
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {u} \|=\|\mathbf {v} \|=1}
into account gives
σ
1
=
2
λ
1
=
2
λ
2
.
{\displaystyle \sigma _{1}=2\lambda _{1}=2\lambda _{2}.}
Plugging this into the pair of equations above, we have
M
v
1
=
σ
1
u
1
,
M
T
u
1
=
σ
1
v
1
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {v} _{1}&=\sigma _{1}\mathbf {u} _{1},\\\mathbf {M} ^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {u} _{1}&=\sigma _{1}\mathbf {v} _{1}.\end{aligned}}}
This proves the statement.
More singular vectors and singular values can be found by maximizing
σ
(
u
,
v
)
{\displaystyle \sigma (\mathbf {u} ,\mathbf {v} )}
over normalized
u
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} }
and
v
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
which are orthogonal to
u
1
{\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{1}}
and
v
1
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{1},}
respectively.
The passage from real to complex is similar to the eigenvalue case.
Calculating the SVD
One-sided Jacobi algorithm
One-sided Jacobi algorithm is an iterative algorithm,
where a matrix is iteratively transformed into a matrix with orthogonal columns. The elementary iteration is given as a Jacobi rotation,
M
←
M
J
(
p
,
q
,
θ
)
,
{\displaystyle M\leftarrow MJ(p,q,\theta ),}
where the angle
θ
{\displaystyle \theta }
of the Jacobi rotation matrix
J
(
p
,
q
,
θ
)
{\displaystyle J(p,q,\theta )}
is chosen such that after the rotation the columns with numbers
p
{\displaystyle p}
and
q
{\displaystyle q}
become orthogonal. The indices
(
p
,
q
)
{\displaystyle (p,q)}
are swept cyclically,
(
p
=
1
…
m
,
q
=
p
+
1
…
m
)
{\displaystyle (p=1\dots m,q=p+1\dots m)}
, where
m
{\displaystyle m}
is the number of columns.
After the algorithm has converged, the singular value decomposition
M
=
U
S
V
T
{\displaystyle M=USV^{T}}
is recovered as follows: the matrix
V
{\displaystyle V}
is the accumulation of Jacobi rotation matrices, the matrix
U
{\displaystyle U}
is given by normalising the columns of the transformed matrix
M
{\displaystyle M}
, and the singular values are given as the norms of the columns of the transformed matrix
M
{\displaystyle M}
.
Two-sided Jacobi algorithm
Two-sided Jacobi SVD algorithm—a generalization of the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm—is an iterative algorithm where a square matrix is iteratively transformed into a diagonal matrix. If the matrix is not square the QR decomposition is performed first and then the algorithm is applied to the
R
{\displaystyle R}
matrix. The elementary iteration zeroes a pair of off-diagonal elements by first applying a Givens rotation to symmetrize the pair of elements and then applying a Jacobi transformation to zero them,
M
←
J
T
G
M
J
{\displaystyle M\leftarrow J^{T}GMJ}
where
G
{\displaystyle G}
is the Givens rotation matrix with the angle chosen such that the given pair of off-diagonal elements become equal after the rotation, and where
J
{\displaystyle J}
is the Jacobi transformation matrix that zeroes these off-diagonal elements. The iterations proceeds exactly as in the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm: by cyclic sweeps over all off-diagonal elements.
After the algorithm has converged the resulting diagonal matrix contains the singular values.
The matrices
U
{\displaystyle U}
and
V
{\displaystyle V}
are accumulated as follows:
U
←
U
G
T
J
{\displaystyle U\leftarrow UG^{T}J}
,
V
←
V
J
{\displaystyle V\leftarrow VJ}
.
Numerical approach
The singular value decomposition can be computed using the following observations:
The left-singular vectors of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
are a set of orthonormal eigenvectors of
M
M
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}}
.
The right-singular vectors of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
are a set of orthonormal eigenvectors of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
.
The non-zero singular values of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
(found on the diagonal entries of
Σ
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } }
) are the square roots of the non-zero eigenvalues of both
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
and
M
M
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*}}
.
The SVD of a matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is typically computed by a two-step procedure. In the first step, the matrix is reduced to a bidiagonal matrix. This takes order
O
(
m
n
2
)
{\displaystyle O(mn^{2})}
floating-point operations (flop), assuming that
m
≥
n
.
{\displaystyle m\geq n.}
The second step is to compute the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix. This step can only be done with an iterative method (as with eigenvalue algorithms). However, in practice it suffices to compute the SVD up to a certain precision, like the machine epsilon. If this precision is considered constant, then the second step takes
O
(
n
)
{\displaystyle O(n)}
iterations, each costing
O
(
n
)
{\displaystyle O(n)}
flops. Thus, the first step is more expensive, and the overall cost is
O
(
m
n
2
)
{\displaystyle O(mn^{2})}
flops (Trefethen & Bau III 1997, Lecture 31).
The first step can be done using Householder reflections for a cost of
4
m
n
2
−
4
n
3
/
3
{\displaystyle 4mn^{2}-4n^{3}/3}
flops, assuming that only the singular values are needed and not the singular vectors. If
m
{\displaystyle m}
is much larger than
n
{\displaystyle n}
then it is advantageous to first reduce the matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
to a triangular matrix with the QR decomposition and then use Householder reflections to further reduce the matrix to bidiagonal form; the combined cost is
2
m
n
2
+
2
n
3
{\displaystyle 2mn^{2}+2n^{3}}
flops (Trefethen & Bau III 1997, Lecture 31).
The second step can be done by a variant of the QR algorithm for the computation of eigenvalues, which was first described by Golub & Kahan (1965). The LAPACK subroutine DBDSQR implements this iterative method, with some modifications to cover the case where the singular values are very small (Demmel & Kahan 1990). Together with a first step using Householder reflections and, if appropriate, QR decomposition, this forms the DGESVD routine for the computation of the singular value decomposition.
The same algorithm is implemented in the GNU Scientific Library (GSL). The GSL also offers an alternative method that uses a one-sided Jacobi orthogonalization in step 2 (GSL Team 2007). This method computes the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix by solving a sequence of
2
×
2
{\displaystyle 2\times 2}
SVD problems, similar to how the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm solves a sequence of
2
×
2
{\displaystyle 2\times 2}
eigenvalue methods (Golub & Van Loan 1996, §8.6.3). Yet another method for step 2 uses the idea of divide-and-conquer eigenvalue algorithms (Trefethen & Bau III 1997, Lecture 31).
There is an alternative way that does not explicitly use the eigenvalue decomposition. Usually the singular value problem of a matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is converted into an equivalent symmetric eigenvalue problem such as
M
M
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \mathbf {M} ^{*},}
M
∗
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} ,}
or
[
0
M
M
∗
0
]
.
{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {M} \\\mathbf {M} ^{*}&\mathbf {0} \end{bmatrix}}.}
The approaches that use eigenvalue decompositions are based on the QR algorithm, which is well-developed to be stable and fast.
Note that the singular values are real and right- and left- singular vectors are not required to form similarity transformations. One can iteratively alternate between the QR decomposition and the LQ decomposition to find the real diagonal Hermitian matrices. The QR decomposition gives
M
⇒
Q
R
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \Rightarrow \mathbf {Q} \mathbf {R} }
and the LQ decomposition of
R
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} }
gives
R
⇒
L
P
∗
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \Rightarrow \mathbf {L} \mathbf {P} ^{*}.}
Thus, at every iteration, we have
M
⇒
Q
L
P
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \Rightarrow \mathbf {Q} \mathbf {L} \mathbf {P} ^{*},}
update
M
⇐
L
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \Leftarrow \mathbf {L} }
and repeat the orthogonalizations. Eventually, this iteration between QR decomposition and LQ decomposition produces left- and right- unitary singular matrices. This approach cannot readily be accelerated, as the QR algorithm can with spectral shifts or deflation. This is because the shift method is not easily defined without using similarity transformations. However, this iterative approach is very simple to implement, so is a good choice when speed does not matter. This method also provides insight into how purely orthogonal/unitary transformations can obtain the SVD.
Analytic result of 2 × 2 SVD
The singular values of a
2
×
2
{\displaystyle 2\times 2}
matrix can be found analytically. Let the matrix be
M
=
z
0
I
+
z
1
σ
1
+
z
2
σ
2
+
z
3
σ
3
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =z_{0}\mathbf {I} +z_{1}\sigma _{1}+z_{2}\sigma _{2}+z_{3}\sigma _{3}}
where
z
i
∈
C
{\displaystyle z_{i}\in \mathbb {C} }
are complex numbers that parameterize the matrix,
I
{\displaystyle \mathbf {I} }
is the identity matrix, and
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
denote the Pauli matrices. Then its two singular values are given by
σ
±
=
|
z
0
|
2
+
|
z
1
|
2
+
|
z
2
|
2
+
|
z
3
|
2
±
(
|
z
0
|
2
+
|
z
1
|
2
+
|
z
2
|
2
+
|
z
3
|
2
)
2
−
|
z
0
2
−
z
1
2
−
z
2
2
−
z
3
2
|
2
=
|
z
0
|
2
+
|
z
1
|
2
+
|
z
2
|
2
+
|
z
3
|
2
±
2
(
Re
z
0
z
1
∗
)
2
+
(
Re
z
0
z
2
∗
)
2
+
(
Re
z
0
z
3
∗
)
2
+
(
Im
z
1
z
2
∗
)
2
+
(
Im
z
2
z
3
∗
)
2
+
(
Im
z
3
z
1
∗
)
2
{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sigma _{\pm }&={\sqrt {|z_{0}|^{2}+|z_{1}|^{2}+|z_{2}|^{2}+|z_{3}|^{2}\pm {\sqrt {{\bigl (}|z_{0}|^{2}+|z_{1}|^{2}+|z_{2}|^{2}+|z_{3}|^{2}{\bigr )}^{2}-|z_{0}^{2}-z_{1}^{2}-z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}|^{2}}}}}\\&={\sqrt {|z_{0}|^{2}+|z_{1}|^{2}+|z_{2}|^{2}+|z_{3}|^{2}\pm 2{\sqrt {(\operatorname {Re} z_{0}z_{1}^{*})^{2}+(\operatorname {Re} z_{0}z_{2}^{*})^{2}+(\operatorname {Re} z_{0}z_{3}^{*})^{2}+(\operatorname {Im} z_{1}z_{2}^{*})^{2}+(\operatorname {Im} z_{2}z_{3}^{*})^{2}+(\operatorname {Im} z_{3}z_{1}^{*})^{2}}}}}\end{aligned}}}
Reduced SVDs
Visualization of Reduced SVD variants. From top to bottom: 1: Full SVD, 2: Thin SVD (remove columns of U not corresponding to rows of V*), 3: Compact SVD (remove vanishing singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V*), 4: Truncated SVD (keep only largest t singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V*)
In applications it is quite unusual for the full SVD, including a full unitary decomposition of the null-space of the matrix, to be required. Instead, it is often sufficient (as well as faster, and more economical for storage) to compute a reduced version of the SVD. The following can be distinguished for an
m
×
n
{\displaystyle m\times n}
matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
of rank
r
{\displaystyle r}
:
Thin SVD
The thin, or economy-sized, SVD of a matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is given by
M
=
U
k
Σ
k
V
k
∗
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} _{k}\mathbf {\Sigma } _{k}\mathbf {V} _{k}^{*},}
where
k
=
min
(
m
,
n
)
,
{\displaystyle k=\min(m,n),}
the matrices
U
k
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{k}}
and
V
k
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{k}}
contain only the first
k
{\displaystyle k}
columns of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ,}
and
Σ
k
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } _{k}}
contains only the first
k
{\displaystyle k}
singular values from
Σ
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } .}
The matrix
U
k
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{k}}
is thus
m
×
k
,
{\displaystyle m\times k,}
Σ
k
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } _{k}}
is
k
×
k
{\displaystyle k\times k}
diagonal, and
V
k
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{k}^{*}}
is
k
×
n
.
{\displaystyle k\times n.}
The thin SVD uses significantly less space and computation time if
k
≪
max
(
m
,
n
)
.
{\displaystyle k\ll \max(m,n).}
The first stage in its calculation will usually be a QR decomposition of
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
which can make for a significantly quicker calculation in this case.
Compact SVD
The compact SVD of a matrix
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is given by
M
=
U
r
Σ
r
V
r
∗
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} _{r}\mathbf {\Sigma } _{r}\mathbf {V} _{r}^{*}.}
Only the
r
{\displaystyle r}
column vectors of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
r
{\displaystyle r}
row vectors of
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
corresponding to the non-zero singular values
Σ
r
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } _{r}}
are calculated. The remaining vectors of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
are not calculated. This is quicker and more economical than the thin SVD if
r
≪
min
(
m
,
n
)
.
{\displaystyle r\ll \min(m,n).}
The matrix
U
r
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{r}}
is thus
m
×
r
,
{\displaystyle m\times r,}
Σ
r
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } _{r}}
is
r
×
r
{\displaystyle r\times r}
diagonal, and
V
r
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{r}^{*}}
is
r
×
n
.
{\displaystyle r\times n.}
Truncated SVD
In many applications the number
r
{\displaystyle r}
of the non-zero singular values is large making even the Compact SVD impractical to compute. In such cases, the smallest singular values may need to be truncated to compute only
t
≪
r
{\displaystyle t\ll r}
non-zero singular values. The truncated SVD is no longer an exact decomposition of the original matrix
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
but rather provides the optimal low-rank matrix approximation
M
~
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {M} }}}
by any matrix of a fixed rank
t
{\displaystyle t}
M
~
=
U
t
Σ
t
V
t
∗
,
{\displaystyle {\tilde {\mathbf {M} }}=\mathbf {U} _{t}\mathbf {\Sigma } _{t}\mathbf {V} _{t}^{*},}
where matrix
U
t
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} _{t}}
is
m
×
t
,
{\displaystyle m\times t,}
Σ
t
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } _{t}}
is
t
×
t
{\displaystyle t\times t}
diagonal, and
V
t
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{t}^{*}}
is
t
×
n
.
{\displaystyle t\times n.}
Only the
t
{\displaystyle t}
column vectors of
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
t
{\displaystyle t}
row vectors of
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
corresponding to the
t
{\displaystyle t}
largest singular values
Σ
t
{\displaystyle \mathbf {\Sigma } _{t}}
are calculated. This can be much quicker and more economical than the compact SVD if
t
≪
r
,
{\displaystyle t\ll r,}
but requires a completely different toolset of numerical solvers.
In applications that require an approximation to the Moore–Penrose inverse of the matrix
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
the smallest singular values of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
are of interest, which are more challenging to compute compared to the largest ones.
Truncated SVD is employed in latent semantic indexing.
Norms
Ky Fan norms
The sum of the
k
{\displaystyle k}
largest singular values of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is a matrix norm, the Ky Fan
k
{\displaystyle k}
-norm of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The first of the Ky Fan norms, the Ky Fan 1-norm, is the same as the operator norm of
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
as a linear operator with respect to the Euclidean norms of
K
m
{\displaystyle K^{m}}
and
K
n
.
{\displaystyle K^{n}.}
In other words, the Ky Fan 1-norm is the operator norm induced by the standard
ℓ
2
{\displaystyle \ell ^{2}}
Euclidean inner product. For this reason, it is also called the operator 2-norm. One can easily verify the relationship between the Ky Fan 1-norm and singular values. It is true in general, for a bounded operator
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
on (possibly infinite-dimensional) Hilbert spaces
‖
M
‖
=
‖
M
∗
M
‖
1
2
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {M} \|=\|\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \|^{\frac {1}{2}}}
But, in the matrix case,
(
M
∗
M
)
1
/
2
{\displaystyle (\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} )^{1/2}}
is a normal matrix, so
‖
M
∗
M
‖
1
/
2
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \|^{1/2}}
is the largest eigenvalue of
(
M
∗
M
)
1
/
2
,
{\displaystyle (\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} )^{1/2},}
i.e. the largest singular value of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
The last of the Ky Fan norms, the sum of all singular values, is the trace norm (also known as the 'nuclear norm'), defined by
‖
M
‖
=
Tr
(
M
∗
M
)
1
/
2
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {M} \|=\operatorname {Tr} (\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} )^{1/2}}
(the eigenvalues of
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
are the squares of the singular values).
Hilbert–Schmidt norm
The singular values are related to another norm on the space of operators. Consider the Hilbert–Schmidt inner product on the
n
×
n
{\displaystyle n\times n}
matrices, defined by
⟨
M
,
N
⟩
=
tr
(
N
∗
M
)
.
{\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {M} ,\mathbf {N} \rangle =\operatorname {tr} \left(\mathbf {N} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \right).}
So the induced norm is
‖
M
‖
=
⟨
M
,
M
⟩
=
tr
(
M
∗
M
)
.
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {M} \|={\sqrt {\langle \mathbf {M} ,\mathbf {M} \rangle }}={\sqrt {\operatorname {tr} \left(\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \right)}}.}
Since the trace is invariant under unitary equivalence, this shows
‖
M
‖
=
|
∑
i
σ
i
2
{\displaystyle \|\mathbf {M} \|={\sqrt {{\vphantom {\bigg |}}\sum _{i}\sigma _{i}^{2}}}}
where
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
are the singular values of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
This is called the Frobenius norm, Schatten 2-norm, or Hilbert–Schmidt norm of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
Direct calculation shows that the Frobenius norm of
M
=
(
m
i
j
)
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =(m_{i}j)}
coincides with:
|
∑
i
j
|
m
i
j
|
2
.
{\displaystyle {\sqrt {{\vphantom {\bigg |}}\sum _{ij}|m_{ij}|^{2}}}.}
In addition, the Frobenius norm and the trace norm (the nuclear norm) are special cases of the Schatten norm.
Variations and generalizations
Scale-invariant SVD
The singular values of a matrix
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
are uniquely defined and are invariant with respect to left and/or right unitary transformations of
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
In other words, the singular values of
U
A
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \mathbf {A} \mathbf {V} ,}
for unitary matrices
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
and
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ,}
are equal to the singular values of
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
This is an important property for applications in which it is necessary to preserve Euclidean distances and invariance with respect to rotations.
The Scale-Invariant SVD, or SI-SVD, is analogous to the conventional SVD except that its uniquely-determined singular values are invariant with respect to diagonal transformations of
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
In other words, the singular values of
D
A
E
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} \mathbf {A} \mathbf {E} ,}
for invertible diagonal matrices
D
{\displaystyle \mathbf {D} }
and
E
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ,}
are equal to the singular values of
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
This is an important property for applications for which invariance to the choice of units on variables (e.g., metric versus imperial units) is needed.
Bounded operators on Hilbert spaces
The factorization
M
=
U
Σ
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {\Sigma } \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
can be extended to a bounded operator
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
on a separable Hilbert space
H
.
{\displaystyle H.}
Namely, for any bounded operator
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ,}
there exist a partial isometry
U
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ,}
a unitary
V
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} ,}
a measure space
(
X
,
μ
)
,
{\displaystyle (X,\mu ),}
and a non-negative measurable
f
{\displaystyle f}
such that
M
=
U
T
f
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} T_{f}\mathbf {V} ^{*}}
where
T
f
{\displaystyle T_{f}}
is the multiplication by
f
{\displaystyle f}
on
L
2
(
X
,
μ
)
.
{\displaystyle L^{2}(X,\mu ).}
This can be shown by mimicking the linear algebraic argument for the matrix case above.
V
T
f
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} T_{f}\mathbf {V} ^{*}}
is the unique positive square root of
M
∗
M
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} ,}
as given by the Borel functional calculus for self-adjoint operators. The reason why
U
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} }
need not be unitary is that, unlike the finite-dimensional case, given an isometry
U
1
{\displaystyle U_{1}}
with nontrivial kernel, a suitable
U
2
{\displaystyle U_{2}}
may not be found such that
[
U
1
U
2
]
{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}U_{1}\\U_{2}\end{bmatrix}}}
is a unitary operator.
As for matrices, the singular value factorization is equivalent to the polar decomposition for operators: we can simply write
M
=
U
V
∗
⋅
V
T
f
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {U} \mathbf {V} ^{*}\cdot \mathbf {V} T_{f}\mathbf {V} ^{*}}
and notice that
U
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {U} \mathbf {V} ^{*}}
is still a partial isometry while
V
T
f
V
∗
{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} T_{f}\mathbf {V} ^{*}}
is positive.
Singular values and compact operators
The notion of singular values and left/right-singular vectors can be extended to compact operator on Hilbert space as they have a discrete spectrum. If
T
{\displaystyle T}
is compact, every non-zero
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda }
in its spectrum is an eigenvalue. Furthermore, a compact self-adjoint operator can be diagonalized by its eigenvectors. If
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is compact, so is
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
. Applying the diagonalization result, the unitary image of its positive square root
T
f
{\displaystyle T_{f}}
has a set of orthonormal eigenvectors
{
e
i
}
{\displaystyle \{e_{i}\}}
corresponding to strictly positive eigenvalues
{
σ
i
}
{\displaystyle \{\sigma _{i}\}}
. For any
ψ
{\displaystyle \psi }
in
H
,
{\displaystyle H,}
M
ψ
=
U
T
f
V
∗
ψ
=
∑
i
⟨
U
T
f
V
∗
ψ
,
U
e
i
⟩
U
e
i
=
∑
i
σ
i
⟨
ψ
,
V
e
i
⟩
U
e
i
,
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} \psi =\mathbf {U} T_{f}\mathbf {V} ^{*}\psi =\sum _{i}\left\langle \mathbf {U} T_{f}\mathbf {V} ^{*}\psi ,\mathbf {U} e_{i}\right\rangle \mathbf {U} e_{i}=\sum _{i}\sigma _{i}\left\langle \psi ,\mathbf {V} e_{i}\right\rangle \mathbf {U} e_{i},}
where the series converges in the norm topology on
H
.
{\displaystyle H.}
Notice how this resembles the expression from the finite-dimensional case.
σ
i
{\displaystyle \sigma _{i}}
are called the singular values of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
{
U
e
i
}
{\displaystyle \{\mathbf {U} e_{i}\}}
(resp.
{
U
e
i
}
{\displaystyle \{\mathbf {U} e_{i}\}}
) can be considered the left-singular (resp. right-singular) vectors of
M
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} .}
Compact operators on a Hilbert space are the closure of finite-rank operators in the uniform operator topology. The above series expression gives an explicit such representation. An immediate consequence of this is:
Theorem.
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} }
is compact if and only if
M
∗
M
{\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} }
is compact.
History
The singular value decomposition was originally developed by differential geometers, who wished to determine whether a real bilinear form could be made equal to another by independent orthogonal transformations of the two spaces it acts on. Eugenio Beltrami and Camille Jordan discovered independently, in 1873 and 1874 respectively, that the singular values of the bilinear forms, represented as a matrix, form a complete set of invariants for bilinear forms under orthogonal substitutions. James Joseph Sylvester also arrived at the singular value decomposition for real square matrices in 1889, apparently independently of both Beltrami and Jordan. Sylvester called the singular values the canonical multipliers of the matrix
A
.
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} .}
The fourth mathematician to discover the singular value decomposition independently is Autonne in 1915, who arrived at it via the polar decomposition. The first proof of the singular value decomposition for rectangular and complex matrices seems to be by Carl Eckart and Gale J. Young in 1936; they saw it as a generalization of the principal axis transformation for Hermitian matrices.
In 1907, Erhard Schmidt defined an analog of singular values for integral operators (which are compact, under some weak technical assumptions); it seems he was unaware of the parallel work on singular values of finite matrices. This theory was further developed by Émile Picard in 1910, who is the first to call the numbers
σ
k
{\displaystyle \sigma _{k}}
singular values (or in French, valeurs singulières).
Practical methods for computing the SVD date back to Kogbetliantz in 1954–1955 and Hestenes in 1958, resembling closely the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm, which uses plane rotations or Givens rotations. However, these were replaced by the method of Gene Golub and William Kahan published in 1965, which uses Householder transformations or reflections. In 1970, Golub and Christian Reinsch published a variant of the Golub/Kahan algorithm that is still the one most-used today.
See also
Canonical correlation
Canonical form
Correspondence analysis (CA)
Curse of dimensionality
Digital signal processing
Dimensionality reduction
Eigendecomposition of a matrix
Empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs)
Fourier analysis
Generalized singular value decomposition
Inequalities about singular values
K-SVD
Latent semantic analysis
Latent semantic indexing
Linear least squares
List of Fourier-related transforms
Locality-sensitive hashing
Low-rank approximation
Matrix decomposition
Multilinear principal component analysis (MPCA)
Nearest neighbor search
Non-linear iterative partial least squares
Polar decomposition
Principal component analysis (PCA)
Schmidt decomposition
Smith normal form
Singular value
Time series
Two-dimensional singular-value decomposition (2DSVD)
von Neumann's trace inequality
Wavelet compression
Notes
^ DeAngelis, G. C.; Ohzawa, I.; Freeman, R. D. (October 1995). "Receptive-field dynamics in the central visual pathways". Trends Neurosci. 18 (10): 451–8. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(95)94496-R. PMID 8545912. S2CID 12827601.
^ Depireux, D. A.; Simon, J. Z.; Klein, D. J.; Shamma, S. A. (March 2001). "Spectro-temporal response field characterization with dynamic ripples in ferret primary auditory cortex". J. Neurophysiol. 85 (3): 1220–34. doi:10.1152/jn.2001.85.3.1220. PMID 11247991.
^ The Singular Value Decomposition in Symmetric (Lowdin) Orthogonalization and Data Compression
^ Sahidullah, Md.; Kinnunen, Tomi (March 2016). "Local spectral variability features for speaker verification". Digital Signal Processing. 50: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.dsp.2015.10.011.
^ Mademlis, Ioannis; Tefas, Anastasios; Pitas, Ioannis (2018). "Regularized SVD-Based Video Frame Saliency for Unsupervised Activity Video Summarization". 2018 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). IEEE. pp. 2691–2695. doi:10.1109/ICASSP.2018.8462274. ISBN 978-1-5386-4658-8. S2CID 52286352. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
^
O. Alter, P. O. Brown and D. Botstein (September 2000). "Singular Value Decomposition for Genome-Wide Expression Data Processing and Modeling". PNAS. 97 (18): 10101–10106. Bibcode:2000PNAS...9710101A. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.18.10101. PMC 27718. PMID 10963673.
^ O. Alter; G. H. Golub (November 2004). "Integrative Analysis of Genome-Scale Data by Using Pseudoinverse Projection Predicts Novel Correlation Between DNA Replication and RNA Transcription". PNAS. 101 (47): 16577–16582. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10116577A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0406767101. PMC 534520. PMID 15545604.
^ O. Alter; G. H. Golub (August 2006). "Singular Value Decomposition of Genome-Scale mRNA Lengths Distribution Reveals Asymmetry in RNA Gel Electrophoresis Band Broadening". PNAS. 103 (32): 11828–11833. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10311828A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604756103. PMC 1524674. PMID 16877539.
^ Bertagnolli, N. M.; Drake, J. A.; Tennessen, J. M.; Alter, O. (November 2013). "SVD Identifies Transcript Length Distribution Functions from DNA Microarray Data and Reveals Evolutionary Forces Globally Affecting GBM Metabolism". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e78913. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...878913B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078913. PMC 3839928. PMID 24282503. Highlight.
^ Edelman, Alan (1992). "On the distribution of a scaled condition number" (PDF). Math. Comp. 58 (197): 185–190. Bibcode:1992MaCom..58..185E. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1992-1106966-2.
^ Shen, Jianhong (Jackie) (2001). "On the singular values of Gaussian random matrices". Linear Alg. Appl. 326 (1–3): 1–14. doi:10.1016/S0024-3795(00)00322-0.
^ Walton, S.; Hassan, O.; Morgan, K. (2013). "Reduced order modelling for unsteady fluid flow using proper orthogonal decomposition and radial basis functions". Applied Mathematical Modelling. 37 (20–21): 8930–8945. doi:10.1016/j.apm.2013.04.025.
^ Setyawati, Y.; Ohme, F.; Khan, S. (2019). "Enhancing gravitational waveform model through dynamic calibration". Physical Review D. 99 (2): 024010. arXiv:1810.07060. Bibcode:2019PhRvD..99b4010S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.99.024010. S2CID 118935941.
^ Sarwar, Badrul; Karypis, George; Konstan, Joseph A. & Riedl, John T. (2000). "Application of Dimensionality Reduction in Recommender System – A Case Study" (PDF). University of Minnesota. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Bosagh Zadeh, Reza; Carlsson, Gunnar (2013). "Dimension Independent Matrix Square Using MapReduce" (PDF). arXiv:1304.1467. Bibcode:2013arXiv1304.1467B. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Hadi Fanaee Tork; João Gama (September 2014). "Eigenspace method for spatiotemporal hotspot detection". Expert Systems. 32 (3): 454–464. arXiv:1406.3506. Bibcode:2014arXiv1406.3506F. doi:10.1111/exsy.12088. S2CID 15476557.
^ Hadi Fanaee Tork; João Gama (May 2015). "EigenEvent: An Algorithm for Event Detection from Complex Data Streams in Syndromic Surveillance". Intelligent Data Analysis. 19 (3): 597–616. arXiv:1406.3496. doi:10.3233/IDA-150734. S2CID 17966555.
^ Muralidharan, Vivek; Howell, Kathleen (2023). "Stretching directions in cislunar space: Applications for departures and transfer design". Astrodynamics. 7 (2): 153–178. Bibcode:2023AsDyn...7..153M. doi:10.1007/s42064-022-0147-z. S2CID 252637213.
^ Muralidharan, Vivek; Howell, Kathleen (2022). "Leveraging stretching directions for stationkeeping in Earth-Moon halo orbits". Advances in Space Research. 69 (1): 620–646. Bibcode:2022AdSpR..69..620M. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2021.10.028. S2CID 239490016.
^ To see this, we just have to notice that
Tr
(
V
2
∗
M
∗
M
V
2
)
=
‖
M
V
2
‖
2
{\displaystyle \operatorname {Tr} (\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\mathbf {M} ^{*}\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2})=\|\mathbf {M} \mathbf {V} _{2}\|^{2}}
, and remember that
‖
A
‖
=
0
⇔
A
=
0
{\displaystyle \|A\|=0\Leftrightarrow A=0}
.
^ Rijk, P.P.M. de (1989). "A one-sided Jacobi algorithm for computing the singular value decomposition on a vector computer". SIAM J. Sci. Stat. Comput. 10: 359.
^ Netlib.org
^ Netlib.org
^ mathworks.co.kr/matlabcentral/fileexchange/12674-simple-svd
^
Demmel, James (2000). "Decompositions". Templates for the Solution of Algebraic Eigenvalue Problems. By Bai, Zhaojun; Demmel, James; Dongarra, Jack J.; Ruhe, Axel; van der Vorst, Henk A. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. doi:10.1137/1.9780898719581. ISBN 978-0-89871-471-5.
^ Chicco, D; Masseroli, M (2015). "Software suite for gene and protein annotation prediction and similarity search". IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. 12 (4): 837–843. doi:10.1109/TCBB.2014.2382127. hdl:11311/959408. PMID 26357324. S2CID 14714823.
^ Fan, Ky. (1951). "Maximum properties and inequalities for the eigenvalues of completely continuous operators". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 37 (11): 760–766. Bibcode:1951PNAS...37..760F. doi:10.1073/pnas.37.11.760. PMC 1063464. PMID 16578416.
^ Uhlmann, Jeffrey (2018), A Generalized Matrix Inverse that is Consistent with Respect to Diagonal Transformations (PDF), SIAM Journal on Matrix Analysis, vol. 239, pp. 781–800, archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2019
^ Eckart, C.; Young, G. (1936). "The approximation of one matrix by another of lower rank". Psychometrika. 1 (3): 211–8. doi:10.1007/BF02288367. S2CID 10163399.
^ Hestenes, M. R. (1958). "Inversion of Matrices by Biorthogonalization and Related Results". Journal of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. 6 (1): 51–90. doi:10.1137/0106005. JSTOR 2098862. MR 0092215.
^ (Golub & Kahan 1965)
^ Golub, G. H.; Reinsch, C. (1970). "Singular value decomposition and least squares solutions". Numerische Mathematik. 14 (5): 403–420. doi:10.1007/BF02163027. MR 1553974. S2CID 123532178.
References
Banerjee, Sudipto; Roy, Anindya (2014), Linear Algebra and Matrix Analysis for Statistics, Texts in Statistical Science (1st ed.), Chapman and Hall/CRC, ISBN 978-1420095388
Bisgard, James (2021). Analysis and Linear Algebra: The Singular Value Decomposition and Applications. Student Mathematical Library (1st ed.). AMS. ISBN 978-1-4704-6332-8.
Chicco, D; Masseroli, M (2015). "Software suite for gene and protein annotation prediction and similarity search". IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. 12 (4): 837–843. doi:10.1109/TCBB.2014.2382127. hdl:11311/959408. PMID 26357324. S2CID 14714823.
Trefethen, Lloyd N.; Bau III, David (1997). Numerical linear algebra. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. ISBN 978-0-89871-361-9.
Demmel, James; Kahan, William (1990). "Accurate singular values of bidiagonal matrices". SIAM Journal on Scientific and Statistical Computing. 11 (5): 873–912. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.48.3740. doi:10.1137/0911052.
Golub, Gene H.; Kahan, William (1965). "Calculating the singular values and pseudo-inverse of a matrix". Journal of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Series B: Numerical Analysis. 2 (2): 205–224. Bibcode:1965SJNA....2..205G. doi:10.1137/0702016. JSTOR 2949777.
Golub, Gene H.; Van Loan, Charles F. (1996). Matrix Computations (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins. ISBN 978-0-8018-5414-9.
GSL Team (2007). "§14.4 Singular Value Decomposition". GNU Scientific Library. Reference Manual.
Halldor, Bjornsson and Venegas, Silvia A. (1997). "A manual for EOF and SVD analyses of climate data". McGill University, CCGCR Report No. 97-1, Montréal, Québec, 52pp.
Hansen, P. C. (1987). "The truncated SVD as a method for regularization". BIT. 27 (4): 534–553. doi:10.1007/BF01937276. S2CID 37591557.
Horn, Roger A.; Johnson, Charles R. (1985). "Section 7.3". Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38632-6.
Horn, Roger A.; Johnson, Charles R. (1991). "Chapter 3". Topics in Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46713-1.
Samet, H. (2006). Foundations of Multidimensional and Metric Data Structures. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12-369446-1.
Strang G. (1998). "Section 6.7". Introduction to Linear Algebra (3rd ed.). Wellesley-Cambridge Press. ISBN 978-0-9614088-5-5.
Stewart, G. W. (1993). "On the Early History of the Singular Value Decomposition". SIAM Review. 35 (4): 551–566. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.23.1831. doi:10.1137/1035134. hdl:1903/566. JSTOR 2132388.
Wall, Michael E.; Rechtsteiner, Andreas; Rocha, Luis M. (2003). "Singular value decomposition and principal component analysis". In D.P. Berrar; W. Dubitzky; M. Granzow (eds.). A Practical Approach to Microarray Data Analysis. Norwell, MA: Kluwer. pp. 91–109.
Press, WH; Teukolsky, SA; Vetterling, WT; Flannery, BP (2007), "Section 2.6", Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing (3rd ed.), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-88068-8
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Wiener–Khinchin theorem | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Singular-Value-Decomposition.svg"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"factorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_decomposition"},{"link_name":"real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"eigendecomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendecomposition"},{"link_name":"normal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_matrix"},{"link_name":"polar decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_decomposition#Matrix_polar_decomposition"},{"link_name":"unitary matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrix"},{"link_name":"rectangular diagonal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectangular_diagonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"conjugate transpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_transpose"},{"link_name":"orthogonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"singular values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value"},{"link_name":"rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_of_a_matrix"},{"link_name":"orthonormal bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis"},{"link_name":"semi-unitary matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-orthogonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"semi-unitary matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-orthogonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"pseudoinverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%E2%80%93Penrose_pseudoinverse"},{"link_name":"range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_of_a_matrix"},{"link_name":"null space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(matrix)"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing"},{"link_name":"least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_squares"},{"link_name":"process control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_control"}],"text":"Illustration of the singular value decomposition UΣV⁎ of a real 2 × 2 matrix M.Top: The action of M, indicated by its effect on the unit disc D and the two canonical unit vectors e1 and e2.Left: The action of V⁎, a rotation, on D, e1, and e2.Bottom: The action of Σ, a scaling by the singular values σ1 horizontally and σ2 vertically.Right: The action of U, another rotation.In linear algebra, the singular value decomposition (SVD) is a factorization of a real or complex matrix into a rotation, followed by a rescaling followed by another rotation. It generalizes the eigendecomposition of a square normal matrix with an orthonormal eigenbasis to any \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix. It is related to the polar decomposition.Specifically, the singular value decomposition of an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n complex matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is a factorization of the form \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n U\n Σ\n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U\\Sigma V^{*}} ,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n is an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times m}\n \n complex unitary matrix, \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n is an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n rectangular diagonal matrix with non-negative real numbers on the diagonal, \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n is an \n \n \n \n n\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\times n}\n \n complex unitary matrix, and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n is the conjugate transpose of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n. Such decomposition always exists for any complex matrix. If \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is real, then \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n can be guaranteed to be real orthogonal matrices; in such contexts, the SVD is often denoted \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n T\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{\\mathrm {T} }.}The diagonal entries \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n Σ\n \n i\n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}=\\Sigma _{ii}}\n \n of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n are uniquely determined by \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n and are known as the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n. The number of non-zero singular values is equal to the rank of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n. The columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and the columns of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are called left-singular vectors and right-singular vectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n, respectively. They form two sets of orthonormal bases \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n \n u\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1},\\ldots ,\\mathbf {u} _{m}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n \n v\n \n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{1},\\ldots ,\\mathbf {v} _{n},}\n \n and if they are sorted so that the singular values \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n with value zero are all in the highest-numbered columns (or rows), the singular value decomposition can be written asM\n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\sum _{i=1}^{r}\\sigma _{i}\\mathbf {u} _{i}\\mathbf {v} _{i}^{*},}where \n \n \n \n r\n ≤\n min\n {\n m\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r\\leq \\min\\{m,n\\}}\n \n is the rank of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}The SVD is not unique, however it is always possible to choose the decomposition such that the singular values \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n i\n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Sigma _{ii}}\n \n are in descending order. In this case, \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n (but not \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n) is uniquely determined by \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}The term sometimes refers to the compact SVD, a similar decomposition \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n \n U\n Σ\n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U\\Sigma V} ^{*}}\n \n in which \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n is square diagonal of size \n \n \n \n r\n ×\n r\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r\\times r,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n r\n ≤\n min\n {\n m\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r\\leq \\min\\{m,n\\}}\n \n is the rank of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n and has only the non-zero singular values. In this variant, \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n is an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times r}\n \n semi-unitary matrix and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n is an \n \n \n \n >\n n\n ×\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle >n\\times r}\n \n semi-unitary matrix, such that \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n U\n \n =\n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n V\n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n \n r\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} ^{*}\\mathbf {U} =\\mathbf {V} ^{*}\\mathbf {V} =\\mathbf {I} _{r}.}Mathematical applications of the SVD include computing the pseudoinverse, matrix approximation, and determining the rank, range, and null space of a matrix. The SVD is also extremely useful in all areas of science, engineering, and statistics, such as signal processing, least squares fitting of data, and process control.","title":"Singular value decomposition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Singular_value_decomposition.gif"},{"link_name":"shearing matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_mapping"},{"link_name":"unit disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_disc"},{"link_name":"canonical unit vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_basis"},{"link_name":"ellipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_matrix"},{"link_name":"scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_matrix"},{"link_name":"semi-axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse#Elements_of_an_ellipse"},{"link_name":"singular values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Singular_value_decomposition_visualisation.svg"}],"text":"Animated illustration of the SVD of a 2D, real shearing matrix M. First, we see the unit disc in blue together with the two canonical unit vectors. We then see the actions of M, which distorts the disk to an ellipse. The SVD decomposes M into three simple transformations: an initial rotation V⁎, a scaling \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n along the coordinate axes, and a final rotation U. The lengths σ1 and σ2 of the semi-axes of the ellipse are the singular values of M, namely Σ1,1 and Σ2,2.Visualization of the matrix multiplications in singular value decomposition","title":"Intuitive interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"square matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_matrix"},{"link_name":"orthogonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"linear transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_transformation"},{"link_name":"rotations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"reflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_matrix"},{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"transformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Rotation, coordinate scaling, and reflection","text":"In the special case when \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times m}\n \n real square matrix, the matrices \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n can be chosen to be real \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times m}\n \n matrices too. In that case, \"unitary\" is the same as \"orthogonal\". Then, interpreting both unitary matrices as well as the diagonal matrix, summarized here as \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} ,}\n \n as a linear transformation \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n ↦\n \n A\n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} \\mapsto \\mathbf {Ax} }\n \n of the space \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} _{m},}\n \n the matrices \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n represent rotations or reflection of the space, while \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n represents the scaling of each coordinate \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} _{i}}\n \n by the factor \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}.}\n \n Thus the SVD decomposition breaks down any linear transformation of \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{m}}\n \n into a composition of three geometrical transformations: a rotation or reflection (\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n), followed by a coordinate-by-coordinate scaling (\n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n), followed by another rotation or reflection (\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n).In particular, if \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n has a positive determinant, then \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n can be chosen to be both rotations with reflections, or both rotations without reflections.[citation needed] If the determinant is negative, exactly one of them will have a reflection. If the determinant is zero, each can be independently chosen to be of either type.If the matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is real but not square, namely \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n with \n \n \n \n m\n ≠\n n\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\neq n,}\n \n it can be interpreted as a linear transformation from \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{n}}\n \n to \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n m\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{m}.}\n \n Then \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n can be chosen to be rotations/reflections of \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{m}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{n},}\n \n respectively; and \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } ,}\n \n besides scaling the first \n \n \n \n min\n {\n m\n ,\n n\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\min\\{m,n\\}}\n \n coordinates, also extends the vector with zeros, i.e. removes trailing coordinates, so as to turn \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{n}}\n \n into \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n m\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{m}.}","title":"Intuitive interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"singular values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_values"},{"link_name":"ellipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"Euclidean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space"},{"link_name":"square matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_matrix"},{"link_name":"ellipsoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"ellipsoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"below","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Geometric_meaning"}],"sub_title":"Singular values as semiaxes of an ellipse or ellipsoid","text":"As shown in the figure, the singular values can be interpreted as the magnitude of the semiaxes of an ellipse in 2D. This concept can be generalized to \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-dimensional Euclidean space, with the singular values of any \n \n \n \n n\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\times n}\n \n square matrix being viewed as the magnitude of the semiaxis of an \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-dimensional ellipsoid. Similarly, the singular values of any \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix can be viewed as the magnitude of the semiaxis of an \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-dimensional ellipsoid in \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n-dimensional space, for example as an ellipse in a (tilted) 2D plane in a 3D space. Singular values encode magnitude of the semiaxis, while singular vectors encode direction. See below for further details.","title":"Intuitive interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orthonormal vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_vectors"},{"link_name":"basis vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_vectors"},{"link_name":"orthonormal bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis"},{"link_name":"positive-semidefinite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_matrix"},{"link_name":"Hermitian matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"},{"link_name":"diagonalizable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonalizable"},{"link_name":"eigendecomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendecomposition"}],"sub_title":"The columns of U and V are orthonormal bases","text":"Since \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n are unitary, the columns of each of them form a set of orthonormal vectors, which can be regarded as basis vectors. The matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n maps the basis vector \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{i}}\n \n to the stretched unit vector \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}\\mathbf {U} _{i}.}\n \n By the definition of a unitary matrix, the same is true for their conjugate transposes \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} ^{*}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n except the geometric interpretation of the singular values as stretches is lost. In short, the columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} ,}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} ^{*},}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n are orthonormal bases. When \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is a positive-semidefinite Hermitian matrix, \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are both equal to the unitary matrix used to diagonalize \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n However, when \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is not positive-semidefinite and Hermitian but still diagonalizable, its eigendecomposition and singular value decomposition are distinct.","title":"Intuitive interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"column space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_space"},{"link_name":"null space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_space"},{"link_name":"row space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_space"}],"sub_title":"Relation to the four fundamental subspaces","text":"The first \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n are a basis of the column space of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n.\nThe last \n \n \n \n m\n −\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m-r}\n \n columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n are a basis of the null space of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}}\n \n.\nThe first \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n columns of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are a basis of the column space of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}}\n \n (the row space of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n in the real case).\nThe last \n \n \n \n n\n −\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n-r}\n \n columns of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are a basis of the null space of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n.","title":"Intuitive interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orthonormal basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis"},{"link_name":"scalar products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_product"},{"link_name":"linear transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_transformation"},{"link_name":"ellipsoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"semi-axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-minor_axis"},{"link_name":"endomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endomorphism"}],"sub_title":"Geometric meaning","text":"Because \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are unitary, we know that the columns \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n \n U\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1},\\ldots ,\\mathbf {U} _{m}}\n \n of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n yield an orthonormal basis of \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{m}}\n \n and the columns \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n \n V\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1},\\ldots ,\\mathbf {V} _{n}}\n \n of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n yield an orthonormal basis of \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{n}}\n \n (with respect to the standard scalar products on these spaces).The linear transformationT\n :\n \n {\n \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n ↦\n \n M\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T:\\left\\{{\\begin{aligned}K^{n}&\\to K^{m}\\\\x&\\mapsto \\mathbf {M} x\\end{aligned}}\\right.}has a particularly simple description with respect to these orthonormal bases: we haveT\n (\n \n \n V\n \n \n i\n \n \n )\n =\n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n i\n =\n 1\n ,\n …\n ,\n min\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T(\\mathbf {V} _{i})=\\sigma _{i}\\mathbf {U} _{i},\\qquad i=1,\\ldots ,\\min(m,n),}where \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n is the \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th diagonal entry of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } ,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n T\n (\n \n \n V\n \n \n i\n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T(\\mathbf {V} _{i})=0}\n \n for \n \n \n \n i\n >\n min\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i>\\min(m,n).}The geometric content of the SVD theorem can thus be summarized as follows: for every linear map \n \n \n \n T\n :\n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T:K^{n}\\to K^{m}}\n \n one can find orthonormal bases of \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{n}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{m}}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n maps the \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th basis vector of \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{n}}\n \n to a non-negative multiple of the \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th basis vector of \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{m},}\n \n and sends the left-over basis vectors to zero. With respect to these bases, the map \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n is therefore represented by a diagonal matrix with non-negative real diagonal entries.To get a more visual flavor of singular values and SVD factorization – at least when working on real vector spaces – consider the sphere \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n of radius one in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{n}.}\n \n The linear map \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n maps this sphere onto an ellipsoid in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n m\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{m}.}\n \n Non-zero singular values are simply the lengths of the semi-axes of this ellipsoid. Especially when \n \n \n \n n\n =\n m\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=m,}\n \n and all the singular values are distinct and non-zero, the SVD of the linear map \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n can be easily analyzed as a succession of three consecutive moves: consider the ellipsoid \n \n \n \n T\n (\n S\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T(S)}\n \n and specifically its axes; then consider the directions in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{n}}\n \n sent by \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n onto these axes. These directions happen to be mutually orthogonal. Apply first an isometry \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n sending these directions to the coordinate axes of \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} ^{n}.}\n \n On a second move, apply an endomorphism \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} }\n \n diagonalized along the coordinate axes and stretching or shrinking in each direction, using the semi-axes lengths of \n \n \n \n T\n (\n S\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T(S)}\n \n as stretching coefficients. The composition \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n ∘\n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} \\circ \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n then sends the unit-sphere onto an ellipsoid isometric to \n \n \n \n T\n (\n S\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T(S).}\n \n To define the third and last move, apply an isometry \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n to this ellipsoid to obtain \n \n \n \n T\n (\n S\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T(S).}\n \n As can be easily checked, the composition \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n ∘\n \n D\n \n ∘\n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\circ \\mathbf {D} \\circ \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n coincides with \n \n \n \n T\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T.}","title":"Intuitive interpretations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unitary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrix"},{"link_name":"identity matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"orthogonal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix"}],"text":"Consider the \n \n \n \n 4\n ×\n 5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 4\\times 5}\n \n matrixM\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ={\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&2\\\\0&0&3&0&0\\\\0&0&0&0&0\\\\0&2&0&0&0\\end{bmatrix}}}A singular value decomposition of this matrix is given by \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}U\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n 0.2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n 0.8\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n 0.8\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {U} &={\\begin{bmatrix}\\color {Green}0&\\color {Blue}-1&\\color {Cyan}0&\\color {Emerald}0\\\\\\color {Green}-1&\\color {Blue}0&\\color {Cyan}0&\\color {Emerald}0\\\\\\color {Green}0&\\color {Blue}0&\\color {Cyan}0&\\color {Emerald}-1\\\\\\color {Green}0&\\color {Blue}0&\\color {Cyan}-1&\\color {Emerald}0\\end{bmatrix}}\\\\[6pt]\\mathbf {\\Sigma } &={\\begin{bmatrix}3&0&0&0&\\color {Gray}{\\mathit {0}}\\\\0&{\\sqrt {5}}&0&0&\\color {Gray}{\\mathit {0}}\\\\0&0&2&0&\\color {Gray}{\\mathit {0}}\\\\0&0&0&\\color {Red}\\mathbf {0} &\\color {Gray}{\\mathit {0}}\\end{bmatrix}}\\\\[6pt]\\mathbf {V} ^{*}&={\\begin{bmatrix}\\color {Violet}0&\\color {Violet}0&\\color {Violet}-1&\\color {Violet}0&\\color {Violet}0\\\\\\color {Plum}-{\\sqrt {0.2}}&\\color {Plum}0&\\color {Plum}0&\\color {Plum}0&\\color {Plum}-{\\sqrt {0.8}}\\\\\\color {Magenta}0&\\color {Magenta}-1&\\color {Magenta}0&\\color {Magenta}0&\\color {Magenta}0\\\\\\color {Orchid}0&\\color {Orchid}0&\\color {Orchid}0&\\color {Orchid}1&\\color {Orchid}0\\\\\\color {Purple}-{\\sqrt {0.8}}&\\color {Purple}0&\\color {Purple}0&\\color {Purple}0&\\color {Purple}{\\sqrt {0.2}}\\end{bmatrix}}\\end{aligned}}}The scaling matrix \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n is zero outside of the diagonal (grey italics) and one diagonal element is zero (red bold, light blue bold in dark mode). Furthermore, because the matrices \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n are unitary, multiplying by their respective conjugate transposes yields identity matrices, as shown below. In this case, because \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n are real valued, each is an orthogonal matrix.U\n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {U} ^{*}&={\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0\\\\0&1&0&0\\\\0&0&1&0\\\\0&0&0&1\\end{bmatrix}}=\\mathbf {I} _{4}\\\\[6pt]\\mathbf {V} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}&={\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0\\\\0&1&0&0&0\\\\0&0&1&0&0\\\\0&0&0&1&0\\\\0&0&0&0&1\\end{bmatrix}}=\\mathbf {I} _{5}\\end{aligned}}}This particular singular value decomposition is not unique. Choosing \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n such thatV\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.8\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n 0.1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n 0.4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0.1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}={\\begin{bmatrix}\\color {Violet}0&\\color {Violet}1&\\color {Violet}0&\\color {Violet}0&\\color {Violet}0\\\\\\color {Plum}0&\\color {Plum}0&\\color {Plum}1&\\color {Plum}0&\\color {Plum}0\\\\\\color {Magenta}{\\sqrt {0.2}}&\\color {Magenta}0&\\color {Magenta}0&\\color {Magenta}0&\\color {Magenta}{\\sqrt {0.8}}\\\\\\color {Orchid}{\\sqrt {0.4}}&\\color {Orchid}0&\\color {Orchid}0&\\color {Orchid}{\\sqrt {0.5}}&\\color {Orchid}-{\\sqrt {0.1}}\\\\\\color {Purple}-{\\sqrt {0.4}}&\\color {Purple}0&\\color {Purple}0&\\color {Purple}{\\sqrt {0.5}}&\\color {Purple}{\\sqrt {0.1}}\\end{bmatrix}}}is also a valid singular value decomposition.","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"SVD and spectral decomposition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"singular value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value"},{"link_name":"unitary basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_basis"},{"link_name":"cokernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cokernel"},{"link_name":"kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"rank–nullity theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank%E2%80%93nullity_theorem"}],"sub_title":"Singular values, singular vectors, and their relation to the SVD","text":"A non-negative real number \n \n \n \n σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma }\n \n is a singular value for \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n if and only if there exist unit-length vectors \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n in \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{m}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} }\n \n in \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{n}}\n \n such thatM\n v\n \n \n \n \n =\n σ\n \n u\n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n \n =\n σ\n \n v\n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {Mv} &=\\sigma \\mathbf {u} ,\\\\[3mu]\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {u} &=\\sigma \\mathbf {v} .\\end{aligned}}}The vectors \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} }\n \n are called left-singular and right-singular vectors for \n \n \n \n σ\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma ,}\n \n respectively.In any singular value decompositionM\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}the diagonal entries of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n are equal to the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n The first \n \n \n \n p\n =\n min\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p=\\min(m,n)}\n \n columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are, respectively, left- and right-singular vectors for the corresponding singular values. Consequently, the above theorem implies that:An \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n has at most \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n distinct singular values.\nIt is always possible to find a unitary basis \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n for \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{m}}\n \n with a subset of basis vectors spanning the left-singular vectors of each singular value of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n\nIt is always possible to find a unitary basis \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n for \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{n}}\n \n with a subset of basis vectors spanning the right-singular vectors of each singular value of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}A singular value for which we can find two left (or right) singular vectors that are linearly independent is called degenerate. If \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{2}}\n \n are two left-singular vectors which both correspond to the singular value σ, then any normalized linear combination of the two vectors is also a left-singular vector corresponding to the singular value σ. The similar statement is true for right-singular vectors. The number of independent left and right-singular vectors coincides, and these singular vectors appear in the same columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n corresponding to diagonal elements of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n all with the same value \n \n \n \n σ\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma .}As an exception, the left and right-singular vectors of singular value 0 comprise all unit vectors in the cokernel and kernel, respectively, of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n which by the rank–nullity theorem cannot be the same dimension if \n \n \n \n m\n ≠\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\neq n.}\n \n Even if all singular values are nonzero, if \n \n \n \n m\n >\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m>n}\n \n then the cokernel is nontrivial, in which case \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n is padded with \n \n \n \n m\n −\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m-n}\n \n orthogonal vectors from the cokernel. Conversely, if \n \n \n \n m\n <\n n\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m<n,}\n \n then \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n is padded by \n \n \n \n n\n −\n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n-m}\n \n orthogonal vectors from the kernel. However, if the singular value of \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n exists, the extra columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n already appear as left or right-singular vectors.Non-degenerate singular values always have unique left- and right-singular vectors, up to multiplication by a unit-phase factor \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n i\n φ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{i\\varphi }}\n \n (for the real case up to a sign). Consequently, if all singular values of a square matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n are non-degenerate and non-zero, then its singular value decomposition is unique, up to multiplication of a column of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n by a unit-phase factor and simultaneous multiplication of the corresponding column of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n by the same unit-phase factor.\nIn general, the SVD is unique up to arbitrary unitary transformations applied uniformly to the column vectors of both \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n spanning the subspaces of each singular value, and up to arbitrary unitary transformations on vectors of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n spanning the kernel and cokernel, respectively, of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}","title":"SVD and spectral decomposition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"eigenvalue decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalue_decomposition"},{"link_name":"diagonalizable matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonalizable_matrix"},{"link_name":"eigenvectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvectors"},{"link_name":"eigenvalues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalues"},{"link_name":"normal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_matrix"},{"link_name":"spectral theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theorem#Finite-dimensional_case"},{"link_name":"unitarily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_transform"},{"link_name":"diagonalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonalizable_matrix"},{"link_name":"eigenvectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvector"},{"link_name":"positive semi-definite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-definite_matrix"},{"link_name":"polar decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_decomposition"},{"link_name":"non-defective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defective_matrix"}],"sub_title":"Relation to eigenvalue decomposition","text":"The singular value decomposition is very general in the sense that it can be applied to any \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix, whereas eigenvalue decomposition can only be applied to square diagonalizable matrices. Nevertheless, the two decompositions are related.If \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n has SVD \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*},}\n \n the following two relations hold:M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n V\n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n V\n \n (\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n Σ\n \n )\n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n U\n \n (\n \n Σ\n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} &=\\mathbf {V} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } ^{*}\\mathbf {U} ^{*}\\,\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}=\\mathbf {V} (\\mathbf {\\Sigma } ^{*}\\mathbf {\\Sigma } )\\mathbf {V} ^{*},\\\\[3mu]\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}&=\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}\\,\\mathbf {V} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } ^{*}\\mathbf {U} ^{*}=\\mathbf {U} (\\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {\\Sigma } ^{*})\\mathbf {U} ^{*}.\\end{aligned}}}The right-hand sides of these relations describe the eigenvalue decompositions of the left-hand sides. Consequently:The columns of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n (referred to as right-singular vectors) are eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} .}\n \n\nThe columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n (referred to as left-singular vectors) are eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}.}\n \n\nThe non-zero elements of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n (non-zero singular values) are the square roots of the non-zero eigenvalues of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}.}In the special case of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n being a normal matrix, and thus also square, the spectral theorem ensures that it can be unitarily diagonalized using a basis of eigenvectors, and thus decomposed as \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n D\n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {D} \\mathbf {U} ^{*}}\n \n for some unitary matrix \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and diagonal matrix \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} }\n \n with complex elements \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n along the diagonal. When \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is positive semi-definite, \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n will be non-negative real numbers so that the decomposition \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n D\n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {D} \\mathbf {U} ^{*}}\n \n is also a singular value decomposition. Otherwise, it can be recast as an SVD by moving the phase \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n i\n φ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{i\\varphi }}\n \n of each \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n to either its corresponding \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{i}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{i}.}\n \n The natural connection of the SVD to non-normal matrices is through the polar decomposition theorem: \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n S\n \n \n R\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {S} \\mathbf {R} ,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {S} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {U} ^{*}}\n \n is positive semidefinite and normal, and \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n is unitary.Thus, except for positive semi-definite matrices, the eigenvalue decomposition and SVD of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n while related, differ: the eigenvalue decomposition is \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {1}}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n is not necessarily unitary and \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} }\n \n is not necessarily positive semi-definite, while the SVD is \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {1}}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n is diagonal and positive semi-definite, and \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n are unitary matrices that are not necessarily related except through the matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n While only non-defective square matrices have an eigenvalue decomposition, any \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix has a SVD.","title":"SVD and spectral decomposition"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pseudoinverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%E2%80%93Penrose_pseudoinverse"},{"link_name":"reciprocal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_inverse"},{"link_name":"linear least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_least_squares_(mathematics)"}],"sub_title":"Pseudoinverse","text":"The singular value decomposition can be used for computing the pseudoinverse of a matrix. The pseudoinverse of the matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n with singular value decomposition \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n is,M\n \n \n +\n \n \n =\n \n V\n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{+}=\\mathbf {V} {\\boldsymbol {\\Sigma }}^{+}\\mathbf {U} ^{\\ast },}where \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\Sigma }}^{+}}\n \n is the pseudoinverse of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\boldsymbol {\\Sigma }}}\n \n, which is formed by replacing every non-zero diagonal entry by its reciprocal and transposing the resulting matrix. The pseudoinverse is one way to solve linear least squares problems.","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"homogeneous linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_linear_equation"},{"link_name":"null space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(matrix)"},{"link_name":"square matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_matrix"}],"sub_title":"Solving homogeneous linear equations","text":"A set of homogeneous linear equations can be written as \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n x\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} =\\mathbf {0} }\n \n for a matrix \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n and vector \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} .}\n \n A typical situation is that \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n is known and a non-zero \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n is to be determined which satisfies the equation. Such an \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n belongs to \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n's null space and is sometimes called a (right) null vector of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n The vector \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n can be characterized as a right-singular vector corresponding to a singular value of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n that is zero. This observation means that if \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n is a square matrix and has no vanishing singular value, the equation has no non-zero \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n as a solution. It also means that if there are several vanishing singular values, any linear combination of the corresponding right-singular vectors is a valid solution. Analogously to the definition of a (right) null vector, a non-zero \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n satisfying \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n A\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} ^{*}\\mathbf {A} =\\mathbf {0} }\n \n with \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} ^{*}}\n \n denoting the conjugate transpose of \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} ,}\n \n is called a left null vector of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"total least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_least_squares"},{"link_name":"2-norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_norm#p-norm"}],"sub_title":"Total least squares minimization","text":"A total least squares problem seeks the vector \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n that minimizes the 2-norm of a vector \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} }\n \n under the constraint \n \n \n \n ‖\n \n x\n \n ‖\n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {x} \\|=1.}\n \n The solution turns out to be the right-singular vector of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n corresponding to the smallest singular value.","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_space"},{"link_name":"null space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_space"},{"link_name":"example","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Example"},{"link_name":"rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_of_a_matrix"},{"link_name":"rounding error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding_error"}],"sub_title":"Range, null space and rank","text":"Another application of the SVD is that it provides an explicit representation of the range and null space of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n The right-singular vectors corresponding to vanishing singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n span the null space of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n and the left-singular vectors corresponding to the non-zero singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n span the range of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n For example, in the above example the null space is spanned by the last row of \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n and the range is spanned by the first three columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} .}As a consequence, the rank of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n equals the number of non-zero singular values which is the same as the number of non-zero diagonal elements in \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n. In numerical linear algebra the singular values can be used to determine the effective rank of a matrix, as rounding error may lead to small but non-zero singular values in a rank deficient matrix. Singular values beyond a significant gap are assumed to be numerically equivalent to zero.","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"approximating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-rank_approximation"},{"link_name":"truncated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Truncated_SVD"},{"link_name":"Frobenius norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frobenius_norm"},{"link_name":"Eckart–Young theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-rank_approximation"},{"link_name":"Stewart 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStewart1993"}],"sub_title":"Low-rank matrix approximation","text":"Some practical applications need to solve the problem of approximating a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n with another matrix \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ~\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\mathbf {M} }}}\n \n, said to be truncated, which has a specific rank \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n. In the case that the approximation is based on minimizing the Frobenius norm of the difference between \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ~\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\mathbf {M} }}}\n \n under the constraint that \n \n \n \n rank\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ~\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n r\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {rank} {\\bigl (}{\\tilde {\\mathbf {M} }}{\\bigr )}=r,}\n \n it turns out that the solution is given by the SVD of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n namelyM\n \n ~\n \n \n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n ~\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\mathbf {M} }}=\\mathbf {U} {\\tilde {\\mathbf {\\Sigma } }}\\mathbf {V} ^{*},}where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n ~\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\mathbf {\\Sigma } }}}\n \n is the same matrix as \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n except that it contains only the \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n largest singular values (the other singular values are replaced by zero). This is known as the Eckart–Young theorem, as it was proved by those two authors in 1936 (although it was later found to have been known to earlier authors; see Stewart 1993).","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"outer product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_product"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Gabor filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabor_filter"},{"link_name":"reverse correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike-triggered_average"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Separable models","text":"The SVD can be thought of as decomposing a matrix into a weighted, ordered sum of separable matrices. By separable, we mean that a matrix \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n can be written as an outer product of two vectors \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n =\n \n u\n \n ⊗\n \n v\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} =\\mathbf {u} \\otimes \\mathbf {v} ,}\n \n or, in coordinates, \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n j\n \n \n =\n \n u\n \n i\n \n \n \n v\n \n j\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{ij}=u_{i}v_{j}.}\n \n Specifically, the matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n can be decomposed as,M\n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n i\n \n \n ⊗\n \n \n V\n \n \n i\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\sum _{i}\\mathbf {A} _{i}=\\sum _{i}\\sigma _{i}\\mathbf {U} _{i}\\otimes \\mathbf {V} _{i}.}Here \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{i}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{i}}\n \n are the \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th columns of the corresponding SVD matrices, \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n are the ordered singular values, and each \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} _{i}}\n \n is separable. The SVD can be used to find the decomposition of an image processing filter into separable horizontal and vertical filters. Note that the number of non-zero \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n is exactly the rank of the matrix.[citation needed] Separable models often arise in biological systems, and the SVD factorization is useful to analyze such systems. For example, some visual area V1 simple cells' receptive fields can be well described[1] by a Gabor filter in the space domain multiplied by a modulation function in the time domain. Thus, given a linear filter evaluated through, for example, reverse correlation, one can rearrange the two spatial dimensions into one dimension, thus yielding a two-dimensional filter (space, time) which can be decomposed through SVD. The first column of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n in the SVD factorization is then a Gabor while the first column of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n represents the time modulation (or vice versa). One may then define an index of separabilityα\n =\n \n \n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha ={\\frac {\\sigma _{1}^{2}}{\\sum _{i}\\sigma _{i}^{2}}},}which is the fraction of the power in the matrix M which is accounted for by the first separable matrix in the decomposition.[2]","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orthogonal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"Frobenius norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frobenius_norm"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"shape analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_analysis_(digital_geometry)"},{"link_name":"orthogonal Procrustes problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_Procrustes_problem"}],"sub_title":"Nearest orthogonal matrix","text":"It is possible to use the SVD of a square matrix \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n to determine the orthogonal matrix \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {O} }\n \n closest to \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n The closeness of fit is measured by the Frobenius norm of \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n −\n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {O} -\\mathbf {A} .}\n \n The solution is the product \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}.}\n \n[3] This intuitively makes sense because an orthogonal matrix would have the decomposition \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n I\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {I} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {I} }\n \n is the identity matrix, so that if \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n then the product \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n amounts to replacing the singular values with ones. Equivalently, the solution is the unitary matrix \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n of the Polar Decomposition \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n R\n \n \n P\n \n =\n \n \n P\n \n ′\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {R} \\mathbf {P} =\\mathbf {P} '\\mathbf {R} }\n \n in either order of stretch and rotation, as described above.A similar problem, with interesting applications in shape analysis, is the orthogonal Procrustes problem, which consists of finding an orthogonal matrix \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {O} }\n \n which most closely maps \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n to \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} .}\n \n Specifically,O\n \n =\n \n \n argmin\n Ω\n \n \n ‖\n \n A\n \n \n Ω\n \n −\n \n B\n \n \n ‖\n \n F\n \n \n \n \n subject to\n \n \n \n \n Ω\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n Ω\n \n =\n \n I\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {O} ={\\underset {\\Omega }{\\operatorname {argmin} }}\\|\\mathbf {A} {\\boldsymbol {\\Omega }}-\\mathbf {B} \\|_{F}\\quad {\\text{subject to}}\\quad {\\boldsymbol {\\Omega }}^{\\operatorname {T} }{\\boldsymbol {\\Omega }}=\\mathbf {I} ,}where \n \n \n \n ‖\n ⋅\n \n ‖\n \n F\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\cdot \\|_{F}}\n \n denotes the Frobenius norm.This problem is equivalent to finding the nearest orthogonal matrix to a given matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n \n A\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {A} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {B} }\n \n.","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kabsch algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabsch_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Wahba's problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahba%27s_problem"}],"sub_title":"The Kabsch algorithm","text":"The Kabsch algorithm (called Wahba's problem in other fields) uses SVD to compute the optimal rotation (with respect to least-squares minimization) that will align a set of points with a corresponding set of points. It is used, among other applications, to compare the structures of molecules.","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"image processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mademlis2018-5"},{"link_name":"big data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Signal processing","text":"The SVD and pseudoinverse have been successfully applied to signal processing,[4] image processing[5] and big data (e.g., in genomic signal processing).[6][7][8][9]","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inverse problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_problem"},{"link_name":"Tikhonov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikhonov_regularization"},{"link_name":"principal component analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis"},{"link_name":"correspondence analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_analysis"},{"link_name":"signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_processing"},{"link_name":"pattern recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition"},{"link_name":"modal analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_analysis"},{"link_name":"mode shapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_shape"},{"link_name":"latent semantic indexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_semantic_indexing"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"quantum information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information"},{"link_name":"Schmidt decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidt_decomposition"},{"link_name":"entangled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"link_name":"numerical weather prediction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction"},{"link_name":"Lanczos methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanczos_algorithm"},{"link_name":"ensemble forecast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_forecasting"},{"link_name":"radial basis functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_basis_functions"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"recommender systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommender_systems"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"outbreak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outbreak"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"higher-order SVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher-order_singular_value_decomposition"},{"link_name":"disease surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_surveillance"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"astrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrodynamics"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-muralidharan2023stretching-18"},{"link_name":"orbital station-keeping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_station-keeping"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Muralidharan2021-19"}],"sub_title":"Other examples","text":"The SVD is also applied extensively to the study of linear inverse problems and is useful in the analysis of regularization methods such as that of Tikhonov. It is widely used in statistics, where it is related to principal component analysis and to correspondence analysis, and in signal processing and pattern recognition. It is also used in output-only modal analysis, where the non-scaled mode shapes can be determined from the singular vectors. Yet another usage is latent semantic indexing in natural-language text processing.In general numerical computation involving linear or linearized systems, there is a universal constant that characterizes the regularity or singularity of a problem, which is the system's \"condition number\" \n \n \n \n κ\n :=\n \n σ\n \n max\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n σ\n \n min\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\kappa :=\\sigma _{\\text{max}}/\\sigma _{\\text{min}}}\n \n. It often controls the error rate or convergence rate of a given computational scheme on such systems.[10][11]The SVD also plays a crucial role in the field of quantum information, in a form often referred to as the Schmidt decomposition. Through it, states of two quantum systems are naturally decomposed, providing a necessary and sufficient condition for them to be entangled: if the rank of the \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n matrix is larger than one.One application of SVD to rather large matrices is in numerical weather prediction, where Lanczos methods are used to estimate the most linearly quickly growing few perturbations to the central numerical weather prediction over a given initial forward time period; i.e., the singular vectors corresponding to the largest singular values of the linearized propagator for the global weather over that time interval. The output singular vectors in this case are entire weather systems. These perturbations are then run through the full nonlinear model to generate an ensemble forecast, giving a handle on some of the uncertainty that should be allowed for around the current central prediction.SVD has also been applied to reduced order modelling. The aim of reduced order modelling is to reduce the number of degrees of freedom in a complex system which is to be modeled. SVD was coupled with radial basis functions to interpolate solutions to three-dimensional unsteady flow problems.[12]Interestingly, SVD has been used to improve gravitational waveform modeling by the ground-based gravitational-wave interferometer aLIGO.[13] SVD can help to increase the accuracy and speed of waveform generation to support gravitational-waves searches and update two different waveform models.Singular value decomposition is used in recommender systems to predict people's item ratings.[14] Distributed algorithms have been developed for the purpose of calculating the SVD on clusters of commodity machines.[15]Low-rank SVD has been applied for hotspot detection from spatiotemporal data with application to disease outbreak detection.[16] A combination of SVD and higher-order SVD also has been applied for real time event detection from complex data streams (multivariate data with space and time dimensions) in disease surveillance.[17]In astrodynamics, the SVD and its variants are used as an option to determine suitable maneuver directions for transfer trajectory design[18] and orbital station-keeping.[19]","title":"Applications of the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hermitian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"},{"link_name":"symmetric matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_matrix"},{"link_name":"extreme value theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem"},{"link_name":"Lagrange multipliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_multipliers"},{"link_name":"del","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del"}],"text":"An eigenvalue \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is characterized by the algebraic relation \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n u\n \n =\n λ\n \n u\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {u} =\\lambda \\mathbf {u} .}\n \n When \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is Hermitian, a variational characterization is also available. Let \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n be a real \n \n \n \n n\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\times n}\n \n symmetric matrix. Definef\n :\n \n {\n \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n →\n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n ↦\n \n \n x\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\left\\{{\\begin{aligned}\\mathbb {R} ^{n}&\\to \\mathbb {R} \\\\\\mathbf {x} &\\mapsto \\mathbf {x} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {x} \\end{aligned}}\\right.}By the extreme value theorem, this continuous function attains a maximum at some \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n when restricted to the unit sphere \n \n \n \n {\n ‖\n \n x\n \n ‖\n =\n 1\n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\|\\mathbf {x} \\|=1\\}.}\n \n By the Lagrange multipliers theorem, \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n necessarily satisfies∇\n \n \n u\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n u\n \n −\n λ\n ⋅\n ∇\n \n \n u\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n u\n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nabla \\mathbf {u} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {u} -\\lambda \\cdot \\nabla \\mathbf {u} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {u} =0}for some real number \n \n \n \n λ\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda .}\n \n The nabla symbol, \n \n \n \n ∇\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nabla }\n \n, is the del operator (differentiation with respect to \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} }\n \n). Using the symmetry of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n we obtain∇\n \n \n x\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n x\n \n −\n λ\n ⋅\n ∇\n \n \n x\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n =\n 2\n (\n \n M\n \n −\n λ\n \n I\n \n )\n \n x\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nabla \\mathbf {x} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {x} -\\lambda \\cdot \\nabla \\mathbf {x} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {x} =2(\\mathbf {M} -\\lambda \\mathbf {I} )\\mathbf {x} .}Therefore \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n u\n \n =\n λ\n \n u\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {u} =\\lambda \\mathbf {u} ,}\n \n so \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n is a unit length eigenvector of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n For every unit length eigenvector \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} }\n \n of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n its eigenvalue is \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n v\n \n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(\\mathbf {v} ),}\n \n so \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n is the largest eigenvalue of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n The same calculation performed on the orthogonal complement of \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n gives the next largest eigenvalue and so on. The complex Hermitian case is similar; there \n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n x\n \n )\n =\n \n \n x\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n x\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(\\mathbf {x} )=\\mathbf {x} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {x} }\n \n is a real-valued function of \n \n \n \n 2\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2n}\n \n real variables.Singular values are similar in that they can be described algebraically or from variational principles. Although, unlike the eigenvalue case, Hermiticity, or symmetry, of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is no longer required.This section gives these two arguments for existence of singular value decomposition.","title":"Proof of existence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spectral theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theorem"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Based on the spectral theorem","text":"Let \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n be an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n complex matrix. Since \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n is positive semi-definite and Hermitian, by the spectral theorem, there exists an \n \n \n \n n\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\times n}\n \n unitary matrix \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n such thatV\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n V\n \n =\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} ={\\bar {\\mathbf {D} }}={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {D} &0\\\\0&0\\end{bmatrix}},}where \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} }\n \n is diagonal and positive definite, of dimension \n \n \n \n ℓ\n ×\n ℓ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell \\times \\ell }\n \n, with \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell }\n \n the number of non-zero eigenvalues of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n (which can be shown to verify \n \n \n \n ℓ\n ≤\n min\n (\n n\n ,\n m\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell \\leq \\min(n,m)}\n \n). Note that \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n is here by definition a matrix whose \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th column is the \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i}\n \n-th eigenvector of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n, corresponding to the eigenvalue \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n \n i\n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bar {\\mathbf {D} }}_{ii}}\n \n. Moreover, the \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n-th column of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n, for \n \n \n \n j\n >\n ℓ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j>\\ell }\n \n, is an eigenvector of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n with eigenvalue \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n \n j\n j\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bar {\\mathbf {D} }}_{jj}=0}\n \n. This can be expressed by writing \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n as \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {V} _{1}&\\mathbf {V} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}}\n \n, where the columns of \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{2}}\n \n therefore contain the eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n corresponding to non-zero and zero eigenvalues, respectively. Using this rewriting of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n, the equation becomes:[\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\\\\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\\end{bmatrix}}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\,{\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {V} _{1}&\\!\\!\\mathbf {V} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}&\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{2}\\\\\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}&\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {D} &0\\\\0&0\\end{bmatrix}}.}This implies thatV\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n D\n \n ,\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n 0\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}=\\mathbf {D} ,\\quad \\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{2}=\\mathbf {0} .}Moreover, the second equation implies \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{2}=\\mathbf {0} }\n \n.[20] Finally, the unitary-ness of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n translates, in terms of \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{2}}\n \n, into the following conditions:V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n +\n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n \n 12\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\mathbf {V} _{1}&=\\mathbf {I} _{1},\\\\\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}\\mathbf {V} _{2}&=\\mathbf {I} _{2},\\\\\\mathbf {V} _{1}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}+\\mathbf {V} _{2}\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}&=\\mathbf {I} _{12},\\end{aligned}}}where the subscripts on the identity matrices are used to remark that they are of different dimensions.Let us now defineU\n \n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}=\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}\\mathbf {D} ^{-{\\frac {1}{2}}}.}Then,U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n (\n \n I\n \n −\n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n =\n \n M\n \n −\n (\n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}\\mathbf {D} ^{\\frac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}\\mathbf {D} ^{-{\\frac {1}{2}}}\\mathbf {D} ^{\\frac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\\mathbf {M} (\\mathbf {I} -\\mathbf {V} _{2}\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*})=\\mathbf {M} -(\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{2})\\mathbf {V} _{2}^{*}=\\mathbf {M} ,}since \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n 0\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{2}=\\mathbf {0} .}\n \n This can be also seen as immediate consequence of the fact that \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\\mathbf {M} }\n \n. This is equivalent to the observation that if \n \n \n \n {\n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n }\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{{\\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}\\}_{i=1}^{\\ell }}\n \n is the set of eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n corresponding to non-vanishing eigenvalues \n \n \n \n {\n \n λ\n \n i\n \n \n \n }\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\lambda _{i}\\}_{i=1}^{\\ell }}\n \n, then \n \n \n \n {\n \n M\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n }\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\mathbf {M} {\\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}\\}_{i=1}^{\\ell }}\n \n is a set of orthogonal vectors, and \n \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n \n \n λ\n \n i\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n }\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bigl \\{}\\lambda _{i}^{-1/2}\\mathbf {M} {\\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}{\\bigr \\}}{\\vphantom {|}}_{i=1}^{\\ell }}\n \n is a (generally not complete) set of orthonormal vectors. This matches with the matrix formalism used above denoting with \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1}}\n \n the matrix whose columns are \n \n \n \n {\n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n }\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{{\\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}\\}_{i=1}^{\\ell }}\n \n, with \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{2}}\n \n the matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n with vanishing eigenvalue, and \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}}\n \n the matrix whose columns are the vectors \n \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n \n \n λ\n \n i\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n }\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n ℓ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bigl \\{}\\lambda _{i}^{-1/2}\\mathbf {M} {\\boldsymbol {v}}_{i}{\\bigr \\}}{\\vphantom {|}}_{i=1}^{\\ell }}\n \n.We see that this is almost the desired result, except that \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1}}\n \n are in general not unitary, since they might not be square. However, we do know that the number of rows of \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}}\n \n is no smaller than the number of columns, since the dimensions of \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} }\n \n is no greater than \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n and \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n. Also, sinceU\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n I\n \n 1\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}^{*}\\mathbf {U} _{1}=\\mathbf {D} ^{-{\\frac {1}{2}}}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {V} _{1}\\mathbf {D} ^{-{\\frac {1}{2}}}=\\mathbf {D} ^{-{\\frac {1}{2}}}\\mathbf {D} \\mathbf {D} ^{-{\\frac {1}{2}}}=\\mathbf {I_{1}} ,}the columns in \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{1}}\n \n are orthonormal and can be extended to an orthonormal basis. This means that we can choose \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{2}}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} ={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {U} _{1}&\\mathbf {U} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}}\n \n is unitary.For \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{1}}\n \n we already have \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{2}}\n \n to make it unitary. Now, defineΣ\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } ={\\begin{bmatrix}{\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {D} ^{\\frac {1}{2}}&0\\\\0&0\\end{bmatrix}}\\\\0\\end{bmatrix}},}where extra zero rows are added or removed to make the number of zero rows equal the number of columns of \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{2},}\n \n and hence the overall dimensions of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n equal to \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n. Then[\n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n\n \n \n D\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n U\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {U} _{1}&\\mathbf {U} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}{\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {} D^{\\frac {1}{2}}&0\\\\0&0\\end{bmatrix}}\\\\0\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {V} _{1}&\\mathbf {V} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}^{*}={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {U} _{1}&\\mathbf {U} _{2}\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {D} ^{\\frac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}\\\\0\\end{bmatrix}}=\\mathbf {U} _{1}\\mathbf {D} ^{\\frac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {V} _{1}^{*}=\\mathbf {M} ,}which is the desired result:M\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}.}Notice the argument could begin with diagonalizing \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}}\n \n rather than \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n (This shows directly that \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n have the same non-zero eigenvalues).","title":"Proof of existence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_space"},{"link_name":"product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_topology"}],"sub_title":"Based on variational characterization","text":"The singular values can also be characterized as the maxima of \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n v\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} ^{\\mathrm {T} }\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {v} ,}\n \n considered as a function of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n over particular subspaces. The singular vectors are the values of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} }\n \n where these maxima are attained.Let \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n denote an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix with real entries. Let \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S^{k-1}}\n \n be the unit \n \n \n \n (\n k\n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (k-1)}\n \n-sphere in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{k}}\n \n, and define \n \n \n \n σ\n (\n \n u\n \n ,\n \n v\n \n )\n =\n \n \n u\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n v\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (\\mathbf {u} ,\\mathbf {v} )=\\mathbf {u} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {v} ,}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n ∈\n \n S\n \n m\n −\n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} \\in S^{m-1},}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n ∈\n \n S\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} \\in S^{n-1}.}Consider the function \n \n \n \n σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma }\n \n restricted to \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n m\n −\n 1\n \n \n ×\n \n S\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S^{m-1}\\times S^{n-1}.}\n \n Since both \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n m\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S^{m-1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S^{n-1}}\n \n are compact sets, their product is also compact. Furthermore, since \n \n \n \n σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma }\n \n is continuous, it attains a largest value for at least one pair of vectors \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n in \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n m\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S^{m-1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} }\n \n in \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S^{n-1}.}\n \n This largest value is denoted \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{1}}\n \n and the corresponding vectors are denoted \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{1}.}\n \n Since \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{1}}\n \n is the largest value of \n \n \n \n σ\n (\n \n u\n \n ,\n \n v\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (\\mathbf {u} ,\\mathbf {v} )}\n \n it must be non-negative. If it were negative, changing the sign of either \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{1}}\n \n would make it positive and therefore larger.Statement. \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{1}}\n \n are left and right-singular vectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n with corresponding singular value \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{1}.}Proof. Similar to the eigenvalues case, by assumption the two vectors satisfy the Lagrange multiplier equation:∇\n σ\n =\n ∇\n \n \n u\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n v\n \n −\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n ∇\n \n \n u\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n u\n \n −\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n ∇\n \n \n v\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nabla \\sigma =\\nabla \\mathbf {u} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {v} -\\lambda _{1}\\cdot \\nabla \\mathbf {u} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {u} -\\lambda _{2}\\cdot \\nabla \\mathbf {v} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {v} }After some algebra, this becomesM\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 2\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n +\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 0\n +\n 2\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {v} _{1}&=2\\lambda _{1}\\mathbf {u} _{1}+0,\\\\\\mathbf {M} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {u} _{1}&=0+2\\lambda _{2}\\mathbf {v} _{1}.\\end{aligned}}}Multiplying the first equation from left by \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1}^{\\textrm {T}}}\n \n and the second equation from left by \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{1}^{\\textrm {T}}}\n \n and taking \n \n \n \n ‖\n \n u\n \n ‖\n =\n ‖\n \n v\n \n ‖\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {u} \\|=\\|\\mathbf {v} \\|=1}\n \n into account givesσ\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n λ\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n λ\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{1}=2\\lambda _{1}=2\\lambda _{2}.}Plugging this into the pair of equations above, we haveM\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {v} _{1}&=\\sigma _{1}\\mathbf {u} _{1},\\\\\\mathbf {M} ^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {u} _{1}&=\\sigma _{1}\\mathbf {v} _{1}.\\end{aligned}}}This proves the statement.More singular vectors and singular values can be found by maximizing \n \n \n \n σ\n (\n \n u\n \n ,\n \n v\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (\\mathbf {u} ,\\mathbf {v} )}\n \n over normalized \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} }\n \n which are orthogonal to \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{1},}\n \n respectively.The passage from real to complex is similar to the eigenvalue case.","title":"Proof of existence"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Calculating the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Jacobi rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_rotation"},{"link_name":"normalising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)"}],"sub_title":"One-sided Jacobi algorithm","text":"One-sided Jacobi algorithm is an iterative algorithm,[21]\nwhere a matrix is iteratively transformed into a matrix with orthogonal columns. The elementary iteration is given as a Jacobi rotation,M\n ←\n M\n J\n (\n p\n ,\n q\n ,\n θ\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M\\leftarrow MJ(p,q,\\theta ),}where the angle \n \n \n \n θ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\theta }\n \n of the Jacobi rotation matrix \n \n \n \n J\n (\n p\n ,\n q\n ,\n θ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle J(p,q,\\theta )}\n \n is chosen such that after the rotation the columns with numbers \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n and \n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n become orthogonal. The indices \n \n \n \n (\n p\n ,\n q\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p,q)}\n \n are swept cyclically, \n \n \n \n (\n p\n =\n 1\n …\n m\n ,\n q\n =\n p\n +\n 1\n …\n m\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (p=1\\dots m,q=p+1\\dots m)}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n is the number of columns.After the algorithm has converged, the singular value decomposition \n \n \n \n M\n =\n U\n S\n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M=USV^{T}}\n \n is recovered as follows: the matrix \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is the accumulation of Jacobi rotation matrices, the matrix \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U}\n \n is given by normalising the columns of the transformed matrix \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n, and the singular values are given as the norms of the columns of the transformed matrix \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}\n \n.","title":"Calculating the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_eigenvalue_algorithm"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Givens rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Givens_rotation"},{"link_name":"Jacobi transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_transformation"}],"sub_title":"Two-sided Jacobi algorithm","text":"Two-sided Jacobi SVD algorithm—a generalization of the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm—is an iterative algorithm where a square matrix is iteratively transformed into a diagonal matrix. If the matrix is not square the QR decomposition is performed first and then the algorithm is applied to the \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n matrix. The elementary iteration zeroes a pair of off-diagonal elements by first applying a Givens rotation to symmetrize the pair of elements and then applying a Jacobi transformation to zero them,M\n ←\n \n J\n \n T\n \n \n G\n M\n J\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M\\leftarrow J^{T}GMJ}where \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n is the Givens rotation matrix with the angle chosen such that the given pair of off-diagonal elements become equal after the rotation, and where \n \n \n \n J\n \n \n {\\displaystyle J}\n \n is the Jacobi transformation matrix that zeroes these off-diagonal elements. The iterations proceeds exactly as in the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm: by cyclic sweeps over all off-diagonal elements.After the algorithm has converged the resulting diagonal matrix contains the singular values.\nThe matrices \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U}\n \n and \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n are accumulated as follows:\n\n \n \n \n U\n ←\n U\n \n G\n \n T\n \n \n J\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U\\leftarrow UG^{T}J}\n \n,\n\n \n \n \n V\n ←\n V\n J\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V\\leftarrow VJ}\n \n.","title":"Calculating the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orthonormal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal"},{"link_name":"eigenvectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvectors"},{"link_name":"eigenvalues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalues"},{"link_name":"bidiagonal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidiagonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation"},{"link_name":"iterative method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_method"},{"link_name":"eigenvalue algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalue_algorithm"},{"link_name":"machine epsilon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_epsilon"},{"link_name":"Trefethen & Bau III 1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFTrefethenBau_III1997"},{"link_name":"Householder reflections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Householder_reflection"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Trefethen & Bau III 1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFTrefethenBau_III1997"},{"link_name":"QR algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Golub & Kahan (1965)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGolubKahan1965"},{"link_name":"LAPACK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAPACK"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Demmel & Kahan 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDemmelKahan1990"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"GNU Scientific Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Scientific_Library"},{"link_name":"Jacobi orthogonalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacobi_orthogonalization&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"GSL Team 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGSL_Team2007"},{"link_name":"Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_eigenvalue_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Golub & Van Loan 1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGolubVan_Loan1996"},{"link_name":"divide-and-conquer eigenvalue algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divide-and-conquer_eigenvalue_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Trefethen & Bau III 1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFTrefethenBau_III1997"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"QR algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_algorithm"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"LQ decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LQ_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Hermitian matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"LQ decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LQ_decomposition"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"LQ decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LQ_decomposition"}],"sub_title":"Numerical approach","text":"The singular value decomposition can be computed using the following observations:The left-singular vectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n are a set of orthonormal eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}}\n \n.\nThe right-singular vectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n are a set of orthonormal eigenvectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n.\nThe non-zero singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n (found on the diagonal entries of \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n) are the square roots of the non-zero eigenvalues of both \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*}}\n \n.The SVD of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is typically computed by a two-step procedure. In the first step, the matrix is reduced to a bidiagonal matrix. This takes order \n \n \n \n O\n (\n m\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(mn^{2})}\n \n floating-point operations (flop), assuming that \n \n \n \n m\n ≥\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\geq n.}\n \n The second step is to compute the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix. This step can only be done with an iterative method (as with eigenvalue algorithms). However, in practice it suffices to compute the SVD up to a certain precision, like the machine epsilon. If this precision is considered constant, then the second step takes \n \n \n \n O\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(n)}\n \n iterations, each costing \n \n \n \n O\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(n)}\n \n flops. Thus, the first step is more expensive, and the overall cost is \n \n \n \n O\n (\n m\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(mn^{2})}\n \n flops (Trefethen & Bau III 1997, Lecture 31).The first step can be done using Householder reflections for a cost of \n\n \n \n \n 4\n m\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 4\n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 4mn^{2}-4n^{3}/3}\n \n flops, assuming that only the singular values are needed and not the singular vectors. If \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n is much larger than \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n then it is advantageous to first reduce the matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n to a triangular matrix with the QR decomposition and then use Householder reflections to further reduce the matrix to bidiagonal form; the combined cost is \n \n \n \n 2\n m\n \n n\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n \n n\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2mn^{2}+2n^{3}}\n \n flops (Trefethen & Bau III 1997, Lecture 31).The second step can be done by a variant of the QR algorithm for the computation of eigenvalues, which was first described by Golub & Kahan (1965). The LAPACK subroutine DBDSQR[22] implements this iterative method, with some modifications to cover the case where the singular values are very small (Demmel & Kahan 1990). Together with a first step using Householder reflections and, if appropriate, QR decomposition, this forms the DGESVD[23] routine for the computation of the singular value decomposition.The same algorithm is implemented in the GNU Scientific Library (GSL). The GSL also offers an alternative method that uses a one-sided Jacobi orthogonalization in step 2 (GSL Team 2007). This method computes the SVD of the bidiagonal matrix by solving a sequence of \n \n \n \n 2\n ×\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\times 2}\n \n SVD problems, similar to how the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm solves a sequence of \n \n \n \n 2\n ×\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\times 2}\n \n eigenvalue methods (Golub & Van Loan 1996, §8.6.3). Yet another method for step 2 uses the idea of divide-and-conquer eigenvalue algorithms (Trefethen & Bau III 1997, Lecture 31).There is an alternative way that does not explicitly use the eigenvalue decomposition.[24] Usually the singular value problem of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is converted into an equivalent symmetric eigenvalue problem such as \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\mathbf {M} ^{*},}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n or[\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {0} &\\mathbf {M} \\\\\\mathbf {M} ^{*}&\\mathbf {0} \\end{bmatrix}}.}The approaches that use eigenvalue decompositions are based on the QR algorithm, which is well-developed to be stable and fast. \nNote that the singular values are real and right- and left- singular vectors are not required to form similarity transformations. One can iteratively alternate between the QR decomposition and the LQ decomposition to find the real diagonal Hermitian matrices. The QR decomposition gives \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ⇒\n \n Q\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\Rightarrow \\mathbf {Q} \\mathbf {R} }\n \n and the LQ decomposition of \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} }\n \n gives \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n ⇒\n \n L\n \n \n \n P\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} \\Rightarrow \\mathbf {L} \\mathbf {P} ^{*}.}\n \n Thus, at every iteration, we have \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ⇒\n \n Q\n \n \n L\n \n \n \n P\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\Rightarrow \\mathbf {Q} \\mathbf {L} \\mathbf {P} ^{*},}\n \n update \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ⇐\n \n L\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\Leftarrow \\mathbf {L} }\n \n and repeat the orthogonalizations. Eventually,[clarification needed] this iteration between QR decomposition and LQ decomposition produces left- and right- unitary singular matrices. This approach cannot readily be accelerated, as the QR algorithm can with spectral shifts or deflation. This is because the shift method is not easily defined without using similarity transformations. However, this iterative approach is very simple to implement, so is a good choice when speed does not matter. This method also provides insight into how purely orthogonal/unitary transformations can obtain the SVD.","title":"Calculating the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pauli matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_matrices"}],"sub_title":"Analytic result of 2 × 2 SVD","text":"The singular values of a \n \n \n \n 2\n ×\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\times 2}\n \n matrix can be found analytically. Let the matrix be\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n I\n \n +\n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n σ\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n σ\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n σ\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =z_{0}\\mathbf {I} +z_{1}\\sigma _{1}+z_{2}\\sigma _{2}+z_{3}\\sigma _{3}}where \n \n \n \n \n z\n \n i\n \n \n ∈\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle z_{i}\\in \\mathbb {C} }\n \n are complex numbers that parameterize the matrix, \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {I} }\n \n is the identity matrix, and \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n denote the Pauli matrices. Then its two singular values are given byσ\n \n ±\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ±\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n |\n \n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ±\n 2\n \n \n (\n Re\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n (\n Re\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n (\n Re\n \n \n z\n \n 0\n \n \n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n (\n Im\n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n (\n Im\n \n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n (\n Im\n \n \n z\n \n 3\n \n \n \n z\n \n 1\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\sigma _{\\pm }&={\\sqrt {|z_{0}|^{2}+|z_{1}|^{2}+|z_{2}|^{2}+|z_{3}|^{2}\\pm {\\sqrt {{\\bigl (}|z_{0}|^{2}+|z_{1}|^{2}+|z_{2}|^{2}+|z_{3}|^{2}{\\bigr )}^{2}-|z_{0}^{2}-z_{1}^{2}-z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}|^{2}}}}}\\\\&={\\sqrt {|z_{0}|^{2}+|z_{1}|^{2}+|z_{2}|^{2}+|z_{3}|^{2}\\pm 2{\\sqrt {(\\operatorname {Re} z_{0}z_{1}^{*})^{2}+(\\operatorname {Re} z_{0}z_{2}^{*})^{2}+(\\operatorname {Re} z_{0}z_{3}^{*})^{2}+(\\operatorname {Im} z_{1}z_{2}^{*})^{2}+(\\operatorname {Im} z_{2}z_{3}^{*})^{2}+(\\operatorname {Im} z_{3}z_{1}^{*})^{2}}}}}\\end{aligned}}}","title":"Calculating the SVD"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Reduced_Singular_Value_Decompositions.svg"}],"text":"Visualization of Reduced SVD variants. From top to bottom: 1: Full SVD, 2: Thin SVD (remove columns of U not corresponding to rows of V*), 3: Compact SVD (remove vanishing singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V*), 4: Truncated SVD (keep only largest t singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V*)In applications it is quite unusual for the full SVD, including a full unitary decomposition of the null-space of the matrix, to be required. Instead, it is often sufficient (as well as faster, and more economical for storage) to compute a reduced version of the SVD. The following can be distinguished for an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n of rank \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n:","title":"Reduced SVDs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"}],"sub_title":"Thin SVD","text":"The thin, or economy-sized, SVD of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is given by[25]M\n \n =\n \n \n U\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n k\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} _{k}\\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{k}\\mathbf {V} _{k}^{*},}where \n \n \n \n k\n =\n min\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=\\min(m,n),}\n \n the matrices \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{k}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{k}}\n \n contain only the first \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n columns of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{k}}\n \n contains only the first \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n singular values from \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } .}\n \n The matrix \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{k}}\n \n is thus \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n k\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times k,}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{k}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n k\n ×\n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k\\times k}\n \n diagonal, and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n k\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{k}^{*}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n k\n ×\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k\\times n.}The thin SVD uses significantly less space and computation time if \n \n \n \n k\n ≪\n max\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k\\ll \\max(m,n).}\n \n The first stage in its calculation will usually be a QR decomposition of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n which can make for a significantly quicker calculation in this case.","title":"Reduced SVDs"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Compact SVD","text":"The compact SVD of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is given byM\n \n =\n \n \n U\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n r\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} _{r}\\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{r}\\mathbf {V} _{r}^{*}.}Only the \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n column vectors of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n row vectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n corresponding to the non-zero singular values \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{r}}\n \n are calculated. The remaining vectors of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n are not calculated. This is quicker and more economical than the thin SVD if \n \n \n \n r\n ≪\n min\n (\n m\n ,\n n\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r\\ll \\min(m,n).}\n \n The matrix \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{r}}\n \n is thus \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n r\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times r,}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{r}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n r\n ×\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r\\times r}\n \n diagonal, and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n r\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{r}^{*}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n r\n ×\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r\\times n.}","title":"Reduced SVDs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"low-rank matrix approximation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Low-rank_matrix_approximation"},{"link_name":"Moore–Penrose inverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%E2%80%93Penrose_inverse"},{"link_name":"latent semantic indexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_semantic_indexing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Truncated SVD","text":"In many applications the number \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n of the non-zero singular values is large making even the Compact SVD impractical to compute. In such cases, the smallest singular values may need to be truncated to compute only \n \n \n \n t\n ≪\n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t\\ll r}\n \n non-zero singular values. The truncated SVD is no longer an exact decomposition of the original matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n but rather provides the optimal low-rank matrix approximation \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ~\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\mathbf {M} }}}\n \n by any matrix of a fixed rank \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}M\n \n ~\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n U\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n t\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tilde {\\mathbf {M} }}=\\mathbf {U} _{t}\\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{t}\\mathbf {V} _{t}^{*},}where matrix \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} _{t}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n t\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times t,}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{t}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n t\n ×\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t\\times t}\n \n diagonal, and \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n t\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} _{t}^{*}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n t\n ×\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t\\times n.}\n \n Only the \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n column vectors of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n row vectors of \n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n corresponding to the \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n largest singular values \n \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } _{t}}\n \n are calculated. This can be much quicker and more economical than the compact SVD if \n \n \n \n t\n ≪\n r\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t\\ll r,}\n \n but requires a completely different toolset of numerical solvers.In applications that require an approximation to the Moore–Penrose inverse of the matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n the smallest singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n are of interest, which are more challenging to compute compared to the largest ones.Truncated SVD is employed in latent semantic indexing.[26]","title":"Reduced SVDs"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Norms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"matrix norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_norm"},{"link_name":"Ky Fan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky_Fan"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"operator norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_norm"},{"link_name":"normal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_matrix"},{"link_name":"trace norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_class"}],"sub_title":"Ky Fan norms","text":"The sum of the \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n largest singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is a matrix norm, the Ky Fan \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n-norm of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n[27]The first of the Ky Fan norms, the Ky Fan 1-norm, is the same as the operator norm of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n as a linear operator with respect to the Euclidean norms of \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{m}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K^{n}.}\n \n In other words, the Ky Fan 1-norm is the operator norm induced by the standard \n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell ^{2}}\n \n Euclidean inner product. For this reason, it is also called the operator 2-norm. One can easily verify the relationship between the Ky Fan 1-norm and singular values. It is true in general, for a bounded operator \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n on (possibly infinite-dimensional) Hilbert spaces‖\n \n M\n \n ‖\n =\n ‖\n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ‖\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {M} \\|=\\|\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\|^{\\frac {1}{2}}}But, in the matrix case, \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} )^{1/2}}\n \n is a normal matrix, so \n \n \n \n ‖\n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ‖\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\|^{1/2}}\n \n is the largest eigenvalue of \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} )^{1/2},}\n \n i.e. the largest singular value of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}The last of the Ky Fan norms, the sum of all singular values, is the trace norm (also known as the 'nuclear norm'), defined by \n \n \n \n ‖\n \n M\n \n ‖\n =\n Tr\n \n (\n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n )\n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {M} \\|=\\operatorname {Tr} (\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} )^{1/2}}\n \n (the eigenvalues of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n are the squares of the singular values).","title":"Norms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hilbert–Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert%E2%80%93Schmidt_operator"},{"link_name":"Frobenius norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frobenius_norm"},{"link_name":"Schatten norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schatten_norm"}],"sub_title":"Hilbert–Schmidt norm","text":"The singular values are related to another norm on the space of operators. Consider the Hilbert–Schmidt inner product on the \n \n \n \n n\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\times n}\n \n matrices, defined by⟨\n \n M\n \n ,\n \n N\n \n ⟩\n =\n tr\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n N\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\mathbf {M} ,\\mathbf {N} \\rangle =\\operatorname {tr} \\left(\\mathbf {N} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\right).}So the induced norm is‖\n \n M\n \n ‖\n =\n \n \n ⟨\n \n M\n \n ,\n \n M\n \n ⟩\n \n \n =\n \n \n tr\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {M} \\|={\\sqrt {\\langle \\mathbf {M} ,\\mathbf {M} \\rangle }}={\\sqrt {\\operatorname {tr} \\left(\\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} \\right)}}.}Since the trace is invariant under unitary equivalence, this shows‖\n \n M\n \n ‖\n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\mathbf {M} \\|={\\sqrt {{\\vphantom {\\bigg |}}\\sum _{i}\\sigma _{i}^{2}}}}where \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n are the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n This is called the Frobenius norm, Schatten 2-norm, or Hilbert–Schmidt norm of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n Direct calculation shows that the Frobenius norm of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n (\n \n m\n \n i\n \n \n j\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =(m_{i}j)}\n \n coincides with:|\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n m\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {{\\vphantom {\\bigg |}}\\sum _{ij}|m_{ij}|^{2}}}.}In addition, the Frobenius norm and the trace norm (the nuclear norm) are special cases of the Schatten norm.","title":"Norms"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Variations and generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Scale-invariant SVD","text":"The singular values of a matrix \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n are uniquely defined and are invariant with respect to left and/or right unitary transformations of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n In other words, the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n A\n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n for unitary matrices \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n are equal to the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n This is an important property for applications in which it is necessary to preserve Euclidean distances and invariance with respect to rotations.The Scale-Invariant SVD, or SI-SVD,[28] is analogous to the conventional SVD except that its uniquely-determined singular values are invariant with respect to diagonal transformations of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n In other words, the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n A\n \n \n E\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} \\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {E} ,}\n \n for invertible diagonal matrices \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} ,}\n \n are equal to the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n This is an important property for applications for which invariance to the choice of units on variables (e.g., metric versus imperial units) is needed.","title":"Variations and generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bounded operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_operator"},{"link_name":"partial isometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_isometry"},{"link_name":"multiplication by \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication_operator"},{"link_name":"Borel functional calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borel_functional_calculus"},{"link_name":"self-adjoint operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-adjoint_operator"},{"link_name":"polar decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_decomposition"}],"sub_title":"Bounded operators on Hilbert spaces","text":"The factorization \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {\\Sigma } \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n can be extended to a bounded operator \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n on a separable Hilbert space \n \n \n \n H\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H.}\n \n Namely, for any bounded operator \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n there exist a partial isometry \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} ,}\n \n a unitary \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} ,}\n \n a measure space \n \n \n \n (\n X\n ,\n μ\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (X,\\mu ),}\n \n and a non-negative measurable \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n such thatM\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} T_{f}\\mathbf {V} ^{*}}where \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{f}}\n \n is the multiplication by \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n on \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n X\n ,\n μ\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L^{2}(X,\\mu ).}This can be shown by mimicking the linear algebraic argument for the matrix case above. \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} T_{f}\\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n is the unique positive square root of \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} ,}\n \n as given by the Borel functional calculus for self-adjoint operators. The reason why \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} }\n \n need not be unitary is that, unlike the finite-dimensional case, given an isometry \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{1}}\n \n with nontrivial kernel, a suitable \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{2}}\n \n may not be found such that[\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}U_{1}\\\\U_{2}\\end{bmatrix}}}is a unitary operator.As for matrices, the singular value factorization is equivalent to the polar decomposition for operators: we can simply writeM\n \n =\n \n U\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ⋅\n \n V\n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}\\cdot \\mathbf {V} T_{f}\\mathbf {V} ^{*}}and notice that \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {U} \\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n is still a partial isometry while \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {V} T_{f}\\mathbf {V} ^{*}}\n \n is positive.","title":"Variations and generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"compact operator on Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_operator_on_Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"finite-rank operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite-rank_operator"}],"sub_title":"Singular values and compact operators","text":"The notion of singular values and left/right-singular vectors can be extended to compact operator on Hilbert space as they have a discrete spectrum. If \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n is compact, every non-zero \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda }\n \n in its spectrum is an eigenvalue. Furthermore, a compact self-adjoint operator can be diagonalized by its eigenvectors. If \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is compact, so is \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n. Applying the diagonalization result, the unitary image of its positive square root \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{f}}\n \n has a set of orthonormal eigenvectors \n \n \n \n {\n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{e_{i}\\}}\n \n corresponding to strictly positive eigenvalues \n \n \n \n {\n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\sigma _{i}\\}}\n \n. For any \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi }\n \n in \n \n \n \n H\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H,}M\n \n ψ\n =\n \n U\n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n \n U\n \n \n T\n \n f\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n ψ\n ,\n \n U\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n U\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ψ\n ,\n \n V\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n U\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} \\psi =\\mathbf {U} T_{f}\\mathbf {V} ^{*}\\psi =\\sum _{i}\\left\\langle \\mathbf {U} T_{f}\\mathbf {V} ^{*}\\psi ,\\mathbf {U} e_{i}\\right\\rangle \\mathbf {U} e_{i}=\\sum _{i}\\sigma _{i}\\left\\langle \\psi ,\\mathbf {V} e_{i}\\right\\rangle \\mathbf {U} e_{i},}where the series converges in the norm topology on \n \n \n \n H\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H.}\n \n Notice how this resembles the expression from the finite-dimensional case. \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{i}}\n \n are called the singular values of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}\n \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n U\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\mathbf {U} e_{i}\\}}\n \n (resp. \n \n \n \n {\n \n U\n \n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\mathbf {U} e_{i}\\}}\n \n) can be considered the left-singular (resp. right-singular) vectors of \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} .}Compact operators on a Hilbert space are the closure of finite-rank operators in the uniform operator topology. The above series expression gives an explicit such representation. An immediate consequence of this is:Theorem. \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is compact if and only if \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n ∗\n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ^{*}\\mathbf {M} }\n \n is compact.","title":"Variations and generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential geometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"bilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_form"},{"link_name":"Eugenio Beltrami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Beltrami"},{"link_name":"Camille Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Jordan"},{"link_name":"complete set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_set_of_invariants"},{"link_name":"invariants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invariant_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"James Joseph Sylvester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester"},{"link_name":"Autonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Autonne"},{"link_name":"polar decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Carl Eckart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Eckart"},{"link_name":"Gale J. Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gale_J._Young"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"principal axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_axis_theorem"},{"link_name":"Hermitian matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"},{"link_name":"Erhard Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erhard_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"integral operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_operator"},{"link_name":"Émile Picard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Picard"},{"link_name":"Kogbetliantz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ervand_Kogbetliantz"},{"link_name":"Hestenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Hestenes"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_eigenvalue_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Givens rotations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Givens_rotation"},{"link_name":"Gene Golub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_H._Golub"},{"link_name":"William Kahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kahan"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Householder transformations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Householder_transformation"},{"link_name":"Christian Reinsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Reinsch"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"The singular value decomposition was originally developed by differential geometers, who wished to determine whether a real bilinear form could be made equal to another by independent orthogonal transformations of the two spaces it acts on. Eugenio Beltrami and Camille Jordan discovered independently, in 1873 and 1874 respectively, that the singular values of the bilinear forms, represented as a matrix, form a complete set of invariants for bilinear forms under orthogonal substitutions. James Joseph Sylvester also arrived at the singular value decomposition for real square matrices in 1889, apparently independently of both Beltrami and Jordan. Sylvester called the singular values the canonical multipliers of the matrix \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} .}\n \n The fourth mathematician to discover the singular value decomposition independently is Autonne in 1915, who arrived at it via the polar decomposition. The first proof of the singular value decomposition for rectangular and complex matrices seems to be by Carl Eckart and Gale J. Young in 1936;[29] they saw it as a generalization of the principal axis transformation for Hermitian matrices.In 1907, Erhard Schmidt defined an analog of singular values for integral operators (which are compact, under some weak technical assumptions); it seems he was unaware of the parallel work on singular values of finite matrices. This theory was further developed by Émile Picard in 1910, who is the first to call the numbers \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{k}}\n \n singular values (or in French, valeurs singulières).Practical methods for computing the SVD date back to Kogbetliantz in 1954–1955 and Hestenes in 1958,[30] resembling closely the Jacobi eigenvalue algorithm, which uses plane rotations or Givens rotations. However, these were replaced by the method of Gene Golub and William Kahan published in 1965,[31] which uses Householder transformations or reflections. In 1970, Golub and Christian Reinsch[32] published a variant of the Golub/Kahan algorithm that is still the one most-used today.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0166-2236(95)94496-R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0166-2236%2895%2994496-R"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8545912","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8545912"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12827601","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12827601"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1152/jn.2001.85.3.1220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.2001.85.3.1220"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11247991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11247991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"The Singular Value Decomposition in Symmetric (Lowdin) Orthogonalization and Data Compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.wou.edu/~beavers/Talks/Willamette1106.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Local spectral variability features for speaker verification\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//erepo.uef.fi/handle/123456789/4375"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.dsp.2015.10.011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.dsp.2015.10.011"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Mademlis2018_5-0"},{"link_name":"2018 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8462274"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/ICASSP.2018.8462274","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FICASSP.2018.8462274"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-5386-4658-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5386-4658-8"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"52286352","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:52286352"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Singular Value Decomposition for Genome-Wide Expression Data Processing and Modeling\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27718"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2000PNAS...9710101A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...9710101A"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1073/pnas.97.18.10101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.97.18.10101"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"27718","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC27718"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10963673","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10963673"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Integrative Analysis of Genome-Scale Data by Using Pseudoinverse Projection 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R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Hestenes"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1137/0106005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1137%2F0106005"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2098862","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2098862"},{"link_name":"MR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0092215","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0092215"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"Golub & Kahan 1965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGolubKahan1965"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"Golub, G. H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_H._Golub"},{"link_name":"Reinsch, C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Reinsch"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF02163027","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02163027"},{"link_name":"MR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1553974","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1553974"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"123532178","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123532178"}],"text":"^ DeAngelis, G. C.; Ohzawa, I.; Freeman, R. D. (October 1995). \"Receptive-field dynamics in the central visual pathways\". Trends Neurosci. 18 (10): 451–8. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(95)94496-R. PMID 8545912. S2CID 12827601.\n\n^ Depireux, D. A.; Simon, J. Z.; Klein, D. J.; Shamma, S. A. (March 2001). \"Spectro-temporal response field characterization with dynamic ripples in ferret primary auditory cortex\". J. Neurophysiol. 85 (3): 1220–34. doi:10.1152/jn.2001.85.3.1220. PMID 11247991.\n\n^ The Singular Value Decomposition in Symmetric (Lowdin) Orthogonalization and Data Compression\n\n^ Sahidullah, Md.; Kinnunen, Tomi (March 2016). \"Local spectral variability features for speaker verification\". Digital Signal Processing. 50: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.dsp.2015.10.011.\n\n^ Mademlis, Ioannis; Tefas, Anastasios; Pitas, Ioannis (2018). \"Regularized SVD-Based Video Frame Saliency for Unsupervised Activity Video Summarization\". 2018 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). IEEE. pp. 2691–2695. doi:10.1109/ICASSP.2018.8462274. ISBN 978-1-5386-4658-8. S2CID 52286352. Retrieved 19 January 2023.\n\n^ \nO. Alter, P. O. Brown and D. 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(1936). \"The approximation of one matrix by another of lower rank\". Psychometrika. 1 (3): 211–8. doi:10.1007/BF02288367. S2CID 10163399.\n\n^ Hestenes, M. R. (1958). \"Inversion of Matrices by Biorthogonalization and Related Results\". Journal of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. 6 (1): 51–90. doi:10.1137/0106005. JSTOR 2098862. MR 0092215.\n\n^ (Golub & Kahan 1965)\n\n^ Golub, G. H.; Reinsch, C. (1970). \"Singular value decomposition and least squares solutions\". Numerische Mathematik. 14 (5): 403–420. doi:10.1007/BF02163027. MR 1553974. S2CID 123532178.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Illustration of the singular value decomposition UΣV⁎ of a real 2 × 2 matrix M.Top: The action of M, indicated by its effect on the unit disc D and the two canonical unit vectors e1 and e2.Left: The action of V⁎, a rotation, on D, e1, and e2.Bottom: The action of Σ, a scaling by the singular values σ1 horizontally and σ2 vertically.Right: The action of U, another rotation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Singular-Value-Decomposition.svg/220px-Singular-Value-Decomposition.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Animated illustration of the SVD of a 2D, real shearing matrix M. First, we see the unit disc in blue together with the two canonical unit vectors. We then see the actions of M, which distorts the disk to an ellipse. The SVD decomposes M into three simple transformations: an initial rotation V⁎, a scaling \n \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Sigma } }\n \n along the coordinate axes, and a final rotation U. The lengths σ1 and σ2 of the semi-axes of the ellipse are the singular values of M, namely Σ1,1 and Σ2,2.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Singular_value_decomposition.gif/280px-Singular_value_decomposition.gif"},{"image_text":"Visualization of the matrix multiplications in singular value decomposition","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Singular_value_decomposition_visualisation.svg/220px-Singular_value_decomposition_visualisation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Visualization of Reduced SVD variants. From top to bottom: 1: Full SVD, 2: Thin SVD (remove columns of U not corresponding to rows of V*), 3: Compact SVD (remove vanishing singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V*), 4: Truncated SVD (keep only largest t singular values and corresponding columns/rows in U and V*)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Reduced_Singular_Value_Decompositions.svg/220px-Reduced_Singular_Value_Decompositions.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Canonical correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_correlation"},{"title":"Canonical form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form"},{"title":"Correspondence analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correspondence_analysis"},{"title":"Curse of dimensionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_dimensionality"},{"title":"Digital signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"},{"title":"Dimensionality reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionality_reduction"},{"title":"Eigendecomposition of a matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendecomposition_of_a_matrix"},{"title":"Empirical orthogonal functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_orthogonal_functions"},{"title":"Fourier analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis"},{"title":"Generalized singular value decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_singular_value_decomposition"},{"title":"Inequalities about singular values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value#Inequalities_about_singular_values"},{"title":"K-SVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-SVD"},{"title":"Latent semantic analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis"},{"title":"Latent semantic indexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_semantic_indexing"},{"title":"Linear least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_least_squares_(mathematics)"},{"title":"List of Fourier-related transforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fourier-related_transforms"},{"title":"Locality-sensitive hashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locality-sensitive_hashing"},{"title":"Low-rank approximation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-rank_approximation"},{"title":"Matrix decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_decomposition"},{"title":"Multilinear principal component analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinear_principal_component_analysis"},{"title":"Nearest neighbor search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nearest_neighbor_search"},{"title":"Non-linear iterative partial least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linear_iterative_partial_least_squares"},{"title":"Polar decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_decomposition"},{"title":"Principal component analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis"},{"title":"Schmidt decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidt_decomposition"},{"title":"Smith normal form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_normal_form"},{"title":"Singular value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value"},{"title":"Time series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_series"},{"title":"Two-dimensional singular-value decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_singular-value_decomposition"},{"title":"von Neumann's trace inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann%27s_trace_inequality"},{"title":"Wavelet compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelet_compression"}] | [{"reference":"DeAngelis, G. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_service_(telecommunication) | Security service (telecommunication) | ["1 Basic security terminology","2 Basic OSI terminology","3 OSI security services description","4 Specific security mechanisms","5 Other related meanings","5.1 Managed security service","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | For other uses, see Security service.
Security service is a service, provided by a layer of communicating open systems, which ensures adequate security of the systems or of data transfers as defined by ITU-T X.800 Recommendation.
X.800 and ISO 7498-2 (Information processing systems – Open systems interconnection – Basic Reference Model – Part 2: Security architecture) are technically aligned. This model is widely recognized
A more general definition is in CNSS Instruction No. 4009 dated 26 April 2010 by Committee on National Security Systems of United States of America:
A capability that supports one, or more, of the security requirements (Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability). Examples of security services are key management, access control, and authentication.
Another authoritative definition is in W3C Web service Glossary adopted by NIST SP 800-95:
A processing or communication service that is provided by a system to give a specific kind of protection to resources, where said resources may reside with said system or reside with other systems, for example, an authentication service or a PKI-based document attribution and authentication service. A security service is a superset of AAA services. Security services typically implement portions of security policies and are implemented via security mechanisms.
Basic security terminology
Main article: Information security
Information security and Computer security are disciplines that are dealing with the requirements of Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability, the so-called CIA Triad, of information asset of an organization (company or agency) or the information managed by computers respectively.
There are threats that can attack the resources (information or devices to manage it) exploiting one or more vulnerabilities. The resources can be protected by one or more countermeasures or security controls.
So security services implement part of the countermeasures, trying to achieve the security requirements of an organization.
Basic OSI terminology
Main article: OSI model
In order to let different devices (computers, routers, cellular phones) to communicate data in a standardized way, communication protocols had been defined.
The ITU-T organization published a large set of protocols. The general architecture of these protocols is defined in recommendation X.200.
The different means (air, cables) and ways (protocols and protocol stacks) to communicate are called a communication network.
Security requirements are applicable to the information sent over the network. The discipline dealing with security over a network is called Network security.
The X.800 Recommendation:
provides a general description of security services and related mechanisms, which may be provided by the Reference Model; and
defines the positions within the Reference Model where the services and mechanisms may be provided.
This Recommendation extends the field of application of Recommendation X.200, to cover secure communications between open systems.
According to X.200 Recommendation, in the so-called OSI Reference model there are 7 layers, each one is generically called N layer. The N+1 entity ask for transmission services to the N entity.
At each level two entities (N-entity) interact by means of the (N) protocol by transmitting Protocol Data Units (PDU).
Service Data Unit (SDU) is a specific unit of data that has been passed down from an OSI layer, to a lower layer, and has not yet been encapsulated into a PDU, by the lower layer. It is a set of data that is sent by a user of the services of a given layer, and is transmitted semantically unchanged to a peer service user .
The PDU at any given layer, layer 'n', is the SDU of the layer below, layer 'n-1'. In effect the SDU is the 'payload' of a given PDU. That is, the process of changing a SDU to a PDU, consists of an encapsulation process, performed by the lower layer. All the data contained in the SDU becomes encapsulated within the PDU. The layer n-1 adds headers or footers, or both, to the SDU, transforming it into a PDU of layer n-1. The added headers or footers are part of the process used to make it possible to get data from a source to a destination.
OSI security services description
The following are considered to be the security services which can be provided optionally within the framework of the OSI Reference Model. The authentication services require authentication information comprising locally stored information and data that is transferred (credentials) to facilitate the authentication:
Authentication
These services provide for the authentication of a communicating peer entity and the source of data as described below.
Peer entity authentication
This service, when provided by the (N)-layer, provides corroboration to the (N + 1)-entity that the peer entity is the claimed (N + 1)-entity.
Data origin authentication
This service, when provided by the (N)-layer, provides corroboration to an (N + 1)-entity that the source of the data is the claimed peer (N + 1)-entity.
Access control
This service provides protection against unauthorized use of resources accessible via OSI. These may be OSI or non-OSI resources accessed via OSI protocols. This protection service may be applied to various types of access to a resource (e.g., the use of a communications resource; the reading, the writing, or the deletion of an information resource; the execution of a processing resource) or to all accesses to a resource.
Data confidentiality
These services provide for the protection of data from unauthorized disclosure as described below
Connection confidentiality
This service provides for the confidentiality of all (N)-user-data on an (N)-connection
Connectionless confidentiality
This service provides for the confidentiality of all (N)-user-data in a single connectionless (N)-SDU
Selective field confidentiality
This service provides for the confidentiality of selected fields within the (N)-user-data on an (N)-connection or in a single connectionless (N)-SDU.
Traffic flow confidentiality
This service provides for the protection of the information which might be derived from observation of traffic flows.
Data integrity
These services counter active threats and may take one of the forms described below.
Connection integrity with recovery
This service provides for the integrity of all (N)-user-data on an (N)-connection and detects any modification, insertion, deletion or replay of any data within an entire SDU sequence (with recovery attempted).
Connection integrity without recovery
As for the previous one but with no recovery attempted.
Selective field connection integrity
This service provides for the integrity of selected fields within the (N)-user data of an (N)-SDU transferred over a connection and takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been modified, inserted, deleted or replayed.
Connectionless integrity
This service, when provided by the (N)-layer, provides integrity assurance to the requesting (N + 1)-entity. This service provides for the integrity of a single connectionless SDU and may take the form of determination of whether a received SDU has been modified. Additionally, a limited form of detection of replay may be provided.
Selective field connectionless integrity
This service provides for the integrity of selected fields within a single connectionless SDU and takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been modified.
Non-repudiation
This service may take one or both of two forms.
Non-repudiation with proof of origin
The recipient of data is provided with proof of the origin of data. This will protect against any attempt by the sender to falsely deny sending the data or its contents.
Non-repudiation with proof of delivery
The sender of data is provided with proof of delivery of data. This will protect against any subsequent attempt by the recipient to falsely deny receiving the data or its contents.
Specific security mechanisms
The security services may be provided by means of security mechanism:
Encipherment
Digital signature
Access control
Data integrity
Authentication exchange
Traffic padding
Routing control
Notarization
The table1/X.800 shows the relationships between services and mechanisms
Illustration of relationship of security services and mechanisms
Service
Mechanism
Encipherment
Digital signature
Access control
Data integrity
Authentication exchange
Traffic padding
Routing control
Notarization
Peer entity authentication
Y
Y
·
·
Y
·
·
·
Data origin authentication
Y
Y
·
·
·
·
·
·
Access control service
·
·
Y
·
·
·
·
·
Connection confidentiality
Y
.
·
·
·
·
Y
·
Connectionless confidentiality
Y
·
·
·
·
·
Y
·
Selective field confidentiality
Y
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
Traffic flow confidentiality
Y
·
·
·
·
Y
Y
·
Connection Integrity with recovery
Y
·
·
Y
·
·
·
·
Connection integritywithout recovery
Y
·
·
Y
·
·
·
·
Selective field connection integrity
Y
·
·
Y
·
·
·
·
Connectionless integrity
Y
Y
·
Y
·
·
·
·
Selective field connectionless integrity
Y
Y
·
Y
·
·
·
·
Non-repudiation. Origin
·
Y
·
Y
·
·
·
Y
Non-repudiation. Delivery
Y
·
Y
·
·
·
Y
Some of them can be applied to connection oriented protocols, other to connectionless protocols or both.
The table 2/X.800 illustrates the relationship of security services and layers:
Illustration of the relationship of security services and layers
Service
Layer
1
2
3
4
5
6
7*
Peer entity authentication
·
·
Y
Y
·
·
Y
Data origin authentication
·
·
Y
Y
·
·
Y
Access control service
·
·
Y
Y
·
·
Y
Connection confidentiality
Y
Y
Y
Y
·
Y
Y
Connectionless confidentiality
·
Y
Y
Y
·
Y
Y
Selective field confidentiality
·
·
·
·
·
Y
Y
Traffic flow confidentiality
Y
·
Y
·
·
·
Y
Connection Integrity with recovery
·
·
·
Y
·
·
Y
Connection integrity without recovery
·
·
Y
Y
·
·
Y
Selective field connection integrity
·
·
·
·
·
·
Y
Connectionless integrity
·
·
Y
Y
·
·
Y
Selective field connectionless integrity
·
·
·
·
·
·
Y
Non-repudiation Origin
·
·
·
·
·
·
Y
Non-repudiation. Delivery
·
·
·
·
·
·
Y
Other related meanings
Managed security service
Main article: Managed security service
Managed security service (MSS) are network security services that have been outsourced to a service provider.
See also
Telecommunication portal
Access control
Availability
Communication network
Communication protocol
Confidentiality
countermeasure
Data integrity
Digital signature
Exploit (computer security)
Information Security
Integrity
ITU-T
Managed security service
Network security
OSI model
Protocol (computing)
Protocol data unit
Protocol stack
Security control
Security Requirements Analysis
Service Data Unit
Threat (computer)
Vulnerability (computing)
References
^ a b c d X.800 : Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications
^ ISO 7498-2 (Information processing systems – Open systems interconnection – Basic Reference Model – Part 2: Security architecture)
^ a b c
William Stallings
Crittografia e sicurezza delle reti
Seconda edizione
ISBN 88-386-6377-7
Traduzione Italiana a cura di Luca Salgarelli
di Cryptography and Network security 4 edition
Pearson
2006
^ a b c d Securing information and communications systems: principles, technologies, and applications
Steven Furnell, Sokratis Katsikas, Javier Lopez, Artech House, 2008 - 362 pages
^ CNSS Instruction No. 4009 dated 26 April 2010
^ W3C Web Services Glossary
^ NIST Special Publication 800-95 Guide to Secure Web Services
^ Internet Engineering Task Force RFC 2828 Internet Security Glossary
^ Network security essentials: applications and standards, William Stallings, Prentice Hall, 2007 - 413 pages
^ a b c X.200 : Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model: The basic model
^ Simmonds, A; Sandilands, P; van Ekert, L (2004). "An Ontology for Network Security Attacks". Lecture Notes in Computer Science 3285: 317–323
External links
Term in FISMApedia
List of ITU-T Security Activities and Publications | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Security service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_service_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-x800-1"},{"link_name":"ITU-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T"},{"link_name":"ISO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stal-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FURNELL-4"},{"link_name":"Committee on National Security Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_National_Security_Systems"},{"link_name":"United States of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNSSI4009-5"},{"link_name":"W3C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3C"},{"link_name":"Web service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_service"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"NIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"For other uses, see Security service.Security service is a service, provided by a layer of communicating open systems, which ensures adequate security of the systems or of data transfers[1] as defined by ITU-T X.800 Recommendation. \nX.800 and ISO 7498-2 (Information processing systems – Open systems interconnection – Basic Reference Model – Part 2: Security architecture)[2] are technically aligned. 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The general architecture of these protocols is defined in recommendation X.200.[10]The different means (air, cables) and ways (protocols and protocol stacks) to communicate are called a communication network.Security requirements are applicable to the information sent over the network. The discipline dealing with security over a network is called Network security.[11]The X.800 Recommendation:[1]provides a general description of security services and related mechanisms, which may be provided by the Reference Model; and\ndefines the positions within the Reference Model where the services and mechanisms may be provided.This Recommendation extends the field of application of Recommendation X.200, to cover secure communications between open systems.According to X.200 Recommendation, in the so-called OSI Reference model there are 7 layers, each one is generically called N layer. The N+1 entity ask for transmission services to the N entity.[10]At each level two entities (N-entity) interact by means of the (N) protocol by transmitting Protocol Data Units (PDU).\nService Data Unit (SDU) is a specific unit of data that has been passed down from an OSI layer, to a lower layer, and has not yet been encapsulated into a PDU, by the lower layer. It is a set of data that is sent by a user of the services of a given layer, and is transmitted semantically unchanged to a peer service user .\nThe PDU at any given layer, layer 'n', is the SDU of the layer below, layer 'n-1'. In effect the SDU is the 'payload' of a given PDU. That is, the process of changing a SDU to a PDU, consists of an encapsulation process, performed by the lower layer. All the data contained in the SDU becomes encapsulated within the PDU. The layer n-1 adds headers or footers, or both, to the SDU, transforming it into a PDU of layer n-1. The added headers or footers are part of the process used to make it possible to get data from a source to a destination.[10]","title":"Basic OSI terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-x800-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FURNELL-4"},{"link_name":"Data origin authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_origin_authentication"},{"link_name":"threats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_(computer)"}],"text":"The following are considered to be the security services which can be provided optionally within the framework of the OSI Reference Model. The authentication services require authentication information comprising locally stored information and data that is transferred (credentials) to facilitate the authentication:[1][4]Authentication\nThese services provide for the authentication of a communicating peer entity and the source of data as described below.\nPeer entity authentication\nThis service, when provided by the (N)-layer, provides corroboration to the (N + 1)-entity that the peer entity is the claimed (N + 1)-entity.\nData origin authentication\nThis service, when provided by the (N)-layer, provides corroboration to an (N + 1)-entity that the source of the data is the claimed peer (N + 1)-entity.Access control\nThis service provides protection against unauthorized use of resources accessible via OSI. These may be OSI or non-OSI resources accessed via OSI protocols. This protection service may be applied to various types of access to a resource (e.g., the use of a communications resource; the reading, the writing, or the deletion of an information resource; the execution of a processing resource) or to all accesses to a resource.\nData confidentiality\nThese services provide for the protection of data from unauthorized disclosure as described below\nConnection confidentiality\nThis service provides for the confidentiality of all (N)-user-data on an (N)-connection\nConnectionless confidentiality\nThis service provides for the confidentiality of all (N)-user-data in a single connectionless (N)-SDU\nSelective field confidentiality\nThis service provides for the confidentiality of selected fields within the (N)-user-data on an (N)-connection or in a single connectionless (N)-SDU.\nTraffic flow confidentiality\nThis service provides for the protection of the information which might be derived from observation of traffic flows.Data integrity\nThese services counter active threats and may take one of the forms described below.\nConnection integrity with recovery\nThis service provides for the integrity of all (N)-user-data on an (N)-connection and detects any modification, insertion, deletion or replay of any data within an entire SDU sequence (with recovery attempted).\nConnection integrity without recovery\nAs for the previous one but with no recovery attempted.\nSelective field connection integrity\nThis service provides for the integrity of selected fields within the (N)-user data of an (N)-SDU transferred over a connection and takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been modified, inserted, deleted or replayed.\nConnectionless integrity\nThis service, when provided by the (N)-layer, provides integrity assurance to the requesting (N + 1)-entity. This service provides for the integrity of a single connectionless SDU and may take the form of determination of whether a received SDU has been modified. Additionally, a limited form of detection of replay may be provided.\nSelective field connectionless integrity\nThis service provides for the integrity of selected fields within a single connectionless SDU and takes the form of determination of whether the selected fields have been modified.Non-repudiation\nThis service may take one or both of two forms.\nNon-repudiation with proof of origin\nThe recipient of data is provided with proof of the origin of data. This will protect against any attempt by the sender to falsely deny sending the data or its contents.\n Non-repudiation with proof of delivery\nThe sender of data is provided with proof of delivery of data. This will protect against any subsequent attempt by the recipient to falsely deny receiving the data or its contents.","title":"OSI security services description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-x800-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stal-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FURNELL-4"},{"link_name":"Digital signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature"},{"link_name":"Access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"link_name":"Data integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrity"},{"link_name":"Traffic padding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Traffic_padding&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Routing control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Routing_control&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FURNELL-4"}],"text":"The security services may be provided by means of security mechanism:[1][3][4]Encipherment\nDigital signature\nAccess control\nData integrity\nAuthentication exchange\nTraffic padding\nRouting control\nNotarizationThe table1/X.800 shows the relationships between services and mechanismsSome of them can be applied to connection oriented protocols, other to connectionless protocols or both.The table 2/X.800 illustrates the relationship of security services and layers:[4]","title":"Specific security mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other related meanings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Managed security service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_security_service"},{"link_name":"network security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_security"},{"link_name":"outsourced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing"}],"sub_title":"Managed security service","text":"Managed security service (MSS) are network security services that have been outsourced to a service provider.","title":"Other related meanings"}] | [] | [{"title":"Telecommunication portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication"},{"title":"Access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"title":"Availability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability"},{"title":"Communication network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_network"},{"title":"Communication protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_protocol"},{"title":"Confidentiality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidentiality"},{"title":"countermeasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countermeasure_(computer)"},{"title":"Data integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrity"},{"title":"Digital signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signature"},{"title":"Exploit (computer security)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)"},{"title":"Information Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Security"},{"title":"Integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrity"},{"title":"ITU-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T"},{"title":"Managed security service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_security_service"},{"title":"Network security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_security"},{"title":"OSI model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model"},{"title":"Protocol (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_(computing)"},{"title":"Protocol data unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_data_unit"},{"title":"Protocol stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_stack"},{"title":"Security control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_control"},{"title":"Security Requirements Analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_Requirements_Analysis"},{"title":"Service Data Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_Data_Unit"},{"title":"Threat (computer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threat_(computer)"},{"title":"Vulnerability (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)"}] | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-X.800-199103-I/e","external_links_name":"X.800 : Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications"},{"Link":"http://www.iso.org/iso/search.htm?qt=ISO+7498-2+&searchSubmit=Search&sort=rel&type=simple&published=on","external_links_name":"ISO 7498-2 (Information processing systems – Open systems interconnection – Basic Reference Model – Part 2: Security architecture)"},{"Link":"http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf","external_links_name":"CNSS Instruction No. 4009"},{"Link":"http://www.w3.org/TR/ws-gloss/","external_links_name":"W3C Web Services Glossary"},{"Link":"http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-95/SP800-95.pdf","external_links_name":"NIST Special Publication 800-95 Guide to Secure Web Services"},{"Link":"http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-X.200-199407-I/en","external_links_name":"X.200 : Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference Model: The basic model"},{"Link":"http://fismapedia.org/index.php?title=Term:Countermeasure","external_links_name":"Term in FISMApedia"},{"Link":"http://www.itu.int/itudoc/gs/promo/tsb/86261.pdf","external_links_name":"List of ITU-T Security Activities and Publications"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_(software) | Singular (software) | ["1 See also","2 References","3 Further reading","4 External links"] | Computer algebra system
"SINGULAR" redirects here. For other uses, see Singular.
Original author(s)Wolfram Decker, Gert-Martin Greuel, Gerhard Pfister and Hans SchönemannDeveloper(s)University of KaiserslauternStable release4.4.0
/ 19 April 2024
Repositorygithub.com/Singular/SingularWritten inC++, COperating systemWindows, Linux, macOSAvailable inEnglishTypeComputer algebra systemLicenseGPL-2.0-only or GPL-3.0-onlyWebsitewww.singular.uni-kl.de
Singular (typeset Singular) is a computer algebra system for polynomial computations with special emphasis on the needs of commutative and non-commutative algebra, algebraic geometry, and singularity theory. Singular has been released under the terms of GNU General Public License. Problems in non-commutative algebra can be tackled with the Singular offspring Plural. Singular is developed under the direction of Wolfram Decker, Gert-Martin Greuel, Gerhard Pfister, and Hans Schönemann, who head Singular's core development team within the Department of Mathematics of the Technische Universität Kaiserslautern.
In the DFG Priority Program 1489, interfaces to GAP, Polymake and Gfan are being developed in order to cover recently established areas of mathematics involving convex and algebraic geometry, such as toric and tropical geometry.
See also
Free and open-source software portal
Comparison of computer algebra systems
References
^ "Release 4.4.0". 19 April 2024. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
^ "COPYING".
Further reading
Greuel, G.-M.; Pfister, G. (2002). A Singular Introduction to Commutative Algebra. (with contributions by O. Bachmann, C. Lossen, and H. Schönemann). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-42897-6.
Lossen, C.; Schönemann, H. (2006). "21 Years of Singular Experiments in Mathematics". In Lossen, C.; Pfister, G. (eds.). Singularities and Computer Algebra. Lecture Notes of LMS. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-68309-2.
Lossen, C.; Decker, W. (2006). Computing in Algebraic Geometry: A Quick Start using SINGULAR. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-28992-5.
External links
Official website
"Plural website". Archived from the original on 19 June 2013.
Online Manual – PLURAL
vteComputer algebra systemsOpen-source
Axiom
Cadabra
CoCoA
Fermat
FriCAS
FORM
GAP
GiNaC
Macaulay2
Maxima
Normaliz
PARI/GP
Reduce
SageMath
Singular
SymPy
Xcas/Giac
Yacas
Proprietary
ClassPad Manager
KANT
Magma
Maple
Mathcad
Mathematica
muPAD (MATLAB symbolic math toolbox)
SMath Studio
TI InterActive!
Engineering Equation Solver
Discontinued
CAMAL
Derive
Erable
LiveMath
Macsyma
Mathomatic
muMATH
ALTRAN
Category
List
This free and open-source software article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Singular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"computer algebra system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_algebra_system"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"non-commutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-commutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"singularity theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singularity_theory"},{"link_name":"GNU General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"non-commutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-commutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"Gert-Martin Greuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gert-Martin_Greuel"},{"link_name":"Gerhard Pfister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Pfister_(Mathematiker)"},{"link_name":"Technische Universität Kaiserslautern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kaiserslautern"},{"link_name":"DFG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft"},{"link_name":"GAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GAP_computer_algebra_system"},{"link_name":"Polymake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymake"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"convex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_geometry"},{"link_name":"algebraic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"toric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toric_geometry"},{"link_name":"tropical geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_geometry"}],"text":"\"SINGULAR\" redirects here. For other uses, see Singular.Singular (typeset Singular) is a computer algebra system for polynomial computations with special emphasis on the needs of commutative and non-commutative algebra, algebraic geometry, and singularity theory. Singular has been released under the terms of GNU General Public License. Problems in non-commutative algebra can be tackled with the Singular offspring Plural. Singular is developed under the direction of Wolfram Decker, Gert-Martin Greuel, Gerhard Pfister, and Hans Schönemann, who head Singular's core development team within the Department of Mathematics of the Technische Universität Kaiserslautern.\nIn the DFG Priority Program 1489, interfaces to GAP, Polymake and Gfan are being developed in order to cover recently established areas of mathematics involving convex and algebraic geometry, such as toric and tropical geometry.","title":"Singular (software)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Singular Introduction to Commutative Algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/singularintroduc0000greu"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-540-42897-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-42897-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-68309-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-68309-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-540-28992-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-28992-5"}],"text":"Greuel, G.-M.; Pfister, G. (2002). A Singular Introduction to Commutative Algebra. (with contributions by O. Bachmann, C. Lossen, and H. Schönemann). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-42897-6.\nLossen, C.; Schönemann, H. (2006). \"21 Years of Singular Experiments in Mathematics\". In Lossen, C.; Pfister, G. (eds.). Singularities and Computer Algebra. Lecture Notes of LMS. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-68309-2.\nLossen, C.; Decker, W. (2006). Computing in Algebraic Geometry: A Quick Start using SINGULAR. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-28992-5.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | [{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"Comparison of computer algebra systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_computer_algebra_systems"}] | [{"reference":"\"Release 4.4.0\". 19 April 2024. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sea_Lord | First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff | ["1 Responsibilities","2 History","3 Appointees","4 In fiction","5 See also","6 Notes","7 Citations","8 Sources"] | Professional head of the UK's Royal Navy
Not to be confused with First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord High Admiral, or Admiral of the Fleet (United Kingdom).
First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval StaffEnsign of the British Armed ForcesWhite Ensign of the Royal NavyIncumbentAdmiral Sir Ben Keysince 8 November 2021Ministry of DefenceRoyal NavyTypeNaval officerStatusMilitary branch chiefAbbreviation1SL/CNSMember ofDefence Council Admiralty BoardChiefs of Staff CommitteeReports toChief of the Defence StaffNominatorSecretary of State for DefenceAppointerThe MonarchOn the advice of the Prime Minister, subject to formal approval by the King-in-CouncilTerm lengthNot fixedtypically 3–4 yearsFormationSenior Naval Lord (1689–1771)First Naval Lord (1771–1904)First Sea Lord (from 1904)First holderAdmiral Arthur Herbert (as Senior Naval Lord)Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Fisher (as First Sea Lord)DeputyDeputy First Sea Lord (1917-1919, 1942-1946) Vice Chief of the Naval Staff (1941–1946)Deputy Chief of the Naval StaffWebsiteOfficial Website
The First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff (1SL/CNS) is a statutory position in the British Armed Forces usually held by an admiral. As the highest-ranking officer to serve in the Royal Navy, the chief is the principal military advisor on matters pertaining to the navy and a deputy to the Secretary of State for Defence. In a separate capacity, the CNS is a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and, thereby, a military advisor to the National Security Council, the prime minister and the monarch. The First Sea Lord is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty of the Royal Navy unless the Chief of the Defence Staff is a naval officer. Admiral Ben Key was appointed First Sea Lord in November 2021.
Originally titled the "Senior Naval Lord to the Board of Admiralty" when the post was created in 1689, the office was re-styled First Naval Lord in 1771. The concept of a professional "First Naval Lord" was introduced in 1805, and the title of the office was changed to First Sea Lord on the appointment of Sir John "Jackie" Fisher in 1904. Since 1923, the First Sea Lord has been a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee; he now sits on the Defence Council and the Admiralty Board.
Responsibilities
The First Sea Lord is the professional head of the Royal Navy and a member of the Defence Council. He is responsible to Secretary of State for the fighting effectiveness, efficiency and morale of the Naval Service. As a member of the Defence Council, the First Sea Lord supports the Secretary of State in the management and direction of the Armed Forces through prerogative and statutory powers. As a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, he advises CDS on maritime strategy and policy. He has a collective responsibility for providing strategic direction to the department, managing performance and ensuring that defence delivers the required outputs.
History
Lords Admiral were appointed from the 15th century; they were later styled Lords High Admiral until the 18th century, and Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty from the 17th century, as the governors of the English and later British Royal Navy. From 1683 to 1684, there were seven paid Commissioners, and one unpaid supernumerary Commissioner. The number varied between five and seven Commissioners through the 18th century. The standing of all the Commissioners was in theory the same, although the First Commissioner or First Lord exercised an ascendancy over his colleagues from an early date.
The generally recognized office of Senior Naval Lord to the Board of Admiralty was established on 8 March 1689, with the first incumbent being Admiral Arthur Herbert; he was also First Lord of the Admiralty. On 20 January 1690 Admiral Herbert was succeeded by Admiral Sir John Chicheley under First Lord of Admiralty Thomas Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.
On 22 May 1702 the Board of Admiralty ceased control of Naval Affairs and was replaced by the Lord Admiral's Council. The previous office of Senior Naval Lord was replaced by a Senior Member to the Lords Admiral Council; he was usually a serving naval officer of admiral rank and was the Chief Naval Adviser to the Lord Admiral. This lasted until 8 November 1709, when the Board of Admiralty resumed control of Naval Affairs and the post of Senior Naval Lord was resumed.
On 2 February 1771 the office of Senior Naval Lord was renamed to First Naval Lord. The first post holder was Vice-Admiral Augustus Hervey; he first served under First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. In 1805, for the first time, specific functions were assigned to each of the 'Naval' Lords, who were described as 'Professional' Lords, leaving to the 'Civil' Lords the routine business of signing documents. On 2 May 1827 the Board of Admiralty once again ceased control of Naval Affairs and was replaced, until 1828, by a Lord High Admirals Council.
The title of the First Naval Lord was changed to First Sea Lord on the appointment of Sir Jackie Fisher in 1904. In 1917 the First Sea Lord was re-styled First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff. From 1923 onward, the First Sea Lord was a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, and from 1923 to 1959, in rotation with the representatives of the other services (the Chief of the Imperial General Staff and Chief of the Air Staff), he served as the chairman of that committee and head of all British armed forces. The title was retained when the Board of Admiralty was abolished in 1964 and the Board's functions were integrated into the Ministry of Defence.
Under the current organisation, the First Sea Lord sits on the Defence Council, the Admiralty Board and the Navy Board.
Since 2012, the flagship of the First Sea Lord has nominally been the ship of the line HMS Victory, which used to be Lord Nelson's flagship.
Professional heads of the English/British Armed Forces vte
Royal Navy
British Army
Royal Air Force
Combined
1645
N/A
Commander-in-Chief of the Forces (1645/60–1904, intermittently)
N/A - No Air Force until 1918
N/A - Inter-service co-ordination carried out from 1904 by the Committee of Imperial Defence under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister
1689
Senior Naval Lord (1689–1771)
1771
First Naval Lord (1771–1904)
1904
First Sea Lord (1904–1917)
Chief of the General Staff (1904–1909)
1909
Chief of the Imperial General Staff (1909–1964)
1917
First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff (1917–present)
1918
Chief of the Air Staff (1918–present)
1923
Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee (1923–1959, held by one of the service heads until 1956)
1959
Chief of the Defence Staff (1959–present)
1964
Chief of the General Staff (1964–present)
Appointees
The following table lists all those who have held the post of First Sea Lord or its preceding positions. Ranks and honours are as at the completion of their tenure:
No.
Portrait
Name
Took office
Left office
Time in office
Ref.
Senior Naval Lords
1
Herbert, ArthurAdmiralArthur Herbert(c. 1648–1716)8 March 168920 January 1690318 days
2
Chicheley, JohnRear-AdmiralSir John Chicheley(c. 1640–1691)20 January 16905 June 1690136 days
3
Russell, EdwardAdmiral of the FleetEdward Russell(1653–1727)5 June 169023 January 1691232 days
4
Priestman, HenryCaptainHenry Priestman(c. 1647–1712)23 January 16912 May 16943 years, 99 days
(3)
Russell, EdwardAdmiral of the FleetThe Earl of Orford(1653–1727)2 May 169431 May 16995 years, 29 days
5
Rooke, GeorgeAdmiral of the FleetSir George Rooke(1650–1709)31 May 169926 January 17022 years, 240 days
6
Leake, JohnAdmiral of the FleetSir John Leake(1656–1720)8 November 17094 October 1710330 days
7
Byng, GeorgeAdmiralSir George Byng(1663–1733)4 October 171030 September 17121 year, 362 days
(6)
Leake, JohnAdmiral of the FleetSir John Leake(1656–1720)30 September 171214 October 17142 years, 14 days
(7)
Byng, GeorgeAdmiralSir George Byng(1663–1733)14 October 171416 April 17172 years, 184 days
8
Aylmer, MatthewAdmiral of the FleetMatthew Aylmer(c. 1650–1720)16 April 171719 March 1718337 days
(7)
Byng, GeorgeAdmiral of the FleetSir George Byng(1663–1733)19 March 171830 September 17213 years, 195 days
9
Jennings, JohnAdmiralSir John Jennings(1664–1743)30 September 17211 June 17275 years, 244 days
10
Norris, JohnAdmiralSir John Norris(c. 1670–1749)1 June 172713 May 17302 years, 346 days
11
Wager, CharlesAdmiralSir Charles Wager(1666–1743)13 May 173023 June 17333 years, 41 days
12
Hamilton, ArchibaldCaptainLord Archibald Hamilton(1673–1754)23 June 173313 March 17384 years, 263 days
13
Powlett, HarryLord Harry Powlett(1691–1759)13 March 173819 March 17424 years, 6 days
(12)
Hamilton, ArchibaldCaptainLord Archibald Hamilton(1673–1754)19 March 174225 March 17464 years, 6 days
14
Beauclerk, VereAdmiralLord Vere Beauclerk(1699–1781)25 March 174618 November 17493 years, 238 days
15
Anson, GeorgeAdmiralThe Lord Anson(1697–1762)18 November 174922 June 17511 year, 216 days
16
Rowley, WilliamAdmiralSir William Rowley(c. 1690–1768)22 June 175117 November 17565 years, 148 days
17
Boscawen, EdwardVice-AdmiralThe Honourable Edward Boscawen(1711–1761)17 November 17566 April 1757140 days
(16)
Rowley, WilliamAdmiralSir William Rowley(c. 1690–1768)6 April 17572 July 175787 days
(17)
Boscawen, EdwardAdmiralThe Honourable Edward Boscawen(1711–1761)2 July 175719 March 17613 years, 260 days
18
Forbes, JohnAdmiralThe Honourable John Forbes(1714–1796)19 March 176120 April 17632 years, 32 days
19
Howe, RichardCaptainThe Lord Howe(1726–1799)20 April 176331 July 17652 years, 102 days
20
Saunders, CharlesVice-AdmiralSir Charles Saunders(c. 1715–1775)31 July 176515 September 17661 year, 46 days
21
Keppel, AugustusRear-AdmiralThe Honourable Augustus Keppel(1725–1786)15 September 176611 December 176687 days
22
Brett, PeircyRear-AdmiralSir Peircy Brett(1709–1781)11 December 176628 February 17703 years, 79 days
23
Holburne, FrancisAdmiralFrancis Holburne(1704–1771)28 February 17702 February 1771339 days
First Naval Lords
24
Hervey, AugustusCaptainAugustus Hervey(1724–1779)2 February 177112 April 17754 years, 69 days
25
Palliser, HughVice-AdmiralSir Hugh Palliser(1723–1796)12 April 177523 September 17794 years, 164 days
26
Palliser, HughVice-AdmiralRobert Man23 September 177922 September 1780365 days
27
Darby, GeorgeVice-AdmiralGeorge Darby(c. 1720–1790)22 September 17801 April 17821 year, 191 days
28
Harland, RobertAdmiralSir Robert Harland(c. 1715–1784)1 April 178230 January 1783304 days
29
Pigot, HughAdmiralHugh Pigot(1722–1792)30 January 178331 December 1783335 days
30
Leveson-Gower, JohnRear-AdmiralJohn Leveson-Gower(1740–1792)31 December 178312 August 17895 years, 224 days
31
Hood, SamuelAdmiralThe Lord Hood(1724–1816)12 August 17897 March 17955 years, 207 days
32
Middleton, CharlesVice-AdmiralSir Charles Middleton(1726–1813)7 March 179520 November 1795258 days
33
Gambier, JamesVice-AdmiralJames Gambier(1756–1833)20 November 179519 February 18015 years, 91 days
34
Troubridge, ThomasRear-AdmiralSir Thomas Troubridge(c. 1758–1807)19 February 180115 May 18043 years, 86 days
(33)
Gambier JamesVice AdmiralJames Gambier(1756–1833)15 May 180410 February 18061 year, 271 days
35
Markham, JohnRear AdmiralJohn Markham(1761–1827)10 February 18066 April 18071 year, 55 days
(33)
Gambier, JamesAdmiralJames Gambier(1756–1833)6 April 18079 May 18081 year, 33 days
36
Bickerton, RichardVice AdmiralSir Richard Bickerton(1759–1832)9 May 180825 March 18123 years, 321 days
37
Domett, WilliamVice AdmiralWilliam Domett(1752–1828)25 March 181223 October 18131 year, 212 days
38
Yorke, JosephVice AdmiralSir Joseph Yorke(1768–1831)23 October 181324 May 18162 years, 214 days
39
Moore, GrahamVice AdmiralSir Graham Moore(1764–1843)24 May 181613 March 18203 years, 294 days
40
Johnstone Hope, WilliamVice AdmiralSir William Johnstone Hope(1766–1831)13 March 18202 May 18277 years, 50 days
41
Cockburn, GeorgeVice AdmiralSir George Cockburn(1772–1853)19 September 182825 November 18302 years, 67 days
42
Hardy, ThomasRear AdmiralSir Thomas Hardy(1769–1839)25 November 18301 August 18343 years, 249 days
43
Dundas, GeorgeRear AdmiralThe Hon. Sir George Dundas(1778–1834)1 August 18341 November 183492 days
44
Adam, CharlesRear AdmiralSir Charles Adam(1780–1853)1 November 183423 December 183452 days
(41)
Cockburn, GeorgeVice AdmiralSir George Cockburn(1772–1853)23 December 183425 April 1835123 days
(44)
Adam, CharlesVice AdmiralSir Charles Adam(1780–1853)25 April 18358 September 18416 years, 197 days
(41)
Cockburn, GeorgeAdmiralSir George Cockburn(1772–1853)8 September 184113 July 18464 years, 308 days
45
Parker, WilliamVice AdmiralSir William Parker(1781–1866)13 July 184624 July 184611 days
(44)
Adam, CharlesVice AdmiralSir Charles Adam(1780–1853)24 July 184620 July 1847361 days
46
Dundas, JamesRear AdmiralSir James Dundas(1785–1862)20 July 184713 February 18524 years, 208 days
47
Berkeley, MauriceRear AdmiralThe Hon. Maurice Fitzhardinge Berkeley(1788–1867)13 February 18522 March 185218 days
48
Parker, HydeVice AdmiralHyde Parker(1784–1854)2 March 185226 May 18542 years, 85 days
(47)
Berkeley, MauriceVice AdmiralThe Hon. Maurice Fitzhardinge Berkeley(1788–1867)26 May 185424 November 18572 years, 182 days
48
Dundas, RichardVice AdmiralThe Hon. Sir Richard Saunders Dundas(1802–1861)24 November 18578 March 1858104 days
49
Martin, WilliamVice AdmiralSir William Martin(1801–1895)8 March 185828 June 18591 year, 112 days
(48)
Dundas, RichardVice AdmiralThe Hon. Sir Richard Saunders Dundas(1802–1861)28 June 185915 June 18611 year, 352 days
50
Grey, FrederickAdmiralThe Hon. Sir Frederick Grey(1805–1878)15 June 186113 July 18665 years, 28 days
51
Milne, AlexanderVice AdmiralSir Alexander Milne(1806–1896)13 July 186618 December 18682 years, 158 days
52
Dacres, SydneyAdmiralSir Sydney Dacres(1804–1884)18 December 186827 November 18723 years, 345 days
(51)
Milne, AlexanderAdmiralSir Alexander Milne(1806–1896)27 November 18727 September 18763 years, 285 days
53
Yelverton, HastingsAdmiralSir Hastings Yelverton(1808–1878)7 September 18765 November 18771 year, 59 days
54
Wellesley, GeorgeAdmiralSir George Wellesley(1814–1901)5 November 187712 August 18791 year, 280 days
55
Key, AstleyAdmiralSir Astley Cooper Key(1821–1888)12 August 18791 July 18855 years, 323 days
56
Hood, ArthurAdmiralSir Arthur Hood(1824–1901)1 July 188515 February 1886229 days
57
Hay, JohnAdmiralLord John Hay(1827–1916)15 February 18869 August 1886175 days
(56)
Hood, ArthurAdmiralSir Arthur Hood(1824–1901)9 August 188624 October 18893 years, 76 days
58
Hamilton, RichardAdmiralSir Richard Hamilton(1829–1912)24 October 188928 September 18911 year, 339 days
59
Hoskins, AnthonyAdmiralSir Anthony Hoskins(1828–1901)28 September 18911 November 18932 years, 34 days
60
Richards, FrederickAdmiral of the FleetSir Frederick Richards(1833–1912)1 November 189319 August 18995 years, 291 days
61
Kerr, WalterAdmiral of the FleetLord Walter Kerr(1839–1927)19 August 189921 October 19045 years, 63 days
First Sea Lords
62
Fisher, JohnAdmiral of the FleetSir John Fisher(1841–1920)21 October 190425 January 19105 years, 96 days
63
Wilson, ArthurAdmiral of the FleetSir Arthur Wilson(1842–1921)25 January 19105 December 19111 year, 314 days
64
Bridgeman, FrancisAdmiralSir Francis Bridgeman(1848–1929)5 December 19119 December 19121 year, 4 days
65
Mountbatten, LouisAdmiralPrince Louis of Battenberg(1854–1921)9 December 191230 October 19141 year, 325 days
(62)
Fisher, JohnAdmiral of the FleetThe Lord Fisher(1841–1920)30 October 191415 May 1915197 days
66
Jackson, HenryAdmiralSir Henry Jackson(1855–1929)15 May 191530 November 19161 year, 199 days
67
Jellicoe, JohnAdmiral of the FleetSir John Jellicoe(1859–1935)30 November 191610 January 19181 year, 41 days
68
Wemyss, RosslynAdmiral of the FleetSir Rosslyn Wemyss(1864–1933)10 January 19181 November 19191 year, 295 days
69
Beatty, DavidAdmiral of the FleetThe Earl Beatty(1871–1936)1 November 191930 July 19277 years, 271 days
70
Madden, CharlesAdmiral of the FleetSir Charles Madden(1862–1935)30 July 192730 July 19303 years, 0 days
71
Field, FrederickAdmiral of the FleetSir Frederick Field(1871–1945)30 July 193021 January 19332 years, 175 days
72
Chatfield, ErnleAdmiral of the FleetThe Lord Chatfield(1873–1967)21 January 19337 September 19385 years, 229 days
73
Backhouse, RogerAdmiral of the FleetSir Roger Backhouse(1878–1939)7 September 193812 June 1939278 days
74
Pound, DudleyAdmiral of the FleetSir Dudley Pound(1877–1943)12 June 193915 October 19434 years, 125 days
75
Cunningham, AndrewAdmiral of the FleetThe Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope(1883–1963)15 October 194324 May 19462 years, 221 days
76
Cunningham, JohnAdmiral of the FleetSir John Cunningham(1885–1962)24 May 194629 September 19482 years, 128 days
77
Fraser, BruceAdmiral of the FleetThe Lord Fraser of North Cape(1888–1981)29 September 194820 December 19513 years, 82 days
78
McGrigor, RhoderickAdmiral of the FleetSir Rhoderick McGrigor(1893–1959)20 December 195118 April 19553 years, 119 days
79
Mountbatten, LouisAdmiral of the FleetThe Earl Mountbatten of Burma(1900–1979)18 April 195519 October 19594 years, 184 days
80
Lambe, CharlesAdmiralSir Charles Lambe(1900–1960)19 October 195923 May 1960217 days
81
John, CasparAdmiral of the FleetSir Caspar John(1903–1984)23 May 19607 August 19633 years, 76 days
82
Luce, DavidAdmiralSir David Luce(1906–1971)7 August 196315 March 19662 years, 220 days
83
Begg, VarylAdmiralSir Varyl Begg(1908–1995)15 March 196612 August 19682 years, 150 days
84
Fanu, MichaelAdmiralSir Michael Le Fanu(1913–1970)12 August 19683 July 19701 year, 325 days
85
Hill, PeterAdmiralSir Peter Hill-Norton(1915–2004)3 July 19709 April 1971280 days
86
Pollock, MichaelAdmiralSir Michael Pollock(1916–2006)9 April 19711 March 19742 years, 326 days
87
Ashmore, EdwardAdmiralSir Edward Ashmore(1919–2016)1 March 19749 February 19772 years, 345 days
88
Lewin, TerenceAdmiral of the FleetSir Terence Lewin(1920–1999)1 March 19776 July 19792 years, 127 days
89
Leach, HenryAdmiralSir Henry Leach(1923–2011)6 July 19791 December 19823 years, 148 days
90
Fieldhouse, JohnAdmiralSir John Fieldhouse(1928–1992)1 December 19822 August 19852 years, 244 days
91
Staveley, WilliamAdmiralSir William Staveley(1928–1997)2 August 198525 May 19893 years, 296 days
92
Oswald, JulianAdmiralSir Julian Oswald(1933–2011)25 May 19892 March 19933 years, 281 days
93
Bathurst, BenjaminAdmiralSir Benjamin Bathurst(born 1936)2 March 199310 July 19952 years, 130 days
94
Slater, JockAdmiralSir Jock Slater(born 1938)10 July 19958 October 19983 years, 90 days
95
Boyce, MichaelAdmiralSir Michael Boyce(1943–2022)8 October 199816 January 20012 years, 100 days
96
Essenhigh, NigelAdmiralSir Nigel Essenhigh(born 1944)16 January 200117 September 20021 year, 244 days
97
West, AlanAdmiralSir Alan West(born 1948)17 September 20026 February 20063 years, 142 days
98
Band, JonathonAdmiralSir Jonathon Band(born 1950)6 February 200621 July 20093 years, 165 days
99
Stanhope, MarkAdmiralSir Mark Stanhope(born 1952)21 July 20099 April 20133 years, 262 days
100
Zambellas, GeorgeAdmiralSir George Zambellas(born 1958)9 April 20138 April 20162 years, 365 days
101
Jones, PhilipAdmiralSir Philip Jones(born 1960)8 April 201619 June 20193 years, 72 days
102
Radakin, TonyAdmiralSir Tony Radakin(born 1965)19 June 20198 November 20212 years, 142 days
103
Key, BenAdmiralSir Ben Key(born 1965)8 November 2021Incumbent2 years, 223 days
In fiction
In John Buchan's novel The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915), the First Sea Lord is named as Lord Alloa, an impostor whom Richard Hannay recognizes at a meeting as a spy and recent pursuer of his. Hannay describes Lord Alloa as recognizable from news pictures for his "beard cut like a spade, the firm fighting mouth, the blunt square nose, and the keen blue eyes...the man, they say, that made the New British Navy". The real First Sea Lord at the time the story is set (early summer 1914) was Prince Louis of Battenberg, coincidentally also bearded.
H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), the operetta by Gilbert and Sullivan, has Sir Joseph Porter KCB as First Sea Lord. The show written and first performed in the late 1870s might be referencing or lampooning as First Sea Lords Sir Alexander Milne (1872–76), Sir Hastings Yelverton (1876-77), or Sir George Wellesley (1877–79).
See also
Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)
Second Sea Lord
Third Sea Lord
Fourth Sea Lord
Fifth Sea Lord
Chief of the Air Staff – the Royal Air Force equivalent
Chief of the General Staff – the British Army equivalent
Notes
^ In 1955, it was decided to create a new post, Chief of the Defence Staff, who would be chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee.
^ a b c d e f Later served as Chief of the Defence Staff.
Citations
^ a b "Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE has been appointed to First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff". gov.uk. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Rodger 1979, p. 34.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Rodger 1979, p. 69.
^ Thomas 1988, p. 31.
^ "People – First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff". MoD. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2013.
^ "Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE ADC". GOV.UK. Retrieved 29 June 2023. Text was copied from this source, which is available under the Open Government Licence v3.0. © Crown copyright.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sainty 1975, pp. 18–31.
^ Rodger 1979, p. 91.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 81.
^ Friedman 2015, p. 21.
^ Defence Administrative Responsibilities Archived 17 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Hansard, 25 October 1955
^ Ministry of Defence (10 December 2012). "History of the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence website" (PDF). Mod.uk. Retrieved 3 June 2013.
^ a b The Navy List, 1992, corrected to 31 March 1992, pub HMSO, ISSN 0141-6081 pages 4–5.The Navy List, 2008, compiled 3 September 2008, pub TSO, ISBN 978-0-11-773081-6 pages 4–5.
^ "MOD Royal Navy". Retrieved 17 June 2016.
^ HMS Victory handed to First Sea Lord in Portsmouth Archived 6 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 10 October 2012, accessed 8 October 2016
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Rodger, p. 51-52
^ a b c d e f g h i j "The Commissioners ("Lords") of the Admiralty 1828 – 1895". W Loney RN. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 144.
^ Mackay 1973, p. 315.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 268.
^ "Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32062. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
^ Kerr 1934, p. 238.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 83.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 127.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 130.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 252.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 26.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 164.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 75.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 42.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 21.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 217.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 60.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 63.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 90.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 162.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 189.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 150.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 139.
^ "Sir David Luce". Unit Histories. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 29.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 155.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 115.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 214.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 16.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 158.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 152.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 78.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 235.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 204.
^ Heathcote 2002, p. 23.
^ a b c d e Who's Who 2010, A & C Black, 2010, ISBN 978-1-408-11414-8
^ "Sir Nigel Essenhigh". University of Exeter. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
^ "Admiral Zambellas new First Sea Lord". Inside Government. 9 April 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
^ "Admiral Sir Philip Jones takes over as First Sea Lord". Royal Navy. 8 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
^ "A 'generation of innovators' has been appointed to run the military in a shake-up of the top ranks of the Army, Navy and RAF". The Daily Telegraph. 3 December 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
^ "Admiral Sir Ben Key – who's the new First Sea Lord?". Forces.net. 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
^ Buchan 1999, Ch. 8.
^ "Prince Louis of Battenberg". First World War.com. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
^ ""Sir Joseph Porter's Song" ("When I was a Lad I served a Term") from H. M. S. Pinafore, or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor (1878)". Victorian Web. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
Sources
Buchan, John (1999) . The Thirty-nine Steps. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283931-2.
Friedman, N. (2015). The British Battleship 1906-1946. Seaforth. ISBN 9781848322257.
Heathcote, Tony (2002). The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995. Pen & Sword Ltd. ISBN 0-85052-835-6.
Kerr, Mark (1934). Prince Louis of Battenberg: Admiral of the Fleet. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
Mackay, Ruddock F. (1973). Fisher of Kilverstone. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198224099.
Rodger, N.A.M. (1979). The Admiralty. Offices of State. Lavenham: T. Dalton Ltd. ISBN 0900963948.
Sainty, J.C., ed. (1975). Lord High Admiral and Commissioners of the Admiralty 1660-1870, Office-Holders in Modern Britain. Vol. 4: Admiralty Officials 1660-1870. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2009.
Thomas, David A (1988). A companion to the Royal Navy. Harrap. ISBN 0-245-54572-7.
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Office of the Vice-Chief of the Naval Staff
Office of the Deputy-Chief of the Naval Staff
Office of the Naval Secretary-flag officer appointments -
Naval Assistant to Naval Secretary-captains appointments
Director of Naval Officer Appointments
Director of Naval Officer Appointments (Engineer Officers)
Director of Naval Officer Appointments (Seaman Officers)
Director of Naval Officer Appointments (Supply and Secretariat and WRNS Officers)
Director of Naval Security (1988-)
Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord
Secretary to the First Sea Lord
underVice & Deputy Chief of Naval Staff
Offices of the Assistant Chiefs of the Naval Staff
Commandant General Royal Marines
Chief of Staff
Colonel General Staff (Assistant Chief of Staff)
Military Secretary (Royal Marines)
Assistant Adjutant-General (Royal Marines)
Assistant Quartermaster- General (Royal Marines)
Director Royal Marines Reserves
Directorate of Naval Security
Director of Naval Security
Hydrographer of the Navy
Assistant Hydrographer Officers appointments
Director of Naval Oceanography and Meteorology
Director of Hydrographic Plans and Surveys
Director of Hydrographic Charting and Sciences
Director of Hydrographic Administration and Supply
Air, Operations, Plans, Policyrequirements, warfare
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)
Assistant of Chief Defence Staff (Pol) Naval Staff
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Operations)
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Operations and Air)
Assistant Chief of Defence Staff (Ops) Naval Staff
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Operational Requirements)
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Warfare)
naval staffdirectoratesoffices & branches
Directorate of Communications & Information Systems (Navy)
Directorate of Defence Plans (Navy)
Directorate of Defence Policy(Naval)
Directorate of Fleet Management Services
Directorate of Naval Air Warfare Operation
Directorate of Naval Management and Organisation
Directorate of Operational Analysis (RN)
Directorate of Naval Operations and Trade
Directorate of Naval Operational Requirements
Directorate of Naval Plans
Directorate of Naval Tactical and Weapons Policy
Directorate of Naval Security
Directorate of Naval Signals
Directorate of Naval Staff Duties
Directorate of Navigation and Tactical Control (Naval)
Directorate of Surface Warfare (Naval)
Directorate of Under-Sea Warfare (Naval)
Hydrographic Department
Naval Historical Branch
Naval Historical Library
Naval Staff Directorate
Plans and Resources Division
naval personnel
Office of the Second Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Personnel
naval personneldepartment
Office of the Chief Naval Supply and Secretariat Officer
Office of the Chaplain of the Fleet-became
Royal Navy Chaplaincy Service
Principal Chaplain Church of Scotland & Free Churches (Naval)
Principal Roman Catholic Chaplain (Naval)
Directorate General Training
Directorate-General Naval Manpower and Training
Director of Naval Manpower Planning
Director of Naval Manpower Requirements
Director of Naval Manning and Training (Seaman)
Director of Naval Manning and Training (Engineering)
Director of Naval Manning and Training (Supply and Secretariat)
Director of Naval Training Support
Naval Manpower Statistics Branch
Director of Naval Foreign and Commonwealth Training
Director of Naval Education Service
Joint Warfare Establishment
Directorate-General Naval Personnel Services
Directorate of Naval Officer Appointments
Directorate of Naval Physical Training and Sports
Head of Naval Social Service
Directorate of Naval Service Conditions
Director of Naval Service Conditions
Directorate of Fleet Supply Duties (1964-1973)
General Manager Royal Navy Film Corporation
Job Evaluation Judge
Naval Recruitment Training Agency
Office of the Admiral Commanding, Reserves
Office of the Medical Director-General of the Navy
Office of the Medical Director-General (Naval)
Deputy Director-General (Naval)
Director Naval Dental Services
Director of Medical Personnel and Logistics
Director of Naval Recruiting
Women's Royal Naval Service Headquarters became-
Office of the Matron-in-Chief Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service
controller
Controller of the Navy
controllers departmentnavy controllerate
Assistant Controller of the Navy
Office of the Chief Executive Polaris
Deputy Controller Polaris
Department of the Director of Naval Construction
Weapons Department (Naval)
Director-General Weapons (Naval)
Director Weapons Coordination and Acceptance (Naval)
Co-Ordination Directorate
Compass Directorate
Director Naval Ordnance Services
Director Naval Weapons Contracts B
Director Underwater Weapons Projects (Naval)
Director Weapons Surface Projects (Naval)
Director Surface Electronic Projects (Naval)
Department of the Director-General Aircraft (Naval)
Naval Ordnance Inspection Directorate
Production Directorate
Director Weapons Production (Naval)
Surface Weapons Research and Development Directorate
Under Water Weapons Research and Development Directorate
Weapons Equipment Surface Directorate
Ship Department
Deputy Director-General Ships-
Director of Contracts (Ships)
Director Engineering (Ships)
Director of Electrical Engineering
Director of Naval Construction
Director of Naval Equipment
Director of Project Team Submarines/Polaris
Director of Resources and Programmes (Ships)
Director Warship Design
Directorate of Naval Construction
Marine Engineering Directorate
Naval Equipment Division
Naval Equipment Directorate
Naval Electrical Engineering Directorate
Naval Ship Production Directorate
Principal Director of Navy Contracts
naval supplies and transportfleet support hqnaval support command
Office of the Chief of Naval Supplies and Transport
Office of the Chief of Fleet Support
undernaval supplies and transportfleet support hqnaval support command
Assistant Chief of Fleet Support
Director of Naval Administrative Planning
Director of Fleet Supply Duties
Director of Fleet Maintenance
Director of Marine Services
Head of Aircraft Department (Naval)
HQ Director of Quartering (Navy)
Civil Catering Department
Contract and Purchase Department (Naval)
Department of Fuel Movements and Transport (Naval)
Department of Dockyards and Fleet Maintenance
Dockyard Division
Fleet Maintenance Division
Marine Services Division
Office of the Chief Executive Royal Dockyards-
Director of Dockyard Manpower and Productivity
Director of Dockyard Production and Support
Director of Finance and Administration
Directorate-General of Supplies and Transport
Director of Supplies and Transport (Management and Administration)
Director of Supplies and Transport (General and Victualling)
Victualling Division
Director of Supplies and Transport (Fuel and Movements)
Director of Supplies and Transport (Armament and Specialist)
Director of Supplies and Transport (Finance)
Naval Stores Department
Royal Naval Supply and Transport Service
Victualling Department (1832-1971)
chief scientistsdepartment
Office of the Chief Scientist (Royal Navy) also Deputy Controller Research and Development Establishments, and Research A
Director Research Ships
Director Research Underwater
underchief scientists department
Royal Naval Scientific Service Headquarters
Deputy Chief Scientist (Navy)
Directorate Naval Operational Studies
Director of Naval Operational Studies
Office of the Senior Psychologist (Naval)
Admiralty Compass Observatory
Department of Naval Physical Research
Department of Research and Development Services (Naval)
Department of Material Research (Naval)
Director-General Establishments, Resources and Programmes A
Admiralty Engineering Laboratory
Admiralty Experiment Works
Admiralty Marine Engineering Establishment
Admiralty Oil Laboratory
Admiralty Research Laboratory
Admiralty Research Establishment
Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment
Admiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment
Naval Construction Research Establishment
Royal Naval Physiological Laboratory
Royal Radar Establishment
Signals Research and Development Establishment
Director-General Research Electronics
Services Electronics Research Laboratory
naval home command
Naval Home Command
Shore unitsunder Naval Home Command
Admiral-Superintendent, Devonport
Admiral-superintendent, Portsmouth
Admiral Commanding, Reserves
Commodore, Clyde Submarine Base
Chief Executive Officer Marine Services
Flag Officer Commanding, Royal Yachts
Flag Officer, Medway
Flag Officer, Plymouth
Port Admiral, Devonport
Flag Officer, Portsmouth and Admiral-superintendent, Portsmouth
Flag Officer Spithead and Port Admiral Portsmouth
Flag Officer, Training and Recruitment
Senior Naval Officer, Northern Ireland
Fleets
Home Fleet
Far East Fleet
Mediterranean Fleet
Western Fleet
Commander-in-Chief Fleet
underc-in-c, fleet
Chief of Staff Fleet
Chief of Staff, (Warfare) Fleet
Chief of Staff (Capability) Fleet
Chief of Staff (Personnel) Fleet
Assistant Chief of Staff, Operations
Assistant Chief of Staff, Plans
Assistant Chief of Staff, Warfare
Command Secretary, Fleet
Commandant General Royal Marines
Commander British Forces Gibraltar
Commander Operations
Commander UK Amphibious Forces
Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces
Flag Officer, Carriers and Amphibious Ships
Flag Officer First Flotilla
Flag Officer, Second Flotilla
Flag Officer, Third Flotilla
Flag Officer, Surface Flotilla
Flag Officer Gibraltar and Gibraltar Naval Base Commander
Flag Officer Scotland, Northern England, Northern Ireland
Flag Officer Scotland and Northern Ireland
Flag Officer Plymouth
Flag Officer Sea Training
Flag Officer Submarines
Flag Officer Naval Air Command
Flag Officer, Flying Training
Flag Officer, Naval Flying Training
under c-in-c home fleet, far east fleetmediterranean fleet, western fleet
Flag Officer Second-in-Command Far East Fleet
Chief of Staff, Far East Fleet
Commodore, Amphibious Forces, Far East Fleet
Commodore-in-Charge, Hong Kong
Mediterranean Fleet
Chief of Staff Mediterranean Fleet
Flag Officer, Gibraltar
Commodore (D) Commanding, Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers
Rear-Admiral (D) Commanding, Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers
Vice-Admiral (D) Commanding, Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers
Western Fleet
Chief of Staff, Western Fleet
civil administrationnavy department
Office of the Second Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Royal Navy)
Office of the Second Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Administration)
undercivil administration
Department of the Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Royal Navy)
Department of the Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Administration)
Greenwich Hospital Department
Naval Legal
Office of the Counsel to the Navy Department, Ministry of Defence
Office of the Judge Advocate of the Fleet
Office of the Chief Naval Judge Advocate
vteDepartment of AdmiraltyDirection and control of Admiralty and Naval affairs
Office of First Lord of the Admiralty and President of the Board of Admiralty
Lord High Admirals Council
Admiralty buildings
Boards and offices underthe First Lord
Board of Admiralty
Navy Board
Navy Office
Navy Pay Office
Office of the Naval Secretary
Office of the First Naval Lord
Office of the First Sea Lord
Office of the Senior Naval Lord
Office of the Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty
Office of the Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty
Office of the Private Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty
Direction ofAdmiralsNaval/Sea Lords War and Naval Staff
Office of the Senior Naval Lord
Office of the First Naval Lord
Office of the First Sea Lord
Secretariat and staff underthe First Sea Lord
Office of the Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord
Office of the Additional Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord
Office of the Hydrographer of the Navy
Offices of the Sea Lords
Admiralty Navy War Council
Admiralty War Staff
Admiralty Naval Staff
Operational planning, policystrategy, tactical doctrinerequirements
Admiralty Navy War Council
Admiralty War Staff
Admiralty Naval Staff
Divisions and sections under the War and Naval Staff
Administrative Planning Department
Administrative Planning Division
Air Division
Anti-Submarine Division
Anti-Submarine and Warfare Division
Anti-U-boat Division
Air Warfare Division
Air Warfare and Fly Training Division
Air Warfare and Training Division
Combined Operations Division
Communications Division
Convoy Section
Directorate of Defence Plans (Navy)
Economic Warfare Division
Gunnery and Anti-Aircraft Warfare Division
Gunnery Division
Gunnery and Torpedo Division
Historical Section
Local Defence Division Division
Mercantile Movements Division
Naval Air Division
Naval Air Organisation and Training Division
Naval Artillery and Torpedoes Division
Navigation and Direction Division
Navigation Division
Minesweeping Division
Mobilisation Division
Naval Intelligence Division
Operations Division
Operations Division (Home)
Operations Division (Foreign)
Operations Division (Mining)
Plans Division
Plans Division (Q)
Press Division
Signal Division
Signal Section
Standardisation Division
Tactical Division
Tactical and Weapons Policy Division
Torpedo Division
Torpedo, Anti-Submarine and Minewarfare Division
Trade Division
Trade and Operations Division
Training and Staff Duties Division
Tactical and Staff Duties Division
Undersurface Warfare Division
Offices of the Sea Lords
Office of the Second Sea Lord
Office of the Third Sea Lord
Office of the Fourth Sea Lord
Office of the Fifth Sea Lord
Admiralty civil departmentsand organisationsunder the Sea Lords
Admiralty Area Cash Offices
Admiralty Central Dockyard Laboratory
Admiralty Central Metallurgical Laboratory
Admiralty Civilian Shore Wireless Service
Admiralty Compass Observatory
Admiralty Constabulary
Admiralty Constabulary Headquarters
Admiralty Engineering Laboratory
Admiralty Experimental Station
Admiralty Experiment Works
Admiralty Gunnery Establishment
Admiralty Interview Board
Admiralty Labour Department
Admiralty Marine Technology Establishment
Admiralty Materials Laboratory
Admiralty Mine Design Department
Admiralty Mining Establishment
Admiralty Naval Aircraft Materials Laboratory
Admiralty Record Office
Admiralty Regional Offices
Admiralty Research Laboratory
Admiralty Signal Establishment
Admiralty Signals and Radar Establishment
Admiralty Surface Weapons Establishment
Admiralty Surveying Service
Admiralty Torpedo Experimental Establishment
Admiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment
Admiralty Underwater Weapons Launching Establishment
Architectural and Engineering Works Department
Air Equipment and Naval Photography Department
Air Department
Air Materiel Department
Air Personnel Department
Amphibious Warfare Headquarters
Armament Supply Department
Board of Invention and Research
Board of Longitude
Boom Defence Department
Boom Defence and Marine Salvage Department
Britannia Royal Naval College
Chemical Board
Chemical Department
Civil Catering Department
Civil Engineer in Chiefs Department
Coastguard and Reserves Branch
Combined Operations Headquarters
Commissioner for Property and Income-tax for the Naval Department
Compass Department
Contract and Purchase Department
Council of Naval Education
Dental Examining Board
Department of Radio Equipment
Department of the Accountant-General of the Navy
Department of Aeronautical and Engineering Research
Department of Miscellaneous Weapons Development
Department of Naval Assistant (Foreign) to Second Sea Lord
Department of Naval Education
Operational Research
Department of Personal Services and Officer Appointments
Department of Physical Research
Department of Physical Training & Sports
Department of Radio Equipment
Department of Research Programmes and Planning
Department of Superintendent of de-magnetisation
Department of the Admiral of the Training Service
Department of the Chief Inspector of Naval Ordnance
Department of the Chief of Naval Information
Department of the Chief Scientist
Department of the Civil Engineer-in-Chief
Department of the Comptroller of Steam Machinery
Department of the Comptroller of Victualling and Transport Services
Department of the Controller of the Navy
Department of the Controller-General of Merchant Shipbuilding
Department of the Controller for Navy Pay
Department of the Deputy Controller for Auxiliary Shipbuilding
Department of the Deputy Controller for Dockyards and Shipbuilding
Department of the Director Contract-Built Ships
Department of the Director-General Aircraft
Department of the Director-General of Manpower
Department of the Director-General, Supply and Secretariat Branch
Department of the Director of Aircraft Maintenance and Repair
Department of the Director of Contract Labour
Department of the Director of Dockyards
Department of the Director of Electrical Engineering
Department of the Director of Manning
Department of the Director of Merchant Shipbuilding
Department of the Director of Merchant Shipbuilding and Repairs
Department of the Director of Merchant Ship Repairs
Department of the Director of Naval Construction
Department of the Director of Naval Equipment
Department of the Director of Naval Recruiting
Department of the Director of Naval Weather Service
Department of the Director of Personal Services
Department of the Director of Physical Training and Sports
Department of the Director of Torpedoes and Mining
Department of the Director of Transports
Department of the Director of Underwater Weapons
Department of the Director of Underwater Weapons Materials
Department of the Director of Unexploded Bombs
Department of the Director of Warship Production
Department of the Director of Welfare and Service Conditions
Department of the Director of Wreck Dispersal
Department of the Flag Officer Sea Training
Department of the Engineer in Chief
Department of the Paymaster Director-General
Department of the Inspector of Anti-Aircraft Weapons
Department of the Inspector of Dockyard Expense Accounts
Department of the Inspector-General of Naval Hospitals and Fleets
Department of the Medical Director-General of the Navy
Department of the Physician of the Navy
Department of the Physician General of the Navy
Department of the Storekeeper-General of the Navy
Department of the Surveyor of Buildings
Department of the Surveyor of Dockyards
Directorate-General, (Naval Manpower and Training)
Directorate General Training
Dockyards and Fleet Maintenance Department
Dockyards Branch
Dockyard Expense Accounts Department
Dockyard Schools
Electrical Engineering Department
Engineer Branch
Engineering Department
Experimental Department
Fire Control Group
Greenwich Hospital Department
Inspector of Telegraphs
Inspector of Repairs
Joint Warfare Establishment
Medical Consultative Board
Medical Examining Board
Historical Section
Hydrographic Department
Marine Department
Marine Pay Department
Materials and Priority Department
Medical Consultative Board
Medical Department
Medical Examining Board
Movements Department
Nautical Almanac Office
Naval Artillery and Torpedo Department
Naval Engineering College
Naval Equipment Department
Naval Historical Branch
Naval Construction Department
Naval Intelligence Department
Naval Medical Service
Naval Law Division
Naval Manpower Department
Naval Mobilisation Department
Naval Ordnance Department
Naval Ordnance Inspection Department
Naval Ordnance Stores Department
Naval Personnel Services and Officer Appointments Department
Naval Publicity Department
Naval Regional Offices
Naval Reserve Department
Naval Security Department
Naval Stores Department
Naval Training Department
Naval Works Department
Navy, Army and Air Force Institute
Navy and Army Canteen Board
Navy Works Department
Navigation Department
Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope
Office of the Admiral Commanding Coast Guard and Reserves
Office of the Admiral Commanding, Reserves
Office of the Admiralty Chemist
Office of the Adviser on the Naval Construction to the Board of Admiralty
Office of the Assistant Controller
Office of the Assistant Controller Research and Development
Office of the Clerk of the Journals
Office of the Chief Polaris Executive
Office of the Deputy Controller of Navy
Office of the Deputy Controller Production
Office of Extra Naval Assistant to Second Sea Lord
Office of the Inspector Gun Mountings
Office of the Keeper of Records
Office of the Senior Psychologist (Naval)
Office of the Senior Psychologist of the Navy
Office of the Translator of French and Spanish Languages
Office of the Vice Controller Air
Office of the Vice Controller of the Navy
Organisation and Methods Department
Packet Service
Regional Organisation for Merchant Shipbuilding and Repairs
Royal Corps of Naval Constructors
Royal Flying Corps
Royal Marine Police
Royal Marines Office
Office of the Chaplain of the Fleet
Royal Naval Academy
Royal Naval Aircraft Workshops
Royal Naval Air Service
Royal Naval Air Stations
Royal Naval Armaments Depot
Royal Naval Auxiliary Service
Royal Naval Cordite Factories
Royal Naval Propellant Factory
Royal Naval College
Royal Naval College and the School for Naval Architecture
Royal Naval College, Dartmouth
Royal Naval College, Greenwich
Royal Naval College, Keyham
Royal Naval College, Osborne
Royal Naval Engineering College
Royal Naval Film Corporation
Royal Naval Hospital
Royal Naval Medical Depot
Royal Naval Minewatching Service
Royal Naval Mine Depot
Royal Naval Patrol Service
Royal Naval Scientific Service
Royal Naval Sick Quarters
Royal Naval Torpedo Depot
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve
Royal Naval War College
Royal Naval War College, Portsmouth
Royal Navy Dockyard
Royal Navy Medical Service
Royal Navy Shore Signal Service
Royal Observatory, Greenwich
Royal School of Naval Architecture
Salvage Department
School of Mathematics and Naval Construction
Scientific Research and Experiment Department
Sea Transport Branch
Sea Transport Department
Sea Transport Division
Ship Department
Ship Design Department
Signal Department
Signal School
Sixpenny Office
Statistics Department
Steam Department
Superintendent of De-magnetisation
Torpedo Experimental Establishment
Transport Department
Undersurface Warfare Department
Victualling Department
Volunteer Boys and Cadet Corps
Weapons Department
Weapons Department (Naval)
Women's Royal Naval Service
Wireless Telegraphy Board
Direction/Command of the Fleet
Office of the Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty
Office of the First Naval Lord
Office of the First Sea Lord
Admiralty Naval Staff
Naval formations after 1707
1st Fleet
2nd Fleet
3rd Fleet
Commander-in-Chief, Africa
Atlantic Fleet
Commodore, Arabian Seas and Persian Gulf
Australia Station
Cape of Good Hope Station
Cape and West Africa Station
Battle Cruiser Fleet
Battle Cruiser Force
Caspian Flotilla
Channel Fleet
Channel Squadron
Commander-in-Chief, Coast of Ireland
Cork Station
Coast of Scotland
Commander-in-Chief, China
Commander-in-Chief, Dover
Flag Officer, East Africa
East Indies Station
East Indies and China Station
Eastern Fleet
Far East Fleet
English Channel
Grand Fleet
Flag Officer Gibraltar
Harwich Force
Home Fleet
Jamaica Station
Leith Station
Commander-in-Chief, Levant
Levant and East Mediterranean
Commander-in-Chief, Leeward Islands
Mediterranean Fleet
Medway
Newfoundland Station
New Zealand Division
New Zealand Naval Forces
Nore
North America and West Indies Station
Commander-in-Chief, North Sea
Admiral Commanding, Orkneys and Shetlands
Pacific Fleet
Pacific Station
Admiral of Patrols
Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth
Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth
Queenstown Station
Royal East African Navy
Royal Indian Navy
Flag Officer Submarines
Commander-in-Chief, Rosyth
Reserve Fleet
Scotland and Northern Ireland
Commander-in-Chief, South Atlantic
South East Coast of America Station
Commander-in-Chief, Thames and Medway
West Africa Squadron
Flag Officer, West Africa
Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches
Naval formations before 1707
Lisbon Station
West Indies Station
Western Squadron
Thames, Medway and Nore
Commander-in-Chief, Thames
Narrow Seas
Downs Station
Direction of Naval Finance
Department of the Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty
Departments under theParliamentary and Financial Secretary
Department of the Civil Lord of the Admiralty
Accountant-General's Department
Comptroller of the Navy
Department of the Surveyor of the Navy
Direction of Naval Administrationand the Admiralty Secretariat
Department of the Permanent Secretary
Branches and offices under thePermanent Secretary
Admiralty Central Copying Branch
Admiralty Central Registry Branch
Admiralty Record Office
Admiralty Library
Admiralty Secretariat
Air Branch
Civil Branch
Legal Branch
Military Branch
Naval Branch
Ship Branch
Civil Administration
Department of the Civil Lord of the Admiralty, Department of the Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty
Departments under theCivil Lords
Accountant-General's Department
Contract and Purchase Department
Department of the Director of Contract Labour
Department of the Surveyor of Buildings
Department of the Director of Works
Greenwich Hospital Department
Works Loan Department
Legal
Admiralty Judicial Department
Admiralty court
High Court of Admiralty
Office of the Judge of the High Court of Admiralty
High Court of Justice
Office of the Judge Advocate of the Fleet
Office of the Marshall High Court of the Admiralty
Office of the Admiralty Advocate
Office of the Admiralty Proctor
Office of the Chief Naval Judge Advocate
Office of the Counsel for the Affairs of the Admiralty and Navy
Office of the Counsel to the Admiralty
Office of the Deputy Judge Advocate of the Fleet
Office of the Receiver of Droits High Court of Admiralty
Office of the Registrar High Court of the Admiralty
Office of the Solicitor for the Affairs of the Admiralty
Office of the Solicitor to the Admiralty and Navy
Office of the Solicitor to the Admiralty
Office of the Counsel to the Admiralty
Court of Admiralty for the Cinque Ports
King's Bench Division (Admiralty)
Queens's Bench Division (Admiralty)
Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division
Vice Admiralty courts
Colonial Courts of Admiralty
vte Board of AdmiraltyMinisterial Lords
Office of the First Lord of the Admiralty and President of the Board (1628–1964)
Naval Lords
Senior Naval Lord (1689–1771)
First Naval Lord (1771–1904)
First Sea Lord (1904–1917)
First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff (1917–1964)
Second Naval Lord (1830–1869, 1872–1904)
Second Sea Lord (1904–1917)
Second Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Personnel (1917–1964)
Third Naval Lord (1832–1858)
Controller of the Navy (1859–1869)
Third Naval Lord and Controller (1869–1872)
Controller of the Navy (1872–1882)
Third Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy (1882–1904)
Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy (1904–1912)
Third Sea Lord (1912–1917)
Controller of the Navy (1917–1918)
Third Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Matériel (1918–1965)
Junior Naval Lord (1868–1904)
Fourth Sea Lord (1904–1917)
Fourth Sea Lord and Chief of Supplies and Transport (1917–1955)
Fifth Sea Lord (1917)
Fifth Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Air Service (1917–1956)
Staff Naval Lords
Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (1917–1964)
Deputy First Sea Lord (1917–1919)
Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (1917–1964)
Vice Chief of the Naval Staff (1941–1964)
Deputy First Sea Lord (1942–1946)
Civil Lords
Civil Lord of the Admiralty (1830–1964)
Accountant-General of the Navy (1832–1869)
Controller of Victualling (1832–1869)
Director-General of the Medical Department (1832–1869)
Storekeeper-General of the Navy (1832–1869)
Surveyor of the Navy (1832–1869)
Controller of the Navy (1859–1869)
Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty (1882–1885)
Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty (1912–1917)
Second Civil Lord (1918–1919)
Third Civil Lord (1918–1919)
Fourth Civil Lord (1918–1919)
Civil Secretaries
Secretaries to the Lords Admiral, Admiralty, Committees and Commissions (1625–1660)
First Secretary to the Admiralty (1660–1763)
First Secretary to the Admiralty (1763–1871)
Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty (1871–1886)
Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty (1886–1959)
Joint-Deputy Secretary to the Admiralty (1702–1766)
Second Secretary to the Admiralty (1783–1857)
Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty (1869–1872)
Naval Secretary to the Board of Admiralty (1872–1882)
Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty (1882–1964)
vteMinistry of DefenceHeadquarters: Main Building, WhitehallArmed Forces
Naval Service
Royal Navy
Royal Marines
Army
Royal Air Force
in Scotland
in Wales
by the Irish
Defence CouncilPolitical
Secretary of State for Defence
Minister of State for the Armed Forces
Minister of State for Defence Procurement
Minister of State for Defence (House of Lords)
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Defence People, Veterans and Service Families
Military
Chief of the Defence Staff
Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff
Chief of the Naval Staff and First Sea Lord
Chief of the General Staff
Chief of the Air Staff
Commander Strategic Command
Chief of Defence People
Civil Service
Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence
Chief Scientific Adviser
Director-General Finance
Director-General Head Office and Commissioning Services
Director-General Nuclear
Director-General Security Policy
Lead Non-Executive Board Member
Non-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the People Committee
Non-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the Defence Audit Committee
Non-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the Defence Equipment and Support Board
Service boards
Admiralty Board (Navy Board)
Army Board
Air Force Board
Service commands
Navy Command
Army Command
Air Command
Strategic Command
Arm's-length bodies
Defence Electronics and Components Agency (DECA)
Defence Equipment and Support (DE&S)
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL)
Oil and Pipelines Agency (OPA)
Submarine Delivery Agency (SDA)
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO)
Top-level budget agenciesmanaged on an arm's-length basis
Defence Business Services
Defence Infrastructure Organisation (DIO)
Defence Digital
Defence Nuclear Organisation
Ministry of Defence Police
Regulatory organisations
Defence Safety Authority
Single Source Regulations Office
Intelligence
Defence Intelligence (under Strategic Command)
Defence Secretariat 19
Non-departmentalpublic bodies
National Army Museum
National Museum of the Royal Navy
Royal Air Force Museum
Category
vteChiefs of the navy by country
Chief of the Naval Staff
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
DR Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Former
Biafra
Bophuthatswana
Ciskei
British Egypt
Ethiopian Empire
Rhodesia
Transkei
Venda
Zaire
Americas
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Vanuatu | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"First Lord of the Admiralty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty"},{"link_name":"Lord High Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Admiral of the Fleet (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_of_the_Fleet_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"British Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_(Royal_Navy)"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"military advisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_advisor"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State for Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Defence"},{"link_name":"Chiefs of Staff Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefs_of_Staff_Committee"},{"link_name":"National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Council_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"prime minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_minister_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"monarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"active duty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_duty"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Defence Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Ben Key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Key"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-key-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197934-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197969-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas198831-4"},{"link_name":"Sir John \"Jackie\" Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fisher,_1st_Baron_Fisher"},{"link_name":"Defence Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Admiralty Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_Board"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-firstsealordandchiefofnavalstaff-5"}],"text":"Not to be confused with First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord High Admiral, or Admiral of the Fleet (United Kingdom).The First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff (1SL/CNS) is a statutory position in the British Armed Forces usually held by an admiral. As the highest-ranking officer to serve in the Royal Navy, the chief is the principal military advisor on matters pertaining to the navy and a deputy to the Secretary of State for Defence. In a separate capacity, the CNS is a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and, thereby, a military advisor to the National Security Council, the prime minister and the monarch. The First Sea Lord is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty of the Royal Navy unless the Chief of the Defence Staff is a naval officer. Admiral Ben Key was appointed First Sea Lord in November 2021.[1]Originally titled the \"Senior Naval Lord to the Board of Admiralty\" when the post was created in 1689,[2] the office was re-styled First Naval Lord in 1771.[3] The concept of a professional \"First Naval Lord\" was introduced in 1805,[4] and the title of the office was changed to First Sea Lord on the appointment of Sir John \"Jackie\" Fisher in 1904. Since 1923, the First Sea Lord has been a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee; he now sits on the Defence Council and the Admiralty Board.[5]","title":"First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The First Sea Lord is the professional head of the Royal Navy and a member of the Defence Council. He is responsible to Secretary of State for the fighting effectiveness, efficiency and morale of the Naval Service. As a member of the Defence Council, the First Sea Lord supports the Secretary of State in the management and direction of the Armed Forces through prerogative and statutory powers. As a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, he advises CDS on maritime strategy and policy. He has a collective responsibility for providing strategic direction to the department, managing performance and ensuring that defence delivers the required outputs.[6]","title":"Responsibilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lords Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_Admiralty"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainty197518%E2%80%9331-7"},{"link_name":"Board of Admiralty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_Admiralty"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197934-2"},{"link_name":"Admiral Arthur Herbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Torrington"},{"link_name":"First Lord of the Admiralty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Lord_of_the_Admiralty"},{"link_name":"Sir John Chicheley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chicheley"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197934-2"},{"link_name":"Thomas Herbert, Earl of Pembroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Herbert,_8th_Earl_of_Pembroke"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainty197518%E2%80%9331-7"},{"link_name":"Lord Admiral's Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Admirals_Council"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197934-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainty197518%E2%80%9331-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197969-3"},{"link_name":"Vice-Admiral Augustus Hervey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Hervey"},{"link_name":"John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Montagu,_4th_Earl_of_Sandwich"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainty197518%E2%80%9331-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERodger197991-8"},{"link_name":"Lord High Admirals Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Admirals_Council"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESainty197518%E2%80%9331-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeathcote200281-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriedman201521-10"},{"link_name":"Chiefs of Staff Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefs_of_Staff_Committee"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Imperial General Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Air Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Air_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Board of Admiralty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_Admiralty"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Defence Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NavyListModern-14"},{"link_name":"Admiralty Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_Board"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NavyListModern-14"},{"link_name":"Navy Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_Board_(1964-present)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"ship of the line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_the_line"},{"link_name":"HMS Victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Victory"},{"link_name":"Lord Nelson's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Nelson"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hmsvictory-16"}],"text":"Lords Admiral were appointed from the 15th century; they were later styled Lords High Admiral until the 18th century, and Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty from the 17th century, as the governors of the English and later British Royal Navy. From 1683 to 1684, there were seven paid Commissioners, and one unpaid supernumerary Commissioner. The number varied between five and seven Commissioners through the 18th century. The standing of all the Commissioners was in theory the same, although the First Commissioner or First Lord exercised an ascendancy over his colleagues from an early date.[7]The generally recognized office of Senior Naval Lord to the Board of Admiralty was established on 8 March 1689,[2] with the first incumbent being Admiral Arthur Herbert; he was also First Lord of the Admiralty. On 20 January 1690 Admiral Herbert was succeeded by Admiral Sir John Chicheley[2] under First Lord of Admiralty Thomas Herbert, Earl of Pembroke.[7]On 22 May 1702 the Board of Admiralty ceased control of Naval Affairs and was replaced by the Lord Admiral's Council.[2] The previous office of Senior Naval Lord was replaced by a Senior Member to the Lords Admiral Council; he was usually a serving naval officer of admiral rank and was the Chief Naval Adviser to the Lord Admiral. This lasted until 8 November 1709, when the Board of Admiralty resumed control of Naval Affairs and the post of Senior Naval Lord was resumed.[7]On 2 February 1771 the office of Senior Naval Lord was renamed to First Naval Lord.[3] The first post holder was Vice-Admiral Augustus Hervey; he first served under First Lord of the Admiralty John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. In 1805, for the first time, specific functions were assigned to each of the 'Naval' Lords, who were described as 'Professional' Lords, leaving to the 'Civil' Lords the routine business of signing documents.[7] On 2 May 1827[8] the Board of Admiralty once again ceased control of Naval Affairs and was replaced, until 1828, by a Lord High Admirals Council.[7]The title of the First Naval Lord was changed to First Sea Lord on the appointment of Sir Jackie Fisher in 1904.[9] In 1917 the First Sea Lord was re-styled First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff.[10] From 1923 onward, the First Sea Lord was a member of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, and from 1923 to 1959, in rotation with the representatives of the other services (the Chief of the Imperial General Staff and Chief of the Air Staff), he served as the chairman of that committee and head of all British armed forces.[a] The title was retained when the Board of Admiralty was abolished in 1964 and the Board's functions were integrated into the Ministry of Defence.[12]Under the current organisation, the First Sea Lord sits on the Defence Council,[13] the Admiralty Board[13] and the Navy Board.[14]Since 2012, the flagship of the First Sea Lord has nominally been the ship of the line HMS Victory, which used to be Lord Nelson's flagship.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The following table lists all those who have held the post of First Sea Lord or its preceding positions. Ranks and honours are as at the completion of their tenure:","title":"Appointees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Buchan's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Buchan,_1st_Baron_Tweedsmuir"},{"link_name":"The Thirty-Nine Steps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Thirty-Nine_Steps"},{"link_name":"Richard Hannay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Hannay"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBuchan1999Ch._8-60"},{"link_name":"Prince Louis of Battenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Louis_of_Battenberg"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"H.M.S. Pinafore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.M.S._Pinafore"},{"link_name":"operetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operetta"},{"link_name":"Gilbert and Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Sullivan"},{"link_name":"KCB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath"},{"link_name":"lampooning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody"},{"link_name":"Alexander Milne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Alexander_Milne,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Hastings Yelverton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hastings_Yelverton"},{"link_name":"George Wellesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wellesley"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"In John Buchan's novel The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915), the First Sea Lord is named as Lord Alloa, an impostor whom Richard Hannay recognizes at a meeting as a spy and recent pursuer of his. Hannay describes Lord Alloa as recognizable from news pictures for his \"beard cut like a spade, the firm fighting mouth, the blunt square nose, and the keen blue eyes...the man, they say, that made the New British Navy\".[58] The real First Sea Lord at the time the story is set (early summer 1914) was Prince Louis of Battenberg, coincidentally also bearded.[59]H.M.S. Pinafore (1878), the operetta by Gilbert and Sullivan, has Sir Joseph Porter KCB as First Sea Lord. The show written and first performed in the late 1870s might be referencing or lampooning as First Sea Lords Sir Alexander Milne (1872–76), Sir Hastings Yelverton (1876-77), or Sir George Wellesley (1877–79).[60]","title":"In fiction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Defence Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Chiefs of Staff Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiefs_of_Staff_Committee"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CDS_38-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CDS_38-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CDS_38-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CDS_38-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CDS_38-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-CDS_38-5"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Defence Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"}],"text":"^ In 1955, it was decided to create a new post, Chief of the Defence Staff, who would be chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee.[11]\n\n^ a b c d e f Later served as Chief of the Defence Staff.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-key_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-key_1-1"},{"link_name":"\"Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE has been appointed to First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gov.uk/government/news/vice-admiral-sir-ben-key-kcb-cbe-has-been-appointed-to-first-sea-lord-and-chief-of-the-naval-staff"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197934_2-9"},{"link_name":"Rodger 1979","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRodger1979"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-9"},{"link_name":"k","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-10"},{"link_name":"l","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-11"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-12"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-13"},{"link_name":"o","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-14"},{"link_name":"p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-15"},{"link_name":"q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-16"},{"link_name":"r","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-17"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-18"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-19"},{"link_name":"u","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERodger197969_3-20"},{"link_name":"Rodger 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M. S. Pinafore, or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor (1878)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//victorianweb.org/mt/gilbert/porter.html"}],"text":"^ a b \"Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE has been appointed to First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\". gov.uk. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j Rodger 1979, p. 34.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Rodger 1979, p. 69.\n\n^ Thomas 1988, p. 31.\n\n^ \"People – First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff\". MoD. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2013.\n\n^ \"Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE ADC\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 29 June 2023. Text was copied from this source, which is available under the Open Government Licence v3.0. © Crown copyright.\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Sainty 1975, pp. 18–31.\n\n^ Rodger 1979, p. 91.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 81.\n\n^ Friedman 2015, p. 21.\n\n^ Defence Administrative Responsibilities Archived 17 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Hansard, 25 October 1955\n\n^ Ministry of Defence (10 December 2012). \"History of the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence website\" (PDF). Mod.uk. Retrieved 3 June 2013.\n\n^ a b The Navy List, 1992, corrected to 31 March 1992, pub HMSO, ISSN 0141-6081 pages 4–5.The Navy List, 2008, compiled 3 September 2008, pub TSO, ISBN 978-0-11-773081-6 pages 4–5.\n\n^ \"MOD Royal Navy\". Retrieved 17 June 2016.\n\n^ HMS Victory handed to First Sea Lord in Portsmouth Archived 6 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 10 October 2012, accessed 8 October 2016\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Rodger, p. 51-52\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j \"The Commissioners (\"Lords\") of the Admiralty 1828 – 1895\". W Loney RN. Retrieved 25 January 2014.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 144.\n\n^ Mackay 1973, p. 315.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 268.\n\n^ \"Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32062. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)\n\n^ Kerr 1934, p. 238.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 83.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 127.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 130.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 252.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 26.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 164.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 75.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 42.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 21.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 217.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 60.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 63.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 90.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 162.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 189.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 150.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 139.\n\n^ \"Sir David Luce\". Unit Histories. Retrieved 25 January 2014.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 29.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 155.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 115.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 214.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 16.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 158.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 152.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 78.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 235.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 204.\n\n^ Heathcote 2002, p. 23.\n\n^ a b c d e Who's Who 2010, A & C Black, 2010, ISBN 978-1-408-11414-8\n\n^ \"Sir Nigel Essenhigh\". University of Exeter. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014.\n\n^ \"Admiral Zambellas new First Sea Lord\". Inside Government. 9 April 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2014.\n\n^ \"Admiral Sir Philip Jones takes over as First Sea Lord\". Royal Navy. 8 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.\n\n^ \"A 'generation of innovators' has been appointed to run the military in a shake-up of the top ranks of the Army, Navy and RAF\". The Daily Telegraph. 3 December 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2018.\n\n^ \"Admiral Sir Ben Key – who's the new First Sea Lord?\". Forces.net. 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.\n\n^ Buchan 1999, Ch. 8.\n\n^ \"Prince Louis of Battenberg\". First World War.com. Retrieved 22 March 2020.\n\n^ \"\"Sir Joseph Porter's Song\" (\"When I was a Lad I served a Term\") from H. M. S. Pinafore, or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor (1878)\". Victorian Web. Retrieved 14 May 2022.","title":"Citations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buchan, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Buchan,_1st_Baron_Tweedsmuir"},{"link_name":"The Thirty-nine Steps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/thirtyninesteps00buch"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-283931-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283931-2"},{"link_name":"The British Battleship 1906-1946","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=3Ts5CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781848322257","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848322257"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-85052-835-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85052-835-6"},{"link_name":"Kerr, 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Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sea_Lord"},{"link_name":"Austria–Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Navy#Senior_leadership"},{"link_name":"Independent State of Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_of_the_Croatian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chief_of_the_Navy_(Prussia)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Imperial Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Imperial_Admiralty_Staff"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberkommando_der_Marine"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_National_Defence_(East_Germany)#People's_Navy_Command"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fleet_Commanders_of_the_Ottoman_Navy"},{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander-in-Chief_of_the_Russian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander-in-Chief_of_the_Russian_Navy"},{"link_name":"Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_of_the_Yugoslav_Navy"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_Navy_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Fiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Commander_of_the_Fijian_Navy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_Navy_(New_Zealand)"}],"text":"Buchan, John (1999) [1915]. The Thirty-nine Steps. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283931-2.\nFriedman, N. (2015). The British Battleship 1906-1946. Seaforth. ISBN 9781848322257.\nHeathcote, Tony (2002). The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995. Pen & Sword Ltd. ISBN 0-85052-835-6.\nKerr, Mark (1934). Prince Louis of Battenberg: Admiral of the Fleet. London: Longmans, Green and Co.\nMackay, Ruddock F. (1973). Fisher of Kilverstone. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198224099.\nRodger, N.A.M. (1979). The Admiralty. Offices of State. Lavenham: T. Dalton Ltd. ISBN 0900963948.\nSainty, J.C., ed. (1975). Lord High Admiral and Commissioners of the Admiralty 1660-1870, Office-Holders in Modern Britain. Vol. 4: Admiralty Officials 1660-1870. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2009.\nThomas, David A (1988). A companion to the Royal Navy. Harrap. ISBN 0-245-54572-7.vteFirst Sea Lords of the Royal NavySenior Naval Lords (1689–1771)\nArthur Herbert\nSir John Chicheley\nEdward Russell\nHenry Priestman\nEarl of Orford\nSir George Rooke\nSir John Leake\nSir George Byng\nSir John Leake\nSir George Byng\nMatthew Aylmer\nSir George Byng\nSir John Jennings\nSir John Norris\nSir Charles Wager\nLord Archibald Hamilton\nLord Harry Powlett\nLord Archibald Hamilton\nLord Vere Beauclerk\nLord Anson\nSir William Rowley\nEdward Boscawen\nSir William Rowley\nEdward Boscawen\nJohn Forbes\nEarl Howe\nSir Charles Saunders\nAugustus Keppel\nSir Peircy Brett\nSir Francis Holburne\nFirst Naval Lords (1771–1904)\nAugustus Hervey\nSir Hugh Palliser\nRobert Man\nGeorge Darby\nSir Robert Harland\nSir Hugh Pigot\nJohn Leveson-Gower\nLord Hood\nSir Charles Middleton\nJames Gambier\nSir Thomas Troubridge\nJames Gambier\nJohn Markham\nJames Gambier\nSir Richard Bickerton\nWilliam Domett\nSir Joseph Yorke\nSir Graham Moore\nSir William Johnstone Hope\nSir George Cockburn\nSir Thomas Hardy\nThe Hon. George Dundas\nCharles Adam\nSir George Cockburn\nSir Charles Adam\nSir George Cockburn\nSir William Parker\nSir Charles Adam\nSir James Dundas\nThe Hon. Maurice Berkeley\nHyde Parker\nThe Hon. Maurice Berkeley\nThe Hon. Sir Richard Dundas\nWilliam Martin\nThe Hon. Sir Richard Dundas\nThe Hon. Sir Frederick Grey\nSir Alexander Milne\nSir Sydney Dacres\nSir Alexander Milne\nSir Hastings Yelverton\nSir George Wellesley\nSir Astley Key\nSir Arthur Hood\nLord John Hay\nSir Arthur Hood\nSir Richard Hamilton\nSir Anthony Hoskins\nSir Frederick Richards\nLord Walter Kerr\nFirst Sea Lords (1904–present)\nSir John Fisher\nSir Arthur Wilson\nSir Francis Bridgeman\nPrince Louis of Battenberg\nThe Lord Fisher\nSir Henry Jackson\nSir John Jellicoe\nSir Rosslyn Wemyss\nThe Earl Beatty\nSir Charles Madden, Bt\nSir Frederick Field\nThe Lord Chatfield\nSir Roger Backhouse\nSir Dudley Pound\nThe Lord Cunningham of Hyndhope\nSir John Cunningham\nThe Lord Fraser of North Cape\nSir Rhoderick McGrigor\nThe Earl Mountbatten of Burma\nSir Charles Lambe\nSir Caspar John\nSir David Luce\nSir Varyl Begg\nSir Michael Le Fanu\nSir Peter Hill-Norton\nSir Michael Pollock\nSir Edward Ashmore\nSir Terence Lewin\nSir Henry Leach\nSir John Fieldhouse\nSir William Staveley\nSir Julian Oswald\nSir Benjamin Bathurst\nSir Jock Slater\nSir Michael Boyce\nSir Nigel Essenhigh\nSir Alan West\nSir Jonathon Band\nSir Mark Stanhope\nSir George Zambellas\nSir Philip Jones\nSir Antony Radakin\nSir Ben Keyvte Admiralty BoardChairman\nSecretary of State for Defence\nCivilian\nMinister of State for the Armed Forces\nMinister for Defence Personnel, Welfare and Veterans\nMinister for Reserves\nUnder Secretary of State & the Lords Spokesman on Defence\nFinance Director (Navy)\nNaval\nFirst Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\nSecond Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of Naval Staff\nFleet Commander\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)vte Navy BoardNaval\nFirst Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff\nSecond Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of Naval Staff\nFleet Commander\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)\nCivilian\nFinance Director (Navy)\nNon Executive DirectorvteNavy Command (Ministry of Defence)oversight\nDefence Board−\nChief of the Defence Staff Group\nPermanent Under Secretary (PUS) Group\nTLB holder\nFirst Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff (TLB Holder)\nTLB groupunder TLB holder\nFleet Commander\nSecond Sea Lord, (2SL) and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)\nFinance Director (Navy)\nNon-Executive Director, Navy Board\nFleetCommand\nFleet Commander–\nCommander United Kingdom Strike Force\nCommander Maritime Operations\nDirector Force Generation\nCommander Fleet Operational Sea Training\nCommandant General Royal Marines\nmaritime forces\nCommander United Kingdom Strike Force–\nCommander UK Carrier Strike Group\nCommander Littoral Strike Group\nAssistant Chief of Staff Land and Littoral Manoeuvre and Deputy Commandant General Royal Marines\namphibious forces\nCommander Littoral Strike Group\nmaritime operations\nCommander Maritime Operations–\nDeputy Commander Operations\nCommander 3 Commando Brigade\nCommander Surface Flotilla\nCommander Submarine Flotilla\nnaval training\nCommander Fleet Operational Sea Training–\nDeputy Director Future Training\nCommanding Officer Maritime Warfare School\nregional forces\nCommander Regional Forces and Naval Regional Commander Eastern England\nNaval Regional Commander Wales & Western England\nNaval Regional Commander Northern England\nNaval Regional Commander Scotland & Northern Ireland\nnavy personneland capability\nSecond Sea Lord, (2SL) and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff–\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)\nDirector People & Training and Naval Secretary\nDirector Navy Acquisition\nDirector Develop\nDirector, Ships Support Transformation and Chief Naval Engineer\nCommodore Maritime Reserves\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Aviation, Amphibious Capability & Carriers)\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Aviation & Carriers)\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Submarines)/Flag Officer Scotland and Northern Ireland\nChaplain of the Fleet\nChief of Staff Navy Command (HQ)\nnaval personnel\nDirector People & Training and Naval Secretary\nCommodore Maritime Reserves –\nAssistant Chief of Staff Medical/Head of the Royal Naval Medical Service/Medical Director General (Navy)\nNaval Assistant, ACNS (Personnel) (Naval Secretary)\nDeputy Director People Delivery\nCommodore Naval Legal Services\nCommander Regional Forces\nHead of Strategic Engagement, Naval Staff\nnaval capability\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Capability)–\nAssistant Chief of Staff Warfare\nAssistant Chief of Staff Maritime Capability\nChief Technology Officer\naviation and carriers\nDeputy Director Naval Aviation –\nDeputy Director Naval Aviation and Commodore Fleet Air Arm\nCommanding Officer Royal Naval Air Station Yeovilton\nsubmarines\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Submarines)/Flag Officer Scotland and Northern Ireland–\nAssistant Chief of Staff, Submarines\nsurface ships\nCommodore RFA and Deputy Director Royal Navy Afloat Support\nsupport\nDirector Naval Support\nAssistant Chief of Staff Engineering Support\nBase Commander HM Naval Base Portsmouth\nBase Commander HM Naval Base Devonport\nBase Commander HM Naval Base Clyde\npolicy\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)–\nCommodore, Naval Staff\nfinanceand resources\nFinance Director (Navy)–\nAssistant Chief of Staff Resources and Plans\nCommand Secretary (Command Secretariat)\nNavy Safety DirectorvteHis Majesty's Naval ServiceLeadership\nSecretary of State for Defence\nMinister for the Armed Forces\nFirst Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\nSecond Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of Naval Staff\nFleet Commander\nCommander, Allied Maritime Command\nCommandant General Royal Marines\nJudge Advocate General of the Armed Forces\nWarrant Officer to the Royal Navy\nCorps Regimental Sergeant Major\nComponentsRoyal Navy\nSurface fleet\nFleet Air Arm\nSubmarine Service\nRoyal Navy Medical Service\nNursing Service (QARNNS)\nChaplaincy Service\nNavy Police\nNaval Careers Service\nRoyal Marines\n3 Commando Brigade\nRoyal Marines Band Service\nRoyal Marines Reserve\nRoyal Marines Police\nRoyal Naval Reserve\nHMS Calliope\nHMS Cambria\nHMS Ceres\nHMS Dalriada\nHMS Eaglet\nHMS Ferret\nHMS Flying Fox\nHMS Forward\nHMS Hibernia\nHMS King Alfred\nHMS President\nHMS Scotia\nHMS Sherwood\nHMS Vivid\nHMS Wildfire\nSpecial Forces\nSpecial Boat Service\nHistoryandfuture\nAdmiralty in the 16th century\nAdmiralty in the 17th century\nAdmiralty in the 18th century\nCustoms and traditions\nHistoric forces and commands\nFuture of the Royal Navy\nHistory of the Royal Navy (before 1707) (after 1707)\nHistory of the Royal Marines\nNational Maritime Museum\nNational Museum of the Royal Navy\nNaval Historical Branch\nOperatingforces\nFleet Commander\nCommander United Kingdom Strike Force\nCommander Operations\nSurface Flotilla\nSubmarine Flotilla\n3 Commando Brigade\nFleet\nList of active Royal Navy ships\nRoyal Fleet Auxiliary\nStanding Royal Navy deployments\nList of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy\nShips\nAircraft carriers\nEscort carriers\nSeaplane carriers\nAmphibious warfare ships\nBattlecruisers\nBattleships\nPre-dreadnought battleships\nBomb vessels\nCorvette and sloop\nCruisers\nDestroyers\nFireships\nFrigates\nGun-brigs\nGunboat and gunvessels\nHospital ships\nIronclads\nMine countermeasure vessels\nMonitors\nIronclads\nPatrol vessels\nRoyal yachts\nShips of the line\nSubmarines\nSupport ships\nSurvey vessels\nRoyal Marines Boats\nHistoric ships names\nAdministration\nDefence Council\nAdmiralty Board\nNavy Board\nNavy Command\nSeniorofficers\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Aviation, Amphibious Capability & Carriers)\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Capability)\nDirector People & Training\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)\nDirector Naval Support\nCommander Fleet Operational Sea Training\nChaplain of the Fleet\nDirector General Ships\nCommandant General Royal Marines\nCommander Operations\nCommander United Kingdom Strike Force\nCommander Littoral Strike Group\nCommander United Kingdom Carrier Strike Group\nCommodore, Naval Staff\nCommodore RFA and Deputy Director Royal Navy Afloat Support\nCommander Maritime Reserves\nNaval Secretary\nRear-Admiral, Fleet Air Arm\nCommodore Submarine Flotilla\nCommodore Surface Flotilla\nServing senior officers\nServing senior Royal Marines officers\nPersonnelandtraining\nAdmiralty Interview Board\nBritannia Royal Naval College\nCommando Training Centre Royal Marines\nDefence Academy of the United Kingdom\nHMS Raleigh\nHMS Sultan\nRoyal Corps of Naval Constructors\nUniversity Royal Naval Unit\nEquipment\nUniforms of the Royal Navy\nUniforms of the Royal Marines\nOfficer rank insignia\nRatings rank insignia\nCutlasses\nFormerleadership\nFirst Lord of the Admiralty\nChief of the Admiralty War Staff\nAdmirals of the Fleet\nCommander-in-Chief Fleet\nCommander-in-Chief, Naval Home Command\nDeputy First Sea Lord\nDeputy Chief of the Naval Staff\nThird Sea Lord\nFourth Sea Lord\nFifth Sea Lord\nVice Chief of the Naval Staff\nJudge Advocate of the Fleet\n categoryvteNavy Department (Ministry of Defence)political headministers\nOffice of the Minister of Defence for the Royal Navy (1964-1967)\nOffice of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Defence for the Royal Navy (1967-1981)\nDeputy Under-Secretary of State (Navy) (1967-1981)\nOffice of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Armed Forces (1981-1990)\nOffice of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Defence (1991-1997)\ngovernance\nDefence Council\nDefence Board\nAdmiralty Board\nNavy Board\nmilitary head\nFirst Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff\noffice of thefirst sea lord\nOffice of the Vice-Chief of the Naval Staff\nOffice of the Deputy-Chief of the Naval Staff\nOffice of the Naval Secretary-flag officer appointments -\nNaval Assistant to Naval Secretary-captains appointments\nDirector of Naval Officer Appointments\nDirector of Naval Officer Appointments (Engineer Officers)\nDirector of Naval Officer Appointments (Seaman Officers)\nDirector of Naval Officer Appointments (Supply and Secretariat and WRNS Officers)\nDirector of Naval Security (1988-)\nNaval Assistant to the First Sea Lord\nSecretary to the First Sea Lord\nunderVice & Deputy Chief of Naval Staff\nOffices of the Assistant Chiefs of the Naval Staff\nCommandant General Royal Marines\nChief of Staff\nColonel General Staff (Assistant Chief of Staff)\nMilitary Secretary (Royal Marines)\nAssistant Adjutant-General (Royal Marines)\nAssistant Quartermaster- General (Royal Marines)\nDirector Royal Marines Reserves\nDirectorate of Naval Security\nDirector of Naval Security\nHydrographer of the Navy\nAssistant Hydrographer Officers appointments\nDirector of Naval Oceanography and Meteorology\nDirector of Hydrographic Plans and Surveys\nDirector of Hydrographic Charting and Sciences\nDirector of Hydrographic Administration and Supply\nAir, Operations, Plans, Policyrequirements, warfare\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Policy)\nAssistant of Chief Defence Staff (Pol) Naval Staff\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Operations)\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Operations and Air)\nAssistant Chief of Defence Staff (Ops) Naval Staff\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Operational Requirements)\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (Warfare)\nnaval staffdirectoratesoffices & branches\nDirectorate of Communications & Information Systems (Navy)\nDirectorate of Defence Plans (Navy)\nDirectorate of Defence Policy(Naval)\nDirectorate of Fleet Management Services\nDirectorate of Naval Air Warfare Operation\nDirectorate of Naval Management and Organisation\nDirectorate of Operational Analysis (RN)\nDirectorate of Naval Operations and Trade\nDirectorate of Naval Operational Requirements\nDirectorate of Naval Plans\nDirectorate of Naval Tactical and Weapons Policy\nDirectorate of Naval Security\nDirectorate of Naval Signals\nDirectorate of Naval Staff Duties\nDirectorate of Navigation and Tactical Control (Naval)\nDirectorate of Surface Warfare (Naval)\nDirectorate of Under-Sea Warfare (Naval)\nHydrographic Department\nNaval Historical Branch\nNaval Historical Library\nNaval Staff Directorate\nPlans and Resources Division\nnaval personnel\nOffice of the Second Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Personnel\nnaval personneldepartment\nOffice of the Chief Naval Supply and Secretariat Officer\nOffice of the Chaplain of the Fleet-became\nRoyal Navy Chaplaincy Service\nPrincipal Chaplain Church of Scotland & Free Churches (Naval)\nPrincipal Roman Catholic Chaplain (Naval)\nDirectorate General Training\nDirectorate-General Naval Manpower and Training\nDirector of Naval Manpower Planning\nDirector of Naval Manpower Requirements\nDirector of Naval Manning and Training (Seaman)\nDirector of Naval Manning and Training (Engineering)\nDirector of Naval Manning and Training (Supply and Secretariat)\nDirector of Naval Training Support\nNaval Manpower Statistics Branch\nDirector of Naval Foreign and Commonwealth Training\nDirector of Naval Education Service\nJoint Warfare Establishment\nDirectorate-General Naval Personnel Services\nDirectorate of Naval Officer Appointments\nDirectorate of Naval Physical Training and Sports\nHead of Naval Social Service\nDirectorate of Naval Service Conditions\nDirector of Naval Service Conditions\nDirectorate of Fleet Supply Duties (1964-1973)\nGeneral Manager Royal Navy Film Corporation\nJob Evaluation Judge\nNaval Recruitment Training Agency\nOffice of the Admiral Commanding, Reserves\nOffice of the Medical Director-General of the Navy\nOffice of the Medical Director-General (Naval)\nDeputy Director-General (Naval)\nDirector Naval Dental Services\nDirector of Medical Personnel and Logistics\nDirector of Naval Recruiting\nWomen's Royal Naval Service Headquarters became-\nOffice of the Matron-in-Chief Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service\ncontroller\nController of the Navy\ncontrollers departmentnavy controllerate\nAssistant Controller of the Navy\nOffice of the Chief Executive Polaris\nDeputy Controller Polaris\nDepartment of the Director of Naval Construction\nWeapons Department (Naval)\nDirector-General Weapons (Naval)\nDirector Weapons Coordination and Acceptance (Naval)\nCo-Ordination Directorate\nCompass Directorate\nDirector Naval Ordnance Services\nDirector Naval Weapons Contracts B\nDirector Underwater Weapons Projects (Naval)\nDirector Weapons Surface Projects (Naval)\nDirector Surface Electronic Projects (Naval)\nDepartment of the Director-General Aircraft (Naval)\nNaval Ordnance Inspection Directorate\nProduction Directorate\nDirector Weapons Production (Naval)\nSurface Weapons Research and Development Directorate\nUnder Water Weapons Research and Development Directorate\nWeapons Equipment Surface Directorate\nShip Department\nDeputy Director-General Ships-\nDirector of Contracts (Ships)\nDirector Engineering (Ships)\nDirector of Electrical Engineering\nDirector of Naval Construction\nDirector of Naval Equipment\nDirector of Project Team Submarines/Polaris\nDirector of Resources and Programmes (Ships)\nDirector Warship Design\nDirectorate of Naval Construction\nMarine Engineering Directorate\nNaval Equipment Division\nNaval Equipment Directorate\nNaval Electrical Engineering Directorate\nNaval Ship Production Directorate\nPrincipal Director of Navy Contracts\nnaval supplies and transportfleet support hqnaval support command\nOffice of the Chief of Naval Supplies and Transport\nOffice of the Chief of Fleet Support\nundernaval supplies and transportfleet support hqnaval support command\nAssistant Chief of Fleet Support\nDirector of Naval Administrative Planning\nDirector of Fleet Supply Duties\nDirector of Fleet Maintenance\nDirector of Marine Services\nHead of Aircraft Department (Naval)\nHQ Director of Quartering (Navy)\nCivil Catering Department\nContract and Purchase Department (Naval)\nDepartment of Fuel Movements and Transport (Naval)\nDepartment of Dockyards and Fleet Maintenance\nDockyard Division\nFleet Maintenance Division\nMarine Services Division\nOffice of the Chief Executive Royal Dockyards-\nDirector of Dockyard Manpower and Productivity\nDirector of Dockyard Production and Support\nDirector of Finance and Administration\nDirectorate-General of Supplies and Transport\nDirector of Supplies and Transport (Management and Administration)\nDirector of Supplies and Transport (General and Victualling)\nVictualling Division\nDirector of Supplies and Transport (Fuel and Movements)\nDirector of Supplies and Transport (Armament and Specialist)\nDirector of Supplies and Transport (Finance)\nNaval Stores Department \nRoyal Naval Supply and Transport Service\nVictualling Department (1832-1971)\nchief scientistsdepartment\nOffice of the Chief Scientist (Royal Navy) also Deputy Controller Research and Development Establishments, and Research A\nDirector Research Ships\nDirector Research Underwater\nunderchief scientists department\nRoyal Naval Scientific Service Headquarters\nDeputy Chief Scientist (Navy)\nDirectorate Naval Operational Studies\nDirector of Naval Operational Studies\nOffice of the Senior Psychologist (Naval)\nAdmiralty Compass Observatory\nDepartment of Naval Physical Research\nDepartment of Research and Development Services (Naval)\nDepartment of Material Research (Naval)\nDirector-General Establishments, Resources and Programmes A\nAdmiralty Engineering Laboratory\nAdmiralty Experiment Works\nAdmiralty Marine Engineering Establishment\nAdmiralty Oil Laboratory\nAdmiralty Research Laboratory\nAdmiralty Research Establishment\nAdmiralty Surface Weapons Establishment\nAdmiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment\nNaval Construction Research Establishment\nRoyal Naval Physiological Laboratory\nRoyal Radar Establishment\nSignals Research and Development Establishment\nDirector-General Research Electronics\nServices Electronics Research Laboratory\nnaval home command\nNaval Home Command\nShore unitsunder Naval Home Command\nAdmiral-Superintendent, Devonport\nAdmiral-superintendent, Portsmouth\nAdmiral Commanding, Reserves\nCommodore, Clyde Submarine Base\nChief Executive Officer Marine Services\nFlag Officer Commanding, Royal Yachts\nFlag Officer, Medway\nFlag Officer, Plymouth\nPort Admiral, Devonport\nFlag Officer, Portsmouth and Admiral-superintendent, Portsmouth\nFlag Officer Spithead and Port Admiral Portsmouth\nFlag Officer, Training and Recruitment\nSenior Naval Officer, Northern Ireland\nFleets\nHome Fleet\nFar East Fleet\nMediterranean Fleet\nWestern Fleet\nCommander-in-Chief Fleet\nunderc-in-c, fleet\nChief of Staff Fleet\nChief of Staff, (Warfare) Fleet\nChief of Staff (Capability) Fleet\nChief of Staff (Personnel) Fleet\nAssistant Chief of Staff, Operations\nAssistant Chief of Staff, Plans\nAssistant Chief of Staff, Warfare\nCommand Secretary, Fleet\nCommandant General Royal Marines\nCommander British Forces Gibraltar\nCommander Operations\nCommander UK Amphibious Forces\nCommander United Kingdom Maritime Forces\nFlag Officer, Carriers and Amphibious Ships\nFlag Officer First Flotilla\nFlag Officer, Second Flotilla\nFlag Officer, Third Flotilla\nFlag Officer, Surface Flotilla\nFlag Officer Gibraltar and Gibraltar Naval Base Commander\nFlag Officer Scotland, Northern England, Northern Ireland\nFlag Officer Scotland and Northern Ireland\nFlag Officer Plymouth\nFlag Officer Sea Training\nFlag Officer Submarines\nFlag Officer Naval Air Command\nFlag Officer, Flying Training\nFlag Officer, Naval Flying Training\nunder c-in-c home fleet, far east fleetmediterranean fleet, western fleet\nFlag Officer Second-in-Command Far East Fleet\nChief of Staff, Far East Fleet\nCommodore, Amphibious Forces, Far East Fleet\nCommodore-in-Charge, Hong Kong\nMediterranean Fleet\nChief of Staff Mediterranean Fleet\nFlag Officer, Gibraltar\nCommodore (D) Commanding, Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers\nRear-Admiral (D) Commanding, Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers\nVice-Admiral (D) Commanding, Mediterranean Fleet Destroyers\nWestern Fleet\nChief of Staff, Western Fleet\ncivil administrationnavy department\nOffice of the Second Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Royal Navy)\nOffice of the Second Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Administration)\nundercivil administration\nDepartment of the Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Royal Navy)\nDepartment of the Permanent Under-Secretary of State (Administration)\nGreenwich Hospital Department\nNaval Legal\nOffice of the Counsel to the Navy Department, Ministry of Defence\nOffice of the Judge Advocate of the Fleet\nOffice of the Chief Naval Judge AdvocatevteDepartment of AdmiraltyDirection and control of Admiralty and Naval affairs\nOffice of First Lord of the Admiralty and President of the Board of Admiralty\nLord High Admirals Council\nAdmiralty buildings\nBoards and offices underthe First Lord\nBoard of Admiralty\nNavy Board\nNavy Office\nNavy Pay Office\nOffice of the Naval Secretary\nOffice of the First Naval Lord\nOffice of the First Sea Lord\nOffice of the Senior Naval Lord\nOffice of the Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty\nOffice of the Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty\nOffice of the Private Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty\nDirection ofAdmiralsNaval/Sea Lords War and Naval Staff\nOffice of the Senior Naval Lord\nOffice of the First Naval Lord\nOffice of the First Sea Lord\nSecretariat and staff underthe First Sea Lord\nOffice of the Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord\nOffice of the Additional Naval Assistant to the First Sea Lord\nOffice of the Hydrographer of the Navy\nOffices of the Sea Lords\nAdmiralty Navy War Council\nAdmiralty War Staff\nAdmiralty Naval Staff\nOperational planning, policystrategy, tactical doctrinerequirements\nAdmiralty Navy War Council\nAdmiralty War Staff\nAdmiralty Naval Staff\nDivisions and sections under the War and Naval Staff\nAdministrative Planning Department\nAdministrative Planning Division\nAir Division\nAnti-Submarine Division\nAnti-Submarine and Warfare Division\nAnti-U-boat Division\nAir Warfare Division\nAir Warfare and Fly Training Division\nAir Warfare and Training Division\nCombined Operations Division\nCommunications Division\nConvoy Section\nDirectorate of Defence Plans (Navy)\nEconomic Warfare Division\nGunnery and Anti-Aircraft Warfare Division\nGunnery Division\nGunnery and Torpedo Division\nHistorical Section\nLocal Defence Division Division\nMercantile Movements Division\nNaval Air Division\nNaval Air Organisation and Training Division\nNaval Artillery and Torpedoes Division\nNavigation and Direction Division\nNavigation Division\nMinesweeping Division\nMobilisation Division\nNaval Intelligence Division\nOperations Division\nOperations Division (Home)\nOperations Division (Foreign)\nOperations Division (Mining)\nPlans Division\nPlans Division (Q)\nPress Division\nSignal Division\nSignal Section\nStandardisation Division\nTactical Division\nTactical and Weapons Policy Division\nTorpedo Division\nTorpedo, Anti-Submarine and Minewarfare Division\nTrade Division\nTrade and Operations Division\nTraining and Staff Duties Division\nTactical and Staff Duties Division\nUndersurface Warfare Division\nOffices of the Sea Lords\nOffice of the Second Sea Lord\nOffice of the Third Sea Lord\nOffice of the Fourth Sea Lord\nOffice of the Fifth Sea Lord\nAdmiralty civil departmentsand organisationsunder the Sea Lords\nAdmiralty Area Cash Offices\nAdmiralty Central Dockyard Laboratory\nAdmiralty Central Metallurgical Laboratory\nAdmiralty Civilian Shore Wireless Service\nAdmiralty Compass Observatory\nAdmiralty Constabulary\nAdmiralty Constabulary Headquarters\nAdmiralty Engineering Laboratory\nAdmiralty Experimental Station\nAdmiralty Experiment Works\nAdmiralty Gunnery Establishment\nAdmiralty Interview Board\nAdmiralty Labour Department\nAdmiralty Marine Technology Establishment\nAdmiralty Materials Laboratory\nAdmiralty Mine Design Department\nAdmiralty Mining Establishment\nAdmiralty Naval Aircraft Materials Laboratory\nAdmiralty Record Office\nAdmiralty Regional Offices\nAdmiralty Research Laboratory\nAdmiralty Signal Establishment\nAdmiralty Signals and Radar Establishment\nAdmiralty Surface Weapons Establishment\nAdmiralty Surveying Service\nAdmiralty Torpedo Experimental Establishment\nAdmiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment\nAdmiralty Underwater Weapons Launching Establishment\nArchitectural and Engineering Works Department\nAir Equipment and Naval Photography Department\nAir Department\nAir Materiel Department\nAir Personnel Department\nAmphibious Warfare Headquarters\nArmament Supply Department\nBoard of Invention and Research\nBoard of Longitude\nBoom Defence Department\nBoom Defence and Marine Salvage Department\nBritannia Royal Naval College\nChemical Board\nChemical Department\nCivil Catering Department\nCivil Engineer in Chiefs Department\nCoastguard and Reserves Branch\nCombined Operations Headquarters\nCommissioner for Property and Income-tax for the Naval Department\nCompass Department\nContract and Purchase Department\nCouncil of Naval Education\nDental Examining Board\nDepartment of Radio Equipment\nDepartment of the Accountant-General of the Navy\nDepartment of Aeronautical and Engineering Research\nDepartment of Miscellaneous Weapons Development\nDepartment of Naval Assistant (Foreign) to Second Sea Lord\nDepartment of Naval Education\nOperational Research\nDepartment of Personal Services and Officer Appointments\nDepartment of Physical Research\nDepartment of Physical Training & Sports\nDepartment of Radio Equipment\nDepartment of Research Programmes and Planning\nDepartment of Superintendent of de-magnetisation\nDepartment of the Admiral of the Training Service\nDepartment of the Chief Inspector of Naval Ordnance\nDepartment of the Chief of Naval Information\nDepartment of the Chief Scientist\nDepartment of the Civil Engineer-in-Chief\nDepartment of the Comptroller of Steam Machinery\nDepartment of the Comptroller of Victualling and Transport Services\nDepartment of the Controller of the Navy\nDepartment of the Controller-General of Merchant Shipbuilding\nDepartment of the Controller for Navy Pay\nDepartment of the Deputy Controller for Auxiliary Shipbuilding\nDepartment of the Deputy Controller for Dockyards and Shipbuilding\nDepartment of the Director Contract-Built Ships\nDepartment of the Director-General Aircraft\nDepartment of the Director-General of Manpower\nDepartment of the Director-General, Supply and Secretariat Branch\nDepartment of the Director of Aircraft Maintenance and Repair\nDepartment of the Director of Contract Labour\nDepartment of the Director of Dockyards\nDepartment of the Director of Electrical Engineering\nDepartment of the Director of Manning\nDepartment of the Director of Merchant Shipbuilding\nDepartment of the Director of Merchant Shipbuilding and Repairs\nDepartment of the Director of Merchant Ship Repairs\nDepartment of the Director of Naval Construction\nDepartment of the Director of Naval Equipment\nDepartment of the Director of Naval Recruiting\nDepartment of the Director of Naval Weather Service\nDepartment of the Director of Personal Services\nDepartment of the Director of Physical Training and Sports\nDepartment of the Director of Torpedoes and Mining\nDepartment of the Director of Transports\nDepartment of the Director of Underwater Weapons\nDepartment of the Director of Underwater Weapons Materials\nDepartment of the Director of Unexploded Bombs\nDepartment of the Director of Warship Production\nDepartment of the Director of Welfare and Service Conditions\nDepartment of the Director of Wreck Dispersal\nDepartment of the Flag Officer Sea Training\nDepartment of the Engineer in Chief\nDepartment of the Paymaster Director-General\nDepartment of the Inspector of Anti-Aircraft Weapons\nDepartment of the Inspector of Dockyard Expense Accounts\n Department of the Inspector-General of Naval Hospitals and Fleets\nDepartment of the Medical Director-General of the Navy\nDepartment of the Physician of the Navy\nDepartment of the Physician General of the Navy\nDepartment of the Storekeeper-General of the Navy\nDepartment of the Surveyor of Buildings\nDepartment of the Surveyor of Dockyards\nDirectorate-General, (Naval Manpower and Training)\nDirectorate General Training\nDockyards and Fleet Maintenance Department\nDockyards Branch\nDockyard Expense Accounts Department\nDockyard Schools\nElectrical Engineering Department\nEngineer Branch\nEngineering Department\nExperimental Department\nFire Control Group\nGreenwich Hospital Department\nInspector of Telegraphs\nInspector of Repairs\nJoint Warfare Establishment\nMedical Consultative Board\nMedical Examining Board\nHistorical Section\nHydrographic Department\nMarine Department\nMarine Pay Department\nMaterials and Priority Department\nMedical Consultative Board\nMedical Department\nMedical Examining Board\nMovements Department\nNautical Almanac Office\nNaval Artillery and Torpedo Department\nNaval Engineering College\nNaval Equipment Department\nNaval Historical Branch\nNaval Construction Department\nNaval Intelligence Department\nNaval Medical Service\nNaval Law Division\nNaval Manpower Department\nNaval Mobilisation Department\nNaval Ordnance Department\nNaval Ordnance Inspection Department\nNaval Ordnance Stores Department\nNaval Personnel Services and Officer Appointments Department\nNaval Publicity Department\nNaval Regional Offices\nNaval Reserve Department\nNaval Security Department\nNaval Stores Department\nNaval Training Department\nNaval Works Department\nNavy, Army and Air Force Institute\nNavy and Army Canteen Board\nNavy Works Department\nNavigation Department\nObservatory at the Cape of Good Hope\nOffice of the Admiral Commanding Coast Guard and Reserves\nOffice of the Admiral Commanding, Reserves\nOffice of the Admiralty Chemist\nOffice of the Adviser on the Naval Construction to the Board of Admiralty\nOffice of the Assistant Controller\nOffice of the Assistant Controller Research and Development\nOffice of the Clerk of the Journals\nOffice of the Chief Polaris Executive\nOffice of the Deputy Controller of Navy\nOffice of the Deputy Controller Production\nOffice of Extra Naval Assistant to Second Sea Lord\nOffice of the Inspector Gun Mountings\nOffice of the Keeper of Records\nOffice of the Senior Psychologist (Naval)\nOffice of the Senior Psychologist of the Navy\nOffice of the Translator of French and Spanish Languages\nOffice of the Vice Controller Air\nOffice of the Vice Controller of the Navy\nOrganisation and Methods Department\nPacket Service\nRegional Organisation for Merchant Shipbuilding and Repairs\nRoyal Corps of Naval Constructors\nRoyal Flying Corps\nRoyal Marine Police\nRoyal Marines Office\nOffice of the Chaplain of the Fleet\nRoyal Naval Academy\nRoyal Naval Aircraft Workshops\nRoyal Naval Air Service\nRoyal Naval Air Stations\nRoyal Naval Armaments Depot\nRoyal Naval Auxiliary Service\nRoyal Naval Cordite Factories\nRoyal Naval Propellant Factory\nRoyal Naval College\nRoyal Naval College and the School for Naval Architecture\nRoyal Naval College, Dartmouth\nRoyal Naval College, Greenwich\nRoyal Naval College, Keyham\nRoyal Naval College, Osborne\nRoyal Naval Engineering College\nRoyal Naval Film Corporation\nRoyal Naval Hospital\nRoyal Naval Medical Depot\nRoyal Naval Minewatching Service\nRoyal Naval Mine Depot\nRoyal Naval Patrol Service\nRoyal Naval Scientific Service\nRoyal Naval Sick Quarters\nRoyal Naval Torpedo Depot\nRoyal Naval Volunteer Reserve\nRoyal Naval War College\nRoyal Naval War College, Portsmouth\nRoyal Navy Dockyard\nRoyal Navy Medical Service\nRoyal Navy Shore Signal Service\nRoyal Observatory, Greenwich\nRoyal School of Naval Architecture\nSalvage Department\nSchool of Mathematics and Naval Construction\nScientific Research and Experiment Department\nSea Transport Branch\nSea Transport Department\nSea Transport Division\nShip Department\nShip Design Department\nSignal Department\nSignal School\nSixpenny Office\nStatistics Department\nSteam Department\nSuperintendent of De-magnetisation\nTorpedo Experimental Establishment\nTransport Department\nUndersurface Warfare Department\nVictualling Department\nVolunteer Boys and Cadet Corps\nWeapons Department\nWeapons Department (Naval)\nWomen's Royal Naval Service\nWireless Telegraphy Board\nDirection/Command of the Fleet\nOffice of the Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty\nOffice of the First Naval Lord\nOffice of the First Sea Lord\nAdmiralty Naval Staff\nNaval formations after 1707\n1st Fleet\n2nd Fleet\n3rd Fleet\nCommander-in-Chief, Africa\nAtlantic Fleet\nCommodore, Arabian Seas and Persian Gulf\nAustralia Station\nCape of Good Hope Station\nCape and West Africa Station\nBattle Cruiser Fleet\nBattle Cruiser Force\nCaspian Flotilla\nChannel Fleet\nChannel Squadron\nCommander-in-Chief, Coast of Ireland\nCork Station\nCoast of Scotland\nCommander-in-Chief, China\nCommander-in-Chief, Dover\nFlag Officer, East Africa\nEast Indies Station\nEast Indies and China Station\nEastern Fleet\nFar East Fleet\nEnglish Channel\nGrand Fleet\nFlag Officer Gibraltar\nHarwich Force\nHome Fleet\nJamaica Station\nLeith Station\nCommander-in-Chief, Levant\nLevant and East Mediterranean\nCommander-in-Chief, Leeward Islands\nMediterranean Fleet\nMedway\nNewfoundland Station\nNew Zealand Division\nNew Zealand Naval Forces\nNore\nNorth America and West Indies Station\nCommander-in-Chief, North Sea\nAdmiral Commanding, Orkneys and Shetlands\nPacific Fleet\nPacific Station\nAdmiral of Patrols\nCommander-in-Chief, Plymouth\nCommander-in-Chief, Portsmouth\nQueenstown Station\nRoyal East African Navy\nRoyal Indian Navy\nFlag Officer Submarines\nCommander-in-Chief, Rosyth\nReserve Fleet\nScotland and Northern Ireland\nCommander-in-Chief, South Atlantic\nSouth East Coast of America Station\nCommander-in-Chief, Thames and Medway\nWest 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Department of the Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty\nDepartments under theCivil Lords\nAccountant-General's Department\nContract and Purchase Department\nDepartment of the Director of Contract Labour\nDepartment of the Surveyor of Buildings\nDepartment of the Director of Works\nGreenwich Hospital Department\nWorks Loan Department\nLegal\nAdmiralty Judicial Department\nAdmiralty court\nHigh Court of Admiralty\nOffice of the Judge of the High Court of Admiralty\nHigh Court of Justice\nOffice of the Judge Advocate of the Fleet\nOffice of the Marshall High Court of the Admiralty\nOffice of the Admiralty Advocate\nOffice of the Admiralty Proctor\nOffice of the Chief Naval Judge Advocate\nOffice of the Counsel for the Affairs of the Admiralty and Navy\nOffice of the Counsel to the Admiralty\nOffice of the Deputy Judge Advocate of the Fleet\nOffice of the Receiver of Droits High Court of Admiralty\nOffice of the Registrar High Court of the Admiralty\nOffice of the Solicitor for the Affairs of the Admiralty\nOffice of the Solicitor to the Admiralty and Navy\nOffice of the Solicitor to the Admiralty\nOffice of the Counsel to the Admiralty\nCourt of Admiralty for the Cinque Ports\n King's Bench Division (Admiralty)\n Queens's Bench Division (Admiralty)\nProbate, Divorce and Admiralty Division\nVice Admiralty courts\nColonial Courts of Admiraltyvte Board of AdmiraltyMinisterial Lords\nOffice of the First Lord of the Admiralty and President of the Board (1628–1964)\nNaval Lords\nSenior Naval Lord (1689–1771)\nFirst Naval Lord (1771–1904)\nFirst Sea Lord (1904–1917)\nFirst Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff (1917–1964)\nSecond Naval Lord (1830–1869, 1872–1904)\nSecond Sea Lord (1904–1917)\nSecond Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Personnel (1917–1964)\nThird Naval Lord (1832–1858)\nController of the Navy (1859–1869)\nThird Naval Lord and Controller (1869–1872)\nController of the Navy (1872–1882)\nThird Naval Lord and Controller of the Navy (1882–1904)\nThird Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy (1904–1912)\nThird Sea Lord (1912–1917)\nController of the Navy (1917–1918)\nThird Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Matériel (1918–1965)\nJunior Naval Lord (1868–1904)\nFourth Sea Lord (1904–1917)\nFourth Sea Lord and Chief of Supplies and Transport (1917–1955)\nFifth Sea Lord (1917)\nFifth Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Air Service (1917–1956)\nStaff Naval Lords\nDeputy Chief of the Naval Staff (1917–1964)\nDeputy First Sea Lord (1917–1919)\nAssistant Chief of the Naval Staff (1917–1964)\nVice Chief of the Naval Staff (1941–1964)\nDeputy First Sea Lord (1942–1946)\nCivil Lords\nCivil Lord of the Admiralty (1830–1964)\nAccountant-General of the Navy (1832–1869)\nController of Victualling (1832–1869)\nDirector-General of the Medical Department (1832–1869)\nStorekeeper-General of the Navy (1832–1869)\nSurveyor of the Navy (1832–1869)\nController of the Navy (1859–1869)\nAdditional Civil Lord of the Admiralty (1882–1885)\nAdditional Civil Lord of the Admiralty (1912–1917)\nSecond Civil Lord (1918–1919)\nThird Civil Lord (1918–1919)\nFourth Civil Lord (1918–1919)\nCivil Secretaries\nSecretaries to the Lords Admiral, Admiralty, Committees and Commissions (1625–1660)\nFirst Secretary to the Admiralty (1660–1763)\nFirst Secretary to the Admiralty (1763–1871)\nParliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty (1871–1886)\nParliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty (1886–1959)\nJoint-Deputy Secretary to the Admiralty (1702–1766)\nSecond Secretary to the Admiralty (1783–1857)\nPermanent Secretary to the Admiralty (1869–1872)\nNaval Secretary to the Board of Admiralty (1872–1882)\nPermanent Secretary to the Admiralty (1882–1964)vteMinistry of DefenceHeadquarters: Main Building, WhitehallArmed Forces\nNaval Service\nRoyal Navy\nRoyal Marines\nArmy\nRoyal Air Force\nin Scotland\nin Wales\nby the Irish\nDefence CouncilPolitical\nSecretary of State for Defence\nMinister of State for the Armed Forces\nMinister of State for Defence Procurement\nMinister of State for Defence (House of Lords)\nParliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Defence People, Veterans and Service Families\nMilitary\nChief of the Defence Staff\nVice-Chief of the Defence Staff\nChief of the Naval Staff and First Sea Lord\nChief of the General Staff\nChief of the Air Staff\nCommander Strategic Command\nChief of Defence People\nCivil Service\nPermanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence\nChief Scientific Adviser\nDirector-General Finance\nDirector-General Head Office and Commissioning Services\nDirector-General Nuclear\nDirector-General Security Policy\nLead Non-Executive Board Member\nNon-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the People Committee\nNon-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the Defence Audit Committee\nNon-Executive Defence Board Member and Chair of the Defence Equipment and Support Board\nService boards\nAdmiralty Board (Navy Board)\nArmy Board\nAir Force Board\nService commands\nNavy Command\nArmy Command\n Air Command\nStrategic Command\nArm's-length bodies\nDefence Electronics and Components Agency (DECA)\nDefence Equipment and Support (DE&S)\nDefence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL)\nOil and Pipelines Agency (OPA)\nSubmarine Delivery Agency (SDA)\nUnited Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO)\nTop-level budget agenciesmanaged on an arm's-length basis\nDefence Business Services\nDefence Infrastructure Organisation (DIO)\nDefence Digital\nDefence Nuclear Organisation\nMinistry of Defence Police\nRegulatory organisations\nDefence Safety Authority\nSingle Source Regulations Office\nIntelligence\nDefence Intelligence (under Strategic Command)\nDefence Secretariat 19\nNon-departmentalpublic bodies\nNational Army Museum\nNational Museum of the Royal Navy\nRoyal Air Force Museum\n CategoryvteChiefs of the navy by country\nChief of the Naval Staff\nAfrica\nAlgeria\nAngola\nBenin\nBotswana\nBurkina Faso\nBurundi\nCameroon\nCape Verde\nCentral African Republic\nChad\nComoros\nDR Congo\nRepublic of the Congo\nDjibouti\nEgypt\nEquatorial Guinea\nEritrea\nEthiopia\nGabon\nGambia\nGhana\nGuinea\nGuinea-Bissau\nIvory Coast\nKenya\nLesotho\nLiberia\nLibya\nMadagascar\nMalawi\nMali\nMauritania\nMorocco\nMozambique\nNamibia\nNiger\nNigeria\nRwanda\nSão Tomé and Príncipe\nSenegal\nSeychelles\nSierra Leone\nSomalia\nSouth Africa\nSouth Sudan\nSudan\nSwaziland\nTanzania\nTogo\nTunisia\nUganda\nZambia\nZimbabwe\nFormer\nBiafra\nBophuthatswana\nCiskei\nBritish Egypt\nEthiopian Empire\nRhodesia\nTranskei\nVenda\nZaire\nAmericas\nAntigua and Barbuda\nArgentina\nBahamas\nBarbados\nBelize\nBolivia\nBrazil\nCanada\nChile\nColombia\nCuba\nDominican Republic\nEcuador\nEl Salvador\nGuatemala\nGuyana\nHaiti\nHonduras\nJamaica\nMexico\nNicaragua\nParaguay\nPeru\nSaint Kitts and Nevis\nSuriname\nTrinidad and Tobago\nUnited States\nUruguay\nVenezuela\nFormer\nConfederate States of America\nAsia\nAbkhazia\nAfghanistan\nArmenia\nAzerbaijan\nBahrain\nBangladesh\nBhutan\nBrunei\nCambodia\nPR of China\nEast Timor\nIndia\nIndonesia\nIran\nNEDAJA\nNEDSA\nIraq\nIsrael\nJapan\nJordan\nKazakhstan\nNorth Korea\nSouth Korea\nKuwait\nKyrgyzstan\nLaos\nLebanon\nMalaysia\nMaldives\nMongolia\nMyanmar\nNepal\nOman\nPakistan\nPhilippines\nQatar\nSaudi Arabia\nSingapore\nSri Lanka\nSyria\nRepublic of China (Taiwan)\nTajikistan\nThailand\nTurkmenistan\nUnited Arab Emirates\nUzbekistan\nVietnam\nYemen\nFormer\nDemocratic Kampuchea\nImperial Japan\nMengjiang\nManchukuo\nSouth Vietnam\nEurope\nAlbania\nAustria\nBelarus\nBelgium\nBosnia and Herzegovina\nBulgaria\nCroatia\nCyprus\nCzech Republic\nDenmark\nEstonia\nFinland\nFrance\nGeorgia\nGermany\nGreece\nHungary\nIreland\nItaly\nKosovo\nLatvia\nLithuania\nLuxembourg\nMacedonia\nMalta\nMoldova\nMonaco\nMontenegro\nNetherlands\nNorway\nPoland\nPortugal\nRomania\nRussia\nSerbia\nSlovakia\nSlovenia\nSpain\nSweden\nSwitzerland\nTurkey\nUkraine\nUnited Kingdom\nVatican\nFormer\nAustria–Hungary\nIndependent State of Croatia\nCzechoslovakia\nPrussia\nImperial Germany\nNazi Germany\nEast Germany\nOttoman Empire\nRussian Empire\nSoviet Union\nYugoslavia\nOceania\nAustralia\nFiji\nNew Zealand\nPapua New Guinea\nTonga\nVanuatu","title":"Sources"}] | [{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/75px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Flag_of_the_Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/130px-Flag_of_the_Lord_High_Admiral_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"title":"Second Sea Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sea_Lord"},{"title":"Third Sea Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Sea_Lord"},{"title":"Fourth Sea Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Sea_Lord"},{"title":"Fifth Sea Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Sea_Lord"},{"title":"Chief of the Air Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Air_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"title":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"title":"Chief of the General Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"title":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"}] | [{"reference":"\"Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE has been appointed to First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\". gov.uk. 15 October 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/news/vice-admiral-sir-ben-key-kcb-cbe-has-been-appointed-to-first-sea-lord-and-chief-of-the-naval-staff","url_text":"\"Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE has been appointed to First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\""}]},{"reference":"\"People – First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff\". MoD. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121122001312/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/People/ChiefsOfStaff/FirstSeaLordAndChiefOfNavalStaff.htm","url_text":"\"People – First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff\""},{"url":"http://www.mod.uk/defenceinternet/aboutdefence/people/chiefsofstaff/firstsealordandchiefofnavalstaff.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE ADC\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 29 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/people/ben-key","url_text":"\"Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE ADC\""}]},{"reference":"Ministry of Defence (10 December 2012). \"History of the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence website\" (PDF). Mod.uk. Retrieved 3 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/49053/history_of_mod.pdf","url_text":"\"History of the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence website\""}]},{"reference":"\"MOD Royal Navy\". Retrieved 17 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/our-organisation/senior-naval-staff/first-sea-lord/navy-board","url_text":"\"MOD Royal Navy\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Commissioners (\"Lords\") of the Admiralty 1828 – 1895\". W Loney RN. Retrieved 25 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pdavis.nl/Admiralty.htm","url_text":"\"The Commissioners (\"Lords\") of the Admiralty 1828 – 1895\""}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/32062.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32062","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/32062"}]},{"reference":"\"Sir David Luce\". Unit Histories. Retrieved 25 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unithistories.com/officers/RN_officersL2.html","url_text":"\"Sir David Luce\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sir Nigel Essenhigh\". University of Exeter. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140203130302/http://www.exeter.ac.uk/strategy/about/advisoryboard/nigelessenhigh/","url_text":"\"Sir Nigel Essenhigh\""},{"url":"http://www.exeter.ac.uk/strategy/about/advisoryboard/nigelessenhigh/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Zambellas new First Sea Lord\". Inside Government. 9 April 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/news/admiral-zambellas-new-first-sea-lord","url_text":"\"Admiral Zambellas new First Sea Lord\""}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Sir Philip Jones takes over as First Sea Lord\". Royal Navy. 8 April 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2016/april/08/160408-new-first-sea-lord","url_text":"\"Admiral Sir Philip Jones takes over as First Sea Lord\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy","url_text":"Royal Navy"}]},{"reference":"\"A 'generation of innovators' has been appointed to run the military in a shake-up of the top ranks of the Army, Navy and RAF\". The Daily Telegraph. 3 December 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/12/03/generation-innovators-has-appointed-run-military-shake-up-top/","url_text":"\"A 'generation of innovators' has been appointed to run the military in a shake-up of the top ranks of the Army, Navy and RAF\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/12/03/generation-innovators-has-appointed-run-military-shake-up-top/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Sir Ben Key – who's the new First Sea Lord?\". Forces.net. 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forces.net/news/watch-vice-admiral-sir-ben-key-whos-new-first-sea-lord","url_text":"\"Admiral Sir Ben Key – who's the new First Sea Lord?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Prince Louis of Battenberg\". First World War.com. Retrieved 22 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/battenberg.htm","url_text":"\"Prince Louis of Battenberg\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"Sir Joseph Porter's Song\" (\"When I was a Lad I served a Term\") from H. M. S. Pinafore, or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor (1878)\". Victorian Web. Retrieved 14 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://victorianweb.org/mt/gilbert/porter.html","url_text":"\"\"Sir Joseph Porter's Song\" (\"When I was a Lad I served a Term\") from H. M. S. Pinafore, or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor (1878)\""}]},{"reference":"Buchan, John (1999) [1915]. The Thirty-nine Steps. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283931-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Buchan,_1st_Baron_Tweedsmuir","url_text":"Buchan, John"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/thirtyninesteps00buch","url_text":"The Thirty-nine Steps"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-283931-2","url_text":"978-0-19-283931-2"}]},{"reference":"Friedman, N. (2015). The British Battleship 1906-1946. Seaforth. ISBN 9781848322257.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ts5CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21","url_text":"The British Battleship 1906-1946"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781848322257","url_text":"9781848322257"}]},{"reference":"Heathcote, Tony (2002). The British Admirals of the Fleet 1734–1995. Pen & Sword Ltd. ISBN 0-85052-835-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85052-835-6","url_text":"0-85052-835-6"}]},{"reference":"Kerr, Mark (1934). Prince Louis of Battenberg: Admiral of the Fleet. London: Longmans, Green and Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Kerr_(Royal_Navy_officer,_born_1864)","url_text":"Kerr, Mark"}]},{"reference":"Mackay, Ruddock F. (1973). Fisher of Kilverstone. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198224099.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198224099","url_text":"978-0198224099"}]},{"reference":"Rodger, N.A.M. (1979). The Admiralty. Offices of State. Lavenham: T. Dalton Ltd. ISBN 0900963948.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0900963948","url_text":"0900963948"}]},{"reference":"Sainty, J.C., ed. (1975). Lord High Admiral and Commissioners of the Admiralty 1660-1870, Office-Holders in Modern Britain. Vol. 4: Admiralty Officials 1660-1870. Archived from the original on 7 October 2014. Retrieved 4 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025436/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=16652","url_text":"Lord High Admiral and Commissioners of the Admiralty 1660-1870, Office-Holders in Modern Britain"},{"url":"http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=16652","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, David A (1988). A companion to the Royal Navy. Harrap. ISBN 0-245-54572-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-245-54572-7","url_text":"0-245-54572-7"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/our-people/senior-naval-staff/first-sea-lord","external_links_name":"Official Website"},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/news/vice-admiral-sir-ben-key-kcb-cbe-has-been-appointed-to-first-sea-lord-and-chief-of-the-naval-staff","external_links_name":"\"Vice Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE has been appointed to First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121122001312/http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/People/ChiefsOfStaff/FirstSeaLordAndChiefOfNavalStaff.htm","external_links_name":"\"People – First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff\""},{"Link":"http://www.mod.uk/defenceinternet/aboutdefence/people/chiefsofstaff/firstsealordandchiefofnavalstaff.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/people/ben-key","external_links_name":"\"Admiral Sir Ben Key KCB CBE ADC\""},{"Link":"https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3/","external_links_name":"Open Government Licence v3.0"},{"Link":"https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1955/oct/25/defence-administrative-responsibilities","external_links_name":"Defence Administrative Responsibilities"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121017103155/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1955/oct/25/defence-administrative-responsibilities","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/49053/history_of_mod.pdf","external_links_name":"\"History of the Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Defence website\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0141-6081","external_links_name":"0141-6081"},{"Link":"http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/our-organisation/senior-naval-staff/first-sea-lord/navy-board","external_links_name":"\"MOD Royal Navy\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hampshire-19896257","external_links_name":"HMS Victory handed to First Sea Lord in Portsmouth"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190306084333/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hampshire-19896257","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.pdavis.nl/Admiralty.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Commissioners (\"Lords\") of the Admiralty 1828 – 1895\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32062","external_links_name":"10.1093/ref:odnb/32062"},{"Link":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public","external_links_name":"UK public library membership"},{"Link":"http://www.unithistories.com/officers/RN_officersL2.html","external_links_name":"\"Sir David Luce\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140203130302/http://www.exeter.ac.uk/strategy/about/advisoryboard/nigelessenhigh/","external_links_name":"\"Sir Nigel Essenhigh\""},{"Link":"http://www.exeter.ac.uk/strategy/about/advisoryboard/nigelessenhigh/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/news/admiral-zambellas-new-first-sea-lord","external_links_name":"\"Admiral Zambellas new First Sea Lord\""},{"Link":"http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2016/april/08/160408-new-first-sea-lord","external_links_name":"\"Admiral Sir Philip Jones takes over as First Sea Lord\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/12/03/generation-innovators-has-appointed-run-military-shake-up-top/","external_links_name":"\"A 'generation of innovators' has been appointed to run the military in a shake-up of the top ranks of the Army, Navy and RAF\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/12/03/generation-innovators-has-appointed-run-military-shake-up-top/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.forces.net/news/watch-vice-admiral-sir-ben-key-whos-new-first-sea-lord","external_links_name":"\"Admiral Sir Ben Key – who's the new First Sea Lord?\""},{"Link":"https://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/battenberg.htm","external_links_name":"\"Prince Louis of Battenberg\""},{"Link":"https://victorianweb.org/mt/gilbert/porter.html","external_links_name":"\"\"Sir Joseph Porter's Song\" (\"When I was a Lad I served a Term\") from H. M. S. Pinafore, or, The Lass that Loved a Sailor (1878)\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/thirtyninesteps00buch","external_links_name":"The Thirty-nine Steps"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3Ts5CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21","external_links_name":"The British Battleship 1906-1946"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141007025436/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=16652","external_links_name":"Lord High Admiral and Commissioners of the Admiralty 1660-1870, Office-Holders in Modern Britain"},{"Link":"http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=16652","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Name | World Wide Name | ["1 Formats","2 Presentation","3 Example usage","4 How to Find WWN Information in Linux","4.1 Method 1","4.2 Method 2 : using syminq command","4.3 Method 3 : using hbacmd command","4.4 Method 4 : using systool command","5 List of OUIs commonly seen as WWN Company Identifiers","6 See also","7 External links","8 References"] | Unique identifier used in storage technologies
A World Wide Name (WWN) or World Wide Identifier (WWID) is a unique identifier used in storage technologies including Fibre Channel, Parallel ATA, Serial ATA, SCSI and Serial Attached SCSI (SAS).
A WWN may be employed in a variety of roles, such as a serial number or for addressability; for example, in Fibre Channel networks, a WWN may be used as a WWNN (World Wide Node Name) to identify an endpoint, or a WWPN (World Wide Port Name) to identify an individual port on a switch. Two WWNs which do not refer to the same thing should always be different even if the two are used in different roles, i.e. a role such as WWPN or WWNN does not define a separate WWN space. The use of burned-in addresses and specification compliance by vendors is relied upon to enforce uniqueness.
Formats
Each WWN is an 8- or 16-byte number, the length and format of which is determined by the most significant four bits, which are referred to as an NAA (Network Address Authority). The remainder of the value is derived from an IEEE OUI (or from Company Id (CID)) and vendor-supplied information. Each format defines a different way to arrange and/or interpret these components. OUIs are used with the U/L and multicast bits zeroed, or sometimes even omitted (and assumed zero), though CID has U/L set to 1.
The WWN formats include:
"Original" IEEE formats are essentially a two-byte header followed by an embedded EUI-48 address (which contains the OUI). The first 2 bytes are either hex 10:00 or 2x:xx (where the x's are vendor-specified) followed by the 3-byte OUI and 3 bytes for a vendor-specified serial number. Thus, the difference between NAA 1 format and NAA 2 format is merely the presence of either a zero pad or an extra 3 nibbles of vendor information.
"Registered" IEEE formats dispense with padding and place the OUI immediately after the NAA. The OUI is no longer considered to be part of a EUI-48 address. For NAA 5 format, this leaves 9 contiguous nibbles for a vendor-defined value. This is the same format used by the companion NAA 6 format, the only difference being a 16-byte number space is assumed, rather than an 8-byte number space. This leaves a total of 25 contiguous nibbles for vendor-defined values.
"Mapped EUI-64" formats manage to fit an EUI-64 address into an 8-byte WWN. Since the NAA is mandatory, and takes up a nibble, this represents a four-bit deficit. These four bits are recouped through the following tricks: First, two bits are stolen from the NAA by allocating NAAs 12, 13, 14, and 15 to all refer to the same format. Second, the remaining two bits are recouped by omitting the U/L and multicast bits from the EUI-64's OUI. When reconstructing the embedded EUI-64 value, the U/L and multicast bits are assumed to have carried zero values.
Presentation
WWN addresses are predominantly represented as colon separated hexadecimal octets, MSB-first, with leading zeros — similar to Ethernet's MAC address. However, there is much variance between vendors.
Example usage
Linux uses WWN to identify disks by providing symbolic links to the real device entry:
ls -l /dev/disk/by-id/
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 9 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x5002e10000000000 -> ../../sr0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 9 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21 -> ../../sda
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21-part1 -> ../../sda1
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21-part2 -> ../../sda2
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21-part3 -> ../../sda3
(There are more entries in this directory which are omitted here)
The target names (sr0, sda) might change when new devices are added to the computer (e.g. sda might become sdb) but the WWN will be the same. That is an advantage when the WWNs are used in configuration files and scripts, e.g., /etc/fstab.
How to Find WWN Information in Linux
This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. Please help rewrite the content so that it is more encyclopedic or move it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks, or Wikivoyage. (February 2023)
There are various ways how to find WWN information.
Regardless of HBA type, below commands can be used to find WWN number information.
Method 1
# cat /sys/class/fc_host/host*/port_name
0x10000090fa2537d6
0x10000090fa253a29
Method 2 : using syminq command
If EMC Storage is being used so there is a chance you must have SYMCLI software installed. syminq comes with SYSCLI. syminq is also helpful in getting WWN in easy way.
# syminq hba
Host Name : server
HBA Type : FibreChannel
HBA Name : Emulex-LPe11000-E-2
Vendor : Emulex Corporation
Model : LPe11000-E
Serial Number : BT01473025
Firmware Version : 2.72A2 (Z3D2.72A2), sli-3
Driver Version : 8.2.0.63.3p; HBAAPI(I) v2.1.g, 12-07-07
Node WWN : 20000000c9b0513a
Number of Ports : 1
Port WWN : 10000000c9b0513a
Port name : /sys/class/scsi_host/host3
Port type : NPort
Port FCID : 2764032
Port speed : 4gbit
Supported speed : 4gbit
Port state : Online
Supported COS : 00000008
Supported FC4 types : 0000010000000001000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Active FC4 types : 0000010000000001000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Max frame size : 2048
Method 3 : using hbacmd command
It will work if hbanyware package is installed.
# /usr/sbin/hbanyware/hbacmd listHBAs
Manageable HBA List
Port WWN : 10:00:00:00:c9:b0:55:2e
Node WWN : 20:00:00:00:c9:b0:55:2e
Fabric Name: 10:00:50:eb:1a:5f:c7:0c
Flags : 8000fe00
Host Name : server
Mfg : Emulex Corporation
Serial No. : BT01474056
Port Number: n/a
Mode : Initiator
Port WWN : 10:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32
Node WWN : 20:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32
Fabric Name: 10:00:50:eb:1a:5f:bd:0c
Flags : 8000fe00
Host Name : server
Mfg : Emulex Corporation
Serial No. : BT01472998
Port Number: n/a
Mode : Initiator
#
Method 4 : using systool command
systool utility comes with Linux distros. If it is not available it can be installed on servers where HBA is already installed.
# systool -c fc_host -v
(output trimmed for clarity)
Class Device path = "/sys/class/fc_host/host8" port_name = "10:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32" node_name = "20:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32"
List of OUIs commonly seen as WWN Company Identifiers
OUIs can be queried searching the IEEE organization's Public Manufacturers OUI list. OUIs can also be queried by searching IEEE Standards Registration authority .
00:10:86 ATTO Technology
00:60:69 Brocade Communications Systems
00:05:1E Brocade Communications Systems, acquired with Rhapsody Networks
00:60:DF Brocade Communications Systems, acquired with CNT Technologies Corporation
08:00:88 Brocade Communications Systems, acquired with McDATA Corporation. WWIDs begin with 1000.080
00:05:30 Cisco
00:05:73 Cisco
00:05:9B Cisco
00:0D:31 Dell, Inc., for Dell Compellent Storage products
00:01:E8 Dell, Inc., for Dell Force10 Networking Products
00:23:29 DDRdrive LLC, for DDRdrive X1
00:60:16 EMC Corporation, for CLARiiON/VNX
00:60:48 EMC Corporation, for Symmetrix DMX
00:00:97 EMC Corporation, for Symmetrix VMAX
00:01:44 EMC Corporation, for VPLEX
00:00:C9 Emulex
00:60:B0 Hewlett-Packard - Integrity and HP9000 servers. WWIDs begin with 5006.0b0
00:11:0A Hewlett-Packard - ProLiant servers. Formerly Compaq. WWIDs begin with 5001.10a
00:01:FE Hewlett-Packard - EVA disk arrays. Formerly Digital Equipment Corporation. WWIDs begin with 5000.1fe1 or 6000.1fe1
00:17:A4 Hewlett-Packard - MSL tape libraries. Formerly Global Data Services. WWIDs begin with 200x.0017.a4
00:0C:CA HGST, a Western Digital Company
00:60:E8 Hitachi
00:50:76 IBM
00:17:38 IBM, formerly XIV.
00:15:17 Intel
00:A0:98 NetApp
24:A9:37 Pure Storage
00:E0:8B QLogic HBAs, original identifier space
00:1B:32 QLogic HBAs. new identifier space starting to be used in 2007
00:C0:DD QLogic FC switches
00:90:66 QLogic formerly Troika Networks
00:11:75 QLogic formerly PathScale, Inc
00:25:38 Samsung Electronics, for solid-state drive
00:1B:44 SanDisk
00:1E:82 SanDisk
00:0C:50 Seagate Technology
00:A0:B8 Symbios Logic
1C:5A:0B Tegile Systems
00:00:39 Toshiba
00:14:EE Western Digital
14:F0:C5 Xtremio (EMC Corporation)
00:50:CC Xyratex
57:42:B0 Infinidat, For infinibox
00:24:E9 Samsung
See also
Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA)
Fibre Channel
Mass Storage Control Protocol
Persistent binding
Serial Attached SCSI (SAS)
Switched fabric
World Wide Port Name (WWPN)
External links
IEEE OUI list
References
^ "lsscsi(8) — lsscsi — Debian testing". manpages.debian.org. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
^ "Guidelines for Use of Extended Unique Identifier (EUI), Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI), and Company ID (CID)" (PDF). IEEE Standards Association. IEEE. Retrieved 5 August 2018.
^ IEEE. "Guidelines for Fibre Channel Use of the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)" (PDF).
^ Richard Butler. "WWN Notes v1.3" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-18.
^ Raj Rai (16 October 2019). "How to Find WWN Number Information in Linux". nixDrafts. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
^ "VMFS Snapshots and the FlashArray Part IV: How to correlate a VMFS to a FlashArray volume". 25 January 2016. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unique identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unique_identifier"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel"},{"link_name":"Parallel ATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_ATA"},{"link_name":"Serial ATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_ATA"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"link_name":"Serial Attached SCSI (SAS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Attached_SCSI"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"serial number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_number"},{"link_name":"addressability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addressability"}],"text":"A World Wide Name (WWN) or World Wide Identifier (WWID) is a unique identifier used in storage technologies including Fibre Channel, Parallel ATA, Serial ATA, SCSI and Serial Attached SCSI (SAS).[1]A WWN may be employed in a variety of roles, such as a serial number or for addressability; for example, in Fibre Channel networks, a WWN may be used as a WWNN (World Wide Node Name) to identify an endpoint, or a WWPN (World Wide Port Name) to identify an individual port on a switch. Two WWNs which do not refer to the same thing should always be different even if the two are used in different roles, i.e. a role such as WWPN or WWNN does not define a separate WWN space. The use of burned-in addresses and specification compliance by vendors is relied upon to enforce uniqueness.","title":"World Wide Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"OUI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizationally_Unique_Identifier"},{"link_name":"multicast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eui-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"EUI-48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address"},{"link_name":"zero pad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_padding"},{"link_name":"nibbles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"}],"text":"Each WWN is an 8- or 16-byte number, the length and format of which is determined by the most significant four bits, which are referred to as an NAA (Network Address Authority). The remainder of the value is derived from an IEEE OUI (or from Company Id (CID)) and vendor-supplied information. Each format defines a different way to arrange and/or interpret these components. OUIs are used with the U/L and multicast bits zeroed, or sometimes even omitted (and assumed zero), though CID has U/L set to 1.[2]The WWN formats include:[3]\"Original\" IEEE formats are essentially a two-byte header followed by an embedded EUI-48 address (which contains the OUI). The first 2 bytes are either hex 10:00 or 2x:xx (where the x's are vendor-specified) followed by the 3-byte OUI and 3 bytes for a vendor-specified serial number. Thus, the difference between NAA 1 format and NAA 2 format is merely the presence of either a zero pad or an extra 3 nibbles of vendor information.\n\"Registered\" IEEE formats dispense with padding and place the OUI immediately after the NAA. The OUI is no longer considered to be part of a EUI-48 address. For NAA 5 format, this leaves 9 contiguous nibbles for a vendor-defined value. This is the same format used by the companion NAA 6 format, the only difference being a 16-byte number space is assumed, rather than an 8-byte number space. This leaves a total of 25 contiguous nibbles for vendor-defined values.\n\"Mapped EUI-64\" formats manage to fit an EUI-64 address into an 8-byte WWN. Since the NAA is mandatory, and takes up a nibble, this represents a four-bit deficit. These four bits are recouped through the following tricks: First, two bits are stolen from the NAA by allocating NAAs 12, 13, 14, and 15 to all refer to the same format. Second, the remaining two bits are recouped by omitting the U/L and multicast bits from the EUI-64's OUI. When reconstructing the embedded EUI-64 value, the U/L and multicast bits are assumed to have carried zero values.","title":"Formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"MAC address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"WWN addresses are predominantly represented as colon separated hexadecimal octets, MSB-first, with leading zeros — similar to Ethernet's MAC address. However, there is much variance between vendors.[4]","title":"Presentation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fstab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fstab"}],"text":"Linux uses WWN to identify disks by providing symbolic links to the real device entry:ls -l /dev/disk/by-id/\n[…]\nlrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 9 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x5002e10000000000 -> ../../sr0\nlrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 9 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21 -> ../../sda\nlrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21-part1 -> ../../sda1\nlrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21-part2 -> ../../sda2\nlrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 10 Jul 4 22:00 wwn-0x500277a4100c4e21-part3 -> ../../sda3(There are more entries in this directory which are omitted here)The target names (sr0, sda) might change when new devices are added to the computer (e.g. sda might become sdb) but the WWN will be the same. That is an advantage when the WWNs are used in configuration files and scripts, e.g., /etc/fstab.","title":"Example usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"There are various ways how to find WWN information.[5]Regardless of HBA type, below commands can be used to find WWN number information.","title":"How to Find WWN Information in Linux"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Method 1","text":"# cat /sys/class/fc_host/host*/port_name\n\n0x10000090fa2537d6\n\n0x10000090fa253a29","title":"How to Find WWN Information in Linux"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Method 2 : using syminq command","text":"If EMC Storage is being used so there is a chance you must have SYMCLI software installed. syminq comes with SYSCLI. syminq is also helpful in getting WWN in easy way.[root@server]# syminq hba\nHost Name : server\nHBA Type : FibreChannel\nHBA Name : Emulex-LPe11000-E-2\nVendor : Emulex Corporation\nModel : LPe11000-E\nSerial Number : BT01473025\nFirmware Version : 2.72A2 (Z3D2.72A2), sli-3\nDriver Version : 8.2.0.63.3p; HBAAPI(I) v2.1.g, 12-07-07\nNode WWN : 20000000c9b0513a\nNumber of Ports : 1\nPort WWN : 10000000c9b0513a\nPort name : /sys/class/scsi_host/host3\nPort type : NPort\nPort FCID : 2764032\nPort speed : 4gbit\nSupported speed : 4gbit\nPort state : Online\nSupported COS : 00000008\nSupported FC4 types : 0000010000000001000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000\nActive FC4 types : 0000010000000001000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000\nMax frame size : 2048","title":"How to Find WWN Information in Linux"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Method 3 : using hbacmd command","text":"It will work if hbanyware package is installed.[root@server]# /usr/sbin/hbanyware/hbacmd listHBAs\nManageable HBA List\nPort WWN : 10:00:00:00:c9:b0:55:2e\nNode WWN : 20:00:00:00:c9:b0:55:2e\nFabric Name: 10:00:50:eb:1a:5f:c7:0c\nFlags : 8000fe00\nHost Name : server\nMfg : Emulex Corporation\nSerial No. : BT01474056\nPort Number: n/a\nMode : Initiator\nPort WWN : 10:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32\nNode WWN : 20:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32\nFabric Name: 10:00:50:eb:1a:5f:bd:0c\nFlags : 8000fe00\nHost Name : server\nMfg : Emulex Corporation\nSerial No. : BT01472998\nPort Number: n/a\nMode : Initiator\n[root@server]#","title":"How to Find WWN Information in Linux"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Method 4 : using systool command","text":"systool utility comes with Linux distros. If it is not available it can be installed on servers where HBA is already installed.# systool -c fc_host -v\n(output trimmed for clarity)\n Class Device path = \"/sys/class/fc_host/host8\" port_name = \"10:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32\" node_name = \"20:00:00:00:c9:b0:51:32\"","title":"How to Find WWN Information in Linux"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE organization's Public Manufacturers OUI list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//standards-oui.ieee.org/"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//regauth.standards.ieee.org/standards-ra-web/pub/view.html#registries"},{"link_name":"ATTO Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATTO_Technology"},{"link_name":"Brocade Communications Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems"},{"link_name":"Brocade Communications Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems"},{"link_name":"Brocade Communications Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems"},{"link_name":"Brocade Communications Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocade_Communications_Systems"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco"},{"link_name":"Dell, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Dell, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell,_Inc."},{"link_name":"DDRdrive LLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ddrdrive.com/"},{"link_name":"EMC Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"EMC Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"EMC Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"EMC Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Emulex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulex"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Compaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"HGST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HGST"},{"link_name":"Hitachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"NetApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetApp"},{"link_name":"Pure Storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_Storage"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"QLogic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QLogic"},{"link_name":"HBAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_adapter"},{"link_name":"QLogic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QLogic"},{"link_name":"HBAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_adapter"},{"link_name":"QLogic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QLogic"},{"link_name":"FC switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_switch"},{"link_name":"QLogic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QLogic"},{"link_name":"QLogic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QLogic"},{"link_name":"Samsung Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Electronics"},{"link_name":"solid-state drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"SanDisk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SanDisk"},{"link_name":"SanDisk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SanDisk"},{"link_name":"Seagate Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate_Technology"},{"link_name":"Symbios Logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbios_Logic"},{"link_name":"Tegile Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegile_Systems"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"Western Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Digital"},{"link_name":"EMC Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Xyratex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xyratex"},{"link_name":"Infinidat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinidat"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"}],"text":"OUIs can be queried searching the IEEE organization's Public Manufacturers OUI list. OUIs can also be queried by searching IEEE Standards Registration authority [1].00:10:86 ATTO Technology\n00:60:69 Brocade Communications Systems\n00:05:1E Brocade Communications Systems, acquired with Rhapsody Networks\n00:60:DF Brocade Communications Systems, acquired with CNT Technologies Corporation\n08:00:88 Brocade Communications Systems, acquired with McDATA Corporation. WWIDs begin with 1000.080\n00:05:30 Cisco\n00:05:73 Cisco\n00:05:9B Cisco\n00:0D:31 Dell, Inc., for Dell Compellent Storage products\n00:01:E8 Dell, Inc., for Dell Force10 Networking Products\n00:23:29 DDRdrive LLC, for DDRdrive X1\n00:60:16 EMC Corporation, for CLARiiON/VNX\n00:60:48 EMC Corporation, for Symmetrix DMX\n00:00:97 EMC Corporation, for Symmetrix VMAX\n00:01:44 EMC Corporation, for VPLEX\n00:00:C9 Emulex\n00:60:B0 Hewlett-Packard - Integrity and HP9000 servers. WWIDs begin with 5006.0b0\n00:11:0A Hewlett-Packard - ProLiant servers. Formerly Compaq. WWIDs begin with 5001.10a\n00:01:FE Hewlett-Packard - EVA disk arrays. Formerly Digital Equipment Corporation. WWIDs begin with 5000.1fe1 or 6000.1fe1\n00:17:A4 Hewlett-Packard - MSL tape libraries. Formerly Global Data Services. WWIDs begin with 200x.0017.a4\n00:0C:CA HGST, a Western Digital Company\n00:60:E8 Hitachi\n00:50:76 IBM\n00:17:38 IBM, formerly XIV.\n00:15:17 Intel\n00:A0:98 NetApp\n24:A9:37 Pure Storage[6]\n00:E0:8B QLogic HBAs, original identifier space\n00:1B:32 QLogic HBAs. new identifier space starting to be used in 2007\n00:C0:DD QLogic FC switches\n00:90:66 QLogic formerly Troika Networks\n00:11:75 QLogic formerly PathScale, Inc\n00:25:38 Samsung Electronics, for solid-state drive\n00:1B:44 SanDisk\n00:1E:82 SanDisk\n00:0C:50 Seagate Technology\n00:A0:B8 Symbios Logic\n1C:5A:0B Tegile Systems\n00:00:39 Toshiba\n00:14:EE Western Digital\n14:F0:C5 Xtremio (EMC Corporation)\n00:50:CC Xyratex\n57:42:B0 Infinidat, For infinibox\n00:24:E9 Samsung","title":"List of OUIs commonly seen as WWN Company Identifiers"}] | [] | [{"title":"Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Technology_Attachment"},{"title":"Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel"},{"title":"Mass Storage Control Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_Storage_Control_Protocol"},{"title":"Persistent binding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_binding"},{"title":"Serial Attached SCSI (SAS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Attached_SCSI"},{"title":"Switched fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_fabric"},{"title":"World Wide Port Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Port_Name"}] | [{"reference":"\"lsscsi(8) — lsscsi — Debian testing\". manpages.debian.org. Retrieved 2020-09-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://manpages.debian.org/testing/lsscsi/lsscsi.8.en.html.gz","url_text":"\"lsscsi(8) — lsscsi — Debian testing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Guidelines for Use of Extended Unique Identifier (EUI), Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI), and Company ID (CID)\" (PDF). IEEE Standards Association. IEEE. Retrieved 5 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://standards.ieee.org/content/dam/ieee-standards/standards/web/documents/tutorials/eui.pdf","url_text":"\"Guidelines for Use of Extended Unique Identifier (EUI), Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI), and Company ID (CID)\""}]},{"reference":"IEEE. \"Guidelines for Fibre Channel Use of the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://standards.ieee.org/content/dam/ieee-standards/standards/web/documents/tutorials/fibre.pdf","url_text":"\"Guidelines for Fibre Channel Use of the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)\""}]},{"reference":"Richard Butler. \"WWN Notes v1.3\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-09-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130918100626/https://community.emc.com/servlet/JiveServlet/previewBody/5136-102-1-18154/WWN_Notes_v1.3.pdf","url_text":"\"WWN Notes v1.3\""},{"url":"https://community.emc.com/servlet/JiveServlet/previewBody/5136-102-1-18154/WWN_Notes_v1.3.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Raj Rai (16 October 2019). \"How to Find WWN Number Information in Linux\". nixDrafts. Retrieved 29 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://rsydigitalworld.com/how-to-find-wwn-number-information-in-linux/","url_text":"\"How to Find WWN Number Information in Linux\""}]},{"reference":"\"VMFS Snapshots and the FlashArray Part IV: How to correlate a VMFS to a FlashArray volume\". 25 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.codyhosterman.com/2016/01/vmfs-snapshots-and-the-flasharray-part-iv-how-to-correlate-a-vmfs-to-a-flasharray-volume/","url_text":"\"VMFS Snapshots and the FlashArray Part IV: How to correlate a VMFS to a FlashArray volume\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World_Wide_Name&action=edit","external_links_name":"rewrite the content"},{"Link":"https://standards-oui.ieee.org/","external_links_name":"IEEE organization's Public Manufacturers OUI list"},{"Link":"https://regauth.standards.ieee.org/standards-ra-web/pub/view.html#registries","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://www.ddrdrive.com/","external_links_name":"DDRdrive LLC"},{"Link":"http://standards-oui.ieee.org/oui.txt","external_links_name":"IEEE OUI list"},{"Link":"https://manpages.debian.org/testing/lsscsi/lsscsi.8.en.html.gz","external_links_name":"\"lsscsi(8) — lsscsi — Debian testing\""},{"Link":"https://standards.ieee.org/content/dam/ieee-standards/standards/web/documents/tutorials/eui.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Guidelines for Use of Extended Unique Identifier (EUI), Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI), and Company ID (CID)\""},{"Link":"https://standards.ieee.org/content/dam/ieee-standards/standards/web/documents/tutorials/fibre.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Guidelines for Fibre Channel Use of the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130918100626/https://community.emc.com/servlet/JiveServlet/previewBody/5136-102-1-18154/WWN_Notes_v1.3.pdf","external_links_name":"\"WWN Notes v1.3\""},{"Link":"https://community.emc.com/servlet/JiveServlet/previewBody/5136-102-1-18154/WWN_Notes_v1.3.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://rsydigitalworld.com/how-to-find-wwn-number-information-in-linux/","external_links_name":"\"How to Find WWN Number Information in Linux\""},{"Link":"https://www.codyhosterman.com/2016/01/vmfs-snapshots-and-the-flasharray-part-iv-how-to-correlate-a-vmfs-to-a-flasharray-volume/","external_links_name":"\"VMFS Snapshots and the FlashArray Part IV: How to correlate a VMFS to a FlashArray volume\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_World_Congress | Mobile World Congress | ["1 History","2 International editions","3 Gallery","4 References","5 External links"] | "3GSM" redirects here. Not to be confused with UMTS.
Mobile industry exhibition
MWC BarcelonaEntrance of MWC Barcelona 2019StatusActiveGenreMobile communicationsDate(s)26 February – 29 February 2024VenueFira de Barcelona Gran ViaLocation(s)BarcelonaCountrySpainInaugurated1987; 37 years ago (1987) (as GSM World Congress)Attendance109,500 (2019)Organised byGSMAWebsitewww.mwcbarcelona.com
MWC Barcelona (formerly but still commonly referred to as Mobile World Congress) is an annual trade show dedicated to the mobile communications industry.
The event is held in Barcelona, Spain, at the Fira de Barcelona Gran Via, usually in February or early March. It is attended primarily by device manufacturers, network equipment providers, representatives of wireless carriers, and the press, among others. Its annual attendance is generally around 100,000 people, while mobile phone manufacturers often use the conference to unveil upcoming devices.
The event is organised by the GSM Association (GSMA). GSMA has extended the MWC brand to three other trade shows in Shanghai, China (MWC Shanghai), Kigali, Rwanda (MWC Kigali, formerly MWC Africa) and Las Vegas, United States (MWC Las Vegas, formerly MWC Los Angeles), but the brand remains most synonymous with the Barcelona event.
History
3GSM World Congress 2003 in Cannes, France
The name of the event has evolved over the years. The event's origin traces back to a business conference on "Pan Europe Digital Cellular Radio" (the original working name of the GSM mobile system) held in Brussels in 1987.
The name "GSM World Congress" was first used in 1990 when the event was held in Rome. For the next few years, the event moved to a new city each time, passing through Nice, Berlin, Lisbon, Athens, and Madrid, before setting in 1996 in Cannes. The event was held in Cannes for ten consecutive years, with the name evolving to 3GSM World Congress from 2003.
In 2006, the event moved to Barcelona, held at the Fira de Barcelona Montjuïc. In 2008 the GSM Association, which had been formed in 1996 and had taken an increasing interest in the event, completed the purchase of the show with the name changing to Mobile World Congress for the first time. The GSMA endorsed the International Mobile Gaming Awards in 2008, which were held at the event from then until 2012. In 2011, GSMA announced a long-term deal to continue hosting the event in Barcelona through 2023.
Starting in 2013, Mobile World Congress has been held at the Fira de Barcelona Gran Via.
In February 2020, a large number of vendors announced plans to withdraw from the then-upcoming show, tentatively scheduled for 24–27 February, due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic (magnified by the strong Chinese presence in the telecom industry). This included major vendors and operators such as Deutsche Telekom, Ericsson, Intel, LG, Nokia, STMicroelectronics, Vivo, and Vodafone. On 11 February 2020, it was reported that GSMA was considering cancelling the event entirely; health measures were already to be instituted, including a requirement for Chinese attendees to undergo a two-week quarantine prior to the event, as well as body temperature checks of attendees. Chinese vendor Huawei, as well as Samsung, announced plans to remain with a reduced presence, with Huawei primarily sending its European executives only. On 12 February 2020, GSMA CEO John Hoffman announced that MWC 2020 had been cancelled, stating that the event had become "impossible" to host under these conditions.
In April 2020, it was announced that Barcelona will continue hosting the event until 2024 as a consequence of cancellation of MWC 2020.
On 23 September 2020, due to the potential of COVID-19 to affect the 2021 event, the GSMA announced that it would postpone the Mobile World Congress Barcelona to the last week of June.
On 17 March 2021, GSMA stated the 2021 edition would still proceed with a controlled maximum number of 50,000 attendees. At least 10 large exhibitors announced their withdrawal, including Ericsson, Nokia, Facebook, Sony and Cisco. BT was the first Tier 1 telco to announce their withdrawal.
In 2022, from 28 February to 3 March, the Mobile World Congress took place. The mobile technology convention anticipated over 1,800 attendees and exhibitors from 183 countries. All participants were required to have a PCR test or vaccination certificate to take part in congress. At the 2023 Mobile World Congress, companies including Huawei and Qualcomm discussed the future of 5G-Advanced, or 5.5G technology.
At the 2024 Mobile World Congress, Lenovo unveiled the world's first transparent laptop.
International editions
In 2015, GSMA's Mobile Asia Expo was renamed Mobile World Congress Shanghai.
In 2016, CTIA announced a partnership with GSMA to replace its annual Super Mobility trade show for the U.S. wireless industry with Mobile World Congress Americas, beginning 2017. The event was first held in San Francisco, before moving to Los Angeles for 2018.
Gallery
GSMA Mobile World Congress 2009, held in Fira de Barcelona Montjuïc
Samsung Gear VR during Mobile World Congress 2016
Shane Smith of Vice Media during Mobile World Congress 2017
Exhibition floor of MWC Barcelona 2019
Demonstration of a female humanoid during MWC Barcelona 2019
Opening of MWC Barcelona 2019
GSMA Mobile World Congress 2021
GSMA Mobile World Congress 2021
GSMA Mobile World Congress 2021
GSMA Mobile World Congress 2021
GSMA Mobile World Congress 2021
References
^ Alleven, Monica (1 March 2018). "GSMA wraps 'hugely successful' MWC18 despite fewer attendees than expected". FierceWireless. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
^ "MWC Shanghai 2022 | Connectivity Unleashed". MWC Shanghai 2022 | Connectivity Unleashed. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
^ Elliott, Phil (25 February 2008). "Fun and games in Barcelona". GamesIndustry.biz. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
^ Takahashi, Dean (20 February 2015). "How mobile gaming has evolved, as seen through prism of its global awards (interview)". VentureBeat. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
^ "MWC staying in Barcelona until at least 2023 - GSMA CEO". Telecompaper. 23 January 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Singh, Manish (12 February 2020). "MWC hangs by a thread after Nokia, DT and other big names back out". TechCrunch. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Kleinman, Zoe (11 February 2020). "Coronavirus: Facebook and Intel ditch MWC tech show". BBC News. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Tibken, Shara. "Samsung pares back MWC presence on coronavirus concerns". CNET. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Warren, Tom (12 February 2020). "The world's biggest phone show has been canceled due to coronavirus concerns". The Verge. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Hughes, Matthew (16 April 2020). "The bane of Spain comes mainly on the plane. Good luck Barcelona: You've bagged the MWC contract again". The Register. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
^ "GSMA Delays MWC Barcelona 2021". IoT Times. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
^ "Barcelona will have to wait for MWC 2021". Cities of the Future. 24 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.
^ McCarthy, Kieren (18 February 2021). "Mobile World Congress to run this year's Barcelona event in June with 50,000 attendees. We're speechless". The Register. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
^ "Cisco Axes MWC Barcelona Attendance". sdx central.
^ Morris, Iain (12 March 2021). "BT becomes first big telco to pull out of MWC21". Light Reading. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
^ Shakir, Umar (24 February 2022). "MWC 2022: all the phones and announcements coming out of Barcelona". The Verge. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
^ Fernández@davidjfernandz, David (10 February 2022). "El Mobile World Congress recupera parte de la normalidad perdida". La Razón (in Spanish). Retrieved 27 February 2022.
^ Intelligence, GSMA (3 March 2023). "Intelligence Brief: What did we learn about 5G-Advanced at MWC23?". Mobile World Live.
^ "Peering through Lenovo's transparent laptop into a sci-fi future". The Verge. 26 February 2024.
^ "Lenovo's Project Crystal Is a Concept Laptop With a Transparent Display". Wired. 26 February 2024.
^ "Lenovo Just Unveiled the World's First Transparent Laptop". Robb Report. 27 February 2024.
^ Zaharov-Reutt, Alex (15 July 2015). "Mobile World Congress Shanghai 2015 starts today thru 17 July". iTWire. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Segan, Sascha (22 June 2016). "CTIA, the US Mobile Show, Becomes MWC Americas". PC Magazine. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Notwell, Lindsay (21 September 2018). "Top 3 Takeaways from the 2018 Mobile World Congress Americas". Network Computing. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mobile World Congress.
MWC Barcelona
MWC Shanghai
MWC Kigali
MWC Las Vegas | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UMTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UMTS"},{"link_name":"trade show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_fair"},{"link_name":"mobile communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Fira de Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fira_de_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"network equipment providers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_equipment_provider"},{"link_name":"wireless carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_carrier"},{"link_name":"mobile phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"GSM Association (GSMA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_Association"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Kigali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kigali"},{"link_name":"Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas"}],"text":"\"3GSM\" redirects here. Not to be confused with UMTS.Mobile industry exhibitionMWC Barcelona (formerly but still commonly referred to as Mobile World Congress) is an annual trade show dedicated to the mobile communications industry.The event is held in Barcelona, Spain, at the Fira de Barcelona Gran Via, usually in February or early March. It is attended primarily by device manufacturers, network equipment providers, representatives of wireless carriers, and the press, among others. Its annual attendance is generally around 100,000 people, while mobile phone manufacturers often use the conference to unveil upcoming devices.[1]The event is organised by the GSM Association (GSMA). GSMA has extended the MWC brand to three other trade shows in Shanghai, China (MWC Shanghai[2]), Kigali, Rwanda (MWC Kigali, formerly MWC Africa) and Las Vegas, United States (MWC Las Vegas, formerly MWC Los Angeles), but the brand remains most synonymous with the Barcelona event.","title":"Mobile World Congress"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3GSM_World_Congress_2003_(Cannes,_France).jpg"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice"},{"link_name":"Cannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes"},{"link_name":"International Mobile Gaming Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Mobile_Gaming_Awards"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Telekom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Telekom"},{"link_name":"Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ericsson"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"LG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LG_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"STMicroelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STMicroelectronics"},{"link_name":"Vivo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivo_(technology_company)"},{"link_name":"Vodafone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodafone"},{"link_name":"Huawei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ericsson"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_Systems"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"BT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BT_Group"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Huawei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei"},{"link_name":"Qualcomm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualcomm"},{"link_name":"5G-Advanced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G-Advanced"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Lenovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"3GSM World Congress 2003 in Cannes, FranceThe name of the event has evolved over the years. The event's origin traces back to a business conference on \"Pan Europe Digital Cellular Radio\" (the original working name of the GSM mobile system) held in Brussels in 1987.The name \"GSM World Congress\" was first used in 1990 when the event was held in Rome. For the next few years, the event moved to a new city each time, passing through Nice, Berlin, Lisbon, Athens, and Madrid, before setting in 1996 in Cannes. The event was held in Cannes for ten consecutive years, with the name evolving to 3GSM World Congress from 2003.In 2006, the event moved to Barcelona, held at the Fira de Barcelona Montjuïc. In 2008 the GSM Association, which had been formed in 1996 and had taken an increasing interest in the event, completed the purchase of the show with the name changing to Mobile World Congress for the first time. The GSMA endorsed the International Mobile Gaming Awards in 2008, which were held at the event from then until 2012.[3][4] In 2011, GSMA announced a long-term deal to continue hosting the event in Barcelona through 2023.[5]Starting in 2013, Mobile World Congress has been held at the Fira de Barcelona Gran Via.In February 2020, a large number of vendors announced plans to withdraw from the then-upcoming show, tentatively scheduled for 24–27 February, due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic (magnified by the strong Chinese presence in the telecom industry). This included major vendors and operators such as Deutsche Telekom, Ericsson, Intel, LG, Nokia, STMicroelectronics, Vivo, and Vodafone. On 11 February 2020, it was reported that GSMA was considering cancelling the event entirely; health measures were already to be instituted, including a requirement for Chinese attendees to undergo a two-week quarantine prior to the event, as well as body temperature checks of attendees. Chinese vendor Huawei, as well as Samsung, announced plans to remain with a reduced presence, with Huawei primarily sending its European executives only.[6][7][8] On 12 February 2020, GSMA CEO John Hoffman announced that MWC 2020 had been cancelled, stating that the event had become \"impossible\" to host under these conditions.[9]In April 2020, it was announced that Barcelona will continue hosting the event until 2024 as a consequence of cancellation of MWC 2020.[10]On 23 September 2020, due to the potential of COVID-19 to affect the 2021 event, the GSMA announced that it would postpone the Mobile World Congress Barcelona to the last week of June.[11][12]On 17 March 2021, GSMA stated the 2021 edition would still proceed with a controlled maximum number of 50,000 attendees.[13] At least 10 large exhibitors announced their withdrawal, including Ericsson, Nokia, Facebook, Sony and Cisco.[14] BT was the first Tier 1 telco to announce their withdrawal.[15]In 2022, from 28 February to 3 March, the Mobile World Congress took place. The mobile technology convention anticipated over 1,800 attendees and exhibitors from 183 countries.[16] All participants were required to have a PCR test or vaccination certificate to take part in congress.[17] At the 2023 Mobile World Congress, companies including Huawei and Qualcomm discussed the future of 5G-Advanced, or 5.5G technology.[18]At the 2024 Mobile World Congress, Lenovo unveiled the world's first transparent laptop.[19][20][21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"CTIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTIA_(organization)"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"In 2015, GSMA's Mobile Asia Expo was renamed Mobile World Congress Shanghai.[22]In 2016, CTIA announced a partnership with GSMA to replace its annual Super Mobility trade show for the U.S. wireless industry with Mobile World Congress Americas, beginning 2017. The event was first held in San Francisco, before moving to Los Angeles for 2018.[23][24]","title":"International editions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mobile_world_congress_09.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samsung%27s_Virtual_Reality_MWC_2016_Press_Conference_(26666393696).jpg"},{"link_name":"Samsung Gear VR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Gear_VR"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ShaneSmith2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"Shane Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Smith_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"Vice Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC_2019_(46487932494).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC_2019_(40254120163).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S%C3%A1nchez_asiste_a_la_inauguraci%C3%B3n_del_Mobile_World_Congress_06.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC21_-_18.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC21_-_25.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC21_-_33.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC21_-_42.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MWC21_-_56.jpg"}],"text":"GSMA Mobile World Congress 2009, held in Fira de Barcelona Montjuïc\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSamsung Gear VR during Mobile World Congress 2016\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShane Smith of Vice Media during Mobile World Congress 2017\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tExhibition floor of MWC Barcelona 2019\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDemonstration of a female humanoid during MWC Barcelona 2019\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOpening of MWC Barcelona 2019\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGSMA Mobile World Congress 2021\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGSMA Mobile World Congress 2021\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGSMA Mobile World Congress 2021\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGSMA Mobile World Congress 2021\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGSMA Mobile World Congress 2021","title":"Gallery"}] | [{"image_text":"3GSM World Congress 2003 in Cannes, France","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/3GSM_World_Congress_2003_%28Cannes%2C_France%29.jpg/220px-3GSM_World_Congress_2003_%28Cannes%2C_France%29.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Alleven, Monica (1 March 2018). \"GSMA wraps 'hugely successful' MWC18 despite fewer attendees than expected\". FierceWireless. Retrieved 30 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fiercewireless.com/wireless/gsma-wraps-hugely-successful-mwc18-despite-fewer-attendees-than-expected","url_text":"\"GSMA wraps 'hugely successful' MWC18 despite fewer attendees than expected\""}]},{"reference":"\"MWC Shanghai 2022 | Connectivity Unleashed\". MWC Shanghai 2022 | Connectivity Unleashed. Retrieved 17 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mwcshanghai.com/","url_text":"\"MWC Shanghai 2022 | Connectivity Unleashed\""}]},{"reference":"Elliott, Phil (25 February 2008). \"Fun and games in Barcelona\". GamesIndustry.biz. Retrieved 2 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/fun-and-games-in-barcelona","url_text":"\"Fun and games in Barcelona\""}]},{"reference":"Takahashi, Dean (20 February 2015). \"How mobile gaming has evolved, as seen through prism of its global awards (interview)\". VentureBeat. Retrieved 2 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2015/02/20/how-mobile-gaming-has-evolved-as-seen-through-prism-of-its-global-awards-interview/","url_text":"\"How mobile gaming has evolved, as seen through prism of its global awards (interview)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VentureBeat","url_text":"VentureBeat"}]},{"reference":"\"MWC staying in Barcelona until at least 2023 - GSMA CEO\". Telecompaper. 23 January 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telecompaper.com/news/mwc-staying-in-barcelona-until-at-least-2023-gsma-ceo--1323865","url_text":"\"MWC staying in Barcelona until at least 2023 - GSMA CEO\""}]},{"reference":"Singh, Manish (12 February 2020). \"MWC hangs by a thread after Nokia, DT and other big names back out\". TechCrunch. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techcrunch.com/2020/02/12/nokia-pulls-out-of-mwc-over-coronavirus-concerns/","url_text":"\"MWC hangs by a thread after Nokia, DT and other big names back out\""}]},{"reference":"Kleinman, Zoe (11 February 2020). \"Coronavirus: Facebook and Intel ditch MWC tech show\". BBC News. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51458997","url_text":"\"Coronavirus: Facebook and Intel ditch MWC tech show\""}]},{"reference":"Tibken, Shara. \"Samsung pares back MWC presence on coronavirus concerns\". CNET. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-pares-back-mwc-presence-on-coronavirus-concerns/","url_text":"\"Samsung pares back MWC presence on coronavirus concerns\""}]},{"reference":"Warren, Tom (12 February 2020). \"The world's biggest phone show has been canceled due to coronavirus concerns\". The Verge. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/12/21127754/mwc-2020-canceled-coronavirus-trade-show-phone-mobile-world-congress-gsma-statement","url_text":"\"The world's biggest phone show has been canceled due to coronavirus concerns\""}]},{"reference":"Hughes, Matthew (16 April 2020). \"The bane of Spain comes mainly on the plane. Good luck Barcelona: You've bagged the MWC contract again\". The Register. Retrieved 5 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2020/04/16/gsma_extends_mwc_contract/","url_text":"\"The bane of Spain comes mainly on the plane. Good luck Barcelona: You've bagged the MWC contract again\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Register","url_text":"The Register"}]},{"reference":"\"GSMA Delays MWC Barcelona 2021\". IoT Times. Retrieved 24 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://iot.eetimes.com/gsma-delays-mwc-barcelona-2021/","url_text":"\"GSMA Delays MWC Barcelona 2021\""}]},{"reference":"\"Barcelona will have to wait for MWC 2021\". Cities of the Future. 24 September 2020. Retrieved 24 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://citiesofthefuture.eu/barcelona-will-have-to-wait-for-mwc-2021/","url_text":"\"Barcelona will have to wait for MWC 2021\""}]},{"reference":"McCarthy, Kieren (18 February 2021). \"Mobile World Congress to run this year's Barcelona event in June with 50,000 attendees. We're speechless\". The Register. Retrieved 5 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2021/02/18/mobile_world_congress/","url_text":"\"Mobile World Congress to run this year's Barcelona event in June with 50,000 attendees. We're speechless\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Register","url_text":"The Register"}]},{"reference":"\"Cisco Axes MWC Barcelona Attendance\". sdx central.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sdxcentral.com/articles/news/cisco-axes-mwc-barcelona-attendance/2021/03","url_text":"\"Cisco Axes MWC Barcelona Attendance\""}]},{"reference":"Morris, Iain (12 March 2021). \"BT becomes first big telco to pull out of MWC21\". Light Reading. Retrieved 23 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lightreading.com/5g/bt-becomes-first-big-telco-to-pull-out-of-mwc21/d/d-id/768041","url_text":"\"BT becomes first big telco to pull out of MWC21\""}]},{"reference":"Shakir, Umar (24 February 2022). \"MWC 2022: all the phones and announcements coming out of Barcelona\". The Verge. Retrieved 27 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2022/2/24/22949007/mwc-barcelona-2022-news-rumors-products-annoucements","url_text":"\"MWC 2022: all the phones and announcements coming out of Barcelona\""}]},{"reference":"Fernández@davidjfernandz, David (10 February 2022). \"El Mobile World Congress recupera parte de la normalidad perdida\". La Razón (in Spanish). Retrieved 27 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.larazon.es/cataluna/20220210/djseet2up5gkbayry6dl2ddsfm.html","url_text":"\"El Mobile World Congress recupera parte de la normalidad perdida\""}]},{"reference":"Intelligence, GSMA (3 March 2023). \"Intelligence Brief: What did we learn about 5G-Advanced at MWC23?\". Mobile World Live.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mobileworldlive.com/blog/intelligence-brief-what-did-we-learn-about-5g-advanced-at-mwc23/","url_text":"\"Intelligence Brief: What did we learn about 5G-Advanced at MWC23?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Peering through Lenovo's transparent laptop into a sci-fi future\". The Verge. 26 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/24082244/lenovo-concept-transparent-laptop-mwc-2024-drawing-tablet","url_text":"\"Peering through Lenovo's transparent laptop into a sci-fi future\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lenovo's Project Crystal Is a Concept Laptop With a Transparent Display\". Wired. 26 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/story/lenovo-project-crystal-transparent-laptop-mwc-2024/","url_text":"\"Lenovo's Project Crystal Is a Concept Laptop With a Transparent Display\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lenovo Just Unveiled the World's First Transparent Laptop\". Robb Report. 27 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://robbreport.com/gear/electronics/lenovo-transparent-laptop-1235525793/","url_text":"\"Lenovo Just Unveiled the World's First Transparent Laptop\""}]},{"reference":"Zaharov-Reutt, Alex (15 July 2015). \"Mobile World Congress Shanghai 2015 starts today thru 17 July\". iTWire. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itwire.com/telecoms-and-nbn/mobile-world-congress-shanghai-2015-starts-today-thru-17-july.html","url_text":"\"Mobile World Congress Shanghai 2015 starts today thru 17 July\""}]},{"reference":"Segan, Sascha (22 June 2016). \"CTIA, the US Mobile Show, Becomes MWC Americas\". PC Magazine. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/news/ctia-the-us-mobile-show-becomes-mwc-americas","url_text":"\"CTIA, the US Mobile Show, Becomes MWC Americas\""}]},{"reference":"Notwell, Lindsay (21 September 2018). \"Top 3 Takeaways from the 2018 Mobile World Congress Americas\". Network Computing. Retrieved 12 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.networkcomputing.com/wireless-infrastructure/top-3-takeaways-2018-mobile-world-congress-americas","url_text":"\"Top 3 Takeaways from the 2018 Mobile World Congress Americas\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.mwcbarcelona.com/","external_links_name":"www.mwcbarcelona.com"},{"Link":"https://www.fiercewireless.com/wireless/gsma-wraps-hugely-successful-mwc18-despite-fewer-attendees-than-expected","external_links_name":"\"GSMA wraps 'hugely successful' MWC18 despite fewer attendees than expected\""},{"Link":"https://www.mwcshanghai.com/","external_links_name":"\"MWC Shanghai 2022 | Connectivity Unleashed\""},{"Link":"https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/fun-and-games-in-barcelona","external_links_name":"\"Fun and games in Barcelona\""},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2015/02/20/how-mobile-gaming-has-evolved-as-seen-through-prism-of-its-global-awards-interview/","external_links_name":"\"How mobile gaming has evolved, as seen through prism of its global awards (interview)\""},{"Link":"https://www.telecompaper.com/news/mwc-staying-in-barcelona-until-at-least-2023-gsma-ceo--1323865","external_links_name":"\"MWC staying in Barcelona until at least 2023 - GSMA CEO\""},{"Link":"https://www.techcrunch.com/2020/02/12/nokia-pulls-out-of-mwc-over-coronavirus-concerns/","external_links_name":"\"MWC hangs by a thread after Nokia, DT and other big names back out\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-51458997","external_links_name":"\"Coronavirus: Facebook and Intel ditch MWC tech show\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnet.com/news/samsung-pares-back-mwc-presence-on-coronavirus-concerns/","external_links_name":"\"Samsung pares back MWC presence on coronavirus concerns\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/12/21127754/mwc-2020-canceled-coronavirus-trade-show-phone-mobile-world-congress-gsma-statement","external_links_name":"\"The world's biggest phone show has been canceled due to coronavirus concerns\""},{"Link":"https://www.theregister.com/2020/04/16/gsma_extends_mwc_contract/","external_links_name":"\"The bane of Spain comes mainly on the plane. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_reference_system | Inertial navigation system | ["1 Design","2 Uses","3 Drift rate","4 History","4.1 Guidance in human spaceflight","4.2 Early use in aircraft inertial guidance","5 Details","6 Basic schemes","6.1 Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms","6.2 Fluid-suspended gyrostabilized platforms","6.3 Strapdown systems","6.4 Motion-based alignment","6.5 Vibrating gyros","6.6 Hemispherical resonator gyros","6.7 Quartz rate sensors","6.8 MHD sensor","6.9 MEMS gyroscope","6.10 Ring Laser Gyros","6.11 Fiber optic gyros","6.12 Pendular accelerometers","6.13 TIMU sensors","7 Method","8 See also","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"] | Continuously computed dead reckoning
This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (September 2023)
A 1950s inertial navigation control developed at MIT
Comparison of accuracy of various navigation systems: the radius of the circle indicates the accuracy. A smaller radius corresponds to a higher accuracy
An inertial navigation system (INS; also inertial guidance system, inertial instrument) is a navigation device that uses motion sensors (accelerometers), rotation sensors (gyroscopes) and a computer to continuously calculate by dead reckoning the position, the orientation, and the velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references. Often the inertial sensors are supplemented by a barometric altimeter and sometimes by magnetic sensors (magnetometers) and/or speed measuring devices. INSs are used on mobile robots and on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous.
Integrals in the time domain implicitly demand a stable and accurate clock for the quantification of elapsed time.
Design
Inertial navigation is a self-contained navigation technique in which measurements provided by accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to track the position and orientation of an object relative to a known starting point, orientation and velocity. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three orthogonal accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device.
An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, or other motion-sensing devices. The INS is initially provided with its position and velocity from another source (a human operator, a GPS satellite receiver, etc.) accompanied with the initial orientation and thereafter computes its own updated position and velocity by integrating information received from the motion sensors. The advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized.
An INS can detect a change in its geographic position (a move east or north, for example), a change in its velocity (speed and direction of movement) and a change in its orientation (rotation about an axis). It does this by measuring the linear acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference (after initialization), it is immune to jamming and deception.
Gyroscopes measure the angular displacement of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the original orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular displacement, the system's current orientation is known at all times. This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up and down as the car ascends or descends hills. Based on this information alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing, but not how fast or slow it is moving, or whether it is sliding sideways.
Accelerometers measure the linear acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame, but in directions that can only be measured relative to the moving system (since the accelerometers are fixed to the system and rotate with the system, but are not aware of their own orientation). This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to feel themself pressed back into their seat as the vehicle accelerates forward or pulled forward as it slows down; and feel themself pressed down into their seat as the vehicle accelerates up a hill or rise up out of their seat as the car passes over the crest of a hill and begins to descend. Based on this information alone, they know how the vehicle is accelerating relative to itself; that is, whether it is accelerating forward, backward, left, right, up (toward the car's ceiling), or down (toward the car's floor), measured relative to the car, but not the direction relative to the Earth, since they did not know what direction the car was facing relative to the Earth when they felt the accelerations.
However, by tracking both the current angular velocity of the system and the current linear acceleration of the system measured relative to the moving system, it is possible to determine the linear acceleration of the system in the inertial reference frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations (using the original velocity as the initial conditions) using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system and integration again (using the original position as the initial condition) yields the inertial position. In our example, if the blindfolded passenger knew how the car was pointed and what its velocity was before they were blindfolded, and if they are able to keep track of both how the car has turned and how it has accelerated and decelerated since, then they can accurately know the current orientation, position, and velocity of the car at any time.
Uses
Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. It is also embedded in some mobile phones for purposes of mobile phone location and tracking. Recent advances in the construction of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have made it possible to manufacture small and light inertial navigation systems. These advances have widened the range of possible applications to include areas such as human and animal motion capture.
Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use.
Drift rate
All inertial navigation systems suffer from integration drift: small errors in the measurement of acceleration and angular velocity are integrated into progressively larger errors in velocity, which are compounded into still greater errors in position.
Since the new position is calculated from the previous calculated position and the measured acceleration and angular velocity, these errors accumulate roughly proportionally to the time since the initial position was input. Even the best accelerometers, with a standard error of 10 micro-g, would accumulate a 50-meter (164-ft) error within 17 minutes. Therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system.
Accordingly, inertial navigation is usually used to supplement other navigation systems, providing a higher degree of accuracy than is possible with the use of any single system. For example, if, in terrestrial use, the inertially tracked velocity is intermittently updated to zero by stopping, the position will remain precise for a much longer time, a so-called zero velocity update. In aerospace particularly, other measurement systems are used to determine INS inaccuracies, e.g. the Honeywell LaseRefV inertial navigation systems uses GPS and air data computer outputs to maintain required navigation performance. The navigation error rises with the lower sensitivity of the sensors used. Currently, devices combining different sensors are being developed, e.g. attitude and heading reference system. Because the navigation error is mainly influenced by the numerical integration of angular rates and accelerations, the Pressure Reference System was developed to use one numerical integration of the angular rate measurements.
Estimation theory in general and Kalman filtering in particular, provide a theoretical framework for combining information from various sensors. One of the most common alternative sensors is a satellite navigation radio such as GPS, which can be used for all kinds of vehicles with direct sky visibility. Indoor applications can use pedometers, distance measurement equipment, or other kinds of position sensors. By properly combining the information from an INS and other systems (GPS), the errors in position and velocity are stable. Furthermore, INS can be used as a short-term fallback while GPS signals are unavailable, for example when a vehicle passes through a tunnel.
In 2011, GPS jamming at the civilian level became a governmental concern. The relative ease in ability to jam these systems has motivated the military to reduce navigation dependence on GPS technology. Because inertial navigation sensors do not depend on radio signals unlike GPS, they cannot be jammed. In 2012, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory reported a method to merge measurements from 10 pairs of MEMS gyroscope and accelerometers (plus occasional GPS), reducing the positional error by two thirds for a projectile. The algorithm can correct for systemic biases in individual sensors, using both GPS and a heuristic based on the gun-firing acceleration force. If one sensor consistently over or underestimates distance, the system can adjust the corrupted sensor's contributions to the final calculation.
History
The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Inertial navigation systems were originally developed for rockets. American rocketry pioneer Robert Goddard experimented with rudimentary gyroscopic systems. Goddard's systems were of great interest to contemporary German pioneers including Wernher von Braun. The systems entered more widespread use with the advent of spacecraft, guided missiles, and commercial airliners.
Early German World War II V2 guidance systems combined two gyroscopes and a lateral accelerometer with a simple analog computer to adjust the azimuth for the rocket in flight. Analog computer signals were used to drive four graphite rudders in the rocket exhaust for flight control. The GN&C (Guidance, Navigation, and Control) system for the V2 provided many innovations as an integrated platform with closed loop guidance. At the end of the war von Braun engineered the surrender of 500 of his top rocket scientists, along with plans and test vehicles, to the Americans. They arrived at Fort Bliss, Texas in 1945 under the provisions of Operation Paperclip and were subsequently moved to Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950 where they worked for U.S. Army rocket research programs.
In the early 1950s, the US government wanted to insulate itself against over-dependency on the German team for military applications, including the development of a fully domestic missile guidance program. The MIT Instrumentation Laboratory (later to become the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.) was chosen by the Air Force Western Development Division to provide a self-contained guidance system backup to Convair in San Diego for the new Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile (Construction and testing were completed by Arma Division of AmBosch Arma). The technical monitor for the MIT task was engineer Jim Fletcher, who later served as NASA Administrator. The Atlas guidance system was to be a combination of an on-board autonomous system and a ground-based tracking and command system. The self-contained system finally prevailed in ballistic missile applications for obvious reasons. In space exploration, a mixture of the two remains.
In the summer of 1952, Dr. Richard Battin and Dr. J. Halcombe "Hal" Laning, Jr., researched computational based solutions to guidance and undertook the initial analytical work on the Atlas inertial guidance in 1954. Other key figures at Convair were Charlie Bossart, the Chief Engineer, and Walter Schweidetzky, head of the guidance group. Schweidetzky had worked with von Braun at Peenemünde during World War II.
The initial Delta guidance system assessed the difference in position from a reference trajectory. A velocity to be gained (VGO) calculation is made to correct the current trajectory with the objective of driving VGO to zero. The mathematics of this approach were fundamentally valid, but dropped because of the challenges in accurate inertial guidance and analog computing power. The challenges faced by the Delta efforts were overcome by the Q system (see Q-guidance) of guidance. The Q system's revolution was to bind the challenges of missile guidance (and associated equations of motion) in the matrix Q. The Q matrix represents the partial derivatives of the velocity with respect to the position vector. A key feature of this approach allowed for the components of the vector cross product (v, xdv, /dt) to be used as the basic autopilot rate signals—a technique that became known as cross-product steering. The Q-system was presented at the first Technical Symposium on Ballistic Missiles held at the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation in Los Angeles on 21 and 22 June 1956. The Q system was classified information through the 1960s. Derivations of this guidance are used for today's missiles.
Guidance in human spaceflight
Apollo IMU
In February 1961 NASA awarded MIT a contract for preliminary design study of a guidance and navigation system for the Apollo program. MIT and the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors Corp. were awarded the joint contract for design and production of the Apollo Guidance and Navigation systems for the Command Module and the Lunar Module. Delco produced the IMUs (Inertial Measurement Units) for these systems, Kollsman Instrument Corp. produced the Optical Systems, and the Apollo Guidance Computer was built by Raytheon under subcontract.
For the Space Shuttle, open loop guidance was used to guide the Shuttle from lift-off until Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation. After SRB separation the primary Space Shuttle guidance is named PEG (Powered Explicit Guidance). PEG takes into account both the Q system and the predictor-corrector attributes of the original "Delta" System (PEG Guidance). Although many updates to the Shuttle's navigation system had taken place over the last 30 years (ex. GPS in the OI-22 build), the guidance core of the Shuttle GN&C system had evolved little. Within a crewed system, there is a human interface needed for the guidance system. As astronauts are the customer for the system, many new teams were formed that touch GN&C as it is a primary interface to "fly" the vehicle.
Early use in aircraft inertial guidance
One example of a popular INS for commercial aircraft was the Delco Carousel, which provided partial automation of navigation in the days before complete flight management systems became commonplace. The Carousel allowed pilots to enter 9 waypoints at a time and then guided the aircraft from one waypoint to the next using an INS to determine aircraft position and velocity. Boeing Corporation subcontracted the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors to design and build the first production Carousel systems for the early models (-100, -200 and -300) of the 747 aircraft. The 747 utilized three Carousel systems operating in concert for reliability purposes. The Carousel system and derivatives thereof were subsequently adopted for use in many other commercial and military aircraft. The USAF C-141 was the first military aircraft to utilize the Carousel in a dual system configuration, followed by the C-5A which utilized the triple INS configuration, similar to the 747. The KC-135A fleet was fitted with a single Carousel IV-E system that could operate as a stand-alone INS or can be aided by the AN/APN-81 or AN/APN-218 Doppler radar. Some special-mission variants of the C-135 were fitted with dual Carousel IV-E INSs. ARINC Characteristic 704 defines the INS used in commercial air transport.
Details
Diagram denoting roll, pitch and yaw axes of an aircraft in flight
Inertial navigation unit of French IRBM S3.
INSs contain Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) which have angular and linear accelerometers (for changes in position); some IMUs include a gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute angular reference).
Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space. Generally, there is at least one sensor for each of the three axes: pitch (nose up and down), yaw (nose left and right) and roll (clockwise or counter-clockwise from the cockpit).
Linear accelerometers measure non-gravitational accelerations of the vehicle. Since it can move in three axes (up and down, left and right, forward and back), there is a linear accelerometer for each axis.
A computer continually calculates the vehicle's current position. First, for each of the six degrees of freedom (x,y,z and θx, θy and θz), it integrates over time the sensed acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, to calculate the current velocity. Then it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position.
Inertial guidance is difficult without computers. The desire to use inertial guidance in the Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers.
Inertial guidance systems are now usually combined with satellite navigation systems through a digital filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the satellite system corrects accumulated errors of the inertial system.
An inertial guidance system that will operate near the surface of the earth must incorporate Schuler tuning so that its platform will continue pointing towards the center of the Earth as a vehicle moves from place to place.
Basic schemes
Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms
Apollo gimballed gyrostabilized platform
Some systems place the linear accelerometers on a gimballed gyrostabilized platform. The gimbals are a set of three rings, each with a pair of bearings initially at right angles. They let the platform twist about any rotational axis (or, rather, they let the platform keep the same orientation while the vehicle rotates around it). There are two gyroscopes (usually) on the platform.
Two gyroscopes are used to cancel gyroscopic precession, the tendency of a gyroscope to twist at right angles to an input torque. By mounting a pair of gyroscopes (of the same rotational inertia and spinning at the same speed in opposite directions) at right angles the precessions are cancelled and the platform will resist twisting.
This system allows a vehicle's roll, pitch and yaw angles to be measured directly at the bearings of the gimbals. Relatively simple electronic circuits can be used to add up the linear accelerations, because the directions of the linear accelerometers do not change.
The big disadvantage of this scheme is that it uses many expensive precision mechanical parts. It also has moving parts that can wear out or jam and is vulnerable to gimbal lock. The primary guidance system of the Apollo spacecraft used a three-axis gyrostabilized platform, feeding data to the Apollo Guidance Computer. Maneuvers had to be carefully planned to avoid gimbal lock.
Fluid-suspended gyrostabilized platforms
Gimbal lock constrains maneuvering and it would be beneficial to eliminate the slip rings and bearings of the gimbals. Therefore, some systems use fluid bearings or a flotation chamber to mount a gyrostabilized platform. These systems can have very high precisions (e.g., Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere). Like all gyrostabilized platforms, this system runs well with relatively slow, low-power computers.
The fluid bearings are pads with holes through which pressurized inert gas (such as helium) or oil presses against the spherical shell of the platform. The fluid bearings are very slippery and the spherical platform can turn freely. There are usually four bearing pads, mounted in a tetrahedral arrangement to support the platform.
In premium systems, the angular sensors are usually specialized transformer coils made in a strip on a flexible printed circuit board. Several coil strips are mounted on great circles around the spherical shell of the gyrostabilized platform. Electronics outside the platform uses similar strip-shaped transformers to read the varying magnetic fields produced by the transformers wrapped around the spherical platform. Whenever a magnetic field changes shape, or moves, it will cut the wires of the coils on the external transformer strips. The cutting generates an electric current in the external strip-shaped coils and electronics can measure that current to derive angles.
Cheap systems sometimes use bar codes to sense orientations and use solar cells or a single transformer to power the platform. Some small missiles have powered the platform with light from a window or optic fibers to the motor. A research topic is to suspend the platform with pressure from exhaust gases. Data is returned to the outside world via the transformers, or sometimes LEDs communicating with external photodiodes.
Strapdown systems
Lightweight digital computers permit the system to eliminate the gimbals, creating strapdown systems, so called because their sensors are simply strapped to the vehicle. This reduces the cost, eliminates gimbal lock, removes the need for some calibrations and increases the reliability by eliminating some of the moving parts. Angular rate sensors called rate gyros measure the angular velocity of the vehicle.
A strapdown system needs a dynamic measurement range several hundred times that required by a gimballed system. That is, it must integrate the vehicle's attitude changes in pitch, roll and yaw, as well as gross movements. Gimballed systems could usually do well with update rates of 50–60 Hz. However, strapdown systems normally update about 2000 Hz. The higher rate is needed to let the navigation system integrate the angular rate into an attitude accurately.
The data updating algorithms (direction cosines or quaternions) involved are too complex to be accurately performed except by digital electronics. However, digital computers are now so inexpensive and fast that rate gyro systems can now be practically used and mass-produced. The Apollo lunar module used a strapdown system in its backup Abort Guidance System (AGS).
Strapdown systems are nowadays commonly used in commercial and military applications (aircraft, ships, ROVs, missiles, etc.). State-of-the-art strapdown systems are based upon Ring Laser Gyroscopes, Fibre Optic Gyrocopes or Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscopes. They are using digital electronics and advanced digital filtering techniques such as Kalman filter.
Motion-based alignment
The orientation of a gyroscope system can sometimes also be inferred simply from its position history (e.g., GPS). This is, in particular, the case with planes and cars, where the velocity vector usually implies the orientation of the vehicle body.
For example, Honeywell's Align in Motion is an initialization process where the initialization occurs while the aircraft is moving, in the air or on the ground. This is accomplished using GPS and an inertial reasonableness test, thereby allowing commercial data integrity requirements to be met. This process has been FAA certified to recover pure INS performance equivalent to stationary alignment procedures for civilian flight times up to 18 hours.
It avoids the need for gyroscope batteries on aircraft.
Vibrating gyros
Main article: vibrating structure gyroscope
Less-expensive navigation systems, intended for use in automobiles, may use a vibrating structure gyroscope to detect changes in heading and the odometer pickup to measure distance covered along the vehicle's track. This type of system is much less accurate than a higher-end INS, but it is adequate for the typical automobile application where GPS is the primary navigation system and dead reckoning is only needed to fill gaps in GPS coverage when buildings or terrain block the satellite signals.
Hemispherical resonator gyros
Main article: Hemispherical resonator gyroscope
If a standing wave is induced in a hemispheric resonant structure and then the resonant structure is rotated, the spherical harmonic standing wave rotates through an angle different from the quartz resonator structure due to the Coriolis force. The movement of the outer case with respect to the standing wave pattern is proportional to the total rotation angle and can be sensed by appropriate electronics. The system resonators are machined from fused quartz due to its excellent mechanical properties. The electrodes that drive and sense the standing waves are deposited directly onto separate quartz structures that surround the resonator. These gyros can operate in either a whole angle mode (which gives them nearly unlimited rate capability) or a force rebalance mode that holds the standing wave in a fixed orientation with respect to the gyro housing (which gives them much better accuracy).
This system has almost no moving parts and is very accurate. However it is still relatively expensive due to the cost of the precision ground and polished hollow quartz hemispheres. Northrop Grumman currently manufactures IMUs (inertial measurement units) for spacecraft that use HRGs. These IMUs have demonstrated extremely high reliability since their initial use in 1996. Safran manufactures large numbers of HRG based inertial systems dedicated to a wide range of applications.
Quartz rate sensors
This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2018)
The quartz rate sensor inside an E-Sky model helicopter
These products include "tuning fork gyros". Here, the gyro is designed as an electronically driven tuning fork, often fabricated out of a single piece of quartz or silicon. Such gyros operate in accordance with the dynamic theory that when an angle rate is applied to a translating body, a Coriolis force is generated.
This system is usually integrated on a silicon chip. It has two mass-balanced quartz tuning forks, arranged "handle-to-handle" so forces cancel. Aluminum electrodes evaporated onto the forks and the underlying chip both drive and sense the motion. The system is both manufacturable and inexpensive. Since quartz is dimensionally stable, the system can be accurate.
As the forks are twisted about the axis of the handle, the vibration of the tines tends to continue in the same plane of motion. This motion has to be resisted by electrostatic forces from the electrodes under the tines. By measuring the difference in capacitance between the two tines of a fork, the system can determine the rate of angular motion.
Current state-of-the-art non-military technology (as of 2005) can build small solid-state sensors that can measure human body movements. These devices have no moving parts and weigh about 50 grams (2 ounces).
Solid-state devices using the same physical principles are used for image stabilization in small cameras or camcorders. These can be extremely small, around 5 millimetres (0.20 inches) and are built with microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technologies.
MHD sensor
Main article: MHD sensor
Sensors based on magnetohydrodynamic principles can be used to measure angular velocities.
MEMS gyroscope
MEMS gyroscope
Main article: MEMS gyroscope
MEMS gyroscopes typically rely on the Coriolis effect to measure angular velocity. It consists of a resonating proof mass mounted in silicon. The gyroscope is, unlike an accelerometer, an active sensor. The proof mass is pushed back and forth by driving combs. A rotation of the gyroscope generates a Coriolis force that is acting on the mass which results in a motion in a different direction. The motion in this direction is measured by electrodes and represents the rate of turn.
Ring Laser Gyros
Ring laser gyroscope
Main article: Ring laser gyroscope
A ring laser gyro (RLG) splits a beam of laser light into two beams in opposite directions through narrow tunnels in a closed circular optical path around the perimeter of a triangular block of temperature-stable Cervit glass with reflecting mirrors placed in each corner. When the gyro is rotating at some angular rate, the distance traveled by each beam will differ—the shorter path being opposite to the rotation. The phase shift between the two beams can be measured by an interferometer and is proportional to the rate of rotation (Sagnac effect).
In practice, at low rotation rates the output frequency can drop to zero as the result of backscattering causing the beams to synchronise and lock together. This is known as a lock-in, or laser-lock. The result is that there is no change in the interference pattern and therefore no measurement change.
To unlock the counter-rotating light beams, laser gyros either have independent light paths for the two directions (usually in fiber optic gyros), or the laser gyro is mounted on a piezo-electric dither motor that rapidly vibrates the laser ring back and forth about its input axis through the lock-in region to decouple the light waves.
The shaker is the most accurate, because both light beams use exactly the same path. Thus laser gyros retain moving parts, but they do not move as far.
Fiber optic gyros
Main article: Fiber optic gyroscope
A more recent variation on the optical gyroscope, the fiber optic gyroscope (FOG), uses an external laser and two beams going opposite directions (counter-propagating) in long spools (several kilometers) of fiber optic filament, with the phase difference of the two beams compared after their travel through the spools of fiber.
The basic mechanism, monochromatic laser light travelling in opposite paths and the Sagnac effect, is the same in a FOG and a RLG, but the engineering details are substantially different in the FOG compared to earlier laser gyros.
Precise winding of the fiber-optic coil is required to ensure the paths taken by the light in opposite directions are as similar as possible. The FOG requires more complex calibrations than a laser ring gyro making the development and manufacture of FOG's more technically challenging that for a RLG. However FOG's do not suffer from laser lock at low speeds and do not need to contain any moving parts, increasing the maximum potential accuracy and lifespan of a FOG over an equivalent RLG.
Pendular accelerometers
Principle of open loop accelerometer. Acceleration in the upward direction causes the mass to deflect downward.
The basic, open-loop accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a spring. The mass is constrained to move only in line with the spring. Acceleration causes deflection of the mass and the offset distance is measured. The acceleration is derived from the values of deflection distance, mass and the spring constant. The system must also be damped to avoid oscillation. A closed-loop accelerometer achieves higher performance by using a feedback loop to cancel the deflection, thus keeping the mass nearly stationary. Whenever the mass deflects, the feedback loop causes an electric coil to apply an equally negative force on the mass, canceling the motion. Acceleration is derived from the amount of negative force applied. Because the mass barely moves, the effects of non-linearities of the spring and damping system are greatly reduced. In addition, this accelerometer provides for increased bandwidth beyond the natural frequency of the sensing element.
Both types of accelerometers have been manufactured as integrated micro-machinery on silicon chips.
TIMU sensors
DARPA's Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) department is working on a Micro-PNT (Micro-Technology for Positioning, Navigation and Timing) program to design Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit (TIMU) chips that do absolute position tracking on a single chip without GPS-aided navigation.
Micro-PNT adds a highly accurate master timing clock integrated into an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) chip, making it a Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit chip. A TIMU chip integrates 3-axis gyroscope, 3-axis accelerometer and 3-axis magnetometer together with a highly accurate master timing clock, so that it can simultaneously measure the motion tracked and combine that with timing from the synchronized clock.
Method
In one form, the navigational system of equations acquires linear and angular measurements from the inertial and body frame, respectively and calculates the final attitude and position in the NED frame of reference.
Where f is specific force,
ω
{\displaystyle \omega }
is angular rate, a is acceleration, R is position,
R
˙
{\displaystyle {\dot {R}}}
and V are velocity,
Ω
{\displaystyle \Omega }
is the angular velocity of the earth, g is the acceleration due to gravity,
Φ
,
λ
{\displaystyle \Phi ,\lambda }
and h are the NED location parameters. Also, super/subscripts of E, I and B are representing variables in the Earth centered, Inertial or Body reference frame, respectively and C is a transformation of reference frames.
See also
Index of aviation articles
Spacecraft attitude control – Process of controlling orientation of an aerospace vehicle
LN-3 inertial navigation system
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^ a b Extreme Miniaturization: Seven Devices, One Chip to Navigate without GPS Archived 7 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine
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^ "Clocks". darpa.mil. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 9 July 2017.
Further reading
Zanetti, Renato; d'Souza, Christopher (2020), "Inertial Navigation", Encyclopedia of Systems and Control, pp. 1–7, doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1, ISBN 978-1-4471-5102-9
A.D. King (1998). "Inertial Navigation – Forty Years of Evolution" (PDF). GEC Review. 13 (3). General Electric Company plc: 140–149.
E. v. Hinueber (iMAR Navigation) (2011). "Design of an Unaided Aircraft Attitude Reference System with Medium Accurate Gyroscopes for Higher Performance Attitude Requirements". Inertial Sensors and Systems, Symposium Gyro Technology, Karlsruhe / Germany. 2011. iMAR Navigation / DGON.
External links
Ferranti Inertial Navigation System (INAS)
Inertial Navigation System
Principle of operation of an accelerometer
Overview of inertial instrument types
Oxford Technical Solutions Inertial Navigation Guide
Listing of open-source Inertial Navigation system
Impact of inertial sensor errors on Inertial Navigation System position and attitude errors
Introduction to Inertial Navigation Systems in UAV/Drone Applications
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Ram air turbine | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Project_SPIRE_Inertial_Navigation_Control.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg"},{"link_name":"navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation"},{"link_name":"accelerometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer"},{"link_name":"gyroscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"dead reckoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_reckoning"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"altimeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altimeter"},{"link_name":"magnetometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometer"},{"link_name":"mobile robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_robot"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SicilianoKhatib2008-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cook2011-3"},{"link_name":"ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship"},{"link_name":"aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft"},{"link_name":"submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"guided missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_missile"},{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"inertial platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_platform"}],"text":"A 1950s inertial navigation control developed at MITComparison of accuracy of various navigation systems: the radius of the circle indicates the accuracy. A smaller radius corresponds to a higher accuracyAn inertial navigation system (INS; also inertial guidance system, inertial instrument) is a navigation device that uses motion sensors (accelerometers), rotation sensors (gyroscopes) and a computer to continuously calculate by dead reckoning the position, the orientation, and the velocity (direction and speed of movement) of a moving object without the need for external references.[1] Often the inertial sensors are supplemented by a barometric altimeter and sometimes by magnetic sensors (magnetometers) and/or speed measuring devices. INSs are used on mobile robots[2][3] and on vehicles such as ships, aircraft, submarines, guided missiles, and spacecraft.[4] Older INS systems generally used an inertial platform as their mounting point to the vehicle and the terms are sometimes considered synonymous.Integrals in the time domain implicitly demand a stable and accurate clock for the quantification of elapsed time.","title":"Inertial navigation system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Inertial measurement units (IMUs)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit"},{"link_name":"accelerometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer"},{"link_name":"gyroscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"jamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_jamming_and_deception"},{"link_name":"inertial reference frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_reference_frame"},{"link_name":"initial condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_condition"},{"link_name":"integrating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral"},{"link_name":"angular velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"},{"link_name":"kinematic equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics#Fundamental_equations"}],"text":"Inertial navigation is a self-contained navigation technique in which measurements provided by accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to track the position and orientation of an object relative to a known starting point, orientation and velocity. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) typically contain three orthogonal rate-gyroscopes and three orthogonal accelerometers, measuring angular velocity and linear acceleration respectively. By processing signals from these devices it is possible to track the position and orientation of a device.An inertial navigation system includes at least a computer and a platform or module containing accelerometers, gyroscopes, or other motion-sensing devices. The INS is initially provided with its position and velocity from another source (a human operator, a GPS satellite receiver, etc.) accompanied with the initial orientation and thereafter computes its own updated position and velocity by integrating information received from the motion sensors. The advantage of an INS is that it requires no external references in order to determine its position, orientation, or velocity once it has been initialized.An INS can detect a change in its geographic position (a move east or north, for example), a change in its velocity (speed and direction of movement) and a change in its orientation (rotation about an axis). It does this by measuring the linear acceleration and angular velocity applied to the system. Since it requires no external reference (after initialization), it is immune to jamming and deception.Gyroscopes measure the angular displacement of the sensor frame with respect to the inertial reference frame. By using the original orientation of the system in the inertial reference frame as the initial condition and integrating the angular displacement, the system's current orientation is known at all times. This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to feel the car turn left and right or tilt up and down as the car ascends or descends hills. Based on this information alone, the passenger knows what direction the car is facing, but not how fast or slow it is moving, or whether it is sliding sideways.Accelerometers measure the linear acceleration of the moving vehicle in the sensor or body frame, but in directions that can only be measured relative to the moving system (since the accelerometers are fixed to the system and rotate with the system, but are not aware of their own orientation). This can be thought of as the ability of a blindfolded passenger in a car to feel themself pressed back into their seat as the vehicle accelerates forward or pulled forward as it slows down; and feel themself pressed down into their seat as the vehicle accelerates up a hill or rise up out of their seat as the car passes over the crest of a hill and begins to descend. Based on this information alone, they know how the vehicle is accelerating relative to itself; that is, whether it is accelerating forward, backward, left, right, up (toward the car's ceiling), or down (toward the car's floor), measured relative to the car, but not the direction relative to the Earth, since they did not know what direction the car was facing relative to the Earth when they felt the accelerations.However, by tracking both the current angular velocity of the system and the current linear acceleration of the system measured relative to the moving system, it is possible to determine the linear acceleration of the system in the inertial reference frame. Performing integration on the inertial accelerations (using the original velocity as the initial conditions) using the correct kinematic equations yields the inertial velocities of the system and integration again (using the original position as the initial condition) yields the inertial position. In our example, if the blindfolded passenger knew how the car was pointed and what its velocity was before they were blindfolded, and if they are able to keep track of both how the car has turned and how it has accelerated and decelerated since, then they can accurately know the current orientation, position, and velocity of the car at any time.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"microelectromechanical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems"},{"link_name":"motion capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_capture"}],"text":"Inertial navigation is used in a wide range of applications including the navigation of aircraft, tactical and strategic missiles, spacecraft, submarines and ships. It is also embedded in some mobile phones for purposes of mobile phone location and tracking.[5][6] Recent advances in the construction of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) have made it possible to manufacture small and light inertial navigation systems. These advances have widened the range of possible applications to include areas such as human and animal motion capture.Inertial navigation systems are used in many different moving objects. However, their cost and complexity place constraints on the environments in which they are practical for use.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ShuklaTalpin2010-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Britting-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"air data computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_data_computer"},{"link_name":"required navigation performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Required_navigation_performance"},{"link_name":"attitude and heading reference system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_and_heading_reference_system"},{"link_name":"numerical integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_integration"},{"link_name":"Pressure Reference System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_Reference_System"},{"link_name":"Estimation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation_theory"},{"link_name":"Kalman filtering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalman_filtering"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gelb-10"},{"link_name":"satellite navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"pedometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedometer"},{"link_name":"position sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position_sensor"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"stable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_stability"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"MEMS gyroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-14"}],"text":"All inertial navigation systems suffer from integration drift: small errors in the measurement of acceleration and angular velocity are integrated into progressively larger errors in velocity, which are compounded into still greater errors in position.[7][8]\nSince the new position is calculated from the previous calculated position and the measured acceleration and angular velocity, these errors accumulate roughly proportionally to the time since the initial position was input. Even the best accelerometers, with a standard error of 10 micro-g, would accumulate a 50-meter (164-ft) error within 17 minutes.[9] Therefore, the position must be periodically corrected by input from some other type of navigation system.Accordingly, inertial navigation is usually used to supplement other navigation systems, providing a higher degree of accuracy than is possible with the use of any single system. For example, if, in terrestrial use, the inertially tracked velocity is intermittently updated to zero by stopping, the position will remain precise for a much longer time, a so-called zero velocity update. In aerospace particularly, other measurement systems are used to determine INS inaccuracies, e.g. the Honeywell LaseRefV inertial navigation systems uses GPS and air data computer outputs to maintain required navigation performance. The navigation error rises with the lower sensitivity of the sensors used. Currently, devices combining different sensors are being developed, e.g. attitude and heading reference system. Because the navigation error is mainly influenced by the numerical integration of angular rates and accelerations, the Pressure Reference System was developed to use one numerical integration of the angular rate measurements.Estimation theory in general and Kalman filtering in particular,[10] provide a theoretical framework for combining information from various sensors. One of the most common alternative sensors is a satellite navigation radio such as GPS, which can be used for all kinds of vehicles with direct sky visibility. Indoor applications can use pedometers, distance measurement equipment, or other kinds of position sensors. By properly combining the information from an INS and other systems (GPS), the errors in position and velocity are stable. Furthermore, INS can be used as a short-term fallback while GPS signals are unavailable, for example when a vehicle passes through a tunnel.In 2011, GPS jamming at the civilian level became a governmental concern.[11] The relative ease in ability to jam these systems has motivated the military to reduce navigation dependence on GPS technology.[12] Because inertial navigation sensors do not depend on radio signals unlike GPS, they cannot be jammed.[13] In 2012, the U.S. Army Research Laboratory reported a method to merge measurements from 10 pairs of MEMS gyroscope and accelerometers (plus occasional GPS), reducing the positional error by two thirds for a projectile. The algorithm can correct for systemic biases in individual sensors, using both GPS and a heuristic based on the gun-firing acceleration force. If one sensor consistently over or underestimates distance, the system can adjust the corrupted sensor's contributions to the final calculation.[14]","title":"Drift rate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rockets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket"},{"link_name":"Robert Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Goddard_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"gyroscopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"Wernher von Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun"},{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"guided missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_missile"},{"link_name":"airliners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airliner"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"V2 guidance systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket#Technical_details"},{"link_name":"analog computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_computer"},{"link_name":"azimuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth"},{"link_name":"graphite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphite"},{"link_name":"Fort Bliss, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bliss,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Operation Paperclip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip"},{"link_name":"Huntsville, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Charles Stark Draper Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"J. Halcombe \"Hal\" Laning, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Halcombe_Laning"},{"link_name":"Peenemünde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peenemuende"},{"link_name":"Q-guidance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-guidance"}],"text":"Inertial navigation systems were originally developed for rockets. American rocketry pioneer Robert Goddard experimented with rudimentary gyroscopic systems. Goddard's systems were of great interest to contemporary German pioneers including Wernher von Braun. The systems entered more widespread use with the advent of spacecraft, guided missiles, and commercial airliners.Early German World War II V2 guidance systems combined two gyroscopes and a lateral accelerometer with a simple analog computer to adjust the azimuth for the rocket in flight. Analog computer signals were used to drive four graphite rudders in the rocket exhaust for flight control. The GN&C (Guidance, Navigation, and Control) system for the V2 provided many innovations as an integrated platform with closed loop guidance. At the end of the war von Braun engineered the surrender of 500 of his top rocket scientists, along with plans and test vehicles, to the Americans. They arrived at Fort Bliss, Texas in 1945 under the provisions of Operation Paperclip and were subsequently moved to Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950[15] where they worked for U.S. Army rocket research programs.In the early 1950s, the US government wanted to insulate itself against over-dependency on the German team for military applications, including the development of a fully domestic missile guidance program. The MIT Instrumentation Laboratory (later to become the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.) was chosen by the Air Force Western Development Division to provide a self-contained guidance system backup to Convair in San Diego for the new Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile [16][17][18][19] (Construction and testing were completed by Arma Division of AmBosch Arma). The technical monitor for the MIT task was engineer Jim Fletcher, who later served as NASA Administrator. The Atlas guidance system was to be a combination of an on-board autonomous system and a ground-based tracking and command system. The self-contained system finally prevailed in ballistic missile applications for obvious reasons. In space exploration, a mixture of the two remains.In the summer of 1952, Dr. Richard Battin and Dr. J. Halcombe \"Hal\" Laning, Jr., researched computational based solutions to guidance and undertook the initial analytical work on the Atlas inertial guidance in 1954. Other key figures at Convair were Charlie Bossart, the Chief Engineer, and Walter Schweidetzky, head of the guidance group. Schweidetzky had worked with von Braun at Peenemünde during World War II.The initial Delta guidance system assessed the difference in position from a reference trajectory. A velocity to be gained (VGO) calculation is made to correct the current trajectory with the objective of driving VGO to zero. The mathematics of this approach were fundamentally valid, but dropped because of the challenges in accurate inertial guidance and analog computing power. The challenges faced by the Delta efforts were overcome by the Q system (see Q-guidance) of guidance. The Q system's revolution was to bind the challenges of missile guidance (and associated equations of motion) in the matrix Q. The Q matrix represents the partial derivatives of the velocity with respect to the position vector. A key feature of this approach allowed for the components of the vector cross product (v, xdv, /dt) to be used as the basic autopilot rate signals—a technique that became known as cross-product steering. The Q-system was presented at the first Technical Symposium on Ballistic Missiles held at the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation in Los Angeles on 21 and 22 June 1956. The Q system was classified information through the 1960s. Derivations of this guidance are used for today's missiles.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_IMU_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg"},{"link_name":"Apollo program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program"},{"link_name":"Inertial Measurement Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Measurement_Unit"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"Raytheon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raytheon"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"},{"link_name":"open loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-loop_controller"}],"sub_title":"Guidance in human spaceflight","text":"Apollo IMUIn February 1961 NASA awarded MIT a contract for preliminary design study of a guidance and navigation system for the Apollo program. MIT and the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors Corp. were awarded the joint contract for design and production of the Apollo Guidance and Navigation systems for the Command Module and the Lunar Module. Delco produced the IMUs (Inertial Measurement Units) for these systems, Kollsman Instrument Corp. produced the Optical Systems, and the Apollo Guidance Computer was built by Raytheon under subcontract.[20][21]For the Space Shuttle, open loop guidance was used to guide the Shuttle from lift-off until Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) separation. After SRB separation the primary Space Shuttle guidance is named PEG (Powered Explicit Guidance). PEG takes into account both the Q system and the predictor-corrector attributes of the original \"Delta\" System (PEG Guidance). Although many updates to the Shuttle's navigation system had taken place over the last 30 years (ex. GPS in the OI-22 build), the guidance core of the Shuttle GN&C system had evolved little. Within a crewed system, there is a human interface needed for the guidance system. As astronauts are the customer for the system, many new teams were formed that touch GN&C as it is a primary interface to \"fly\" the vehicle.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Delco Carousel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delco_Carousel"},{"link_name":"flight management systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_management_system"},{"link_name":"Doppler radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_radar"}],"sub_title":"Early use in aircraft inertial guidance","text":"One example of a popular INS for commercial aircraft was the Delco Carousel, which provided partial automation of navigation in the days before complete flight management systems became commonplace. The Carousel allowed pilots to enter 9 waypoints at a time and then guided the aircraft from one waypoint to the next using an INS to determine aircraft position and velocity. Boeing Corporation subcontracted the Delco Electronics Div. of General Motors to design and build the first production Carousel systems for the early models (-100, -200 and -300) of the 747 aircraft. The 747 utilized three Carousel systems operating in concert for reliability purposes. The Carousel system and derivatives thereof were subsequently adopted for use in many other commercial and military aircraft. The USAF C-141 was the first military aircraft to utilize the Carousel in a dual system configuration, followed by the C-5A which utilized the triple INS configuration, similar to the 747. The KC-135A fleet was fitted with a single Carousel IV-E system that could operate as a stand-alone INS or can be aided by the AN/APN-81 or AN/APN-218 Doppler radar. Some special-mission variants of the C-135 were fitted with dual Carousel IV-E INSs. ARINC Characteristic 704 defines the INS used in commercial air transport.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yaw_Axis_Corrected.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Centrale-intertielle_missile_S3_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010652.JPG"},{"link_name":"IRBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate-range_ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"S3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_(missile)"},{"link_name":"Inertial Measurement Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_Measurement_Unit"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eshbach-22"},{"link_name":"degrees of freedom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"Minuteman missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minuteman_missile"},{"link_name":"Project Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Apollo"},{"link_name":"satellite navigation systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation_system"},{"link_name":"Schuler tuning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schuler_tuning"}],"text":"Diagram denoting roll, pitch and yaw axes of an aircraft in flightInertial navigation unit of French IRBM S3.INSs contain Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) which have angular and linear accelerometers (for changes in position); some IMUs include a gyroscopic element (for maintaining an absolute angular reference).Angular accelerometers measure how the vehicle is rotating in space. Generally, there is at least one sensor for each of the three axes: pitch (nose up and down), yaw (nose left and right) and roll (clockwise or counter-clockwise from the cockpit).Linear accelerometers measure non-gravitational accelerations[22] of the vehicle. Since it can move in three axes (up and down, left and right, forward and back), there is a linear accelerometer for each axis.A computer continually calculates the vehicle's current position. First, for each of the six degrees of freedom (x,y,z and θx, θy and θz), it integrates over time the sensed acceleration, together with an estimate of gravity, to calculate the current velocity. Then it integrates the velocity to calculate the current position.Inertial guidance is difficult without computers. The desire to use inertial guidance in the Minuteman missile and Project Apollo drove early attempts to miniaturize computers.Inertial guidance systems are now usually combined with satellite navigation systems through a digital filtering system. The inertial system provides short term data, while the satellite system corrects accumulated errors of the inertial system.An inertial guidance system that will operate near the surface of the earth must incorporate Schuler tuning so that its platform will continue pointing towards the center of the Earth as a vehicle moves from place to place.","title":"Details"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_IMU_detail_3_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg"},{"link_name":"gimbals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimbal"},{"link_name":"gyroscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyroscope"},{"link_name":"gyroscopic precession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precession"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"moving parts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_parts"},{"link_name":"gimbal lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimbal_lock"},{"link_name":"primary guidance system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_PGNCS"},{"link_name":"Apollo spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_spacecraft"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"}],"sub_title":"Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms","text":"Apollo gimballed gyrostabilized platformSome systems place the linear accelerometers on a gimballed gyrostabilized platform. The gimbals are a set of three rings, each with a pair of bearings initially at right angles. They let the platform twist about any rotational axis (or, rather, they let the platform keep the same orientation while the vehicle rotates around it). There are two gyroscopes (usually) on the platform.Two gyroscopes are used to cancel gyroscopic precession, the tendency of a gyroscope to twist at right angles to an input torque. By mounting a pair of gyroscopes (of the same rotational inertia and spinning at the same speed in opposite directions) at right angles the precessions are cancelled and the platform will resist twisting. [citation needed]This system allows a vehicle's roll, pitch and yaw angles to be measured directly at the bearings of the gimbals. Relatively simple electronic circuits can be used to add up the linear accelerations, because the directions of the linear accelerometers do not change.The big disadvantage of this scheme is that it uses many expensive precision mechanical parts. It also has moving parts that can wear out or jam and is vulnerable to gimbal lock. The primary guidance system of the Apollo spacecraft used a three-axis gyrostabilized platform, feeding data to the Apollo Guidance Computer. Maneuvers had to be carefully planned to avoid gimbal lock.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Inertial_Reference_Sphere"},{"link_name":"transformer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_variable_differential_transformer"},{"link_name":"printed circuit board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"great circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_circle"},{"link_name":"bar codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_code"},{"link_name":"solar cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell"},{"link_name":"LEDs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED"},{"link_name":"photodiodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiode"}],"sub_title":"Fluid-suspended gyrostabilized platforms","text":"Gimbal lock constrains maneuvering and it would be beneficial to eliminate the slip rings and bearings of the gimbals. Therefore, some systems use fluid bearings or a flotation chamber to mount a gyrostabilized platform. These systems can have very high precisions (e.g., Advanced Inertial Reference Sphere). Like all gyrostabilized platforms, this system runs well with relatively slow, low-power computers.The fluid bearings are pads with holes through which pressurized inert gas (such as helium) or oil presses against the spherical shell of the platform. The fluid bearings are very slippery and the spherical platform can turn freely. There are usually four bearing pads, mounted in a tetrahedral arrangement to support the platform.In premium systems, the angular sensors are usually specialized transformer coils made in a strip on a flexible printed circuit board. Several coil strips are mounted on great circles around the spherical shell of the gyrostabilized platform. Electronics outside the platform uses similar strip-shaped transformers to read the varying magnetic fields produced by the transformers wrapped around the spherical platform. Whenever a magnetic field changes shape, or moves, it will cut the wires of the coils on the external transformer strips. The cutting generates an electric current in the external strip-shaped coils and electronics can measure that current to derive angles.Cheap systems sometimes use bar codes to sense orientations and use solar cells or a single transformer to power the platform. Some small missiles have powered the platform with light from a window or optic fibers to the motor. A research topic is to suspend the platform with pressure from exhaust gases. Data is returned to the outside world via the transformers, or sometimes LEDs communicating with external photodiodes.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gimbal lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimbal_lock"},{"link_name":"quaternions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion"},{"link_name":"digital computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_computer"},{"link_name":"lunar module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_module"},{"link_name":"Abort Guidance System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Abort_Guidance_System"},{"link_name":"ROVs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle"},{"link_name":"missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile"},{"link_name":"Ring Laser Gyroscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_laser_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"Fibre Optic Gyrocopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_optic_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispherical_resonator_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"Kalman filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalman_filter"}],"sub_title":"Strapdown systems","text":"Lightweight digital computers permit the system to eliminate the gimbals, creating strapdown systems, so called because their sensors are simply strapped to the vehicle. This reduces the cost, eliminates gimbal lock, removes the need for some calibrations and increases the reliability by eliminating some of the moving parts. Angular rate sensors called rate gyros measure the angular velocity of the vehicle.A strapdown system needs a dynamic measurement range several hundred times that required by a gimballed system. That is, it must integrate the vehicle's attitude changes in pitch, roll and yaw, as well as gross movements. Gimballed systems could usually do well with update rates of 50–60 Hz. However, strapdown systems normally update about 2000 Hz. The higher rate is needed to let the navigation system integrate the angular rate into an attitude accurately.The data updating algorithms (direction cosines or quaternions) involved are too complex to be accurately performed except by digital electronics. However, digital computers are now so inexpensive and fast that rate gyro systems can now be practically used and mass-produced. The Apollo lunar module used a strapdown system in its backup Abort Guidance System (AGS).Strapdown systems are nowadays commonly used in commercial and military applications (aircraft, ships, ROVs, missiles, etc.). State-of-the-art strapdown systems are based upon Ring Laser Gyroscopes, Fibre Optic Gyrocopes or Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscopes. They are using digital electronics and advanced digital filtering techniques such as Kalman filter.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Honeywell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"}],"sub_title":"Motion-based alignment","text":"The orientation of a gyroscope system can sometimes also be inferred simply from its position history (e.g., GPS). This is, in particular, the case with planes and cars, where the velocity vector usually implies the orientation of the vehicle body.For example, Honeywell's Align in Motion[23] is an initialization process where the initialization occurs while the aircraft is moving, in the air or on the ground. This is accomplished using GPS and an inertial reasonableness test, thereby allowing commercial data integrity requirements to be met. This process has been FAA certified to recover pure INS performance equivalent to stationary alignment procedures for civilian flight times up to 18 hours.\nIt avoids the need for gyroscope batteries on aircraft.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vibrating structure gyroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrating_structure_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"dead reckoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_reckoning"}],"sub_title":"Vibrating gyros","text":"Less-expensive navigation systems, intended for use in automobiles, may use a vibrating structure gyroscope to detect changes in heading and the odometer pickup to measure distance covered along the vehicle's track. This type of system is much less accurate than a higher-end INS, but it is adequate for the typical automobile application where GPS is the primary navigation system and dead reckoning is only needed to fill gaps in GPS coverage when buildings or terrain block the satellite signals.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fused quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_quartz"},{"link_name":"inertial measurement units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"HRG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispherical_resonator_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Hemispherical resonator gyros","text":"If a standing wave is induced in a hemispheric resonant structure and then the resonant structure is rotated, the spherical harmonic standing wave rotates through an angle different from the quartz resonator structure due to the Coriolis force. The movement of the outer case with respect to the standing wave pattern is proportional to the total rotation angle and can be sensed by appropriate electronics. The system resonators are machined from fused quartz due to its excellent mechanical properties. The electrodes that drive and sense the standing waves are deposited directly onto separate quartz structures that surround the resonator. These gyros can operate in either a whole angle mode (which gives them nearly unlimited rate capability) or a force rebalance mode that holds the standing wave in a fixed orientation with respect to the gyro housing (which gives them much better accuracy).This system has almost no moving parts and is very accurate. However it is still relatively expensive due to the cost of the precision ground and polished hollow quartz hemispheres. Northrop Grumman currently manufactures IMUs (inertial measurement units) for spacecraft that use HRGs. These IMUs have demonstrated extremely high reliability since their initial use in 1996.[24] Safran manufactures large numbers of HRG based inertial systems dedicated to a wide range of applications.[25]","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gyro_chip-Esky-Lama_v3_model_helicopter.jpg"},{"link_name":"E-Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100419014447/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-Sky_Lama_model_helicopters"},{"link_name":"Coriolis force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coriolis_effect"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inertial_navigation_system&action=edit"},{"link_name":"image stabilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_stabilization"},{"link_name":"microelectromechanical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Quartz rate sensors","text":"The quartz rate sensor inside an E-Sky model helicopterThese products include \"tuning fork gyros\". Here, the gyro is designed as an electronically driven tuning fork, often fabricated out of a single piece of quartz or silicon. Such gyros operate in accordance with the dynamic theory that when an angle rate is applied to a translating body, a Coriolis force is generated.This system is usually integrated on a silicon chip. It has two mass-balanced quartz tuning forks, arranged \"handle-to-handle\" so forces cancel. Aluminum electrodes evaporated onto the forks and the underlying chip both drive and sense the motion. The system is both manufacturable and inexpensive. Since quartz is dimensionally stable, the system can be accurate.As the forks are twisted about the axis of the handle, the vibration of the tines tends to continue in the same plane of motion. This motion has to be resisted by electrostatic forces from the electrodes under the tines. By measuring the difference in capacitance between the two tines of a fork, the system can determine the rate of angular motion.Current state-of-the-art non-military technology (as of 2005[update]) can build small solid-state sensors that can measure human body movements. These devices have no moving parts and weigh about 50 grams (2 ounces).Solid-state devices using the same physical principles are used for image stabilization in small cameras or camcorders. These can be extremely small, around 5 millimetres (0.20 inches) and are built with microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technologies.[26]","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"magnetohydrodynamic principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics"}],"sub_title":"MHD sensor","text":"Sensors based on magnetohydrodynamic principles can be used to measure angular velocities.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schematic_drawing_of_tuning_fork_gyroscope.png"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"MEMS gyroscope","text":"MEMS gyroscopeMEMS gyroscopes typically rely on the Coriolis effect to measure angular velocity. It consists of a resonating proof mass mounted in silicon. The gyroscope is, unlike an accelerometer, an active sensor. The proof mass is pushed back and forth by driving combs. A rotation of the gyroscope generates a Coriolis force that is acting on the mass which results in a motion in a different direction. The motion in this direction is measured by electrodes and represents the rate of turn.[27]","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ring_laser_gyroscope_at_MAKS-2011_airshow.jpg"},{"link_name":"laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"},{"link_name":"Cervit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervit"},{"link_name":"Sagnac effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagnac_effect"},{"link_name":"backscattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backscatter"}],"sub_title":"Ring Laser Gyros","text":"Ring laser gyroscopeA ring laser gyro (RLG) splits a beam of laser light into two beams in opposite directions through narrow tunnels in a closed circular optical path around the perimeter of a triangular block of temperature-stable Cervit glass with reflecting mirrors placed in each corner. When the gyro is rotating at some angular rate, the distance traveled by each beam will differ—the shorter path being opposite to the rotation. The phase shift between the two beams can be measured by an interferometer and is proportional to the rate of rotation (Sagnac effect).In practice, at low rotation rates the output frequency can drop to zero as the result of backscattering causing the beams to synchronise and lock together. This is known as a lock-in, or laser-lock. The result is that there is no change in the interference pattern and therefore no measurement change.To unlock the counter-rotating light beams, laser gyros either have independent light paths for the two directions (usually in fiber optic gyros), or the laser gyro is mounted on a piezo-electric dither motor that rapidly vibrates the laser ring back and forth about its input axis through the lock-in region to decouple the light waves.The shaker is the most accurate, because both light beams use exactly the same path. Thus laser gyros retain moving parts, but they do not move as far.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fiber optic gyroscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_optic_gyroscope"},{"link_name":"Sagnac effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagnac_effect"}],"sub_title":"Fiber optic gyros","text":"A more recent variation on the optical gyroscope, the fiber optic gyroscope (FOG), uses an external laser and two beams going opposite directions (counter-propagating) in long spools (several kilometers) of fiber optic filament, with the phase difference of the two beams compared after their travel through the spools of fiber.The basic mechanism, monochromatic laser light travelling in opposite paths and the Sagnac effect, is the same in a FOG and a RLG, but the engineering details are substantially different in the FOG compared to earlier laser gyros.Precise winding of the fiber-optic coil is required to ensure the paths taken by the light in opposite directions are as similar as possible. The FOG requires more complex calibrations than a laser ring gyro making the development and manufacture of FOG's more technically challenging that for a RLG. However FOG's do not suffer from laser lock at low speeds and do not need to contain any moving parts, increasing the maximum potential accuracy and lifespan of a FOG over an equivalent RLG.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pendular_accel.svg"},{"link_name":"accelerometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer"}],"sub_title":"Pendular accelerometers","text":"Principle of open loop accelerometer. Acceleration in the upward direction causes the mass to deflect downward.The basic, open-loop accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a spring. The mass is constrained to move only in line with the spring. Acceleration causes deflection of the mass and the offset distance is measured. The acceleration is derived from the values of deflection distance, mass and the spring constant. The system must also be damped to avoid oscillation. A closed-loop accelerometer achieves higher performance by using a feedback loop to cancel the deflection, thus keeping the mass nearly stationary. Whenever the mass deflects, the feedback loop causes an electric coil to apply an equally negative force on the mass, canceling the motion. Acceleration is derived from the amount of negative force applied. Because the mass barely moves, the effects of non-linearities of the spring and damping system are greatly reduced. In addition, this accelerometer provides for increased bandwidth beyond the natural frequency of the sensing element.Both types of accelerometers have been manufactured as integrated micro-machinery on silicon chips.","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DARPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-darpa.mil-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-darpa.mil-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-29"}],"sub_title":"TIMU sensors","text":"DARPA's Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) department is working on a Micro-PNT (Micro-Technology for Positioning, Navigation and Timing) program to design Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit (TIMU) chips that do absolute position tracking on a single chip without GPS-aided navigation.[28][29][30]Micro-PNT adds a highly accurate master timing clock[31] integrated into an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) chip, making it a Timing & Inertial Measurement Unit chip. A TIMU chip integrates 3-axis gyroscope, 3-axis accelerometer and 3-axis magnetometer together with a highly accurate master timing clock, so that it can simultaneously measure the motion tracked and combine that with timing from the synchronized clock.[28][29]","title":"Basic schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_East_Down"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:INS_Equations_Flow_diagram.JPG"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In one form, the navigational system of equations acquires linear and angular measurements from the inertial and body frame, respectively and calculates the final attitude and position in the NED frame of reference.Where f is specific force, \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n is angular rate, a is acceleration, R is position, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {R}}}\n \n and V are velocity, \n \n \n \n Ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Omega }\n \n is the angular velocity of the earth, g is the acceleration due to gravity, \n \n \n \n Φ\n ,\n λ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Phi ,\\lambda }\n \n and h are the NED location parameters. Also, super/subscripts of E, I and B are representing variables in the Earth centered, Inertial or Body reference frame, respectively and C is a transformation of reference frames.[citation needed]","title":"Method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4471-5102-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4471-5102-9"},{"link_name":"\"Inertial Navigation – Forty Years of Evolution\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.imar-navigation.de/downloads/papers/inertial_navigation_introduction.pdf"},{"link_name":"General Electric Company plc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric_Company_plc"}],"text":"Zanetti, Renato; d'Souza, Christopher (2020), \"Inertial Navigation\", Encyclopedia of Systems and Control, pp. 1–7, doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1, ISBN 978-1-4471-5102-9\nA.D. King (1998). \"Inertial Navigation – Forty Years of Evolution\" (PDF). GEC Review. 13 (3). General Electric Company plc: 140–149.\nE. v. Hinueber (iMAR Navigation) (2011). \"Design of an Unaided Aircraft Attitude Reference System with Medium Accurate Gyroscopes for Higher Performance Attitude Requirements\". Inertial Sensors and Systems, Symposium Gyro Technology, Karlsruhe / Germany. 2011. iMAR Navigation / DGON.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"A 1950s inertial navigation control developed at MIT","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Project_SPIRE_Inertial_Navigation_Control.jpg/220px-Project_SPIRE_Inertial_Navigation_Control.jpg"},{"image_text":"Comparison of accuracy of various navigation systems: the radius of the circle indicates the accuracy. A smaller radius corresponds to a higher accuracy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg/220px-Accuracy_of_Navigation_Systems.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Apollo IMU","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Apollo_IMU_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg/220px-Apollo_IMU_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg"},{"image_text":"Diagram denoting roll, pitch and yaw axes of an aircraft in flight","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Yaw_Axis_Corrected.svg/190px-Yaw_Axis_Corrected.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Inertial navigation unit of French IRBM S3.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Centrale-intertielle_missile_S3_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010652.JPG/220px-Centrale-intertielle_missile_S3_Musee_du_Bourget_P1010652.JPG"},{"image_text":"Apollo gimballed gyrostabilized platform","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Apollo_IMU_detail_3_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg/220px-Apollo_IMU_detail_3_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg"},{"image_text":"The quartz rate sensor inside an E-Sky model helicopter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Gyro_chip-Esky-Lama_v3_model_helicopter.jpg/220px-Gyro_chip-Esky-Lama_v3_model_helicopter.jpg"},{"image_text":"MEMS gyroscope","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Schematic_drawing_of_tuning_fork_gyroscope.png/220px-Schematic_drawing_of_tuning_fork_gyroscope.png"},{"image_text":"Ring laser gyroscope","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Ring_laser_gyroscope_at_MAKS-2011_airshow.jpg/220px-Ring_laser_gyroscope_at_MAKS-2011_airshow.jpg"},{"image_text":"Principle of open loop accelerometer. Acceleration in the upward direction causes the mass to deflect downward.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pendular_accel.svg/220px-Pendular_accel.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Index of aviation articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_aviation_articles"},{"title":"Spacecraft attitude control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_attitude_control"},{"title":"LN-3 inertial navigation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LN-3_inertial_navigation_system"}] | [{"reference":"\"Basic Principles of Inertial Navigation Seminar on inertial navigation systems\" (PDF). AeroStudents.com. Tampere University of Technology, page 5. Retrieved 17 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aerostudents.com/courses/avionics/InertialNavigationSystems.pdf","url_text":"\"Basic Principles of Inertial Navigation Seminar on inertial navigation systems\""}]},{"reference":"Bruno Siciliano; Oussama Khatib (20 May 2008). Springer Handbook of Robotics. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-23957-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpgi5gSuBxsC","url_text":"Springer Handbook of Robotics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23957-4","url_text":"978-3-540-23957-4"}]},{"reference":"Gerald Cook (14 October 2011). Mobile Robots: Navigation, Control and Remote Sensing. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-02904-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qYZfzv7oTBQC","url_text":"Mobile Robots: Navigation, Control and Remote Sensing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-02904-6","url_text":"978-1-118-02904-6"}]},{"reference":"Sandeep Kumar Shukla; Jean-Pierre Talpin (5 August 2010). Synthesis of Embedded Software: Frameworks and Methodologies for Correctness by Construction. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 62. ISBN 978-1-4419-6400-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_KcJHzND_8C&pg=PA62","url_text":"Synthesis of Embedded Software: Frameworks and Methodologies for Correctness by Construction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6400-7","url_text":"978-1-4419-6400-7"}]},{"reference":"\"GPS.gov: Information About GPS Jamming\". www.gps.gov. Retrieved 30 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gps.gov/spectrum/jamming/","url_text":"\"GPS.gov: Information About GPS Jamming\""}]},{"reference":"Fairfax, Luisa; Fresconi, Frank (April 2012). \"Position Estimation for Projectiles Using Low-cost Sensors and Flight Dynamics\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a560811.pdf","url_text":"\"Position Estimation for Projectiles Using Low-cost Sensors and Flight Dynamics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170502014445/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a560811.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Securing military GPS from spoofing and jamming vulnerabilities\". Military Embedded Systems. Retrieved 30 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://mil-embedded.com/articles/securing-military-gps-spoofing-jamming-vulnerabilities/","url_text":"\"Securing military GPS from spoofing and jamming vulnerabilities\""}]},{"reference":"\"New guided munition sensors are greater than sum of their parts\". www.army.mil. 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(1982). \"Space guidance evolution – A personal narrative\". Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics. 5 (2): 97. Bibcode:1982JGCD....5...97B. doi:10.2514/3.19761.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982JGCD....5...97B","url_text":"1982JGCD....5...97B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2514%2F3.19761","url_text":"10.2514/3.19761"}]},{"reference":"Neufeld, Jacob. \"Technology Push\". history.navy.mil. Archived from the original on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121212235621/http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch9c.html","url_text":"\"Technology Push\""},{"url":"http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch9c.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"MacKenzie, Donald A. (1993). Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance. 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Retrieved 9 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.darpa.mil/program/micro-technology-for-positioning-navigation-and-timing/clocks","url_text":"\"Clocks\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170517121440/http://www.darpa.mil/program/micro-technology-for-positioning-navigation-and-timing/clocks","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Zanetti, Renato; d'Souza, Christopher (2020), \"Inertial Navigation\", Encyclopedia of Systems and Control, pp. 1–7, doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1, ISBN 978-1-4471-5102-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4471-5102-9_100036-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4471-5102-9","url_text":"978-1-4471-5102-9"}]},{"reference":"A.D. King (1998). \"Inertial Navigation – Forty Years of Evolution\" (PDF). GEC Review. 13 (3). General Electric Company plc: 140–149.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.imar-navigation.de/downloads/papers/inertial_navigation_introduction.pdf","url_text":"\"Inertial Navigation – Forty Years of Evolution\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric_Company_plc","url_text":"General Electric Company plc"}]},{"reference":"E. v. Hinueber (iMAR Navigation) (2011). \"Design of an Unaided Aircraft Attitude Reference System with Medium Accurate Gyroscopes for Higher Performance Attitude Requirements\". Inertial Sensors and Systems, Symposium Gyro Technology, Karlsruhe / Germany. 2011. iMAR Navigation / DGON.","urls":[]}] | [{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inertial_navigation_system&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this section"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100419014447/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-Sky_Lama_model_helicopters","external_links_name":"E-Sky"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inertial_navigation_system&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"http://www.aerostudents.com/courses/avionics/InertialNavigationSystems.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Basic Principles of Inertial Navigation Seminar on inertial navigation systems\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpgi5gSuBxsC","external_links_name":"Springer Handbook of Robotics"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qYZfzv7oTBQC","external_links_name":"Mobile Robots: Navigation, Control and Remote Sensing"},{"Link":"https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/e-1344.htm","external_links_name":"NASA.gov"},{"Link":"https://www.ijitee.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/v9i2/B7322129219.pdf","external_links_name":"See publication here"},{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-030-14802-7.pdf","external_links_name":"See publication here"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_KcJHzND_8C&pg=PA62","external_links_name":"Synthesis of Embedded Software: Frameworks and Methodologies for Correctness by Construction"},{"Link":"https://www.gps.gov/spectrum/jamming/","external_links_name":"\"GPS.gov: Information About GPS Jamming\""},{"Link":"http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a560811.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Position Estimation for Projectiles Using Low-cost Sensors and Flight Dynamics\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170502014445/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a560811.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://mil-embedded.com/articles/securing-military-gps-spoofing-jamming-vulnerabilities/","external_links_name":"\"Securing military GPS from spoofing and jamming vulnerabilities\""},{"Link":"https://www.army.mil/article/111566/new_guided_munition_sensors_are_greater_than_sum_of_their_parts","external_links_name":"\"New guided munition sensors are greater than sum of their parts\""},{"Link":"https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.html","external_links_name":"\"Sputnik Biographies—Wernher von Braun (1912–1977)\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090328072202/https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/braun.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.globalspec.com/reference/36925/203279/Introduction","external_links_name":"\"Engineering360\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100620235849/http://www.globalspec.com/reference/36925/203279/introduction","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982JGCD....5...97B","external_links_name":"1982JGCD....5...97B"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2514%2F3.19761","external_links_name":"10.2514/3.19761"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20121212235621/http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch9c.html","external_links_name":"\"Technology Push\""},{"Link":"http://www.history.navy.mil/colloquia/cch9c.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/inventingaccurac00dona","external_links_name":"Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/inventingaccurac00dona/page/22","external_links_name":"22"},{"Link":"http://web.mit.edu/digitalapollo/Documents/Chapter5/r500.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Apollo Guidance and Navigation\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160611063715/http://web.mit.edu/digitalapollo/Documents/Chapter5/r500.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPLANS.2004.1308992","external_links_name":"10.1109/PLANS.2004.1308992"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28811547","external_links_name":"28811547"},{"Link":"http://www.northropgrumman.com/Capabilities/HRG/Documents/hrg.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Hemispherical Resonator Gyro: From Wineglass to the Planets, David M. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Biennial | Whitney Biennial | ["1 Artists","2 History","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"] | Contemporary art exhibition in New York City
Whitney BiennialThe banner of the 2006 Whitney Biennial: Day For Night in front of the Whitney MuseumFrequencyBiennialOrganised byWhitney Museum of American Art
The Whitney Biennial is a biennial exhibition of contemporary American art organized by the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City, United States. The event began as an annual exhibition in 1932; the first biennial was in 1973. It is considered the longest-running and most important survey of contemporary art in the United States. The Biennial helped bring artists like Georgia O'Keeffe, Jackson Pollock, and Jeff Koons, among others, to prominence.
Artists
See also: List of Whitney Biennial artists
In 2010, for the first time a majority of the 55 artists included in that survey of contemporary American art were women. The 2012 exhibition featured 51 artists, the smallest number in the event's history.
The fifty-one artists for 2012 were selected by curator Elisabeth Sussman and freelance curator Jay Sanders. It was open for three months up to 27 May 2012 and presented for the first time "heavy weight" on dance, music and theatre. Those performance art variations were open to spectators all day long in a separate floor.
History
The Whitney Museum had a long history beginning in 1932 of having a large group exhibition of invited American artists every year called the 'Whitney Annual'. In the late sixties, it was decided to alternate between painting and sculpture, although by the 1970s the decision was to combine both together in a biennial. The first Biennial occurred in 1973. Since then, the biennials have pursued a different curatorial approach to include all media.
In the past the Whitney Museum has tried different ways to organize its biennial. It has used its own staff members and invited outside curators, including Europeans, to present the show. In 2010 it even asked a former art dealer, Jay Sanders, who would later become a Whitney curator, to help organize one.
The Whitney Biennial often extends to sculpture exhibitions in Central Park. The 2008 edition took over the Park Avenue Armory as a space for performance and installation art. The 2014 Whitney Biennial is the last one in the museum's Marcel Breuer building. The museum is leaving the Upper East Side for the meatpacking district, where it is scheduled to open its new building, designed by Renzo Piano, in 2015.
In 1987, the show was protested by the Guerrilla Girls for its alleged sexism and racism.
Still referred to as the "political" biennial, the 1993 edition included works like Pepón Osorio's installation Scene of the Crime (Whose Crime?) of a Hispanic family's living room and Daniel Joseph Martinez's metal buttons bearing the message "I can't imagine ever wanting to be white." The 1993 Whitney Biennial was the most diverse exhibit by a major American museum up until that time. In 1970 less than 1% of artists at the Whitney Museum were non-white. In 1991, only 10% of artists were non white. Vanessa Faye Johnson stated that despite intentions, the "lack of exchange and dialogue, the simplification of complex issues in the Biennial" effectively cast the artists largely as victims in the eyes of the public. Roberta Smith, an art critic for The New York Times, called it "pious, often arid". The art historian Robert Hughes vehemently criticized lack of painting, and the "wretched pictorial ineptitude" of the artists, dismissed the abundance of text as "useless, boring mock documentation", and mocked the focus on "exclusion and marginalization ... a world made bad for blacks, Latinos, gays, lesbians and women in general." The largely shared sentiment was that the public felt alienated by the confrontational demands of the artwork. It was the first Whitney Biennial to treat video works with the same attention to space as sculpture, designating two entire galleries to them. Text-heavy Installations demanded attention and participation from the audience. The artists made it extremely difficult to take in the work as a passive viewer.
Since 2000, the Bucksbaum Award has been awarded to an artist exhibiting at the Biennial.
The 2014 Whitney Biennial was also somewhat controversial for its lack of diversity, 9 out of the 109 artists were black or African American, including Donelle Woolford, a fictional character developed by 52-year-old white artist Joe Scanlan. She was the only black female artist included in curator Michelle Grabner's exhibition. Eunsong Kim and Maya Isabella Mackrandilal criticized the piece: "The insertion of people of color into white space doesn't make it less colonial or more radical—that's the rhetoric of imperialistic multiculturalism, a bullshit passé theory." and suggest this pieces treats "othered bodies subcontractable."
Additionally, The YAMS Collective, or HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN?, a collective of 38 mostly black and queer artists, writers, composers, academics, filmmakers and performers participated and withdrew from the 2014 Biennial as a protest of the Whitney Museum's policies.
Yams Collective member and artist Sienna Shields said "Every Whitney Biennial I have ever been to, you can barely count the number of black artists in the show on one hand. I didn't want to be a part of that," Shields said. "There are so many amazing artists of color that I have known in the past 12 years in New York that are essentially overlooked. But I just felt it was time for an intervention." Poet Christa Bell explained: "ur entire participation was a protest... Just because people don't know that doesn't mean it is any less of a protest. Withdrawal was the final act of protest. Black people en masse being inside of an institution like the Whitney, presenting art, is itself a form of protest. We just followed it through to its inevitable conclusion."
The 2017 Whitney Biennial featured a controversial painting of Emmett Till, entitled Open Casket by Dana Schutz, which sparked protest and a highly circulated petition calling for the painting to be removed and destroyed.
The 2019 Whitney Biennial was boycotted by a group of artists, in protest of the museum's vice chairman, Warren Kanders. Warren Kanders' companies sell military supplies (teargas and bullets) via Safariland. These bullets were used by Israeli forces and snipers during the 2018–2019 Gaza border protests. The United Nations released a report that claimed Israeli security forces may have committed war crimes and should be held individually and collectively accountable for the deaths of 189 Palestinian protesters in Gaza. As such, the 2019 Whitney Biennial was labelled "The Tear Gas Biennial" by Hannah Black, Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett in an open letter on Artforum. The artists who withdrew from include: Korakrit Arunanondchai, Meriem Bennani, Nicole Eisenman, Nicholas Galanin, Eddie Arroyo, Christine Sun Kim, Agustina Woodgate, and Forensic Architecture. The Forensic Architecture biennial submission, “Triple-Chaser” (2019), collected evidence, ammunition rounds, and eyewitness testimony that links Warren Kanders to the killings and maiming of Palestinians. It is a collaboration with documentary filmmaker Laura Poitras.
See also
2022 Whitney Biennial
2024 Whitney Biennial
Visual arts of the United States
List of Whitney Biennial curators
The Catalog Committee
References
^ The determination of what constitutes "American art" (and whether non-citizens of the United States who work or show in America may be included in the biennial) has been subject to different interpretations by various biennial curators. In 2006, European-born curators Chrissie Iles of the Whitney (English) and Philippe Vergne (French) of Minneapolis's Walker Art Center included a number of non-citizens in their biennial.
^ Reinhard, Scott; Watkins, Derek; DeSANTIS, ALICIA; Taylor, Rumsey; Mitter, Siddhartha (2019-07-05). "Where Does Major American Art Come From? Mapping the Whitney Biennial". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-01-19. the most prestigious American contemporary exhibition
^ Kelly, By Brian P. "Whitney Biennial 2024 Review: Reality Check". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2024-03-14. The most significant—and longest-running—survey of contemporary American art
^ Vartanian, Hrag; Haddad, Hrag Vartanian, Valentina Di Liscia, Natalie (2024-03-14). "First Impressions From the 2024 Whitney Biennial". Hyperallergic. Retrieved 2024-03-14. As the Whitney Museum's signature event, the Biennial is a highly anticipated exhibition that often acts as a barometer of trends and ideas percolating in global art communities, as told through an American lens.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Randy Kennedy (February 8, 2014), Seeking U.S. Art All Over Map. Just Check GPS. Archived August 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine New York Times.
^ Leslie Camhi (February 24, 2010), Art: Women at the 2010 Whitney Biennial Archived July 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Vogue.
^ Ellen Gamerman (March 1, 2012), At the Whitney, the Art Is Moving Archived June 14, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Wall Street Journal.
^ Roberta Smith (March 1, 2012). "A Survey of a Different Color 2012 Whitney Biennial". New York Times (Art Review). Retrieved March 5, 2012.
^ Sascha Verna (March 4, 2012). "Die New Yorker "Whitney Biennial" untersucht die amerikanische Gegenwartskunst". Deutschlandradio Kultur. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
^ a b Carol Vogel (November 29, 2012), Whitney Museum Announces Biennial Plans Archived November 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine New York Times.
^ Michael Kimmelman (March 12, 2004), Touching All Bases At the Biennial Archived May 28, 2015, at the Wayback Machine New York Times.
^ Roberta Smith (March 5, 1993), At the Whitney, A Biennial With A Social Conscience Archived August 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine New York Times.
^ Dickenson, Elanore (2008). "Gender Discrimination in the Art Field". Guerrilla Girls.
^ Johnson, Vanessa Faye (2010). Difference as identity in "The other story" and the 1993 Whitney biennial (MA thesis). University of Louisville. doi:10.18297/etd/697. Retrieved 2016-01-27.
^ Hughes, Robert (1993-03-22). "Art: The Whitney Biennial: A Fiesta of Whining". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 2016-01-27.
^ "What Does Diversity In The Art World Look Like?". The Huffington Post. 16 November 2013. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
^ "The Whitney Biennial for Angry Women". The New Inquiry. 2014-04-04. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
^ "HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN? | Whitney Museum of American Art". whitney.org. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
^ "The Yams, On the Whitney and White Supremacy - artnet News". artnet News. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
^ "The Story Behind the Yams' Whitney Biennial Protest". artnet News. 29 May 2014. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
^ "Painting of Emmett Till at Whitney Biennial Sparks Protest | artnet News". artnet News. 2017-03-21. Retrieved 2017-03-21.
^ "A statement from Hannah Black, Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett regarding Warren Kanders and the 2019 Whitney Biennial".
^ "Forensic Architecture Says Warren Kanders is One Part of a Web of Possible War Crimes in Gaza". 27 May 2019.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Whitney Biennial.
Official website
Artkrush.com interview with 2006 Whitney Biennial co-curator Philippe Vergne (March 2006)
Review of 2006 Whitney Biennial
2008 Whitney Biennial
Whitney Museum of American Art Main Page
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Web Biennial | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/biennial"},{"link_name":"exhibition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_exhibition"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Whitney Museum of American Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Museum_of_American_Art"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Georgia O'Keeffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe"},{"link_name":"Jackson Pollock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Pollock"},{"link_name":"Jeff Koons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Koons"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The Whitney Biennial is a biennial exhibition of contemporary American[1] art organized by the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City, United States. The event began as an annual exhibition in 1932; the first biennial was in 1973. It is considered the longest-running and most important survey of contemporary art in the United States.[2][3][4] The Biennial helped bring artists like Georgia O'Keeffe, Jackson Pollock, and Jeff Koons, among others, to prominence.[5]","title":"Whitney Biennial"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Whitney Biennial artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Whitney_Biennial_artists"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2012a-8"},{"link_name":"performance art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_art"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRK2012a-9"}],"text":"See also: List of Whitney Biennial artistsIn 2010, for the first time a majority of the 55 artists included in that survey of contemporary American art were women.[6] The 2012 exhibition featured 51 artists, the smallest number in the event's history.[7]The fifty-one artists for 2012 were selected by curator Elisabeth Sussman and freelance curator Jay Sanders.[8] It was open for three months up to 27 May 2012 and presented for the first time \"heavy weight\" on dance, music and theatre. Those performance art variations were open to spectators all day long in a separate floor.[9]","title":"Artists"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes.com-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Renzo Piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renzo_Piano"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes.com-10"},{"link_name":"Guerrilla Girls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrilla_Girls"},{"link_name":"sexism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexism"},{"link_name":"racism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism"},{"link_name":"Pepón Osorio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pep%C3%B3n_Osorio"},{"link_name":"Daniel Joseph Martinez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Joseph_Martinez"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Bucksbaum Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucksbaum_Award"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Michelle Grabner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Grabner"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Emmett Till","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmett_Till"},{"link_name":"Open Casket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Casket"},{"link_name":"Dana Schutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_Schutz"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Warren Kanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Kanders"},{"link_name":"Safariland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safariland"},{"link_name":"2018–2019 Gaza border protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Gaza_border_protests"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"war crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes"},{"link_name":"Hannah Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Black"},{"link_name":"Ciarán Finlayson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ciar%C3%A1n_Finlayson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tobi Haslett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobi_Haslett"},{"link_name":"Artforum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artforum"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Korakrit Arunanondchai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korakrit_Arunanondchai"},{"link_name":"Meriem Bennani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meriem_Bennani"},{"link_name":"Nicole Eisenman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Eisenman"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Galanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Galanin"},{"link_name":"Eddie Arroyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eddie_Arroyo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Christine Sun Kim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Sun_Kim"},{"link_name":"Agustina Woodgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agustina_Woodgate"},{"link_name":"Forensic Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_Architecture"},{"link_name":"Laura Poitras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Poitras"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"The Whitney Museum had a long history beginning in 1932 of having a large group exhibition of invited American artists every year called the 'Whitney Annual'. In the late sixties, it was decided to alternate between painting and sculpture, although by the 1970s the decision was to combine both together in a biennial. The first Biennial occurred in 1973. Since then, the biennials have pursued a different curatorial approach to include all media.In the past the Whitney Museum has tried different ways to organize its biennial. It has used its own staff members and invited outside curators, including Europeans, to present the show. In 2010 it even asked a former art dealer, Jay Sanders, who would later become a Whitney curator, to help organize one.[10]The Whitney Biennial often extends to sculpture exhibitions in Central Park.[11] The 2008 edition took over the Park Avenue Armory as a space for performance and installation art. The 2014 Whitney Biennial is the last one in the museum's Marcel Breuer building. The museum is leaving the Upper East Side for the meatpacking district, where it is scheduled to open its new building, designed by Renzo Piano, in 2015.[10]In 1987, the show was protested by the Guerrilla Girls for its alleged sexism and racism.Still referred to as the \"political\" biennial, the 1993 edition included works like Pepón Osorio's installation Scene of the Crime (Whose Crime?) of a Hispanic family's living room and Daniel Joseph Martinez's metal buttons bearing the message \"I can't imagine ever wanting to be white.\"[12] The 1993 Whitney Biennial was the most diverse exhibit by a major American museum up until that time.[13] In 1970 less than 1% of artists at the Whitney Museum were non-white. In 1991, only 10% of artists were non white. Vanessa Faye Johnson stated that despite intentions, the \"lack of exchange and dialogue, the simplification of complex issues in the Biennial\" effectively cast the artists largely as victims in the eyes of the public. Roberta Smith, an art critic for The New York Times, called it \"pious, [and] often arid\".[14] The art historian Robert Hughes vehemently criticized lack of painting, and the \"wretched pictorial ineptitude\" of the artists, dismissed the abundance of text as \"useless, boring mock documentation\", and mocked the focus on \"exclusion and marginalization ... [in] a world made bad for blacks, Latinos, gays, lesbians and women in general.[15]\" The largely shared sentiment was that the public felt alienated by the confrontational demands of the artwork. It was the first Whitney Biennial to treat video works with the same attention to space as sculpture, designating two entire galleries to them. Text-heavy Installations demanded attention and participation from the audience. The artists made it extremely difficult to take in the work as a passive viewer.Since 2000, the Bucksbaum Award has been awarded to an artist exhibiting at the Biennial.The 2014 Whitney Biennial was also somewhat controversial for its lack of diversity, 9 out of the 109 artists were black or African American,[16] including Donelle Woolford, a fictional character developed by 52-year-old white artist Joe Scanlan. She was the only black female artist included in curator Michelle Grabner's exhibition. Eunsong Kim and Maya Isabella Mackrandilal criticized the piece: \"The insertion of people of color into white space doesn't make it less colonial or more radical—that's the rhetoric of imperialistic multiculturalism, a bullshit passé theory.\" and suggest this pieces treats \"othered bodies [as] subcontractable.[17]\"Additionally, The YAMS Collective, or HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN?, a collective of 38 mostly black and queer artists, writers, composers, academics, filmmakers and performers participated and withdrew from the 2014 Biennial[18] as a protest of the Whitney Museum's policies.[19]Yams Collective member and artist Sienna Shields said \"Every Whitney Biennial I have ever been to, you can barely count the number of black artists in the show on one hand. I didn't want to be a part of that,\" Shields said. \"There are so many amazing artists of color that I have known in the past 12 years in New York that are essentially overlooked. But I just felt it was time for an intervention.\" Poet Christa Bell explained: \"[O]ur entire participation was a protest... Just because people don't know that doesn't mean it is any less of a protest. Withdrawal was the final act of protest. Black people en masse being inside of an institution like the Whitney, presenting art, is itself a form of protest. We just followed it through to its inevitable conclusion.\"[20]The 2017 Whitney Biennial featured a controversial painting of Emmett Till, entitled Open Casket by Dana Schutz, which sparked protest and a highly circulated petition calling for the painting to be removed and destroyed.[21]The 2019 Whitney Biennial was boycotted by a group of artists, in protest of the museum's vice chairman, Warren Kanders. Warren Kanders' companies sell military supplies (teargas and bullets) via Safariland. These bullets were used by Israeli forces and snipers during the 2018–2019 Gaza border protests. The United Nations released a report that claimed Israeli security forces may have committed war crimes and should be held individually and collectively accountable for the deaths of 189 Palestinian protesters in Gaza. As such, the 2019 Whitney Biennial was labelled \"The Tear Gas Biennial\" by Hannah Black, Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett in an open letter on Artforum.[22] The artists who withdrew from include: Korakrit Arunanondchai, Meriem Bennani, Nicole Eisenman, Nicholas Galanin, Eddie Arroyo, Christine Sun Kim, Agustina Woodgate, and Forensic Architecture. The Forensic Architecture biennial submission, “Triple-Chaser” (2019), collected evidence, ammunition rounds, and eyewitness testimony that links Warren Kanders to the killings and maiming of Palestinians. It is a collaboration with documentary filmmaker Laura Poitras.[23]","title":"History"}] | [] | [{"title":"2022 Whitney Biennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Whitney_Biennial"},{"title":"2024 Whitney Biennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Whitney_Biennial"},{"title":"Visual arts of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_United_States"},{"title":"List of Whitney Biennial curators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Whitney_Biennial_curators"},{"title":"The Catalog Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Catalog_Committee"}] | [{"reference":"Reinhard, Scott; Watkins, Derek; DeSANTIS, ALICIA; Taylor, Rumsey; Mitter, Siddhartha (2019-07-05). \"Where Does Major American Art Come From? Mapping the Whitney Biennial\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-01-19. the most prestigious American contemporary exhibition","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/07/05/arts/design/whitney-biennial-maps.html","url_text":"\"Where Does Major American Art Come From? Mapping the Whitney Biennial\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"Kelly, By Brian P. \"Whitney Biennial 2024 Review: Reality Check\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2024-03-14. The most significant—and longest-running—survey of contemporary American art","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/arts-culture/fine-art/whitney-biennial-2024-review-reality-check-airdigital-29c4f7db","url_text":"\"Whitney Biennial 2024 Review: Reality Check\""}]},{"reference":"Vartanian, Hrag; Haddad, Hrag Vartanian, Valentina Di Liscia, Natalie (2024-03-14). \"First Impressions From the 2024 Whitney Biennial\". Hyperallergic. Retrieved 2024-03-14. As the Whitney Museum's signature event, the Biennial is a highly anticipated exhibition that often acts as a barometer of trends and ideas percolating in global art communities, as told through an American lens.","urls":[{"url":"http://hyperallergic.com/877662/first-impressions-from-the-2024-whitney-biennial/","url_text":"\"First Impressions From the 2024 Whitney Biennial\""}]},{"reference":"Roberta Smith (March 1, 2012). \"A Survey of a Different Color 2012 Whitney Biennial\". New York Times (Art Review). Retrieved March 5, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/02/arts/design/2012-whitney-biennial.html?pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"A Survey of a Different Color 2012 Whitney Biennial\""}]},{"reference":"Sascha Verna (March 4, 2012). \"Die New Yorker \"Whitney Biennial\" untersucht die amerikanische Gegenwartskunst\". Deutschlandradio Kultur. Retrieved March 5, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dradio.de/dlf/sendungen/kulturheute/1693725/","url_text":"\"Die New Yorker \"Whitney Biennial\" untersucht die amerikanische Gegenwartskunst\""}]},{"reference":"Dickenson, Elanore (2008). \"Gender Discrimination in the Art Field\". Guerrilla Girls.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Johnson, Vanessa Faye (2010). Difference as identity in \"The other story\" and the 1993 Whitney biennial (MA thesis). University of Louisville. doi:10.18297/etd/697. Retrieved 2016-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://ir.library.louisville.edu/etd/697/","url_text":"Difference as identity in \"The other story\" and the 1993 Whitney biennial"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.18297%2Fetd%2F697","url_text":"10.18297/etd/697"}]},{"reference":"Hughes, Robert (1993-03-22). \"Art: The Whitney Biennial: A Fiesta of Whining\". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 2016-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,978001,00.html","url_text":"\"Art: The Whitney Biennial: A Fiesta of Whining\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X","url_text":"0040-781X"}]},{"reference":"\"What Does Diversity In The Art World Look Like?\". The Huffington Post. 16 November 2013. Retrieved 2016-01-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/16/whitney-biennial-2014_n_4283531.html","url_text":"\"What Does Diversity In The Art World Look Like?\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Whitney Biennial for Angry Women\". The New Inquiry. 2014-04-04. Retrieved 2016-01-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/the-whitney-biennial-for-angry-women/","url_text":"\"The Whitney Biennial for Angry Women\""}]},{"reference":"\"HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN? | Whitney Museum of American Art\". whitney.org. Retrieved 2016-01-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://whitney.org/Exhibitions/2014Biennial/HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN","url_text":"\"HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN? | Whitney Museum of American Art\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Yams, On the Whitney and White Supremacy - artnet News\". artnet News. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 2016-01-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/the-yams-on-the-whitney-and-white-supremacy-30364","url_text":"\"The Yams, On the Whitney and White Supremacy - artnet News\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Story Behind the Yams' Whitney Biennial Protest\". artnet News. 29 May 2014. Retrieved 2016-01-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/the-story-behind-the-yams-whitney-biennial-protest-30296","url_text":"\"The Story Behind the Yams' Whitney Biennial Protest\""}]},{"reference":"\"Painting of Emmett Till at Whitney Biennial Sparks Protest | artnet News\". artnet News. 2017-03-21. Retrieved 2017-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/dana-schutz-painting-emmett-till-whitney-biennial-protest-897929","url_text":"\"Painting of Emmett Till at Whitney Biennial Sparks Protest | artnet News\""}]},{"reference":"\"A statement from Hannah Black, Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett regarding Warren Kanders and the 2019 Whitney Biennial\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.artforum.com/slant/hannah-black-ciaran-finlayson-and-tobi-haslett-on-the-2019-whitney-biennial-80328","url_text":"\"A statement from Hannah Black, Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett regarding Warren Kanders and the 2019 Whitney Biennial\""}]},{"reference":"\"Forensic Architecture Says Warren Kanders is One Part of a Web of Possible War Crimes in Gaza\". 27 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://hyperallergic.com/500887/forensic-architecture-says-warren-kanders-is-one-part-of-a-web-of-possible-war-crimes-in-gaza/","url_text":"\"Forensic Architecture Says Warren Kanders is One Part of a Web of Possible War Crimes in Gaza\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/07/05/arts/design/whitney-biennial-maps.html","external_links_name":"\"Where Does Major American Art Come From? Mapping the Whitney Biennial\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/arts-culture/fine-art/whitney-biennial-2024-review-reality-check-airdigital-29c4f7db","external_links_name":"\"Whitney Biennial 2024 Review: Reality Check\""},{"Link":"http://hyperallergic.com/877662/first-impressions-from-the-2024-whitney-biennial/","external_links_name":"\"First Impressions From the 2024 Whitney Biennial\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/arts/design/seeking-us-art-all-over-map-just-check-gps.html","external_links_name":"Seeking U.S. Art All Over Map. Just Check GPS."},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150829084621/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/09/arts/design/seeking-us-art-all-over-map-just-check-gps.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.vogue.com/culture/article/vd-art-women-at-the-2010-whitney-biennial/#1","external_links_name":"Art: Women at the 2010 Whitney Biennial"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130718095505/http://www.vogue.com/culture/article/vd-art-women-at-the-2010-whitney-biennial/#1","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203986604577253300411468924#","external_links_name":"At the Whitney, the Art Is Moving"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130614013136/http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203986604577253300411468924.html#","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/02/arts/design/2012-whitney-biennial.html?pagewanted=all","external_links_name":"\"A Survey of a Different Color 2012 Whitney Biennial\""},{"Link":"http://www.dradio.de/dlf/sendungen/kulturheute/1693725/","external_links_name":"\"Die New Yorker \"Whitney Biennial\" untersucht die amerikanische Gegenwartskunst\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/30/arts/design/whitney-museum-announces-biennial-plans.html","external_links_name":"Whitney Museum Announces Biennial Plans"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131116030250/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/30/arts/design/whitney-museum-announces-biennial-plans.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/12/arts/art-review-touching-all-bases-at-the-biennial.html","external_links_name":"Touching All Bases At the Biennial"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150528032328/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/12/arts/art-review-touching-all-bases-at-the-biennial.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/05/arts/at-the-whitney-a-biennial-with-a-social-conscience.html","external_links_name":"At the Whitney, A Biennial With A Social Conscience"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160827121030/http://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/05/arts/at-the-whitney-a-biennial-with-a-social-conscience.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://ir.library.louisville.edu/etd/697/","external_links_name":"Difference as identity in \"The other story\" and the 1993 Whitney biennial"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.18297%2Fetd%2F697","external_links_name":"10.18297/etd/697"},{"Link":"http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,978001,00.html","external_links_name":"\"Art: The Whitney Biennial: A Fiesta of Whining\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X","external_links_name":"0040-781X"},{"Link":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/16/whitney-biennial-2014_n_4283531.html","external_links_name":"\"What Does Diversity In The Art World Look Like?\""},{"Link":"http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/the-whitney-biennial-for-angry-women/","external_links_name":"\"The Whitney Biennial for Angry Women\""},{"Link":"http://whitney.org/Exhibitions/2014Biennial/HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN","external_links_name":"\"HOWDOYOUSAYYAMINAFRICAN? | Whitney Museum of American Art\""},{"Link":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/the-yams-on-the-whitney-and-white-supremacy-30364","external_links_name":"\"The Yams, On the Whitney and White Supremacy - artnet News\""},{"Link":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/the-story-behind-the-yams-whitney-biennial-protest-30296","external_links_name":"\"The Story Behind the Yams' Whitney Biennial Protest\""},{"Link":"https://news.artnet.com/art-world/dana-schutz-painting-emmett-till-whitney-biennial-protest-897929","external_links_name":"\"Painting of Emmett Till at Whitney Biennial Sparks Protest | artnet News\""},{"Link":"https://www.artforum.com/slant/hannah-black-ciaran-finlayson-and-tobi-haslett-on-the-2019-whitney-biennial-80328","external_links_name":"\"A statement from Hannah Black, Ciarán Finlayson, and Tobi Haslett regarding Warren Kanders and the 2019 Whitney Biennial\""},{"Link":"https://hyperallergic.com/500887/forensic-architecture-says-warren-kanders-is-one-part-of-a-web-of-possible-war-crimes-in-gaza/","external_links_name":"\"Forensic Architecture Says Warren Kanders is One Part of a Web of Possible War Crimes in Gaza\""},{"Link":"http://www.whitney.org/biennial/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071012185043/http://www.artkrush.com/mailer/issue27/interview/index.html","external_links_name":"Artkrush.com interview with 2006 Whitney Biennial co-curator Philippe Vergne (March 2006)"},{"Link":"http://www.artnexus.com/Notice_View.aspx?DocumentID=17183","external_links_name":"Review of 2006 Whitney Biennial"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090306170333/http://www.artinfo.com/galleryguide/exhibition/19588/6132/114510/2008-whitney-biennial/","external_links_name":"2008 Whitney Biennial"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091113141524/http://preview.whitney.org/","external_links_name":"Whitney Museum of American Art Main Page"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_split | Stock split | ["1 Effects","2 Split ratios","3 Example","4 Currency","5 Effect on historical charts","6 See also","7 References"] | Increasing the number of shares in a company, without dilution or change in total capitalization
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A stock split or stock divide increases the number of shares in a company. For example, after a 2-for-1 split, each investor will own double the number of shares, and each share will be worth half as much.
A stock split causes a decrease of market price of individual shares, but does not change the total market capitalization of the company: stock dilution does not occur.
A company may split its stock when the market price per share is so high that it becomes unwieldy when traded. One of the reasons is that a very high share price may deter small investors from buying the shares. Stock splits are usually initiated after a large run up in share price.
Effects
The main effect of stock splits is an increase in the liquidity of a stock: there are more buyers and sellers for 10 shares at $10 than 1 share at $100.
Some companies avoid a stock split to obtain the opposite strategy: by refusing to split the stock and keeping the price high, they reduce trading volume. Berkshire Hathaway is a notable example of this. As of 2023, the company has never split its stock and trades at over US$500,000.
Other effects could be psychological. If many investors believe that a stock split will result in an increased share price and purchase the stock the share price will tend to increase. Others contend that the management of a company, by initiating a stock split, is implicitly signaling its confidence in the future prospects of the company.
In a market where there is a high minimum number of shares, or a penalty for trading in so-called odd lots (a non multiple of some arbitrary number of shares), a reduced share price may attract more attention from small investors. Small investors such as these, however, will have negligible impact on the overall price.
Split ratios
Ratios of 2-for-1, 3-for-1, and 3-for-2 splits are the most common, but any ratio is possible. Splits of 4-for-3, 5-for-2, and 5-for-4 are used, though less frequently. Investors will sometimes receive cash payments in lieu of fractional shares.
In the above examples ‘y-for-x’ Shows the number of shares before (x) and after (y). Other common reporting nomenclatures are ‘x-y’ and ‘stock dividend’ of y-x. In the above ‘3-for-1’ example (or 1-3 and 2 share stock dividend) would mean a stockholder holding 100 shares (on record date) will receive 200 new shares after the split for those 100 shares.
Example
A company which has 100 issued shares priced at $50 per share, has a market capitalization of $5000 = 100 × $50. If the company splits its stock 2-for-1, there are now 200 shares of stock and each shareholder holds twice as many shares. The price of each share is adjusted to $25 = $5000 / 200. The market capitalization is 200 × $25 = $5000, the same as before the split.
Currency
The analog in currency would be redenomination. This would be where a currency increases in value so that people have to use small fractions. Then a new unit (such as dollar) can be introduced, such that an old unit is equal to 10 (or some number) new units.
An example is with the Australian currency. In 1966 the Australian pound was split into two Australian dollars.
Effect on historical charts
When a stock splits, many charts show it similarly to a dividend payout and therefore do not show a dramatic dip in price. Taking the same example as above, a company with 100 shares of stock priced at $50 per share. The company splits its stock 2-for-1. There are now 200 shares of stock and each shareholder holds twice as many shares.
The price of each share is adjusted to $25. As a result, when looking at a historical chart, one might expect to see the stock dropping from $50 to $25. To avoid these discontinuities, many charts use what is known as an adjusted share price; that is, they divide all closing prices before the split by the split ratio. Thus, when looking at the charts it will seem as if the price was always $25. Both the Yahoo! historical price charts and the Google historical price charts show the adjusted close prices.
See also
Reverse stock split
Share repurchase also known as stock buyback
Market depth
References
^ "Stock Splits". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. 2010-03-29. Retrieved 2014-06-05.
^ "Why Do Companies Split Stocks? - ModernAgeBank". 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
^ Saldanha, Ruth (August 18, 2020). "What is a Stock Split?". Morningstar.ca. Retrieved August 19, 2020.
^ "COMMONLY ASKED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS". www.sec.gov. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
^ Yahoo Finance Historical Charts
^ Google Finance Historical Charts
vteFinancial marketsTypes of markets
Primary market
Secondary market
Third market
Fourth market
Types of stocks
Common stock
Golden share
Preferred stock
Restricted stock
Tracking stock
Share capital
Authorised capital
Issued shares
Shares outstanding
Treasury stock
Participants
Broker
Floor broker
Inter-dealer broker
Broker-dealer
Market maker
Trader
Floor trader
Proprietary trader
Quantitative analyst
Investor
Hedger
Speculator
Arbitrager
Scalper
Regulator
Trading venues
Exchange
List of stock exchanges
Trading hours
Over-the-counter (off-exchange)
Alternative Trading System (ATS)
Multilateral trading facility (MTF)
Electronic communication network (ECN)
Direct market access (DMA)
Straight-through processing (STP)
Dark pool (private exchange)
Crossing network
Liquidity aggregator
Stock valuation
Alpha
Arbitrage pricing theory (APT)
Beta
Buffett indicator (Cap-to-GDP)
Book value (BV)
Capital asset pricing model (CAPM)
Capital market line (CML)
Dividend discount model (DDM)
Dividend yield
Earnings yield
EV/EBITDA
Fed model
Net asset value (NAV)
Security characteristic line
Security market line (SML)
T-model
Trading theories and strategies
Algorithmic trading
Buy and hold
Contrarian investing
Dollar cost averaging
Efficient-market hypothesis (EMH)
Fundamental analysis
Growth stock
Market timing
Modern portfolio theory (MPT)
Momentum investing
Mosaic theory
Pairs trade
Post-modern portfolio theory (PMPT)
Random walk hypothesis (RMH)
Sector rotation
Style investing
Swing trading
Technical analysis
Trend following
Value averaging
Value investing
Related terms
Bid–ask spread
Block trade
Cross listing
Dividend
Dual-listed company
DuPont analysis
Efficient frontier
Financial law
Flight-to-quality
Government bond
Greenspan put
Haircut
Initial public offering (IPO)
Long
Mandatory offer
Margin
Market anomaly
Market capitalization
Market depth
Market manipulation
Market trend
Mean reversion
Momentum
Open outcry
Order book
Position
Public float
Public offering
Rally
Returns-based style analysis
Reverse stock split
Share repurchase
Short selling
Slippage
Speculation
Squeeze-out
Stock dilution
Stock exchange
Stock market index
Stock split
Stock swap
Trade
Tender offer
Uptick rule
Volatility
Voting interest
Yield | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"shares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock"},{"link_name":"company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company"},{"link_name":"market capitalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_capitalization"},{"link_name":"stock dilution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_dilution"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SECAnswers-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"A stock split or stock divide increases the number of shares in a company. For example, after a 2-for-1 split, each investor will own double the number of shares, and each share will be worth half as much. \nA stock split causes a decrease of market price of individual shares, but does not change the total market capitalization of the company: stock dilution does not occur.[1]A company may split its stock when the market price per share is so high that it becomes unwieldy when traded. 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Splits of 4-for-3, 5-for-2, and 5-for-4 are used, though less frequently. Investors will sometimes receive cash payments in lieu of fractional shares.In the above examples ‘y-for-x’ Shows the number of shares before (x) and after (y). Other common reporting nomenclatures are ‘x-y’ and ‘stock dividend’ of [=]y-x. In the above ‘3-for-1’ example (or 1-3 and 2 share stock dividend) would mean a stockholder holding 100 shares (on record date) will receive 200 new shares after the split for those 100 shares.","title":"Split ratios"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"A company which has 100 issued shares priced at $50 per share, has a market capitalization of $5000 = 100 × $50. If the company splits its stock 2-for-1, there are now 200 shares of stock and each shareholder holds twice as many shares. The price of each share is adjusted to $25 = $5000 / 200. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_sharing | Image sharing | ["1 History","2 Revenue models","2.1 Subscription-based","3 Sharing methods","3.1 Peer-to-peer","3.2 Peer-to-server","3.3 Peer-to-browser","3.4 Social networks","3.5 Link aggregation sites","3.6 Mobile","3.7 Apps","4 Technologies","4.1 Web photo album generators","4.2 Image classification","4.3 Photo tagging","4.4 Geotagging","5 Criticism","5.1 Privacy","6 Purposes","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | Publishing or transfer of photos online
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Image sharing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
A photo shared on the Instagram app
Image sharing, or photo sharing, is the publishing or transfer of digital photos online. Image sharing websites offer services such as uploading, hosting, managing and sharing of photos (publicly or privately). This function is provided through both websites and applications that facilitate the upload and display of images. The term can also be loosely applied to the use of online photo galleries that are set up and managed by individual users, including photoblogs. Sharing means that other users can view but not necessarily download images, and users can select different copyright options for their images.
While photoblogs tend only to display a chronological view of user-selected medium-sized photos, most photo sharing sites provide multiple views (such as thumbnails and slideshows), the ability to classify photos into albums, and add annotations (such as captions or tags).
Desktop photo management applications may include their own photo-sharing features or integration with sites for uploading images to them. There are also desktop applications whose sole function is sharing images, generally using peer-to-peer networking. Basic image sharing functionality can be found in applications that allow you to email photos, for example by dragging and dropping them into pre-designed templates.
Photo sharing is not confined to the web and personal computers, but is also possible from portable devices such as camera phones, either directly or via MMS. Some cameras now come equipped with wireless networking and similar sharing functionality themselves.
History
The first photo sharing sites originated during the mid to late 1990s, primarily from services providing online ordering of prints (photo finishing), but many more came into being during the early 2000s with the goal of providing permanent and centralized access to a user's photos, and in some cases video clips too. Webshots, SmugMug, Yahoo! Photos and Flickr were among the first. This has resulted in different approaches to revenue generation and functionality among providers.
In 1995, Webshots was one of the first online photo sharing platforms. Webshots offered an easy-to-use interface and basic photo editing tools. In 2002, SmugMug was founded, focusing on providing a high-quality photo sharing experience for professional photographers. SmugMug offers features such as custom photo galleries and e-commerce options. In 2003, Yahoo! Photos was one of the most popular photo sharing platforms thanks to its integration with Yahoo's email and search services. In 2004, Flickr was founded, quickly becoming popular due to its vibrant photography community and effective tagging system.
The 2010s saw the rise of mobile apps and cloud storage. The advent of smartphones with high-quality cameras and the availability of cloud storage services such as Google Photos, Dropbox, and iCloud Photo Library revolutionized the way people take, store, and access their photos. Mobile apps such as Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok emerged, offering a simple and socially focused photo sharing experience. These apps met the need for instant sharing with friends and followers.
In recent years, AI and machine learning have become increasingly integrated into photo sharing platforms. AI is being used to improve image quality, automatically tag images with relevant keywords, detect and filter inappropriate content, and create new effects and filters. AI has the potential to revolutionize the way people share photos, making it easier for them to share better-looking images and find relevant images.
Revenue models
Image sharing sites can be broadly broken up into two groups: sites that offer photo sharing for free and sites that charge consumers directly to host and share images.
Of the sites that offer free photo sharing, most can be broken up into advertising-supported media plays and online photo finishing sites, where photo sharing is a vehicle to sell prints or other merchandise. These designations are not strict, and some subscription sites have a limited free version. Consumers can share their photos directly from their home computers over high speed connections through peer-to-peer photo sharing using applications. Peer-to-peer photo sharing often carries a small one-time cost for the software. Some sites allow you to post your pictures online and they will then project the image onto famous buildings during special events, while other sites let you insert photos into digital postcards, slide shows and photo albums and send them to others.
Some free sites are owned by camera manufacturers, and only accept photos made with their hardware.
Subscription-based
In return for a fee, subscription-based photo sharing sites offer their services without the distraction of advertisements or promotions for prints and gifts. They may also have other enhancements over free services, such as guarantees regarding the online availability of photos, more storage space, the ability for non-account holders to download full-size, original versions of photos, and tools for backing up photos. Some offer user photographs for sale, splitting the proceeds with the photographer, while others may use a disclaimer to reserve the right to use or sell the photos without giving the photographer royalties or notice.
Some image sharing sites have begun integrating video sharing as well.
Sharing methods
Peer-to-peer
With the introduction of high speed (broadband) connections directly to homes, it is feasible to share images and videos without going through a central service. The advantages of peer-to-peer sharing are reduced hosting costs and no loss of control to a central service. The downsides are that the consumer does not get the benefit of off-site backup; consumer Internet service providers (ISPs) often prohibit the serving of content both by contract and through the implementation of network filtering, and there are few quality guarantees for recipients. However, there are typically no direct consumer costs beyond the purchase of the initial software, provided the consumer already has a computer with the photos at home on a high speed connection. Applications like Tonido provide peer-to-peer photo sharing.
Peer-to-server
Operating peer-to-peer solutions without a central server can create problems as some users do not leave their computers online and connected all the time. Using an always-on server like Windows Home Server which acts as an intermediate point, it is possible to share images peer-to-peer with the reliability and security of a central server. Images are securely stored behind a firewall on the Windows Home Server and can be accessed only by those with appropriate permissions.
Peer-to-browser
A variation on the peer-to-peer model is peer-to-browser, whereby images are shared on one PC with the use of a local (on the host computer) software service (much like peer-to-peer) but made available to the viewer through a standard web browser. Technically speaking, this may still be described as peer-to-peer (with the second peer being a web browser) but it is characteristically different as it assumes no need to download peer software for the viewer. Photos are accessed by regular URLs that standard web browsers understand natively without any further software required. Consequently, photos shared in this way are accessible not only to users who have downloaded the correct peer software (compatible with the software in use by the sharer).
Peer-to-browser sharing has (similar to peer-to-peer) reduced hosting costs, no loss of control to a central service, and no waiting for files to upload to the central service. Furthermore, universal web browser access to shared files makes them more widely accessible and available for use in different ways, such as embedding in, or linking to, from within web pages. As with peer-to-peer, the downsides are lack of off-site backup, possible inhibition by some ISPs, and limitations in speed of serving.
Social networks
With the emergence of social networks, image sharing has now become a common online activity. For example, in Great Britain, 70% of online users engaged in image sharing in 2013; 64% of British users shared their photos through a social network. Facebook stated in 2015 that there were approximately two billion images uploaded to its service daily. In terms of image sharing, Facebook is the largest social networking service. On Facebook, people can upload and share their photo albums individually, and collaboratively with shared albums. This feature allows multiple users to upload pictures to the same album, and the album's creator has the ability to add or delete contributors. Twitter collaborated with Photobucket in developing a new photo sharing service so users can attach a picture to a tweet without depending on another application such as TwitPic or Yfrog. As of June 2016, there were more than 500 million monthly active Instagram users.
Link aggregation sites
Image sharing on social news and image aggregation sites such as Reddit, Imgur, 4chan, Pinterest and Tumblr allow users to share images with a large community of users. Images are the most liked content of the aggregation and media sharing site Reddit; and according to data analyst Randy Olson as of August 2014, nearly 2/3 of all successful posts on the site were links to an image hosted on Imgur.
Mobile
Sharing images via mobile phones has become popular. Several networks and applications have sprung up offering capabilities to share captured photos directly from mobile phones to social networks. The most prominent of these is Instagram, which has quickly become the dominant image sharing-centric social network with over 500 million members. Other applications and networks offering similar service and growing in popularity include Streamzoo, Path, PicsArt, Piictu, and Starmatic.
Apps
Instagram, Snapchat, and Nice are examples of photo sharing apps with millions of users.
Technologies
Web photo album generators
See also: Comparison of photo gallery software
Software can be found on the Internet to generate digital photo albums, usually to share photos on the web, using a home web server. In general, this is for advanced users that want to have better control over the appearance of their web albums and the actual servers they are going to run on.
Image classification
Image sharing sites usually propose several ways to classify images. Most sites propose at least a taxonomy where images can be grouped within a directory-like structure in so-called "galleries". Some sites also allow users to classify images using tags to build a folksonomy. Depending on the restrictions on the set of users allowed to tag a single document and the set of tags available to describe the document, one speaks about narrow and broad folksonomies. A folksonomy is broad when there is no restriction on the set of taggers and available tags. When there are limitations, the folksonomy is called narrow. Another mechanism is coupling taxonomy and folksonomy, where tags associated to galleries and artists are cascaded to the galleries and artist's pictures. Broad taxonomies have interesting properties like the power law.
The use of Artificial Intelligence to classify uploaded photos by subject, theme, or location is a prominent feature of Raise that Canon-USA launched early March 2019.
Photo tagging
See also: Social bookmarking
Photo tagging is the process that allows users to tag and group photos of an individual or individuals. With facial recognition software tagging photos can become quicker and easier; the more tagging done of an individual the more accurate the software can be. This type of software is currently in use on Facebook. Photo tagging is a way of labeling photos so that viewers can know who is who in the picture. On most online photo sharing sites such as Facebook, a tag can also be used as a link that when clicked will take you to the person's profile that was tagged. Most of the time photos can only be tagged by the user to uploads the photo but on some sites photos can be tagged by other users as well. These tags can be searched for across the entire Internet, on separate websites or in private data bases. They can be used for crowdsourced classification (see the section on image classification) but can also play a socio-cultural role in that they can establish neologisms, Internet memes, snowclones, slogans, catch phrases, shared vocabularies and categorizations as well as producing comedic twists, contexts and perspectives of the presented images, and hence often play a significant role in the community building and identity formation of and the entertainment in online communities that allow the creation of broad folksonomies.
Geotagging
Main article: Geotagging
Geotagging a photo is the process in which a photo is marked with the geographical identification of the place it was taken. Most technology with photo taking capabilities are equipped with GPS system sensors that routinely geotag photos and videos. Crowdsourced data available from photo-sharing services have the potentiality of tracking places. Geotagging can reveal the footprints and behaviors of travelers by utilizing spatial proximity of geo-tagged photos that are shared online, making it possible to extract travel information relating to a particular location. Instagram, Flickr, and Panoramio are a few services that provide the option of geotagging images. Flickr has over 40 million geotagged photos uploaded by 400 thousand users, and still growing at a rapid pace. Some sites including Panoramio and Wikimedia Commons show their geocoded photographs on a map, helping the user find pictures of the same or nearby objects from different directions.
Criticism
Critics of image/photo sharing are concerned with the use of applications such as Instagram, because they believe that the behaviors portrayed on these sites could potentially be linked to the narcissism trait. Keen argues that "Self" is running digital culture, and he states that people use social-media platforms because they are interested in advertising themselves. Buffardi and Campbell (2008) also alleged that Instagram offers "a gateway for self-promotion via self-descriptions, vanity via photos, and a large amount of shallow relationships." However, they later said that the large number of users suggests the general psychology of the members is normative.
Privacy
See also: Privacy concerns with social networking services
Privacy activists and researchers have noted that the sharing of images on social networks may compromise the privacy of people depicted in them. Further, most current social networks afford their users little control over content that they did not post themselves. In its privacy policy, Facebook states that any information posted using its service, including images, may be used to display relevant ads to its users. Facebook utilizes automatic facial recognition software that can automatically recognize the face of another Facebook user in new photos, and suggest that the user be tagged in the photo. A Ghent University study found that employers commonly search for prospective employees on Facebook, and may decide whether or not to grant an interview based on the person's profile picture.
Purposes
The increasing ease of use has encouraged image sharing in insurance, including crop insurance. The insurance company and farmer have a shared interest in the current state of a field. This method allows crop health to be monitored more quickly and easily than any other way.
See also
Digital photo frame
File hosting service
File sharing
Image hosting service
List of image-sharing websites
List of photo and video apps
Timeline of file sharing
References
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^ "Facebook adds video sharing to Instagram". ABS-CBN News. 2013-07-21. Retrieved 2016-10-22.
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^ "Secure online photo sharing with Windows Home Server and Community Add-Ins". Windows Home Server Team Blog. Retrieved 2016-10-22.
^ Malik, Aqdas; Dhir, Amandeep; Nieminen, Marko (2016-02-01). "Uses and Gratifications of digital photo sharing on Facebook". Telematics and Informatics. 33 (1): 129–138. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2015.06.009. S2CID 550229.
^ Burnham, Kristin (2013-08-27). "Facebook Expands Shared Photo Albums". InformationWeek. Retrieved 2016-10-22.
^ Strohmeyer, Robert (2011-08-11). "Twitter Tweaks Tabs, Adds Photo Sharing". Network Computing. Retrieved 2016-10-22.
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^ Olson, Dr. Randal S. (25 May 2016). "Why is Reddit replacing Imgur?". Retrieved 4 May 2017.
^ Brown, F. (2007). "Metadata Goes Mainstream Archived 2007-06-16 at the Wayback Machine—about online photo galleries and the lessons we can learn."
^ Vanderwal, T. (2005). "Explaining and Showing Broad and Narrow Folksonomies Archived 2021-06-10 at the Wayback Machine."
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^ https://web.archive.org/web/20190306043633/https://raise.usa.canon.com/. Archived from the original on 2019-03-06. Retrieved 2024-03-26. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
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External links
Media related to Photo sharing at Wikimedia Commons
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Outline | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Instagram_app_on_smartphone_(grass_background)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"digital photos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_photography"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dibiash_raita-1"},{"link_name":"photoblogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoblog"},{"link_name":"thumbnails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thumbnail"},{"link_name":"slideshows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slideshow"},{"link_name":"tags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tag_(metadata)"},{"link_name":"peer-to-peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer"},{"link_name":"templates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_(file_format)"},{"link_name":"camera phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_phone"},{"link_name":"wireless networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"A photo shared on the Instagram appImage sharing, or photo sharing, is the publishing or transfer of digital photos online. Image sharing websites offer services such as uploading, hosting, managing and sharing of photos (publicly or privately).[1] This function is provided through both websites and applications that facilitate the upload and display of images. The term can also be loosely applied to the use of online photo galleries that are set up and managed by individual users, including photoblogs. Sharing means that other users can view but not necessarily download images, and users can select different copyright options for their images.While photoblogs tend only to display a chronological view of user-selected medium-sized photos, most photo sharing sites provide multiple views (such as thumbnails and slideshows), the ability to classify photos into albums, and add annotations (such as captions or tags).Desktop photo management applications may include their own photo-sharing features or integration with sites for uploading images to them. There are also desktop applications whose sole function is sharing images, generally using peer-to-peer networking. Basic image sharing functionality can be found in applications that allow you to email photos, for example by dragging and dropping them into pre-designed templates.Photo sharing is not confined to the web and personal computers, but is also possible from portable devices such as camera phones, either directly or via MMS. Some cameras now come equipped with wireless networking and similar sharing functionality themselves.[2]","title":"Image sharing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"photo finishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_finishing"},{"link_name":"Webshots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webshots"},{"link_name":"SmugMug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SmugMug"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Photos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Photos"},{"link_name":"Flickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr"},{"link_name":"Webshots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webshots"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"SmugMug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SmugMug"},{"link_name":"e-commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimes-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fl-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fl2-9"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Photos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Photos"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Flickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"mobile apps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_apps"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"cloud storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_storage"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-origin-18"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Google Photos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Photos"},{"link_name":"Dropbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropbox"},{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Snapchat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapchat"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"TikTok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TikTok"},{"link_name":"AI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"machine learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"The first photo sharing sites originated during the mid to late 1990s, primarily from services providing online ordering of prints (photo finishing), but many more came into being during the early 2000s with the goal of providing permanent and centralized access to a user's photos, and in some cases video clips too. Webshots, SmugMug, Yahoo! Photos and Flickr were among the first. This has resulted in different approaches to revenue generation and functionality among providers.In 1995, Webshots was one of the first online photo sharing platforms.[3][4] Webshots offered an easy-to-use interface and basic photo editing tools.[5][6] In 2002, SmugMug was founded, focusing on providing a high-quality photo sharing experience for professional photographers. SmugMug offers features such as custom photo galleries and e-commerce options.[7][8][9] In 2003, Yahoo! Photos was one of the most popular photo sharing platforms thanks to its integration with Yahoo's email and search services.[10][11][12] In 2004, Flickr was founded, quickly becoming popular due to its vibrant photography community and effective tagging system.[13][14]The 2010s saw the rise of mobile apps[15][16] and cloud storage.[17][18] The advent of smartphones with high-quality cameras and the availability of cloud storage services such as Google Photos, Dropbox, and iCloud Photo Library revolutionized the way people take, store, and access their photos. Mobile apps such as Instagram,[19] Snapchat,[20][21] and TikTok emerged, offering a simple and socially focused photo sharing experience. These apps met the need for instant sharing with friends and followers.In recent years, AI and machine learning have become increasingly integrated into photo sharing platforms.[22][23] AI is being used to improve image quality, automatically tag images with relevant keywords, detect and filter inappropriate content, and create new effects and filters. AI has the potential to revolutionize the way people share photos, making it easier for them to share better-looking images and find relevant images.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"peer-to-peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer"}],"text":"Image sharing sites can be broadly broken up into two groups: sites that offer photo sharing for free and sites that charge consumers directly to host and share images.[24]Of the sites that offer free photo sharing, most can be broken up into advertising-supported media plays and online photo finishing sites, where photo sharing is a vehicle to sell prints or other merchandise. These designations are not strict, and some subscription sites have a limited free version. Consumers can share their photos directly from their home computers over high speed connections through peer-to-peer photo sharing using applications. Peer-to-peer photo sharing often carries a small one-time cost for the software. Some sites allow you to post your pictures online and they will then project the image onto famous buildings during special events, while other sites let you insert photos into digital postcards, slide shows and photo albums and send them to others.Some free sites are owned by camera manufacturers, and only accept photos made with their hardware.","title":"Revenue models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online availability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uptime"},{"link_name":"photographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographer"},{"link_name":"video sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_sharing"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Subscription-based","text":"In return for a fee, subscription-based photo sharing sites offer their services without the distraction of advertisements or promotions for prints and gifts. They may also have other enhancements over free services, such as guarantees regarding the online availability of photos, more storage space, the ability for non-account holders to download full-size, original versions of photos, and tools for backing up photos. Some offer user photographs for sale, splitting the proceeds with the photographer, while others may use a disclaimer to reserve the right to use or sell the photos without giving the photographer royalties or notice.Some image sharing sites have begun integrating video sharing as well.[25][26]","title":"Revenue models"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet service providers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider"},{"link_name":"Tonido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonido"}],"sub_title":"Peer-to-peer","text":"With the introduction of high speed (broadband) connections directly to homes, it is feasible to share images and videos without going through a central service. The advantages of peer-to-peer sharing are reduced hosting costs and no loss of control to a central service. The downsides are that the consumer does not get the benefit of off-site backup; consumer Internet service providers (ISPs) often prohibit the serving of content both by contract and through the implementation of network filtering, and there are few quality guarantees for recipients. However, there are typically no direct consumer costs beyond the purchase of the initial software, provided the consumer already has a computer with the photos at home on a high speed connection. Applications like Tonido provide peer-to-peer photo sharing.","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows Home Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Home_Server"},{"link_name":"firewall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Peer-to-server","text":"Operating peer-to-peer solutions without a central server can create problems as some users do not leave their computers online and connected all the time. Using an always-on server like Windows Home Server which acts as an intermediate point, it is possible to share images peer-to-peer with the reliability and security of a central server. Images are securely stored behind a firewall on the Windows Home Server and can be accessed only by those with appropriate permissions.[27]","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"web browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"},{"link_name":"URLs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Locator"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Peer-to-browser","text":"A variation on the peer-to-peer model is peer-to-browser, whereby images are shared on one PC with the use of a local (on the host computer) software service (much like peer-to-peer) but made available to the viewer through a standard web browser. Technically speaking, this may still be described as peer-to-peer (with the second peer being a web browser) but it is characteristically different as it assumes no need to download peer software for the viewer. Photos are accessed by regular URLs that standard web browsers understand natively without any further software required. Consequently, photos shared in this way are accessible not only to users who have downloaded the correct peer software (compatible with the software in use by the sharer).[citation needed]Peer-to-browser sharing has (similar to peer-to-peer) reduced hosting costs, no loss of control to a central service, and no waiting for files to upload to the central service. Furthermore, universal web browser access to shared files makes them more widely accessible and available for use in different ways, such as embedding in, or linking to, from within web pages. As with peer-to-peer, the downsides are lack of off-site backup, possible inhibition by some ISPs, and limitations in speed of serving.[citation needed]","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"social networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"Photobucket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photobucket"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-31"}],"sub_title":"Social networks","text":"With the emergence of social networks, image sharing has now become a common online activity. For example, in Great Britain, 70% of online users engaged in image sharing in 2013; 64% of British users shared their photos through a social network. Facebook stated in 2015 that there were approximately two billion images uploaded to its service daily. In terms of image sharing, Facebook is the largest social networking service.[28] On Facebook, people can upload and share their photo albums individually, and collaboratively with shared albums. This feature allows multiple users to upload pictures to the same album, and the album's creator has the ability to add or delete contributors.[29] Twitter collaborated with Photobucket in developing a new photo sharing service so users can attach a picture to a tweet without depending on another application such as TwitPic or Yfrog.[30] As of June 2016, there were more than 500 million monthly active Instagram users.[31]","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"social news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_news"},{"link_name":"Reddit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddit"},{"link_name":"Imgur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imgur"},{"link_name":"4chan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4chan"},{"link_name":"Pinterest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinterest"},{"link_name":"Tumblr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumblr"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Link aggregation sites","text":"Image sharing on social news and image aggregation sites such as Reddit, Imgur, 4chan, Pinterest and Tumblr allow users to share images with a large community of users. Images are the most liked content of the aggregation and media sharing site Reddit; and according to data analyst Randy Olson[32] as of August 2014, nearly 2/3 of all successful posts on the site were links to an image hosted on Imgur.[33]","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-31"},{"link_name":"Streamzoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamzoo"},{"link_name":"Path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(social_network)"},{"link_name":"PicsArt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PicsArt_Photo_Studio"},{"link_name":"Piictu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piictu"},{"link_name":"Starmatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starmatic"}],"sub_title":"Mobile","text":"Sharing images via mobile phones has become popular. Several networks and applications have sprung up offering capabilities to share captured photos directly from mobile phones to social networks. The most prominent of these is Instagram, which has quickly become the dominant image sharing-centric social network with over 500 million members.[31] Other applications and networks offering similar service and growing in popularity include Streamzoo, Path, PicsArt, Piictu, and Starmatic.","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Instagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instagram"},{"link_name":"Snapchat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapchat"},{"link_name":"Nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice_(mobile_app)"}],"sub_title":"Apps","text":"Instagram, Snapchat, and Nice are examples of photo sharing apps with millions of users.","title":"Sharing methods"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Technologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Comparison of photo gallery software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comparison_of_photo_gallery_software&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Web photo album generators","text":"See also: Comparison of photo gallery softwareSoftware can be found on the Internet to generate digital photo albums, usually to share photos on the web, using a home web server. In general, this is for advanced users that want to have better control over the appearance of their web albums and the actual servers they are going to run on.","title":"Technologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"taxonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)"},{"link_name":"folksonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folksonomy"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"power law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_law"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Artificial Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Image classification","text":"Image sharing sites usually propose several ways to classify images.[34] Most sites propose at least a taxonomy where images can be grouped within a directory-like structure in so-called \"galleries\". Some sites also allow users to classify images using tags to build a folksonomy. Depending on the restrictions on the set of users allowed to tag a single document and the set of tags available to describe the document, one speaks about narrow and broad folksonomies.[35] A folksonomy is broad when there is no restriction on the set of taggers and available tags. When there are limitations, the folksonomy is called narrow. Another mechanism is coupling taxonomy and folksonomy, where tags associated to galleries and artists are cascaded to the galleries and artist's pictures. Broad taxonomies have interesting properties like the power law.[36]The use of Artificial Intelligence to classify uploaded photos by subject, theme, or location is a prominent feature of Raise that Canon-USA launched early March 2019.[37]","title":"Technologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Social bookmarking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_bookmarking"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-39"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"crowdsourced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdsourced"},{"link_name":"image classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Image_classification"},{"link_name":"neologisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neologism"},{"link_name":"Internet memes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_meme"},{"link_name":"snowclones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowclone"},{"link_name":"slogans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slogan"},{"link_name":"catch phrases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_phrase"},{"link_name":"contexts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextualization_(sociolinguistics)"},{"link_name":"perspectives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_of_view_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"community building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_building"},{"link_name":"identity formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_formation"},{"link_name":"entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment"},{"link_name":"online communities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_communities"}],"sub_title":"Photo tagging","text":"See also: Social bookmarkingPhoto tagging is the process that allows users to tag and group photos of an individual or individuals.[38] With facial recognition software tagging photos can become quicker and easier; the more tagging done of an individual the more accurate the software can be. This type of software is currently in use on Facebook.[39] Photo tagging is a way of labeling photos so that viewers can know who is who in the picture. On most online photo sharing sites such as Facebook, a tag can also be used as a link that when clicked will take you to the person's profile that was tagged. Most of the time photos can only be tagged by the user to uploads the photo but on some sites photos can be tagged by other users as well. These tags can be searched for across the entire Internet, on separate websites or in private data bases. They can be used for crowdsourced classification (see the section on image classification) but can also play a socio-cultural role in that they can establish neologisms, Internet memes, snowclones, slogans, catch phrases, shared vocabularies and categorizations as well as producing comedic twists, contexts and perspectives of the presented images, and hence often play a significant role in the community building and identity formation of and the entertainment in online communities that allow the creation of broad folksonomies.","title":"Technologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Panoramio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panoramio"},{"link_name":"Wikimedia Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons"},{"link_name":"geocoded photographs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocoded_photograph"}],"sub_title":"Geotagging","text":"Geotagging a photo is the process in which a photo is marked with the geographical identification of the place it was taken. Most technology with photo taking capabilities are equipped with GPS system sensors that routinely geotag photos and videos. Crowdsourced data available from photo-sharing services have the potentiality of tracking places. Geotagging can reveal the footprints and behaviors of travelers by utilizing spatial proximity of geo-tagged photos that are shared online, making it possible to extract travel information relating to a particular location.[40][41] Instagram, Flickr, and Panoramio are a few services that provide the option of geotagging images. Flickr has over 40 million geotagged photos uploaded by 400 thousand users, and still growing at a rapid pace.[42] Some sites including Panoramio and Wikimedia Commons show their geocoded photographs on a map, helping the user find pictures of the same or nearby objects from different directions.","title":"Technologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"narcissism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"text":"Critics of image/photo sharing are concerned with the use of applications such as Instagram, because they believe that the behaviors portrayed on these sites could potentially be linked to the narcissism trait. Keen argues that \"Self\" is running digital culture, and he states that people use social-media platforms because they are interested in advertising themselves.[43] Buffardi and Campbell (2008) also alleged that Instagram offers \"a gateway for self-promotion via self-descriptions, vanity via photos, and a large amount of shallow relationships.\" However, they later said that the large number of users suggests the general psychology of the members is normative.[44]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Privacy concerns with social networking services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_concerns_with_social_networking_services"},{"link_name":"social networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networking_service"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"privacy policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_policy"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-39"},{"link_name":"Ghent University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent_University"},{"link_name":"interview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Privacy","text":"See also: Privacy concerns with social networking servicesPrivacy activists and researchers have noted that the sharing of images on social networks may compromise the privacy of people depicted in them. Further, most current social networks afford their users little control over content that they did not post themselves.[45] In its privacy policy, Facebook states that any information posted using its service, including images, may be used to display relevant ads to its users.[46] Facebook utilizes automatic facial recognition software that can automatically recognize the face of another Facebook user in new photos, and suggest that the user be tagged in the photo.[39] A Ghent University study found that employers commonly search for prospective employees on Facebook, and may decide whether or not to grant an interview based on the person's profile picture.[47]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance"},{"link_name":"crop insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crop_insurance"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PBI-48"},{"link_name":"insurance company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_company"},{"link_name":"farmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(agriculture)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PBI-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PBI-48"}],"text":"The increasing ease of use has encouraged image sharing in insurance, including crop insurance.[48] The insurance company and farmer have a shared interest in the current state of a field.[48] This method allows crop health to be monitored more quickly and easily than any other way.[48]","title":"Purposes"}] | [{"image_text":"A photo shared on the Instagram app","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Instagram_app_on_smartphone_%28grass_background%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Instagram_app_on_smartphone_%28grass_background%29_%28cropped%29.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Digital photo frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_photo_frame"},{"title":"File hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_hosting_service"},{"title":"File sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing"},{"title":"Image hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_hosting_service"},{"title":"List of image-sharing websites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_image-sharing_websites"},{"title":"List of photo and video apps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_photo_and_video_apps"},{"title":"Timeline of file sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_file_sharing"}] | [{"reference":"Aichner, T.; Jacob, F. 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Business Wire. 2000-04-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.webshots.com/corporate/index.cgi?h=PRESS&t=press_release03.html","url_text":"\"Excite@Home's Webshots Ranked #1 Online Photo Destination\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Wire","url_text":"Business Wire"}]},{"reference":"\"Alexa Rankings February 2004\". 2004-02-01. Archived from the original on February 2, 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040202004633/http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=lang&lang=en","url_text":"\"Alexa Rankings February 2004\""},{"url":"http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=lang&lang=en","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Breathtaking desktop wallpaper, free on Webshots\". webshots.co. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012. 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The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2016-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/facebook/12099132/Your-Facebook-profile-photo-affects-your-job-prospects-study-claims.html","url_text":"\"Your Facebook profile photo affects your job prospects, study claims\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"}]},{"reference":"Kramer, Berber (2023). \"Picture-Based Crop Insurance (PBI)\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank_gun | Anti-tank gun | ["1 History","1.1 World War I and Interwar period","1.2 World War II","1.3 Postwar period","2 Self-propelled anti-tank guns","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References"] | Form of artilleryFrench-designed DEFA D921/GT-2 90 mm towed anti-tank gun as mounted on a QF 17-pounder carriage
An anti-tank gun is a form of artillery designed to destroy tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles, normally from a static defensive position. The development of specialized anti-tank munitions and anti-tank guns was prompted by the appearance of tanks during World War I. To destroy hostile tanks, artillerymen often used field guns depressed to fire directly at their targets, but this practice expended too much valuable ammunition and was of increasingly limited effectiveness as tank armor became thicker. The first dedicated anti-tank artillery began appearing in the 1920s, and by World War II was a common appearance in many European armies. To penetrate armor, they fired specialized ammunition from longer barrels to achieve a higher muzzle velocity than field guns. Most anti-tank guns were developed in the 1930s as improvements in tanks were noted, and nearly every major arms manufacturer produced one type or another.
Anti-tank guns deployed during World War II were often manned by specialist infantry rather than artillery crews, and issued to light infantry units accordingly. The anti-tank guns of the 1920s and 1930s were of small caliber; nearly all major armies possessing them used 37 mm ammunition (the British Army used the slightly larger 40 mm 2-pounder gun). As World War II progressed, the appearance of heavier tanks rendered these weapons obsolete, and anti-tank guns likewise began firing larger and more effective armor-piercing shot. The development of the compact hollow charge projectile permanently altered anti-tank warfare, since this type of ammunition did not depend on a high muzzle velocity and could be fired from low-recoil, man-portable light weapons, such as the Panzerfaust and the American series of recoilless rifles.
Although several large-caliber guns were developed during the war that were capable of knocking out the most heavily armored tanks, they proved expensive and difficult to conceal. The later generation of low-recoil anti-tank weapons, which allowed projectiles the size of an artillery shell to be fired from the shoulder, was considered a far more viable option for arming infantry. Recoilless rifles replaced most conventional anti-tank guns in the postwar period; nevertheless, the development of new anti-tank guns exhibiting similar low-recoil performance continued until the late 1950s in France, Belgium, and the Soviet Union. A few Soviet designs saw combat well into the 1980s and 1990s. The People's Republic of China was still producing towed anti-tank guns as late as 1988.
History
World War I and Interwar period
Two British officers with a captured Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr
The first specialized anti-tank weaponry consisted of anti-tank rifles. These emerged from the mixed results of deploying field artillery against tanks during World War I, and the need to produce a more economical weapon to destroy them. Most anti-tank rifles were over 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) in length, however, and difficult for infantrymen to operate in the confines of their trenches. They could penetrate a tank's armor at long range, but without explosive firepower, often failed to cause catastrophic damage, kill, or even seriously injure the crew, or disable the tank. A number of infantry support guns designed to defeat hard targets such as fortified machine gun emplacements were used as makeshift anti-tank weapons, including the French Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP. The 3.7 cm Tankabwehrkanone 1918 im starrer Räder–lafette was probably the first dedicated anti-tank gun in service. However, its gun barrel was based on an earlier Hotchkiss 5-barrelled rotary-cannon. The 3.7 cm TAK 1918 was designed and built for the Imperial German Army in 1918. The 3.7 cm Pak 36 which first appeared in 1928 was probably the first purpose-built anti-tank gun. Weighing some 160 kg, the Pak 36 could inflict a catastrophic kill on a tank rather than merely penetrating its armor plate. Towed guns similar to the Pak 36 were the only anti-tank weapon issued to European armies during the 1930s, and a number of influential designs proliferated, such as the Böhler gun. By the late 1930s, anti-tank guns had been manufactured by companies in Germany, Austria, France, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, and Sweden. A few countries, such as the Soviet Union, also manufactured foreign designs under license.
World War II
German PaK 38 50-mm anti-tank gun
At the outbreak of World War II, most armies were fielding light anti-tank guns firing 3.7-cm (37-mm) ammunition. The guns were usually mounted on two-wheeled carriages so they could be towed into position, then withdrawn and repositioned rapidly. Since they weighed only a few hundred pounds on average, they could also be manhandled into position. All fired high-explosive and solid armor-piercing shot effective at ranges up to roughly 500 m (1,600 ft), and an increasing number were manufactured with protective gun shields in addition to a split rail mounting. They were able to destroy tanks fielded by both sides during the first two years of the war, but soon proved impotent against the heavier tank armor that debuted in 1940.
French doctrine was for their infantry to let enemy tanks pass through then stop the accompanying enemy infantry leaving the unsupported tanks to be engaged by anti-tank guns deployed in three echelons. The issue of 58 guns per division provided 10 guns per kilometre of front which was expected to be able to deal with enemy tanks at a concentration of 50 tanks per kilometer. In practice the German invasion of France concentrated tanks in select divisions at up to 100 per kilometer.
Introducing improved ammunition and increasing muzzle velocity initially helped compensate for their mediocre performance, but small-caliber anti-tank guns clearly would soon be overtaken by yet more heavily armored tanks. Medium-caliber guns in the 40- to 50-mm range began to appear, some of which simply used rebored 37-mm barrels. Although they, too, were soon approaching obsolescence, most remained in use with infantry units until the end of the war. Anti-tank guns remained ineffective against sloped armor, as demonstrated by an incident in 1941 when a single Soviet T-34 tank was hit more than 30 times by a battalion-sized contingent of German 37 and 50-mm anti-tank guns. The tank survived intact and was driven back to its own lines a few hours later. This helped earn the Pak 36 the moniker of Panzeranklopfgerät ("tank door knocker") because its crew simply revealed their presence and wasted their shells without damaging the T-34's armor. Anti-tank gunners began aiming at tank tracks, or vulnerable margins on the turret ring and gun mantlet, rather than testing their lighter cannon against bow and turret armor. These difficulties resulted in new types of ammunition being issued, namely high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and armor-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) projectiles.
Towards the end of World War II, armor plating became still thicker, with tanks such as the Tiger II being fitted with armor over 100 mm (3.9 in) in thickness, as compared to 15 mm (0.59 in) which was more typical in 1939. This prompted the development of a third generation of anti-tank guns, large-caliber pieces in the 57- to 100-mm range. The British Army adopted the Ordnance QF 6-pounder and Ordnance QF 17-pounder, which were then considered great advances in firepower, and the Wehrmacht fielded the even larger 7.5 cm Pak 41 and 8.8 cm Pak 43. While the early 37-mm anti-tank guns were easily concealed and moved, the large-caliber weapons available late in the war required equally large vehicles to tow them into place, and were difficult to conceal, dig in, withdraw, or reposition. By 1945, large anti-tank guns had become almost impractical in their role, and their size and weight were considered liabilities. They were also expensive to produce and although they were capable of defeating the most formidable of opponents, most tank units still consisted of less heavily armoured models that remained vulnerable to less expensive and more practical guns, as well. Many heavy anti-tank guns were issued, at least initially, on the divisional level, but gradually made their way to individual infantry battalions.
Meanwhile, the effect of very compact hollow charge warheads was being noted, and a number of countries began producing man-portable anti-tank weapons using this ammunition. The development of man-portable, shoulder-fired, anti-tank rocket launchers began in 1941; most could be reloaded, but a few, such as the German Panzerfaust, were fired from disposable tubes. Unlike anti-tank guns, their light weight made them easily portable by individual infantrymen on the battlefield, and they offered similar degrees of firepower whilst being quicker and cheaper to produce.
Towed anti-tank guns disappeared from most Western countries, such as the United States, after World War II, to be replaced by shoulder-fired rocket launchers, recoilless rifles, and eventually, guided anti-tank missiles.
Postwar period
Postwar Soviet MT-12 100-mm anti-tank gun
At the end of the war, German engineers had proposed a new, large-caliber anti-tank gun that used less propellant than a rocket or recoilless weapon, yet fired similar compact hollow-charge shells. German forces subsequently fielded the 8 cm PAW 600, which was an extremely lightweight, low-pressure weapon still able to fire the same ammunition types as higher-velocity anti-tank guns. In the 1950s, this idea was revived by a Belgian firm, Mecar, which subsequently improved on the concept and developed a low-pressure, smoothbore, 90-mm anti-tank gun. Because of its low recoil forces and light construction, the gun was particularly useful for being mounted on armored cars or small gun carriages. Its design inspired the lightly rifled French DEFA D921 anti-tank gun, which fired fin-stabilized shells and was available on a towed carriage or as a vehicle mount. It was later mated to the AML-90 and EBR series of French armored cars. The Soviet Union also adopted a similar design around the same time, the 100-mm T-12 anti-tank gun, which was smoothbore and fired fin-stabilized shells. Switzerland developed a postwar 90-mm anti-tank gun of its own, the Pak 50/57, firing shells with an even lower velocity than the Mecar or DEFA guns. Apart from the T-12, which used APDS rounds, these weapons could only use HEAT shells for armor-piercing purposes. France did introduce an APFSDS shell for the DEFA D921 at some point in the 1980s. The last country known to have produced a dedicated anti-tank gun was the People's Republic of China in 1988. The Chinese gun was known as the Norinco Type 86 and was probably manufactured as a replacement for the aging Soviet-sourced T-12.
Anti-tank guns continued to be used in a number of conflicts around the world, such as the Six-Day War and the South African Border War. Soviet anti-tank guns in particular were exported to at least 18 other countries after being retired from service, and have continued to see action.
Self-propelled anti-tank guns
Main articles: Tank destroyer and Self-propelled gun See also: Panzerjäger, Jagdpanzer, and Samokhodnaya Ustanovka
A British Archer tank destroyer, based on the hull of a Valentine tank.
Although still being drawn by horses or towed by trucks, towed anti-tank guns were initially much lighter and more portable than field guns, making them well-suited to infantry maneuvers. As their size and caliber increased, though, the guns likewise became increasingly heavy and cumbersome, restricting their role to static defense. In consequence, during World War II, both sides were compelled to make anti-tank guns self-propelled, which greatly increased their mobility.
The first self-propelled anti-tank guns were merely belated attempts to make use of obsolete tanks, such as the Panzerjäger I, which was a Czech 4.7-cm Pak (t) gun mated to a Panzer I chassis. and were used in the Battle of France The trend continued with older tanks and captured vehicles, which were available in large numbers for conversions to self-propelled guns when they were replaced by heavier and better-armed (and armored) tanks. Although just a makeshift solution, these initial experiments proved so successful, they spawned an entire class of new vehicles: dedicated tank destroyers.
The US Army's early self-propelled anti-tank guns were 75mm on M2 half-tracks (entering service in 1941) to complement towed artillery and M6 Gun Motor Carriage a 37mm on 4-wheel drive Dodge truck (1942). US Tank Destroyer doctrine emphasised mobility to place the tank destroyers into positions to ambush tank attacks.
Tank destroyers offered some advantages over towed anti-tank guns, since a static gun emplacement sacrificed concealment and surprise after firing the first shot, but the same gun mounted on a tracked or wheeled chassis could open fire and throw a tank formation into substantial disarray before quickly withdrawing to repeat the same tactic elsewhere. The introduction of tank destroyers also put an end to the traditional tactic of suppressing anti-tank gun batteries with heavy artillery bombardments, as their crews were now well-protected under armor. They were not without their own series of disadvantages, however, namely presenting a much larger target than a towed gun, the added responsibilities of vehicle maintenance and logistical support, and the limited spaces in which the crew had to operate and stow all their available ammunition.
By the end of the war, dedicated tank destroyers had been superseded by tanks, which were just as effective at destroying other tanks, and little incentive remained to continue their separate development. Nevertheless, much like towed anti-tank guns, they were widely exported and are still in service with some militaries in the late 20th and early 21st century.
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anti-tank guns.
Anti-tank grenade
Anti-tank warfare
List of anti-tank guns
Tank gun
Man-portable anti-tank systems
Notes
^ The Panzer I was a light tank that had been brought into service for training and developing German armor divisions and made up large proportion of German forces until the large scale production of medium tanks (Panzer III and Panzer IV
References
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^ MILITÄRISCHES STUDIENGLOSAR ENGLISCH Teil II/ Teil III, Deutsch – Englisch, Abkürzung Begriff,
Bundessprachenamt (Stand Januar 2001), page. 283, anti-tank ammunition.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Rottman, Gordon (2005). World War II Infantry Anti-Tank Tactics. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 15–17. ISBN 978-1841768427.
^ a b c d Ogorkiewicz, Richard (1991). Technology of tanks, Volume 1 (1991 ed.). Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0710605955.
^ a b "Ratel teen tenk en". Port Elizabeth: International Veterans' Association/South African Forces Club. 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 20 September 2016.
^ a b "China – Ordnance". Jane's Defence Weekly: 161. 1988.
^ Hogg, Ian (2000). Twentieth-century artillery. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. pp. 135. ISBN 0760719942. OCLC 44779672.
^ Gabel, Christopher R. (September 1985), Seek, strike, and destroy: U.S. Army tank destroyer doctrine in World War II (PDF), Leavenworth Papers 12, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute, Army Command and General Staff College, p. 8-9, ISSN 0195-3451, archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2011
^ a b c Ganz, A. Harding (2016). Ghost Division: The 11th "Gespenster" Panzer Division and the German Armored Force in World War II. Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books. pp. 15–17. ISBN 978-0811716598.
^ Zaloga, Stephen (2005). US Anti-tank Artillery 1941–45. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-1841766904.
^ a b c d e f Pretty, Ronald (1980). Jane's Weapon Systems, 1979–80 (1979 ed.). Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd. pp. 362–391. ISBN 978-0-531-03299-2.
^ Bruce Quarry & Mike Spick (1987). An Illustrated Guide to Tank Busters (1987 ed.). Prentice Hall Press. pp. 120–125. ISBN 978-0-13-451154-2.
^ Christopher F. Foss (1991). Jane's Armour and Artillery (1991 ed.). Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd. pp. 612–613. ISBN 978-0-7106-0964-9.
^ Oren, Michael (2003). Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (2003 ed.). Presidio Press. pp. 192–194. ISBN 978-0-345-46192-6.
^ a b "Trade Registers". Armstrade.sipri.org. Retrieved 2013-06-20.
^ a b c Ogorkiewicz, Richard (1979). Bertram, Christoph (ed.). New Conventional Weapons and East-West Security (1979 ed.). Praeger Publishers. pp. 38–41. ISBN 978-0030520914.
^ a b c Battistelli, Pier Paolo (2006). Rommel's Afrika Korps: Tobruk to El Alamein (2006 ed.). Osprey Publishing. pp. 69–72. ISBN 978-1841769011.
^ a b c Buckley, John (2004). British Armour in the Normandy Campaign 1944 (2004 ed.). Routledge Books. pp. 89–101. ISBN 978-0714653235.
vteUnited States artillery of World War IITank guns
37 mm gun M5/M6
75 mm gun M2/M3/M6
76 mm gun M1
3-inch gun M7
90 mm gun M3
90 mm gun T15
105 mm howitzer M4
105 mm gun T5
120mm gun T53
155 mm gun T7
Anti-tank guns
37 mm M3
57 mm M1
75 mm Field Gun M1897 on M2 Carriage
3 inch M5
90 mm T8
105mm T8
Field, medium and heavy guns
75 mm Field Gun M1897 on M2 Carriage
75 mm howitzer M1
105 mm howitzer M2
105 mm howitzer M3
4.5 inch gun M1
155 mm howitzer M1918
155 mm howitzer M1
155 mm gun M1918MI
155 mm gun M1/M2 "Long Tom"
8 inch howitzer M1/M2
8-inch gun M1
240 mm howitzer M1
Mortars
60 mm mortar M2
81 mm mortar M1
4.2 inch mortar M2
Little David
Other vehicle-mounted
75 mm howitzer M2/M3
75 mm gun M1897
105 mm howitzer M2
155 mm gun M1917MI
155 mm gun M2
8 inch howitzer M1/M2
Anti-aircraft guns
37 mm M1
40 mm M1
3-inch gun M1917
3-inch gun M1918
3-inch anti-aircraft gun M3
90 mm M1
120 mm M1
Coast artillery guns
3-inch gun M1903
90 mm M1
6-inch gun M1903
155 mm gun M1918MI
7"/45 caliber gun
8-inch Mk. VI
8-inch gun M1888
10-inch gun M1895
12-inch coast defense mortar
12-inch gun M1895
14-inch gun M1907
16-inch gun M1895
16-inch gun M1919
16-inch Marks 2 and 3
16-inch howitzer M1920
Railway artillery
8-inch Mk. VI
8-inch gun M1888
12-inch coast defense mortar
14-inch M1920
vteBritish Commonwealth artillery of World War IITank guns
QF 2-pounder
QF 3-pounder
QF 6-pounder
QF 75 mm
QF 3-inch howitzer
QF 17-pounder
77 mm HV
QF 95 mm howitzer
Anti-tank guns
QF 2-pounder
QF 6-pounder
QF 17-pounder
Field guns and howitzers
75 mm Gun M1917
QF 18-pounder
25-pounder Gun-Howitzer
25-pounder Short
QF 4.5-inch howitzer
Medium and heavy guns and howitzers
BL 4.5-inch medium field gun
BL 60-pounder gun
BL 5.5-inch medium gun
BL 6-inch howitzer
BL 6-inch gun Mk XIX
155 mm Long Tom
BL 7.2-inch howitzer
BL 8-inch howitzer
BL 9.2-inch howitzer
240 mm howitzer M1
Mountain guns
75mm Pack howitzer M1
3.7-inch mountain howitzer
Mortars
SBML 2-inch mortar
ML 3-inch mortar
ML 4.2-inch mortar
Anti-aircraft weapons
Z Battery
20 mm Oerlikon
20 mm Polsten
QF 1½-pounder Mk III
QF 2-pounder naval gun
Bofors 40 mm
QF 3-inch
QF 3.7-inch
QF 4.5-inch Mk II
QF 5.25-inch Mk II
Coast defence
QF 6-pounder 10 cwt
QF 12-pounder
QF 4.7-inch Mk I–IV
BL 6-inch Mk VII & Mk XXIV
BL 7.5-inch Mk VI
BL 8-inch Mk VIII
BL 9.2-inch Mk X
BL 14-inch Mk VII
BL 15-inch Mk I
Railway artillery
BL 9.2-inch Mk XIII railway gun
BL 12-inch Mk V railway howitzer
BL 13.5-inch Mk V railway gun
BL 18-inch railway howitzer
vteFrench artillery of World War IIAnti-aircraft guns
Mitrailleuse de 25 mm CA mle 39
Canon de 75 antiaérien mle 1913-1917
Canon de 75 CA modèle 1940 Schneider
Anti-tank guns
25 mm Hotchkiss anti-tank gun
25 mm APX modèle 1937
AC 37 anti-tank gun
AC 47 anti-tank gun
47 mm APX anti-tank gun
Coastal artillery
Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1891
Canon de 19 C modèle 1870/93
Canon de 240 L Mle 1884
Mortier de 270 mm modèle 1889
Field artillery
Canon de 75 modèle 1897
Infantry guns
Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP
Medium and Heavy artillery
Canon de 105 court mle 1934 Schneider
Canon de 105 court mle 1935 B
Canon de 105 L mle 1936 Schneider
Canon de 105 mle 1913 Schneider
Canon de 145/155 L modele 1916 Saint-Chamond
Canon de 155 C modèle 1917 Schneider
Canon de 155 L modèle 1877/14 Schneider
Canon de 155 L Modele 1917 Schneider
Canon de 155 L modèle 1918 Schneider
Canon de 155mm GPF
Canon de 194 GPF
Canon de 220 L mle 1917
Mortier de 220 modèle 1915/1916 Schneider
Mortier 280 mm TR de Schneider-St Chamond
Mortars
Mortier de 150 mm T Mle 1917 Fabry
Mountain artillery
Canon de 65 M modele 1906
Canon de 75 M modele 1919 Schneider
Canon de 75 M modele 1928
Canon Court de 105 M modele 1909 Schneider
Canon Court de 105 M modèle 1919 Schneider
Railroad artillery
Canon de 164 modèle 1893/96 TAZ
Canon de 19 modèle 1870/93 TAZ
Canon de 240 modèle 93/96 TAZ
Canon de 305 modèle 1906/10 à glissement
Canon de 32 modèle 1870/84 à glissement
Canon de 32 modèle 1870/93 à glissement
Canon de 320 modèle 1917 à glissement
Canon de 340 modèle 1893 à glissement
Canon de 340 modèle 1912 à berceau
Canon de 340 modèle 1912 à glissement
Obusier de 370 modèle 1915
Canon de 370 modèle 75/79 Glissement
Obusier de 400 Modèle 1915/1916
Obusier de 520 modèle 1916
Siege artillery
Canon de 240 L Mle 1884
Mortier de 280 modèle 1914 Schneider
Mortier de 293 Danois sur affut-truck modèle 1914
Mortier de 370 modèle 1914 Filloux
Tank guns
37 mm SA 18
37 mm SA mle 1938
47mm SA mle 1935
75 mm ABS mle 1929
vteSoviet artillery of World War II (naming convention)Anti-tank guns
37 mm anti-tank gun M1930 (1-K)
45 mm anti-tank gun M1932 (19-K)
45 mm anti-tank gun M1937 (53-K)
45 mm anti-tank gun M1942 (M-42)
57 mm anti-tank gun M1943 (ZiS-2)
100 mm field gun M1944 (BS-3)
100 mm D-10 tank gun
Mountain guns
76 mm mountain gun M1909 (76-09)
76 mm mountain gun M1938
Regimental guns
76 mm regimental gun M1927
76 mm regimental gun M1943 (OB-25)
Divisional guns
76 mm divisional gun M1902/30
76 mm divisional gun M1933
76 mm divisional gun M1936 (F-22)
76 mm divisional gun M1939 (USV)
76 mm divisional gun M1942 (ZiS-3)
85 mm divisional gun D-44
107 mm divisional gun M1940 (M-60)
122 mm howitzer M1909/37
122 mm howitzer M1910/30
122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30)
152 mm mortar M1931 (NM)
Corps and army level guns
107 mm gun M1910/30
122 mm gun M1931 (A-19)
122 mm gun M1931/37 (A-19)
152 mm howitzer M1909/30
152 mm gun M1910/30
152 mm gun M1910/34
152 mm howitzer M1910/37
152 mm howitzer M1938 (M-10)
152 mm howitzer M1943 (D-1)
152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20)
Very heavy guns
152 mm gun M1935 (Br-2)
203 mm howitzer M1931 (B-4)
210 mm gun M1939 (Br-17)
280 mm howitzer M1914/15
280 mm mortar M1939 (Br-5)
305 mm howitzer M1939 (Br-18)
Air defense guns
25 mm automatic air defense gun M1940 (72-K)
37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K)
45 mm anti-aircraft gun (21-K)
76 mm air defense gun M1931
76 mm air defense gun M1938
85 mm air defense gun M1939 (52-K)
vteGerman artillery of World War IITank guns
2 cm KwK 30
3.7 cm KwK 36
3,7 cm KwK 34(t)
3.7 cm KwK 38(t)
5 cm KwK 38
5 cm KwK 39
7.5 cm KwK 37
7.5 cm KwK 40
7.5 cm KwK 42
8.8 cm KwK 36
8.8 cm KwK 43
12.8 cm KwK 44
Anti-tank guns
2.8 cm sPzB 41
3.7 cm Pak 36
4.2 cm Pak 41
4.7 cm Pak 38(t)
4.7 cm Pak 181(f)
5 cm Pak 38
7.5 cm Pak 97/38
7.5 cm Pak 39
7.5 cm Pak 40
7.5 cm Pak 41
7.5 cm Pak 42
7.62 cm Pak 36(r)
8 cm PAW 600
8.8 cm Pak 43
10 cm PAW 1000
12.8 cm Pak 44
Infantry and mountain guns
7.5 cm leIG 18
7.5 cm IG 37
7.5 cm IG 42
7.5 cm GebH 34
7.5 cm GebG 36
10.5 cm GebH 40
15 cm sIG 33
Recoilless guns
7.5 cm LG 40
10.5 cm LG 40
10.5 cm LG 42
Mortars
5 cm leGrW 36
8 cm GrW 34
kz 8 cm GrW 42
Reihenwerfer
Heavy mortars
10 cm NbW 35
10 cm NbW 40
12 cm GrW 42
20 cm leLdgW
21 cm GrW 69
38 cm schwerer Ladungswerfer
Rocket artillery
7.3 cm Föhn-Gerät
7.3 cm Propagandawerfer 41
8 cm Raketen-Vielfachwerfer
8.8 cm Raketenwerfer 43
15 cm Do-Gerät
15 cm NbW 41
21 cm NbW 42
28/32 cm NbW 41
30 cm NbW 42
30 cm Raketenwerfer 56
Wurfrahmen 40
Field, medium and heavy guns
7.5 cm FK 16 nA
7.5 cm FK 18
7.5 cm FK 38
7.5 cm FK 7M85
10 cm K 17
10 cm sK 18
10.5 cm leFH 16
10.5 cm leFH 18
10.5 cm leFH 18M
10.5 cm leFH 18/40
10.5 cm sK 18/40
15 cm sFH 13
15 cm sFH 18
15 cm sFH 36
15 cm K 16
15 cm K 18
15 cm K 39
15 cm SK C/28
17 cm K 18
21 cm Mrs 16
21 cm Mrs 18
Superheavy and siege artillery
21 cm K 38
21 cm K 39
24 cm H 39
24 cm K (t)
24 cm Kanone L/46
24 cm K 3
28 cm H L/12
35.5 cm Haubitze M1
42 cm Gamma Mörser
Karl-Gerät
80 cm K (E) Gustav
Railroad artillery
15 cm K (E)
17 cm K (E)
20.3 cm K (E)
21 cm K 12 (E)
24 cm Th K (E)
24 cm ThBr K (E)
28 cm kzBr K (E)
28 cm lgBr K (E)
28 cm sBr K (E)
28 cm Br NK (E)
28 cm K 5 (E)
38 cm Siegfried K (E)
80 cm K (E) Gustav
Naval artillery
8.8 cm SK L/45 naval gun
8.8 cm SK C/30 naval gun
8.8 cm SK C/32 naval gun
8.8 cm SK C/35 naval gun
10.5 cm SK C/32 naval gun
12.7 cm SK C/34 naval gun
15 cm SK L/45
15 cm SK C/25
15 cm SK C/28
15 cm TbtsK C/36 naval gun
20.3 cm SK C/34 naval gun
28 cm SK L/40 gun
28 cm SK C/28 naval gun
28 cm SK C/34 naval gun
38 cm SK C/34 naval gun
40.6 cm SK C/34 gun
Anti-aircraft guns
2 cm Flak 30/38/Flakvierling
2 cm Gebirgsflak 38
3 cm MK 303 Flak
3.7 cm Flak 18/36/37
3.7 cm SK C/30
3.7 cm Flak M42
3.7 cm Flak 43
5 cm Flak 41
8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41
10.5 cm Flak 38
12.8 cm Flak 40
Demolition charges
Stielgranate 41
Stielgranate 42
vteItalian artillery of World War IITank guns
Breda Model 35
Cannone da 37/40
Cannone da 47/32
Cannone da 47/40
Cannone da 75/34
Anti-tank guns
Solothurn S-18/1000
Cannone da 47/32
Obice da 75/18 modello 35
Cannone da 75/46 C.A. modello 34
Cannone da 90/53
Cannone da 105/25
Infantry and Mountain guns
Cannone da 37/10 modello 15
Cannone da 47/32
Cannone da 65/17 modello 13
Cannone da 70/15
Obice da 75/18 modello 34
Field, Medium and Heavy guns
Cannone da 75/27 modello 06
Cannone da 75/27 modello 12
Cannone da 75/27 modello 11
Obice da 75/18 modello 35
Cannone da 75/32 modello 37
Cannone da 76/17 S modello 12
Obice da 100/17 modello 14
Obice da 105/14
Cannone da 105/28
Cannone da 105/32
Obice da 149/12
Cannone da 149/28
Cannone da 149/35 A
Cannone da 149/40 modello 35
Obice da 149/19 modello 37
Cannone da 152/45
Obice da 210/22
Superheavy and Siege artillery
Mortaio da 210/8 D.S.
Mortaio da 260/9 Modello 16
Obice da 280
Obice da 305/17
Railroad artillery
Cannone navale da 381/40
Anti-aircraft guns
Cannone-Mitragliera da 20/77 (Scotti)
Breda Model 35
Cannone-Mitragliera da 37/54 (Breda)
Cannone da 75/27 A.V.
Cannone da 75/46 C.A. modello 34
Cannone da 75/49
Cannone da 90/53
vte Imperial Japanese Army artilleryAnti-aircraft guns
Type Ho 13mm AA machine gun
Type 10 120 mm AA gun
Type 11 75 mm AA gun
Type 14 10 cm AA gun
Type 2 20 mm AA machine cannon
Type 3 12 cm AA gun
Type 3 80 mm AA gun
Type 4 75 mm AA gun
Type 5 15 cm AA gun
Type 88 75 mm AA gun
Type 98 20 mm AA machine cannon
Type 99 88 mm AA gun
Anti-tank guns
Type 1 37 mm anti-tank gun
Type 1 47 mm anti-tank gun
Type 94 37 mm anti-tank gun
Type 97 automatic cannon
Cannons
Type 14 10 cm cannon
Type 38 10 cm cannon
Type 45 15 cm cannon
Type 89 15 cm cannon
Type 92 10 cm cannon
Type 96 15 cm cannon
Coastal artillery
28 cm howitzer
Type 41 8 cm coast defense gun
Type 11 12 cm coast defense gun
Type 3 12 cm coast defense gun
Type 41 15 cm/40 coast defense gun
Type 41 15 cm/45 coast defense gun
Type 41 15 cm/50 coast defense gun
Type 45 15 cm cannon
Type 41 12 cm coast defense gun
Type 3 14 cm coast defense gun
Type 41 20 cm coast defense gun
Dual purpose guns
Type 89 127 mm dual purpose gun
Type 10 12 cm dual purpose gun
Type 3 8 cm dual purpose gun
Type 98 10 cm dual purpose gun
Field guns
Type 31 75 mm Mountain Gun
Type 38 75 mm field gun
Type 41 75 mm cavalry gun
Type 90 75 mm field gun
Type 92 battalion gun
Type 94 37 mm gun
Type 95 75 mm field gun
Grenade launchers
Type 10 grenade discharger
Type 89 grenade discharger
Howitzers
Type 14 10 cm howitzer
Type 38 12 cm howitzer
Type 38 15 cm howitzer
Type 4 15 cm howitzer
Type 7 30 cm howitzer
Type 91 10 cm howitzer
Type 96 15 cm howitzer
Mortars
25 cm artillery mortar
70 mm barrage mortar
Type 11 70 mm infantry mortar
Type 2 12 cm mortar
Type 3 81 mm mortar
Type 93 150 mm infantry mortar
Type 94 90 mm infantry mortar
Type 95 15 cm mortar
Type 96 and Type 97 150 mm infantry mortar
Type 97 81 mm infantry mortar
Type 97 90 mm infantry mortar
Type 98 320 mm mortar
Type 98 50 mm mortar
Type 99 81 mm mortar
Mountain guns
7 cm mountain gun
Type 31 75 mm mountain gun
Type 41 75 mm mountain gun
Type 94 75 mm mountain gun
Type 99 10 cm mountain gun
Railway artillery
Type 90 240 mm railway gun
Rocket artillery
20 cm naval rocket launcher
45 cm naval rocket
Type 10 and Type 3 rocket boosters
Type 21 and Type 22 rocket-bombs
Type 4 20 cm rocket launcher
Type 4 40 cm rocket launcher
Siege artillery
28 cm howitzer
Type 45 240 mm howitzer
Type 7 30 cm howitzer
Type 96 15 cm cannon
Type 96 24 cm howitzer
Authority control databases: National
France
BnF data
Germany
Israel
United States
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baasjan1.JPG"},{"link_name":"QF 17-pounder carriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_QF_17-pounder"},{"link_name":"artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery"},{"link_name":"tanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank"},{"link_name":"armoured fighting vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"tanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"field guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_gun"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"British Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Army"},{"link_name":"2-pounder gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_QF_2-pounder"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"hollow charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_charge"},{"link_name":"Panzerfaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzerfaust"},{"link_name":"recoilless rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recoilless_rifle"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grove-7"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane1-8"}],"text":"French-designed DEFA D921/GT-2 90 mm towed anti-tank gun as mounted on a QF 17-pounder carriageAn anti-tank gun is a form of artillery designed to destroy tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles, normally from a static defensive position.[1] The development of specialized anti-tank munitions and anti-tank guns was prompted by the appearance of tanks during World War I.[2] To destroy hostile tanks, artillerymen often used field guns depressed to fire directly at their targets, but this practice expended too much valuable ammunition and was of increasingly limited effectiveness as tank armor became thicker.[2] The first dedicated anti-tank artillery began appearing in the 1920s, and by World War II was a common appearance in many European armies.[3] To penetrate armor, they fired specialized ammunition from longer barrels to achieve a higher muzzle velocity than field guns.[4] Most anti-tank guns were developed in the 1930s as improvements in tanks were noted,[5] and nearly every major arms manufacturer produced one type or another.[3]Anti-tank guns deployed during World War II were often manned by specialist infantry rather than artillery crews, and issued to light infantry units accordingly.[5] The anti-tank guns of the 1920s and 1930s were of small caliber; nearly all major armies possessing them used 37 mm ammunition (the British Army used the slightly larger 40 mm 2-pounder gun).[2] As World War II progressed, the appearance of heavier tanks rendered these weapons obsolete, and anti-tank guns likewise began firing larger and more effective armor-piercing shot.[3] The development of the compact hollow charge projectile permanently altered anti-tank warfare, since this type of ammunition did not depend on a high muzzle velocity and could be fired from low-recoil, man-portable light weapons, such as the Panzerfaust and the American series of recoilless rifles.[3]Although several large-caliber guns were developed during the war that were capable of knocking out the most heavily armored tanks, they proved expensive and difficult to conceal.[3] The later generation of low-recoil anti-tank weapons, which allowed projectiles the size of an artillery shell to be fired from the shoulder, was considered a far more viable option for arming infantry.[5] Recoilless rifles replaced most conventional anti-tank guns in the postwar period; nevertheless, the development of new anti-tank guns exhibiting similar low-recoil performance continued until the late 1950s in France, Belgium, and the Soviet Union.[6] A few Soviet designs saw combat well into the 1980s and 1990s.[7] The People's Republic of China was still producing towed anti-tank guns as late as 1988.[8]","title":"Anti-tank gun"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two_of_our_officers_with_a_German_anti-tank_gun_(4687973105).jpg"},{"link_name":"Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauser_1918_T-Gewehr"},{"link_name":"anti-tank rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank_rifles"},{"link_name":"field artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_artillery"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"infantry support guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry_support_gun"},{"link_name":"Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_d%27Infanterie_de_37_mod%C3%A8le_1916_TRP"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"3.7 cm Tankabwehrkanone 1918 im starrer Räder–lafette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3.7_cm_TAK_1918"},{"link_name":"Hotchkiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotchkiss_gun"},{"link_name":"rotary-cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_cannon"},{"link_name":"Imperial German Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_German_army"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"3.7 cm Pak 36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3.7_cm_Pak_36"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"catastrophic kill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophic_kill"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"Böhler gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannone_da_47/32"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"}],"sub_title":"World War I and Interwar period","text":"Two British officers with a captured Mauser 1918 T-GewehrThe first specialized anti-tank weaponry consisted of anti-tank rifles. These emerged from the mixed results of deploying field artillery against tanks during World War I, and the need to produce a more economical weapon to destroy them.[2] Most anti-tank rifles were over 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) in length, however, and difficult for infantrymen to operate in the confines of their trenches. They could penetrate a tank's armor at long range, but without explosive firepower, often failed to cause catastrophic damage, kill, or even seriously injure the crew, or disable the tank.[2] A number of infantry support guns designed to defeat hard targets such as fortified machine gun emplacements were used as makeshift anti-tank weapons, including the French Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP.[3] The 3.7 cm Tankabwehrkanone 1918 im starrer Räder–lafette was probably the first dedicated anti-tank gun in service. However, its gun barrel was based on an earlier Hotchkiss 5-barrelled rotary-cannon. The 3.7 cm TAK 1918 was designed and built for the Imperial German Army in 1918.[9] The 3.7 cm Pak 36 which first appeared in 1928 was probably the first purpose-built anti-tank gun.[2] Weighing some 160 kg, the Pak 36 could inflict a catastrophic kill on a tank rather than merely penetrating its armor plate.[2] Towed guns similar to the Pak 36 were the only anti-tank weapon issued to European armies during the 1930s, and a number of influential designs proliferated, such as the Böhler gun.[3] By the late 1930s, anti-tank guns had been manufactured by companies in Germany, Austria, France, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Great Britain, Denmark, and Sweden.[3] A few countries, such as the Soviet Union, also manufactured foreign designs under license.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pak38_cfb_borden_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"PaK 38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PaK_38"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"high-explosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(projectile)#HE-Frag"},{"link_name":"solid armor-piercing shot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armor-piercing_shell"},{"link_name":"gun shields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_shield"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"sloped armor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloped_armor"},{"link_name":"T-34","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-34"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ganz-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ganz-11"},{"link_name":"gun mantlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun_mantlet"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ganz-11"},{"link_name":"high-explosive anti-tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-explosive_anti-tank_warhead"},{"link_name":"armor-piercing discarding sabot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armor-piercing_discarding_sabot"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"Tiger II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger_II"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"Ordnance QF 6-pounder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_QF_6-pounder"},{"link_name":"Ordnance QF 17-pounder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_QF_17-pounder"},{"link_name":"Wehrmacht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrmacht"},{"link_name":"7.5 cm Pak 41","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.5_cm_Pak_41"},{"link_name":"8.8 cm Pak 43","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8.8_cm_Pak_43"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gander-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"hollow charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_charge"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norris-2"},{"link_name":"Panzerfaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzerfaust"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rottman-5"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaloga1-12"}],"sub_title":"World War II","text":"German PaK 38 50-mm anti-tank gunAt the outbreak of World War II, most armies were fielding light anti-tank guns firing 3.7-cm (37-mm) ammunition.[5] The guns were usually mounted on two-wheeled carriages so they could be towed into position, then withdrawn and repositioned rapidly. Since they weighed only a few hundred pounds on average, they could also be manhandled into position.[5] All fired high-explosive and solid armor-piercing shot effective at ranges up to roughly 500 m (1,600 ft), and an increasing number were manufactured with protective gun shields in addition to a split rail mounting.[5] They were able to destroy tanks fielded by both sides during the first two years of the war, but soon proved impotent against the heavier tank armor that debuted in 1940.[3]\nFrench doctrine was for their infantry to let enemy tanks pass through then stop the accompanying enemy infantry leaving the unsupported tanks to be engaged by anti-tank guns deployed in three echelons. The issue of 58 guns per division provided 10 guns per kilometre of front which was expected to be able to deal with enemy tanks at a concentration of 50 tanks per kilometer. In practice the German invasion of France concentrated tanks in select divisions at up to 100 per kilometer.[10]Introducing improved ammunition and increasing muzzle velocity initially helped compensate for their mediocre performance, but small-caliber anti-tank guns clearly would soon be overtaken by yet more heavily armored tanks.[3] Medium-caliber guns in the 40- to 50-mm range began to appear, some of which simply used rebored 37-mm barrels.[5] Although they, too, were soon approaching obsolescence, most remained in use with infantry units until the end of the war.[5] Anti-tank guns remained ineffective against sloped armor, as demonstrated by an incident in 1941 when a single Soviet T-34 tank was hit more than 30 times by a battalion-sized contingent of German 37 and 50-mm anti-tank guns. The tank survived intact and was driven back to its own lines a few hours later.[11] This helped earn the Pak 36 the moniker of Panzeranklopfgerät (\"tank door knocker\") because its crew simply revealed their presence and wasted their shells without damaging the T-34's armor.[11] Anti-tank gunners began aiming at tank tracks, or vulnerable margins on the turret ring and gun mantlet, rather than testing their lighter cannon against bow and turret armor.[11] These difficulties resulted in new types of ammunition being issued, namely high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) and armor-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) projectiles.[3]Towards the end of World War II, armor plating became still thicker, with tanks such as the Tiger II being fitted with armor over 100 mm (3.9 in) in thickness, as compared to 15 mm (0.59 in) which was more typical in 1939.[3] This prompted the development of a third generation of anti-tank guns, large-caliber pieces in the 57- to 100-mm range.[5] The British Army adopted the Ordnance QF 6-pounder and Ordnance QF 17-pounder, which were then considered great advances in firepower, and the Wehrmacht fielded the even larger 7.5 cm Pak 41 and 8.8 cm Pak 43.[2] While the early 37-mm anti-tank guns were easily concealed and moved, the large-caliber weapons available late in the war required equally large vehicles to tow them into place, and were difficult to conceal, dig in, withdraw, or reposition.[5] By 1945, large anti-tank guns had become almost impractical in their role, and their size and weight were considered liabilities.[5] They were also expensive to produce[3] and although they were capable of defeating the most formidable of opponents, most tank units still consisted of less heavily armoured models that remained vulnerable to less expensive and more practical guns, as well. Many heavy anti-tank guns were issued, at least initially, on the divisional level, but gradually made their way to individual infantry battalions.[5]Meanwhile, the effect of very compact hollow charge warheads was being noted, and a number of countries began producing man-portable anti-tank weapons using this ammunition.[2] The development of man-portable, shoulder-fired, anti-tank rocket launchers began in 1941; most could be reloaded, but a few, such as the German Panzerfaust, were fired from disposable tubes. Unlike anti-tank guns, their light weight made them easily portable by individual infantrymen on the battlefield, and they offered similar degrees of firepower whilst being quicker and cheaper to produce.[5]Towed anti-tank guns disappeared from most Western countries, such as the United States, after World War II, to be replaced by shoulder-fired rocket launchers, recoilless rifles, and eventually, guided anti-tank missiles.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ParkPatriot2015part6-42.jpg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz-6"},{"link_name":"8 cm PAW 600","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8_cm_PAW_600"},{"link_name":"Mecar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecar"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane2-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz-6"},{"link_name":"AML-90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panhard_AML"},{"link_name":"EBR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panhard_EBR"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane2-13"},{"link_name":"T-12 anti-tank gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-12_antitank_gun"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane2-13"},{"link_name":"Pak 50/57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pak_57"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane2-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane2-13"},{"link_name":"APFSDS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APFSDS"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tank-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane1-8"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JanePRC-15"},{"link_name":"Six-Day War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oren-16"},{"link_name":"South African Border War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Border_War"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grove-7"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trade-17"}],"sub_title":"Postwar period","text":"Postwar Soviet MT-12 100-mm anti-tank gunAt the end of the war, German engineers had proposed a new, large-caliber anti-tank gun that used less propellant than a rocket or recoilless weapon, yet fired similar compact hollow-charge shells.[6] German forces subsequently fielded the 8 cm PAW 600, which was an extremely lightweight, low-pressure weapon still able to fire the same ammunition types as higher-velocity anti-tank guns. In the 1950s, this idea was revived by a Belgian firm, Mecar, which subsequently improved on the concept and developed a low-pressure, smoothbore, 90-mm anti-tank gun.[6] Because of its low recoil forces and light construction, the gun was particularly useful for being mounted on armored cars or small gun carriages.[13] Its design inspired the lightly rifled French DEFA D921 anti-tank gun, which fired fin-stabilized shells and was available on a towed carriage or as a vehicle mount.[6] It was later mated to the AML-90 and EBR series of French armored cars.[13] The Soviet Union also adopted a similar design around the same time, the 100-mm T-12 anti-tank gun, which was smoothbore and fired fin-stabilized shells.[13] Switzerland developed a postwar 90-mm anti-tank gun of its own, the Pak 50/57, firing shells with an even lower velocity than the Mecar or DEFA guns.[13] Apart from the T-12, which used APDS rounds, these weapons could only use HEAT shells for armor-piercing purposes.[13] France did introduce an APFSDS shell for the DEFA D921 at some point in the 1980s.[14] The last country known to have produced a dedicated anti-tank gun was the People's Republic of China in 1988.[8] The Chinese gun was known as the Norinco Type 86 and was probably manufactured as a replacement for the aging Soviet-sourced T-12.[15]Anti-tank guns continued to be used in a number of conflicts around the world, such as the Six-Day War[16] and the South African Border War.[7] Soviet anti-tank guns in particular were exported to at least 18 other countries after being retired from service, and have continued to see action.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Panzerjäger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzerj%C3%A4ger"},{"link_name":"Jagdpanzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagdpanzer"},{"link_name":"Samokhodnaya Ustanovka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samokhodnaya_Ustanovka"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Valentine_Archer_at_Latrun1.JPG"},{"link_name":"Archer tank destroyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archer_(tank_destroyer)"},{"link_name":"Valentine tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentine_tank"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz2-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz2-18"},{"link_name":"Panzerjäger I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzerj%C3%A4ger_I"},{"link_name":"4.7-cm Pak (t)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4,7cm_KP%C3%9AV_vz._38"},{"link_name":"Panzer I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer_I"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Battistelli-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Battistelli-20"},{"link_name":"tank destroyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_destroyer"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Battistelli-20"},{"link_name":"75mm on M2 half-tracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M3_Gun_Motor_Carriage"},{"link_name":"M6 Gun Motor Carriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M6_Gun_Motor_Carriage"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckley-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckley-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckley-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ogorkiewicz2-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trade-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane2-13"}],"text":"See also: Panzerjäger, Jagdpanzer, and Samokhodnaya UstanovkaA British Archer tank destroyer, based on the hull of a Valentine tank.Although still being drawn by horses or towed by trucks, towed anti-tank guns were initially much lighter and more portable than field guns, making them well-suited to infantry maneuvers.[18] As their size and caliber increased, though, the guns likewise became increasingly heavy and cumbersome, restricting their role to static defense. In consequence, during World War II, both sides were compelled to make anti-tank guns self-propelled, which greatly increased their mobility.[18]The first self-propelled anti-tank guns were merely belated attempts to make use of obsolete tanks, such as the Panzerjäger I, which was a Czech 4.7-cm Pak (t) gun mated to a Panzer I chassis[a].[19] and were used in the Battle of France The trend continued with older tanks and captured vehicles, which were available in large numbers for conversions to self-propelled guns when they were replaced by heavier and better-armed (and armored) tanks.[19] Although just a makeshift solution, these initial experiments proved so successful, they spawned an entire class of new vehicles: dedicated tank destroyers.[19]The US Army's early self-propelled anti-tank guns were 75mm on M2 half-tracks (entering service in 1941) to complement towed artillery and M6 Gun Motor Carriage a 37mm on 4-wheel drive Dodge truck (1942). US Tank Destroyer doctrine emphasised mobility to place the tank destroyers into positions to ambush tank attacks.Tank destroyers offered some advantages over towed anti-tank guns, since a static gun emplacement sacrificed concealment and surprise after firing the first shot, but the same gun mounted on a tracked or wheeled chassis could open fire and throw a tank formation into substantial disarray before quickly withdrawing to repeat the same tactic elsewhere.[20] The introduction of tank destroyers also put an end to the traditional tactic of suppressing anti-tank gun batteries with heavy artillery bombardments, as their crews were now well-protected under armor.[20] They were not without their own series of disadvantages, however, namely presenting a much larger target than a towed gun, the added responsibilities of vehicle maintenance and logistical support, and the limited spaces in which the crew had to operate and stow all their available ammunition.[20]By the end of the war, dedicated tank destroyers had been superseded by tanks, which were just as effective at destroying other tanks, and little incentive remained to continue their separate development.[18] Nevertheless, much like towed anti-tank guns, they were widely exported and are still in service with some militaries in the late 20th and early 21st century.[17][13]","title":"Self-propelled anti-tank guns"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"}],"text":"^ The Panzer I was a light tank that had been brought into service for training and developing German armor divisions and made up large proportion of German forces until the large scale production of medium tanks (Panzer III and Panzer IV","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"French-designed DEFA D921/GT-2 90 mm towed anti-tank gun as mounted on a QF 17-pounder carriage","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Baasjan1.JPG/220px-Baasjan1.JPG"},{"image_text":"Two British officers with a captured Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Two_of_our_officers_with_a_German_anti-tank_gun_%284687973105%29.jpg/220px-Two_of_our_officers_with_a_German_anti-tank_gun_%284687973105%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"German PaK 38 50-mm anti-tank gun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Pak38_cfb_borden_2.JPG/220px-Pak38_cfb_borden_2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Postwar Soviet MT-12 100-mm anti-tank gun","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/ParkPatriot2015part6-42.jpg/250px-ParkPatriot2015part6-42.jpg"},{"image_text":"A British Archer tank destroyer, based on the hull of a Valentine tank.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Valentine_Archer_at_Latrun1.JPG/250px-Valentine_Archer_at_Latrun1.JPG"}] | [{"title":"Anti-tank guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Anti-tank_guns"},{"title":"Anti-tank grenade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank_grenade"},{"title":"Anti-tank warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare"},{"title":"List of anti-tank guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anti-tank_guns"},{"title":"Tank gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tank_gun"},{"title":"Man-portable anti-tank systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-portable_anti-tank_systems"}] | [{"reference":"Norris, John (1997). 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ISBN 978-0-531-03299-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-531-03299-2","url_text":"978-0-531-03299-2"}]},{"reference":"Bruce Quarry & Mike Spick (1987). An Illustrated Guide to Tank Busters (1987 ed.). Prentice Hall Press. pp. 120–125. ISBN 978-0-13-451154-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-451154-2","url_text":"978-0-13-451154-2"}]},{"reference":"Christopher F. Foss (1991). Jane's Armour and Artillery (1991 ed.). Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd. pp. 612–613. ISBN 978-0-7106-0964-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7106-0964-9","url_text":"978-0-7106-0964-9"}]},{"reference":"Oren, Michael (2003). Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (2003 ed.). Presidio Press. pp. 192–194. ISBN 978-0-345-46192-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sixdaysofwarjune0000oren_u3x7/page/192","url_text":"Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sixdaysofwarjune0000oren_u3x7/page/192","url_text":"192–194"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-46192-6","url_text":"978-0-345-46192-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Trade Registers\". Armstrade.sipri.org. Retrieved 2013-06-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php","url_text":"\"Trade Registers\""}]},{"reference":"Ogorkiewicz, Richard (1979). Bertram, Christoph (ed.). New Conventional Weapons and East-West Security (1979 ed.). Praeger Publishers. pp. 38–41. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chogha_Bonut | Chogha Bonut | ["1 Archaeology","2 Settlement","3 See also","4 References"] | Coordinates: 32°13′19″N 48°30′18″E / 32.222°N 48.505°E / 32.222; 48.505Prehistoric settlement in Iran
Chogha Bonut (Persian Choghā bonut) is an archaeological site in south-western Iran, located in the Khuzistan Province.
The site is about 20 km southeast of Dezful, and 5 km west of Chogha Mish, another ancient site.
It is believed that the site was settled as early as 7200 BCE, making it the oldest lowland village in south-western Iran.
This settlement on the Susiana Plain played a big role in the early Elam civilization. Later, this area became dominated by Susa. The site is important because it preserves a record of preceramic period settlement in Iran.
Archaeology
The site has an area about 50 meters in diameter and about 5 meters in height. It was accidentally discovered in 1976 when the mound was being leveled for agribusiness development. Helene Kantor, then working at Chogha Mish nearby, hurried to the site and received a permit to investigate it.
Kantor remained for two seasons (1976/77 and 1977/78), but was unable to return in 1979 due to the Iranian Revolution. Abbas Alizadeh continued investigations at the site in 1996. His findings were published in 2003. It is one of the few Neolithic sites excavated since the Iranian revolution.
Among the finds were 41 clay tokens.
Settlement
Five phases of occupation are documented at the site:
the Aceramic phase,
the Formative Ceramic phase, (Film Painted Ware)
the Archaic Susiana 0 phase (includes the Early Susiana period, ca. 5900 BCE),
the Late Middle Susiana phase (ca. 5200 BCE)
the Late Susiana 2 phase. (ca. 4400-4000 BCE)
See also
Prehistory of Iran
Cities of the ancient Near East
References
^ a b Alizadeh, Abbas (2003). Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran : seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996, Oriental Institute Publications 120 (PDF). Chicago, Ill.: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in association with the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization. ISBN 1-885923-23-6. OCLC 53122624.
^ a b c Alizadeh, Abbas., "EXCAVATIONS AT CHOGHA BONUT: THE EARLIEST VILLAGE IN SUSIANA, IRAN", The Oriental Institute News and Notes, No. 153, Spring 1997
^ Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh, and St. John Simpson. “Archaeological News from Iran: Second Report.” Iran, vol. 36, 1998, pp. 185–94
^ Alden, John R. (2005). "Review of Excavations at the Prehistoric Mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: Seasons of 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 125 (1): 109–111. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 20064295.
^ Helene J. Kantor, "Excavations at Chogha Mish and Chogha Bonut", Oriental Institute 1976-1977 Annual Report, 1977
^ Helene J. Kantor, "Chogha Mish and Chogha Bonut", Oriental Institute 1977-1978 Annual Report, 1978
^ Helene J. Kantor, "Chogha Mish and Chogha Bonut", Oriental Institute 1978-1979 Annual Report, 1979
^ Helene J. Kantor, "Chogha Mish and Chogha Bonut", Oriental Institute 1979-1980 Annual Report, 1980
^ Hole, Frank. Neolithic Age in Iran], The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies, Retrieved July 21, 2010
^ Overmann, Karenleigh A.. "CHAPTER 9. THE NEOLITHIC CLAY TOKENS". The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, 2019, pp. 157-178
^ BERNBECK, Reinhard. “MIGRATORY PATTERNS IN EARLY NOMADISM: A RECONSIDERATION OF TEPE TULA’I.” Paléorient, vol. 18, no. 1, 1992, pp. 77–88
^ Abbas Alizadeh, "Excavations at Chogha Bonut, an Aceramic Neolithic Site in Lowland Susiana, Southwestern Iran", Neo-Lithics: A Newsletter of Southwest Asian Lithics Research, 1997
Authority control databases
VIAF
32°13′19″N 48°30′18″E / 32.222°N 48.505°E / 32.222; 48.505 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Khuzistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuzistan"},{"link_name":"Dezful","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dezful"},{"link_name":"Chogha Mish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chogha_Mish"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbas03-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oriental1-2"},{"link_name":"Elam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elam"},{"link_name":"Susa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susa"}],"text":"Prehistoric settlement in IranChogha Bonut (Persian Choghā bonut) is an archaeological site in south-western Iran, located in the Khuzistan Province.The site is about 20 km southeast of Dezful, and 5 km west of Chogha Mish, another ancient site.It is believed that the site was settled as early as 7200 BCE, making it the oldest lowland village in south-western Iran.[1][2]This settlement on the Susiana Plain played a big role in the early Elam civilization. Later, this area became dominated by Susa. The site is important because it preserves a record of preceramic period settlement in Iran.","title":"Chogha Bonut"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"agribusiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agribusiness"},{"link_name":"Helene Kantor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helene_J._Kantor"},{"link_name":"Chogha Mish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chogha_Mish"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Iranian Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oriental1-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Abbas Alizadeh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Alizadeh"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oriental1-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abbas03-1"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The site has an area about 50 meters in diameter and about 5 meters in height.[3] It was accidentally discovered in 1976 when the mound was being leveled for agribusiness development. Helene Kantor, then working at Chogha Mish nearby, hurried to the site and received a permit to investigate it.[4]Kantor remained for two seasons (1976/77 and 1977/78), but was unable to return in 1979 due to the Iranian Revolution.[2][5][6][7][8] Abbas Alizadeh continued investigations at the site in 1996.[2] His findings were published in 2003.[1] It is one of the few Neolithic sites excavated since the Iranian revolution.[9]Among the finds were 41 clay tokens.[10]","title":"Archaeology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Five phases of occupation are documented at the site:the Aceramic phase,\nthe Formative Ceramic phase, (Film Painted Ware)[11]\nthe Archaic Susiana 0 phase (includes the Early Susiana period, ca. 5900 BCE),\nthe Late Middle Susiana phase (ca. 5200 BCE)\nthe Late Susiana 2 phase. (ca. 4400-4000 BCE)[12]","title":"Settlement"}] | [] | [{"title":"Prehistory of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran"},{"title":"Cities of the ancient Near East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East"}] | [{"reference":"Alizadeh, Abbas (2003). Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran : seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996, Oriental Institute Publications 120 (PDF). Chicago, Ill.: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in association with the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization. ISBN 1-885923-23-6. OCLC 53122624.","urls":[{"url":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/OIP120.pdf","url_text":"Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran : seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996, Oriental Institute Publications 120"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-885923-23-6","url_text":"1-885923-23-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53122624","url_text":"53122624"}]},{"reference":"Alden, John R. (2005). \"Review of Excavations at the Prehistoric Mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: Seasons of 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996\". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 125 (1): 109–111. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 20064295.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20064295","url_text":"\"Review of Excavations at the Prehistoric Mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: Seasons of 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279","url_text":"0003-0279"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20064295","url_text":"20064295"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chogha_Bonut¶ms=32.222_N_48.505_E_","external_links_name":"32°13′19″N 48°30′18″E / 32.222°N 48.505°E / 32.222; 48.505"},{"Link":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/OIP120.pdf","external_links_name":"Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran : seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996, Oriental Institute Publications 120"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53122624","external_links_name":"53122624"},{"Link":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/nn153.pdf","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20064295","external_links_name":"\"Review of Excavations at the Prehistoric Mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: Seasons of 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279","external_links_name":"0003-0279"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20064295","external_links_name":"20064295"},{"Link":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/ar/71-80/76-77/76-77_Chogamish.pdf","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/ar/71-80/77-78/77-78_Chogamish.pdf","external_links_name":"[3]"},{"Link":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/ar/71-80/78-79/78-79_Chogamish.pdf","external_links_name":"[4]"},{"Link":"https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/ar/71-80/79-80/79-80_Chogamish.pdf","external_links_name":"[5]"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/315142782","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chogha_Bonut¶ms=32.222_N_48.505_E_","external_links_name":"32°13′19″N 48°30′18″E / 32.222°N 48.505°E / 32.222; 48.505"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristian%27s_algorithm | Cristian's algorithm | ["1 Description","2 See also","3 References"] | Cristian's algorithm (introduced by Flaviu Cristian in 1989) is a method for clock synchronization which can be used in many fields of distributive computer science but is primarily used in low-latency intranets. Cristian observed that this simple algorithm is probabilistic, in that it only achieves synchronization if the round-trip time (RTT) of the request is short compared to required accuracy. It also suffers in implementations using a single server, making it unsuitable for many distributive applications where redundancy may be crucial.
Description
Cristian's algorithm works between a process P, and a time server S connected to a time reference source. Put simply:
P requests the time from S at time t0.
After receiving the request from P, S prepares a response and appends the time T from its own clock.
P receives the response at time t1 then sets its time to be T + RTT/2, where RTT=t1-t0.
If the RTT is actually split equally between request and response, the synchronisation is error-free. But due to unpredictable influences, this assumption is regularly not true. Longer RTTs indicate interference that is generally asymmetrical. Offset and jitter of the synchronisation are thus minimised by selecting suitable RTT from a set of many request/response pairs. Whether an RTT can be accepted at a given time depends on the drift of the clock and on the statistics of the RTT. These quantities can be measured in the course of synchronisation, which optimises the method by itself.
See also
Allan variance
Berkeley algorithm
Clock synchronization
Daytime Protocol, older time synchronization protocol using TCP or UDP port 13
ICMP Timestamp and ICMP Timestamp Reply, older time synchronization protocol using ICMP
International Atomic Time
NTP pool, a collection of worldwide computers that provide a highly accurate time via the Network Time Protocol
NTP server misuse and abuse
ntpd, OpenNTPD and Ntpdate
Precision Time Protocol
Synchronization
Time Protocol, older time synchronization protocol using TCP or UDP port 37
Time server
References
^ Cristian, Flaviu (1989), "Probabilistic clock synchronization" (PDF), Distributed Computing, 3 (3), Springer: 146–158, doi:10.1007/BF01784024, S2CID 3170166 | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Cristian's algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Cristian's algorithm works between a process P, and a time server S connected to a time reference source. Put simply:P requests the time from S at time t0.\nAfter receiving the request from P, S prepares a response and appends the time T from its own clock.\nP receives the response at time t1 then sets its time to be T + RTT/2, where RTT=t1-t0.If the RTT is actually split equally between request and response, the synchronisation is error-free. But due to unpredictable influences, this assumption is regularly not true. Longer RTTs indicate interference that is generally asymmetrical. Offset and jitter of the synchronisation are thus minimised by selecting suitable RTT from a set of many request/response pairs. Whether an RTT can be accepted at a given time depends on the drift of the clock and on the statistics of the RTT. These quantities can be measured in the course of synchronisation, which optimises the method by itself.","title":"Description"}] | [] | [{"title":"Allan variance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_variance"},{"title":"Berkeley algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_algorithm"},{"title":"Clock synchronization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_synchronization"},{"title":"Daytime Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daytime_Protocol"},{"title":"ICMP Timestamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMP_Timestamp"},{"title":"ICMP Timestamp Reply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMP_Timestamp_Reply"},{"title":"International Atomic Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Time"},{"title":"NTP pool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTP_pool"},{"title":"NTP server misuse and abuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTP_server_misuse_and_abuse"},{"title":"ntpd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntpd"},{"title":"OpenNTPD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNTPD"},{"title":"Ntpdate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntpdate"},{"title":"Precision Time Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_Time_Protocol"},{"title":"Synchronization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization"},{"title":"Time Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Protocol"},{"title":"Time server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_server"}] | [{"reference":"Cristian, Flaviu (1989), \"Probabilistic clock synchronization\" (PDF), Distributed Computing, 3 (3), Springer: 146–158, doi:10.1007/BF01784024, S2CID 3170166","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaviu_Cristian","url_text":"Cristian, Flaviu"},{"url":"https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/lorenzo/corsi/cs380d/papers/Cristian.pdf","url_text":"\"Probabilistic clock synchronization\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Computing_(journal)","url_text":"Distributed Computing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media","url_text":"Springer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01784024","url_text":"10.1007/BF01784024"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3170166","url_text":"3170166"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/lorenzo/corsi/cs380d/papers/Cristian.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Probabilistic clock synchronization\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01784024","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF01784024"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3170166","external_links_name":"3170166"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_architecture | Organizational architecture | ["1 Content","2 Design","2.1 Design process and approach","2.2 Reshaping organization structure","2.3 Various approaches","2.4 Five principles of good design[4]","2.5 Five good design tests[5]","3 Characteristics of effective organizational design","4 Differentiation and integration","5 The role of management","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading"] | Procedural structure of an organization
Business administration
Management of a business
Accounting
Management accounting
Financial accounting
Audit
Business entity (list)
Corporate group
Corporation sole
Conglomerate (company)
Holding company
Cooperative
Corporation
Joint-stock company
Limited liability company
Partnership
Privately held company
Sole proprietorship
State-owned enterprise
Corporate governance
Annual general meeting
Board of directors
Supervisory board
Advisory board
Audit committee
Corporate law
Commercial law
Constitutional documents
Contract
Corporate crime
Corporate liability
Insolvency law
International trade law
Mergers and acquisitions
Corporate title
Chairman
Chief business officer/Chief brand officer
Chief executive officer/Chief operating officer
Chief financial officer
Chief human resources officer
Chief information officer/Chief marketing officer
Chief product officer/Chief technology officer
Economics
Commodity
Public economics
Labour economics
Development economics
International economics
Mixed economy
Planned economy
Econometrics
Environmental economics
Open economy
Market economy
Knowledge economy
Microeconomics
Macroeconomics
Economic development
Economic statistics
Finance
Financial statement
Insurance
Factoring
Cash conversion cycle
Insider dealing
Capital budgeting
Commercial bank
Derivative
Financial statement analysis
Financial risk
Public finance
Corporate finance
Managerial finance
International finance
Liquidation
Stock market
Financial market
Tax
Financial institution
Capital management
Venture capital
Types of management
Asset
Brand
Business intelligence
Business development
Capacity
Capability
Change
innovation
Commercial
Marketing
Communications
Configuration
Conflict
Content
Customer relationship
Distributed
Earned value
Electronic business
Enterprise resource planning
management information system
Financial
Human resource
development
Incident
Knowledge
Legal
Materials
Network
administrator
Office
Operations
services
Performance
Power
Problem
Process
Product life-cycle
Product
Project
Property
Quality
Records
Resource
Risk
crisis
Sales
Security
Service
Strategic
Supply chain
Systems
administrator
Talent
Technology
Organization
Architecture
Behavior
Communication
Culture
Conflict
Development
Engineering
Hierarchy
Patterns
Space
Structure
Trade
Business analysis
Business ethics
Business plan
Business judgment rule
Consumer behaviour
Business operations
International business
Business model
International trade
Trade route
Business process
Business statistics
Business and economics portalvte
Not to be confused with Organizational space.
Simplified scheme of an organization
Organizational architecture, also known as organizational design, is a field concerned with the creation of roles, processes, and formal reporting relationships in an organization. It refers to architecture metaphorically, as a structure which fleshes out the organizations. The various features of a business's organizational architecture has to be internally consistent in strategy, architecture and competitive environment.
It provides the framework through which an organization aims to realize its core qualities as specified in its vision statement. It provides the infrastructure into which business processes are deployed and ensures that the organization's core qualities are realized across the business processes deployed within the organization. In this way, organizations aim to consistently realize their core qualities across the services they offer to their clients. This perspective on organizational architecture is elaborated below.
Content
According to most authors organizational architecture is a metaphor. Like traditional architecture, it shapes the organizational (some authors would say the informational) space where life will take place. It also represents a concept which implies a connection between the organizational structure and other systems inside the organization in order to create a unique synergistic system that will be more than just the sum of its parts.
Conventionally organizational architecture consists of the formal organization (organizational structure), informal organization (organizational culture), business processes, strategy and the most important human resources, because what is an organization if not a system of people? The table shows some approaches to organizational architecture.
Nadler and Tushman (1997)
Merron (1995)
Galbraith (1995)
Henning(1997)
Churchill (1997)
Corporate Transitions International (2004)
Vision, strategic goals and strategic management
Strategy
The role of the organization
Strategy
Informal organization
Organizational culture
Reward systems
Reward systems
Organizational culture
Organizational culture
Formal organization
Organizational structure
Organizational structure
Groupings
Organizational structure
Organizational structure
Business processes
Processes and lateral links
Business processes and work design
Human resources
Human resources
Human resource development
Communication
The goal of organizational architecture is to create an organization that will be able to continuously create value for present and future customers, optimizing and organizing itself.
Some under organizational architecture understand building blocks, which are mandatory for the growth of the organization. To design an organization means to set up a stage where the drama of life will take place.
Design
Design process and approach
Although the process of organization design isn't necessarily linear, a five milestone process has been created to organize the approach. The five milestone design process is as follows:
Business case and discovery
Goal: Build a business case for the change; compare the current state to future state and implications that would be involved.
Milestone: at the end of this phase, the problem to be solved is clear.
Strategic grouping
Goal: Determine what basic grouping of work will create the capabilities necessary to deliver the decided strategy.
Milestone: Decided on a structure change which supports the strategy.
Integration
Goal: The boundaries created by grouping work must be breached to deliver results for customers, partners and shareholders.
Milestone: Pieces have been tied together and defined power relationships.
Talent and leadership
Goal: Determine the number of positions, the profile of a candidate who will fill those positions, and who will report to the leader of the new structure(s).
Milestone: Critical roles have been designed and staffed and defined work for the executive team.
Transition
Goal: Set the transition plan to account for a logical implementation plan.
Milestone: The change is being executed and lead, and closely monitoring the changes to prepare for any adjustments
Reshaping organization structure
Galbraith's Star Model of organizational design
Organization design can be defined, narrowly, as the process of reshaping organization structure and roles. It can also be more effectively defined as the alignment of structure, process, rewards, metrics, and talent with the strategy of the business. Jay Galbraith and Amy Kates have made the case persuasively (building on years of work by Galbraith) that attention to all of these organizational elements is necessary to create new capabilities to compete in a given market. This systemic view, often referred to as the "star model" approach, is more likely to lead to better performance.
Organization design may involve strategic decisions, but is properly viewed as a path to effective strategy execution. The design process nearly always entails making trade-offs of one set of structural benefits for another. Many companies fall into the trap of making repeated changes in organization structure, with little benefit to the business. This often occurs because changes in structure are relatively easy to execute while creating the impression that something substantial is happening. This often leads to cynicism and confusion within the organization. More powerful change happens when there are clear design objectives driven by a new business strategy or forces in the market require a different approach to organize resources.
The organization design process is often explained in phases. Phase one is the definition of a business case, including a clear picture of strategy and design objectives. This step is typically followed by "strategic grouping" decisions, which define the fundamental architecture of the organization - essentially deciding which major roles will report at the top of the organization. The classic options for strategic grouping are to organize by:
Behavior
Function
Product or category
Customer or market
Geography
Matrix
Each of the basic building block options for strategic grouping brings a set of benefits and drawbacks. However, such generic pros and cons are not the basis for choosing the best strategic grouping. An analysis must be completed relative to a specific business strategy.
Subsequent phases of organization design include operational design of processes, roles, measures, and reward systems, followed by staffing and other implementation tasks.
The field is somewhat specialized in nature and many large and small consulting firms offer organization design assistance to executives. Some companies attempt to establish internal staff resources aimed at supporting organization design initiatives. There is a substantial body of literature in the field, arguably starting with the work of Peter Drucker in his examination of General Motors decades ago. Other key thinkers built on Drucker's thinking, including Galbraith (1973), Nadler, et al. (1992) and Lawrence and Lorsch (1967).
Organization design can be considered a subset of the broader field of organization effectiveness and organization development, both of which may entail more behaviorally focused solutions to effectiveness, such as leadership behaviors, team effectiveness and other characteristics of that nature. Many organizational experts argue for an integrated approach to these disciplines, including effective talent management practices.
Various approaches
There are various approaches to organizational architecture including
(1986, 1991, 2004) - Kenneth D. Mackenzie
(1992, 1993) - David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman.
Organizational Architecture - by David A. Nadler, Marc S. Gerstein and Robert B. Shaw.
(1993, 1995) - Designing organizations using the STAR Model as developed by Jay Galbraith
Benjamin's Layered Model of organizations.
The Organizational Adaption Model by Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow.
(1995) - Richard M. Burton and Børge Obel
(2001) - Ralph Kilmann
(2004) - Richard L. Daft
Five principles of good design
Specialization principle - the primary concern in the specialization principle how to group responsibilities into units. The unit boundaries should be defined to achieve the important benefits available.
Coordination principle - this principle links closely with the specialization principle, to ensure the links are established between the units.
Knowledge and competence principle - the primary concern in this principle is determining which responsibilities to decentralize and what hierarchical levels to create.
Control and commitment principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring managers have a process to effectively discharge decentralized principles.
Innovation and adaptation principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring the organization can change and evolve in the future.
Five good design tests
Each tests coincides with the principles previously mentioned.
Specialist culture test (Specialization Principle)
Difficult links test (Coordination Principle)
Redundant hierarchy test (Knowledge and Competence Principle)
Accountability test (Control and Commitment Principle)
Flexibility test (Innovation and Adaptation Principle)
Characteristics of effective organizational design
Some systems are effective and efficient whereas others are not. Successful systems may be attributable to the skill exercised in designing the system or to the quality of management practised during operations, or both. Successful systems are characterized by their simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability. Simplicity, flexibility, and reliability tend to be a function of design, whereas economy and acceptability pertain to both design and operations. Numerous relationships exist among these characteristics; for example, simplicity will affect economy and possibly reliability. Moreover, management must reach a compromise between economy and reliability, and between technical efficiency and organizational climate. The balance reached will determine whether short- or long-run objectives are optimized.
Simplicity
An effective organizational system need not be complex. On the contrary, simplicity in design is a desirable quality. Consider the task of communicating information about the operation of a system and the allocation of its inputs. The task is not difficult when components are few and the relationships among them are straightforward. However, the problems of communication multiply with each successive stage of complexity.
The proper method for maintaining simplicity is to use precise definitions and to outline the specific task for each subsystem. Total systems often become complex because of the sheer size and nature of operations, but effectiveness and efficiency may still be achieved if each subsystem maintains its simplicity.
Flexibility
Conditions change and managers should be prepared to adjust operations accordingly. There are two ways to adjust to a changing operating environment: to design new systems or to modify operating systems. An existing system should not be modified to accommodate a change in objectives, but every system should be sufficiently flexible to integrate changes that may occur either in the environment or in the nature of the inputs. For example, a company should not use the same system to build missiles as it uses to build airplanes, nor the same system to sell insurance as the one originally designed to sell magazines. However, it should be possible to modify an existing system to produce different sizes, varieties, or types of the same product or service.
A practical system must be well designed but it cannot be entirely rigid. There will always be minor variations from the general plan, and a system should be able to adapt to such changes without excessive confusion. The advantages associated with having a flexible system will become more apparent when we consider the difficulty of administering change.
Reliability
System reliability is an important factor in organizations. Reliability is the consistency with which operations are maintained, and may vary from zero output (a complete breakdown or work stoppage) to a constant or predictable output. The typical system operates somewhere between these two extremes. The characteristics of reliability can be designed into the system by carefully selecting and arranging the operating components; the system is no more reliable than its weakest segment. When the requirements for a particular component — such as an operator having unique skills — are critical, it may be worthwhile to maintain a standby operator. In all situations, provisions should be made for quick repair or replacement when failure occurs. One valid approach to the reliability-maintenance relationship is to use a form of construction that permits repair by replacing a complete unit. In some television sets, for example, it is common practice to replace an entire section of the network rather than try to find the faulty component. Reliability is not as critical an issue when prompt repair and recovery can be instituted.
Economy
An effective system is not necessarily an economical (efficient) system. For example, the postal service may keep on schedule with mail deliveries but only by hiring a large number of additional workers. In this case, the efficiency of the postal system would be reduced. In another example, inventories may be controlled by using a comprehensive system of storekeeping. However, if the cost of the storekeeping were greater than the potential savings from this degree of control, the system would not be efficient. It is often dysfunctional and expensive to develop much greater capacity for one segment of a system than for some other part. Building in redundancy or providing for every contingency usually neutralizes the operating efficiency of the system. When a system's objectives include achieving a particular task at the lowest possible cost, there must be some degree of trade-off between effectiveness and efficiency. When a system's objective is to perform a certain mission regardless of cost, there can be no trade-off.
Acceptability
Any system, no matter how well designed, will not function properly unless it is accepted by the people who operate it. If the participants do not believe it will benefit them, are opposed to it, are pressured into using it, or think it is not a good system, it will not work properly. If a system is not accepted, two things can happen:(1) the system will be modified gradually by the people who are using it, or (2) the system will be used ineffectively and ultimately fail. Unplanned alterations in an elaborate system can nullify advantages associated with using the system.
Differentiation and integration
A basic consideration in the design of organizations is dividing work into reasonable tasks (differentiation) while giving simultaneous attention to coordinating these activities and unifying their results into a meaningful whole (integration). Two guidelines may be followed in grouping activities:
Units that have similar orientations and tasks should be grouped together. (They can reinforce each other's common concern and the arrangement will simplify the coordinating task of a common manager).
Units required to integrate their activities closely should be grouped together. (The common manager can coordinate them through the formal hierarchy).
When units neither have similar orientations nor share their activities, the task of grouping becomes more difficult. For example, when units are similar in nature and function but are also relatively independent, the manager must base their decision on the most appropriate way to group activities according to their past experience.
A difficult task associated with system-subsystem determination is to establish proper boundaries of operations. The more specific and distinct the goals of the operation, the easier it is to set boundaries. Other factors such as the influence of the environment, the availability of men and machines, the time schedule for design and operation, the cost of alternative designs, and the particular biases of the designers must be considered when establishing boundaries.
The role of management
Designers with imagination have the best chance to group people and machines into workable combinations having the greatest efficiency and effectiveness within the recognized constraints. Certain characteristics should be designed into an effective and efficient system — simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability.
At this point, the designer must determine what has to be done to achieve the stated objective(s) and how the total task can be divided into meaningful units. Of the many possible combinations, one must be selected as that which satisfies the decision criteria better than the other alternatives. Of course, the balance between technical efficiency and the human factors that determine organizational climate should be included in making this decision. The eventual success or failure of the project is somewhat predetermined by management's attitude and the relationship between the designers and those who must implement the process.
The systems approach suggests a new role for management. In the traditional view, the manager operated in a highly structured, rigid system having well-defined goals, clear-cut relationships, tight controls, and hierarchical information flows. In the flexible (or open) systems view, the organization is not static but is continually evolving to meet both external and internal changes. The manager's role is to develop a viable organization, cope with change, and help participants establish a dynamic equilibrium. Leonard Sayles has expressed the manager's problem as follows:
“The one enduring objective is the effort to build and maintain a predictable, reciprocating system of relationships, the behavioral patterns of which stay within reasonable physical limits. But this is seeking a moving equilibrium, since the parameters of the system (the division of labor and the controls) are evolving and changing. Thus, the manager endeavors to introduce regularity in a world that will never allow him to achieve the ideal”.
The systems approach does not offer a prescription for making a manager's difficult and complex job easier. Rather it helps him understand and operate more effectively within the reality of complex systems. The systems approach suggests that operations cannot be neatly departmentalized but must be viewed as overlapping subsystems. In addition, it suggests that leadership patterns must be modified, particularly when dealing with professionals and highly trained specialists, and motivation must take the form of active, willing participation rather than forceful subjugation.
Systems design involves establishing projects and facilitating subsystems to accomplish certain tasks or programs. In this approach, the network of human independence required to accomplish a given task is based on the shared responsibility of all members of the subsystem. In contrast, the traditional organization is geared to functional performance and the integrating force is authority. Instead of gearing participant activities to obedience to rules and closely structured behavior, the systems approach provides a basis for active cooperation in meeting task requirements. The manager is looked upon as a resource person who can help the group meet its goals and also as a source of authority and control. Thus, systems theory lends a structure by which the concepts of motivation, leadership, and participation can be applied effectively within the organization.
Implementation is, of course, implicit in the connotation of systems design; otherwise it would be nothing more than an empty exercise. It follows that the interface between managers and systems designers is critical, and mutual understanding must be fostered to maximize returns from design efforts. The system must be tailored to the needs of the organization and adapted continually as circumstances change. In a general sense, managers engage in systems design on a day-to-day basis when they plan activities and organize systems to accomplish objectives. Specialized staff groups have evolved to perform tasks such as long-range planning, organizational studies, and systems design. However, since managers are ultimately responsible for organizational endeavors, they should make a special effort to help ensure the development of useful systems and to make design activities an extension of the manager's role rather than a separate function.
Operating managers need to understand the organizational decision-making requirements and the information needed to support the system. Although the probability of success in implementation is enhanced considerably if management is vitally interested in the project, technical expertise and motivation for change are more likely to be found in staff groups. The solution to the apparent dichotomy would seem to be a team approach, with specialists supporting operating managers who are responsible for the project's success. A manager might devote either part-time to such an effort or full-time temporarily, if the task requires it.
A project involving an integrated system for the entire company might well require years to complete. If operating people are delegated responsibility and authority for such a project, particularly if they are delegated the authority to outline specifications, they should also maintain sufficient contact with the day-to-day operations and its attendant information flow to retain their expertise for decision making. If the environment is dynamic or internal capabilities undergo change, it might be wise to rotate people from operations to systems design periodically, so that operating expertise is updated continually.
See also
Organizational design
Organizational structure
Departmentalization
Enterprise architecture framework
Interdisciplinary Center for Organizational Architecture
View model
References
^ a b Miroslav Žugaj & Markus Schatten (2005). Arhitektura suvremenih organizacija. Varaždinske Toplice: Tonimir. pp. 1–6. ISBN 953-7069-50-8.
^ Baligh, Helmy H. (2006). "Structure, Performance, Cost, and Outcome". Organization Structures. Information and Organization Design Series. Vol. 5. Springer New York. pp. 1–31. doi:10.1007/0-387-28317-X_1. ISBN 978-0387258478.
^ a b Kesler, Gregory (2011). Leading organization design : how to make organization design decisions to drive the results you want. Kates, Amy. (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. pp. 9–10. ISBN 9780470912836. OCLC 693772818.
^ Goold, Michael (2002). Designing effective organizations : how to create structured networks. Campbell, Andrew, 1950 August 3-. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass. pp. 49–57. ISBN 0787960640. OCLC 48783823.
^ Goold, Michael (2002). Designing effective organizations : how to create structured networks. Campbell, Andrew, 1950 August 3-. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass. p. 93. ISBN 0787960640. OCLC 48783823.
^ Richard A. Johnson, Fremont E. Kast, and James E. Rosenzweig, The Theory and Management of Systems, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973), pp. 144-46.
^ a b c Paul R. Lawrence; Jay William Lorsch (1967). Organization and environment; managing differentiation and integration. Boston: Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University. pp. 213–18. OCLC 229592.
^ a b c d Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems, and society : an introduction. Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co. pp. 100–105. ISBN 0-87620-540-6. OCLC 2299496.
^ a b c Leonard R. Sayles (1964). Managerial behavior; administration in complex organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 100–105. OCLC 965259.
^ Ackerman, Ben. "Organisation Design, why keep it a secret?".
Further reading
Kates, Amy, and Gregory Kesler. Bridging Organization Design and Performance: 5 Ways to Activate a Global Operating Model. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
Kates, Amy, and Jay R. Galbraith. Designing Your Organization: Using the Star Model to Solve 5 Critical Design Challenges. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007.
R.I. Benjamin and E. Levinson, A framework for managing IT-enabled change by Sloan Management Review, Summer 1993.
Karen Dale and Gibson Burrell. The Spaces of Organisation & The Organization of Space -Power, Identity & Materiality at Work, 2008.
Jay Galbraith, Designing Organizations, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1995.
Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow, Organizational Adaption, 2003.
Joseph Morabito, Ira Sack and Anilkumar Bhate, Organization Modeling, 1999.
David A. Nadler, Marc C. Gerstein and Robert B. Shaw, Organizational Architecture, 1992.
Harold G. Nelson and Erik Stolterman, The design way: Intentional change in an unpredictable world: Foundations and fundamentals of design competence, 2003.
vteAspects of organizationsTopics
Architecture
Behavior
Blame
Capital
Cells
Chart
Citizenship behavior
Climate
Commitment
Communication
Complexity
Conflict
Culture
Design
Development
Diagnostics
Dissent
Ecology
Effectiveness
Engineering
Ethics
Field
Hierarchy
Identification
Intelligence
Justice
Learning
Life cycle
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Narcissism
Network analysis
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Patterns
Perceived support
Performance
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See also
History of organizations
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See also templates
Aspects of corporations
Aspects of jobs
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Aspects of workplaces | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Organizational space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_space"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Organizational_architecture.png"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZugajSchatten2005-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"qualities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_(business)"},{"link_name":"vision statement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_statement"},{"link_name":"infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure"},{"link_name":"business processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_processes"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Organizational space.Simplified scheme of an organization[1]Organizational architecture, also known as organizational design, is a field concerned with the creation of roles, processes, and formal reporting relationships in an organization. It refers to architecture metaphorically, as a structure which fleshes out the organizations. The various features of a business's organizational architecture has to be internally consistent in strategy, architecture and competitive environment.[2]It provides the framework through which an organization aims to realize its core qualities as specified in its vision statement. It provides the infrastructure into which business processes are deployed and ensures that the organization's core qualities are realized across the business processes deployed within the organization. In this way, organizations aim to consistently realize their core qualities across the services they offer to their clients. This perspective on organizational architecture is elaborated below.","title":"Organizational architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organizational structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_structure"},{"link_name":"formal organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_organization"},{"link_name":"organizational structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_structure"},{"link_name":"informal organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_organization"},{"link_name":"organizational culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_culture"},{"link_name":"business processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_processes"},{"link_name":"strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy"},{"link_name":"human resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resources"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZugajSchatten2005-1"}],"text":"According to most authors organizational architecture is a metaphor. Like traditional architecture, it shapes the organizational (some authors would say the informational) space where life will take place. It also represents a concept which implies a connection between the organizational structure and other systems inside the organization in order to create a unique synergistic system that will be more than just the sum of its parts.Conventionally organizational architecture consists of the formal organization (organizational structure), informal organization (organizational culture), business processes, strategy and the most important human resources, because what is an organization if not a system of people? The table shows some approaches to organizational architecture.[1]The goal of organizational architecture is to create an organization that will be able to continuously create value for present and future customers, optimizing and organizing itself.Some under organizational architecture understand building blocks, which are mandatory for the growth of the organization. To design an organization means to set up a stage where the drama of life will take place.","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"}],"sub_title":"Design process and approach","text":"Although the process of organization design isn't necessarily linear, a five milestone process has been created to organize the approach.[3] The five milestone design process is as follows:[3]Business case and discovery\nGoal: Build a business case for the change; compare the current state to future state and implications that would be involved.\nMilestone: at the end of this phase, the problem to be solved is clear.\nStrategic grouping\nGoal: Determine what basic grouping of work will create the capabilities necessary to deliver the decided strategy.\nMilestone: Decided on a structure change which supports the strategy.\n\nIntegration\nGoal: The boundaries created by grouping work must be breached to deliver results for customers, partners and shareholders.\nMilestone: Pieces have been tied together and defined power relationships.\nTalent and leadership\nGoal: Determine the number of positions, the profile of a candidate who will fill those positions, and who will report to the leader of the new structure(s).\nMilestone: Critical roles have been designed and staffed and defined work for the executive team.\nTransition\nGoal: Set the transition plan to account for a logical implementation plan.\nMilestone: The change is being executed and lead, and closely monitoring the changes to prepare for any adjustments","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galbright_star_model.png"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure"},{"link_name":"Jay Galbraith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Galbraith"},{"link_name":"Behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior"},{"link_name":"Peter Drucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Drucker"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Galbraith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_R._Galbraith"},{"link_name":"Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_R._Lawrence"},{"link_name":"Lorsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Lorsch"}],"sub_title":"Reshaping organization structure","text":"Galbraith's Star Model of organizational designOrganization design can be defined, narrowly, as the process of reshaping organization structure and roles. It can also be more effectively defined as the alignment of structure, process, rewards, metrics, and talent with the strategy of the business. Jay Galbraith and Amy Kates have made the case persuasively (building on years of work by Galbraith) that attention to all of these organizational elements is necessary to create new capabilities to compete in a given market. This systemic view, often referred to as the \"star model\" approach, is more likely to lead to better performance.Organization design may involve strategic decisions, but is properly viewed as a path to effective strategy execution. The design process nearly always entails making trade-offs of one set of structural benefits for another. Many companies fall into the trap of making repeated changes in organization structure, with little benefit to the business. This often occurs because changes in structure are relatively easy to execute while creating the impression that something substantial is happening. This often leads to cynicism and confusion within the organization. More powerful change happens when there are clear design objectives driven by a new business strategy or forces in the market require a different approach to organize resources.The organization design process is often explained in phases. Phase one is the definition of a business case, including a clear picture of strategy and design objectives. This step is typically followed by \"strategic grouping\" decisions, which define the fundamental architecture of the organization - essentially deciding which major roles will report at the top of the organization. The classic options for strategic grouping are to organize by:Behavior\nFunction\nProduct or category\nCustomer or market\nGeography\nMatrixEach of the basic building block options for strategic grouping brings a set of benefits and drawbacks. However, such generic pros and cons are not the basis for choosing the best strategic grouping. An analysis must be completed relative to a specific business strategy.Subsequent phases of organization design include operational design of processes, roles, measures, and reward systems, followed by staffing and other implementation tasks.The field is somewhat specialized in nature and many large and small consulting firms offer organization design assistance to executives. Some companies attempt to establish internal staff resources aimed at supporting organization design initiatives. There is a substantial body of literature in the field, arguably starting with the work of Peter Drucker in his examination of General Motors decades ago. Other key thinkers built on Drucker's thinking, including Galbraith (1973), Nadler, et al. (1992) and Lawrence and Lorsch (1967).Organization design can be considered a subset of the broader field of organization effectiveness and organization development, both of which may entail more behaviorally focused solutions to effectiveness, such as leadership behaviors, team effectiveness and other characteristics of that nature. Many organizational experts argue for an integrated approach to these disciplines, including effective talent management practices.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kenneth D. Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_D._Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"David A. Nadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Nadler"},{"link_name":"Michael L. Tushman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_L._Tushman"},{"link_name":"David A. Nadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Nadler"},{"link_name":"STAR Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=STAR_Model&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jay Galbraith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Galbraith"},{"link_name":"Benjamin's Layered Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin%27s_Layered_Model&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Raymond E. Miles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond_E._Miles&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Richard M. Burton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_M._Burton"},{"link_name":"Børge Obel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B8rge_Obel"},{"link_name":"Ralph Kilmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Kilmann&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Richard L. Daft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_L._Daft"}],"sub_title":"Various approaches","text":"There are various approaches to organizational architecture including(1986, 1991, 2004) - Kenneth D. Mackenzie\n(1992, 1993) - David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman.\nOrganizational Architecture - by David A. Nadler, Marc S. Gerstein and Robert B. Shaw.\n(1993, 1995) - Designing organizations using the STAR Model as developed by Jay Galbraith\nBenjamin's Layered Model of organizations.\nThe Organizational Adaption Model by Raymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow.\n(1995) - Richard M. Burton and Børge Obel\n(2001) - Ralph Kilmann\n(2004) - Richard L. Daft","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Five principles of good design[4]","text":"Specialization principle - the primary concern in the specialization principle how to group responsibilities into units. The unit boundaries should be defined to achieve the important benefits available.\nCoordination principle - this principle links closely with the specialization principle, to ensure the links are established between the units.\nKnowledge and competence principle - the primary concern in this principle is determining which responsibilities to decentralize and what hierarchical levels to create.\nControl and commitment principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring managers have a process to effectively discharge decentralized principles.\nInnovation and adaptation principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring the organization can change and evolve in the future.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Five good design tests[5]","text":"Each tests coincides with the principles previously mentioned.Specialist culture test (Specialization Principle)\nDifficult links test (Coordination Principle)\nRedundant hierarchy test (Knowledge and Competence Principle)\nAccountability test (Control and Commitment Principle)\nFlexibility test (Innovation and Adaptation Principle)","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"simplicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicity"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-multiple-6"},{"link_name":"simplicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplicity"}],"text":"Some systems are effective and efficient whereas others are not. Successful systems may be attributable to the skill exercised in designing the system or to the quality of management practised during operations, or both. Successful systems are characterized by their simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability.[6] Simplicity, flexibility, and reliability tend to be a function of design, whereas economy and acceptability pertain to both design and operations. Numerous relationships exist among these characteristics; for example, simplicity will affect economy and possibly reliability. Moreover, management must reach a compromise between economy and reliability, and between technical efficiency and organizational climate. The balance reached will determine whether short- or long-run objectives are optimized.SimplicityAn effective organizational system need not be complex. On the contrary, simplicity in design is a desirable quality. Consider the task of communicating information about the operation of a system and the allocation of its inputs. The task is not difficult when components are few and the relationships among them are straightforward. However, the problems of communication multiply with each successive stage of complexity.The proper method for maintaining simplicity is to use precise definitions and to outline the specific task for each subsystem. Total systems often become complex because of the sheer size and nature of operations, but effectiveness and efficiency may still be achieved if each subsystem maintains its simplicity.FlexibilityConditions change and managers should be prepared to adjust operations accordingly. There are two ways to adjust to a changing operating environment: to design new systems or to modify operating systems. An existing system should not be modified to accommodate a change in objectives, but every system should be sufficiently flexible to integrate changes that may occur either in the environment or in the nature of the inputs. For example, a company should not use the same system to build missiles as it uses to build airplanes, nor the same system to sell insurance as the one originally designed to sell magazines. However, it should be possible to modify an existing system to produce different sizes, varieties, or types of the same product or service.A practical system must be well designed but it cannot be entirely rigid. There will always be minor variations from the general plan, and a system should be able to adapt to such changes without excessive confusion. The advantages associated with having a flexible system will become more apparent when we consider the difficulty of administering change.ReliabilitySystem reliability is an important factor in organizations. Reliability is the consistency with which operations are maintained, and may vary from zero output (a complete breakdown or work stoppage) to a constant or predictable output. The typical system operates somewhere between these two extremes. The characteristics of reliability can be designed into the system by carefully selecting and arranging the operating components; the system is no more reliable than its weakest segment. When the requirements for a particular component — such as an operator having unique skills — are critical, it may be worthwhile to maintain a standby operator. In all situations, provisions should be made for quick repair or replacement when failure occurs. One valid approach to the reliability-maintenance relationship is to use a form of construction that permits repair by replacing a complete unit. In some television sets, for example, it is common practice to replace an entire section of the network rather than try to find the faulty component. Reliability is not as critical an issue when prompt repair and recovery can be instituted.EconomyAn effective system is not necessarily an economical (efficient) system. For example, the postal service may keep on schedule with mail deliveries but only by hiring a large number of additional workers. In this case, the efficiency of the postal system would be reduced. In another example, inventories may be controlled by using a comprehensive system of storekeeping. However, if the cost of the storekeeping were greater than the potential savings from this degree of control, the system would not be efficient. It is often dysfunctional and expensive to develop much greater capacity for one segment of a system than for some other part. Building in redundancy or providing for every contingency usually neutralizes the operating efficiency of the system. When a system's objectives include achieving a particular task at the lowest possible cost, there must be some degree of trade-off between effectiveness and efficiency. When a system's objective is to perform a certain mission regardless of cost, there can be no trade-off.AcceptabilityAny system, no matter how well designed, will not function properly unless it is accepted by the people who operate it. If the participants do not believe it will benefit them, are opposed to it, are pressured into using it, or think it is not a good system, it will not work properly. If a system is not accepted, two things can happen:(1) the system will be modified gradually by the people who are using it, or (2) the system will be used ineffectively and ultimately fail. Unplanned alterations in an elaborate system can nullify advantages associated with using the system.","title":"Characteristics of effective organizational design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lawrence_Lorsch-7"},{"link_name":"orientations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/orientation"},{"link_name":"manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lawrence_Lorsch-7"},{"link_name":"design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design"},{"link_name":"operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_operations"},{"link_name":"cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lawrence_Lorsch-7"}],"text":"A basic consideration in the design of organizations is dividing work into reasonable tasks (differentiation) while giving simultaneous attention to coordinating these activities and unifying their results into a meaningful whole (integration). Two guidelines may be followed in grouping activities:Units that have similar orientations and tasks should be grouped together. (They can reinforce each other's common concern and the arrangement will simplify the coordinating task of a common manager).\nUnits required to integrate their activities closely should be grouped together. (The common manager can coordinate them through the formal hierarchy).[7]When units neither have similar orientations nor share their activities, the task of grouping becomes more difficult. For example, when units are similar in nature and function but are also relatively independent, the manager must base their decision on the most appropriate way to group activities according to their past experience.[7]A difficult task associated with system-subsystem determination is to establish proper boundaries of operations. The more specific and distinct the goals of the operation, the easier it is to set boundaries. Other factors such as the influence of the environment, the availability of men and machines, the time schedule for design and operation, the cost of alternative designs, and the particular biases of the designers must be considered when establishing boundaries.[7]","title":"Differentiation and integration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Designers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson1-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson1-8"},{"link_name":"systems approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_approach"},{"link_name":"goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal"},{"link_name":"organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sayles-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sayles-9"},{"link_name":"responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_responsibility"},{"link_name":"systems approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_approach"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sayles-9"},{"link_name":"managers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson1-8"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Johnson1-8"}],"text":"Designers with imagination have the best chance to group people and machines into workable combinations having the greatest efficiency and effectiveness within the recognized constraints. Certain characteristics should be designed into an effective and efficient system — simplicity, flexibility, reliability, economy, and acceptability.[8]At this point, the designer must determine what has to be done to achieve the stated objective(s) and how the total task can be divided into meaningful units. Of the many possible combinations, one must be selected as that which satisfies the decision criteria better than the other alternatives. Of course, the balance between technical efficiency and the human factors that determine organizational climate should be included in making this decision. The eventual success or failure of the project is somewhat predetermined by management's attitude and the relationship between the designers and those who must implement the process.[8]The systems approach suggests a new role for management. In the traditional view, the manager operated in a highly structured, rigid system having well-defined goals, clear-cut relationships, tight controls, and hierarchical information flows. In the flexible (or open) systems view, the organization is not static but is continually evolving to meet both external and internal changes. The manager's role is to develop a viable organization, cope with change, and help participants establish a dynamic equilibrium. Leonard Sayles has expressed the manager's problem as follows:“The one enduring objective is the effort to build and maintain a predictable, reciprocating system of relationships, the behavioral patterns of which stay within reasonable physical limits. But this is seeking a moving equilibrium, since the parameters of the system (the division of labor and the controls) are evolving and changing. Thus, the manager endeavors to introduce regularity in a world that will never allow him to achieve the ideal”.[9]The systems approach does not offer a prescription for making a manager's difficult and complex job easier. Rather it helps him understand and operate more effectively within the reality of complex systems. The systems approach suggests that operations cannot be neatly departmentalized but must be viewed as overlapping subsystems. In addition, it suggests that leadership patterns must be modified, particularly when dealing with professionals and highly trained specialists, and motivation must take the form of active, willing participation rather than forceful subjugation.[9]Systems design involves establishing projects and facilitating subsystems to accomplish certain tasks or programs. In this approach, the network of human independence required to accomplish a given task is based on the shared responsibility of all members of the subsystem. In contrast, the traditional organization is geared to functional performance and the integrating force is authority. Instead of gearing participant activities to obedience to rules and closely structured behavior, the systems approach provides a basis for active cooperation in meeting task requirements. The manager is looked upon as a resource person who can help the group meet its goals and also as a source of authority and control. Thus, systems theory lends a structure by which the concepts of motivation, leadership, and participation can be applied effectively within the organization.[9]Implementation is, of course, implicit in the connotation of systems design; otherwise it would be nothing more than an empty exercise. It follows that the interface between managers and systems designers is critical, and mutual understanding must be fostered to maximize returns from design efforts. The system must be tailored to the needs of the organization and adapted continually as circumstances change. In a general sense, managers engage in systems design on a day-to-day basis when they plan activities and organize systems to accomplish objectives. Specialized staff groups have evolved to perform tasks such as long-range planning, organizational studies, and systems design. However, since managers are ultimately responsible for organizational endeavors, they should make a special effort to help ensure the development of useful systems and to make design activities an extension of the manager's role rather than a separate function.[8]Operating managers need to understand the organizational decision-making requirements and the information needed to support the system. Although the probability of success in implementation is enhanced considerably if management is vitally interested in the project, technical expertise and motivation for change are more likely to be found in staff groups. The solution to the apparent dichotomy would seem to be a team approach,[10] with specialists supporting operating managers who are responsible for the project's success. A manager might devote either part-time to such an effort or full-time temporarily, if the task requires it.A project involving an integrated system for the entire company might well require years to complete. If operating people are delegated responsibility and authority for such a project, particularly if they are delegated the authority to outline specifications, they should also maintain sufficient contact with the day-to-day operations and its attendant information flow to retain their expertise for decision making. If the environment is dynamic or internal capabilities undergo change, it might be wise to rotate people from operations to systems design periodically, so that operating expertise is updated continually.[8]","title":"The role of management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jay Galbraith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Galbraith"},{"link_name":"David A. Nadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_A._Nadler"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_organizations"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Aspects_of_organizations"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aspects_of_organizations"},{"link_name":"organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_behavior"},{"link_name":"Blame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blame#In_organizations"},{"link_name":"Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_capital"},{"link_name":"Cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_organizational_structure"},{"link_name":"Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_chart"},{"link_name":"Citizenship behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_citizenship_behavior"},{"link_name":"Climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_climate"},{"link_name":"Commitment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_commitment"},{"link_name":"Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_communication"},{"link_name":"Complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_theory_and_organizations"},{"link_name":"Conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_conflict"},{"link_name":"Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_culture"},{"link_name":"Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_development"},{"link_name":"Diagnostics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_diagnostics"},{"link_name":"Dissent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_dissent"},{"link_name":"Ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_ecology"},{"link_name":"Effectiveness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_effectiveness"},{"link_name":"Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_engineering"},{"link_name":"Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_ethics"},{"link_name":"Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_field"},{"link_name":"Hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_organization"},{"link_name":"Identification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_identification"},{"link_name":"Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_justice"},{"link_name":"Learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_learning"},{"link_name":"Life cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_life_cycle"},{"link_name":"Machiavellianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machiavellianism_in_the_workplace"},{"link_name":"Narcissism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissism_in_the_workplace"},{"link_name":"Network analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_network_analysis"},{"link_name":"Ombudsman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_ombudsman"},{"link_name":"Patterns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_patterns"},{"link_name":"Perceived support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceived_organizational_support"},{"link_name":"Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_performance"},{"link_name":"Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology"},{"link_name":"Resilience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resilience_(organizational)"},{"link_name":"Retaliatory behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_retaliatory_behavior"},{"link_name":"Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_safety"},{"link_name":"Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_space"},{"link_name":"Storytelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_storytelling"},{"link_name":"Structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_structure"},{"link_name":"History of organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_organizations"},{"link_name":"Organization studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_studies"},{"link_name":"Outline of organizational theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organizational_theory"},{"link_name":"Aspects of corporations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_corporations"},{"link_name":"Aspects of jobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_jobs"},{"link_name":"Aspects of occupations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_occupations"},{"link_name":"Aspects of workplaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Aspects_of_workplaces"}],"text":"Kates, Amy, and Gregory Kesler. Bridging Organization Design and Performance: 5 Ways to Activate a Global Operating Model. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2016.\nKates, Amy, and Jay R. Galbraith. Designing Your Organization: Using the Star Model to Solve 5 Critical Design Challenges. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007.\nR.I. Benjamin and E. Levinson, A framework for managing IT-enabled change by Sloan Management Review, Summer 1993.\nKaren Dale and Gibson Burrell. The Spaces of Organisation & The Organization of Space -Power, Identity & Materiality at Work, 2008.\nJay Galbraith, Designing Organizations, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, 1995.\nRaymond E. Miles and Charles C. Snow, Organizational Adaption, 2003.\nJoseph Morabito, Ira Sack and Anilkumar Bhate, Organization Modeling, 1999.\nDavid A. Nadler, Marc C. Gerstein and Robert B. Shaw, Organizational Architecture, 1992.\nHarold G. Nelson and Erik Stolterman, The design way: Intentional change in an unpredictable world: Foundations and fundamentals of design competence, 2003.vteAspects of organizationsTopics\nArchitecture\nBehavior\nBlame\nCapital\nCells\nChart\nCitizenship behavior\nClimate\nCommitment\nCommunication\nComplexity\nConflict\nCulture\nDesign\nDevelopment\nDiagnostics\nDissent\nEcology\nEffectiveness\nEngineering\nEthics\nField\nHierarchy\nIdentification\nIntelligence\nJustice\nLearning\nLife cycle\nMachiavellianism\nNarcissism\nNetwork analysis\nOmbudsman\nPatterns\nPerceived support\nPerformance\nPsychology\nResilience\nRetaliatory behavior\nSafety\nSpace\nStorytelling\nStructure\nSee also\nHistory of organizations\nOrganization studies\nOutline of organizational theory\n\n See also templates\nAspects of corporations\nAspects of jobs\nAspects of occupations\nAspects of workplaces","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Simplified scheme of an organization[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Organizational_architecture.png/400px-Organizational_architecture.png"},{"image_text":"Galbraith's Star Model of organizational design","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Galbright_star_model.png/300px-Galbright_star_model.png"}] | [{"title":"Organizational design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_design"},{"title":"Organizational structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_structure"},{"title":"Departmentalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departmentalization"},{"title":"Enterprise architecture framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_architecture_framework"},{"title":"Interdisciplinary Center for Organizational Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary_Center_for_Organizational_Architecture"},{"title":"View model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_model"}] | [{"reference":"Miroslav Žugaj & Markus Schatten (2005). Arhitektura suvremenih organizacija. Varaždinske Toplice: Tonimir. pp. 1–6. ISBN 953-7069-50-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/953-7069-50-8","url_text":"953-7069-50-8"}]},{"reference":"Baligh, Helmy H. (2006). \"Structure, Performance, Cost, and Outcome\". Organization Structures. Information and Organization Design Series. Vol. 5. Springer New York. pp. 1–31. doi:10.1007/0-387-28317-X_1. ISBN 978-0387258478.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-387-28317-X_1","url_text":"\"Structure, Performance, Cost, and Outcome\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F0-387-28317-X_1","url_text":"10.1007/0-387-28317-X_1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0387258478","url_text":"978-0387258478"}]},{"reference":"Kesler, Gregory (2011). Leading organization design : how to make organization design decisions to drive the results you want. Kates, Amy. (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. pp. 9–10. ISBN 9780470912836. OCLC 693772818.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470912836","url_text":"9780470912836"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/693772818","url_text":"693772818"}]},{"reference":"Goold, Michael (2002). Designing effective organizations : how to create structured networks. Campbell, Andrew, 1950 August 3-. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass. pp. 49–57. ISBN 0787960640. OCLC 48783823.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0787960640","url_text":"0787960640"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48783823","url_text":"48783823"}]},{"reference":"Goold, Michael (2002). Designing effective organizations : how to create structured networks. Campbell, Andrew, 1950 August 3-. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass. p. 93. ISBN 0787960640. OCLC 48783823.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0787960640","url_text":"0787960640"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48783823","url_text":"48783823"}]},{"reference":"Paul R. Lawrence; Jay William Lorsch (1967). Organization and environment; managing differentiation and integration. Boston: Division of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University. pp. 213–18. OCLC 229592.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_R._Lawrence","url_text":"Paul R. Lawrence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_William_Lorsch","url_text":"Jay William Lorsch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/229592","url_text":"229592"}]},{"reference":"Richard Arvid Johnson (1976). Management, systems, and society : an introduction. Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co. pp. 100–105. ISBN 0-87620-540-6. OCLC 2299496.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/managementsystem00john/page/100","url_text":"Management, systems, and society : an introduction"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/managementsystem00john/page/100","url_text":"100–105"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87620-540-6","url_text":"0-87620-540-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2299496","url_text":"2299496"}]},{"reference":"Leonard R. Sayles (1964). Managerial behavior; administration in complex organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 100–105. OCLC 965259.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/managerialbehavi0000sayl","url_text":"Managerial behavior; administration in complex organizations"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/managerialbehavi0000sayl/page/100","url_text":"100–105"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/965259","url_text":"965259"}]},{"reference":"Ackerman, Ben. \"Organisation Design, why keep it a secret?\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.molten-group.com/blog/organisation-design-why-keep-it-a-secret/","url_text":"\"Organisation Design, why keep it a secret?\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-387-28317-X_1","external_links_name":"\"Structure, Performance, Cost, and Outcome\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F0-387-28317-X_1","external_links_name":"10.1007/0-387-28317-X_1"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/693772818","external_links_name":"693772818"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48783823","external_links_name":"48783823"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48783823","external_links_name":"48783823"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/229592","external_links_name":"229592"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/managementsystem00john/page/100","external_links_name":"Management, systems, and society : an introduction"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/managementsystem00john/page/100","external_links_name":"100–105"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2299496","external_links_name":"2299496"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/managerialbehavi0000sayl","external_links_name":"Managerial behavior; administration in complex organizations"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/managerialbehavi0000sayl/page/100","external_links_name":"100–105"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/965259","external_links_name":"965259"},{"Link":"http://www.molten-group.com/blog/organisation-design-why-keep-it-a-secret/","external_links_name":"\"Organisation Design, why keep it a secret?\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_3000T | Amiga 3000T | ["1 See also","2 References"] | Commodore Amiga 3000TTypePersonal computerRelease date1991; 33 years ago (1991)Discontinued1992Units sold14,380 units in Germany (including Amiga 3000 sales)Operating systemAmiga OS 2.0CPUMotorola 68030 @ 25 MHz or 68040 @ 25 MHzMemory5 MB, expandable to 18 MB
The Amiga 3000T is a computer manufactured by Commodore. It is closely related to the Amiga 3000, although it came in a tower case which offers greater expandability. The case for the prototype, the 3500, was derived from Commodore's PC compatible line.
Like the desktop variant it is based upon, the A3000T has a CPU FAST slot which allows for processor upgrades. Later models were offered with a 68040 CPU in this slot, and third-party upgrades can be used to add a PowerPC processor.
The A3000T has a variety of drive bays – two 3.5-inch drives and one 5.25-inch half-height drive, mounted horizontally; and two 5.25-inch half-height drives mounted vertically. Inside, behind these bays, there is space for two more, internal, 5.25-inch half-height drives. The available drive bays make it possible to internally install up to seven drives in the A3000T.
The A3000T's specifications closely resemble the horizontal-cased Amiga 3000, but the motherboard has been heavily redesigned. As a result, the expansion-slot layout is more like the Amiga 2000's with five Zorro III slots, one of which is inline with the video slot, and four 16-bit ISA slots (passive), two of which are inline with Zorro slots (activated with bridgeboards).
At introduction, the retail price of an Amiga 3000 system could exceed $5000, depending on configuration. As a result of its high price and poor marketing, the machine did not sell in great numbers.
The machine is reported to have sold 14,380 units in Germany (including Amiga 3000 sales).
Amiga 3000T mainboard with annotations
See also
Amiga portal
Amiga models and variants
References
^ Amiga 3000T specifications Archived 25 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b "Amiga Hardware Database - Amiga 3000T". Amiga.resource.cx. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
^ "A3500 - Commodore". Big Book of Amiga Hardware. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
^ "A3000T - Commodore". Big Book of Amiga Hardware. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
^ Bergseth, M. (25 November 2014). "AMIGA SOLD IN UNITS BY COMMODORE IN GERMANY REVEALED". Distrita - Where to Go. Archived from the original on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
vteAmiga hardware (history)Amiga models
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vteCommodore InternationalPeopleBoard of directors
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Engineers
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Software
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See also
Amiga, Inc.
Commodore USA
Escom AG
† Listed in chronological order by category
Category
Commons
Amiga hardware template
Storage devices template
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vteAmigaOS 4Main companies
Amiga, Inc.
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A12001
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This microcomputer- or microprocessor-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International"},{"link_name":"Amiga 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_3000"},{"link_name":"tower case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_case"},{"link_name":"Commodore's PC compatible line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_PC_compatible_systems"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-a.r.cx-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bboah3500-3"},{"link_name":"68040","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68040"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"drive bays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_bay"},{"link_name":"Amiga 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_2000"},{"link_name":"Zorro III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorro_III"},{"link_name":"ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_Standard_Architecture"},{"link_name":"bridgeboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_2000#Technical_information"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-a.r.cx-2"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Amiga 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_3000"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amiga_3000T_motherboard_with_annotations.png"}],"text":"The Amiga 3000T is a computer manufactured by Commodore. It is closely related to the Amiga 3000, although it came in a tower case which offers greater expandability. The case for the prototype, the 3500, was derived from Commodore's PC compatible line.[2][3]Like the desktop variant it is based upon, the A3000T has a CPU FAST slot which allows for processor upgrades. Later models were offered with a 68040 CPU in this slot, and third-party upgrades can be used to add a PowerPC processor.The A3000T has a variety of drive bays – two 3.5-inch drives and one 5.25-inch half-height drive, mounted horizontally; and two 5.25-inch half-height drives mounted vertically. Inside, behind these bays, there is space for two more, internal, 5.25-inch half-height drives. The available drive bays make it possible to internally install up to seven drives in the A3000T.The A3000T's specifications closely resemble the horizontal-cased Amiga 3000, but the motherboard has been heavily redesigned. As a result, the expansion-slot layout is more like the Amiga 2000's with five Zorro III slots, one of which is inline with the video slot, and four 16-bit ISA slots (passive), two of which are inline with Zorro slots (activated with bridgeboards).[4][2]At introduction, the retail price of an Amiga 3000[clarification needed] system could exceed $5000, depending on configuration.[citation needed] As a result of its high price and poor marketing, the machine did not sell in great numbers.[citation needed]The machine is reported to have sold 14,380 units in Germany (including Amiga 3000 sales).[5]Amiga 3000T mainboard with annotations","title":"Amiga 3000T"}] | [{"image_text":"Amiga 3000T mainboard with annotations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Amiga_3000T_motherboard_with_annotations.png/220px-Amiga_3000T_motherboard_with_annotations.png"}] | [{"title":"Amiga portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Amiga"},{"title":"Amiga models and variants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_models_and_variants"}] | [{"reference":"\"Amiga Hardware Database - Amiga 3000T\". Amiga.resource.cx. Retrieved 18 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://amiga.resource.cx/mod/a3000t.html","url_text":"\"Amiga Hardware Database - Amiga 3000T\""}]},{"reference":"\"A3500 - Commodore\". Big Book of Amiga Hardware. Retrieved 18 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bigbookofamigahardware.com/bboah/product.aspx?id=29","url_text":"\"A3500 - Commodore\""}]},{"reference":"\"A3000T - Commodore\". Big Book of Amiga Hardware. Retrieved 18 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bigbookofamigahardware.com/bboah/product.aspx?id=25","url_text":"\"A3000T - Commodore\""}]},{"reference":"Bergseth, M. (25 November 2014). \"AMIGA SOLD IN UNITS BY COMMODORE IN GERMANY REVEALED\". Distrita - Where to Go. Archived from the original on 13 July 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170713160208/https://distrita.com/amiga-sold-in-units-by-commodore-in-germany-revealed/","url_text":"\"AMIGA SOLD IN UNITS BY COMMODORE IN GERMANY REVEALED\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://retroport.de/resources/Werbung_A3000T_Flyer_02.jpg","external_links_name":"Amiga 3000T specifications"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425064436/http://retroport.de/resources/Werbung_A3000T_Flyer_02.jpg","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://amiga.resource.cx/mod/a3000t.html","external_links_name":"\"Amiga Hardware Database - Amiga 3000T\""},{"Link":"http://www.bigbookofamigahardware.com/bboah/product.aspx?id=29","external_links_name":"\"A3500 - Commodore\""},{"Link":"http://www.bigbookofamigahardware.com/bboah/product.aspx?id=25","external_links_name":"\"A3000T - Commodore\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170713160208/https://distrita.com/amiga-sold-in-units-by-commodore-in-germany-revealed/","external_links_name":"\"AMIGA SOLD IN UNITS BY COMMODORE IN GERMANY REVEALED\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amiga_3000T&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Rhein_Award | Eduard Rhein Foundation | ["1 Awards and honors","2 Ring of Honor Recipients","2.1 Award winners","3 References","4 External links"] | The Eduard Rhein Foundation was founded in 1976 in Hamburg (Germany) by Eduard Rhein. The goal of the foundation is to promote scientific research, learning, arts, and culture. This is done in particular by granting awards for outstanding achievements in research and/or development in the areas of radio, television and information technology.
Awards and honors
The foundation grants the following awards and honors:
Technology Award (30,000 euro)
Cultural Award (10,000 euro)
Ring of Honor (moonstone set in gold) for outstanding work which has been accomplished over a long period of time, the number of living bearers of rings is limited to ten
Ring of Honor Recipients
1980 Vladimir K. Zworykin
1981 Walter Bruch
1982 Max Grundig
1983 Karl Holzamer
1984 Herbert von Karajan
1985 Hugh Greene
1986 Masaru Ibuka
1987 Werner Höfer
1988 Ray Dolby
1992 Rudolf Hell
1994 Count Lennart Bernadotte of Wisborg
1998 Heinz Zemanek
1999 Vladimir A. Kotelnikov
2000 Heinrich von Pierer
2001 Ernst-Ludwig Winnacker
2002 Hans-Jürgen Warnecke
2004 Hubert S. Markl
2007 Valentina Tereshkova
2008 Herbert Mataré
2012 Michael Sohlman
2015 Wolfgang Heckl
2020 Gerd Hirzinger
Award winners
1979 to 2006 award winners are listed in the German article.
2007:
Technology Award: Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerhard Sessler for the design of electret transducers, the invention of the foil electret microphone (together with James West) and of the silicon condenser microphone (with D. Hohm).
Cultural Award: Prof. Dr. Paul Dobrinski for the publication of scientific and technical works of young scientists.
Ring of Honor: Dr. Dr. Valentina Tereshkova for her contributions in the area of crewed space flight.
2008
Technology Award: Siegfried Dais and Uwe Kiencke for invention, international standardisation and propagation of the "Controller Area Network" (CAN), an open, reliable real-time communication system for embedded devices in automotive, medical and automation applications as well as in consumer goods, which today dominates the world market.
Cultural Award: Norbert Lossau for brilliantly written science and technology related articles published in the newspaper "Die Welt". Over a sustained period of time his outstanding contributions are received by the readers as splendidly written, comprehensive in scope yet to read sources of information.
Ring of Honor: Herbert F. Mataré for his invention of the solid state amplifier in 1948, performed independently and parallel to Bell Lab's transistor. Further, in recognition of his important contributions to information technology, solid-state physics and -manufacturing over a period of more than 60 years.
2009
Technology Award: Dr. Martin Schadt Electro-optical core technologies for flat panel displays
2010
Technology Award: Prof. Dr. Jens-Rainer Ohm and Prof. Dr. Thomas Wiegand Contributions to video coding and to the development of the H.264/AVC standard
2011
Technology Award: Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Hilberg Invention of the radio clock
2012
Technology Award: Prof. Dr. Bradford Parkinson Development of the Global Positioning System (GPS)
Technology Award: Dov Moran for inventing the USB flash drive.
2013
Technology Award: Ching W. Tang for inventing the first highly efficient organic light emitting diode and further contributions to the development of organic semiconductor devices.
2014
Technology Award: Prof. Dr. Dr. Kees Schouhamer Immink for contributions to the theory and practice of channel codes that enable efficient and reliable optical recording, and creative contributions to digital recording technology.
2015
Technology Award: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. rer. nat. h.c. mult. Karlheinz Brandenburg, Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Grill and Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Herre for decisive contributions to the development and practical implementation of the mp3 audio coding technique.
2016
Technology Award: Prof. Blake S. Wilson, Prof. Dipl-.Ing. Dr.tech. Erwin Hochmair and Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn. Dr. med. Ingeborg J. Hochmair-Desoyer for the development and commercialization of the world’s first multi-channel microelectronic cochlear implant.
2017
Technology Award: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ernst D. Dickmanns for pioneering contributions to autonomic driving.
2018
Technology Award: Dr. Rajiv Laroia for pioneering work on Flash OFDM as a Forerunner of Fourth-Generation Mobile Communications (4G).
2019
Technology Award: Dr. Franz Laermer and Andrea Urban for the invention of the deep reactive ion etching process (Bosch Process), a key process for manufacturing semiconductor sensors.
2020
Technology Award: Prof. Neal Koblitz, Ph.D. and Victor S. Miller, Ph.D. for the invention of cryptography based on elliptic curves.
2021
Technology Award: Prof. Denis Le Bihan, MD, Ph.D. and Peter J. Basser, Ph.D. for the development of MRI diffusion tensor imaging, which is used for surgery and radiation planning, for research into neurological diseases associated with white matter changes, and for reconstruction of neural pathways in the brain (tractography).
2022
Technology Award: Prof. Hideo Hosono, Ph.D. for the invention of metal oxide thin film transistors for display applications.
2023
Technology Award: Prof. Gilles Brassard, Ph.D. and Charles H. Bennett, Ph.D. for the conception of the first key agreement protocol whose security is derived from the validity of quantum physics.
References
^ Awardees of the Euduard Rhein Foundation
^ DIE WELT ONLINE „Der deutsche Erfinder des Transistors“ 14.11.2008
^ "Kulturpreis - Cultural Award 2012". Archived from the original on 2014-09-10. Retrieved 2017-06-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ "Technologiepreis - Technology Award 2013" (in German). Archived from the original on 2008-11-20. Retrieved Oct 2, 2013.
^ DIE WELT ONLINE „Erfinder der Compact Disc erhält Eduard-Rhein-Preis“
^ Eduard-Rhein-Preis 2015 Archived 2013-09-15 at the Wayback Machine
External links
http://www.eduard-rhein-foundation.de/
Authority control databases
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Tang for inventing the first highly efficient organic light emitting diode and further contributions to the development of organic semiconductor devices.[4]2014Technology Award: Prof. Dr. Dr. Kees Schouhamer Immink for contributions to the theory and practice of channel codes that enable efficient and reliable optical recording, and creative contributions to digital recording technology.[5]2015Technology Award: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. rer. nat. h.c. mult. Karlheinz Brandenburg, Dr.-Ing. Bernhard Grill and Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Herre for decisive contributions to the development and practical implementation of the mp3 audio coding technique.[6]2016Technology Award: Prof. Blake S. Wilson, Prof. Dipl-.Ing. Dr.tech. Erwin Hochmair and Dipl.-Ing. Dr. techn. Dr. med. Ingeborg J. Hochmair-Desoyer for the development and commercialization of the world’s first multi-channel microelectronic cochlear implant.2017Technology Award: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ernst D. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Thomas_Aquinas_College | St. Thomas Aquinas College | ["1 Facilities","2 Athletics","3 Notable alumni","4 References","5 External links"] | Coordinates: 41°02′32″N 73°56′09″W / 41.04222°N 73.93583°W / 41.04222; -73.93583Private college in Sparkill, New York, US
For other schools named after St. Thomas Aquinas, see Institutions named after Thomas Aquinas.
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St. Thomas Aquinas CollegeMottoTo enlighten the mind through truthTypePrivate collegeEstablished1952PresidentKen DalyProvostRobert MurrayStudents2,400LocationSparkill, New York, U.S.41°02′32″N 73°56′09″W / 41.04222°N 73.93583°W / 41.04222; -73.93583CampusSuburbanColors Maroon & goldSporting affiliationsNCAA Division II East Coast ConferenceMascotSpartansWebsitewww.stac.edu
The campus of St. Thomas Aquinas College, showing Costello Hall in the background.
St. Thomas Aquinas College (STAC) is a private college in Sparkill, New York. The college is named after the medieval philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas. It was founded by the Dominican Sisters of Sparkill, whose headquarters are in the town. The college offers 35 majors across three schools: Arts and Sciences, Business, and Education.
Facilities
Romano Center
Also known as the Romano Student-Alumni Center, or RSAC for short. This building houses the Spartan Grille, a fast food counter restaurant along with dining seating areas located throughout the hall. Romano Center also houses the campus' bookstore, a small stage, a small video game area, a pool table area, and other campus service offices.
Maguire Hall
Primarily consists of offices and classrooms. This section of the campus also houses Sullivan Theater, a small performing arts theater. It also features some art studios and a seminar room, known as the Smith Seminar room.
Naughton Hall / Marian Gardens
Naugton Hall consists of professors offices. Marian Gardens consists of a walking path and a small rest area.
Aquinas Hall
This hall is located at the center of the campus. It consists of Campus Safety & Security, the Mail Room, the Aquinas Hall Gymnasium, The Kraus Fitness Center, and Athletics Offices.
Costello Hall
Consists of offices and classrooms related to the division of science education. It has science labs and lecture-like classrooms. The hall also houses the Azarian-McCullough Art Gallery and the Poggi Family Terrace.
Spellman Hall
Consists of classrooms, computer labs, and many academic and administrative offices. This hall also consists of the Lougheed Library and the Center for Academic Excellence, a tutoring center for all STAC students. There is also a television/media studio.
Borelli Hall
Consists of offices and classrooms related to the majors of business and education. It is also the hall where the Office of the President is housed.
Aquinas Village
Consists of residence dorms for upperclassmen and tennis courts where the men's and women's tennis teams play.
McNelis Commons
Consists of residence dorms for lowerclassmen and a buffet-styled cafeteria.
Athletics
St. Thomas Aquinas athletic teams are the Spartans. The college is a member of the Division II level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the East Coast Conference (ECC) for most of its sports since the 2000–01 academic year; while its sprint football team competes in the Collegiate Sprint Football League (CSFL). The Spartans previously competed in the Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference (CACC) from 1965–66 to 1998–99.
St. Thomas Aquinas competes in 20 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, sprint football, tennis and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field and triathlon. Men's and women's volleyball will be added in 2023–24.
Club sports are also available at the college, including cheer and dance team and volleyball. The Spartans have a cross-campus rivalry with the Dominican University New York Chargers since they are geographically a mile away from each other. Their mascot is The Spartan.
Notable alumni
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Jeremy Brown, former Deputy Editor of WWE Magazine, former Creative Writer for WWE TV, Novelist
Gordon Chiesa, assistant coach for the Memphis Grizzlies of the NBA
Barbara Corcoran, self-made real estate millionaire who sold her company The Corcoran Group for $70 million in 2001.
Gordon M. Johnson, Representative of the 37th legislative district in the New Jersey General Assembly.
John Jurasek, aka TheReportOfTheWeek and Reviewbrah, YouTube fast-food reviewer
Steve Maney, morning radio host WNKS Charlotte. Cast of TLC “My Big Fat Fabulous Life”
Sister Jean M. Marshall, who received the Eleanor Roosevelt Human Rights Award from President Bill Clinton in 1999.
Frank Messina, poet and author.
Joseph Winter, Commander, 175th Force Support Squadron, Maryland Air National Guard and Chief of Education and Training – Civil Air Patrol, Maxwell AFB, AL.
Craig Zucker, Maryland State Senator for the 14th Legislative District, Montgomery County
References
^ The 30th Anniversary of WWE Magazine, August, 2013, p.55
^ "Amazon.com: Jeremy K. Brown: Books, Biography, Blog, Audiobooks, Kindle". www.amazon.com. Retrieved 22 July 2017.
^ "Manhattan Names Chiesa As Head Basketball Coach", The New York Times, June 11, 1981. Accessed December 20, 2023. "He then spent five years as athletic director and basketball coach at his alma mater, St. Thomas Aquinas College in Sparkill, N.Y."
^ Assemblyman Johnson's Legislative Website Archived 2007-08-18 at the Wayback Machine, New Jersey Legislature. Accessed July 28, 2007.
^ Stoller, Gary. "Nearly 1 Million YouTube Followers Of 'TheReportOfTheWeek' Hunger For John's Fast-Food Reviews", Forbes, May 11, 2018
^ Kilkelly, Ned (9 December 1999). "Clinton Honors Nun for Aiding Refugees". The New York Times. p. B28.
^ Limnios, Michalis. "New York poet Frank Messina talks about David Amram, Gil Scott-Heron, and his Spoke n' Roll memories", Keeping the Blues Alive, February 7, 2013
^ Chief of Education and Training, Civil Air Patrol
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Institutions named after Thomas Aquinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutions_named_after_Thomas_Aquinas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:9.4.07StThomasAquinasCollegebyLuigiNovi.jpg"},{"link_name":"private college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_college"},{"link_name":"Sparkill, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparkill,_New_York"},{"link_name":"medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher"},{"link_name":"theologian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology"},{"link_name":"Thomas Aquinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas"},{"link_name":"Dominican Sisters of Sparkill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Sisters_of_Sparkill"}],"text":"Private college in Sparkill, New York, USFor other schools named after St. Thomas Aquinas, see Institutions named after Thomas Aquinas.The campus of St. Thomas Aquinas College, showing Costello Hall in the background.St. Thomas Aquinas College (STAC) is a private college in Sparkill, New York. The college is named after the medieval philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas. It was founded by the Dominican Sisters of Sparkill, whose headquarters are in the town. The college offers 35 majors across three schools: Arts and Sciences, Business, and Education.","title":"St. Thomas Aquinas College"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Romano CenterAlso known as the Romano Student-Alumni Center, or RSAC for short. This building houses the Spartan Grille, a fast food counter restaurant along with dining seating areas located throughout the hall. Romano Center also houses the campus' bookstore, a small stage, a small video game area, a pool table area, and other campus service offices.Maguire HallPrimarily consists of offices and classrooms. This section of the campus also houses Sullivan Theater, a small performing arts theater. It also features some art studios and a seminar room, known as the Smith Seminar room.Naughton Hall / Marian GardensNaugton Hall consists of professors offices. Marian Gardens consists of a walking path and a small rest area.Aquinas HallThis hall is located at the center of the campus. It consists of Campus Safety & Security, the Mail Room, the Aquinas Hall Gymnasium, The Kraus Fitness Center, and Athletics Offices.Costello HallConsists of offices and classrooms related to the division of science education. It has science labs and lecture-like classrooms. The hall also houses the Azarian-McCullough Art Gallery and the Poggi Family Terrace.Spellman HallConsists of classrooms, computer labs, and many academic and administrative offices. This hall also consists of the Lougheed Library and the Center for Academic Excellence, a tutoring center for all STAC students. There is also a television/media studio.Borelli HallConsists of offices and classrooms related to the majors of business and education. It is also the hall where the Office of the President is housed.Aquinas VillageConsists of residence dorms for upperclassmen and tennis courts where the men's and women's tennis teams play.McNelis CommonsConsists of residence dorms for lowerclassmen and a buffet-styled cafeteria.","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Division II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_II"},{"link_name":"National Collegiate Athletic Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association"},{"link_name":"East Coast Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Coast_Conference"},{"link_name":"Collegiate Sprint Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate_Sprint_Football_League"},{"link_name":"Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Atlantic_Collegiate_Conference"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Dominican University New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_University_New_York"}],"text":"St. Thomas Aquinas athletic teams are the Spartans. The college is a member of the Division II level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the East Coast Conference (ECC) for most of its sports since the 2000–01 academic year; while its sprint football team competes in the Collegiate Sprint Football League (CSFL). The Spartans previously competed in the Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference (CACC) from 1965–66 to 1998–99.St. Thomas Aquinas competes in 20 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, ice hockey, lacrosse, soccer, sprint football, tennis and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field and triathlon. Men's and women's volleyball will be added in 2023–24.Club sports are also available at the college, including cheer and dance team and volleyball. [citation needed] The Spartans have a cross-campus rivalry with the Dominican University New York Chargers since they are geographically a mile away from each other. Their mascot is The Spartan.","title":"Athletics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Gordon Chiesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Chiesa"},{"link_name":"Memphis Grizzlies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis_Grizzlies"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Barbara Corcoran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Corcoran"},{"link_name":"Gordon M. 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Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_M._Marshall"},{"link_name":"Eleanor Roosevelt Human Rights Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt_Human_Rights_Award"},{"link_name":"Bill Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Jefferson_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Frank Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Messina"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Chief of Education and Training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.gocivilairpatrol.com/media/cms/WinterJ_Biography_Aug_2021_ChiefET_4D44B33539753.pdf"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Craig Zucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Zucker"}],"text":"Jeremy Brown, former Deputy Editor of WWE Magazine, former Creative Writer for WWE TV,[1] Novelist[2]\nGordon Chiesa, assistant coach for the Memphis Grizzlies of the NBA[3]\nBarbara Corcoran, self-made real estate millionaire who sold her company The Corcoran Group for $70 million in 2001.\nGordon M. Johnson, Representative of the 37th legislative district in the New Jersey General Assembly.[4]\nJohn Jurasek, aka TheReportOfTheWeek and Reviewbrah, YouTube fast-food reviewer[5]\nSteve Maney, morning radio host WNKS Charlotte. Cast of TLC “My Big Fat Fabulous Life”\nSister Jean M. Marshall, who received the Eleanor Roosevelt Human Rights Award from President Bill Clinton in 1999.[6]\nFrank Messina, poet and author.[7]\nJoseph Winter, Commander, 175th Force Support Squadron, Maryland Air National Guard and Chief of Education and Training – Civil Air Patrol, Maxwell AFB, AL.[8]\nCraig Zucker, Maryland State Senator for the 14th Legislative District, Montgomery County","title":"Notable alumni"}] | [{"image_text":"The campus of St. Thomas Aquinas College, showing Costello Hall in the background.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/9.4.07StThomasAquinasCollegebyLuigiNovi.jpg/220px-9.4.07StThomasAquinasCollegebyLuigiNovi.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Amazon.com: Jeremy K. Brown: Books, Biography, Blog, Audiobooks, Kindle\". www.amazon.com. Retrieved 22 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/Jeremy-K.-Brown/e/B002ZSKFJG/ref=dp_byline_cont_book_2","url_text":"\"Amazon.com: Jeremy K. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect | Quantum Hall effect | ["1 Applications","2 Research status","3 History","4 Integer quantum Hall effect","4.1 Landau levels","4.2 Density of states","4.3 Longitudinal resistivity","4.4 Transverse resistivity","5 Photonic quantum Hall effect","6 Topological classification","7 Bohr atom interpretation of the von Klitzing constant","8 Relativistic analogs","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading"] | Electromagnetic effect in physics
The quantum Hall effect (or integer quantum Hall effect) is a quantized version of the Hall effect which is observed in two-dimensional electron systems subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall resistance Rxy exhibits steps that take on the quantized values
R
x
y
=
V
Hall
I
channel
=
h
e
2
ν
,
{\displaystyle R_{xy}={\frac {V_{\text{Hall}}}{I_{\text{channel}}}}={\frac {h}{e^{2}\nu }},}
where VHall is the Hall voltage, Ichannel is the channel current, e is the elementary charge and h is the Planck constant. The divisor ν can take on either integer (ν = 1, 2, 3,...) or fractional (ν = 1/3, 2/5, 3/7, 2/3, 3/5, 1/5, 2/9, 3/13, 5/2, 12/5,...) values. Here, ν is roughly but not exactly equal to the filling factor of Landau levels. The quantum Hall effect is referred to as the integer or fractional quantum Hall effect depending on whether ν is an integer or fraction, respectively.
The striking feature of the integer quantum Hall effect is the persistence of the quantization (i.e. the Hall plateau) as the electron density is varied. Since the electron density remains constant when the Fermi level is in a clean spectral gap, this situation corresponds to one where the Fermi level is an energy with a finite density of states, though these states are localized (see Anderson localization).
The fractional quantum Hall effect is more complicated and still considered an open research problem. Its existence relies fundamentally on electron–electron interactions. In 1988, it was proposed that there was a quantum Hall effect without Landau levels. This quantum Hall effect is referred to as the quantum anomalous Hall (QAH) effect. There is also a new concept of the quantum spin Hall effect which is an analogue of the quantum Hall effect, where spin currents flow instead of charge currents.
Applications
The quantization of the Hall conductance (
G
x
y
=
1
/
R
x
y
{\displaystyle G_{xy}=1/R_{xy}}
) has the important property of being exceedingly precise. Actual measurements of the Hall conductance have been found to be integer or fractional multiples of e2/h to nearly one part in a billion. It has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance, based on the resistance quantum given by the von Klitzing constant RK. This is named after Klaus von Klitzing, the discoverer of exact quantization. The quantum Hall effect also provides an extremely precise independent determination of the fine-structure constant, a quantity of fundamental importance in quantum electrodynamics.
In 1990, a fixed conventional value RK-90 = 25812.807 Ω was defined for use in resistance calibrations worldwide. On 16 November 2018, the 26th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures decided to fix exact values of h (the Planck constant) and e (the elementary charge), superseding the 1990 value with an exact permanent value RK = h/e2 = 25812.80745... Ω.
Research status
The integer quantum hall is considered part of exact quantization. Exact quantization in full generality is not completely understood but it has been explained as a very subtle manifestation of the combination of the principle of gauge invariance together with another symmetry (see Anomalies). The integer quantum hall instead is considered a solved research problem and understood in the scope of TKNN formula and Chern–Simons Lagrangians.
The fractional quantum Hall effect is still considered an open research problem. The fractional quantum Hall effect can be also understood as an integer quantum Hall effect, although not of electrons but of charge–flux composites known as composite fermions. Other models to explain the Fractional Quantum Hall Effect also exists.
Currently it is considered an open research problem because no single, confirmed and agreed list of fractional quantum numbers exists, neither a single agreed model to explain all of them, although there are such claims in the scope of composite fermions and Non Abelian Chern–Simons Lagrangians.
History
The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, enabled physicists to study electron behavior in a nearly ideal two-dimensional gas. In a MOSFET, conduction electrons travel in a thin surface layer, and a "gate" voltage controls the number of charge carriers in this layer. This allows researchers to explore quantum effects by operating high-purity MOSFETs at liquid helium temperatures.
The integer quantization of the Hall conductance was originally predicted by University of Tokyo researchers Tsuneya Ando, Yukio Matsumoto and Yasutada Uemura in 1975, on the basis of an approximate calculation which they themselves did not believe to be true. In 1978, the Gakushuin University researchers Jun-ichi Wakabayashi and Shinji Kawaji subsequently observed the effect in experiments carried out on the inversion layer of MOSFETs.
In 1980, Klaus von Klitzing, working at the high magnetic field laboratory in Grenoble with silicon-based MOSFET samples developed by Michael Pepper and Gerhard Dorda, made the unexpected discovery that the Hall resistance was exactly quantized. For this finding, von Klitzing was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. A link between exact quantization and gauge invariance was subsequently proposed by Robert Laughlin, who connected the quantized conductivity to the quantized charge transport in a Thouless charge pump. Most integer quantum Hall experiments are now performed on gallium arsenide heterostructures, although many other semiconductor materials can be used. In 2007, the integer quantum Hall effect was reported in graphene at temperatures as high as room temperature, and in the magnesium zinc oxide ZnO–MgxZn1−xO.
Integer quantum Hall effect
Animated graph showing filling of Landau levels as B changes and the corresponding position on a graph of hall coefficient and magnetic field|Illustrative only. The levels spread out with increasing field. Between the levels the quantum hall effect is seen. DOS is the density of states.
Landau levels
Main article: Landau quantization
In two dimensions, when classical electrons are subjected to a magnetic field they follow circular cyclotron orbits. When the system is treated quantum mechanically, these orbits are quantized. To determine the values of the energy levels the Schrödinger equation must be solved.
Since the system is subjected to a magnetic field, it has to be introduced as an electromagnetic vector potential in the Schrödinger equation. The system considered is an electron gas that is free to move in the x and y directions, but is tightly confined in the z direction. Then, a magnetic field is applied in the z direction and according to the Landau gauge the electromagnetic vector potential is
A
=
(
0
,
B
x
,
0
)
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} =(0,Bx,0)}
and the scalar potential is
ϕ
=
0
{\displaystyle \phi =0}
. Thus the Schrödinger equation for a particle of charge
q
{\displaystyle q}
and effective mass
m
∗
{\displaystyle m^{*}}
in this system is:
{
1
2
m
∗
[
p
−
q
A
]
2
+
V
(
z
)
}
ψ
(
x
,
y
,
z
)
=
ε
ψ
(
x
,
y
,
z
)
{\displaystyle \left\{{\frac {1}{2m^{*}}}\left^{2}+V(z)\right\}\psi (x,y,z)=\varepsilon \psi (x,y,z)}
where
p
{\displaystyle \mathbf {p} }
is the canonical momentum, which is replaced by the operator
−
i
ℏ
∇
{\displaystyle -i\hbar \nabla }
and
ε
{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
is the total energy.
To solve this equation it is possible to separate it into two equations since the magnetic field just affects the movement along x and y axes. The total energy becomes then, the sum of two contributions
ε
=
ε
z
+
ε
x
y
{\displaystyle \varepsilon =\varepsilon _{z}+\varepsilon _{xy}}
. The corresponding equations in z axis is:
[
−
ℏ
2
2
m
∗
∂
2
∂
z
2
+
V
(
z
)
]
u
(
z
)
=
ε
z
u
(
z
)
{\displaystyle \leftu(z)=\varepsilon _{z}u(z)}
To simplify things, the solution
V
(
z
)
{\displaystyle V(z)}
is considered as an infinite well. Thus the solutions for the z direction are the energies
ε
z
=
n
z
2
π
2
ℏ
2
2
m
∗
L
2
{\textstyle \varepsilon _{z}={\frac {n_{z}^{2}\pi ^{2}\hbar ^{2}}{2m^{*}L^{2}}}}
,
n
z
=
1
,
2
,
3...
{\displaystyle n_{z}=1,2,3...}
and the wavefunctions are sinusoidal. For the
x
{\displaystyle x}
and
y
{\displaystyle y}
directions, the solution of the Schrödinger equation can be chosen to be the product of a plane wave in
y
{\displaystyle y}
-direction with some unknown function of
x
{\displaystyle x}
, i.e.,
ψ
x
y
=
u
(
x
)
e
i
k
y
y
{\displaystyle \psi _{xy}=u(x)e^{ik_{y}y}}
. This is because the vector potential does not depend on
y
{\displaystyle y}
and the momentum operator
p
^
y
{\displaystyle {\hat {p}}_{y}}
therefore commutes with the Hamiltonian. By substituting this Ansatz into the Schrödinger equation one gets the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator equation centered at
x
k
y
=
ℏ
k
y
e
B
{\textstyle x_{k_{y}}={\frac {\hbar k_{y}}{eB}}}
.
[
−
ℏ
2
2
m
∗
∂
2
∂
x
2
+
1
2
m
∗
ω
c
2
(
x
−
l
B
2
k
y
)
2
]
u
(
x
)
=
ε
x
y
u
(
x
)
{\displaystyle \leftu(x)=\varepsilon _{xy}u(x)}
where
ω
c
=
e
B
m
∗
{\textstyle \omega _{\rm {c}}={\frac {eB}{m^{*}}}}
is defined as the cyclotron frequency and
l
B
2
=
ℏ
e
B
{\textstyle l_{B}^{2}={\frac {\hbar }{eB}}}
the magnetic length. The energies are:
ε
x
y
≡
ε
n
x
=
ℏ
ω
c
(
n
x
+
1
2
)
{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{xy}\equiv \varepsilon _{n_{x}}=\hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}\left(n_{x}+{\frac {1}{2}}\right)}
,
n
x
=
1
,
2
,
3...
{\displaystyle n_{x}=1,2,3...}
And the wavefunctions for the motion in the
x
y
{\displaystyle xy}
plane are given by the product of a plane wave in
y
{\displaystyle y}
and Hermite polynomials attenuated by the gaussian function in
x
{\displaystyle x}
, which are the wavefunctions of a harmonic oscillator.
From the expression for the Landau levels one notices that the energy depends only on
n
x
{\displaystyle n_{x}}
, not on
k
y
{\displaystyle k_{y}}
. States with the same
n
x
{\displaystyle n_{x}}
but different
k
y
{\displaystyle k_{y}}
are degenerate.
Density of states
At zero field, the density of states per unit surface for the two-dimensional electron gas taking into account degeneration due to spin is independent of the energy
n
2
D
=
m
∗
π
ℏ
2
{\displaystyle n_{\rm {2D}}={\frac {m^{*}}{\pi \hbar ^{2}}}}
.
As the field is turned on, the density of states collapses from the constant to a Dirac comb, a series of Dirac
δ
{\displaystyle \delta }
functions, corresponding to the Landau levels separated
Δ
ε
x
y
=
ℏ
ω
c
{\displaystyle \Delta \varepsilon _{xy}=\hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}}
. At finite temperature, however, the Landau levels acquire a width
Γ
=
ℏ
τ
i
{\textstyle \Gamma ={\frac {\hbar }{\tau _{i}}}}
being
τ
i
{\displaystyle \tau _{i}}
the time between scattering events. Commonly it is assumed that the precise shape of Landau levels is a Gaussian or Lorentzian profile.
Another feature is that the wave functions form parallel strips in the
y
{\displaystyle y}
-direction spaced equally along the
x
{\displaystyle x}
-axis, along the lines of
A
{\displaystyle \mathbf {A} }
. Since there is nothing special about any direction in the
x
y
{\displaystyle xy}
-plane if the vector potential was differently chosen one should find circular symmetry.
Given a sample of dimensions
L
x
×
L
y
{\displaystyle L_{x}\times L_{y}}
and applying the periodic boundary conditions in the
y
{\displaystyle y}
-direction
k
=
2
π
L
y
j
{\textstyle k={\frac {2\pi }{L_{y}}}j}
being
j
{\displaystyle j}
an integer, one gets that each parabolic potential is placed at a value
x
k
=
l
B
2
k
{\displaystyle x_{k}=l_{B}^{2}k}
.
Parabolic potentials along the
x
{\displaystyle x}
-axis centered at
x
k
{\displaystyle x_{k}}
with the 1st wave functions corresponding to an infinite well confinement in the
z
{\displaystyle z}
direction. In the
y
{\displaystyle y}
-direction there are travelling plane waves.
The number of states for each Landau Level and
k
{\displaystyle k}
can be calculated from the ratio between the total magnetic flux that passes through the sample and the magnetic flux corresponding to a state.
N
B
=
ϕ
ϕ
0
=
B
A
B
L
y
Δ
x
k
=
A
2
π
l
B
2
l
B
=
A
e
B
2
π
ℏ
ω
c
=
m
∗
ω
c
A
2
π
ℏ
{\displaystyle N_{B}={\frac {\phi }{\phi _{0}}}={\frac {BA}{BL_{y}\Delta x_{k}}}={\frac {A}{2\pi l_{B}^{2}}}{\begin{array}{lcr}&l_{B}&\\&=&\\&&\end{array}}{\frac {AeB}{2\pi \hbar }}{\begin{array}{lcr}&\omega _{\rm {c}}&\\&=&\\&&\end{array}}{\frac {m^{*}\omega _{\rm {c}}A}{2\pi \hbar }}}
Thus the density of states per unit surface is
n
B
=
m
∗
ω
c
2
π
ℏ
{\displaystyle n_{B}={\frac {m^{*}\omega _{\rm {c}}}{2\pi \hbar }}}
.
Note the dependency of the density of states with the magnetic field. The larger the magnetic field is, the more states are in each Landau level. As a consequence, there is more confinement in the system since fewer energy levels are occupied.
Rewriting the last expression as
n
B
=
ℏ
ω
c
2
m
∗
π
ℏ
2
{\textstyle n_{B}={\frac {\hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}}{2}}{\frac {m^{*}}{\pi \hbar ^{2}}}}
it is clear that each Landau level contains as many states as in a 2DEG in a
Δ
ε
=
ℏ
ω
c
{\displaystyle \Delta \varepsilon =\hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}}
.
Given the fact that electrons are fermions, for each state available in the Landau levels it corresponds to two electrons, one electron with each value for the spin
s
=
±
1
2
{\textstyle s=\pm {\frac {1}{2}}}
. However, if a large magnetic field is applied, the energies split into two levels due to the magnetic moment associated with the alignment of the spin with the magnetic field. The difference in the energies is
Δ
E
=
±
1
2
g
μ
B
B
{\textstyle \Delta E=\pm {\frac {1}{2}}g\mu _{\rm {B}}B}
being
g
{\displaystyle g}
a factor which depends on the material (
g
=
2
{\displaystyle g=2}
for free electrons) and
μ
B
{\displaystyle \mu _{\rm {B}}}
the Bohr magneton. The sign
+
{\displaystyle +}
is taken when the spin is parallel to the field and
−
{\displaystyle -}
when it is antiparallel. This fact called spin splitting implies that the density of states for each level is reduced by a half. Note that
Δ
E
{\displaystyle \Delta E}
is proportional to the magnetic field so, the larger the magnetic field is, the more relevant is the split.
Density of states in a magnetic field, neglecting spin splitting. (a)The states in each range
ℏ
ω
c
{\displaystyle \hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}}
are squeezed into a
δ
{\displaystyle \delta }
-function Landau level. (b) Landau levels have a non-zero width
Γ
{\displaystyle \Gamma }
in a more realistic picture and overlap if
ℏ
ω
c
<
Γ
{\displaystyle \hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}<\Gamma }
. (c) The levels become distinct when
ℏ
ω
c
>
Γ
{\displaystyle \hbar \omega _{\rm {c}}>\Gamma }
.
In order to get the number of occupied Landau levels, one defines the so-called filling factor
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
as the ratio between the density of states in a 2DEG and the density of states in the Landau levels.
ν
=
n
2
D
n
B
=
h
n
2
D
e
B
{\displaystyle \nu ={\frac {n_{\rm {2D}}}{n_{B}}}={\frac {hn_{\rm {2D}}}{eB}}}
In general the filling factor
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
is not an integer. It happens to be an integer when there is an exact number of filled Landau levels. Instead, it becomes a non-integer when the top level is not fully occupied. In actual experiments, one varies the magnetic field and fixes electron density (and not the Fermi energy!) or varies the electron density and fixes the magnetic field. Both cases correspond to a continuous variation of the filling factor
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
and one cannot expect
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
to be an integer. Since
n
B
∝
B
{\displaystyle n_{B}\propto B}
, by increasing the magnetic field, the Landau levels move up in energy and the number of states in each level grow, so fewer electrons occupy the top level until it becomes empty. If the magnetic field keeps increasing, eventually, all electrons will be in the lowest Landau level (
ν
<
1
{\displaystyle \nu <1}
) and this is called the magnetic quantum limit.
Occupation of Landau levels in a magnetic field neglecting the spin splitting, showing how the Fermi level moves to maintain a constant density of electrons. The fields are in the ratio
2
:
3
:
4
{\displaystyle 2:3:4}
and give
ν
=
4
,
8
3
{\displaystyle \nu =4,{\frac {8}{3}}}
and
2
{\displaystyle 2}
.
Longitudinal resistivity
It is possible to relate the filling factor to the resistivity and hence, to the conductivity of the system. When
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
is an integer, the Fermi energy lies in between Landau levels where there are no states available for carriers, so the conductivity becomes zero (it is considered that the magnetic field is big enough so that there is no overlap between Landau levels, otherwise there would be few electrons and the conductivity would be approximately
0
{\displaystyle 0}
). Consequently, the resistivity becomes zero too (At very high magnetic fields it is proven that longitudinal conductivity and resistivity are proportional).
With the conductivity
σ
=
ρ
−
1
{\displaystyle \sigma =\rho ^{-1}}
one finds
σ
=
1
det
ρ
(
ρ
y
y
−
ρ
x
y
−
ρ
y
x
ρ
x
x
)
.
{\displaystyle \sigma ={\frac {1}{\det \rho }}{\begin{pmatrix}\rho _{yy}&-\rho _{xy}\\-\rho _{yx}&\rho _{xx}\end{pmatrix}}\;.}
If the longitudinal resistivity is zero and transversal is finite, then
det
ρ
≠
0
{\displaystyle \det \rho \neq 0}
. Thus both the longitudinal conductivity and resistivity become zero.
Instead, when
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
is a half-integer, the Fermi energy is located at the peak of the density distribution of some Landau Level. This means that the conductivity will have a maximum .
This distribution of minimums and maximums corresponds to ¨quantum oscillations¨ called Shubnikov–de Haas oscillations which become more relevant as the magnetic field increases. Obviously, the height of the peaks are larger as the magnetic field increases since the density of states increases with the field, so there are more carriers which contribute to the resistivity. It is interesting to notice that if the magnetic field is very small, the longitudinal resistivity is a constant which means that the classical result is reached.
Longitudinal and transverse (Hall) resistivity,
ρ
x
x
{\displaystyle \rho _{xx}}
and
ρ
x
y
{\displaystyle \rho _{xy}}
, of a two-dimensional electron gas as a function of magnetic field. Both vertical axes were divided by the quantum unit of conductance
e
2
/
h
{\displaystyle e^{2}/h}
(units are misleading). The filling factor
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
is displayed for the last 4 plateaus.
Transverse resistivity
From the classical relation of the transverse resistivity
ρ
x
y
=
B
e
n
2
D
{\textstyle \rho _{xy}={\frac {B}{en_{\rm {2D}}}}}
and substituting
n
2
D
=
ν
e
B
h
{\textstyle n_{\rm {2D}}=\nu {\frac {eB}{h}}}
one finds out the quantization of the transverse resistivity and conductivity:
ρ
x
y
=
h
ν
e
2
⇒
σ
=
ν
e
2
h
{\displaystyle \rho _{xy}={\frac {h}{\nu e^{2}}}\Rightarrow \sigma =\nu {\frac {e^{2}}{h}}}
One concludes then, that the transverse resistivity is a multiple of the inverse of the so-called conductance quantum
e
2
/
h
{\displaystyle e^{2}/h}
if the filling factor is an integer. In experiments, however, plateaus are observed for whole plateaus of filling values
ν
{\displaystyle \nu }
, which indicates that there are in fact electron states between the Landau levels. These states are localized in, for example, impurities of the material where they are trapped in orbits so they can not contribute to the conductivity. That is why the resistivity remains constant in between Landau levels. Again if the magnetic field decreases, one gets the classical result in which the resistivity is proportional to the magnetic field.
Photonic quantum Hall effect
The quantum Hall effect, in addition to being observed in two-dimensional electron systems, can be observed in photons. Photons do not possess inherent electric charge, but through the manipulation of discrete optical resonators and coupling phases or on-site phases, an artificial magnetic field can be created. This process can be expressed through a metaphor of photons bouncing between multiple mirrors. By shooting the light across multiple mirrors, the photons are routed and gain additional phase proportional to their angular momentum. This creates an effect like they are in a magnetic field.
Topological classification
Hofstadter's butterfly
The integers that appear in the Hall effect are examples of topological quantum numbers. They are known in mathematics as the first Chern numbers and are closely related to Berry's phase. A striking model of much interest in this context is the Azbel–Harper–Hofstadter model whose quantum phase diagram is the Hofstadter butterfly shown in the figure. The vertical axis is the strength of the magnetic field and the horizontal axis is the chemical potential, which fixes the electron density. The colors represent the integer Hall conductances. Warm colors represent positive integers and cold colors negative integers. Note, however, that the density of states in these regions of quantized Hall conductance is zero; hence, they cannot produce the plateaus observed in the experiments. The phase diagram is fractal and has structure on all scales. In the figure there is an obvious self-similarity. In the presence of disorder, which is the source of the plateaus seen in the experiments, this diagram is very different and the fractal structure is mostly washed away. Also, the experiments control the filling factor and not the Fermi energy. If this diagram is plotted as a function of filling factor, all the features are completely washed away, hence, it has very little to do with the actual Hall physics.
Concerning physical mechanisms, impurities and/or particular states (e.g., edge currents) are important for both the 'integer' and 'fractional' effects. In addition, Coulomb interaction is also essential in the fractional quantum Hall effect. The observed strong similarity between integer and fractional quantum Hall effects is explained by the tendency of electrons to form bound states with an even number of magnetic flux quanta, called composite fermions.
Bohr atom interpretation of the von Klitzing constant
The value of the von Klitzing constant may be obtained already on the level of a single atom within the Bohr model while looking at it as a single-electron Hall effect. While during the cyclotron motion on a circular orbit the centrifugal force is balanced by the Lorentz force responsible for the transverse induced voltage and the Hall effect, one may look at the Coulomb potential difference in the Bohr atom as the induced single atom Hall voltage and the periodic electron motion on a circle as a Hall current. Defining the single atom Hall current as a rate a single electron charge
e
{\displaystyle e}
is making Kepler revolutions with angular frequency
ω
{\displaystyle \omega }
I
=
ω
e
2
π
,
{\displaystyle I={\frac {\omega e}{2\pi }},}
and the induced Hall voltage as a difference between the hydrogen nucleus Coulomb potential at the electron orbital point and at infinity:
U
=
V
C
(
∞
)
−
V
C
(
r
)
=
0
−
V
C
(
r
)
=
e
4
π
ϵ
0
r
{\displaystyle U=V_{\text{C}}(\infty )-V_{\text{C}}(r)=0-V_{\text{C}}(r)={\frac {e}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}r}}}
One obtains the quantization of the defined Bohr orbit Hall resistance in steps of the von Klitzing constant as
R
Bohr
(
n
)
=
U
I
=
n
h
e
2
{\displaystyle R_{\text{Bohr}}(n)={\frac {U}{I}}=n{\frac {h}{e^{2}}}}
which for the Bohr atom is linear but not inverse in the integer n.
Relativistic analogs
Relativistic examples of the integer quantum Hall effect and quantum spin Hall effect arise in the context of lattice gauge theory.
See also
Quantum Hall transitions
Fractional quantum Hall effect
Quantum anomalous Hall effect
Quantum cellular automata
Composite fermions
Conductance Quantum
Hall effect
Hall probe
Graphene
Quantum spin Hall effect
Coulomb potential between two current loops embedded in a magnetic field
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25 years of Quantum Hall Effect, K. von Klitzing, Poincaré Seminar (Paris-2004). Postscript. Pdf.
Magnet Lab Press Release Quantum Hall Effect Observed at Room Temperature
Avron, Joseph E.; Osadchy, Daniel; Seiler, Ruedi (2003). "A Topological Look at the Quantum Hall Effect". Physics Today. 56 (8): 38. Bibcode:2003PhT....56h..38A. doi:10.1063/1.1611351.
Zyun F. Ezawa: Quantum Hall Effects - Field Theoretical Approach and Related Topics. World Scientific, Singapore 2008, ISBN 978-981-270-032-2
Sankar D. Sarma, Aron Pinczuk: Perspectives in Quantum Hall Effects. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2004, ISBN 978-0-471-11216-7
A. Baumgartner; T. Ihn; K. Ensslin; K. Maranowski; A. Gossard (2007). "Quantum Hall effect transition in scanning gate experiments". Phys. Rev. B. 76 (8): 085316. Bibcode:2007PhRvB..76h5316B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.76.085316.
E. I. Rashba and V. B. Timofeev, Quantum Hall Effect, Sov. Phys. – Semiconductors v. 20, pp. 617–647 (1986).
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"two-dimensional electron systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2DEG"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"magnetic fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance"},{"link_name":"Hall voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"},{"link_name":"elementary charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_charge"},{"link_name":"Planck constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_constant"},{"link_name":"ν","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu_(letter)"},{"link_name":"ν","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu_(letter)"},{"link_name":"Landau levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_quantization"},{"link_name":"Fermi level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_level"},{"link_name":"Anderson localization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson_localization"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"fractional quantum Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansson_025005-2"},{"link_name":"Landau levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_quantization"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haldane:1988-3"},{"link_name":"quantum spin Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_spin_Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The quantum Hall effect (or integer quantum Hall effect) is a quantized version of the Hall effect which is observed in two-dimensional electron systems subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall resistance Rxy exhibits steps that take on the quantized valuesR\n \n x\n y\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n V\n \n Hall\n \n \n \n I\n \n channel\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n h\n \n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n ν\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{xy}={\\frac {V_{\\text{Hall}}}{I_{\\text{channel}}}}={\\frac {h}{e^{2}\\nu }},}where VHall is the Hall voltage, Ichannel is the channel current, e is the elementary charge and h is the Planck constant. The divisor ν can take on either integer (ν = 1, 2, 3,...) or fractional (ν = 1/3, 2/5, 3/7, 2/3, 3/5, 1/5, 2/9, 3/13, 5/2, 12/5,...) values. Here, ν is roughly but not exactly equal to the filling factor of Landau levels. The quantum Hall effect is referred to as the integer or fractional quantum Hall effect depending on whether ν is an integer or fraction, respectively.The striking feature of the integer quantum Hall effect is the persistence of the quantization (i.e. the Hall plateau) as the electron density is varied. Since the electron density remains constant when the Fermi level is in a clean spectral gap, this situation corresponds to one where the Fermi level is an energy with a finite density of states, though these states are localized (see Anderson localization).[1]The fractional quantum Hall effect is more complicated and still considered an open research problem.[2] Its existence relies fundamentally on electron–electron interactions. In 1988, it was proposed that there was a quantum Hall effect without Landau levels.[3] This quantum Hall effect is referred to as the quantum anomalous Hall (QAH) effect. There is also a new concept of the quantum spin Hall effect which is an analogue of the quantum Hall effect, where spin currents flow instead of charge currents.[4]","title":"Quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_unit"},{"link_name":"electrical resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance"},{"link_name":"Klaus von Klitzing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing"},{"link_name":"fine-structure constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant"},{"link_name":"quantum electrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics"},{"link_name":"conventional value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_electrical_unit"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-RK90-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-RK-8"}],"text":"The quantization of the Hall conductance (\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n x\n y\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n /\n \n \n R\n \n x\n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle G_{xy}=1/R_{xy}}\n \n) has the important property of being exceedingly precise.[5] Actual measurements of the Hall conductance have been found to be integer or fractional multiples of e2/h to nearly one part in a billion. It has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance, based on the resistance quantum given by the von Klitzing constant RK. This is named after Klaus von Klitzing, the discoverer of exact quantization. The quantum Hall effect also provides an extremely precise independent determination of the fine-structure constant, a quantity of fundamental importance in quantum electrodynamics.In 1990, a fixed conventional value RK-90 = 25812.807 Ω was defined for use in resistance calibrations worldwide.[6] On 16 November 2018, the 26th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures decided to fix exact values of h (the Planck constant) and e (the elementary charge),[7] superseding the 1990 value with an exact permanent value RK = h/e2 = 25812.80745... Ω.[8]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"gauge invariance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_invariance"},{"link_name":"Anomalies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomaly_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laughlin:1981-11"},{"link_name":"TKNN formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TKNN_formula&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chern–Simons Lagrangians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory"},{"link_name":"fractional quantum Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hansson_025005-2"},{"link_name":"composite fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_fermions"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"composite fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_fermions"},{"link_name":"Chern–Simons Lagrangians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chern%E2%80%93Simons_theory"}],"text":"The integer quantum hall is considered part of exact quantization.[9] Exact quantization in full generality is not completely understood but it has been explained as a very subtle manifestation of the combination of the principle of gauge invariance together with another symmetry (see Anomalies). The integer quantum hall instead is considered a solved research problem[10][11] and understood in the scope of TKNN formula and Chern–Simons Lagrangians.The fractional quantum Hall effect is still considered an open research problem.[2] The fractional quantum Hall effect can be also understood as an integer quantum Hall effect, although not of electrons but of charge–flux composites known as composite fermions.[12] Other models to explain the Fractional Quantum Hall Effect also exists.[13]\nCurrently it is considered an open research problem because no single, confirmed and agreed list of fractional quantum numbers exists, neither a single agreed model to explain all of them, although there are such claims in the scope of composite fermions and Non Abelian Chern–Simons Lagrangians.","title":"Research status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MOSFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"field-effect transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor"},{"link_name":"Mohamed Atalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Atalla"},{"link_name":"Dawon Kahng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawon_Kahng"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerhistory-14"},{"link_name":"electron behavior in a nearly ideal two-dimensional gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lindley-15"},{"link_name":"gate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_gate"},{"link_name":"quantum effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_effects"},{"link_name":"liquid helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_helium"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lindley-15"},{"link_name":"quantization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(physics)"},{"link_name":"University of Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ando:1975-16"},{"link_name":"Gakushuin University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gakushuin_University"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wakabayashi:1978-17"},{"link_name":"Klaus von Klitzing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"Michael Pepper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Pepper"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vonKlitzing:1980-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lindley-15"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"},{"link_name":"Robert Laughlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laughlin:1981-11"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thouless:1983-19"},{"link_name":"gallium arsenide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide"},{"link_name":"heterostructures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterostructure"},{"link_name":"graphene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Novoselov:2007-20"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tsukazaki:2007-21"}],"text":"The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[14] enabled physicists to study electron behavior in a nearly ideal two-dimensional gas.[15] In a MOSFET, conduction electrons travel in a thin surface layer, and a \"gate\" voltage controls the number of charge carriers in this layer. This allows researchers to explore quantum effects by operating high-purity MOSFETs at liquid helium temperatures.[15]The integer quantization of the Hall conductance was originally predicted by University of Tokyo researchers Tsuneya Ando, Yukio Matsumoto and Yasutada Uemura in 1975, on the basis of an approximate calculation which they themselves did not believe to be true.[16] In 1978, the Gakushuin University researchers Jun-ichi Wakabayashi and Shinji Kawaji subsequently observed the effect in experiments carried out on the inversion layer of MOSFETs.[17]In 1980, Klaus von Klitzing, working at the high magnetic field laboratory in Grenoble with silicon-based MOSFET samples developed by Michael Pepper and Gerhard Dorda, made the unexpected discovery that the Hall resistance was exactly quantized.[18][15] For this finding, von Klitzing was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. A link between exact quantization and gauge invariance was subsequently proposed by Robert Laughlin, who connected the quantized conductivity to the quantized charge transport in a Thouless charge pump.[11][19] Most integer quantum Hall experiments are now performed on gallium arsenide heterostructures, although many other semiconductor materials can be used. In 2007, the integer quantum Hall effect was reported in graphene at temperatures as high as room temperature,[20] and in the magnesium zinc oxide ZnO–MgxZn1−xO.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Animated graph showing filling of Landau levels as B changes and the corresponding position on a graph of hall coefficient and magnetic field|Illustrative only. The levels spread out with increasing field. Between the levels the quantum hall effect is seen. DOS is the density of states.","title":"Integer quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Schrödinger equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation"},{"link_name":"Landau gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_gauge"},{"link_name":"harmonic oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_oscillator"},{"link_name":"Hermite polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermite_polynomials"}],"sub_title":"Landau levels","text":"In two dimensions, when classical electrons are subjected to a magnetic field they follow circular cyclotron orbits. When the system is treated quantum mechanically, these orbits are quantized. To determine the values of the energy levels the Schrödinger equation must be solved.Since the system is subjected to a magnetic field, it has to be introduced as an electromagnetic vector potential in the Schrödinger equation. The system considered is an electron gas that is free to move in the x and y directions, but is tightly confined in the z direction. Then, a magnetic field is applied in the z direction and according to the Landau gauge the electromagnetic vector potential is \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n =\n (\n 0\n ,\n B\n x\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} =(0,Bx,0)}\n \n and the scalar potential is \n \n \n \n ϕ\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi =0}\n \n. Thus the Schrödinger equation for a particle of charge \n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n and effective mass \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m^{*}}\n \n in this system is:{\n \n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n p\n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n \n ]\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n V\n (\n z\n )\n \n }\n \n ψ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n )\n =\n ε\n ψ\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\{{\\frac {1}{2m^{*}}}\\left[\\mathbf {p} -q\\mathbf {A} \\right]^{2}+V(z)\\right\\}\\psi (x,y,z)=\\varepsilon \\psi (x,y,z)}where \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {p} }\n \n is the canonical momentum, which is replaced by the operator \n \n \n \n −\n i\n ℏ\n ∇\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -i\\hbar \\nabla }\n \n and \n \n \n \n ε\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon }\n \n is the total energy.To solve this equation it is possible to separate it into two equations since the magnetic field just affects the movement along x and y axes. The total energy becomes then, the sum of two contributions \n \n \n \n ε\n =\n \n ε\n \n z\n \n \n +\n \n ε\n \n x\n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon =\\varepsilon _{z}+\\varepsilon _{xy}}\n \n. The corresponding equations in z axis is:[\n \n −\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n V\n (\n z\n )\n \n ]\n \n u\n (\n z\n )\n =\n \n ε\n \n z\n \n \n u\n (\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[-{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}}{2m^{*}}}{\\partial ^{2} \\over \\partial z^{2}}+V(z)\\right]u(z)=\\varepsilon _{z}u(z)}To simplify things, the solution \n \n \n \n V\n (\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V(z)}\n \n is considered as an infinite well. Thus the solutions for the z direction are the energies \n \n \n \n \n ε\n \n z\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n π\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n L\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\varepsilon _{z}={\\frac {n_{z}^{2}\\pi ^{2}\\hbar ^{2}}{2m^{*}L^{2}}}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n z\n \n \n =\n 1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 3...\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{z}=1,2,3...}\n \n and the wavefunctions are sinusoidal. For the \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n directions, the solution of the Schrödinger equation can be chosen to be the product of a plane wave in \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n-direction with some unknown function of \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, i.e., \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n x\n y\n \n \n =\n u\n (\n x\n )\n \n e\n \n i\n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi _{xy}=u(x)e^{ik_{y}y}}\n \n. This is because the vector potential does not depend on \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n and the momentum operator \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n ^\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {p}}_{y}}\n \n therefore commutes with the Hamiltonian. By substituting this Ansatz into the Schrödinger equation one gets the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator equation centered at \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n \n \n e\n B\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle x_{k_{y}}={\\frac {\\hbar k_{y}}{eB}}}\n \n.[\n \n −\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n (\n x\n −\n \n l\n \n B\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n u\n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n ε\n \n x\n y\n \n \n u\n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[-{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}}{2m^{*}}}{\\partial ^{2} \\over \\partial x^{2}}+{\\frac {1}{2}}m^{*}\\omega _{\\rm {c}}^{2}(x-l_{B}^{2}k_{y})^{2}\\right]u(x)=\\varepsilon _{xy}u(x)}where \n \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n e\n B\n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\omega _{\\rm {c}}={\\frac {eB}{m^{*}}}}\n \n is defined as the cyclotron frequency and \n \n \n \n \n l\n \n B\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n ℏ\n \n e\n B\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle l_{B}^{2}={\\frac {\\hbar }{eB}}}\n \n the magnetic length. The energies are:ε\n \n x\n y\n \n \n ≡\n \n ε\n \n \n n\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n =\n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n n\n \n x\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon _{xy}\\equiv \\varepsilon _{n_{x}}=\\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}\\left(n_{x}+{\\frac {1}{2}}\\right)}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n x\n \n \n =\n 1\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 3...\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{x}=1,2,3...}And the wavefunctions for the motion in the \n \n \n \n x\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle xy}\n \n plane are given by the product of a plane wave in \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n and Hermite polynomials attenuated by the gaussian function in \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, which are the wavefunctions of a harmonic oscillator.From the expression for the Landau levels one notices that the energy depends only on \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{x}}\n \n, not on \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{y}}\n \n. States with the same \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{x}}\n \n but different \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{y}}\n \n are degenerate.","title":"Integer quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dirac comb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_comb"},{"link_name":"Gaussian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian"},{"link_name":"Lorentzian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_distribution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Potencialesparab%C3%B3licos.jpg"},{"link_name":"2DEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas"},{"link_name":"fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermions"},{"link_name":"spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Bohr magneton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_magneton"},{"link_name":"density of states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_of_states"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Densidadestadossinspin.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NivelesLandausinspin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fermi level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_level"}],"sub_title":"Density of states","text":"At zero field, the density of states per unit surface for the two-dimensional electron gas taking into account degeneration due to spin is independent of the energyn\n \n \n 2\n D\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n π\n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{\\rm {2D}}={\\frac {m^{*}}{\\pi \\hbar ^{2}}}}\n \n.As the field is turned on, the density of states collapses from the constant to a Dirac comb, a series of Dirac \n \n \n \n δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta }\n \n functions, corresponding to the Landau levels separated \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n ε\n \n x\n y\n \n \n =\n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\varepsilon _{xy}=\\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}}\n \n. At finite temperature, however, the Landau levels acquire a width \n \n \n \n Γ\n =\n \n \n ℏ\n \n τ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\Gamma ={\\frac {\\hbar }{\\tau _{i}}}}\n \n being \n \n \n \n \n τ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau _{i}}\n \n the time between scattering events. Commonly it is assumed that the precise shape of Landau levels is a Gaussian or Lorentzian profile.Another feature is that the wave functions form parallel strips in the \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n-direction spaced equally along the \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n-axis, along the lines of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n. Since there is nothing special about any direction in the \n \n \n \n x\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle xy}\n \n-plane if the vector potential was differently chosen one should find circular symmetry.Given a sample of dimensions \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n x\n \n \n ×\n \n L\n \n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{x}\\times L_{y}}\n \n and applying the periodic boundary conditions in the \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n-direction \n \n \n \n k\n =\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n L\n \n y\n \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\textstyle k={\\frac {2\\pi }{L_{y}}}j}\n \n being \n \n \n \n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle j}\n \n an integer, one gets that each parabolic potential is placed at a value \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n k\n \n \n =\n \n l\n \n B\n \n \n 2\n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{k}=l_{B}^{2}k}\n \n.Parabolic potentials along the \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n-axis centered at \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{k}}\n \n with the 1st wave functions corresponding to an infinite well confinement in the \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle z}\n \n direction. In the \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n-direction there are travelling plane waves.The number of states for each Landau Level and \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n can be calculated from the ratio between the total magnetic flux that passes through the sample and the magnetic flux corresponding to a state.N\n \n B\n \n \n =\n \n \n ϕ\n \n ϕ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n B\n A\n \n \n B\n \n L\n \n y\n \n \n Δ\n \n x\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n A\n \n 2\n π\n \n l\n \n B\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n l\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n e\n B\n \n \n 2\n π\n ℏ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n 2\n π\n ℏ\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle N_{B}={\\frac {\\phi }{\\phi _{0}}}={\\frac {BA}{BL_{y}\\Delta x_{k}}}={\\frac {A}{2\\pi l_{B}^{2}}}{\\begin{array}{lcr}&l_{B}&\\\\&=&\\\\&&\\end{array}}{\\frac {AeB}{2\\pi \\hbar }}{\\begin{array}{lcr}&\\omega _{\\rm {c}}&\\\\&=&\\\\&&\\end{array}}{\\frac {m^{*}\\omega _{\\rm {c}}A}{2\\pi \\hbar }}}Thus the density of states per unit surface isn\n \n B\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n π\n ℏ\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{B}={\\frac {m^{*}\\omega _{\\rm {c}}}{2\\pi \\hbar }}}\n \n.Note the dependency of the density of states with the magnetic field. The larger the magnetic field is, the more states are in each Landau level. As a consequence, there is more confinement in the system since fewer energy levels are occupied.Rewriting the last expression as \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n B\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n π\n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle n_{B}={\\frac {\\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}}{2}}{\\frac {m^{*}}{\\pi \\hbar ^{2}}}}\n \n it is clear that each Landau level contains as many states as in a 2DEG in a \n \n \n \n Δ\n ε\n =\n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\varepsilon =\\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}}\n \n.Given the fact that electrons are fermions, for each state available in the Landau levels it corresponds to two electrons, one electron with each value for the spin \n \n \n \n s\n =\n ±\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle s=\\pm {\\frac {1}{2}}}\n \n. However, if a large magnetic field is applied, the energies split into two levels due to the magnetic moment associated with the alignment of the spin with the magnetic field. The difference in the energies is \n \n \n \n Δ\n E\n =\n ±\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n g\n \n μ\n \n \n B\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\Delta E=\\pm {\\frac {1}{2}}g\\mu _{\\rm {B}}B}\n \n being \n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g}\n \n a factor which depends on the material (\n \n \n \n g\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g=2}\n \n for free electrons) and \n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu _{\\rm {B}}}\n \n the Bohr magneton. The sign \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n {\\displaystyle +}\n \n is taken when the spin is parallel to the field and \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -}\n \n when it is antiparallel. This fact called spin splitting implies that the density of states for each level is reduced by a half. Note that \n \n \n \n Δ\n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta E}\n \n is proportional to the magnetic field so, the larger the magnetic field is, the more relevant is the split.Density of states in a magnetic field, neglecting spin splitting. (a)The states in each range \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}}\n \n are squeezed into a \n \n \n \n δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta }\n \n-function Landau level. (b) Landau levels have a non-zero width \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n in a more realistic picture and overlap if \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n <\n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}<\\Gamma }\n \n. (c) The levels become distinct when \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n >\n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}>\\Gamma }\n \n.In order to get the number of occupied Landau levels, one defines the so-called filling factor \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n as the ratio between the density of states in a 2DEG and the density of states in the Landau levels.ν\n =\n \n \n \n n\n \n \n 2\n D\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n h\n \n n\n \n \n 2\n D\n \n \n \n \n \n e\n B\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu ={\\frac {n_{\\rm {2D}}}{n_{B}}}={\\frac {hn_{\\rm {2D}}}{eB}}}In general the filling factor \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n is not an integer. It happens to be an integer when there is an exact number of filled Landau levels. Instead, it becomes a non-integer when the top level is not fully occupied. In actual experiments, one varies the magnetic field and fixes electron density (and not the Fermi energy!) or varies the electron density and fixes the magnetic field. Both cases correspond to a continuous variation of the filling factor \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n and one cannot expect \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n to be an integer. Since \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n B\n \n \n ∝\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{B}\\propto B}\n \n, by increasing the magnetic field, the Landau levels move up in energy and the number of states in each level grow, so fewer electrons occupy the top level until it becomes empty. If the magnetic field keeps increasing, eventually, all electrons will be in the lowest Landau level (\n \n \n \n ν\n <\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu <1}\n \n) and this is called the magnetic quantum limit.Occupation of Landau levels in a magnetic field neglecting the spin splitting, showing how the Fermi level moves to maintain a constant density of electrons. The fields are in the ratio \n \n \n \n 2\n :\n 3\n :\n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2:3:4}\n \n and give \n \n \n \n ν\n =\n 4\n ,\n \n \n 8\n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu =4,{\\frac {8}{3}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2}\n \n.","title":"Integer quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fermi energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_energy"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhoxy.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Longitudinal resistivity","text":"It is possible to relate the filling factor to the resistivity and hence, to the conductivity of the system. When \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n is an integer, the Fermi energy lies in between Landau levels where there are no states available for carriers, so the conductivity becomes zero (it is considered that the magnetic field is big enough so that there is no overlap between Landau levels, otherwise there would be few electrons and the conductivity would be approximately \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n). Consequently, the resistivity becomes zero too (At very high magnetic fields it is proven that longitudinal conductivity and resistivity are proportional).[22]With the conductivity \n \n \n \n σ\n =\n \n ρ\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma =\\rho ^{-1}}\n \n one findsσ\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n det\n ρ\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n y\n y\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n ρ\n \n x\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n ρ\n \n y\n x\n \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n x\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma ={\\frac {1}{\\det \\rho }}{\\begin{pmatrix}\\rho _{yy}&-\\rho _{xy}\\\\-\\rho _{yx}&\\rho _{xx}\\end{pmatrix}}\\;.}If the longitudinal resistivity is zero and transversal is finite, then \n \n \n \n det\n ρ\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\det \\rho \\neq 0}\n \n. Thus both the longitudinal conductivity and resistivity become zero.Instead, when \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n is a half-integer, the Fermi energy is located at the peak of the density distribution of some Landau Level. This means that the conductivity will have a maximum .This distribution of minimums and maximums corresponds to ¨quantum oscillations¨ called Shubnikov–de Haas oscillations which become more relevant as the magnetic field increases. Obviously, the height of the peaks are larger as the magnetic field increases since the density of states increases with the field, so there are more carriers which contribute to the resistivity. It is interesting to notice that if the magnetic field is very small, the longitudinal resistivity is a constant which means that the classical result is reached.Longitudinal and transverse (Hall) resistivity, \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xx}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xy}}\n \n, of a two-dimensional electron gas as a function of magnetic field. Both vertical axes were divided by the quantum unit of conductance \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n h\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{2}/h}\n \n (units are misleading). The filling factor \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n is displayed for the last 4 plateaus.","title":"Integer quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Transverse resistivity","text":"From the classical relation of the transverse resistivity \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n y\n \n \n =\n \n \n B\n \n e\n \n n\n \n \n 2\n D\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\rho _{xy}={\\frac {B}{en_{\\rm {2D}}}}}\n \n and substituting \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n 2\n D\n \n \n \n =\n ν\n \n \n \n e\n B\n \n h\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle n_{\\rm {2D}}=\\nu {\\frac {eB}{h}}}\n \n one finds out the quantization of the transverse resistivity and conductivity:ρ\n \n x\n y\n \n \n =\n \n \n h\n \n ν\n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ⇒\n σ\n =\n ν\n \n \n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n h\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xy}={\\frac {h}{\\nu e^{2}}}\\Rightarrow \\sigma =\\nu {\\frac {e^{2}}{h}}}One concludes then, that the transverse resistivity is a multiple of the inverse of the so-called conductance quantum \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n h\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{2}/h}\n \n if the filling factor is an integer. In experiments, however, plateaus are observed for whole plateaus of filling values \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n, which indicates that there are in fact electron states between the Landau levels. These states are localized in, for example, impurities of the material where they are trapped in orbits so they can not contribute to the conductivity. That is why the resistivity remains constant in between Landau levels. Again if the magnetic field decreases, one gets the classical result in which the resistivity is proportional to the magnetic field.","title":"Integer quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"two-dimensional electron systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2DEG"},{"link_name":"Photons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon"},{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"optical resonators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_cavity"},{"link_name":"magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum_operator"},{"link_name":"magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"}],"text":"The quantum Hall effect, in addition to being observed in two-dimensional electron systems, can be observed in photons. Photons do not possess inherent electric charge, but through the manipulation of discrete optical resonators and coupling phases or on-site phases, an artificial magnetic field can be created.[23][24][25][26][27] This process can be expressed through a metaphor of photons bouncing between multiple mirrors. By shooting the light across multiple mirrors, the photons are routed and gain additional phase proportional to their angular momentum. This creates an effect like they are in a magnetic field.","title":"Photonic quantum Hall effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hofstadter%27s_butterfly.png"},{"link_name":"Hofstadter's butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstadter%27s_butterfly"},{"link_name":"topological quantum numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_quantum_number"},{"link_name":"Chern numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chern_class#Chern_numbers"},{"link_name":"Berry's phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_phase"},{"link_name":"Hofstadter butterfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstadter_butterfly"},{"link_name":"magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"chemical potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_potential"},{"link_name":"self-similarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-similarity"},{"link_name":"fractional quantum Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"composite fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_fermions"}],"text":"Hofstadter's butterflyThe integers that appear in the Hall effect are examples of topological quantum numbers. They are known in mathematics as the first Chern numbers and are closely related to Berry's phase. A striking model of much interest in this context is the Azbel–Harper–Hofstadter model whose quantum phase diagram is the Hofstadter butterfly shown in the figure. The vertical axis is the strength of the magnetic field and the horizontal axis is the chemical potential, which fixes the electron density. The colors represent the integer Hall conductances. Warm colors represent positive integers and cold colors negative integers. Note, however, that the density of states in these regions of quantized Hall conductance is zero; hence, they cannot produce the plateaus observed in the experiments. The phase diagram is fractal and has structure on all scales. In the figure there is an obvious self-similarity. In the presence of disorder, which is the source of the plateaus seen in the experiments, this diagram is very different and the fractal structure is mostly washed away. Also, the experiments control the filling factor and not the Fermi energy. If this diagram is plotted as a function of filling factor, all the features are completely washed away, hence, it has very little to do with the actual Hall physics.Concerning physical mechanisms, impurities and/or particular states (e.g., edge currents) are important for both the 'integer' and 'fractional' effects. In addition, Coulomb interaction is also essential in the fractional quantum Hall effect. The observed strong similarity between integer and fractional quantum Hall effects is explained by the tendency of electrons to form bound states with an even number of magnetic flux quanta, called composite fermions.","title":"Topological classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bohr model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model"},{"link_name":"cyclotron motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron"},{"link_name":"Lorentz force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_force"}],"text":"The value of the von Klitzing constant may be obtained already on the level of a single atom within the Bohr model while looking at it as a single-electron Hall effect. While during the cyclotron motion on a circular orbit the centrifugal force is balanced by the Lorentz force responsible for the transverse induced voltage and the Hall effect, one may look at the Coulomb potential difference in the Bohr atom as the induced single atom Hall voltage and the periodic electron motion on a circle as a Hall current. Defining the single atom Hall current as a rate a single electron charge \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e}\n \n is making Kepler revolutions with angular frequency \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }I\n =\n \n \n \n ω\n e\n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I={\\frac {\\omega e}{2\\pi }},}and the induced Hall voltage as a difference between the hydrogen nucleus Coulomb potential at the electron orbital point and at infinity:U\n =\n \n V\n \n C\n \n \n (\n ∞\n )\n −\n \n V\n \n C\n \n \n (\n r\n )\n =\n 0\n −\n \n V\n \n C\n \n \n (\n r\n )\n =\n \n \n e\n \n 4\n π\n \n ϵ\n \n 0\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U=V_{\\text{C}}(\\infty )-V_{\\text{C}}(r)=0-V_{\\text{C}}(r)={\\frac {e}{4\\pi \\epsilon _{0}r}}}One obtains the quantization of the defined Bohr orbit Hall resistance in steps of the von Klitzing constant asR\n \n Bohr\n \n \n (\n n\n )\n =\n \n \n U\n I\n \n \n =\n n\n \n \n h\n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{\\text{Bohr}}(n)={\\frac {U}{I}}=n{\\frac {h}{e^{2}}}}which for the Bohr atom is linear but not inverse in the integer n.","title":"Bohr atom interpretation of the von Klitzing constant"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantum spin Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_spin_Hall_effect"},{"link_name":"lattice gauge theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_gauge_theory"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kaplan:1992-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Golterman:1993-29"}],"text":"Relativistic examples of the integer quantum Hall effect and quantum spin Hall effect arise in the context of lattice gauge theory.[28][29]","title":"Relativistic analogs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1987RvMP...59..781Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987RvMP...59..781Y"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1103/RevModPhys.59.781","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.59.781"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0902.1356","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/0902.1356"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2008Natur.452..970H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008Natur.452..970H"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/nature06843","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06843"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"18432240","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18432240"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4402113","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4402113"},{"link_name":"Postscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070304025657/http://parthe.lpthe.jussieu.fr/poincare/textes/novembre2004.html"},{"link_name":"Pdf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110707025318/http://hrma.physics.sjtu.edu.cn/PhysicsHorizon/25yearsQHE-lecture.pdf"},{"link_name":"Quantum Hall Effect Observed at Room Temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20071222020625/http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/pressreleases/2007february15.html"},{"link_name":"\"A Topological Look at the Quantum Hall Effect\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1611351"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2003PhT....56h..38A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhT....56h..38A"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1063/1.1611351","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1611351"},{"link_name":"Quantum Hall Effects - Field Theoretical Approach and Related Topics.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=p3JpcdbqBPoC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-981-270-032-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-270-032-2"},{"link_name":"Aron Pinczuk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aron_Pinczuk"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-471-11216-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-11216-7"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2007PhRvB..76h5316B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvB..76h5316B"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1103/PhysRevB.76.085316","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.76.085316"},{"link_name":"E. I. Rashba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Rashba"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Condensed_matter_physics_topics"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Condensed_matter_physics_topics"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Condensed_matter_physics_topics"},{"link_name":"Condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"States of matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter"},{"link_name":"solid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid"},{"link_name":"liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid"},{"link_name":"gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas"},{"link_name":"plasma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Bose–Einstein condensate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate"},{"link_name":"Fermionic 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theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"Fermi liquid theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_liquid_theory"},{"link_name":"electronic band structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure"},{"link_name":"Anderson localization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anderson_localization"},{"link_name":"BCS theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS_theory"},{"link_name":"tight binding model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tight_binding_model"},{"link_name":"Hubbard model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbard_model"},{"link_name":"density functional theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_functional_theory"},{"link_name":"insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"Mott insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mott_insulator"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"semimetal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semimetal"},{"link_name":"conductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductor"},{"link_name":"superconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity"},{"link_name":"topological insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_insulator"},{"link_name":"spin gapless semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_gapless_semiconductor"},{"link_name":"thermoelectricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect"},{"link_name":"piezoelectricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity"},{"link_name":"ferroelectricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectricity"},{"link_name":"flexoelectricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexoelectricity"},{"link_name":"electrostriction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostriction"},{"link_name":"amorphous magnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_magnet"},{"link_name":"diamagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamagnetism"},{"link_name":"superdiamagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superdiamagnetism"},{"link_name":"paramagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramagnetism"},{"link_name":"superparamagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superparamagnetism"},{"link_name":"ferromagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferromagnetism"},{"link_name":"antiferromagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiferromagnetism"},{"link_name":"metamagnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamagnetism"},{"link_name":"spin glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_glass"},{"link_name":"Quasiparticles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasiparticle"},{"link_name":"anyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyon"},{"link_name":"Bogoliubov quasiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogoliubov_quasiparticle"},{"link_name":"hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole"},{"link_name":"exciton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exciton"},{"link_name":"magnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnon"},{"link_name":"phonon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon"},{"link_name":"Pines' demon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pines%27_demon"},{"link_name":"plasmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmon"},{"link_name":"polariton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polariton"},{"link_name":"exciton-polariton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exciton-polariton"},{"link_name":"phonon polariton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon_polariton"},{"link_name":"polaron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaron"},{"link_name":"Soft matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_matter"},{"link_name":"amorphous solid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solid"},{"link_name":"granular matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granular_material"},{"link_name":"liquid crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal"},{"link_name":"polymer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"colloids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Condensed_matter_physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg"},{"link_name":"Physics Portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics"},{"link_name":"Physics WikiProject","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Physics"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1047822#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4124013-3"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548808905171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh88004889"}],"text":"D. R. Yennie (1987). \"Integral quantum Hall effect for nonspecialists\". Rev. Mod. Phys. 59 (3): 781–824. Bibcode:1987RvMP...59..781Y. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.59.781.\nD. Hsieh; D. Qian; L. Wray; Y. Xia; Y. S. Hor; R. J. Cava; M. Z. Hasan (2008). \"A topological Dirac insulator in a quantum spin Hall phase\". Nature. 452 (7190): 970–974. arXiv:0902.1356. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..970H. doi:10.1038/nature06843. PMID 18432240. S2CID 4402113.\n25 years of Quantum Hall Effect, K. von Klitzing, Poincaré Seminar (Paris-2004). Postscript. Pdf.\nMagnet Lab Press Release Quantum Hall Effect Observed at Room Temperature\nAvron, Joseph E.; Osadchy, Daniel; Seiler, Ruedi (2003). \"A Topological Look at the Quantum Hall Effect\". Physics Today. 56 (8): 38. Bibcode:2003PhT....56h..38A. doi:10.1063/1.1611351.\nZyun F. Ezawa: Quantum Hall Effects - Field Theoretical Approach and Related Topics. World Scientific, Singapore 2008, ISBN 978-981-270-032-2\nSankar D. Sarma, Aron Pinczuk: Perspectives in Quantum Hall Effects. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2004, ISBN 978-0-471-11216-7\nA. Baumgartner; T. Ihn; K. Ensslin; K. Maranowski; A. Gossard (2007). \"Quantum Hall effect transition in scanning gate experiments\". Phys. Rev. B. 76 (8): 085316. Bibcode:2007PhRvB..76h5316B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.76.085316.\nE. I. Rashba and V. B. Timofeev, Quantum Hall Effect, Sov. Phys. – Semiconductors v. 20, pp. 617–647 (1986).vteCondensed matter physicsStates of matter\nsolid\nliquid\ngas\nplasma\nBose–Einstein condensate\nFermionic condensate\nFermi gas\nsupersolid\nsuperfluid\nLuttinger liquid\ntime crystal\nPhase phenomena\norder parameter\nphase transition\nspontaneous symmetry breaking\ncritical phenomena\nElectrons in solidsPhenomena\nHall effect\nquantum Hall effect\nspin Hall effect\nquantum spin Hall effect\nBerry phase\nAharonov–Bohm effect\nJosephson effect\nKondo effect\nTheory\nDrude model\nfree electron model\nnearly free electron model\nBloch's theorem\nFermi liquid theory\nelectronic band structure\nAnderson localization\nBCS theory\ntight binding model\nHubbard model\ndensity functional theory\nConduction\ninsulator\nMott insulator\nsemiconductor\nsemimetal\nconductor\nsuperconductor\ntopological insulator\nspin gapless semiconductor\nCouplings\nthermoelectricity\npiezoelectricity\nferroelectricity\nflexoelectricity\nelectrostriction\nMagnetic phases\namorphous magnet\ndiamagnet\nsuperdiamagnet\nparamagnet\nsuperparamagnet\nferromagnet\nantiferromagnet\nmetamagnet\nspin glass\nQuasiparticles\nanyon\nBogoliubov quasiparticle\nhole\nexciton\nmagnon\nphonon\nPines' demon\nplasmon\npolariton\nexciton-polariton\nphonon polariton\npolaron\nSoft matter\namorphous solid\ngranular matter\nliquid crystal\npolymer\ncolloids\n\n Category\n Commons\nPhysics Portal\n Physics WikiProjectAuthority control databases: National \nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Animated graph showing filling of Landau levels as B changes and the corresponding position on a graph of hall coefficient and magnetic field|Illustrative only. The levels spread out with increasing field. Between the levels the quantum hall effect is seen. DOS is the density of states."},{"image_text":"Parabolic potentials along the \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n-axis centered at \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{k}}\n \n with the 1st wave functions corresponding to an infinite well confinement in the \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle z}\n \n direction. In the \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n-direction there are travelling plane waves.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Potencialesparab%C3%B3licos.jpg/270px-Potencialesparab%C3%B3licos.jpg"},{"image_text":"Density of states in a magnetic field, neglecting spin splitting. (a)The states in each range \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}}\n \n are squeezed into a \n \n \n \n δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta }\n \n-function Landau level. (b) Landau levels have a non-zero width \n \n \n \n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Gamma }\n \n in a more realistic picture and overlap if \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n <\n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}<\\Gamma }\n \n. (c) The levels become distinct when \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n ω\n \n \n c\n \n \n \n >\n Γ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar \\omega _{\\rm {c}}>\\Gamma }\n \n.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Densidadestadossinspin.jpg/263px-Densidadestadossinspin.jpg"},{"image_text":"Occupation of Landau levels in a magnetic field neglecting the spin splitting, showing how the Fermi level moves to maintain a constant density of electrons. The fields are in the ratio \n \n \n \n 2\n :\n 3\n :\n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2:3:4}\n \n and give \n \n \n \n ν\n =\n 4\n ,\n \n \n 8\n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu =4,{\\frac {8}{3}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2}\n \n.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/NivelesLandausinspin.jpg/265px-NivelesLandausinspin.jpg"},{"image_text":"Longitudinal and transverse (Hall) resistivity, \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n x\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xx}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xy}}\n \n, of a two-dimensional electron gas as a function of magnetic field. Both vertical axes were divided by the quantum unit of conductance \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n h\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{2}/h}\n \n (units are misleading). The filling factor \n \n \n \n ν\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu }\n \n is displayed for the last 4 plateaus.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Rhoxy.jpg/263px-Rhoxy.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hofstadter's butterfly","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Hofstadter%27s_butterfly.png/220px-Hofstadter%27s_butterfly.png"}] | [{"title":"Quantum Hall transitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Hall_transitions"},{"title":"Fractional quantum Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_quantum_Hall_effect"},{"title":"Quantum anomalous Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_anomalous_Hall_effect"},{"title":"Quantum cellular automata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cellular_automata"},{"title":"Composite fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_fermions"},{"title":"Conductance Quantum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductance_quantum"},{"title":"Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect"},{"title":"Hall probe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_probe"},{"title":"Graphene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene"},{"title":"Quantum spin Hall effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_spin_Hall_effect"},{"title":"Coulomb potential between two current loops embedded in a magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_forces_and_virtual-particle_exchange#Coulomb_potential_between_two_current_loops_embedded_in_a_magnetic_field"}] | [{"reference":"Editorial (2020-07-29). \"The quantum Hall effect continues to reveal its secrets to mathematicians and physicists\". 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Hall Effect Observed at Room Temperature"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1611351","external_links_name":"\"A Topological Look at the Quantum Hall Effect\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhT....56h..38A","external_links_name":"2003PhT....56h..38A"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1611351","external_links_name":"10.1063/1.1611351"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=p3JpcdbqBPoC","external_links_name":"Quantum Hall Effects - Field Theoretical Approach and Related Topics."},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvB..76h5316B","external_links_name":"2007PhRvB..76h5316B"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.76.085316","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevB.76.085316"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4124013-3","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007548808905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh88004889","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school | Primary school | ["1 Levels of education","2 Comparison of cohorts","2.1 Primary schools","2.2 Elementary schools","3 Theoretical framework of primary school design","4 Building design specifications","5 Governance and funding","6 Accountability","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"] | School for children
"Elementary school" and "Grade school" redirect here. For grad school, see Graduate school.
"Elementary school" redirects here. For 1991 movie, see The Elementary School.
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vte
An elementary school class in Japan
Elementary school in Višňové (Slovakia)
An aerial photo of a primary school in Hayesville, North Carolina
Classroom with chairs on desks in the Netherlands
A primary school (in Ireland, India, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, and South Africa), elementary school, or grade school (in North America and the Philippines) is a school for primary education of children who are 4 to 10 years of age (and in many cases, 11 years of age). Primary schooling follows preschool and precedes secondary schooling.
The International Standard Classification of Education considers primary education as a single phase where programmes are typically designed to provide fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics and to establish a solid foundation for learning. This is ISCED Level 1: Primary education or first stage of basic education.
Levels of education
This section is an excerpt from International Standard Classification of Education § 2011 version.
ISCED 2011 levels of education
Level
Label
Description
0
Early childhood education (01 Early childhood educational development)
Education designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. Programmes designed for children below the age of 3.
Early childhood education (02 Pre-primary education)
Education designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. Programmes designed for children from age 3 to the start of primary education.
1
Primary education
Programmes typically designed to provide students with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics and to establish a solid foundation for learning.
2
Lower secondary education
First stage of secondary education building on primary education, typically with a more subject-oriented curriculum.
3
Upper secondary education
Second/final stage of secondary education preparing for tertiary education or providing skills relevant to employment. Usually with an increased range of subject options and streams.
4
Post-secondary non-tertiary education
Programmes providing learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare for labour market entry or tertiary education. The content is broader than secondary but not as complex as tertiary education.
5
Short-cycle tertiary education
Short first tertiary programmes that are typically practically-based, occupationally-specific and prepare for labour market entry. These programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary programmes.
6
Bachelor's or equivalent
Programmes designed to provide intermediate academic or professional knowledge, skills and competencies leading to a first tertiary degree or equivalent qualification.
7
Master's or equivalent
Programmes designed to provide advanced academic or professional knowledge, skills and competencies leading to a second tertiary degree or equivalent qualification.
8
Doctorate or equivalent
Programmes designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification, usually concluding with the submission and defense of a substantive dissertation of publishable quality based on original research.
Comparison of cohorts
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Within the English speaking world, there are three widely used systems to describe the age of the child. The first is the "equivalent ages"; then countries that base their education systems on the "English model" use one of two methods to identify the year group; while countries that base their systems on the "American K–12 model" refer to their year groups as "grades". Canada also follows the American model, although its names for year groups are put as a number after the grade: For instance, "Grade 1" in Canada, rather than "First Grade" in the United States. This terminology extends into the research literature.
In Canada, education is a provincial, not a federal responsibility. For example, the province of Ontario also had a "Grade 13", designed to help students enter the workforce or post-secondary education, but this was phased out in the year 2003.
Equivalent ages
4–5
5–6
6–7
7–8
8–9
9–10
10–11
U.S. (grades)
Pre-K
K
1
2
3
4
5
Ireland
Junior Infants
Senior Infants
1st Class
2nd Class
3rd Class
4th Class
5th Class
England (forms)
Reception
Infants
Top infants
Junior 1
Junior 2
Junior 3
Junior 4
England (year)
R
1
2
3
4
5
6
England (keystage)
EYFS/FS
KS1
KS1
KS2
KS2
KS2
KS2
Scotland
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
Jamaica
Pre-K
K-1
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
ISCED level
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
Indonesia
TK A
TK B
SD Kelas 1
SD Kelas 2
SD Kelas 3
SD Kelas 4
SD Kelas 5
Equivalent ages
11–12
12–13
13–14
14–15
15–16
16–17
17–18
U.S. (grades)
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Ireland
6th Class
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
4th Year
5th Year
6th Year
England (forms)
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Lower Sixth
Upper Sixth
England (year)
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
England (keystage)
KS3
KS3
KS3
KS4
KS4
KS5
KS5
Scotland
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
Jamaica (forms)
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Lower Sixth
Upper Sixth
Jamaica (grades)
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
ISCED level
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
Indonesia
SD Kelas 6
SMP Kelas 7
SMP Kelas 8
SMP Kelas 9
SMA Kelas 10
SMA Kelas 11
SMA Kelas 12
Primary schools
St Patricks school at Murrumbeena in Victoria, Australia one of many religious Primary schools in the world.
A current classroom for 6–7-year olds in Switzerland
School rooms/classrooms of the private Catholic elementary school in Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz
In most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of compulsory education, and is normally available without charge, but may also be offered by fee-paying independent schools. The term grade school is sometimes used in the US, although both this term and elementary school may refer to the first eight grades, in other words both primary education and lower secondary education.
The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, which was first used in an English text in 1802. In the United Kingdom, "elementary education" was taught in "elementary schools" until 1944, when free elementary education was proposed for students over 11: there were to be primary elementary schools and secondary elementary schools; these became known as primary schools and secondary schools.
Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom, Ireland and many Commonwealth nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Elementary school is still preferred in some countries, especially in the United States and Canada.
In some parts of the United States, "primary school" refers to a school covering kindergarten through to second grade or third grade (K through 2 or 3); the "elementary school" includes grade three through five or grades four to six. In Canada, "elementary school" almost everywhere refers to Grades 1 through 6; with Kindergarten being referred to as "preschool."
In South Africa, primary school starts from Grade R (age 5-6) till Grade 7 (age 12-13). It typically comes after preschool and before secondary school.
Elementary schools
Though often used as a synonym, "elementary school" has specific meanings in different locations.
Elementary schools, also known as board schools, were first established in England and Wales by Elementary Education Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75). Most of these schools became primary schools in the late 1940s, following the historic compromise in the Education Act 1944.
Elementary schools in the United States were first promoted in 1647 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Today, there are currently approximately 92,858 elementary schools (68,173 public, 24,685 private). In the United States, elementary schools usually have six grades with pupils aged between 5 and 11 years old. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was designed to fund primary and secondary education. It also emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability.
Elementary schools in Japan were first established by 1875. In Japan, the age of pupils in elementary school ranges from 6 to 12, after which the pupils enter junior high school.
Theoretical framework of primary school design
School building design does not happen in isolation. The building (or school campus) needs to accommodate:
Curriculum content
Teaching methods
Costs
Education within the political framework
Use of school building (also in the community setting)
Constraints imposed by the site
Design philosophy
Each country will have a different education system and priorities. Schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the predicted roll of the school and the area needed.
According to standards used in the United Kingdom, a general classroom for 30 reception class or infant (Keystage 1) students needs to be 62 m2, or 55 m2 for juniors (Keystage 2). Examples are given on how this can be configured for a 210 place primary with attached 26 place nursery and two-storey 420 place (two form entry) primary school with attached 26 place nursery.
Building design specifications
The first taxpayer-funded public school in the United States was in Dedham, Mass.
SJK (C) Chi Hwa Eco-Nature Primary School in Sandakan, Malaysia
A classroom library in the US
The building providing the education has to fulfill the needs of: The students, the teachers, the non-teaching support staff, the administrators and the community. It has to meet general government building guidelines, health requirements, minimal functional requirements for classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity and services, preparation and storage of textbooks and basic teaching aids. An optimum school will meet the minimum conditions and will have:
adequately sized classrooms—where 60 m2 in considered optimum but 80 m2 for the reception class
specialised teaching spaces
a staff preparation room
staff welfare facilities
an administration block
multipurpose classrooms
student toilet facilities
a general purpose school hall
adequate equipment
storage
a library or library stocks that are regularly renewed
computer rooms or media centres
counselling, sick and medical examination rooms
Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establishing building costs. Future design plans are audited to ensure that these standards are met but not exceeded. Government ministries continue to press for the 'minimum' space and cost standards to be reduced.
The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula for primary schools in 2014. It said the floor area should be 350 m2 + 4.1 m2/pupil place. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m2.
Governance and funding
There are three main ways of funding a school: by the state through general taxation, by a pressure group such as a mosque or church, by a charity, by contributions from parents, or by a combination of these methods. Day-to-day oversight of the school can through a board of governors, the pressure group, or the owner.
The United Kingdom allows elementary education to be delivered in church schools, whereas in France this is illegal as there is strict separation of church and state.
Accountability
This can be through informal assessment by the staff and governors such as in Finland, or by a state run testing regime such as Ofsted in the United Kingdom.
See also
Education portalSchools portal
Dame schools
Early childhood education
Educational stage
Virtual reality in primary education
Vocal school (Blab school)
Notes
^ Secondary elementary school: A term already used by London County Council from 1921 to describe some 11–14 schools, and term still in use in Florida, Ohio and Brazil.
References
^ to-8-years "elementary education (4 to 8 years)". Cambridgeshire County Council. Retrieved 21 February 2021. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^ Technology, Elcom. "Education system overview". www.studyinaustralia.gov.au. Retrieved 21 February 2021.
^ "Changes to schools and the network: Options for managing changes in growth". www.education.govt.nz. 16 April 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2023.
^ Annex III in the ISCED 2011 English.pdf Archived 25 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine Navigate to International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED)
^ a b c Ward, Ken. "British and American Systems (Grades)". Trans4mind. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
^ "Definition of GRADE SCHOOL". Merriam-Webster. 9 April 2024.
^ "Definition of ELEMENTARY SCHOOL". Merriam-Webster. 5 April 2024.
^ "American Heritage Dictionary Entry". Ahdictionary.com. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2007.
^ "Hadow Report (1926)". educationengland.org.uk. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
^ "Britannica Academic". academic.eb.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
^ Gerald L. Gutek (14 December 1994). A History of the Western Educational Experience: Second Edition. Waveland Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-4786-3010-4. Archived from the original on 2 September 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ "Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US". Race Forward. 13 April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
^ "Digest of Education Statistics, 2001" (PDF). National Center for Education Statistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
^ Snyder, Thomas D.; Hoffman, Charlene M. (2001). Digest of Education Statistics 2001 (PDF). Institute of Education Sciences, Washington: National Center for Education Statistics. p. 7, fig. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2017.
^ Evers, Williamson M. (17 January 2000). "Secretary Riley Reignites the Math Wars". Hoover Institution. Archived from the original on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
^ "Elementary and Secondary Education Act". Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Archived from the original on 26 March 2018. Retrieved 28 March 2018.
^ "The Establishment of Elementary Schools and Attendance". Japan's Modern Educational System. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. Archived from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2017.
^ Liew Kok-Pun, Michael; Kia Seng, Pang; Singh, Harbans (1981). "The design of secondary schools:Singapore a case study" (PDF). Educational Building reports. 17. UNESCO. p. 37. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
^ "Mainstream schools: area guidelines". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
^ "Baseline design: 210 place primary school with a 26 place nursery". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
^ "Baseline design: 420 place primary school with 26 place nursery". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
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External links
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (United States)
Elementary Schools with Education and Crime Statistics (United States)
Australian CensusAtSchool (Australia) Archived 3 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Canadian Education Statistics Council (CESC) (United States)
Office for National Statistics (ONS) (United Kingdom)
BB103_Area_Guidelines_for_Mainstream_Schools (2014) UK Archived 25 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (United States)
OECD Standardised designs (2011)
vteSchool typesBy educational stageEarly childhood
Preschool
Pre-kindergarten
Kindergarten
Primary
First school
Infant school
Junior school
Primary school / Elementary school
Secondary
Adult high school
Cadet college
College-preparatory school
Collegiate institute
Comprehensive high school
Comprehensive school
Continuation high school
Grammar school
Gymnasium
Hauptschule
Lyceum
Maths school
Minor seminary
Secondary school / High school
Sixth form college
Studio school
University technical college
Upper school
Tertiary
Professional school
Technical school
Vocational school
Higher
Academy
College
Community college
Graduate school
Institute of technology
Junior college
Liberal arts college
Research university
Residential college
Seminary
University
Collegiate
Upper division college
Vocational university
Combined
All-through school
Middle school
One-room school
Ranch school
By funding / eligibility
Academy (England)
Charter school
Community day school
Comprehensive school (British)
For-profit education
Free education
Free school (England)
Institute
Private school
UK private school
preparatory
public
University
private
public
international
Selective school
Separate school
Sink school
Specialist school (United Kingdom)
State or public school
State-integrated school (New Zealand)
By style / purpose
Alternative school
Democratic education
Anarchistic free school
Sudbury school
International school
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graduate school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_school"},{"link_name":"The Elementary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elementary_School"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head,_Shoulders,_Knees_and_Toes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z%C5%A0_Vi%C5%A1%C5%88ov%C3%A9.JPG"},{"link_name":"Višňové","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C5%A1%C5%88ov%C3%A9,_%C5%BDilina_District"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_aerial_photo_of_a_primary_school_in_Hayesville,_North_Carolina.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hayesville, North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayesville,_North_Carolina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Empty_classroom.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School"},{"link_name":"primary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"preschool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preschool"},{"link_name":"secondary schooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school"},{"link_name":"International Standard Classification of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education"},{"link_name":"ISCED Level 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education#Level_1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2011en-4"}],"text":"\"Elementary school\" and \"Grade school\" redirect here. For grad school, see Graduate school.\"Elementary school\" redirects here. For 1991 movie, see The Elementary School.An elementary school class in JapanElementary school in Višňové (Slovakia)An aerial photo of a primary school in Hayesville, North CarolinaClassroom with chairs on desks in the NetherlandsA primary school (in Ireland, India, the United Kingdom,[1] Australia,[2] New Zealand,[3] Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, and South Africa), elementary school, or grade school (in North America and the Philippines) is a school for primary education of children who are 4 to 10 years of age (and in many cases, 11 years of age). Primary schooling follows preschool and precedes secondary schooling.The International Standard Classification of Education considers primary education as a single phase where programmes are typically designed to provide fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics and to establish a solid foundation for learning. This is ISCED Level 1: Primary education or first stage of basic education.[4]","title":"Primary school"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Standard Classification of Education § 2011 version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Classification_of_Education#2011_version"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Classification_of_Education&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Early childhood education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_childhood_education"},{"link_name":"Pre-primary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-primary_education"},{"link_name":"Primary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"Lower secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_secondary_school"},{"link_name":"Upper secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Secondary_School"},{"link_name":"secondary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education"},{"link_name":"tertiary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_education"},{"link_name":"Bachelor's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"Master's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"Doctorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate"}],"text":"This section is an excerpt from International Standard Classification of Education § 2011 version.[edit]\n\nISCED 2011 levels of education\n\n\nLevel\nLabel\nDescription\n\n\n0\n\nEarly childhood education (01 Early childhood educational development)\nEducation designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. Programmes designed for children below the age of 3.\n\n\nEarly childhood education (02 Pre-primary education)\nEducation designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. Programmes designed for children from age 3 to the start of primary education.\n\n\n1\nPrimary education\nProgrammes typically designed to provide students with fundamental skills in reading, writing and mathematics and to establish a solid foundation for learning.\n\n\n2\nLower secondary education\nFirst stage of secondary education building on primary education, typically with a more subject-oriented curriculum.\n\n\n3\nUpper secondary education\nSecond/final stage of secondary education preparing for tertiary education or providing skills relevant to employment. Usually with an increased range of subject options and streams.\n\n\n4\nPost-secondary non-tertiary education\nProgrammes providing learning experiences that build on secondary education and prepare for labour market entry or tertiary education. The content is broader than secondary but not as complex as tertiary education.\n\n\n5\nShort-cycle tertiary education\nShort first tertiary programmes that are typically practically-based, occupationally-specific and prepare for labour market entry. These programmes may also provide a pathway to other tertiary programmes.\n\n\n6\nBachelor's or equivalent\nProgrammes designed to provide intermediate academic or professional knowledge, skills and competencies leading to a first tertiary degree or equivalent qualification.\n\n\n7\nMaster's or equivalent\nProgrammes designed to provide advanced academic or professional knowledge, skills and competencies leading to a second tertiary degree or equivalent qualification.\n\n\n8\nDoctorate or equivalent\nProgrammes designed primarily to lead to an advanced research qualification, usually concluding with the submission and defense of a substantive dissertation of publishable quality based on original research.","title":"Levels of education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"K–12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E2%80%9312"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ward-5"},{"link_name":"unreliable source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"Grade 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_grade"}],"text":"Within the English speaking world, there are three widely used systems to describe the age of the child. The first is the \"equivalent ages\"; then countries that base their education systems on the \"English model\" use one of two methods to identify the year group; while countries that base their systems on the \"American K–12 model\" refer to their year groups as \"grades\". Canada also follows the American model, although its names for year groups are put as a number after the grade: For instance, \"Grade 1\" in Canada, rather than \"First Grade\" in the United States. This terminology extends into the research literature.[5][unreliable source]In Canada, education is a provincial, not a federal responsibility. For example, the province of Ontario also had a \"Grade 13\", designed to help students enter the workforce or post-secondary education, but this was phased out in the year 2003.","title":"Comparison of cohorts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orbe_-_Chantemerle_-_salle_de_classe_1.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grundschule_Haus_St_Marien_Neumarkt_-_Klassenzimmer_06.JPG"},{"link_name":"Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neumarkt_in_der_Oberpfalz"},{"link_name":"compulsory education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_education"},{"link_name":"independent schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_school"},{"link_name":"primary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"kindergarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"preschool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preschool"},{"link_name":"secondary school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school"}],"sub_title":"Primary schools","text":"St Patricks school at Murrumbeena in Victoria, Australia one of many religious Primary schools in the world.A current classroom for 6–7-year olds in SwitzerlandSchool rooms/classrooms of the private Catholic elementary school in Neumarkt in der OberpfalzIn most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of compulsory education, and is normally available without charge, but may also be offered by fee-paying independent schools. The term grade school is sometimes used in the US, although both this term and elementary school may refer to the first eight grades, in other words both primary education and lower secondary education.[6][7][8]The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, which was first used in an English text in 1802.[9] In the United Kingdom, \"elementary education\" was taught in \"elementary schools\" until 1944, when free elementary education was proposed for students over 11: there were to be primary elementary schools and secondary elementary schools;[a] these became known as primary schools and secondary schools.Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom, Ireland and many Commonwealth nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).[11]\nElementary school is still preferred in some countries, especially in the United States and Canada.[citation needed]In some parts of the United States, \"primary school\" refers to a school covering kindergarten through to second grade or third grade (K through 2 or 3); the \"elementary school\" includes grade three through five or grades four to six.[citation needed] In Canada, \"elementary school\" almost everywhere refers to Grades 1 through 6; with Kindergarten being referred to as \"preschool.\"[citation needed]In South Africa, primary school starts from Grade R (age 5-6) till Grade 7 (age 12-13). It typically comes after preschool and before secondary school.","title":"Comparison of cohorts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elementary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school_(England_and_Wales)"},{"link_name":"board schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_school"},{"link_name":"Elementary Education Act 1870","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_Education_Act_1870"},{"link_name":"33 & 34 Vict.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33_%26_34_Vict."},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gutek1994-13"},{"link_name":"Education Act 1944","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_Act_1944"},{"link_name":"Elementary schools in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_schools_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Bay Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NCES-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act_of_1965"},{"link_name":"primary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Elementary schools in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_schools_in_Japan"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"junior high school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_school#Japan"}],"sub_title":"Elementary schools","text":"Though often used as a synonym, \"elementary school\" has specific meanings in different locations.Elementary schools, also known as board schools, were first established in England and Wales by Elementary Education Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75).[12] Most of these schools became primary schools in the late 1940s, following the historic compromise in the Education Act 1944.\nElementary schools in the United States were first promoted in 1647 in the Massachusetts Bay Colony.[13] Today, there are currently approximately 92,858 elementary schools (68,173 public, 24,685 private).[14] In the United States, elementary schools usually have six grades with pupils aged between 5 and 11 years old.[15] The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 was designed to fund primary and secondary education.[16] It also emphasized equal access to education and established high standards and accountability.[17]\nElementary schools in Japan were first established by 1875.[18] In Japan, the age of pupils in elementary school ranges from 6 to 12, after which the pupils enter junior high school.","title":"Comparison of cohorts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-area_guidelines-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210place-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-420place-23"}],"text":"School building design does not happen in isolation. The building (or school campus) needs to accommodate:Curriculum content\nTeaching methods\nCosts\nEducation within the political framework\nUse of school building (also in the community setting)\nConstraints imposed by the site\nDesign philosophyEach country will have a different education system and priorities.[19] Schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the predicted roll of the school and the area needed.According to standards used in the United Kingdom, a general classroom for 30 reception class or infant (Keystage 1) students needs to be 62 m2, or 55 m2 for juniors (Keystage 2).[20] Examples are given on how this can be configured for a 210 place primary with attached 26 place nursery[21] and two-storey 420 place (two form entry) primary school with attached 26 place nursery.[22]","title":"Theoretical framework of primary school design"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_school.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sandakan_Sabah_SJKC-Chi-Hwa-06.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sandakan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandakan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ClassroomLibrary.jpg"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-za-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-za-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"The first taxpayer-funded public school in the United States was in Dedham, Mass.SJK (C) Chi Hwa Eco-Nature Primary School in Sandakan, MalaysiaA classroom library in the USThe building providing the education has to fulfill the needs of: The students, the teachers, the non-teaching support staff, the administrators and the community. It has to meet general government building guidelines, health requirements, minimal functional requirements for classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity and services, preparation and storage of textbooks and basic teaching aids.[23] An optimum school will meet the minimum conditions and will have:adequately sized classrooms—where 60 m2 in considered optimum but 80 m2 for the reception class\nspecialised teaching spaces\na staff preparation room\nstaff welfare facilities\nan administration block\nmultipurpose classrooms\nstudent toilet facilities\na general purpose school hall\nadequate equipment\nstorage\na library or library stocks that are regularly renewed\ncomputer rooms or media centres\ncounselling, sick and medical examination rooms[23]Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establishing building costs. Future design plans are audited to ensure that these standards are met but not exceeded. Government ministries continue to press for the 'minimum' space and cost standards to be reduced.The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula for primary schools in 2014. It said the floor area should be 350 m2 + 4.1 m2/pupil place. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m2.[24]","title":"Building design specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"church schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_school"},{"link_name":"separation of church and state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state"}],"text":"There are three main ways of funding a school: by the state through general taxation, by a pressure group such as a mosque or church, by a charity, by contributions from parents, or by a combination of these methods. Day-to-day oversight of the school can through a board of governors, the pressure group, or the owner.[citation needed]The United Kingdom allows elementary education to be delivered in church schools, whereas in France this is illegal as there is strict separation of church and state.","title":"Governance and funding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ofsted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofsted"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"This can be through informal assessment by the staff and governors such as in Finland, or by a state run testing regime such as Ofsted in the United Kingdom.[25]","title":"Accountability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"London County Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_County_Council"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"^ Secondary elementary school: A term already used by London County Council from 1921 to describe some 11–14 schools,[10] and term still in use in Florida, Ohio and Brazil.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"An elementary school class in Japan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Head%2C_Shoulders%2C_Knees_and_Toes.jpg/220px-Head%2C_Shoulders%2C_Knees_and_Toes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Elementary school in Višňové (Slovakia)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Z%C5%A0_Vi%C5%A1%C5%88ov%C3%A9.JPG/220px-Z%C5%A0_Vi%C5%A1%C5%88ov%C3%A9.JPG"},{"image_text":"An aerial photo of a primary school in Hayesville, North Carolina","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/An_aerial_photo_of_a_primary_school_in_Hayesville%2C_North_Carolina.jpg/220px-An_aerial_photo_of_a_primary_school_in_Hayesville%2C_North_Carolina.jpg"},{"image_text":"Classroom with chairs on desks in the Netherlands","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Empty_classroom.jpg/220px-Empty_classroom.jpg"},{"image_text":"St Patricks school at Murrumbeena in Victoria, Australia one of many religious Primary schools in the world.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg/220px-St_Pats_Primary_school_2021_b.jpg"},{"image_text":"A current classroom for 6–7-year olds in Switzerland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Orbe_-_Chantemerle_-_salle_de_classe_1.jpg/220px-Orbe_-_Chantemerle_-_salle_de_classe_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"School rooms/classrooms of the private Catholic elementary school in Neumarkt in der Oberpfalz","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Grundschule_Haus_St_Marien_Neumarkt_-_Klassenzimmer_06.JPG/220px-Grundschule_Haus_St_Marien_Neumarkt_-_Klassenzimmer_06.JPG"},{"image_text":"The first taxpayer-funded public school in the United States was in Dedham, Mass.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/First_school.jpg/220px-First_school.jpg"},{"image_text":"SJK (C) Chi Hwa Eco-Nature Primary School in Sandakan, Malaysia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Sandakan_Sabah_SJKC-Chi-Hwa-06.jpg/220px-Sandakan_Sabah_SJKC-Chi-Hwa-06.jpg"},{"image_text":"A classroom library in the US","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/ClassroomLibrary.jpg/220px-ClassroomLibrary.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diploma_icon.png"},{"title":"Education portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Education"},{"title":"Schools portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Schools"},{"title":"Dame schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dame_schools"},{"title":"Early childhood education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_childhood_education"},{"title":"Educational stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_stage"},{"title":"Virtual reality in primary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality_in_primary_education"},{"title":"Vocal school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_school"}] | [{"reference":"to-8-years \"elementary education (4 to 8 years)\". Cambridgeshire County Council. Retrieved 21 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://cambridgeshire.gov.uk/residents/children-and-families/schools-learning/education-system/elementary-education-4","url_text":"to-8-years \"elementary education (4 to 8 years)\""}]},{"reference":"Technology, Elcom. \"Education system overview\". www.studyinaustralia.gov.au. Retrieved 21 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/australian-education/education-system","url_text":"\"Education system overview\""}]},{"reference":"\"Changes to schools and the network: Options for managing changes in growth\". www.education.govt.nz. 16 April 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.education.govt.nz/school/new-zealands-network-of-schools/about/changes-to-schools-and-the-network/options-for-managing-changes-in-growth/#classify","url_text":"\"Changes to schools and the network: Options for managing changes in growth\""}]},{"reference":"Ward, Ken. \"British and American Systems (Grades)\". Trans4mind. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://trans4mind.com/personal_development/writing/Readability_software/briishAmericanComparison.htm","url_text":"\"British and American Systems (Grades)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170331205354/https://trans4mind.com/personal_development/writing/Readability_software/briishAmericanComparison.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of GRADE SCHOOL\". Merriam-Webster. 9 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/grade+school","url_text":"\"Definition of GRADE SCHOOL\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\". Merriam-Webster. 5 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/elementary+school","url_text":"\"Definition of ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\""}]},{"reference":"\"American Heritage Dictionary Entry\". Ahdictionary.com. Retrieved 12 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?id=E5086600","url_text":"\"American Heritage Dictionary Entry\""}]},{"reference":"\"Online Etymology Dictionary\". Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=primary","url_text":"\"Online Etymology Dictionary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170702192406/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=primary","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hadow Report (1926)\". educationengland.org.uk. Archived from the original on 25 June 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190625221806/http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/hadow1926/hadow1926.html","url_text":"\"Hadow Report (1926)\""},{"url":"http://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/hadow1926/hadow1926.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Britannica Academic\". academic.eb.com. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://academic.eb.com/","url_text":"\"Britannica Academic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200314153937/https://academic.eb.com/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gerald L. Gutek (14 December 1994). A History of the Western Educational Experience: Second Edition. Waveland Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-4786-3010-4. Archived from the original on 2 September 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Db35CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA203","url_text":"A History of the Western Educational Experience: Second Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4786-3010-4","url_text":"978-1-4786-3010-4"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190902064635/https://books.google.com/books?id=Db35CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA203","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US\". Race Forward. 13 April 2006. Archived from the original on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.raceforward.org/research/reports/historical-timeline-public-education-us","url_text":"\"Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180703120257/https://www.raceforward.org/research/reports/historical-timeline-public-education-us","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Digest of Education Statistics, 2001\" (PDF). National Center for Education Statistics. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002130.pdf","url_text":"\"Digest of Education Statistics, 2001\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170809090250/https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002130.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Snyder, Thomas D.; Hoffman, Charlene M. (2001). Digest of Education Statistics 2001 (PDF). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory | String theory | ["1 Fundamentals","1.1 Overview","1.2 Strings","1.3 Extra dimensions","1.4 Dualities","1.5 Branes","2 M-theory","2.1 Unification of superstring theories","2.2 Matrix theory","3 Black holes","3.1 Bekenstein–Hawking formula","3.2 Derivation within string theory","4 AdS/CFT correspondence","4.1 Overview of the correspondence","4.2 Applications to quantum gravity","4.3 Applications to nuclear physics","4.4 Applications to condensed matter physics","5 Phenomenology","5.1 Particle physics","5.2 Cosmology","6 Connections to mathematics","6.1 Mirror symmetry","6.2 Monstrous moonshine","7 History","7.1 Early results","7.2 First superstring revolution","7.3 Second superstring revolution","8 Criticism","8.1 Number of solutions","8.2 Compatibility with dark energy","8.3 Background independence","8.4 Sociology of science","9 Notes","10 References","10.1 Bibliography","11 Further reading","11.1 Popular science","11.2 Textbooks","12 External links"] | Theory of subatomic structure
For other uses, see String theory (disambiguation).
For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to M-theory.
String theory
Fundamental objects
String
Cosmic string
Brane
D-brane
Perturbative theory
Bosonic
Superstring (Type I, Type II, Heterotic)
Non-perturbative results
S-duality
T-duality
U-duality
M-theory
F-theory
AdS/CFT correspondence
Phenomenology
Phenomenology
Cosmology
Landscape
Mathematics
Geometric Langlands correspondence
Mirror symmetry
Monstrous moonshine
Vertex algebra
K-theory
Related concepts
Theory of everything
Conformal field theory
Quantum gravity
Supersymmetry
Supergravity
Twistor string theory
N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory
Kaluza–Klein theory
Multiverse
Holographic principle
Theorists
Aganagić
Arkani-Hamed
Atiyah
Banks
Berenstein
Bousso
Curtright
Dijkgraaf
Distler
Douglas
Duff
Dvali
Ferrara
Fischler
Friedan
Gates
Gliozzi
Gopakumar
Green
Greene
Gross
Gubser
Gukov
Guth
Hanson
Harvey
Hořava
Horowitz
Gibbons
Kachru
Kaku
Kallosh
Kaluza
Kapustin
Klebanov
Knizhnik
Kontsevich
Klein
Linde
Maldacena
Mandelstam
Marolf
Martinec
Minwalla
Moore
Motl
Mukhi
Myers
Nanopoulos
Năstase
Nekrasov
Neveu
Nielsen
van Nieuwenhuizen
Novikov
Olive
Ooguri
Ovrut
Polchinski
Polyakov
Rajaraman
Ramond
Randall
Randjbar-Daemi
Roček
Rohm
Sagnotti
Scherk
Schwarz
Seiberg
Sen
Shenker
Siegel
Silverstein
Sơn
Staudacher
Steinhardt
Strominger
Sundrum
Susskind
't Hooft
Townsend
Trivedi
Turok
Vafa
Veneziano
Verlinde
Verlinde
Wess
Witten
Yau
Yoneya
Zamolodchikov
Zamolodchikov
Zaslow
Zumino
Zwiebach
History
Glossaryvte
In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries the gravitational force. Thus, string theory is a theory of quantum gravity.
String theory is a broad and varied subject that attempts to address a number of deep questions of fundamental physics. String theory has contributed a number of advances to mathematical physics, which have been applied to a variety of problems in black hole physics, early universe cosmology, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics, and it has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Because string theory potentially provides a unified description of gravity and particle physics, it is a candidate for a theory of everything, a self-contained mathematical model that describes all fundamental forces and forms of matter. Despite much work on these problems, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of its details.
String theory was first studied in the late 1960s as a theory of the strong nuclear force, before being abandoned in favor of quantum chromodynamics. Subsequently, it was realized that the very properties that made string theory unsuitable as a theory of nuclear physics made it a promising candidate for a quantum theory of gravity. The earliest version of string theory, bosonic string theory, incorporated only the class of particles known as bosons. It later developed into superstring theory, which posits a connection called supersymmetry between bosons and the class of particles called fermions. Five consistent versions of superstring theory were developed before it was conjectured in the mid-1990s that they were all different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven dimensions known as M-theory. In late 1997, theorists discovered an important relationship called the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence (AdS/CFT correspondence), which relates string theory to another type of physical theory called a quantum field theory.
One of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. Another issue is that the theory is thought to describe an enormous landscape of possible universes, which has complicated efforts to develop theories of particle physics based on string theory. These issues have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to physics, and to question the value of continued research on string theory unification.
Fundamentals
The fundamental objects of string theory are open and closed strings.
Overview
In the 20th century, two theoretical frameworks emerged for formulating the laws of physics. The first is Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, a theory that explains the force of gravity and the structure of spacetime at the macro-level. The other is quantum mechanics, a completely different formulation, which uses known probability principles to describe physical phenomena at the micro-level. By the late 1970s, these two frameworks had proven to be sufficient to explain most of the observed features of the universe, from elementary particles to atoms to the evolution of stars and the universe as a whole.
In spite of these successes, there are still many problems that remain to be solved. One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity. The general theory of relativity is formulated within the framework of classical physics, whereas the other fundamental forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics. A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics, but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity. In addition to the problem of developing a consistent theory of quantum gravity, there are many other fundamental problems in the physics of atomic nuclei, black holes, and the early universe.
String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to address these questions and many others. The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of particle physics can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other. In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle consistent with non-string models of elementary particles, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. String theory's application as a form of quantum gravity proposes a vibrational state responsible for the graviton, a yet unproven quantum particle that is theorized to carry gravitational force.
One of the main developments of the past several decades in string theory was the discovery of certain 'dualities', mathematical transformations that identify one physical theory with another. Physicists studying string theory have discovered a number of these dualities between different versions of string theory, and this has led to the conjecture that all consistent versions of string theory are subsumed in a single framework known as M-theory.
Studies of string theory have also yielded a number of results on the nature of black holes and the gravitational interaction. There are certain paradoxes that arise when one attempts to understand the quantum aspects of black holes, and work on string theory has attempted to clarify these issues. In late 1997 this line of work culminated in the discovery of the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence or AdS/CFT. This is a theoretical result that relates string theory to other physical theories which are better understood theoretically. The AdS/CFT correspondence has implications for the study of black holes and quantum gravity, and it has been applied to other subjects, including nuclear and condensed matter physics.
Since string theory incorporates all of the fundamental interactions, including gravity, many physicists hope that it will eventually be developed to the point where it fully describes our universe, making it a theory of everything. One of the goals of current research in string theory is to find a solution of the theory that reproduces the observed spectrum of elementary particles, with a small cosmological constant, containing dark matter and a plausible mechanism for cosmic inflation. While there has been progress toward these goals, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of details.
One of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. The scattering of strings is most straightforwardly defined using the techniques of perturbation theory, but it is not known in general how to define string theory nonperturbatively. It is also not clear whether there is any principle by which string theory selects its vacuum state, the physical state that determines the properties of our universe. These problems have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to the unification of physics and question the value of continued research on these problems.
Strings
Main article: String (physics)
Interaction in the quantum world: worldlines of point-like particles or a worldsheet swept up by closed strings in string theory
The application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field, which are extended in space and time, is known as quantum field theory. In particle physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields.
In quantum field theory, one typically computes the probabilities of various physical events using the techniques of perturbation theory. Developed by Richard Feynman and others in the first half of the twentieth century, perturbative quantum field theory uses special diagrams called Feynman diagrams to organize computations. One imagines that these diagrams depict the paths of point-like particles and their interactions.
The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of quantum field theory can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings. The interaction of strings is most straightforwardly defined by generalizing the perturbation theory used in ordinary quantum field theory. At the level of Feynman diagrams, this means replacing the one-dimensional diagram representing the path of a point particle by a two-dimensional (2D) surface representing the motion of a string. Unlike in quantum field theory, string theory does not have a full non-perturbative definition, so many of the theoretical questions that physicists would like to answer remain out of reach.
In theories of particle physics based on string theory, the characteristic length scale of strings is assumed to be on the order of the Planck length, or 10−35 meters, the scale at which the effects of quantum gravity are believed to become significant. On much larger length scales, such as the scales visible in physics laboratories, such objects would be indistinguishable from zero-dimensional point particles, and the vibrational state of the string would determine the type of particle. One of the vibrational states of a string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries the gravitational force.
The original version of string theory was bosonic string theory, but this version described only bosons, a class of particles that transmit forces between the matter particles, or fermions. Bosonic string theory was eventually superseded by theories called superstring theories. These theories describe both bosons and fermions, and they incorporate a theoretical idea called supersymmetry. In theories with supersymmetry, each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion, and vice versa.
There are several versions of superstring theory: type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two flavors of heterotic string theory (SO(32) and E8×E8). The different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries. For example, the type I theory includes both open strings (which are segments with endpoints) and closed strings (which form closed loops), while types IIA, IIB and heterotic include only closed strings.
Extra dimensions
An example of compactification: At large distances, a two dimensional surface with one circular dimension looks one-dimensional.
In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions (3D) of space: height, width and length. Einstein's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional (4D) spacetime. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.
In spite of the fact that the Universe is well described by 4D spacetime, there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions. In some cases, by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions, a theory becomes more mathematically tractable, and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily. There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics. Finally, there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than 4D of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection.
String theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency. In bosonic string theory, spacetime is 26-dimensional, while in superstring theory it is 10-dimensional, and in M-theory it is 11-dimensional. In order to describe real physical phenomena using string theory, one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments.
A cross section of a quintic Calabi–Yau manifold
Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to "close up" on themselves to form circles. In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions. A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions.
Compactification can be used to construct models in which spacetime is effectively four-dimensional. However, not every way of compactifying the extra dimensions produces a model with the right properties to describe nature. In a viable model of particle physics, the compact extra dimensions must be shaped like a Calabi–Yau manifold. A Calabi–Yau manifold is a special space which is typically taken to be six-dimensional in applications to string theory. It is named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau.
Another approach to reducing the number of dimensions is the so-called brane-world scenario. In this approach, physicists assume that the observable universe is a four-dimensional subspace of a higher dimensional space. In such models, the force-carrying bosons of particle physics arise from open strings with endpoints attached to the four-dimensional subspace, while gravity arises from closed strings propagating through the larger ambient space. This idea plays an important role in attempts to develop models of real-world physics based on string theory, and it provides a natural explanation for the weakness of gravity compared to the other fundamental forces.
Dualities
A diagram of string theory dualities. Blue edges indicate S-duality. Red edges indicate T-duality.
Main articles: S-duality and T-duality
A notable fact about string theory is that the different versions of the theory all turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways. One of the relationships that can exist between different string theories is called S-duality. This is a relationship that says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can, in some cases, be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory. Roughly speaking, a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently. Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S-duality to the SO(32) heterotic string theory. Similarly, type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S-duality.
Another relationship between different string theories is T-duality. Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension. T-duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius R is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius 1/R in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description. For example, a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle, and it can also wind around the circle one or more times. The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number. If a string has momentum p and winding number n in one description, it will have momentum n and winding number p in the dual description. For example, type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T-duality, and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T-duality.
In general, the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way. Two theories related by a duality need not be string theories. For example, Montonen–Olive duality is an example of an S-duality relationship between quantum field theories. The AdS/CFT correspondence is an example of a duality that relates string theory to a quantum field theory. If two theories are related by a duality, it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory. The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under the transformation. Put differently, the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena.
Branes
Main article: Brane
Open strings attached to a pair of D-branes
In string theory and other related theories, a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions. For instance, a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero, while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one. It is also possible to consider higher-dimensional branes. In dimension p, these are called p-branes. The word brane comes from the word "membrane" which refers to a two-dimensional brane.
Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics. They have mass and can have other attributes such as charge. A p-brane sweeps out a (p+1)-dimensional volume in spacetime called its worldvolume. Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane.
In string theory, D-branes are an important class of branes that arise when one considers open strings. As an open string propagates through spacetime, its endpoints are required to lie on a D-brane. The letter "D" in D-brane refers to a certain mathematical condition on the system known as the Dirichlet boundary condition. The study of D-branes in string theory has led to important results such as the AdS/CFT correspondence, which has shed light on many problems in quantum field theory.
Branes are frequently studied from a purely mathematical point of view, and they are described as objects of certain categories, such as the derived category of coherent sheaves on a complex algebraic variety, or the Fukaya category of a symplectic manifold. The connection between the physical notion of a brane and the mathematical notion of a category has led to important mathematical insights in the fields of algebraic and symplectic geometry and representation theory.
M-theory
Main article: M-theory
Prior to 1995, theorists believed that there were five consistent versions of superstring theory (type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two versions of heterotic string theory). This understanding changed in 1995 when Edward Witten suggested that the five theories were just special limiting cases of an eleven-dimensional theory called M-theory. Witten's conjecture was based on the work of a number of other physicists, including Ashoke Sen, Chris Hull, Paul Townsend, and Michael Duff. His announcement led to a flurry of research activity now known as the second superstring revolution.
Unification of superstring theories
A schematic illustration of the relationship between M-theory, the five superstring theories, and eleven-dimensional supergravity. The shaded region represents a family of different physical scenarios that are possible in M-theory. In certain limiting cases corresponding to the cusps, it is natural to describe the physics using one of the six theories labeled there.
In the 1970s, many physicists became interested in supergravity theories, which combine general relativity with supersymmetry. Whereas general relativity makes sense in any number of dimensions, supergravity places an upper limit on the number of dimensions. In 1978, work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven. In the same year, Eugene Cremmer, Bernard Julia, and Joël Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions.
Initially, many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven-dimensional supergravity, it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four-dimensional world. The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and gravity. Interest in eleven-dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered. One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise, a phenomenon known as chirality. Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions.
In the first superstring revolution in 1984, many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity. Unlike supergravity theory, string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model, and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects. Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness. In ordinary particle theories, one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian. In string theory, the possibilities are much more constrained: by the 1990s, physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory.
Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories, it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation. However, as physicists began to examine string theory more closely, they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways. They found that a system of strongly interacting strings can, in some cases, be viewed as a system of weakly interacting strings. This phenomenon is known as S-duality. It was studied by Ashoke Sen in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions and by Chris Hull and Paul Townsend in the context of the type IIB theory. Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T-duality. This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent.
At around the same time, as many physicists were studying the properties of strings, a small group of physicists were examining the possible applications of higher dimensional objects. In 1987, Eric Bergshoeff, Ergin Sezgin, and Paul Townsend showed that eleven-dimensional supergravity includes two-dimensional branes. Intuitively, these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven-dimensional spacetime. Shortly after this discovery, Michael Duff, Paul Howe, Takeo Inami, and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven-dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle. In this setting, one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension. If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small, then this membrane looks just like a string in ten-dimensional spacetime. Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory.
Speaking at a string theory conference in 1995, Edward Witten made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions. Witten's announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T-duality and the appearance of higher-dimensional branes in string theory. In the months following Witten's announcement, hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming different parts of his proposal. Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution.
Initially, some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes, but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory. In a paper from 1996, Hořava and Witten wrote "As it has been proposed that the eleven-dimensional theory is a supermembrane theory but there are some reasons to doubt that interpretation, we will non-committally call it the M-theory, leaving to the future the relation of M to membranes." In the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M-theory, Witten has suggested that the M should stand for "magic", "mystery", or "membrane" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known.
Matrix theory
Main article: Matrix theory (physics)
In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data. In physics, a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way. A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics.
One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker, and Leonard Susskind in 1997. This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices. In their original paper, these authors showed, among other things, that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven-dimensional supergravity. These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M-theory. The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M-theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M-theory in a relatively simple setting.
The development of the matrix model formulation of M-theory has led physicists to consider various connections between string theory and a branch of mathematics called noncommutative geometry. This subject is a generalization of ordinary geometry in which mathematicians define new geometric notions using tools from noncommutative algebra. In a paper from 1998, Alain Connes, Michael R. Douglas, and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M-theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory, a special kind of physical theory in which spacetime is described mathematically using noncommutative geometry. This established a link between matrix models and M-theory on the one hand, and noncommutative geometry on the other hand. It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories.
Black holes
In general relativity, a black hole is defined as a region of spacetime in which the gravitational field is so strong that no particle or radiation can escape. In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, black holes are thought to arise when massive stars undergo gravitational collapse, and many galaxies are thought to contain supermassive black holes at their centers. Black holes are also important for theoretical reasons, as they present profound challenges for theorists attempting to understand the quantum aspects of gravity. String theory has proved to be an important tool for investigating the theoretical properties of black holes because it provides a framework in which theorists can study their thermodynamics.
Bekenstein–Hawking formula
In the branch of physics called statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a physical system. This concept was studied in the 1870s by the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who showed that the thermodynamic properties of a gas could be derived from the combined properties of its many constituent molecules. Boltzmann argued that by averaging the behaviors of all the different molecules in a gas, one can understand macroscopic properties such as volume, temperature, and pressure. In addition, this perspective led him to give a precise definition of entropy as the natural logarithm of the number of different states of the molecules (also called microstates) that give rise to the same macroscopic features.
In the twentieth century, physicists began to apply the same concepts to black holes. In most systems such as gases, the entropy scales with the volume. In the 1970s, the physicist Jacob Bekenstein suggested that the entropy of a black hole is instead proportional to the surface area of its event horizon, the boundary beyond which matter and radiation are lost to its gravitational attraction. When combined with ideas of the physicist Stephen Hawking, Bekenstein's work yielded a precise formula for the entropy of a black hole. The Bekenstein–Hawking formula expresses the entropy S as
S
=
c
3
k
A
4
ℏ
G
{\displaystyle S={\frac {c^{3}kA}{4\hbar G}}}
where c is the speed of light, k is the Boltzmann constant, ħ is the reduced Planck constant, G is Newton's constant, and A is the surface area of the event horizon.
Like any physical system, a black hole has an entropy defined in terms of the number of different microstates that lead to the same macroscopic features. The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy formula gives the expected value of the entropy of a black hole, but by the 1990s, physicists still lacked a derivation of this formula by counting microstates in a theory of quantum gravity. Finding such a derivation of this formula was considered an important test of the viability of any theory of quantum gravity such as string theory.
Derivation within string theory
In a paper from 1996, Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa showed how to derive the Beckenstein–Hawking formula for certain black holes in string theory. Their calculation was based on the observation that D-branes—which look like fluctuating membranes when they are weakly interacting—become dense, massive objects with event horizons when the interactions are strong. In other words, a system of strongly interacting D-branes in string theory is indistinguishable from a black hole. Strominger and Vafa analyzed such D-brane systems and calculated the number of different ways of placing D-branes in spacetime so that their combined mass and charge is equal to a given mass and charge for the resulting black hole. Their calculation reproduced the Bekenstein–Hawking formula exactly, including the factor of 1/4. Subsequent work by Strominger, Vafa, and others refined the original calculations and gave the precise values of the "quantum corrections" needed to describe very small black holes.
The black holes that Strominger and Vafa considered in their original work were quite different from real astrophysical black holes. One difference was that Strominger and Vafa considered only extremal black holes in order to make the calculation tractable. These are defined as black holes with the lowest possible mass compatible with a given charge. Strominger and Vafa also restricted attention to black holes in five-dimensional spacetime with unphysical supersymmetry.
Although it was originally developed in this very particular and physically unrealistic context in string theory, the entropy calculation of Strominger and Vafa has led to a qualitative understanding of how black hole entropy can be accounted for in any theory of quantum gravity. Indeed, in 1998, Strominger argued that the original result could be generalized to an arbitrary consistent theory of quantum gravity without relying on strings or supersymmetry. In collaboration with several other authors in 2010, he showed that some results on black hole entropy could be extended to non-extremal astrophysical black holes.
AdS/CFT correspondence
Main article: AdS/CFT correspondence
One approach to formulating string theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence. This is a theoretical result which implies that string theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory. In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string theory, the AdS/CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective. The AdS/CFT correspondence was first proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997. Important aspects of the correspondence were elaborated in articles by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov, and Alexander Markovich Polyakov, and by Edward Witten. By 2010, Maldacena's article had over 7000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics.
Overview of the correspondence
A tessellation of the hyperbolic plane by triangles and squares
In the AdS/CFT correspondence, the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein's equation called anti-de Sitter space. In very elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry. It is closely related to hyperbolic space, which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left. This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares. One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior.
One can imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting geometric object is three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space. It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk. Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture. The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT correspondence. As with the hyperbolic plane, anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface.
Three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space is like a stack of hyperbolic disks, each one representing the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting spacetime looks like a solid cylinder.
This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension, but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions. Indeed, hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can "stack up" copies of hyperbolic space to get higher-dimensional models of anti-de Sitter space.
An important feature of anti-de Sitter space is its boundary (which looks like a cylinder in the case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space). One property of this boundary is that, within a small region on the surface around any given point, it looks just like Minkowski space, the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics. One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which "spacetime" is given by the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. This observation is the starting point for AdS/CFT correspondence, which states that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space can be regarded as the "spacetime" for a quantum field theory. The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to a gravitational theory, such as string theory, in the bulk anti-de Sitter space in the sense that there is a "dictionary" for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory. For example, a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory. In addition, the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory, then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding.
Applications to quantum gravity
The discovery of the AdS/CFT correspondence was a major advance in physicists' understanding of string theory and quantum gravity. One reason for this is that the correspondence provides a formulation of string theory in terms of quantum field theory, which is well understood by comparison. Another reason is that it provides a general framework in which physicists can study and attempt to resolve the paradoxes of black holes.
In 1975, Stephen Hawking published a calculation which suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon. At first, Hawking's result posed a problem for theorists because it suggested that black holes destroy information. More precisely, Hawking's calculation seemed to conflict with one of the basic postulates of quantum mechanics, which states that physical systems evolve in time according to the Schrödinger equation. This property is usually referred to as unitarity of time evolution. The apparent contradiction between Hawking's calculation and the unitarity postulate of quantum mechanics came to be known as the black hole information paradox.
The AdS/CFT correspondence resolves the black hole information paradox, at least to some extent, because it shows how a black hole can evolve in a manner consistent with quantum mechanics in some contexts. Indeed, one can consider black holes in the context of the AdS/CFT correspondence, and any such black hole corresponds to a configuration of particles on the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. These particles obey the usual rules of quantum mechanics and in particular evolve in a unitary fashion, so the black hole must also evolve in a unitary fashion, respecting the principles of quantum mechanics. In 2005, Hawking announced that the paradox had been settled in favor of information conservation by the AdS/CFT correspondence, and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which black holes might preserve information.
Applications to nuclear physics
Main article: AdS/QCD correspondence
A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor. Today some physicists are working to understand high-temperature superconductivity using the AdS/CFT correspondence.
In addition to its applications to theoretical problems in quantum gravity, the AdS/CFT correspondence has been applied to a variety of problems in quantum field theory. One physical system that has been studied using the AdS/CFT correspondence is the quark–gluon plasma, an exotic state of matter produced in particle accelerators. This state of matter arises for brief instants when heavy ions such as gold or lead nuclei are collided at high energies. Such collisions cause the quarks that make up atomic nuclei to deconfine at temperatures of approximately two trillion kelvin, conditions similar to those present at around 10−11 seconds after the Big Bang.
The physics of the quark–gluon plasma is governed by a theory called quantum chromodynamics, but this theory is mathematically intractable in problems involving the quark–gluon plasma. In an article appearing in 2005, Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators showed that the AdS/CFT correspondence could be used to understand some aspects of the quark-gluon plasma by describing it in the language of string theory. By applying the AdS/CFT correspondence, Sơn and his collaborators were able to describe the quark-gluon plasma in terms of black holes in five-dimensional spacetime. The calculation showed that the ratio of two quantities associated with the quark-gluon plasma, the shear viscosity and volume density of entropy, should be approximately equal to a certain universal constant. In 2008, the predicted value of this ratio for the quark-gluon plasma was confirmed at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory.
Applications to condensed matter physics
Main article: AdS/CMT correspondence
The AdS/CFT correspondence has also been used to study aspects of condensed matter physics. Over the decades, experimental condensed matter physicists have discovered a number of exotic states of matter, including superconductors and superfluids. These states are described using the formalism of quantum field theory, but some phenomena are difficult to explain using standard field theoretic techniques. Some condensed matter theorists including Subir Sachdev hope that the AdS/CFT correspondence will make it possible to describe these systems in the language of string theory and learn more about their behavior.
So far some success has been achieved in using string theory methods to describe the transition of a superfluid to an insulator. A superfluid is a system of electrically neutral atoms that flows without any friction. Such systems are often produced in the laboratory using liquid helium, but recently experimentalists have developed new ways of producing artificial superfluids by pouring trillions of cold atoms into a lattice of criss-crossing lasers. These atoms initially behave as a superfluid, but as experimentalists increase the intensity of the lasers, they become less mobile and then suddenly transition to an insulating state. During the transition, the atoms behave in an unusual way. For example, the atoms slow to a halt at a rate that depends on the temperature and on the Planck constant, the fundamental parameter of quantum mechanics, which does not enter into the description of the other phases. This behavior has recently been understood by considering a dual description where properties of the fluid are described in terms of a higher dimensional black hole.
Phenomenology
Main article: String phenomenology
In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest, string theory provides a framework for constructing models of real-world physics that combine general relativity and particle physics. Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas. String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic or semi-realistic models based on string theory.
Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies needed to test these theories experimentally, there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature. This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems.
Particle physics
The currently accepted theory describing elementary particles and their interactions is known as the standard model of particle physics. This theory provides a unified description of three of the fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Despite its remarkable success in explaining a wide range of physical phenomena, the standard model cannot be a complete description of reality. This is because the standard model fails to incorporate the force of gravity and because of problems such as the hierarchy problem and the inability to explain the structure of fermion masses or dark matter.
String theory has been used to construct a variety of models of particle physics going beyond the standard model. Typically, such models are based on the idea of compactification. Starting with the ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime of string or M-theory, physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions. By choosing this shape appropriately, they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics, together with additional undiscovered particles. One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. Such compactifications offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory. Other similar methods can be used to construct realistic or semi-realistic models of our four-dimensional world based on M-theory.
Cosmology
Main article: String cosmology
A map of the cosmic microwave background produced by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe
The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. Despite its success in explaining many observed features of the universe including galactic redshifts, the relative abundance of light elements such as hydrogen and helium, and the existence of a cosmic microwave background, there are several questions that remain unanswered. For example, the standard Big Bang model does not explain why the universe appears to be the same in all directions, why it appears flat on very large distance scales, or why certain hypothesized particles such as magnetic monopoles are not observed in experiments.
Currently, the leading candidate for a theory going beyond the Big Bang is the theory of cosmic inflation. Developed by Alan Guth and others in the 1980s, inflation postulates a period of extremely rapid accelerated expansion of the universe prior to the expansion described by the standard Big Bang theory. The theory of cosmic inflation preserves the successes of the Big Bang while providing a natural explanation for some of the mysterious features of the universe. The theory has also received striking support from observations of the cosmic microwave background, the radiation that has filled the sky since around 380,000 years after the Big Bang.
In the theory of inflation, the rapid initial expansion of the universe is caused by a hypothetical particle called the inflaton. The exact properties of this particle are not fixed by the theory but should ultimately be derived from a more fundamental theory such as string theory. Indeed, there have been a number of attempts to identify an inflaton within the spectrum of particles described by string theory and to study inflation using string theory. While these approaches might eventually find support in observational data such as measurements of the cosmic microwave background, the application of string theory to cosmology is still in its early stages.
Connections to mathematics
In addition to influencing research in theoretical physics, string theory has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Like many developing ideas in theoretical physics, string theory does not at present have a mathematically rigorous formulation in which all of its concepts can be defined precisely. As a result, physicists who study string theory are often guided by physical intuition to conjecture relationships between the seemingly different mathematical structures that are used to formalize different parts of the theory. These conjectures are later proved by mathematicians, and in this way, string theory serves as a source of new ideas in pure mathematics.
Mirror symmetry
Main article: Mirror symmetry (string theory)
The Clebsch cubic is an example of a kind of geometric object called an algebraic variety. A classical result of enumerative geometry states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on this surface.
After Calabi–Yau manifolds had entered physics as a way to compactify extra dimensions in string theory, many physicists began studying these manifolds. In the late 1980s, several physicists noticed that given such a compactification of string theory, it is not possible to reconstruct uniquely a corresponding Calabi–Yau manifold. Instead, two different versions of string theory, type IIA and type IIB, can be compactified on completely different Calabi–Yau manifolds giving rise to the same physics. In this situation, the manifolds are called mirror manifolds, and the relationship between the two physical theories is called mirror symmetry.
Regardless of whether Calabi–Yau compactifications of string theory provide a correct description of nature, the existence of the mirror duality between different string theories has significant mathematical consequences. The Calabi–Yau manifolds used in string theory are of interest in pure mathematics, and mirror symmetry allows mathematicians to solve problems in enumerative geometry, a branch of mathematics concerned with counting the numbers of solutions to geometric questions.
Enumerative geometry studies a class of geometric objects called algebraic varieties which are defined by the vanishing of polynomials. For example, the Clebsch cubic illustrated on the right is an algebraic variety defined using a certain polynomial of degree three in four variables. A celebrated result of nineteenth-century mathematicians Arthur Cayley and George Salmon states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on such a surface.
Generalizing this problem, one can ask how many lines can be drawn on a quintic Calabi–Yau manifold, such as the one illustrated above, which is defined by a polynomial of degree five. This problem was solved by the nineteenth-century German mathematician Hermann Schubert, who found that there are exactly 2,875 such lines. In 1986, geometer Sheldon Katz proved that the number of curves, such as circles, that are defined by polynomials of degree two and lie entirely in the quintic is 609,250.
By the year 1991, most of the classical problems of enumerative geometry had been solved and interest in enumerative geometry had begun to diminish. The field was reinvigorated in May 1991 when physicists Philip Candelas, Xenia de la Ossa, Paul Green, and Linda Parkes showed that mirror symmetry could be used to translate difficult mathematical questions about one Calabi–Yau manifold into easier questions about its mirror. In particular, they used mirror symmetry to show that a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold can contain exactly 317,206,375 curves of degree three. In addition to counting degree-three curves, Candelas and his collaborators obtained a number of more general results for counting rational curves which went far beyond the results obtained by mathematicians.
Originally, these results of Candelas were justified on physical grounds. However, mathematicians generally prefer rigorous proofs that do not require an appeal to physical intuition. Inspired by physicists' work on mirror symmetry, mathematicians have therefore constructed their own arguments proving the enumerative predictions of mirror symmetry. Today mirror symmetry is an active area of research in mathematics, and mathematicians are working to develop a more complete mathematical understanding of mirror symmetry based on physicists' intuition. Major approaches to mirror symmetry include the homological mirror symmetry program of Maxim Kontsevich and the SYZ conjecture of Andrew Strominger, Shing-Tung Yau, and Eric Zaslow.
Monstrous moonshine
Main article: Monstrous moonshine
An equilateral triangle can be rotated through 120°, 240°, or 360°, or reflected in any of the three lines pictured without changing its shape.
Group theory is the branch of mathematics that studies the concept of symmetry. For example, one can consider a geometric shape such as an equilateral triangle. There are various operations that one can perform on this triangle without changing its shape. One can rotate it through 120°, 240°, or 360°, or one can reflect in any of the lines labeled S0, S1, or S2 in the picture. Each of these operations is called a symmetry, and the collection of these symmetries satisfies certain technical properties making it into what mathematicians call a group. In this particular example, the group is known as the dihedral group of order 6 because it has six elements. A general group may describe finitely many or infinitely many symmetries; if there are only finitely many symmetries, it is called a finite group.
Mathematicians often strive for a classification (or list) of all mathematical objects of a given type. It is generally believed that finite groups are too diverse to admit a useful classification. A more modest but still challenging problem is to classify all finite simple groups. These are finite groups that may be used as building blocks for constructing arbitrary finite groups in the same way that prime numbers can be used to construct arbitrary whole numbers by taking products. One of the major achievements of contemporary group theory is the classification of finite simple groups, a mathematical theorem that provides a list of all possible finite simple groups.
This classification theorem identifies several infinite families of groups as well as 26 additional groups which do not fit into any family. The latter groups are called the "sporadic" groups, and each one owes its existence to a remarkable combination of circumstances. The largest sporadic group, the so-called monster group, has over 1053 elements, more than a thousand times the number of atoms in the Earth.
A graph of the j-function in the complex plane
A seemingly unrelated construction is the j-function of number theory. This object belongs to a special class of functions called modular functions, whose graphs form a certain kind of repeating pattern. Although this function appears in a branch of mathematics that seems very different from the theory of finite groups, the two subjects turn out to be intimately related. In the late 1970s, mathematicians John McKay and John Thompson noticed that certain numbers arising in the analysis of the monster group (namely, the dimensions of its irreducible representations) are related to numbers that appear in a formula for the j-function (namely, the coefficients of its Fourier series). This relationship was further developed by John Horton Conway and Simon Norton who called it monstrous moonshine because it seemed so far fetched.
In 1992, Richard Borcherds constructed a bridge between the theory of modular functions and finite groups and, in the process, explained the observations of McKay and Thompson. Borcherds' work used ideas from string theory in an essential way, extending earlier results of Igor Frenkel, James Lepowsky, and Arne Meurman, who had realized the monster group as the symmetries of a particular version of string theory. In 1998, Borcherds was awarded the Fields medal for his work.
Since the 1990s, the connection between string theory and moonshine has led to further results in mathematics and physics. In 2010, physicists Tohru Eguchi, Hirosi Ooguri, and Yuji Tachikawa discovered connections between a different sporadic group, the Mathieu group M24, and a certain version of string theory. Miranda Cheng, John Duncan, and Jeffrey A. Harvey proposed a generalization of this moonshine phenomenon called umbral moonshine, and their conjecture was proved mathematically by Duncan, Michael Griffin, and Ken Ono. Witten has also speculated that the version of string theory appearing in monstrous moonshine might be related to a certain simplified model of gravity in three spacetime dimensions.
History
Main article: History of string theory
Early results
Some of the structures reintroduced by string theory arose for the first time much earlier as part of the program of classical unification started by Albert Einstein. The first person to add a fifth dimension to a theory of gravity was Gunnar Nordström in 1914, who noted that gravity in five dimensions describes both gravity and electromagnetism in four. Nordström attempted to unify electromagnetism with his theory of gravitation, which was however superseded by Einstein's general relativity in 1919. Thereafter, German mathematician Theodor Kaluza combined the fifth dimension with general relativity, and only Kaluza is usually credited with the idea. In 1926, the Swedish physicist Oskar Klein gave a physical interpretation of the unobservable extra dimension—it is wrapped into a small circle. Einstein introduced a non-symmetric metric tensor, while much later Brans and Dicke added a scalar component to gravity. These ideas would be revived within string theory, where they are demanded by consistency conditions.
Leonard Susskind
String theory was originally developed during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a never completely successful theory of hadrons, the subatomic particles like the proton and neutron that feel the strong interaction. In the 1960s, Geoffrey Chew and Steven Frautschi discovered that the mesons make families called Regge trajectories with masses related to spins in a way that was later understood by Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen and Leonard Susskind to be the relationship expected from rotating strings. Chew advocated making a theory for the interactions of these trajectories that did not presume that they were composed of any fundamental particles, but would construct their interactions from self-consistency conditions on the S-matrix. The S-matrix approach was started by Werner Heisenberg in the 1940s as a way of constructing a theory that did not rely on the local notions of space and time, which Heisenberg believed break down at the nuclear scale. While the scale was off by many orders of magnitude, the approach he advocated was ideally suited for a theory of quantum gravity.
Working with experimental data, R. Dolen, D. Horn and C. Schmid developed some sum rules for hadron exchange. When a particle and antiparticle scatter, virtual particles can be exchanged in two qualitatively different ways. In the s-channel, the two particles annihilate to make temporary intermediate states that fall apart into the final state particles. In the t-channel, the particles exchange intermediate states by emission and absorption. In field theory, the two contributions add together, one giving a continuous background contribution, the other giving peaks at certain energies. In the data, it was clear that the peaks were stealing from the background—the authors interpreted this as saying that the t-channel contribution was dual to the s-channel one, meaning both described the whole amplitude and included the other.
Gabriele Veneziano
The result was widely advertised by Murray Gell-Mann, leading Gabriele Veneziano to construct a scattering amplitude that had the property of Dolen–Horn–Schmid duality, later renamed world-sheet duality. The amplitude needed poles where the particles appear, on straight-line trajectories, and there is a special mathematical function whose poles are evenly spaced on half the real line—the gamma function— which was widely used in Regge theory. By manipulating combinations of gamma functions, Veneziano was able to find a consistent scattering amplitude with poles on straight lines, with mostly positive residues, which obeyed duality and had the appropriate Regge scaling at high energy. The amplitude could fit near-beam scattering data as well as other Regge type fits and had a suggestive integral representation that could be used for generalization.
Over the next years, hundreds of physicists worked to complete the bootstrap program for this model, with many surprises. Veneziano himself discovered that for the scattering amplitude to describe the scattering of a particle that appears in the theory, an obvious self-consistency condition, the lightest particle must be a tachyon. Miguel Virasoro and Joel Shapiro found a different amplitude now understood to be that of closed strings, while Ziro Koba and Holger Nielsen generalized Veneziano's integral representation to multiparticle scattering. Veneziano and Sergio Fubini introduced an operator formalism for computing the scattering amplitudes that was a forerunner of world-sheet conformal theory, while Virasoro understood how to remove the poles with wrong-sign residues using a constraint on the states. Claud Lovelace calculated a loop amplitude, and noted that there is an inconsistency unless the dimension of the theory is 26. Charles Thorn, Peter Goddard and Richard Brower went on to prove that there are no wrong-sign propagating states in dimensions less than or equal to 26.
In 1969–70, Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen, and Leonard Susskind recognized that the theory could be given a description in space and time in terms of strings. The scattering amplitudes were derived systematically from the action principle by Peter Goddard, Jeffrey Goldstone, Claudio Rebbi, and Charles Thorn, giving a space-time picture to the vertex operators introduced by Veneziano and Fubini and a geometrical interpretation to the Virasoro conditions.
In 1971, Pierre Ramond added fermions to the model, which led him to formulate a two-dimensional supersymmetry to cancel the wrong-sign states. John Schwarz and André Neveu added another sector to the fermi theory a short time later. In the fermion theories, the critical dimension was 10. Stanley Mandelstam formulated a world sheet conformal theory for both the bose and fermi case, giving a two-dimensional field theoretic path-integral to generate the operator formalism. Michio Kaku and Keiji Kikkawa gave a different formulation of the bosonic string, as a string field theory, with infinitely many particle types and with fields taking values not on points, but on loops and curves.
In 1974, Tamiaki Yoneya discovered that all the known string theories included a massless spin-two particle that obeyed the correct Ward identities to be a graviton. John Schwarz and Joël Scherk came to the same conclusion and made the bold leap to suggest that string theory was a theory of gravity, not a theory of hadrons. They reintroduced Kaluza–Klein theory as a way of making sense of the extra dimensions. At the same time, quantum chromodynamics was recognized as the correct theory of hadrons, shifting the attention of physicists and apparently leaving the bootstrap program in the dustbin of history.
String theory eventually made it out of the dustbin, but for the following decade, all work on the theory was completely ignored. Still, the theory continued to develop at a steady pace thanks to the work of a handful of devotees. Ferdinando Gliozzi, Joël Scherk, and David Olive realized in 1977 that the original Ramond and Neveu Schwarz-strings were separately inconsistent and needed to be combined. The resulting theory did not have a tachyon and was proven to have space-time supersymmetry by John Schwarz and Michael Green in 1984. The same year, Alexander Polyakov gave the theory a modern path integral formulation, and went on to develop conformal field theory extensively. In 1979, Daniel Friedan showed that the equations of motions of string theory, which are generalizations of the Einstein equations of general relativity, emerge from the renormalization group equations for the two-dimensional field theory. Schwarz and Green discovered T-duality, and constructed two superstring theories—IIA and IIB related by T-duality, and type I theories with open strings. The consistency conditions had been so strong, that the entire theory was nearly uniquely determined, with only a few discrete choices.
First superstring revolution
Edward Witten
In the early 1980s, Edward Witten discovered that most theories of quantum gravity could not accommodate chiral fermions like the neutrino. This led him, in collaboration with Luis Álvarez-Gaumé, to study violations of the conservation laws in gravity theories with anomalies, concluding that type I string theories were inconsistent. Green and Schwarz discovered a contribution to the anomaly that Witten and Alvarez-Gaumé had missed, which restricted the gauge group of the type I string theory to be SO(32). In coming to understand this calculation, Edward Witten became convinced that string theory was truly a consistent theory of gravity, and he became a high-profile advocate. Following Witten's lead, between 1984 and 1986, hundreds of physicists started to work in this field, and this is sometimes called the first superstring revolution.
During this period, David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm discovered heterotic strings. The gauge group of these closed strings was two copies of E8, and either copy could easily and naturally include the standard model. Philip Candelas, Gary Horowitz, Andrew Strominger and Edward Witten found that the Calabi–Yau manifolds are the compactifications that preserve a realistic amount of supersymmetry, while Lance Dixon and others worked out the physical properties of orbifolds, distinctive geometrical singularities allowed in string theory. Cumrun Vafa generalized T-duality from circles to arbitrary manifolds, creating the mathematical field of mirror symmetry. Daniel Friedan, Emil Martinec and Stephen Shenker further developed the covariant quantization of the superstring using conformal field theory techniques. David Gross and Vipul Periwal discovered that string perturbation theory was divergent. Stephen Shenker showed it diverged much faster than in field theory suggesting that new non-perturbative objects were missing.
Joseph Polchinski
In the 1990s, Joseph Polchinski discovered that the theory requires higher-dimensional objects, called D-branes and identified these with the black-hole solutions of supergravity. These were understood to be the new objects suggested by the perturbative divergences, and they opened up a new field with rich mathematical structure. It quickly became clear that D-branes and other p-branes, not just strings, formed the matter content of the string theories, and the physical interpretation of the strings and branes was revealed—they are a type of black hole. Leonard Susskind had incorporated the holographic principle of Gerardus 't Hooft into string theory, identifying the long highly excited string states with ordinary thermal black hole states. As suggested by 't Hooft, the fluctuations of the black hole horizon, the world-sheet or world-volume theory, describes not only the degrees of freedom of the black hole, but all nearby objects too.
Second superstring revolution
In 1995, at the annual conference of string theorists at the University of Southern California (USC), Edward Witten gave a speech on string theory that in essence united the five string theories that existed at the time, and giving birth to a new 11-dimensional theory called M-theory. M-theory was also foreshadowed in the work of Paul Townsend at approximately the same time. The flurry of activity that began at this time is sometimes called the second superstring revolution.
Juan Maldacena
During this period, Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker and Leonard Susskind formulated matrix theory, a full holographic description of M-theory using IIA D0 branes. This was the first definition of string theory that was fully non-perturbative and a concrete mathematical realization of the holographic principle. It is an example of a gauge-gravity duality and is now understood to be a special case of the AdS/CFT correspondence. Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa calculated the entropy of certain configurations of D-branes and found agreement with the semi-classical answer for extreme charged black holes. Petr Hořava and Witten found the eleven-dimensional formulation of the heterotic string theories, showing that orbifolds solve the chirality problem. Witten noted that the effective description of the physics of D-branes at low energies is by a supersymmetric gauge theory, and found geometrical interpretations of mathematical structures in gauge theory that he and Nathan Seiberg had earlier discovered in terms of the location of the branes.
In 1997, Juan Maldacena noted that the low energy excitations of a theory near a black hole consist of objects close to the horizon, which for extreme charged black holes looks like an anti-de Sitter space. He noted that in this limit the gauge theory describes the string excitations near the branes. So he hypothesized that string theory on a near-horizon extreme-charged black-hole geometry, an anti-de Sitter space times a sphere with flux, is equally well described by the low-energy limiting gauge theory, the N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory. This hypothesis, which is called the AdS/CFT correspondence, was further developed by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov and Alexander Polyakov, and by Edward Witten, and it is now well-accepted. It is a concrete realization of the holographic principle, which has far-reaching implications for black holes, locality and information in physics, as well as the nature of the gravitational interaction. Through this relationship, string theory has been shown to be related to gauge theories like quantum chromodynamics and this has led to a more quantitative understanding of the behavior of hadrons, bringing string theory back to its roots.
Criticism
Number of solutions
Main article: String theory landscape
To construct models of particle physics based on string theory, physicists typically begin by specifying a shape for the extra dimensions of spacetime. Each of these different shapes corresponds to a different possible universe, or "vacuum state", with a different collection of particles and forces. String theory as it is currently understood has an enormous number of vacuum states, typically estimated to be around 10500, and these might be sufficiently diverse to accommodate almost any phenomenon that might be observed at low energies.
Many critics of string theory have expressed concerns about the large number of possible universes described by string theory. In his book Not Even Wrong, Peter Woit, a lecturer in the mathematics department at Columbia University, has argued that the large number of different physical scenarios renders string theory vacuous as a framework for constructing models of particle physics. According to Woit,
The possible existence of, say, 10500 consistent different vacuum states for superstring theory probably destroys the hope of using the theory to predict anything. If one picks among this large set just those states whose properties agree with present experimental observations, it is likely there still will be such a large number of these that one can get just about whatever value one wants for the results of any new observation.
Some physicists believe this large number of solutions is actually a virtue because it may allow a natural anthropic explanation of the observed values of physical constants, in particular the small value of the cosmological constant. The anthropic principle is the idea that some of the numbers appearing in the laws of physics are not fixed by any fundamental principle but must be compatible with the evolution of intelligent life. In 1987, Steven Weinberg published an article in which he argued that the cosmological constant could not have been too large, or else galaxies and intelligent life would not have been able to develop. Weinberg suggested that there might be a huge number of possible consistent universes, each with a different value of the cosmological constant, and observations indicate a small value of the cosmological constant only because humans happen to live in a universe that has allowed intelligent life, and hence observers, to exist.
String theorist Leonard Susskind has argued that string theory provides a natural anthropic explanation of the small value of the cosmological constant. According to Susskind, the different vacuum states of string theory might be realized as different universes within a larger multiverse. The fact that the observed universe has a small cosmological constant is just a tautological consequence of the fact that a small value is required for life to exist. Many prominent theorists and critics have disagreed with Susskind's conclusions. According to Woit, "in this case is nothing more than an excuse for failure. Speculative scientific ideas fail not just when they make incorrect predictions, but also when they turn out to be vacuous and incapable of predicting anything."
Compatibility with dark energy
It remains unknown whether string theory is compatible with a metastable, positive cosmological constant.
Some putative examples of such solutions do exist, such as the model described by Kachru et al. in 2003. In 2018, a group of four physicists advanced a controversial conjecture which would imply that no such universe exists. This is contrary to some popular models of dark energy such as Λ-CDM, which requires a positive vacuum energy. However, string theory is likely compatible with certain types of quintessence, where dark energy is caused by a new field with exotic properties.
Background independence
Main article: Background independence
One of the fundamental properties of Einstein's general theory of relativity is that it is background independent, meaning that the formulation of the theory does not in any way privilege a particular spacetime geometry.
One of the main criticisms of string theory from early on is that it is not manifestly background-independent. In string theory, one must typically specify a fixed reference geometry for spacetime, and all other possible geometries are described as perturbations of this fixed one. In his book The Trouble With Physics, physicist Lee Smolin of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics claims that this is the principal weakness of string theory as a theory of quantum gravity, saying that string theory has failed to incorporate this important insight from general relativity.
Others have disagreed with Smolin's characterization of string theory. In a review of Smolin's book, string theorist Joseph Polchinski writes
is mistaking an aspect of the mathematical language being used for one of the physics being described. New physical theories are often discovered using a mathematical language that is not the most suitable for them... In string theory, it has always been clear that the physics is background-independent even if the language being used is not, and the search for a more suitable language continues. Indeed, as Smolin belatedly notes, provides a solution to this problem, one that is unexpected and powerful.
Polchinski notes that an important open problem in quantum gravity is to develop holographic descriptions of gravity which do not require the gravitational field to be asymptotically anti-de Sitter. Smolin has responded by saying that the AdS/CFT correspondence, as it is currently understood, may not be strong enough to resolve all concerns about background independence.
Sociology of science
Since the superstring revolutions of the 1980s and 1990s, string theory has been one of the dominant paradigms of high energy theoretical physics. Some string theorists have expressed the view that there does not exist an equally successful alternative theory addressing the deep questions of fundamental physics. In an interview from 1987, Nobel laureate David Gross made the following controversial comments about the reasons for the popularity of string theory:
The most important is that there are no other good ideas around. That's what gets most people into it. When people started to get interested in string theory they didn't know anything about it. In fact, the first reaction of most people is that the theory is extremely ugly and unpleasant, at least that was the case a few years ago when the understanding of string theory was much less developed. It was difficult for people to learn about it and to be turned on. So I think the real reason why people have got attracted by it is because there is no other game in town. All other approaches of constructing grand unified theories, which were more conservative to begin with, and only gradually became more and more radical, have failed, and this game hasn't failed yet.
Several other high-profile theorists and commentators have expressed similar views, suggesting that there are no viable alternatives to string theory.
Many critics of string theory have commented on this state of affairs. In his book criticizing string theory, Peter Woit views the status of string theory research as unhealthy and detrimental to the future of fundamental physics. He argues that the extreme popularity of string theory among theoretical physicists is partly a consequence of the financial structure of academia and the fierce competition for scarce resources. In his book The Road to Reality, mathematical physicist Roger Penrose expresses similar views, stating "The often frantic competitiveness that this ease of communication engenders leads to bandwagon effects, where researchers fear to be left behind if they do not join in." Penrose also claims that the technical difficulty of modern physics forces young scientists to rely on the preferences of established researchers, rather than forging new paths of their own. Lee Smolin expresses a slightly different position in his critique, claiming that string theory grew out of a tradition of particle physics which discourages speculation about the foundations of physics, while his preferred approach, loop quantum gravity, encourages more radical thinking. According to Smolin,
String theory is a powerful, well-motivated idea and deserves much of the work that has been devoted to it. If it has so far failed, the principal reason is that its intrinsic flaws are closely tied to its strengths—and, of course, the story is unfinished, since string theory may well turn out to be part of the truth. The real question is not why we have expended so much energy on string theory but why we haven't expended nearly enough on alternative approaches.
Smolin goes on to offer a number of prescriptions for how scientists might encourage a greater diversity of approaches to quantum gravity research.
Notes
^ For example, physicists are still working to understand the phenomenon of quark confinement, the paradoxes of black holes, and the origin of dark energy.
^ For example, in the context of the AdS/CFT correspondence, theorists often formulate and study theories of gravity in unphysical numbers of spacetime dimensions.
^ "Top Cited Articles during 2010 in hep-th". Retrieved 25 July 2013.
^ More precisely, one cannot apply the methods of perturbative quantum field theory.
^ Two independent mathematical proofs of mirror symmetry were given by Givental and Lian et al.
^ More precisely, a nontrivial group is called simple if its only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the group itself. The Jordan–Hölder theorem exhibits finite simple groups as the building blocks for all finite groups.
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Bibliography
Becker, Katrin; Becker, Melanie; Schwarz, John (2007). String theory and M-theory: A modern introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86069-7.
Duff, Michael (1998). "The theory formerly known as strings". Scientific American. 278 (2): 64–9. Bibcode:1998SciAm.278b..64D. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0298-64.
Gannon, Terry. Moonshine Beyond the Monster: The Bridge Connecting Algebra, Modular Forms, and Physics. Cambridge University Press.
Hori, Kentaro; Katz, Sheldon; Klemm, Albrecht; Pandharipande, Rahul; Thomas, Richard; Vafa, Cumrun; Vakil, Ravi; Zaslow, Eric, eds. (2003). Mirror Symmetry (PDF). Clay Mathematics Monographs. Vol. 1. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8218-2955-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-19.
Maldacena, Juan (2005). "The Illusion of Gravity" (PDF). Scientific American. 293 (5): 56–63. Bibcode:2005SciAm.293e..56M. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1105-56. PMID 16318027. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 1, 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
Penrose, Roger (2005). The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.
Smolin, Lee (2006). The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 978-0-618-55105-7.
Wald, Robert (1984). General Relativity. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5.
Woit, Peter (2006). Not Even Wrong: The Failure of String Theory and the Search for Unity in Physical Law. Basic Books. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-465-09275-8.
Yau, Shing-Tung; Nadis, Steve (2010). The Shape of Inner Space: String Theory and the Geometry of the Universe's Hidden Dimensions. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02023-2.
Zwiebach, Barton (2009). A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88032-9.
Further reading
Popular science
Greene, Brian (2003). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-05858-1.
Greene, Brian (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Bibcode:2004fcst.book.....G. ISBN 978-0-375-41288-2.
Penrose, Roger (2005). The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.
Smolin, Lee (2006). The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 978-0-618-55105-7.
Woit, Peter (2006). Not Even Wrong: The Failure of String Theory And the Search for Unity in Physical Law. London: Jonathan Cape &: New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09275-8.
Textbooks
Becker, K.; Becker, M.; Schwarz, J.H. (2006). String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521860697.
Blumenhagen, R.; Lüst, D.; Theisen, S. (2012). Basic Concepts of String Theory. Springer. ISBN 978-3642294969.
Green, Michael; Schwarz, John; Witten, Edward (2012). Superstring theory. Vol. 1: Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107029118.
Green, Michael; Schwarz, John; Witten, Edward (2012). Superstring theory. Vol. 2: Loop amplitudes, anomalies and phenomenology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107029132.
Ibáñez, L.E.; Uranga, A.M. (2012). String Theory and Particle Physics: An Introduction to String Phenomenology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521517522.
Kiritsis, E. (2019). String Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691155791.
Ortín, T. (2015). Gravity and Strings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521768139.
Polchinski, Joseph (1998). String Theory Vol. 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63303-1.
Polchinski, Joseph (1998). String Theory Vol. 2: Superstring Theory and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63304-8.
West, P. (2012). Introduction to Strings and Branes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521817479.
Zwiebach, Barton (2009). A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88032-9.
External links
Look up string theory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to String theory.
Wikiquote has quotations related to String theory.
Websites
Not Even Wrong—A blog critical of string theory
Why String Theory—An introduction to string theory.
Pedagogic Aids to String Theory—Introductory level overview of string theory plus aids to help understanding some of the more difficult concepts. For those who have studied quantum field theory from the author of Student Friendly Quantum Field Theory.
Video
bbc-horizon: parallel-uni — 2002 feature documentary by BBC Horizon, episode Parallel Universes focus on history and emergence of M-theory, and scientists involved.
pbs.org-nova: elegant-uni — 2003 Emmy Award-winning, three-hour miniseries by Nova with Brian Greene, adapted from his The Elegant Universe (original PBS broadcast dates: October 28, 8–10 p.m. and November 4, 8–9 p.m., 2003).
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"String theory (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Introduction to M-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_M-theory"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"theoretical framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_theory"},{"link_name":"point-like particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_particle"},{"link_name":"particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics"},{"link_name":"one-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(mathematics_and_physics)"},{"link_name":"strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(physics)"},{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_(physics)"},{"link_name":"vibrational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration"},{"link_name":"graviton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"gravitational force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"quantum gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity"},{"link_name":"fundamental physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_physics"},{"link_name":"mathematical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physics"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology"},{"link_name":"nuclear physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"theory of everything","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_everything"},{"link_name":"mathematical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"link_name":"fundamental forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"strong nuclear force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force"},{"link_name":"quantum chromodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics"},{"link_name":"bosonic string theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosonic_string_theory"},{"link_name":"particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle"},{"link_name":"bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson"},{"link_name":"superstring theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstring_theory"},{"link_name":"supersymmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry"},{"link_name":"fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion"},{"link_name":"M-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter/conformal_field_theory_correspondence"},{"link_name":"quantum field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theory"},{"link_name":"landscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_landscape"}],"text":"Theory of subatomic structureFor other uses, see String theory (disambiguation).For a more accessible and less technical introduction to this topic, see Introduction to M-theory.In physics, string theory is a theoretical framework in which the point-like particles of particle physics are replaced by one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how these strings propagate through space and interact with each other. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string looks just like an ordinary particle, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. In string theory, one of the many vibrational states of the string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries the gravitational force. Thus, string theory is a theory of quantum gravity.String theory is a broad and varied subject that attempts to address a number of deep questions of fundamental physics. String theory has contributed a number of advances to mathematical physics, which have been applied to a variety of problems in black hole physics, early universe cosmology, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics, and it has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Because string theory potentially provides a unified description of gravity and particle physics, it is a candidate for a theory of everything, a self-contained mathematical model that describes all fundamental forces and forms of matter. Despite much work on these problems, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of its details.String theory was first studied in the late 1960s as a theory of the strong nuclear force, before being abandoned in favor of quantum chromodynamics. Subsequently, it was realized that the very properties that made string theory unsuitable as a theory of nuclear physics made it a promising candidate for a quantum theory of gravity. The earliest version of string theory, bosonic string theory, incorporated only the class of particles known as bosons. It later developed into superstring theory, which posits a connection called supersymmetry between bosons and the class of particles called fermions. Five consistent versions of superstring theory were developed before it was conjectured in the mid-1990s that they were all different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven dimensions known as M-theory. In late 1997, theorists discovered an important relationship called the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence (AdS/CFT correspondence), which relates string theory to another type of physical theory called a quantum field theory.One of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. Another issue is that the theory is thought to describe an enormous landscape of possible universes, which has complicated efforts to develop theories of particle physics based on string theory. These issues have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to physics, and to question the value of continued research on string theory unification.","title":"String theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Open_and_closed_strings.svg"},{"link_name":"strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(physics)"}],"text":"The fundamental objects of string theory are open and closed strings.","title":"Fundamentals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"general theory of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_theory_of_relativity"},{"link_name":"gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe"},{"link_name":"elementary particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker,_Becker_2007,_p._1-1"},{"link_name":"quantum gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_gravity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker,_Becker_2007,_p._1-1"},{"link_name":"classical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_physics"},{"link_name":"fundamental forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"atomic nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"theoretical framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_theory"},{"link_name":"point-like particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_particle"},{"link_name":"particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics"},{"link_name":"strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(physics)"},{"link_name":"vibrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibration"},{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_(physics)"},{"link_name":"graviton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker,_Becker_2007,_pp._2-4"},{"link_name":"M-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter/conformal_field_theory_correspondence"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"nuclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klebanov_and_Maldacena_2009-7"},{"link_name":"condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merali_2011-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sachdev-9"},{"link_name":"theory of everything","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_everything"},{"link_name":"cosmological constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant"},{"link_name":"dark matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter"},{"link_name":"cosmic inflation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"perturbation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)"},{"link_name":"nonperturbatively","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-perturbative"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"vacuum state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_state"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woit_2006-13"}],"sub_title":"Overview","text":"In the 20th century, two theoretical frameworks emerged for formulating the laws of physics. The first is Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, a theory that explains the force of gravity and the structure of spacetime at the macro-level. The other is quantum mechanics, a completely different formulation, which uses known probability principles to describe physical phenomena at the micro-level. By the late 1970s, these two frameworks had proven to be sufficient to explain most of the observed features of the universe, from elementary particles to atoms to the evolution of stars and the universe as a whole.[1]In spite of these successes, there are still many problems that remain to be solved. One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity.[1] The general theory of relativity is formulated within the framework of classical physics, whereas the other fundamental forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics. A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics, but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity.[2] In addition to the problem of developing a consistent theory of quantum gravity, there are many other fundamental problems in the physics of atomic nuclei, black holes, and the early universe.[a]String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to address these questions and many others. The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of particle physics can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings. String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other. In a given version of string theory, there is only one kind of string, which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string, and it can vibrate in different ways. On distance scales larger than the string scale, a string will look just like an ordinary particle consistent with non-string models of elementary particles, with its mass, charge, and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string. String theory's application as a form of quantum gravity proposes a vibrational state responsible for the graviton, a yet unproven quantum particle that is theorized to carry gravitational force.[3]One of the main developments of the past several decades in string theory was the discovery of certain 'dualities', mathematical transformations that identify one physical theory with another. Physicists studying string theory have discovered a number of these dualities between different versions of string theory, and this has led to the conjecture that all consistent versions of string theory are subsumed in a single framework known as M-theory.[4]Studies of string theory have also yielded a number of results on the nature of black holes and the gravitational interaction. There are certain paradoxes that arise when one attempts to understand the quantum aspects of black holes, and work on string theory has attempted to clarify these issues. In late 1997 this line of work culminated in the discovery of the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence or AdS/CFT.[5] This is a theoretical result that relates string theory to other physical theories which are better understood theoretically. The AdS/CFT correspondence has implications for the study of black holes and quantum gravity, and it has been applied to other subjects, including nuclear[6] and condensed matter physics.[7][8]Since string theory incorporates all of the fundamental interactions, including gravity, many physicists hope that it will eventually be developed to the point where it fully describes our universe, making it a theory of everything. One of the goals of current research in string theory is to find a solution of the theory that reproduces the observed spectrum of elementary particles, with a small cosmological constant, containing dark matter and a plausible mechanism for cosmic inflation. While there has been progress toward these goals, it is not known to what extent string theory describes the real world or how much freedom the theory allows in the choice of details.[9]One of the challenges of string theory is that the full theory does not have a satisfactory definition in all circumstances. The scattering of strings is most straightforwardly defined using the techniques of perturbation theory, but it is not known in general how to define string theory nonperturbatively.[10] It is also not clear whether there is any principle by which string theory selects its vacuum state, the physical state that determines the properties of our universe.[11] These problems have led some in the community to criticize these approaches to the unification of physics and question the value of continued research on these problems.[12]","title":"Fundamentals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:World_lines_and_world_sheet.svg"},{"link_name":"worldlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldline"},{"link_name":"particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particles"},{"link_name":"worldsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldsheet"},{"link_name":"strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(physics)"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field"},{"link_name":"quantum field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theory"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zee_2010-14"},{"link_name":"perturbation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)"},{"link_name":"Richard Feynman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman"},{"link_name":"Feynman diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman_diagram"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zee_2010-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker,_Becker_2007,_p._6-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Planck length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_length"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker,_Becker_2007,_p._6-16"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker,_Becker_2007,_pp._2-4"},{"link_name":"bosonic string theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosonic_string_theory"},{"link_name":"bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosons"},{"link_name":"fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermions"},{"link_name":"superstring theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstring_theory"},{"link_name":"supersymmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"type I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_I_string"},{"link_name":"type IIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_IIA_string"},{"link_name":"type IIB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_IIB_string"},{"link_name":"heterotic string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotic_string"},{"link_name":"SO(32)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_orthogonal_group"},{"link_name":"E8×E8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"symmetries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Strings","text":"Interaction in the quantum world: worldlines of point-like particles or a worldsheet swept up by closed strings in string theoryThe application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field, which are extended in space and time, is known as quantum field theory. In particle physics, quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles, which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields.[13]In quantum field theory, one typically computes the probabilities of various physical events using the techniques of perturbation theory. Developed by Richard Feynman and others in the first half of the twentieth century, perturbative quantum field theory uses special diagrams called Feynman diagrams to organize computations. One imagines that these diagrams depict the paths of point-like particles and their interactions.[13]The starting point for string theory is the idea that the point-like particles of quantum field theory can also be modeled as one-dimensional objects called strings.[14] The interaction of strings is most straightforwardly defined by generalizing the perturbation theory used in ordinary quantum field theory. At the level of Feynman diagrams, this means replacing the one-dimensional diagram representing the path of a point particle by a two-dimensional (2D) surface representing the motion of a string.[15] Unlike in quantum field theory, string theory does not have a full non-perturbative definition, so many of the theoretical questions that physicists would like to answer remain out of reach.[16]In theories of particle physics based on string theory, the characteristic length scale of strings is assumed to be on the order of the Planck length, or 10−35 meters, the scale at which the effects of quantum gravity are believed to become significant.[15] On much larger length scales, such as the scales visible in physics laboratories, such objects would be indistinguishable from zero-dimensional point particles, and the vibrational state of the string would determine the type of particle. One of the vibrational states of a string corresponds to the graviton, a quantum mechanical particle that carries the gravitational force.[3]The original version of string theory was bosonic string theory, but this version described only bosons, a class of particles that transmit forces between the matter particles, or fermions. Bosonic string theory was eventually superseded by theories called superstring theories. These theories describe both bosons and fermions, and they incorporate a theoretical idea called supersymmetry. In theories with supersymmetry, each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion, and vice versa.[17]There are several versions of superstring theory: type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two flavors of heterotic string theory (SO(32) and E8×E8). The different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries. For example, the type I theory includes both open strings (which are segments with endpoints) and closed strings (which form closed loops), while types IIA, IIB and heterotic include only closed strings.[18]","title":"Fundamentals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compactification_example.svg"},{"link_name":"compactification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactification_(physics)"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zee_2010-14"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"extra dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra_dimensions"},{"link_name":"M-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Calabi_yau.jpg"},{"link_name":"Calabi–Yau manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabi%E2%80%93Yau_manifold"},{"link_name":"Compactification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactification_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yau_and_Nadis_2010,_Ch._6-24"},{"link_name":"Calabi–Yau manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabi%E2%80%93Yau_manifold"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yau_and_Nadis_2010,_Ch._6-24"},{"link_name":"space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_space"},{"link_name":"Eugenio Calabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenio_Calabi"},{"link_name":"Shing-Tung Yau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shing-Tung_Yau"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"brane-world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brane_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Randall-26"}],"sub_title":"Extra dimensions","text":"An example of compactification: At large distances, a two dimensional surface with one circular dimension looks one-dimensional.In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions (3D) of space: height, width and length. Einstein's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional (4D) spacetime. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.[19]In spite of the fact that the Universe is well described by 4D spacetime, there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions. In some cases, by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions, a theory becomes more mathematically tractable, and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily.[b] There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics.[13] Finally, there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than 4D of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection.[20]String theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency. In bosonic string theory, spacetime is 26-dimensional, while in superstring theory it is 10-dimensional, and in M-theory it is 11-dimensional. In order to describe real physical phenomena using string theory, one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments.[21]A cross section of a quintic Calabi–Yau manifoldCompactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory. In compactification, some of the extra dimensions are assumed to \"close up\" on themselves to form circles.[22] In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small, one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions. A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose. If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance, it appears to have only one dimension, its length. However, as one approaches the hose, one discovers that it contains a second dimension, its circumference. Thus, an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions.Compactification can be used to construct models in which spacetime is effectively four-dimensional. However, not every way of compactifying the extra dimensions produces a model with the right properties to describe nature. In a viable model of particle physics, the compact extra dimensions must be shaped like a Calabi–Yau manifold.[22] A Calabi–Yau manifold is a special space which is typically taken to be six-dimensional in applications to string theory. It is named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau.[23]Another approach to reducing the number of dimensions is the so-called brane-world scenario. In this approach, physicists assume that the observable universe is a four-dimensional subspace of a higher dimensional space. In such models, the force-carrying bosons of particle physics arise from open strings with endpoints attached to the four-dimensional subspace, while gravity arises from closed strings propagating through the larger ambient space. This idea plays an important role in attempts to develop models of real-world physics based on string theory, and it provides a natural explanation for the weakness of gravity compared to the other fundamental forces.[24]","title":"Fundamentals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dualities_in_String_Theory.svg"},{"link_name":"S-duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-duality"},{"link_name":"T-duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-duality"},{"link_name":"S-duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-duality"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker-27"},{"link_name":"T-duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-duality"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"winding number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winding_number"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Becker-27"},{"link_name":"physical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_system"},{"link_name":"Montonen–Olive duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montonen%E2%80%93Olive_duality"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Dualities","text":"A diagram of string theory dualities. Blue edges indicate S-duality. Red edges indicate T-duality.A notable fact about string theory is that the different versions of the theory all turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways. One of the relationships that can exist between different string theories is called S-duality. This is a relationship that says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can, in some cases, be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory. Roughly speaking, a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently. Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S-duality to the SO(32) heterotic string theory. Similarly, type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S-duality.[25]Another relationship between different string theories is T-duality. Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension. T-duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius R is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius 1/R in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description. For example, a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle, and it can also wind around the circle one or more times. The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number. If a string has momentum p and winding number n in one description, it will have momentum n and winding number p in the dual description. For example, type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T-duality, and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T-duality.[25]In general, the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way. Two theories related by a duality need not be string theories. For example, Montonen–Olive duality is an example of an S-duality relationship between quantum field theories. The AdS/CFT correspondence is an example of a duality that relates string theory to a quantum field theory. If two theories are related by a duality, it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory. The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under the transformation. Put differently, the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena.[26]","title":"Fundamentals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:D3-brane_et_D2-brane.PNG"},{"link_name":"D-branes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-brane"},{"link_name":"brane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brane"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore_2005,_p._214-29"},{"link_name":"fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore_2005,_p._214-29"},{"link_name":"D-branes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-brane"},{"link_name":"Dirichlet boundary condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirichlet_boundary_condition"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore_2005,_p._214-29"},{"link_name":"categories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"derived category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derived_category"},{"link_name":"coherent sheaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherent_sheaf"},{"link_name":"complex algebraic variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"Fukaya category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukaya_category"},{"link_name":"symplectic manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplectic_manifold"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aspinwall_et_al._2009-30"},{"link_name":"algebraic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_geometry"},{"link_name":"symplectic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symplectic_geometry"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kontsevich_1995-31"},{"link_name":"representation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kapustin-32"}],"sub_title":"Branes","text":"Open strings attached to a pair of D-branesIn string theory and other related theories, a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions. For instance, a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero, while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one. It is also possible to consider higher-dimensional branes. In dimension p, these are called p-branes. The word brane comes from the word \"membrane\" which refers to a two-dimensional brane.[27]Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics. They have mass and can have other attributes such as charge. A p-brane sweeps out a (p+1)-dimensional volume in spacetime called its worldvolume. Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane.[27]In string theory, D-branes are an important class of branes that arise when one considers open strings. As an open string propagates through spacetime, its endpoints are required to lie on a D-brane. The letter \"D\" in D-brane refers to a certain mathematical condition on the system known as the Dirichlet boundary condition. The study of D-branes in string theory has led to important results such as the AdS/CFT correspondence, which has shed light on many problems in quantum field theory.[27]Branes are frequently studied from a purely mathematical point of view, and they are described as objects of certain categories, such as the derived category of coherent sheaves on a complex algebraic variety, or the Fukaya category of a symplectic manifold.[28] The connection between the physical notion of a brane and the mathematical notion of a category has led to important mathematical insights in the fields of algebraic and symplectic geometry[29] and representation theory.[30]","title":"Fundamentals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edward Witten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Witten"},{"link_name":"Ashoke Sen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoke_Sen"},{"link_name":"Chris Hull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Hull"},{"link_name":"Paul Townsend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Townsend"},{"link_name":"Michael Duff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Duff_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"second superstring revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_superstring_revolution"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998-33"}],"text":"Prior to 1995, theorists believed that there were five consistent versions of superstring theory (type I, type IIA, type IIB, and two versions of heterotic string theory). This understanding changed in 1995 when Edward Witten suggested that the five theories were just special limiting cases of an eleven-dimensional theory called M-theory. Witten's conjecture was based on the work of a number of other physicists, including Ashoke Sen, Chris Hull, Paul Townsend, and Michael Duff. His announcement led to a flurry of research activity now known as the second superstring revolution.[31]","title":"M-theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Limits_of_M-theory.svg"},{"link_name":"M-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory"},{"link_name":"superstring theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstring_theory"},{"link_name":"supergravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergravity"},{"link_name":"supergravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergravity"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Werner Nahm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Nahm"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nahm-35"},{"link_name":"Eugene Cremmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Cremmer"},{"link_name":"Bernard Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Julia"},{"link_name":"Joël Scherk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Scherk"},{"link_name":"École Normale Supérieure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Normale_Sup%C3%A9rieure"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cremmer-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998,_p._65-37"},{"link_name":"eleven-dimensional supergravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleven-dimensional_supergravity"},{"link_name":"strong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force"},{"link_name":"weak nuclear forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force"},{"link_name":"chirality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998,_p._65-37"},{"link_name":"first superstring revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_superstring_revolution"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998,_p._65-37"},{"link_name":"Lagrangian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_(field_theory)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998,_p._65-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998,_p._65-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen1994a-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen1994b-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hull-40"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bergshoeff-42"},{"link_name":"Michael Duff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Duff_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff1987-43"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Witten1995-45"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horava-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff1996-49"}],"sub_title":"Unification of superstring theories","text":"A schematic illustration of the relationship between M-theory, the five superstring theories, and eleven-dimensional supergravity. The shaded region represents a family of different physical scenarios that are possible in M-theory. In certain limiting cases corresponding to the cusps, it is natural to describe the physics using one of the six theories labeled there.In the 1970s, many physicists became interested in supergravity theories, which combine general relativity with supersymmetry. Whereas general relativity makes sense in any number of dimensions, supergravity places an upper limit on the number of dimensions.[32] In 1978, work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven.[33] In the same year, Eugene Cremmer, Bernard Julia, and Joël Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions.[34][35]Initially, many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven-dimensional supergravity, it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four-dimensional world. The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and gravity. Interest in eleven-dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered. One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise, a phenomenon known as chirality. Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions.[35]In the first superstring revolution in 1984, many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity. Unlike supergravity theory, string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model, and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects.[35] Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness. In ordinary particle theories, one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian. In string theory, the possibilities are much more constrained: by the 1990s, physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory.[35]Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories, it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation.[35] However, as physicists began to examine string theory more closely, they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways. They found that a system of strongly interacting strings can, in some cases, be viewed as a system of weakly interacting strings. This phenomenon is known as S-duality. It was studied by Ashoke Sen in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions[36][37] and by Chris Hull and Paul Townsend in the context of the type IIB theory.[38] Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T-duality. This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent.[39]At around the same time, as many physicists were studying the properties of strings, a small group of physicists were examining the possible applications of higher dimensional objects. In 1987, Eric Bergshoeff, Ergin Sezgin, and Paul Townsend showed that eleven-dimensional supergravity includes two-dimensional branes.[40] Intuitively, these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven-dimensional spacetime. Shortly after this discovery, Michael Duff, Paul Howe, Takeo Inami, and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven-dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle.[41] In this setting, one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension. If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small, then this membrane looks just like a string in ten-dimensional spacetime. Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory.[42]Speaking at a string theory conference in 1995, Edward Witten made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions. Witten's announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T-duality and the appearance of higher-dimensional branes in string theory.[43] In the months following Witten's announcement, hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming different parts of his proposal.[44] Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution.[45]Initially, some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes, but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory. In a paper from 1996, Hořava and Witten wrote \"As it has been proposed that the eleven-dimensional theory is a supermembrane theory but there are some reasons to doubt that interpretation, we will non-committally call it the M-theory, leaving to the future the relation of M to membranes.\"[46] In the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M-theory, Witten has suggested that the M should stand for \"magic\", \"mystery\", or \"membrane\" according to taste, and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known.[47]","title":"M-theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"matrix model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_theory_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banks-50"},{"link_name":"Tom Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Banks_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Willy Fischler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Fischler"},{"link_name":"Stephen Shenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Shenker"},{"link_name":"Leonard Susskind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banks-50"},{"link_name":"noncommutative geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncommutative_geometry"},{"link_name":"noncommutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncommutative_algebra"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Connes-51"},{"link_name":"Alain Connes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Connes"},{"link_name":"Michael R. Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_R._Douglas"},{"link_name":"Albert Schwarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Schwarz"},{"link_name":"noncommutative quantum field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncommutative_quantum_field_theory"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDS-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nekrasov-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SW-54"}],"sub_title":"Matrix theory","text":"In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data. In physics, a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way. A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics.[48]One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker, and Leonard Susskind in 1997. This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices. In their original paper, these authors showed, among other things, that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven-dimensional supergravity. These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M-theory. The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M-theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M-theory in a relatively simple setting.[48]The development of the matrix model formulation of M-theory has led physicists to consider various connections between string theory and a branch of mathematics called noncommutative geometry. This subject is a generalization of ordinary geometry in which mathematicians define new geometric notions using tools from noncommutative algebra.[49] In a paper from 1998, Alain Connes, Michael R. Douglas, and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M-theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory, a special kind of physical theory in which spacetime is described mathematically using noncommutative geometry.[50] This established a link between matrix models and M-theory on the one hand, and noncommutative geometry on the other hand. It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories.[51][52]","title":"M-theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gravitational collapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_collapse"},{"link_name":"galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxies"},{"link_name":"supermassive black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole"},{"link_name":"thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-de_Haro_et_al._2013,_p.2-55"}],"text":"In general relativity, a black hole is defined as a region of spacetime in which the gravitational field is so strong that no particle or radiation can escape. In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, black holes are thought to arise when massive stars undergo gravitational collapse, and many galaxies are thought to contain supermassive black holes at their centers. Black holes are also important for theoretical reasons, as they present profound challenges for theorists attempting to understand the quantum aspects of gravity. String theory has proved to be an important tool for investigating the theoretical properties of black holes because it provides a framework in which theorists can study their thermodynamics.[53]","title":"Black holes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"statistical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Boltzmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann"},{"link_name":"thermodynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas"},{"link_name":"molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule"},{"link_name":"natural logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Jacob Bekenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Bekenstein"},{"link_name":"event horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bekenstein-57"},{"link_name":"Stephen Hawking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawking1975-58"},{"link_name":"Bekenstein–Hawking formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bekenstein%E2%80%93Hawking_formula"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"Boltzmann constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann_constant"},{"link_name":"reduced Planck constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_Planck_constant"},{"link_name":"Newton's constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_constant"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"sub_title":"Bekenstein–Hawking formula","text":"In the branch of physics called statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a physical system. This concept was studied in the 1870s by the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann, who showed that the thermodynamic properties of a gas could be derived from the combined properties of its many constituent molecules. Boltzmann argued that by averaging the behaviors of all the different molecules in a gas, one can understand macroscopic properties such as volume, temperature, and pressure. In addition, this perspective led him to give a precise definition of entropy as the natural logarithm of the number of different states of the molecules (also called microstates) that give rise to the same macroscopic features.[54]In the twentieth century, physicists began to apply the same concepts to black holes. In most systems such as gases, the entropy scales with the volume. In the 1970s, the physicist Jacob Bekenstein suggested that the entropy of a black hole is instead proportional to the surface area of its event horizon, the boundary beyond which matter and radiation are lost to its gravitational attraction.[55] When combined with ideas of the physicist Stephen Hawking,[56] Bekenstein's work yielded a precise formula for the entropy of a black hole. The Bekenstein–Hawking formula expresses the entropy S asS\n =\n \n \n \n \n c\n \n 3\n \n \n k\n A\n \n \n 4\n ℏ\n G\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S={\\frac {c^{3}kA}{4\\hbar G}}}where c is the speed of light, k is the Boltzmann constant, ħ is the reduced Planck constant, G is Newton's constant, and A is the surface area of the event horizon.[57]Like any physical system, a black hole has an entropy defined in terms of the number of different microstates that lead to the same macroscopic features. The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy formula gives the expected value of the entropy of a black hole, but by the 1990s, physicists still lacked a derivation of this formula by counting microstates in a theory of quantum gravity. Finding such a derivation of this formula was considered an important test of the viability of any theory of quantum gravity such as string theory.[58]","title":"Black holes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Andrew Strominger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Strominger"},{"link_name":"Cumrun Vafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumrun_Vafa"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strominger_and_Vafa_1996-61"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSW-63"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OST-64"},{"link_name":"extremal black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extremal_black_hole"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strominger1998-67"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guica-68"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CMS-69"}],"sub_title":"Derivation within string theory","text":"In a paper from 1996, Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa showed how to derive the Beckenstein–Hawking formula for certain black holes in string theory.[59] Their calculation was based on the observation that D-branes—which look like fluctuating membranes when they are weakly interacting—become dense, massive objects with event horizons when the interactions are strong. In other words, a system of strongly interacting D-branes in string theory is indistinguishable from a black hole. Strominger and Vafa analyzed such D-brane systems and calculated the number of different ways of placing D-branes in spacetime so that their combined mass and charge is equal to a given mass and charge for the resulting black hole. Their calculation reproduced the Bekenstein–Hawking formula exactly, including the factor of 1/4.[60] Subsequent work by Strominger, Vafa, and others refined the original calculations and gave the precise values of the \"quantum corrections\" needed to describe very small black holes.[61][62]The black holes that Strominger and Vafa considered in their original work were quite different from real astrophysical black holes. One difference was that Strominger and Vafa considered only extremal black holes in order to make the calculation tractable. These are defined as black holes with the lowest possible mass compatible with a given charge.[63] Strominger and Vafa also restricted attention to black holes in five-dimensional spacetime with unphysical supersymmetry.[64]Although it was originally developed in this very particular and physically unrealistic context in string theory, the entropy calculation of Strominger and Vafa has led to a qualitative understanding of how black hole entropy can be accounted for in any theory of quantum gravity. Indeed, in 1998, Strominger argued that the original result could be generalized to an arbitrary consistent theory of quantum gravity without relying on strings or supersymmetry.[65] In collaboration with several other authors in 2010, he showed that some results on black hole entropy could be extended to non-extremal astrophysical black holes.[66][67]","title":"Black holes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klebanov_and_Maldacena_2009-7"},{"link_name":"Juan Maldacena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Maldacena"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena1998-70"},{"link_name":"Steven Gubser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Gubser"},{"link_name":"Igor Klebanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Klebanov"},{"link_name":"Alexander Markovich Polyakov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Markovich_Polyakov"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gubser-71"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Witten1998-72"},{"link_name":"high energy physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_energy_physics"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"text":"One approach to formulating string theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence. This is a theoretical result which implies that string theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory. In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string theory, the AdS/CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective.[6] The AdS/CFT correspondence was first proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997.[68] Important aspects of the correspondence were elaborated in articles by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov, and Alexander Markovich Polyakov,[69] and by Edward Witten.[70] By 2010, Maldacena's article had over 7000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics.[c]","title":"AdS/CFT correspondence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Uniform_tiling_433-t0_(formatted).svg"},{"link_name":"tessellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation"},{"link_name":"hyperbolic plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_plane"},{"link_name":"by triangles and squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritetragonal_tiling"},{"link_name":"vacuum solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_solution"},{"link_name":"Einstein's equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%27s_equation"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klebanov_and_Maldacena_2009-7"},{"link_name":"metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tensor"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"hyperbolic space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_space"},{"link_name":"disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena_2005,_p._60-74"},{"link_name":"tessellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena_2005,_p._61-75"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena_2005,_p._60-74"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"cross section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"curved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena_2005,_p._61-75"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AdS3.svg"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space"},{"link_name":"hyperbolic disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena_2005,_p._60-74"},{"link_name":"Minkowski space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Overview of the correspondence","text":"A tessellation of the hyperbolic plane by triangles and squaresIn the AdS/CFT correspondence, the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein's equation called anti-de Sitter space.[6] In very elementary terms, anti-de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points (the metric) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry. It is closely related to hyperbolic space, which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left.[71] This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares. One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior.[72]One can imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting geometric object is three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space.[71] It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk. Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture. The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS/CFT correspondence. As with the hyperbolic plane, anti-de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface.[72]Three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space is like a stack of hyperbolic disks, each one representing the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting spacetime looks like a solid cylinder.This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension, but it can be generalized to any number of dimensions. Indeed, hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can \"stack up\" copies of hyperbolic space to get higher-dimensional models of anti-de Sitter space.[71]An important feature of anti-de Sitter space is its boundary (which looks like a cylinder in the case of three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space). One property of this boundary is that, within a small region on the surface around any given point, it looks just like Minkowski space, the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics.[73] One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which \"spacetime\" is given by the boundary of anti-de Sitter space. This observation is the starting point for AdS/CFT correspondence, which states that the boundary of anti-de Sitter space can be regarded as the \"spacetime\" for a quantum field theory. The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to a gravitational theory, such as string theory, in the bulk anti-de Sitter space in the sense that there is a \"dictionary\" for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory. For example, a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory. In addition, the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory, then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding.[74]","title":"AdS/CFT correspondence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-de_Haro_et_al._2013,_p.2-55"},{"link_name":"event horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_horizon"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawking1975-58"},{"link_name":"postulates of quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postulates_of_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Schrödinger equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation"},{"link_name":"unitarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"black hole information paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_information_paradox"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Susskind2008-78"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawking2005-81"}],"sub_title":"Applications to quantum gravity","text":"The discovery of the AdS/CFT correspondence was a major advance in physicists' understanding of string theory and quantum gravity. One reason for this is that the correspondence provides a formulation of string theory in terms of quantum field theory, which is well understood by comparison. Another reason is that it provides a general framework in which physicists can study and attempt to resolve the paradoxes of black holes.[53]In 1975, Stephen Hawking published a calculation which suggested that black holes are not completely black but emit a dim radiation due to quantum effects near the event horizon.[56] At first, Hawking's result posed a problem for theorists because it suggested that black holes destroy information. More precisely, Hawking's calculation seemed to conflict with one of the basic postulates of quantum mechanics, which states that physical systems evolve in time according to the Schrödinger equation. This property is usually referred to as unitarity of time evolution. The apparent contradiction between Hawking's calculation and the unitarity postulate of quantum mechanics came to be known as the black hole information paradox.[75]The AdS/CFT correspondence resolves the black hole information paradox, at least to some extent, because it shows how a black hole can evolve in a manner consistent with quantum mechanics in some contexts. Indeed, one can consider black holes in the context of the AdS/CFT correspondence, and any such black hole corresponds to a configuration of particles on the boundary of anti-de Sitter space.[76] These particles obey the usual rules of quantum mechanics and in particular evolve in a unitary fashion, so the black hole must also evolve in a unitary fashion, respecting the principles of quantum mechanics.[77] In 2005, Hawking announced that the paradox had been settled in favor of information conservation by the AdS/CFT correspondence, and he suggested a concrete mechanism by which black holes might preserve information.[78]","title":"AdS/CFT correspondence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg"},{"link_name":"magnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet"},{"link_name":"levitating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effect"},{"link_name":"high-temperature superconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merali_2011-8"},{"link_name":"quark–gluon plasma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma"},{"link_name":"state of matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_matter"},{"link_name":"particle accelerators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_accelerator"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ions"},{"link_name":"gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarks"},{"link_name":"deconfine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconfinement"},{"link_name":"trillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1,000,000,000,000"},{"link_name":"kelvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"quantum chromodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Đàm Thanh Sơn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A0m_Thanh_S%C6%A1n"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kovtun,_Son,_and_Starinets_2001-84"},{"link_name":"shear viscosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_viscosity"},{"link_name":"constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider"},{"link_name":"Brookhaven National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merali_2011-8"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luzum-85"}],"sub_title":"Applications to nuclear physics","text":"A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor. Today some physicists are working to understand high-temperature superconductivity using the AdS/CFT correspondence.[7]In addition to its applications to theoretical problems in quantum gravity, the AdS/CFT correspondence has been applied to a variety of problems in quantum field theory. One physical system that has been studied using the AdS/CFT correspondence is the quark–gluon plasma, an exotic state of matter produced in particle accelerators. This state of matter arises for brief instants when heavy ions such as gold or lead nuclei are collided at high energies. Such collisions cause the quarks that make up atomic nuclei to deconfine at temperatures of approximately two trillion kelvin, conditions similar to those present at around 10−11 seconds after the Big Bang.[79]The physics of the quark–gluon plasma is governed by a theory called quantum chromodynamics, but this theory is mathematically intractable in problems involving the quark–gluon plasma.[d] In an article appearing in 2005, Đàm Thanh Sơn and his collaborators showed that the AdS/CFT correspondence could be used to understand some aspects of the quark-gluon plasma by describing it in the language of string theory.[80] By applying the AdS/CFT correspondence, Sơn and his collaborators were able to describe the quark-gluon plasma in terms of black holes in five-dimensional spacetime. The calculation showed that the ratio of two quantities associated with the quark-gluon plasma, the shear viscosity and volume density of entropy, should be approximately equal to a certain universal constant. In 2008, the predicted value of this ratio for the quark-gluon plasma was confirmed at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory.[7][81]","title":"AdS/CFT correspondence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"experimental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physics"},{"link_name":"superconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductors"},{"link_name":"superfluids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluids"},{"link_name":"Subir Sachdev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subir_Sachdev"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merali_2011-8"},{"link_name":"insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"electrically neutral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrically_neutral"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms"},{"link_name":"friction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction"},{"link_name":"liquid helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_helium"},{"link_name":"lasers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasers"},{"link_name":"temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"Planck constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_constant"},{"link_name":"phases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(matter)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sachdev-9"}],"sub_title":"Applications to condensed matter physics","text":"The AdS/CFT correspondence has also been used to study aspects of condensed matter physics. Over the decades, experimental condensed matter physicists have discovered a number of exotic states of matter, including superconductors and superfluids. These states are described using the formalism of quantum field theory, but some phenomena are difficult to explain using standard field theoretic techniques. Some condensed matter theorists including Subir Sachdev hope that the AdS/CFT correspondence will make it possible to describe these systems in the language of string theory and learn more about their behavior.[7]So far some success has been achieved in using string theory methods to describe the transition of a superfluid to an insulator. A superfluid is a system of electrically neutral atoms that flows without any friction. Such systems are often produced in the laboratory using liquid helium, but recently experimentalists have developed new ways of producing artificial superfluids by pouring trillions of cold atoms into a lattice of criss-crossing lasers. These atoms initially behave as a superfluid, but as experimentalists increase the intensity of the lasers, they become less mobile and then suddenly transition to an insulating state. During the transition, the atoms behave in an unusual way. For example, the atoms slow to a halt at a rate that depends on the temperature and on the Planck constant, the fundamental parameter of quantum mechanics, which does not enter into the description of the other phases. This behavior has recently been understood by considering a dual description where properties of the fluid are described in terms of a higher dimensional black hole.[8]","title":"AdS/CFT correspondence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phenomenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(particle_physics)"},{"link_name":"String phenomenology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_phenomenology"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woit_2006-13"}],"text":"In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest, string theory provides a framework for constructing models of real-world physics that combine general relativity and particle physics. Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas. String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic or semi-realistic models based on string theory.Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies needed to test these theories experimentally, there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature. This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems.[12]","title":"Phenomenology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"standard model of particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_model_of_particle_physics"},{"link_name":"hierarchy problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_problem"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Candelas1985-86"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"sub_title":"Particle physics","text":"The currently accepted theory describing elementary particles and their interactions is known as the standard model of particle physics. This theory provides a unified description of three of the fundamental forces of nature: electromagnetism and the strong and weak nuclear forces. Despite its remarkable success in explaining a wide range of physical phenomena, the standard model cannot be a complete description of reality. This is because the standard model fails to incorporate the force of gravity and because of problems such as the hierarchy problem and the inability to explain the structure of fermion masses or dark matter.String theory has been used to construct a variety of models of particle physics going beyond the standard model. Typically, such models are based on the idea of compactification. Starting with the ten- or eleven-dimensional spacetime of string or M-theory, physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions. By choosing this shape appropriately, they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics, together with additional undiscovered particles.[82] One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. Such compactifications offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory. Other similar methods can be used to construct realistic or semi-realistic models of our four-dimensional world based on M-theory.[83]","title":"Phenomenology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png"},{"link_name":"cosmic microwave background","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background"},{"link_name":"Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe"},{"link_name":"cosmological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology"},{"link_name":"redshifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"cosmic microwave background","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background"},{"link_name":"magnetic monopoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_monopoles"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Alan Guth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Guth"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"inflaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflaton"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"sub_title":"Cosmology","text":"A map of the cosmic microwave background produced by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy ProbeThe Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. Despite its success in explaining many observed features of the universe including galactic redshifts, the relative abundance of light elements such as hydrogen and helium, and the existence of a cosmic microwave background, there are several questions that remain unanswered. For example, the standard Big Bang model does not explain why the universe appears to be the same in all directions, why it appears flat on very large distance scales, or why certain hypothesized particles such as magnetic monopoles are not observed in experiments.[84]Currently, the leading candidate for a theory going beyond the Big Bang is the theory of cosmic inflation. Developed by Alan Guth and others in the 1980s, inflation postulates a period of extremely rapid accelerated expansion of the universe prior to the expansion described by the standard Big Bang theory. The theory of cosmic inflation preserves the successes of the Big Bang while providing a natural explanation for some of the mysterious features of the universe.[85] The theory has also received striking support from observations of the cosmic microwave background, the radiation that has filled the sky since around 380,000 years after the Big Bang.[86]In the theory of inflation, the rapid initial expansion of the universe is caused by a hypothetical particle called the inflaton. The exact properties of this particle are not fixed by the theory but should ultimately be derived from a more fundamental theory such as string theory.[87] Indeed, there have been a number of attempts to identify an inflaton within the spectrum of particles described by string theory and to study inflation using string theory. While these approaches might eventually find support in observational data such as measurements of the cosmic microwave background, the application of string theory to cosmology is still in its early stages.[88]","title":"Phenomenology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"theoretical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics"},{"link_name":"pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"mathematically rigorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_rigor"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Deligne-93"}],"text":"In addition to influencing research in theoretical physics, string theory has stimulated a number of major developments in pure mathematics. Like many developing ideas in theoretical physics, string theory does not at present have a mathematically rigorous formulation in which all of its concepts can be defined precisely. As a result, physicists who study string theory are often guided by physical intuition to conjecture relationships between the seemingly different mathematical structures that are used to formalize different parts of the theory. These conjectures are later proved by mathematicians, and in this way, string theory serves as a source of new ideas in pure mathematics.[89]","title":"Connections to mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clebsch_Cubic.png"},{"link_name":"Clebsch cubic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clebsch_cubic"},{"link_name":"algebraic variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_variety"},{"link_name":"enumerative geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerative_geometry"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"mirror symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_symmetry_(string_theory)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aspinwall_et_al._2009-30"},{"link_name":"enumerative geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerative_geometry"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aspinwall_et_al._2009-30"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"algebraic varieties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_varieties"},{"link_name":"polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"Clebsch cubic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clebsch_cubic"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Arthur Cayley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cayley"},{"link_name":"George Salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Salmon"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Hermann Schubert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Schubert"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yau_and_Nadis_2010,_p._169-98"},{"link_name":"Philip Candelas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Candelas"},{"link_name":"Xenia de la Ossa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenia_de_la_Ossa"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Candelas1991-99"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yau_and_Nadis_2010,_p._169-98"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"homological mirror symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homological_mirror_symmetry"},{"link_name":"Maxim Kontsevich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_Kontsevich"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kontsevich_1995-31"},{"link_name":"SYZ conjecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYZ_conjecture"},{"link_name":"Eric Zaslow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Zaslow"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SYZ-108"}],"sub_title":"Mirror symmetry","text":"The Clebsch cubic is an example of a kind of geometric object called an algebraic variety. A classical result of enumerative geometry states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on this surface.After Calabi–Yau manifolds had entered physics as a way to compactify extra dimensions in string theory, many physicists began studying these manifolds. In the late 1980s, several physicists noticed that given such a compactification of string theory, it is not possible to reconstruct uniquely a corresponding Calabi–Yau manifold.[90] Instead, two different versions of string theory, type IIA and type IIB, can be compactified on completely different Calabi–Yau manifolds giving rise to the same physics. In this situation, the manifolds are called mirror manifolds, and the relationship between the two physical theories is called mirror symmetry.[28]Regardless of whether Calabi–Yau compactifications of string theory provide a correct description of nature, the existence of the mirror duality between different string theories has significant mathematical consequences. The Calabi–Yau manifolds used in string theory are of interest in pure mathematics, and mirror symmetry allows mathematicians to solve problems in enumerative geometry, a branch of mathematics concerned with counting the numbers of solutions to geometric questions.[28][91]Enumerative geometry studies a class of geometric objects called algebraic varieties which are defined by the vanishing of polynomials. For example, the Clebsch cubic illustrated on the right is an algebraic variety defined using a certain polynomial of degree three in four variables. A celebrated result of nineteenth-century mathematicians Arthur Cayley and George Salmon states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on such a surface.[92]Generalizing this problem, one can ask how many lines can be drawn on a quintic Calabi–Yau manifold, such as the one illustrated above, which is defined by a polynomial of degree five. This problem was solved by the nineteenth-century German mathematician Hermann Schubert, who found that there are exactly 2,875 such lines. In 1986, geometer Sheldon Katz proved that the number of curves, such as circles, that are defined by polynomials of degree two and lie entirely in the quintic is 609,250.[93]By the year 1991, most of the classical problems of enumerative geometry had been solved and interest in enumerative geometry had begun to diminish.[94] The field was reinvigorated in May 1991 when physicists Philip Candelas, Xenia de la Ossa, Paul Green, and Linda Parkes showed that mirror symmetry could be used to translate difficult mathematical questions about one Calabi–Yau manifold into easier questions about its mirror.[95] In particular, they used mirror symmetry to show that a six-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold can contain exactly 317,206,375 curves of degree three.[94] In addition to counting degree-three curves, Candelas and his collaborators obtained a number of more general results for counting rational curves which went far beyond the results obtained by mathematicians.[96]Originally, these results of Candelas were justified on physical grounds. However, mathematicians generally prefer rigorous proofs that do not require an appeal to physical intuition. Inspired by physicists' work on mirror symmetry, mathematicians have therefore constructed their own arguments proving the enumerative predictions of mirror symmetry.[e] Today mirror symmetry is an active area of research in mathematics, and mathematicians are working to develop a more complete mathematical understanding of mirror symmetry based on physicists' intuition.[102] Major approaches to mirror symmetry include the homological mirror symmetry program of Maxim Kontsevich[29] and the SYZ conjecture of Andrew Strominger, Shing-Tung Yau, and Eric Zaslow.[103]","title":"Connections to mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Labeled_Triangle_Reflections.svg"},{"link_name":"Group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory"},{"link_name":"symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"dihedral group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihedral_group"},{"link_name":"order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_(group_theory)"},{"link_name":"finite group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_group"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dummit-109"},{"link_name":"classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_theorems"},{"link_name":"prime numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"whole numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"classification of finite simple groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dummit-109"},{"link_name":"monster group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_group"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klarreich_2015-111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KleinInvariantJ.jpg"},{"link_name":"j-function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-invariant"},{"link_name":"j-function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J-invariant"},{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"},{"link_name":"modular functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_function"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"John McKay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McKay_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"John Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_G._Thompson"},{"link_name":"irreducible representations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_representation"},{"link_name":"Fourier series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"John Horton Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horton_Conway"},{"link_name":"Simon Norton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_P._Norton"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Conway-114"},{"link_name":"monstrous moonshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstrous_moonshine"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"Richard Borcherds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Borcherds"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Borcherds-117"},{"link_name":"Igor Frenkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Frenkel"},{"link_name":"James Lepowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lepowsky"},{"link_name":"Arne Meurman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne_Meurman"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FLM-118"},{"link_name":"Fields medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_medal"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klarreich_2015-111"},{"link_name":"Tohru Eguchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tohru_Eguchi"},{"link_name":"Hirosi Ooguri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirosi_Ooguri"},{"link_name":"Mathieu group M24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathieu_group_M24"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EOT-120"},{"link_name":"Miranda Cheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Cheng"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey A. Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_A._Harvey"},{"link_name":"umbral moonshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbral_moonshine"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDH-121"},{"link_name":"Ken Ono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Ono"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DGO-122"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Witten2007-123"}],"sub_title":"Monstrous moonshine","text":"An equilateral triangle can be rotated through 120°, 240°, or 360°, or reflected in any of the three lines pictured without changing its shape.Group theory is the branch of mathematics that studies the concept of symmetry. For example, one can consider a geometric shape such as an equilateral triangle. There are various operations that one can perform on this triangle without changing its shape. One can rotate it through 120°, 240°, or 360°, or one can reflect in any of the lines labeled S0, S1, or S2 in the picture. Each of these operations is called a symmetry, and the collection of these symmetries satisfies certain technical properties making it into what mathematicians call a group. In this particular example, the group is known as the dihedral group of order 6 because it has six elements. A general group may describe finitely many or infinitely many symmetries; if there are only finitely many symmetries, it is called a finite group.[104]Mathematicians often strive for a classification (or list) of all mathematical objects of a given type. It is generally believed that finite groups are too diverse to admit a useful classification. A more modest but still challenging problem is to classify all finite simple groups. These are finite groups that may be used as building blocks for constructing arbitrary finite groups in the same way that prime numbers can be used to construct arbitrary whole numbers by taking products.[f] One of the major achievements of contemporary group theory is the classification of finite simple groups, a mathematical theorem that provides a list of all possible finite simple groups.[104]This classification theorem identifies several infinite families of groups as well as 26 additional groups which do not fit into any family. The latter groups are called the \"sporadic\" groups, and each one owes its existence to a remarkable combination of circumstances. The largest sporadic group, the so-called monster group, has over 1053 elements, more than a thousand times the number of atoms in the Earth.[105]A graph of the j-function in the complex planeA seemingly unrelated construction is the j-function of number theory. This object belongs to a special class of functions called modular functions, whose graphs form a certain kind of repeating pattern.[106] Although this function appears in a branch of mathematics that seems very different from the theory of finite groups, the two subjects turn out to be intimately related. In the late 1970s, mathematicians John McKay and John Thompson noticed that certain numbers arising in the analysis of the monster group (namely, the dimensions of its irreducible representations) are related to numbers that appear in a formula for the j-function (namely, the coefficients of its Fourier series).[107] This relationship was further developed by John Horton Conway and Simon Norton[108] who called it monstrous moonshine because it seemed so far fetched.[109]In 1992, Richard Borcherds constructed a bridge between the theory of modular functions and finite groups and, in the process, explained the observations of McKay and Thompson.[110][111] Borcherds' work used ideas from string theory in an essential way, extending earlier results of Igor Frenkel, James Lepowsky, and Arne Meurman, who had realized the monster group as the symmetries of a particular[which?] version of string theory.[112] In 1998, Borcherds was awarded the Fields medal for his work.[113]Since the 1990s, the connection between string theory and moonshine has led to further results in mathematics and physics.[105] In 2010, physicists Tohru Eguchi, Hirosi Ooguri, and Yuji Tachikawa discovered connections between a different sporadic group, the Mathieu group M24, and a certain version[which?] of string theory.[114] Miranda Cheng, John Duncan, and Jeffrey A. Harvey proposed a generalization of this moonshine phenomenon called umbral moonshine,[115] and their conjecture was proved mathematically by Duncan, Michael Griffin, and Ken Ono.[116] Witten has also speculated that the version of string theory appearing in monstrous moonshine might be related to a certain simplified model of gravity in three spacetime dimensions.[117]","title":"Connections to mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"fifth dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-dimensional_space"},{"link_name":"Gunnar Nordström","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnar_Nordstr%C3%B6m"},{"link_name":"his theory of gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordstr%C3%B6m%27s_theory_of_gravitation"},{"link_name":"Theodor Kaluza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Kaluza"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"Oskar Klein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskar_Klein"},{"link_name":"a physical interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory"},{"link_name":"non-symmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_tensor"},{"link_name":"metric tensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_tensor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LeonardSusskindStanford2009_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leonard Susskind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind"},{"link_name":"hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron"},{"link_name":"subatomic particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle"},{"link_name":"proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"strong interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Chew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Chew"},{"link_name":"Steven Frautschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Frautschi"},{"link_name":"mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meson"},{"link_name":"Regge trajectories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regge_trajectories"},{"link_name":"Yoichiro Nambu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu"},{"link_name":"Holger Bech Nielsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen"},{"link_name":"Leonard Susskind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind"},{"link_name":"self-consistency conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrap_model"},{"link_name":"S-matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-matrix"},{"link_name":"S-matrix approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-matrix_theory"},{"link_name":"Werner Heisenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg"},{"link_name":"antiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GabrieleVeneziano.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gabriele Veneziano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Veneziano"},{"link_name":"Murray Gell-Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann"},{"link_name":"Gabriele Veneziano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Veneziano"},{"link_name":"scattering amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneziano_scattering_amplitude"},{"link_name":"gamma function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function"},{"link_name":"bootstrap program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrap_model"},{"link_name":"tachyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon"},{"link_name":"Miguel Virasoro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Virasoro_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Ziro Koba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ziro_Koba&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Holger Nielsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen"},{"link_name":"Sergio Fubini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Fubini"},{"link_name":"world-sheet conformal theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=World-sheet_conformal_theory&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Claud Lovelace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claud_Lovelace"},{"link_name":"Charles Thorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Thorn"},{"link_name":"Peter Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Goddard_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Richard Brower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Brower&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Yoichiro Nambu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu"},{"link_name":"Holger Bech Nielsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Bech_Nielsen"},{"link_name":"Leonard Susskind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind"},{"link_name":"Peter Goddard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Goddard_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Goldstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Goldstone"},{"link_name":"Claudio Rebbi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claudio_Rebbi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Charles Thorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Thorn"},{"link_name":"Virasoro conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virasoro_algebra"},{"link_name":"Pierre Ramond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Ramond"},{"link_name":"John Schwarz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Henry_Schwarz"},{"link_name":"André Neveu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Neveu"},{"link_name":"Stanley Mandelstam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Mandelstam"},{"link_name":"Michio Kaku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michio_Kaku"},{"link_name":"Keiji Kikkawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keiji_Kikkawa"},{"link_name":"string field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_field_theory"},{"link_name":"Tamiaki Yoneya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamiaki_Yoneya"},{"link_name":"Ward identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_identities"},{"link_name":"Joël Scherk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Scherk"},{"link_name":"Kaluza–Klein theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory"},{"link_name":"quantum chromodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics"},{"link_name":"dustbin of history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dustbin_of_history"},{"link_name":"Ferdinando Gliozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_Gliozzi"},{"link_name":"David Olive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Olive"},{"link_name":"Michael Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Green_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Alexander Polyakov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Markovich_Polyakov"},{"link_name":"Daniel Friedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Friedan"},{"link_name":"Einstein equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_equations"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"renormalization group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renormalization_group"}],"sub_title":"Early results","text":"Some of the structures reintroduced by string theory arose for the first time much earlier as part of the program of classical unification started by Albert Einstein. The first person to add a fifth dimension to a theory of gravity was Gunnar Nordström in 1914, who noted that gravity in five dimensions describes both gravity and electromagnetism in four. Nordström attempted to unify electromagnetism with his theory of gravitation, which was however superseded by Einstein's general relativity in 1919. Thereafter, German mathematician Theodor Kaluza combined the fifth dimension with general relativity, and only Kaluza is usually credited with the idea. In 1926, the Swedish physicist Oskar Klein gave a physical interpretation of the unobservable extra dimension—it is wrapped into a small circle. Einstein introduced a non-symmetric metric tensor, while much later Brans and Dicke added a scalar component to gravity. These ideas would be revived within string theory, where they are demanded by consistency conditions.Leonard SusskindString theory was originally developed during the late 1960s and early 1970s as a never completely successful theory of hadrons, the subatomic particles like the proton and neutron that feel the strong interaction. In the 1960s, Geoffrey Chew and Steven Frautschi discovered that the mesons make families called Regge trajectories with masses related to spins in a way that was later understood by Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen and Leonard Susskind to be the relationship expected from rotating strings. Chew advocated making a theory for the interactions of these trajectories that did not presume that they were composed of any fundamental particles, but would construct their interactions from self-consistency conditions on the S-matrix. The S-matrix approach was started by Werner Heisenberg in the 1940s as a way of constructing a theory that did not rely on the local notions of space and time, which Heisenberg believed break down at the nuclear scale. While the scale was off by many orders of magnitude, the approach he advocated was ideally suited for a theory of quantum gravity.Working with experimental data, R. Dolen, D. Horn and C. Schmid developed some sum rules for hadron exchange. When a particle and antiparticle scatter, virtual particles can be exchanged in two qualitatively different ways. In the s-channel, the two particles annihilate to make temporary intermediate states that fall apart into the final state particles. In the t-channel, the particles exchange intermediate states by emission and absorption. In field theory, the two contributions add together, one giving a continuous background contribution, the other giving peaks at certain energies. In the data, it was clear that the peaks were stealing from the background—the authors interpreted this as saying that the t-channel contribution was dual to the s-channel one, meaning both described the whole amplitude and included the other.Gabriele VenezianoThe result was widely advertised by Murray Gell-Mann, leading Gabriele Veneziano to construct a scattering amplitude that had the property of Dolen–Horn–Schmid duality, later renamed world-sheet duality. The amplitude needed poles where the particles appear, on straight-line trajectories, and there is a special mathematical function whose poles are evenly spaced on half the real line—the gamma function— which was widely used in Regge theory. By manipulating combinations of gamma functions, Veneziano was able to find a consistent scattering amplitude with poles on straight lines, with mostly positive residues, which obeyed duality and had the appropriate Regge scaling at high energy. The amplitude could fit near-beam scattering data as well as other Regge type fits and had a suggestive integral representation that could be used for generalization.Over the next years, hundreds of physicists worked to complete the bootstrap program for this model, with many surprises. Veneziano himself discovered that for the scattering amplitude to describe the scattering of a particle that appears in the theory, an obvious self-consistency condition, the lightest particle must be a tachyon. Miguel Virasoro and Joel Shapiro found a different amplitude now understood to be that of closed strings, while Ziro Koba and Holger Nielsen generalized Veneziano's integral representation to multiparticle scattering. Veneziano and Sergio Fubini introduced an operator formalism for computing the scattering amplitudes that was a forerunner of world-sheet conformal theory, while Virasoro understood how to remove the poles with wrong-sign residues using a constraint on the states. Claud Lovelace calculated a loop amplitude, and noted that there is an inconsistency unless the dimension of the theory is 26. Charles Thorn, Peter Goddard and Richard Brower went on to prove that there are no wrong-sign propagating states in dimensions less than or equal to 26.In 1969–70, Yoichiro Nambu, Holger Bech Nielsen, and Leonard Susskind recognized that the theory could be given a description in space and time in terms of strings. The scattering amplitudes were derived systematically from the action principle by Peter Goddard, Jeffrey Goldstone, Claudio Rebbi, and Charles Thorn, giving a space-time picture to the vertex operators introduced by Veneziano and Fubini and a geometrical interpretation to the Virasoro conditions.In 1971, Pierre Ramond added fermions to the model, which led him to formulate a two-dimensional supersymmetry to cancel the wrong-sign states. John Schwarz and André Neveu added another sector to the fermi theory a short time later. In the fermion theories, the critical dimension was 10. Stanley Mandelstam formulated a world sheet conformal theory for both the bose and fermi case, giving a two-dimensional field theoretic path-integral to generate the operator formalism. Michio Kaku and Keiji Kikkawa gave a different formulation of the bosonic string, as a string field theory, with infinitely many particle types and with fields taking values not on points, but on loops and curves.In 1974, Tamiaki Yoneya discovered that all the known string theories included a massless spin-two particle that obeyed the correct Ward identities to be a graviton. John Schwarz and Joël Scherk came to the same conclusion and made the bold leap to suggest that string theory was a theory of gravity, not a theory of hadrons. They reintroduced Kaluza–Klein theory as a way of making sense of the extra dimensions. At the same time, quantum chromodynamics was recognized as the correct theory of hadrons, shifting the attention of physicists and apparently leaving the bootstrap program in the dustbin of history.String theory eventually made it out of the dustbin, but for the following decade, all work on the theory was completely ignored. Still, the theory continued to develop at a steady pace thanks to the work of a handful of devotees. Ferdinando Gliozzi, Joël Scherk, and David Olive realized in 1977 that the original Ramond and Neveu Schwarz-strings were separately inconsistent and needed to be combined. The resulting theory did not have a tachyon and was proven to have space-time supersymmetry by John Schwarz and Michael Green in 1984. The same year, Alexander Polyakov gave the theory a modern path integral formulation, and went on to develop conformal field theory extensively. In 1979, Daniel Friedan showed that the equations of motions of string theory, which are generalizations of the Einstein equations of general relativity, emerge from the renormalization group equations for the two-dimensional field theory. Schwarz and Green discovered T-duality, and constructed two superstring theories—IIA and IIB related by T-duality, and type I theories with open strings. The consistency conditions had been so strong, that the entire theory was nearly uniquely determined, with only a few discrete choices.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Witten.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edward Witten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Witten"},{"link_name":"Edward Witten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Witten"},{"link_name":"chiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Luis Álvarez-Gaumé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_%C3%81lvarez-Gaum%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"anomalies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_anomaly"},{"link_name":"first superstring revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_superstring_revolution"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"David Gross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gross"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_A._Harvey"},{"link_name":"Emil Martinec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Martinec"},{"link_name":"Ryan Rohm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryan_Rohm"},{"link_name":"heterotic strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotic_strings"},{"link_name":"E8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E8_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Philip Candelas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Candelas"},{"link_name":"Gary Horowitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Horowitz"},{"link_name":"Andrew Strominger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Strominger"},{"link_name":"Lance Dixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance_Dixon"},{"link_name":"orbifolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbifolds"},{"link_name":"Cumrun Vafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumrun_Vafa"},{"link_name":"mirror symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_symmetry_(string_theory)"},{"link_name":"Daniel Friedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Friedan"},{"link_name":"Emil Martinec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Martinec"},{"link_name":"Stephen Shenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Shenker"},{"link_name":"David Gross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gross"},{"link_name":"Stephen Shenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Shenker"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joseph_Polchinski.jpg"},{"link_name":"Joseph Polchinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Polchinski"},{"link_name":"Joseph Polchinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Polchinski"},{"link_name":"D-branes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-brane"},{"link_name":"Leonard Susskind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind"},{"link_name":"holographic principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle"},{"link_name":"Gerardus 't Hooft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerardus_%27t_Hooft"}],"sub_title":"First superstring revolution","text":"Edward WittenIn the early 1980s, Edward Witten discovered that most theories of quantum gravity could not accommodate chiral fermions like the neutrino. This led him, in collaboration with Luis Álvarez-Gaumé, to study violations of the conservation laws in gravity theories with anomalies, concluding that type I string theories were inconsistent. Green and Schwarz discovered a contribution to the anomaly that Witten and Alvarez-Gaumé had missed, which restricted the gauge group of the type I string theory to be SO(32). In coming to understand this calculation, Edward Witten became convinced that string theory was truly a consistent theory of gravity, and he became a high-profile advocate. Following Witten's lead, between 1984 and 1986, hundreds of physicists started to work in this field, and this is sometimes called the first superstring revolution.[citation needed]During this period, David Gross, Jeffrey Harvey, Emil Martinec, and Ryan Rohm discovered heterotic strings. The gauge group of these closed strings was two copies of E8, and either copy could easily and naturally include the standard model. Philip Candelas, Gary Horowitz, Andrew Strominger and Edward Witten found that the Calabi–Yau manifolds are the compactifications that preserve a realistic amount of supersymmetry, while Lance Dixon and others worked out the physical properties of orbifolds, distinctive geometrical singularities allowed in string theory. Cumrun Vafa generalized T-duality from circles to arbitrary manifolds, creating the mathematical field of mirror symmetry. Daniel Friedan, Emil Martinec and Stephen Shenker further developed the covariant quantization of the superstring using conformal field theory techniques. David Gross and Vipul Periwal discovered that string perturbation theory was divergent. Stephen Shenker showed it diverged much faster than in field theory suggesting that new non-perturbative objects were missing.[citation needed]Joseph PolchinskiIn the 1990s, Joseph Polchinski discovered that the theory requires higher-dimensional objects, called D-branes and identified these with the black-hole solutions of supergravity. These were understood to be the new objects suggested by the perturbative divergences, and they opened up a new field with rich mathematical structure. It quickly became clear that D-branes and other p-branes, not just strings, formed the matter content of the string theories, and the physical interpretation of the strings and branes was revealed—they are a type of black hole. Leonard Susskind had incorporated the holographic principle of Gerardus 't Hooft into string theory, identifying the long highly excited string states with ordinary thermal black hole states. As suggested by 't Hooft, the fluctuations of the black hole horizon, the world-sheet or world-volume theory, describes not only the degrees of freedom of the black hole, but all nearby objects too.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edward Witten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Witten"},{"link_name":"M-theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theory"},{"link_name":"Paul Townsend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Townsend"},{"link_name":"second superstring revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_superstring_revolution"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duff_1998-33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JuanMaldacena.jpg"},{"link_name":"Juan Maldacena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Maldacena"},{"link_name":"Tom Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Banks_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Willy Fischler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willy_Fischler"},{"link_name":"Stephen Shenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Shenker"},{"link_name":"Leonard Susskind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Susskind"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banks-50"},{"link_name":"holographic principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"Andrew Strominger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Strominger"},{"link_name":"Cumrun Vafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumrun_Vafa"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strominger_and_Vafa_1996-61"},{"link_name":"Petr Hořava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr_Ho%C5%99ava_(theorist)"},{"link_name":"Nathan Seiberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Seiberg"},{"link_name":"Juan Maldacena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Maldacena"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maldacena1998-70"},{"link_name":"gauge theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory"},{"link_name":"N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N_%3D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"Steven Gubser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Gubser"},{"link_name":"Igor Klebanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Klebanov"},{"link_name":"Alexander Polyakov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Markovich_Polyakov"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gubser-71"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Witten1998-72"},{"link_name":"holographic principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle"},{"link_name":"black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality"},{"link_name":"information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-de_Haro_et_al._2013,_p.2-55"},{"link_name":"quantum chromodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics"},{"link_name":"hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Second superstring revolution","text":"In 1995, at the annual conference of string theorists at the University of Southern California (USC), Edward Witten gave a speech on string theory that in essence united the five string theories that existed at the time, and giving birth to a new 11-dimensional theory called M-theory. M-theory was also foreshadowed in the work of Paul Townsend at approximately the same time. The flurry of activity that began at this time is sometimes called the second superstring revolution.[31]Juan MaldacenaDuring this period, Tom Banks, Willy Fischler, Stephen Shenker and Leonard Susskind formulated matrix theory, a full holographic description of M-theory using IIA D0 branes.[48] This was the first definition of string theory that was fully non-perturbative and a concrete mathematical realization of the holographic principle. It is an example of a gauge-gravity duality and is now understood to be a special case of the AdS/CFT correspondence. Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa calculated the entropy of certain configurations of D-branes and found agreement with the semi-classical answer for extreme charged black holes.[59] Petr Hořava and Witten found the eleven-dimensional formulation of the heterotic string theories, showing that orbifolds solve the chirality problem. Witten noted that the effective description of the physics of D-branes at low energies is by a supersymmetric gauge theory, and found geometrical interpretations of mathematical structures in gauge theory that he and Nathan Seiberg had earlier discovered in terms of the location of the branes.In 1997, Juan Maldacena noted that the low energy excitations of a theory near a black hole consist of objects close to the horizon, which for extreme charged black holes looks like an anti-de Sitter space.[68] He noted that in this limit the gauge theory describes the string excitations near the branes. So he hypothesized that string theory on a near-horizon extreme-charged black-hole geometry, an anti-de Sitter space times a sphere with flux, is equally well described by the low-energy limiting gauge theory, the N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory. This hypothesis, which is called the AdS/CFT correspondence, was further developed by Steven Gubser, Igor Klebanov and Alexander Polyakov,[69] and by Edward Witten,[70] and it is now well-accepted. It is a concrete realization of the holographic principle, which has far-reaching implications for black holes, locality and information in physics, as well as the nature of the gravitational interaction.[53] Through this relationship, string theory has been shown to be related to gauge theories like quantum chromodynamics and this has led to a more quantitative understanding of the behavior of hadrons, bringing string theory back to its roots.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"Peter Woit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Woit"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woit_2006,_p._242-125"},{"link_name":"physical constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_constant"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woit_2006,_p._242-125"},{"link_name":"anthropic principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle"},{"link_name":"Steven Weinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberg"},{"link_name":"galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weinberg-126"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Susskind2005-128"},{"link_name":"multiverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"}],"sub_title":"Number of solutions","text":"To construct models of particle physics based on string theory, physicists typically begin by specifying a shape for the extra dimensions of spacetime. Each of these different shapes corresponds to a different possible universe, or \"vacuum state\", with a different collection of particles and forces. String theory as it is currently understood has an enormous number of vacuum states, typically estimated to be around 10500, and these might be sufficiently diverse to accommodate almost any phenomenon that might be observed at low energies.[118]Many critics of string theory have expressed concerns about the large number of possible universes described by string theory. In his book Not Even Wrong, Peter Woit, a lecturer in the mathematics department at Columbia University, has argued that the large number of different physical scenarios renders string theory vacuous as a framework for constructing models of particle physics. According to Woit,The possible existence of, say, 10500 consistent different vacuum states for superstring theory probably destroys the hope of using the theory to predict anything. If one picks among this large set just those states whose properties agree with present experimental observations, it is likely there still will be such a large number of these that one can get just about whatever value one wants for the results of any new observation.[119]Some physicists believe this large number of solutions is actually a virtue because it may allow a natural anthropic explanation of the observed values of physical constants, in particular the small value of the cosmological constant.[119] The anthropic principle is the idea that some of the numbers appearing in the laws of physics are not fixed by any fundamental principle but must be compatible with the evolution of intelligent life. In 1987, Steven Weinberg published an article in which he argued that the cosmological constant could not have been too large, or else galaxies and intelligent life would not have been able to develop.[120] Weinberg suggested that there might be a huge number of possible consistent universes, each with a different value of the cosmological constant, and observations indicate a small value of the cosmological constant only because humans happen to live in a universe that has allowed intelligent life, and hence observers, to exist.[121]String theorist Leonard Susskind has argued that string theory provides a natural anthropic explanation of the small value of the cosmological constant.[122] According to Susskind, the different vacuum states of string theory might be realized as different universes within a larger multiverse. The fact that the observed universe has a small cosmological constant is just a tautological consequence of the fact that a small value is required for life to exist.[123] Many prominent theorists and critics have disagreed with Susskind's conclusions.[124] According to Woit, \"in this case [anthropic reasoning] is nothing more than an excuse for failure. Speculative scientific ideas fail not just when they make incorrect predictions, but also when they turn out to be vacuous and incapable of predicting anything.\"[125]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cosmological constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"no such universe exists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swampland_(physics)"},{"link_name":"dark energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy"},{"link_name":"Λ-CDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda-CDM_model"},{"link_name":"quintessence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"}],"sub_title":"Compatibility with dark energy","text":"It remains unknown whether string theory is compatible with a metastable, positive cosmological constant.\nSome putative examples of such solutions do exist, such as the model described by Kachru et al. in 2003.[126] In 2018, a group of four physicists advanced a controversial conjecture which would imply that no such universe exists. This is contrary to some popular models of dark energy such as Λ-CDM, which requires a positive vacuum energy. However, string theory is likely compatible with certain types of quintessence, where dark energy is caused by a new field with exotic properties.[127]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"background independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_independence"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"The Trouble With Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_With_Physics"},{"link_name":"Lee Smolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Smolin"},{"link_name":"Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimeter_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physics"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polchinski_2007-136"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polchinski_2007-136"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"}],"sub_title":"Background independence","text":"One of the fundamental properties of Einstein's general theory of relativity is that it is background independent, meaning that the formulation of the theory does not in any way privilege a particular spacetime geometry.[128]One of the main criticisms of string theory from early on is that it is not manifestly background-independent. In string theory, one must typically specify a fixed reference geometry for spacetime, and all other possible geometries are described as perturbations of this fixed one. In his book The Trouble With Physics, physicist Lee Smolin of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics claims that this is the principal weakness of string theory as a theory of quantum gravity, saying that string theory has failed to incorporate this important insight from general relativity.[129]Others have disagreed with Smolin's characterization of string theory. In a review of Smolin's book, string theorist Joseph Polchinski writes[Smolin] is mistaking an aspect of the mathematical language being used for one of the physics being described. New physical theories are often discovered using a mathematical language that is not the most suitable for them... In string theory, it has always been clear that the physics is background-independent even if the language being used is not, and the search for a more suitable language continues. Indeed, as Smolin belatedly notes, [AdS/CFT] provides a solution to this problem, one that is unexpected and powerful.[130]Polchinski notes that an important open problem in quantum gravity is to develop holographic descriptions of gravity which do not require the gravitational field to be asymptotically anti-de Sitter.[130] Smolin has responded by saying that the AdS/CFT correspondence, as it is currently understood, may not be strong enough to resolve all concerns about background independence.[131]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"Nobel laureate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_laureate"},{"link_name":"David Gross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Gross"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"The Road to Reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality"},{"link_name":"Roger Penrose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose"},{"link_name":"bandwagon effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwagon_effect"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"loop quantum gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"}],"sub_title":"Sociology of science","text":"Since the superstring revolutions of the 1980s and 1990s, string theory has been one of the dominant paradigms of high energy theoretical physics.[132] Some string theorists have expressed the view that there does not exist an equally successful alternative theory addressing the deep questions of fundamental physics. In an interview from 1987, Nobel laureate David Gross made the following controversial comments about the reasons for the popularity of string theory:The most important [reason] is that there are no other good ideas around. That's what gets most people into it. When people started to get interested in string theory they didn't know anything about it. In fact, the first reaction of most people is that the theory is extremely ugly and unpleasant, at least that was the case a few years ago when the understanding of string theory was much less developed. It was difficult for people to learn about it and to be turned on. So I think the real reason why people have got attracted by it is because there is no other game in town. All other approaches of constructing grand unified theories, which were more conservative to begin with, and only gradually became more and more radical, have failed, and this game hasn't failed yet.[133]Several other high-profile theorists and commentators have expressed similar views, suggesting that there are no viable alternatives to string theory.[134]Many critics of string theory have commented on this state of affairs. In his book criticizing string theory, Peter Woit views the status of string theory research as unhealthy and detrimental to the future of fundamental physics. He argues that the extreme popularity of string theory among theoretical physicists is partly a consequence of the financial structure of academia and the fierce competition for scarce resources.[135] In his book The Road to Reality, mathematical physicist Roger Penrose expresses similar views, stating \"The often frantic competitiveness that this ease of communication engenders leads to bandwagon effects, where researchers fear to be left behind if they do not join in.\"[136] Penrose also claims that the technical difficulty of modern physics forces young scientists to rely on the preferences of established researchers, rather than forging new paths of their own.[137] Lee Smolin expresses a slightly different position in his critique, claiming that string theory grew out of a tradition of particle physics which discourages speculation about the foundations of physics, while his preferred approach, loop quantum gravity, encourages more radical thinking. According to Smolin,String theory is a powerful, well-motivated idea and deserves much of the work that has been devoted to it. If it has so far failed, the principal reason is that its intrinsic flaws are closely tied to its strengths—and, of course, the story is unfinished, since string theory may well turn out to be part of the truth. The real question is not why we have expended so much energy on string theory but why we haven't expended nearly enough on alternative approaches.[138]Smolin goes on to offer a number of prescriptions for how scientists might encourage a greater diversity of approaches to quantum gravity research.[139]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"quark confinement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_confinement"},{"link_name":"black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holes"},{"link_name":"dark energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_energy"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-73"},{"link_name":"\"Top Cited Articles during 2010 in hep-th\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.slac.stanford.edu/spires/topcites/2010/eprints/to_hep-th_annual.shtml"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-83"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-106"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Givental1996-101"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Givental1998-102"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lian1997-103"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lian1999-104"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lian2000-105"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-110"},{"link_name":"simple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_group"},{"link_name":"normal subgroups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_subgroup"},{"link_name":"trivial group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivial_group"},{"link_name":"Jordan–Hölder theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan%E2%80%93H%C3%B6lder_theorem"}],"text":"^ For example, physicists are still working to understand the phenomenon of quark confinement, the paradoxes of black holes, and the origin of dark energy.\n\n^ For example, in the context of the AdS/CFT correspondence, theorists often formulate and study theories of gravity in unphysical numbers of spacetime dimensions.\n\n^ \"Top Cited Articles during 2010 in hep-th\". Retrieved 25 July 2013.\n\n^ More precisely, one cannot apply the methods of perturbative quantum field theory.\n\n^ Two independent mathematical proofs of mirror symmetry were given by Givental[97][98] and Lian et al.[99][100][101]\n\n^ More precisely, a nontrivial group is called simple if its only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the group itself. The Jordan–Hölder theorem exhibits finite simple groups as the building blocks for all finite groups.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elegant_Universe:_Superstrings,_Hidden_Dimensions,_and_the_Quest_for_the_Ultimate_Theory"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-393-05858-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05858-1"},{"link_name":"The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fabric_of_the_Cosmos:_Space,_Time,_and_the_Texture_of_Reality"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2004fcst.book.....G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004fcst.book.....G"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-375-41288-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-41288-2"},{"link_name":"The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality:_A_Complete_Guide_to_the_Laws_of_the_Universe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-679-45443-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45443-4"},{"link_name":"The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Physics:_The_Rise_of_String_Theory,_the_Fall_of_a_Science,_and_What_Comes_Next"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-618-55105-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-55105-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-465-09275-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09275-8"}],"sub_title":"Popular science","text":"Greene, Brian (2003). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-05858-1.\nGreene, Brian (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Bibcode:2004fcst.book.....G. ISBN 978-0-375-41288-2.\nPenrose, Roger (2005). The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4.\nSmolin, Lee (2006). The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 978-0-618-55105-7.\nWoit, Peter (2006). Not Even Wrong: The Failure of String Theory And the Search for Unity in Physical Law. London: Jonathan Cape &: New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09275-8.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521860697","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521860697"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3642294969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642294969"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1107029118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107029118"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1107029132","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107029132"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521517522","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521517522"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0691155791","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691155791"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521768139","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521768139"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-63303-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63303-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-63304-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63304-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521817479","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521817479"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-88032-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88032-9"}],"sub_title":"Textbooks","text":"Becker, K.; Becker, M.; Schwarz, J.H. (2006). String Theory and M-Theory: A Modern Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521860697.\nBlumenhagen, R.; Lüst, D.; Theisen, S. (2012). Basic Concepts of String Theory. Springer. ISBN 978-3642294969.\nGreen, Michael; Schwarz, John; Witten, Edward (2012). Superstring theory. Vol. 1: Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107029118.\nGreen, Michael; Schwarz, John; Witten, Edward (2012). Superstring theory. Vol. 2: Loop amplitudes, anomalies and phenomenology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107029132.\nIbáñez, L.E.; Uranga, A.M. (2012). String Theory and Particle Physics: An Introduction to String Phenomenology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521517522.\nKiritsis, E. (2019). String Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691155791.\nOrtín, T. (2015). Gravity and Strings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521768139.\nPolchinski, Joseph (1998). String Theory Vol. 1: An Introduction to the Bosonic String. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63303-1.\nPolchinski, Joseph (1998). String Theory Vol. 2: Superstring Theory and Beyond. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63304-8.\nWest, P. (2012). Introduction to Strings and Branes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521817479.\nZwiebach, Barton (2009). A First Course in String Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88032-9.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"The fundamental objects of string theory are open and closed strings.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Open_and_closed_strings.svg/220px-Open_and_closed_strings.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Interaction in the quantum world: worldlines of point-like particles or a worldsheet swept up by closed strings in string theory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/World_lines_and_world_sheet.svg/250px-World_lines_and_world_sheet.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An example of compactification: At large distances, a two dimensional surface with one circular dimension looks one-dimensional.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Compactification_example.svg/220px-Compactification_example.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A cross section of a quintic Calabi–Yau manifold","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Calabi_yau.jpg/220px-Calabi_yau.jpg"},{"image_text":"A diagram of string theory dualities. Blue edges indicate S-duality. Red edges indicate T-duality.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Dualities_in_String_Theory.svg/450px-Dualities_in_String_Theory.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Open strings attached to a pair of D-branes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/D3-brane_et_D2-brane.PNG/220px-D3-brane_et_D2-brane.PNG"},{"image_text":"A schematic illustration of the relationship between M-theory, the five superstring theories, and eleven-dimensional supergravity. The shaded region represents a family of different physical scenarios that are possible in M-theory. In certain limiting cases corresponding to the cusps, it is natural to describe the physics using one of the six theories labeled there.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Limits_of_M-theory.svg/350px-Limits_of_M-theory.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A tessellation of the hyperbolic plane by triangles and squares","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Uniform_tiling_433-t0_%28formatted%29.svg/220px-Uniform_tiling_433-t0_%28formatted%29.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Three-dimensional anti-de Sitter space is like a stack of hyperbolic disks, each one representing the state of the universe at a given time. The resulting spacetime looks like a solid cylinder.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/AdS3.svg/350px-AdS3.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor. Today some physicists are working to understand high-temperature superconductivity using the AdS/CFT correspondence.[7]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg/220px-Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg"},{"image_text":"A map of the cosmic microwave background produced by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png/300px-Ilc_9yr_moll4096.png"},{"image_text":"The Clebsch cubic is an example of a kind of geometric object called an algebraic variety. A classical result of enumerative geometry states that there are exactly 27 straight lines that lie entirely on this surface.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clebsch_Cubic.png/220px-Clebsch_Cubic.png"},{"image_text":"An equilateral triangle can be rotated through 120°, 240°, or 360°, or reflected in any of the three lines pictured without changing its shape.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Labeled_Triangle_Reflections.svg/200px-Labeled_Triangle_Reflections.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A graph of the j-function in the complex plane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/KleinInvariantJ.jpg/300px-KleinInvariantJ.jpg"},{"image_text":"Leonard Susskind","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/LeonardSusskindStanford2009_cropped.jpg/170px-LeonardSusskindStanford2009_cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gabriele Veneziano","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/GabrieleVeneziano.jpg/170px-GabrieleVeneziano.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edward Witten","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Edward_Witten.jpg/170px-Edward_Witten.jpg"},{"image_text":"Joseph Polchinski","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Joseph_Polchinski.jpg/170px-Joseph_Polchinski.jpg"},{"image_text":"Juan Maldacena","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/JuanMaldacena.jpg/170px-JuanMaldacena.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Top Cited Articles during 2010 in hep-th\". Retrieved 25 July 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.slac.stanford.edu/spires/topcites/2010/eprints/to_hep-th_annual.shtml","url_text":"\"Top Cited Articles during 2010 in hep-th\""}]},{"reference":"Klebanov, Igor; Maldacena, Juan (2009). \"Solving Quantum Field Theories via Curved Spacetimes\". Physics Today. 62 (1): 28–33 [28]. Bibcode:2009PhT....62a..28K. doi:10.1063/1.3074260.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3074260","url_text":"\"Solving Quantum Field Theories via Curved Spacetimes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Today","url_text":"Physics Today"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PhT....62a..28K","url_text":"2009PhT....62a..28K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3074260","url_text":"10.1063/1.3074260"}]},{"reference":"Merali, Zeeya (2011). \"Collaborative physics: string theory finds a bench mate\". Nature. 478 (7369): 302–304 [303]. Bibcode:2011Natur.478..302M. doi:10.1038/478302a. PMID 22012369.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F478302a","url_text":"\"Collaborative physics: string theory finds a bench mate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.478..302M","url_text":"2011Natur.478..302M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F478302a","url_text":"10.1038/478302a"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22012369","url_text":"22012369"}]},{"reference":"Sachdev, Subir (2013). \"Strange and stringy\". Scientific American. 308 (44): 44–51 [51]. Bibcode:2012SciAm.308a..44S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0113-44. PMID 23342451.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012SciAm.308a..44S","url_text":"2012SciAm.308a..44S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0113-44","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamerican0113-44"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23342451","url_text":"23342451"}]},{"reference":"Zee, Anthony (2010). \"Parts V and VI\". Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell (2nd ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14034-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780691140346","url_text":"Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14034-6","url_text":"978-0-691-14034-6"}]},{"reference":"Randall, Lisa; Sundrum, Raman (1999). \"An alternative to compactification\". Physical Review Letters. 83 (23): 4690–4693. arXiv:hep-th/9906064. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.4690R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.4690. S2CID 18530420.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9906064","url_text":"hep-th/9906064"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhRvL..83.4690R","url_text":"1999PhRvL..83.4690R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.83.4690","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.4690"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18530420","url_text":"18530420"}]},{"reference":"Moore, Gregory (2005). \"What is ... a Brane?\" (PDF). Notices of the AMS. 52: 214–215. Retrieved 29 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ams.org/notices/200502/what-is.pdf","url_text":"\"What is ... a Brane?\""}]},{"reference":"Aspinwall, Paul; Bridgeland, Tom; Craw, Alastair; Douglas, Michael; Gross, Mark; Kapustin, Anton; Moore, Gregory; Segal, Graeme; Szendröi, Balázs; Wilson, P.M.H., eds. (2009). Dirichlet Branes and Mirror Symmetry. Clay Mathematics Monographs. Vol. 4. American Mathematical Society. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8218-3848-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_Mathematics_Monographs","url_text":"Clay Mathematics Monographs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8218-3848-8","url_text":"978-0-8218-3848-8"}]},{"reference":"Kontsevich, Maxim (1995). \"Homological Algebra of Mirror Symmetry\". Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians. pp. 120–139. arXiv:alg-geom/9411018. Bibcode:1994alg.geom.11018K. doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-9078-6_11. ISBN 978-3-0348-9897-3. S2CID 16733945.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/alg-geom/9411018","url_text":"alg-geom/9411018"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994alg.geom.11018K","url_text":"1994alg.geom.11018K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-0348-9078-6_11","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-0348-9078-6_11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0348-9897-3","url_text":"978-3-0348-9897-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16733945","url_text":"16733945"}]},{"reference":"Kapustin, Anton; Witten, Edward (2007). \"Electric-magnetic duality and the geometric Langlands program\". Communications in Number Theory and Physics. 1 (1): 1–236. arXiv:hep-th/0604151. Bibcode:2007CNTP....1....1K. doi:10.4310/cntp.2007.v1.n1.a1. S2CID 30505126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0604151","url_text":"hep-th/0604151"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007CNTP....1....1K","url_text":"2007CNTP....1....1K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4310%2Fcntp.2007.v1.n1.a1","url_text":"10.4310/cntp.2007.v1.n1.a1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30505126","url_text":"30505126"}]},{"reference":"Nahm, Walter (1978). \"Supersymmetries and their representations\" (PDF). Nuclear Physics B. 135 (1): 149–166. Bibcode:1978NuPhB.135..149N. doi:10.1016/0550-3213(78)90218-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-26. Retrieved 2019-08-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://cds.cern.ch/record/132743/files/197709213.pdf","url_text":"\"Supersymmetries and their representations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978NuPhB.135..149N","url_text":"1978NuPhB.135..149N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0550-3213%2878%2990218-3","url_text":"10.1016/0550-3213(78)90218-3"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180726120154/https://cds.cern.ch/record/132743/files/197709213.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cremmer, Eugene; Julia, Bernard; Scherk, Joël (1978). \"Supergravity theory in eleven dimensions\". Physics Letters B. 76 (4): 409–412. Bibcode:1978PhLB...76..409C. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(78)90894-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%ABl_Scherk","url_text":"Scherk, Joël"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978PhLB...76..409C","url_text":"1978PhLB...76..409C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0370-2693%2878%2990894-8","url_text":"10.1016/0370-2693(78)90894-8"}]},{"reference":"Sen, Ashoke (1994). \"Strong-weak coupling duality in four-dimensional string theory\". International Journal of Modern Physics A. 9 (21): 3707–3750. arXiv:hep-th/9402002. Bibcode:1994IJMPA...9.3707S. doi:10.1142/S0217751X94001497. S2CID 16706816.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9402002","url_text":"hep-th/9402002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994IJMPA...9.3707S","url_text":"1994IJMPA...9.3707S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS0217751X94001497","url_text":"10.1142/S0217751X94001497"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16706816","url_text":"16706816"}]},{"reference":"Sen, Ashoke (1994). \"Dyon-monopole bound states, self-dual harmonic forms on the multi-monopole moduli space, and SL(2,Z) invariance in string theory\". Physics Letters B. 329 (2): 217–221. arXiv:hep-th/9402032. Bibcode:1994PhLB..329..217S. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(94)90763-3. 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S2CID 119684549.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_Cheng","url_text":"Cheng, Miranda"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1204.2779","url_text":"1204.2779"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012arXiv1204.2779C","url_text":"2012arXiv1204.2779C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4310%2FCNTP.2014.v8.n2.a1","url_text":"10.4310/CNTP.2014.v8.n2.a1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119684549","url_text":"119684549"}]},{"reference":"Duncan, John; Griffin, Michael; Ono, Ken (2015). \"Proof of the Umbral Moonshine Conjecture\". Research in the Mathematical Sciences. 2: 26. arXiv:1503.01472. Bibcode:2015arXiv150301472D. doi:10.1186/s40687-015-0044-7. 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Retrieved 2 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.quantamagazine.org/dark-energy-may-be-incompatible-with-string-theory-20180809/","url_text":"\"Dark Energy May Be Incompatible With String Theory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanta_Magazine","url_text":"Quanta Magazine"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201115210807/https://www.quantamagazine.org/dark-energy-may-be-incompatible-with-string-theory-20180809/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Polchinski, Joseph (2007). \"All Strung Out?\". American Scientist. 95: 72. doi:10.1511/2007.63.72. Retrieved 29 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/all-strung-out","url_text":"\"All Strung Out?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2007.63.72","url_text":"10.1511/2007.63.72"}]},{"reference":"Smolin, Lee (April 2007). \"Response to review of The Trouble with Physics by Joe Polchinski\". kitp.ucsb.edu. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Horse | Trojan Horse | ["1 Warriors in the horse","2 Literary accounts","3 Factual explanations","4 Ancient representations","5 Modern metaphorical use","6 Citations","7 External links"] | Wooden horse in Greek mythology
This article is about the mythological Trojan Horse. For the type of malware, see Trojan horse (computing). For other uses, see Trojan horse (disambiguation).
Trojan WarAchilles tending the wounded Patroclus(Attic red-figure kylix, c. 500 BC)
Literary sources
Iliad
Epic Cycle
Aeneid, Book 2
Iphigenia in Aulis
Philoctetes
Ajax
The Trojan Women
Posthomerica
See also: Trojan War in literature and the arts
Episodes
Judgement of Paris
Seduction of Helen
Trojan Horse
Sack of Troy
The Returns
Wanderings of Odysseus
Aeneas and the Founding of Rome
Greeks and allies
Agamemnon
Achilles
Helen
Menelaus
Nestor
Odysseus
Ajax
Diomedes
Patroclus
Thersites
Achaeans
Myrmidons
See also: Achaean Leaders, Catalogue of Ships
Trojans and allies
Priam
Hecuba
Hector
Paris
Cassandra
Andromache
Aeneas
Memnon
Troilus
Penthesilea and the Amazons
Sarpedon
See also: Trojan Battle Order, Trojan Leaders
Participant godsCaused the war:
Eris
On the Greek side:
Athena
Hephaestus
Hera
Hermes
Thetis
Poseidon
On the Trojan side:
Aphrodite
Apollo
Ares
Artemis
Leto
Scamander
Zeus
Historicity
Ahhiyawa
Alaksandu
Archaeology of Troy
Attarsiya
Hisarlık
Homeric Question
Late Bronze Age Troy
Manapa-Tarhunta letter
Milawata letter
Tawagalawa letter
Trojan language
Wilusa
See also: Historicity of the Iliad
Related topics
Bronze Age Collapse
Euhemerism
Homeric Question
Mycenae
Mycenaean warfare
vte
In Greek mythology, the Trojan Horse (Greek: δούρειος ίππος, romanized: doureios hippos, lit. 'wooden horse') was a wooden horse said to have been used by the Greeks during the Trojan War to enter the city of Troy and win the war. The Trojan Horse is not mentioned in Homer's Iliad, with the poem ending before the war is concluded, and it is only briefly mentioned in the Odyssey. But in the Aeneid by Virgil, after a fruitless 10-year siege, the Greeks constructed a huge wooden horse at the behest of Odysseus, and hid a select force of men inside, including Odysseus himself. The Greeks pretended to sail away, and the Trojans pulled the horse into their city as a victory trophy. That night, the Greek force crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under the cover of darkness. The Greeks entered and destroyed the city, ending the war.
Metaphorically, a "Trojan horse" has come to mean any trick or stratagem that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected bastion or place. A malicious computer program that tricks users into willingly running it is also called a "Trojan horse" or simply a "Trojan".
The main ancient source for the story still extant is the Aeneid of Virgil, a Latin epic poem from the time of Augustus. The story featured heavily in the Little Iliad and the Sack of Troy, both part of the Epic Cycle, but these have only survived in fragments and epitomes. As Odysseus was the chief architect of the Trojan Horse, it is also referred to in Homer's Odyssey.
In the Greek tradition, the horse is called the "wooden horse" (δουράτεος ἵππος douráteos híppos in Homeric/Ionic Greek (Odyssey 8.512); δούρειος ἵππος, doúreios híppos in Attic Greek). In Dictys Cretensis' account, the idea of the Trojan Horse's construction comes from Helenus, who prophesies that the Greeks must dedicate a wooden horse to Athena.
Warriors in the horse
Thirty of the Achaeans' best warriors hid in the Trojan horse's womb and two spies in its mouth. Other sources give different numbers: The Bibliotheca 50; Tzetzes 23; and Quintus Smyrnaeus gives the names of 30, but says there were more. In late tradition the number was standardized at 40. Their names follow:
List of Achaeans in the Trojan Horse
Names
Sources
Quintus
Hyginus
Tryphiodorus
Tzetzes
Odysseus (leader)
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Acamas
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Agapenor
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Ajax the Lesser
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Amphidamas
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Amphimachus
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Anticlus
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Antimachus
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Antiphates
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Calchas
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Cyanippus
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Demophon
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Diomedes
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Echion
Epeius
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Eumelus
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Euryalus
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Eurydamas
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Eurymachus
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Eurypylus
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Ialmenus
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Idomeneus
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Iphidamas
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Leonteus
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Machaon
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Meges
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Menelaus
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Menestheus
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Meriones
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Neoptolemus
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Peneleos
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Philoctetes
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Podalirius
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Polypoetes
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Sthenelus
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Teucer
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Thalpius
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Thersander
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Thoas
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Thrasymedes
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Number
30
9
23
23
Literary accounts
Sinon is brought to Priam, from folio 101r of the Roman Vergil.
According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, Odysseus thought of building a great wooden horse (the horse being the emblem of Troy), hiding an elite force inside, and fooling the Trojans into wheeling the horse into the city as a trophy. Under the leadership of Epeius, the Greeks built the wooden horse in three days. Odysseus's plan called for one man to remain outside the horse; he would act as though the Greeks had abandoned him, leaving the horse as a gift for the Trojans. An inscription was engraved on the horse reading: "For their return home, the Greeks dedicate this offering to Athena". Then they burned their tents and left to Tenedos by night. Greek soldier Sinon was "abandoned" and was to signal to the Greeks by lighting a beacon.
In Virgil's poem, Sinon, the only volunteer for the role, successfully convinces the Trojans that he has been left behind and that the Greeks are gone. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse is an offering to the goddess Athena, meant to atone for the previous desecration of her temple at Troy by the Greeks and ensure a safe journey home for the Greek fleet. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse was built to be too large for them to take it into their city and gain the favor of Athena for themselves.
While questioning Sinon, the Trojan priest Laocoön guesses the plot and warns the Trojans, in Virgil's famous line Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes ("I fear Greeks, even those bearing gifts"), Danai (acc Danaos) or Danaans (Homer's name for the Greeks) being the ones who had built the Trojan Horse. However, the god Poseidon sends two sea serpents to strangle him and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus before any Trojan heeds his warning. According to Apollodorus, the two serpents were sent by Apollo, whom Laocoön had insulted by sleeping with his wife in front of the "divine image". In the Odyssey, Homer says that Helen of Troy also guesses the plot and tries to trick and uncover the Greek soldiers inside the horse by imitating the voices of their wives, and Anticlus attempts to answer, but Odysseus shuts his mouth with his hand. King Priam's daughter Cassandra, the soothsayer of Troy, insists that the horse will be the downfall of the city and its royal family. She too is ignored, hence their doom and loss of the war.
This incident is mentioned in the Odyssey:
What a thing was this, too, which that mighty man wrought and endured in the carven horse, wherein all we chiefs of the Argives were sitting, bearing to the Trojans death and fate!
But come now, change thy theme, and sing of the building of the horse of wood, which Epeius made with Athena's help, the horse which once Odysseus led up into the citadel as a thing of guile, when he had filled it with the men who sacked Ilios.
The most detailed and most familiar version is in Virgil's Aeneid, Book II (trans. A. S. Kline).
After many years have slipped by, the leaders of the Greeks,
opposed by the Fates, and damaged by the war,
build a horse of mountainous size, through Pallas's divine art,
and weave planks of fir over its ribs
they pretend it's a votive offering: this rumour spreads.
They secretly hide a picked body of men, chosen by lot,
there, in the dark body, filling the belly and the huge
cavernous insides with armed warriors.
Then Laocoön rushes down eagerly from the heights
of the citadel, to confront them all, a large crowd with him,
and shouts from far off: "O unhappy citizens, what madness?
Do you think the enemy's sailed away? Or do you think
any Greek gift's free of treachery? Is that Ulysses's reputation?
Either there are Greeks in hiding, concealed by the wood,
or it's been built as a machine to use against our walls,
or spy on our homes, or fall on the city from above,
or it hides some other trick: Trojans, don't trust this horse.
Whatever it is, I'm afraid of Greeks even those bearing gifts."
Book II includes Laocoön saying: "Equo ne credite, Teucri. Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes." ("Do not trust the horse, Trojans! Whatever it is, I fear the Danaans , even those bearing gifts.")
Well before Virgil, the story is also alluded to in Greek classical literature. In Euripides' play Trojan Women, written in 415 BC, the god Poseidon proclaims: "For, from his home beneath Parnassus, Phocian Epeus, aided by the craft of Pallas, framed a horse to bear within its womb an armed host, and sent it within the battlements, fraught with death; whence in days to come men shall tell of 'the wooden horse,' with its hidden load of warriors."
A replica of the Trojan Horse stands today in Turkey, the modern-day location of the city of Troy.
Factual explanations
The Phoenician ship called hippos, from the Assyrian city of Khorsabad, 8th century BC
It has been speculated that the story of the Trojan Horse resulted from later poets creatively misunderstanding an actual historical use of a siege engine at Troy. Animal names are often used for military machinery, as with the Roman onager and various Bronze Age Assyrian siege engines which were often covered with dampened horse hides to protect against flaming arrows. Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, wrote in his book Description of Greece, "That the work of Epeius was a contrivance to make a breach in the Trojan wall is known to everybody who does not attribute utter silliness to the Phrygians"; by the Phrygians, he meant the Trojans.
Some authors have suggested that the gift might also have been a ship, with warriors hidden inside. It has been noted that the terms used to put men in the horse are those used by ancient Greek authors to describe the embarkation of men on a ship and that there are analogies between the building of ships by Paris at the beginning of the Trojan saga and the building of the horse at the end; ships are called "sea-horses" once in the Odyssey. This view has recently gained support from naval archaeology: ancient text and images show that a Phoenician merchant ship type decorated with a horse head, called hippos ('horse') by Greeks, became very diffuse in the Levant area around the beginning of the 1st millennium BC and was used to trade precious metals and sometimes to pay tribute after the end of a war. That has caused the suggestion that the original story viewed the Greek soldiers hiding inside the hull of such a vessel, possibly disguised as a tribute, and that the term was later misunderstood in the oral transmission of the story, the origin to the Trojan horse myth.
Ships with a horsehead decoration, perhaps cult ships, are also represented in artifacts of the Minoan/Mycenaean era; the image on a seal found in the palace of Knossos, dated around 1200 BC, which depicts a ship with oarsmen and a superimposed horse figure, originally interpreted as a representation of horse transport by sea, may in fact be related to this kind of vessels, and even be considered as the first (pre-literary) representation of the Trojan Horse episode.
A more speculative theory, originally proposed by Fritz Schachermeyr, is that the Trojan Horse is a metaphor for a destructive earthquake that damaged the walls of Troy and allowed the Greeks inside. In his theory, the horse represents Poseidon, who as well as being god of the sea was also god of horses and earthquakes. The theory is supported by the fact that archaeological digs have found that Troy VI was heavily damaged in an earthquake but is hard to square with the mythological claim that Poseidon himself built the walls of Troy in the first place.
Ancient representations
Pictorial representations of the Trojan Horse earlier than, or contemporary to, the first literary appearances of the episode can help clarify what was the meaning of the story as perceived by its contemporary audience. There are few ancient (before 480 BC) depictions of the Trojan Horse surviving. The earliest is on a Boeotian fibula dating from about 700 BC. Other early depictions are found on two relief pithoi from the Greek islands Mykonos and Tinos, both generally dated between 675 and 650 BC. The one from Mykonos (see figure) is known as the Mykonos vase. Historian Michael Wood dates the Mykonos vase to the eighth century BC, before the written accounts attributed by tradition to Homer, and posits this as evidence that the story of the Trojan Horse existed before those accounts were written. Other archaic representations of the Trojan horse are found on a Corinthian aryballos dating back to 560 BC (see figure), on a vase fragment to 540 BC (see figure), and on an Etruscan carnelian scarab. An Attic red-figure fragment from a kalyx-krater dated to around 400 BC depicts the scene where the Greeks are climbing down the Trojan Horse, represented by the wooden hatch door.
The earliest known depiction of the Trojan Horse, on a bronze fibula (ca. 700 BC), note the wheels and the square openings on the horse's side
The Mykonos vase (750 to 650 BC), with one of the earliest known renditions of the Trojan Horse, (note the depiction of the faces of hidden warriors shown on the horse's side)
Depiction of the Trojan Horse on a Corinthian aryballos (ca. 560 BC) found in Cerveteri (Italy)
Warriors leaving the Trojan Horse, fragment of an attic black-figure krater from Orbetello (Italy), ca. 540 BC
Modern metaphorical use
The term "Trojan horse" is used metaphorically to mean any trick or strategy that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected place; or to deceive by appearance, hiding malevolent intent in an outwardly benign exterior; to subvert from within using deceptive means.
Citations
^ Broeniman, Clifford (1996). "Demodocus, Odysseus, and the Trojan War in "Odyssey" 8". The Classical World. 90 (1): 3–13. doi:10.2307/4351895. JSTOR 4351895.
^ Cretensis, Dictys. "5.9". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome 5.14
^ Tzetzes, Posthomerica 641–650
^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy xii.314–335
^ Bibliotheca, Epitome, e.5.15
^ "Virgil:Aeneid II". Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, Epitome,Epit. E.5.18
^ Homer, Odyssey, 4. 274–289.
^ Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Everyman's Library, 1992. Print.
^ "Homer, The Odyssey, Scroll 4, line 21". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
^ "Homer, Odyssey, Book 8, line 469". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
^ "Virgil". poetryintranslation.com.
^ "The Trojan Women, Euripides". Classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Michael Wood, in his book "In search of the Trojan war" ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3 (which was shown on BBC TV as a series)
^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece 1, XXIII,8". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
^ Fields, Nic (2004). Troy c. 1700–1250 BC. Spedaliere, Donato and Spedaliere, Sarah Sulemsohn (illustrators). Oxford: Osprey. pp. 51–52. ISBN 1841767034. OCLC 56321915.
^ See pages 22–26 in The fall of Troy in early Greek poetry and art, Michael John Anderson, Oxford University Press, 1997
^ de Arbulo Bayona, Joaquin Ruiz (2009). "LOS NAVEGANTES Y LO SAGRADO. EL BARCO DE TROYA. NUEVOS ARGUMENTOS PARA UNA EXPLICACION NAUTICA DEL CABALLO DE MADERA" (PDF). Arqueología Náutica Mediterránea, Monografies del CASC. 8. Girona: 535–551.
^ Tiboni, Francesco. "The Dourateos Hippos from allegory to Archaeology: a Phoenician Ship to break the Wall." Archaeologia maritima mediterranea 13.13 (2016): 91–104
^ a b Tiboni, Francesco (5 December 2017). "La marineria fenicia nel Mediterraneo nella prima Età del ferro: il tipo navale Hippos". In Morozzo della Rocca, Maria Carola; Tiboni, Francesco (eds.). Atti del 2° convegno nazionale. Cultura navale e marittima transire mare 22–23 settembre 2016 (in Italian). goWare. ISBN 9788867979042.
^ Salimbeti, A. "The Greek Age of Bronze - Ships". Retrieved 23 August 2020.
^ Wachsmann, Shelley (2008). Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1603440806.
^ "Minoan transport vessel with figure of horse superimposed".
^ Evans, Arthur (1935). The Palace of Minos: a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. Vol. 4. p. 827.
^ Chondros, Thomas G (2015). "The Trojan Horse reconstruction". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 90: 261–282. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2015.03.015.
^ a b Eric H. Cline (2013). The Trojan War: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199333820.
^ Stephen Kershaw (2010). A Brief Guide to Classical Civilization. Little, Brown Book. ISBN 978-1849018005.
^ a b c d Sparkes, B. A. (1971). "The Trojan Horse in Classical Art1". Greece & Rome. 18 (1): 54–70. doi:10.1017/S001738350001768X. ISSN 1477-4550. S2CID 162853081.
^ Sadurska, Anna (1986). "Equus Trojanus". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. 3, 1. Zürich: 813–817.
^ British Museum. Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities; Walters, Henry Beauchamp (1899). Catalogue of the bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Wellesley College Library. London, Printed by order of the Trustees. p. 374.
^ "Bronze bow fibula (brooch) with a glimpse of the Trojan Horse with wheels under feet – Images for Mary Beard's Cultural Exchange – Front Row's Cultural Exchange – BBC Radio 4". BBC. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
^ Caskey, Miriam Ervin (Winter 1976). "Notes on Relief Pithoi of the Tenian-Boiotian Group". American Journal of Archaeology. 80 (1): 19–41. doi:10.2307/502935. JSTOR 502935. S2CID 191406489.
^ Wood, Michael (1985). In Search of the Trojan War. London: BBC books. pp. 80, 251. ISBN 978-0-563-20161-8.
^ "Carnelian scarab | Etruscan, Populonia | Late Archaic | The Met". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
^ Peixoto, Gabriel B. (2022). "The Depiction of Temples in Attic Red Figure: from mid-5th to mid-4th century BCE". doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.27930.31687.
^ "Trojan horse". Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
^ "a Trojan horse". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
^ "Trojan horse". Merriam Webster. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
External links
Media related to Trojan horse at Wikimedia Commons
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MusicBrainz work | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trojan horse (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Trojan horse (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse"},{"link_name":"Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_War"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"Homer's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad"},{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Odysseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus"},{"link_name":"Metaphorically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor"},{"link_name":"malicious computer program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"Trojan horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"epic poem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poem"},{"link_name":"Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"Little Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Iliad"},{"link_name":"Sack of Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliupersis"},{"link_name":"Epic Cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_Cycle"},{"link_name":"epitomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitome"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Homeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Greek"},{"link_name":"Ionic Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_Greek"},{"link_name":"Attic Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Greek"},{"link_name":"Dictys Cretensis'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictys_Cretensis"},{"link_name":"Helenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helenus_of_Troy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"This article is about the mythological Trojan Horse. For the type of malware, see Trojan horse (computing). For other uses, see Trojan horse (disambiguation).In Greek mythology, the Trojan Horse (Greek: δούρειος ίππος, romanized: doureios hippos, lit. 'wooden horse') was a wooden horse said to have been used by the Greeks during the Trojan War to enter the city of Troy and win the war. The Trojan Horse is not mentioned in Homer's Iliad, with the poem ending before the war is concluded, and it is only briefly mentioned in the Odyssey. But in the Aeneid by Virgil, after a fruitless 10-year siege, the Greeks constructed a huge wooden horse at the behest of Odysseus, and hid a select force of men inside, including Odysseus himself. The Greeks pretended to sail away, and the Trojans pulled the horse into their city as a victory trophy. That night, the Greek force crept out of the horse and opened the gates for the rest of the Greek army, which had sailed back under the cover of darkness. The Greeks entered and destroyed the city, ending the war.Metaphorically, a \"Trojan horse\" has come to mean any trick or stratagem that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected bastion or place. A malicious computer program that tricks users into willingly running it is also called a \"Trojan horse\" or simply a \"Trojan\".The main ancient source for the story still extant is the Aeneid of Virgil, a Latin epic poem from the time of Augustus. The story featured heavily in the Little Iliad and the Sack of Troy, both part of the Epic Cycle, but these have only survived in fragments and epitomes. As Odysseus was the chief architect of the Trojan Horse, it is also referred to in Homer's Odyssey.[1]\nIn the Greek tradition, the horse is called the \"wooden horse\" (δουράτεος ἵππος douráteos híppos in Homeric/Ionic Greek (Odyssey 8.512); δούρειος ἵππος, doúreios híppos in Attic Greek). In Dictys Cretensis' account, the idea of the Trojan Horse's construction comes from Helenus, who prophesies that the Greeks must dedicate a wooden horse to Athena.[2]","title":"Trojan Horse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"Tzetzes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tzetzes"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Thirty of the Achaeans' best warriors hid in the Trojan horse's womb and two spies in its mouth. Other sources give different numbers: The Bibliotheca 50;[3] Tzetzes 23;[4] and Quintus Smyrnaeus gives the names of 30, but says there were more.[5] In late tradition the number was standardized at 40. Their names follow:","title":"Warriors in the horse"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomanVirgilFolio101r.jpg"},{"link_name":"Roman Vergil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Vergil"},{"link_name":"Quintus Smyrnaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Smyrnaeus"},{"link_name":"Odysseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odysseus"},{"link_name":"Epeius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epeius"},{"link_name":"Sinon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinon"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"Laocoön","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n"},{"link_name":"Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeo_Danaos_et_dona_ferentes"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"acc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accusative"},{"link_name":"Danaans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaans"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"Apollodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Helen of Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_of_Troy"},{"link_name":"Anticlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticlus"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"King Priam's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priam"},{"link_name":"Cassandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassandra"},{"link_name":"soothsayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune-telling"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"},{"link_name":"Argives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argives"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Epeius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epeius"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Laocoön","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laoco%C3%B6n"},{"link_name":"Equo ne credite, Teucri. Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeo_Danaos_et_dona_ferentes"},{"link_name":"Danaans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danaans"},{"link_name":"Euripides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides"},{"link_name":"Trojan Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_Women"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trojan_horse_in_Canakkale,_Turkey.jpg"}],"text":"Sinon is brought to Priam, from folio 101r of the Roman Vergil.According to Quintus Smyrnaeus, Odysseus thought of building a great wooden horse (the horse being the emblem of Troy), hiding an elite force inside, and fooling the Trojans into wheeling the horse into the city as a trophy. Under the leadership of Epeius, the Greeks built the wooden horse in three days. Odysseus's plan called for one man to remain outside the horse; he would act as though the Greeks had abandoned him, leaving the horse as a gift for the Trojans. An inscription was engraved on the horse reading: \"For their return home, the Greeks dedicate this offering to Athena\". Then they burned their tents and left to Tenedos by night. Greek soldier Sinon was \"abandoned\" and was to signal to the Greeks by lighting a beacon.[6]In Virgil's poem, Sinon, the only volunteer for the role, successfully convinces the Trojans that he has been left behind and that the Greeks are gone. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse is an offering to the goddess Athena, meant to atone for the previous desecration of her temple at Troy by the Greeks and ensure a safe journey home for the Greek fleet. Sinon tells the Trojans that the Horse was built to be too large for them to take it into their city and gain the favor of Athena for themselves.While questioning Sinon, the Trojan priest Laocoön guesses the plot and warns the Trojans, in Virgil's famous line Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes (\"I fear Greeks, even those bearing gifts\"),[7] Danai (acc Danaos) or Danaans (Homer's name for the Greeks) being the ones who had built the Trojan Horse. However, the god Poseidon sends two sea serpents to strangle him and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus before any Trojan heeds his warning. According to Apollodorus, the two serpents were sent by Apollo, whom Laocoön had insulted by sleeping with his wife in front of the \"divine image\".[8] In the Odyssey, Homer says that Helen of Troy also guesses the plot and tries to trick and uncover the Greek soldiers inside the horse by imitating the voices of their wives, and Anticlus attempts to answer, but Odysseus shuts his mouth with his hand.[9] King Priam's daughter Cassandra, the soothsayer of Troy, insists that the horse will be the downfall of the city and its royal family. She too is ignored, hence their doom and loss of the war.[10]This incident is mentioned in the Odyssey:What a thing was this, too, which that mighty man wrought and endured in the carven horse, wherein all we chiefs of the Argives were sitting, bearing to the Trojans death and fate![11]\n\nBut come now, change thy theme, and sing of the building of the horse of wood, which Epeius made with Athena's help, the horse which once Odysseus led up into the citadel as a thing of guile, when he had filled it with the men who sacked Ilios.[12]The most detailed and most familiar version is in Virgil's Aeneid, Book II[13] (trans. A. S. Kline).After many years have slipped by, the leaders of the Greeks,\nopposed by the Fates, and damaged by the war,\nbuild a horse of mountainous size, through Pallas's divine art,\nand weave planks of fir over its ribs\nthey pretend it's a votive offering: this rumour spreads.\nThey secretly hide a picked body of men, chosen by lot,\nthere, in the dark body, filling the belly and the huge\ncavernous insides with armed warriors.\n[...]\nThen Laocoön rushes down eagerly from the heights\nof the citadel, to confront them all, a large crowd with him,\nand shouts from far off: \"O unhappy citizens, what madness?\nDo you think the enemy's sailed away? Or do you think\nany Greek gift's free of treachery? Is that Ulysses's reputation?\nEither there are Greeks in hiding, concealed by the wood,\nor it's been built as a machine to use against our walls,\nor spy on our homes, or fall on the city from above,\nor it hides some other trick: Trojans, don't trust this horse.\nWhatever it is, I'm afraid of Greeks even those bearing gifts.\"Book II includes Laocoön saying: \"Equo ne credite, Teucri. Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes.\" (\"Do not trust the horse, Trojans! Whatever it is, I fear the Danaans [Greeks], even those bearing gifts.\")Well before Virgil, the story is also alluded to in Greek classical literature. In Euripides' play Trojan Women, written in 415 BC, the god Poseidon proclaims: \"For, from his home beneath Parnassus, Phocian Epeus, aided by the craft of Pallas, framed a horse to bear within its womb an armed host, and sent it within the battlements, fraught with death; whence in days to come men shall tell of 'the wooden horse,' with its hidden load of warriors.\"[14]A replica of the Trojan Horse stands today in Turkey, the modern-day location of the city of Troy.","title":"Literary accounts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hippos_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"siege engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_engine"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"onager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onager_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"Assyrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Assyrians"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"Description of Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Description_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Phrygians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygians"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"},{"link_name":"Levant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"},{"link_name":"Minoan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Fritz Schachermeyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Schachermeyr"},{"link_name":"earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake"},{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quake-27"},{"link_name":"Poseidon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon"},{"link_name":"Troy VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy#Troy_VI_and_VII"},{"link_name":"earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quake-27"},{"link_name":"Poseidon himself built the walls of Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poseidon#Walls_of_Troy"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"The Phoenician ship called hippos, from the Assyrian city of Khorsabad, 8th century BCIt has been speculated that the story of the Trojan Horse resulted from later poets creatively misunderstanding an actual historical use of a siege engine at Troy. Animal names are often used for military machinery, as with the Roman onager and various Bronze Age Assyrian siege engines which were often covered with dampened horse hides to protect against flaming arrows.[15] Pausanias, who lived in the 2nd century AD, wrote in his book Description of Greece, \"That the work of Epeius was a contrivance to make a breach in the Trojan wall is known to everybody who does not attribute utter silliness to the Phrygians\";[16] by the Phrygians, he meant the Trojans.Some authors have suggested that the gift might also have been a ship, with warriors hidden inside.[17] It has been noted that the terms used to put men in the horse are those used by ancient Greek authors to describe the embarkation of men on a ship and that there are analogies between the building of ships by Paris at the beginning of the Trojan saga and the building of the horse at the end;[18] ships are called \"sea-horses\" once in the Odyssey.[19] This view has recently gained support from naval archaeology:[20][21] ancient text and images show that a Phoenician merchant ship type decorated with a horse head, called hippos ('horse') by Greeks, became very diffuse in the Levant area around the beginning of the 1st millennium BC and was used to trade precious metals and sometimes to pay tribute after the end of a war.[21] That has caused the suggestion that the original story viewed the Greek soldiers hiding inside the hull of such a vessel, possibly disguised as a tribute, and that the term was later misunderstood in the oral transmission of the story, the origin to the Trojan horse myth.Ships with a horsehead decoration, perhaps cult ships, are also represented in artifacts of the Minoan/Mycenaean era;[22][23] the image[24] on a seal found in the palace of Knossos, dated around 1200 BC, which depicts a ship with oarsmen and a superimposed horse figure, originally interpreted as a representation of horse transport by sea,[25] may in fact be related to this kind of vessels, and even be considered as the first (pre-literary) representation of the Trojan Horse episode.[26]A more speculative theory, originally proposed by Fritz Schachermeyr, is that the Trojan Horse is a metaphor for a destructive earthquake that damaged the walls of Troy and allowed the Greeks inside.[27] In his theory, the horse represents Poseidon, who as well as being god of the sea was also god of horses and earthquakes. The theory is supported by the fact that archaeological digs have found that Troy VI was heavily damaged in an earthquake[27] but is hard to square with the mythological claim that Poseidon himself built the walls of Troy in the first place.[28]","title":"Factual explanations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BA_Sparkes-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"fibula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibula_(brooch)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief"},{"link_name":"pithoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pithos"},{"link_name":"Mykonos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykonos"},{"link_name":"Tinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinos"},{"link_name":"Mykonos vase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykonos_vase"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BA_Sparkes-29"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Michael Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wood_(historian)"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Corinthian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinth"},{"link_name":"aryballos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryballos"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BA_Sparkes-29"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalogue_of_the_bronzes,_Greek,_Roman,_and_Etruscan,_in_the_Department_of_Greek_and_Roman_Antiquities,_British_Museum_(1899)_(14780940341).jpg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BA_Sparkes-29"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mykonos_vase.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mykonos vase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykonos_vase"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trojan_horse_on_corintian_aryballos.JPG"},{"link_name":"aryballos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryballos"},{"link_name":"Cerveteri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerveteri"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antikensammlung_Berlin_405.JPG"},{"link_name":"krater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krater"},{"link_name":"Orbetello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbetello"}],"text":"Pictorial representations of the Trojan Horse earlier than, or contemporary to, the first literary appearances of the episode can help clarify what was the meaning of the story as perceived by its contemporary audience. There are few ancient (before 480 BC) depictions of the Trojan Horse surviving.[29][30] The earliest is on a Boeotian fibula dating from about 700 BC.[31][32] Other early depictions are found on two relief pithoi from the Greek islands Mykonos and Tinos, both generally dated between 675 and 650 BC. The one from Mykonos (see figure) is known as the Mykonos vase.[29][33] Historian Michael Wood dates the Mykonos vase to the eighth century BC, before the written accounts attributed by tradition to Homer, and posits this as evidence that the story of the Trojan Horse existed before those accounts were written.[34] Other archaic representations of the Trojan horse are found on a Corinthian aryballos dating back to 560 BC[29] (see figure), on a vase fragment to 540 BC (see figure), and on an Etruscan carnelian scarab.[35] An Attic red-figure fragment from a kalyx-krater dated to around 400 BC depicts the scene where the Greeks are climbing down the Trojan Horse, represented by the wooden hatch door.[36]The earliest known depiction of the Trojan Horse,[29] on a bronze fibula (ca. 700 BC), note the wheels and the square openings on the horse's side\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Mykonos vase (750 to 650 BC), with one of the earliest known renditions of the Trojan Horse, (note the depiction of the faces of hidden warriors shown on the horse's side)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDepiction of the Trojan Horse on a Corinthian aryballos (ca. 560 BC) found in Cerveteri (Italy)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWarriors leaving the Trojan Horse, fragment of an attic black-figure krater from Orbetello (Italy), ca. 540 BC","title":"Ancient representations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"The term \"Trojan horse\" is used metaphorically to mean any trick or strategy that causes a target to invite a foe into a securely protected place; or to deceive by appearance, hiding malevolent intent in an outwardly benign exterior; to subvert from within using deceptive means.[37][38][39]","title":"Modern metaphorical use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/4351895","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F4351895"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4351895","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/4351895"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"5.9\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.theoi.com/Text/DictysCretensis5.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_3-0"},{"link_name":"Pseudo-Apollodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)"},{"link_name":"Epitome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitome"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:2_4-0"},{"link_name":"Tzetzes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tzetzes"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Quintus Smyrnaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Smyrnaeus"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Bibliotheca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)"},{"link_name":"e.5.15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+Epit.+E.5.15&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Virgil:Aeneid II\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#_Toc536009311"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Apollodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollodorus_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Bibliotheca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)"},{"link_name":"Epit. E.5.18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DEpitome%3Abook%3DE%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"4. 274–289","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D265"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Homer, The Odyssey, Scroll 4, line 21\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=hom.+od.+4.271&redirect=true"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"Homer, Odyssey, Book 8, line 469\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136:book=8:card=469"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"\"Virgil\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#_Toc536009309"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"The Trojan Women, Euripides\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//classics.mit.edu/Euripides/troj_women.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Michael Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wood_(historian)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-21599-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-21599-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"\"Pausanias, Description of Greece 1, XXIII,8\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=paus.+1.1.1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Troy c. 1700–1250 BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/troycbc00fiel_226"},{"link_name":"51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/troycbc00fiel_226/page/n27"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1841767034","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1841767034"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"56321915","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/56321915"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"\"LOS NAVEGANTES Y LO SAGRADO. 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Ships\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.salimbeti.com/micenei/ships.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1603440806","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1603440806"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"\"Minoan transport vessel with figure of horse superimposed\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/evans1935a/0477"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2015.03.015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mechmachtheory.2015.03.015"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Quake_27-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Quake_27-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0199333820","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199333820"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1849018005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1849018005"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BA_Sparkes_29-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BA_Sparkes_29-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BA_Sparkes_29-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-BA_Sparkes_29-3"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S001738350001768X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS001738350001768X"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1477-4550","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1477-4550"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"162853081","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162853081"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-31"},{"link_name":"Catalogue of the bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/catalogueofbronz00brit"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"\"Bronze bow fibula (brooch) with a glimpse of the Trojan Horse with wheels under feet – Images for Mary Beard's Cultural Exchange – Front Row's Cultural Exchange – BBC Radio 4\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p019b4wl/p0199bsc"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/502935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F502935"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"502935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/502935"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"191406489","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191406489"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"Wood, Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wood_(historian)"},{"link_name":"In Search of the Trojan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/trent_0116300590720_1985/page/80"},{"link_name":"80, 251","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/trent_0116300590720_1985/page/80"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-563-20161-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-20161-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"\"Carnelian scarab | Etruscan, Populonia | Late Archaic | The Met\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/253376"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"\"The Depiction of Temples in Attic Red Figure: from mid-5th to mid-4th century BCE\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.27930.31687"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.13140/RG.2.2.27930.31687","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.13140%2FRG.2.2.27930.31687"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"},{"link_name":"\"Trojan horse\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/trojan-horse"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"\"a Trojan horse\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//idioms.thefreedictionary.com/a+Trojan+horse"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"\"Trojan horse\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Trojan%20horse"}],"text":"^ Broeniman, Clifford (1996). \"Demodocus, Odysseus, and the Trojan War in \"Odyssey\" 8\". The Classical World. 90 (1): 3–13. doi:10.2307/4351895. JSTOR 4351895.\n\n^ Cretensis, Dictys. \"5.9\". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 12 January 2024.\n\n^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Epitome 5.14\n\n^ Tzetzes, Posthomerica 641–650\n\n^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy xii.314–335\n\n^ Bibliotheca, Epitome, e.5.15\n\n^ \"Virgil:Aeneid II\". Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 10 August 2012.\n\n^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, Epitome,Epit. E.5.18\n\n^ Homer, Odyssey, 4. 274–289.\n\n^ Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York: Everyman's Library, 1992. Print.\n\n^ \"Homer, The Odyssey, Scroll 4, line 21\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 April 2020.\n\n^ \"Homer, Odyssey, Book 8, line 469\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 April 2020.\n\n^ \"Virgil\". poetryintranslation.com.\n\n^ \"The Trojan Women, Euripides\". Classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 10 August 2012.\n\n^ Michael Wood, in his book \"In search of the Trojan war\" ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3 (which was shown on BBC TV as a series)\n\n^ \"Pausanias, Description of Greece 1, XXIII,8\". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 10 August 2012.\n\n^ Fields, Nic (2004). Troy c. 1700–1250 BC. Spedaliere, Donato and Spedaliere, Sarah Sulemsohn (illustrators). Oxford: Osprey. pp. 51–52. ISBN 1841767034. OCLC 56321915.\n\n^ See pages 22–26 in The fall of Troy in early Greek poetry and art, Michael John Anderson, Oxford University Press, 1997\n\n^ de Arbulo Bayona, Joaquin Ruiz (2009). \"LOS NAVEGANTES Y LO SAGRADO. EL BARCO DE TROYA. NUEVOS ARGUMENTOS PARA UNA EXPLICACION NAUTICA DEL CABALLO DE MADERA\" (PDF). Arqueología Náutica Mediterránea, Monografies del CASC. 8. Girona: 535–551.\n\n^ Tiboni, Francesco. \"The Dourateos Hippos from allegory to Archaeology: a Phoenician Ship to break the Wall.\" Archaeologia maritima mediterranea 13.13 (2016): 91–104\n\n^ a b Tiboni, Francesco (5 December 2017). \"La marineria fenicia nel Mediterraneo nella prima Età del ferro: il tipo navale Hippos\". In Morozzo della Rocca, Maria Carola; Tiboni, Francesco (eds.). Atti del 2° convegno nazionale. Cultura navale e marittima transire mare 22–23 settembre 2016 (in Italian). goWare. ISBN 9788867979042.\n\n^ Salimbeti, A. \"The Greek Age of Bronze - Ships\". Retrieved 23 August 2020.\n\n^ Wachsmann, Shelley (2008). Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1603440806.\n\n^ \"Minoan transport vessel with figure of horse superimposed\".\n\n^ Evans, Arthur (1935). The Palace of Minos: a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated by the discoveries at Knossos. Vol. 4. p. 827.\n\n^ Chondros, Thomas G (2015). \"The Trojan Horse reconstruction\". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 90: 261–282. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2015.03.015.\n\n^ a b Eric H. Cline (2013). The Trojan War: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199333820.\n\n^ Stephen Kershaw (2010). A Brief Guide to Classical Civilization. Little, Brown Book. ISBN 978-1849018005.\n\n^ a b c d Sparkes, B. A. (1971). \"The Trojan Horse in Classical Art1\". Greece & Rome. 18 (1): 54–70. doi:10.1017/S001738350001768X. ISSN 1477-4550. S2CID 162853081.\n\n^ Sadurska, Anna (1986). \"Equus Trojanus\". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. 3, 1. Zürich: 813–817.\n\n^ British Museum. Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities; Walters, Henry Beauchamp (1899). Catalogue of the bronzes, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum. Wellesley College Library. London, Printed by order of the Trustees. p. 374.\n\n^ \"Bronze bow fibula (brooch) with a glimpse of the Trojan Horse with wheels under feet – Images for Mary Beard's Cultural Exchange – Front Row's Cultural Exchange – BBC Radio 4\". BBC. Retrieved 3 November 2017.\n\n^ Caskey, Miriam Ervin (Winter 1976). \"Notes on Relief Pithoi of the Tenian-Boiotian Group\". American Journal of Archaeology. 80 (1): 19–41. doi:10.2307/502935. JSTOR 502935. S2CID 191406489.\n\n^ Wood, Michael (1985). In Search of the Trojan War. London: BBC books. pp. 80, 251. ISBN 978-0-563-20161-8.\n\n^ \"Carnelian scarab | Etruscan, Populonia | Late Archaic | The Met\". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Retrieved 27 November 2017.\n\n^ Peixoto, Gabriel B. (2022). \"The Depiction of Temples in Attic Red Figure: from mid-5th to mid-4th century BCE\". doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.27930.31687.\n\n^ \"Trojan horse\". Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 9 October 2019.\n\n^ \"a Trojan horse\". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved 9 October 2019.\n\n^ \"Trojan horse\". Merriam Webster. Retrieved 9 October 2019.","title":"Citations"}] | [{"image_text":"Sinon is brought to Priam, from folio 101r of the Roman Vergil.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/RomanVirgilFolio101r.jpg/220px-RomanVirgilFolio101r.jpg"},{"image_text":"A replica of the Trojan Horse stands today in Turkey, the modern-day location of the city of Troy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Trojan_horse_in_Canakkale%2C_Turkey.jpg/220px-Trojan_horse_in_Canakkale%2C_Turkey.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Phoenician ship called hippos, from the Assyrian city of Khorsabad, 8th century BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Hippos_2.jpg/220px-Hippos_2.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"Broeniman, Clifford (1996). \"Demodocus, Odysseus, and the Trojan War in \"Odyssey\" 8\". The Classical World. 90 (1): 3–13. doi:10.2307/4351895. JSTOR 4351895.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4351895","url_text":"10.2307/4351895"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4351895","url_text":"4351895"}]},{"reference":"Cretensis, Dictys. \"5.9\". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 12 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theoi.com/Text/DictysCretensis5.html","url_text":"\"5.9\""}]},{"reference":"\"Virgil:Aeneid II\". Poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 10 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#_Toc536009311","url_text":"\"Virgil:Aeneid II\""}]},{"reference":"\"Homer, The Odyssey, Scroll 4, line 21\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=hom.+od.+4.271&redirect=true","url_text":"\"Homer, The Odyssey, Scroll 4, line 21\""}]},{"reference":"\"Homer, Odyssey, Book 8, line 469\". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 April 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0136:book=8:card=469","url_text":"\"Homer, Odyssey, Book 8, line 469\""}]},{"reference":"\"Virgil\". poetryintranslation.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#_Toc536009309","url_text":"\"Virgil\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Trojan Women, Euripides\". Classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 10 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://classics.mit.edu/Euripides/troj_women.html","url_text":"\"The Trojan Women, Euripides\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pausanias, Description of Greece 1, XXIII,8\". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 10 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=paus.+1.1.1","url_text":"\"Pausanias, Description of Greece 1, XXIII,8\""}]},{"reference":"Fields, Nic (2004). Troy c. 1700–1250 BC. Spedaliere, Donato and Spedaliere, Sarah Sulemsohn (illustrators). Oxford: Osprey. pp. 51–52. ISBN 1841767034. OCLC 56321915.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/troycbc00fiel_226","url_text":"Troy c. 1700–1250 BC"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/troycbc00fiel_226/page/n27","url_text":"51"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1841767034","url_text":"1841767034"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56321915","url_text":"56321915"}]},{"reference":"de Arbulo Bayona, Joaquin Ruiz (2009). \"LOS NAVEGANTES Y LO SAGRADO. EL BARCO DE TROYA. NUEVOS ARGUMENTOS PARA UNA EXPLICACION NAUTICA DEL CABALLO DE MADERA\" (PDF). Arqueología Náutica Mediterránea, Monografies del CASC. 8. Girona: 535–551.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/download/28980666/Ruiz_de_Arbulo_EL_BARCO_DE_TROYA.pdf","url_text":"\"LOS NAVEGANTES Y LO SAGRADO. EL BARCO DE TROYA. NUEVOS ARGUMENTOS PARA UNA EXPLICACION NAUTICA DEL CABALLO DE MADERA\""}]},{"reference":"Tiboni, Francesco (5 December 2017). \"La marineria fenicia nel Mediterraneo nella prima Età del ferro: il tipo navale Hippos\". In Morozzo della Rocca, Maria Carola; Tiboni, Francesco (eds.). Atti del 2° convegno nazionale. Cultura navale e marittima transire mare 22–23 settembre 2016 (in Italian). goWare. ISBN 9788867979042.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=A5lBDwAAQBAJ&q=tiboni+francesco","url_text":"\"La marineria fenicia nel Mediterraneo nella prima Età del ferro: il tipo navale Hippos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788867979042","url_text":"9788867979042"}]},{"reference":"Salimbeti, A. \"The Greek Age of Bronze - Ships\". Retrieved 23 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.salimbeti.com/micenei/ships.htm","url_text":"\"The Greek Age of Bronze - Ships\""}]},{"reference":"Wachsmann, Shelley (2008). Seagoing Ships and Seamanship in the Bronze Age Levant. Texas A&M University Press. 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Retrieved 9 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Trojan%20horse","url_text":"\"Trojan horse\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4351895","external_links_name":"10.2307/4351895"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4351895","external_links_name":"4351895"},{"Link":"https://www.theoi.com/Text/DictysCretensis5.html","external_links_name":"\"5.9\""},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+Epit.+E.5.15&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022","external_links_name":"e.5.15"},{"Link":"http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#_Toc536009311","external_links_name":"\"Virgil:Aeneid II\""},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DEpitome%3Abook%3DE%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D18","external_links_name":"Epit. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabary | Syllabary | ["1 Types","2 Languages using syllabaries","3 Difference from abugidas","4 Comparison to alphabets","5 See also","6 References"] | Set of written symbols that represent the syllables or moras which make up spoken words
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In the linguistic study of written languages, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent the syllables or (more frequently) moras which make up words.
A symbol in a syllabary, called a syllabogram, typically represents an (optional) consonant sound (simple onset) followed by a vowel sound (nucleus)—that is, a CV or V syllable—but other phonographic mappings, such as CVC, CV- tone, and C (normally nasals at the end of syllables), are also found in syllabaries.
Types
Each syllable (σ) branches into consonantal onset (ω) and rime (ρ) that is divided into nucleus (ν) and coda (κ), non-/supra-segmental parameters like tone (τ) affect the syllable as a whole
A writing system using a syllabary is complete when it covers all syllables in the corresponding spoken language without requiring complex orthographic / graphemic rules, like implicit codas (⟨C1V⟩ ⇒ /C1VC2/), silent vowels (⟨C1V1+C2V2⟩ ⇒ /C1V1C2/) or echo vowels (⟨C1V1+C2V1⟩ ⇒ /C1V1C2/). This loosely corresponds to shallow orthographies in alphabetic writing systems.
True syllabograms are those that encompass all parts of a syllable, i.e., initial onset, medial nucleus and final coda, but since onset and coda are optional in at least some languages, there are middle (nucleus), start (onset-nucleus), end (nucleus-coda) and full (onset-nucleus-coda) true syllabograms. Most syllabaries only feature one or two kinds of syllabograms and form other syllables by graphemic rules.
Syllabograms, hence syllabaries, are pure, analytic or arbitrary if they do not share graphic similarities that correspond to phonic similarities, e.g. the symbol for ka does not resemble in any predictable way the symbol for ki, nor the symbol for a. Otherwise, they are synthetic, if they vary by onset, rime, nucleus or coda, or systematic, if they vary by all of them.
Some scholars, e.g., Daniels, reserve the general term for analytic syllabaries and invent other terms (abugida, abjad) as necessary. Some systems provide katakana language conversion.
Languages using syllabaries
Syllabaries often begin as simplified logograms, as shown here with the Japanese katakana writing system. To the left is the modern letter, with its original Chinese character form on the right.
Multilingual stop sign employing the Latin alphabet and the Cherokee syllabary in Tahlequah, Oklahoma
Languages that use syllabic writing include Japanese, Cherokee, Vai, the Yi languages of eastern Asia, the English-based creole language Ndyuka, Xiangnan Tuhua, and the ancient language Mycenaean Greek (Linear B). In addition, the undecoded Cretan Linear A is also believed by some to be a syllabic script, though this is not proven.
Chinese characters, the cuneiform script used for Sumerian, Akkadian and other languages, and the former Maya script are largely syllabic in nature, although based on logograms. They are therefore sometimes referred to as logosyllabic.
The contemporary Japanese language uses two syllabaries together called kana (in addition to the non-syllabic systems kanji and romaji), namely hiragana and katakana, which were developed around 700. Because Japanese uses mainly CV (consonant + vowel) syllables, a syllabary is well suited to write the language. As in many syllabaries, vowel sequences and final consonants are written with separate glyphs, so that both atta and kaita are written with three kana: あった (a-t-ta) and かいた (ka-i-ta). It is therefore sometimes called a moraic writing system.
Languages that use syllabaries today tend to have simple phonotactics, with a predominance of monomoraic (CV) syllables. For example, the modern Yi script is used to write languages that have no diphthongs or syllable codas; unusually among syllabaries, there is a separate glyph for every consonant-vowel-tone combination (CVT) in the language (apart from one tone which is indicated with a diacritic).
Few syllabaries have glyphs for syllables that are not monomoraic, and those that once did have simplified over time to eliminate that complexity.
For example, the Vai syllabary originally had separate glyphs for syllables ending in a coda (doŋ), a long vowel (soo), or a diphthong (bai), though not enough glyphs to distinguish all CV combinations (some distinctions were ignored). The modern script has been expanded to cover all moras, but at the same time reduced to exclude all other syllables. Bimoraic syllables are now written with two letters, as in Japanese: diphthongs are written with the help of V or hV glyphs, and the nasal codas will be written with the glyph for ŋ, which can form a syllable of its own in Vai.
In Linear B, which was used to transcribe Mycenaean Greek, a language with complex syllables, complex consonant onsets were either written with two glyphs or simplified to one, while codas were generally ignored, e.g., ko-no-so for Κνωσός Knōsos, pe-ma for σπέρμα sperma.
The Cherokee syllabary generally uses dummy vowels for coda consonants, but also has a segmental grapheme for /s/, which can be used both as a coda and in an initial /sC/ consonant cluster.
Difference from abugidas
The languages of India and Southeast Asia, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages, have a type of alphabet called an abugida or alphasyllabary. In these scripts, unlike in pure syllabaries, syllables starting with the same consonant are largely expressed with graphemes regularly based on common graphical elements. Usually each character representing a syllable consists of several elements which designate the individual sounds of that syllable.
In the 19th century these systems were called syllabics, a term which has survived in the name of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics (also an abugida).
In a true syllabary there may be graphic similarity between characters that share a common consonant or vowel sound, but it is not systematic or at all regular. For example, the characters for ka ke ko in Japanese hiragana – か け こ – have no similarity to indicate their common /k/ sound. Compare this with Devanagari, an abugida, where the characters for ka ke ko are क के को respectively.
Comparison to alphabets
English, along with many other Indo-European languages like German and Russian, allows for complex syllable structures, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. A "pure" English syllabary would require over 10,000 separate glyphs for each possible syllable (e.g., a separate glyph for "bag", "beg", "big", "bog", "bug", "bad", "bed", "bid", "bod", "bud", "bead", "bide", "bode", etc.). However, such pure systems are rare. A workaround to this problem, common to several syllabaries around the world (including English loanwords in Japanese), is to add a paragogic dummy vowel, as if the syllable coda were a second syllable: ba-gu for "bag", etc.
See also
List of syllabaries
References
^ Peter Daniels, 1996. "The Study of Writing Systems", p. 4. In: Daniels & Bright, The World's Writing Systems.
^ Chris Barker. "How many syllables does English have?". New York University. Archived from the original on 2016-08-22.
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RoboBraille | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linguistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"written languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_language"},{"link_name":"written symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme"},{"link_name":"syllables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable"},{"link_name":"moras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word"},{"link_name":"syllabogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabogram"},{"link_name":"consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant"},{"link_name":"onset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onset_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"vowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_(syllable)"},{"link_name":"phonographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonogram_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In the linguistic study of written languages, a syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent the syllables or (more frequently) moras which make up words.A symbol in a syllabary, called a syllabogram, typically represents an (optional) consonant sound (simple onset) followed by a vowel sound (nucleus)—that is, a CV or V syllable—but other phonographic mappings, such as CVC, CV- tone, and C (normally nasals at the end of syllables), are also found in syllabaries.[citation needed]","title":"Syllabary"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syllable_diagram.png"},{"link_name":"syllable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable"},{"link_name":"consonantal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant"},{"link_name":"onset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_onset"},{"link_name":"rime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_rime"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_nucleus"},{"link_name":"coda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda"},{"link_name":"tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"writing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system"},{"link_name":"orthographic / graphemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography"},{"link_name":"implicit codas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Implicit_coda&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"silent vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silent_vowel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"echo vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_vowel"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"abugida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abugida"},{"link_name":"abjad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad"},{"link_name":"katakana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakana"}],"text":"Each syllable (σ) branches into consonantal onset (ω) and rime (ρ) that is divided into nucleus (ν) and coda (κ), non-/supra-segmental parameters like tone (τ) affect the syllable as a wholeA writing system using a syllabary is complete when it covers all syllables in the corresponding spoken language without requiring complex orthographic / graphemic rules, like implicit codas (⟨C1V⟩ ⇒ /C1VC2/), silent vowels (⟨C1V1+C2V2⟩ ⇒ /C1V1C2/) or echo vowels (⟨C1V1+C2V1⟩ ⇒ /C1V1C2/). This loosely corresponds to shallow orthographies in alphabetic writing systems.[citation needed]True syllabograms are those that encompass all parts of a syllable, i.e., initial onset, medial nucleus and final coda, but since onset and coda are optional in at least some languages, there are middle (nucleus), start (onset-nucleus), end (nucleus-coda) and full (onset-nucleus-coda) true syllabograms. Most syllabaries only feature one or two kinds of syllabograms and form other syllables by graphemic rules.Syllabograms, hence syllabaries, are pure, analytic or arbitrary if they do not share graphic similarities that correspond to phonic similarities, e.g. the symbol for ka does not resemble in any predictable way the symbol for ki, nor the symbol for a. Otherwise, they are synthetic, if they vary by onset, rime, nucleus or coda, or systematic, if they vary by all of them.[citation needed]\nSome scholars, e.g., Daniels,[1] reserve the general term for analytic syllabaries and invent other terms (abugida, abjad) as necessary. Some systems provide katakana language conversion.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katakana_origine.svg"},{"link_name":"katakana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakana"},{"link_name":"Chinese character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cherokee_stop_sign.png"},{"link_name":"Multilingual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism"},{"link_name":"Latin alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Cherokee syllabary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary"},{"link_name":"Tahlequah, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahlequah,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Cherokee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_language"},{"link_name":"Vai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vai_language"},{"link_name":"Yi languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_people#Language"},{"link_name":"creole language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language"},{"link_name":"Ndyuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndyuka_language"},{"link_name":"Xiangnan Tuhua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiangnan_Tuhua"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"},{"link_name":"Linear A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_A"},{"link_name":"Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"cuneiform script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_script"},{"link_name":"Sumerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_language"},{"link_name":"Akkadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language"},{"link_name":"Maya script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_script"},{"link_name":"logograms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logogram"},{"link_name":"kana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kana"},{"link_name":"kanji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji"},{"link_name":"romaji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romaji"},{"link_name":"hiragana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiragana"},{"link_name":"katakana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakana"},{"link_name":"moraic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"phonotactics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonotactics"},{"link_name":"Yi script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_script"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek"},{"link_name":"Knōsos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knossos"}],"text":"Syllabaries often begin as simplified logograms, as shown here with the Japanese katakana writing system. To the left is the modern letter, with its original Chinese character form on the right.Multilingual stop sign employing the Latin alphabet and the Cherokee syllabary in Tahlequah, OklahomaLanguages that use syllabic writing include Japanese, Cherokee, Vai, the Yi languages of eastern Asia, the English-based creole language Ndyuka, Xiangnan Tuhua, and the ancient language Mycenaean Greek (Linear B). In addition, the undecoded Cretan Linear A is also believed by some to be a syllabic script, though this is not proven.Chinese characters, the cuneiform script used for Sumerian, Akkadian and other languages, and the former Maya script are largely syllabic in nature, although based on logograms. They are therefore sometimes referred to as logosyllabic.The contemporary Japanese language uses two syllabaries together called kana (in addition to the non-syllabic systems kanji and romaji), namely hiragana and katakana, which were developed around 700. Because Japanese uses mainly CV (consonant + vowel) syllables, a syllabary is well suited to write the language. As in many syllabaries, vowel sequences and final consonants are written with separate glyphs, so that both atta and kaita are written with three kana: あった (a-t-ta) and かいた (ka-i-ta). It is therefore sometimes called a moraic writing system.Languages that use syllabaries today tend to have simple phonotactics, with a predominance of monomoraic (CV) syllables. For example, the modern Yi script is used to write languages that have no diphthongs or syllable codas; unusually among syllabaries, there is a separate glyph for every consonant-vowel-tone combination (CVT) in the language (apart from one tone which is indicated with a diacritic).Few syllabaries have glyphs for syllables that are not monomoraic, and those that once did have simplified over time to eliminate that complexity. \nFor example, the Vai syllabary originally had separate glyphs for syllables ending in a coda (doŋ), a long vowel (soo), or a diphthong (bai), though not enough glyphs to distinguish all CV combinations (some distinctions were ignored). The modern script has been expanded to cover all moras, but at the same time reduced to exclude all other syllables. Bimoraic syllables are now written with two letters, as in Japanese: diphthongs are written with the help of V or hV glyphs, and the nasal codas will be written with the glyph for ŋ, which can form a syllable of its own in Vai.In Linear B, which was used to transcribe Mycenaean Greek, a language with complex syllables, complex consonant onsets were either written with two glyphs or simplified to one, while codas were generally ignored, e.g., ko-no-so for Κνωσός Knōsos, pe-ma for σπέρμα sperma.The Cherokee syllabary generally uses dummy vowels for coda consonants, but also has a segmental grapheme for /s/, which can be used both as a coda and in an initial /sC/ consonant cluster.","title":"Languages using syllabaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian Semitic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages"},{"link_name":"alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet"},{"link_name":"abugida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abugida"},{"link_name":"graphemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme"},{"link_name":"Canadian Aboriginal syllabics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabic"},{"link_name":"hiragana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiragana"},{"link_name":"Devanagari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devanagari"}],"text":"The languages of India and Southeast Asia, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages, have a type of alphabet called an abugida or alphasyllabary. In these scripts, unlike in pure syllabaries, syllables starting with the same consonant are largely expressed with graphemes regularly based on common graphical elements. Usually each character representing a syllable consists of several elements which designate the individual sounds of that syllable.In the 19th century these systems were called syllabics, a term which has survived in the name of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics (also an abugida).In a true syllabary there may be graphic similarity between characters that share a common consonant or vowel sound, but it is not systematic or at all regular. For example, the characters for ka ke ko in Japanese hiragana – か け こ – have no similarity to indicate their common /k/ sound. Compare this with Devanagari, an abugida, where the characters for ka ke ko are क के को respectively.","title":"Difference from abugidas"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"English loanwords in Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gairaigo"},{"link_name":"paragogic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragoge"},{"link_name":"syllable coda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda"}],"text":"English, along with many other Indo-European languages like German and Russian, allows for complex syllable structures, making it cumbersome to write English words with a syllabary. A \"pure\" English syllabary would require over 10,000 separate glyphs for each possible syllable[2] (e.g., a separate glyph for \"bag\", \"beg\", \"big\", \"bog\", \"bug\", \"bad\", \"bed\", \"bid\", \"bod\", \"bud\", \"bead\", \"bide\", \"bode\", etc.). However, such pure systems are rare. A workaround to this problem, common to several syllabaries around the world (including English loanwords in Japanese), is to add a paragogic dummy vowel, as if the syllable coda were a second syllable: ba-gu for \"bag\", etc.","title":"Comparison to alphabets"}] | [{"image_text":"Each syllable (σ) branches into consonantal onset (ω) and rime (ρ) that is divided into nucleus (ν) and coda (κ), non-/supra-segmental parameters like tone (τ) affect the syllable as a whole","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Syllable_diagram.png/220px-Syllable_diagram.png"},{"image_text":"Syllabaries often begin as simplified logograms, as shown here with the Japanese katakana writing system. To the left is the modern letter, with its original Chinese character form on the right.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Katakana_origine.svg/220px-Katakana_origine.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Multilingual stop sign employing the Latin alphabet and the Cherokee syllabary in Tahlequah, Oklahoma","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Cherokee_stop_sign.png/150px-Cherokee_stop_sign.png"}] | [{"title":"List of syllabaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_writing_systems#Syllabaries"}] | [{"reference":"Chris Barker. \"How many syllables does English have?\". New York University. Archived from the original on 2016-08-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160822211027/http://semarch.linguistics.fas.nyu.edu/barker/Syllables/index.txt","url_text":"\"How many syllables does English have?\""},{"url":"http://semarch.linguistics.fas.nyu.edu/barker/Syllables/index.txt","url_text":"the original"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Syllabary%22","external_links_name":"\"Syllabary\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Syllabary%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Syllabary%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Syllabary%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Syllabary%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Syllabary%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160822211027/http://semarch.linguistics.fas.nyu.edu/barker/Syllables/index.txt","external_links_name":"\"How many syllables does English have?\""},{"Link":"http://semarch.linguistics.fas.nyu.edu/barker/Syllables/index.txt","external_links_name":"the original"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_list | Shopping list | ["1 Psychology","2 Incremental lists","3 See also","4 References"] | List of items to purchase
Modern grocery shopping list written with pen on paper from a notebook
Shopping list drawn in 1518 by Michelangelo for an illiterate servant
A shopping list is a list of items needed to be purchased by a shopper. Consumers often compile a shopping list of groceries to purchase on the next visit to the grocery store (a grocery list). There are surviving examples of Roman and Bible-era shopping lists.
The shopping list itself may be simply a scrap piece of paper or something more elaborate. There are pads with magnets for keeping an incremental list available at the home, typically on the refrigerator, but any magnetic clip with scraps of paper can be used to achieve the same result. There is even a specific device that dispenses a strip of paper from a roll for use in a shopping list. Some shopping carts come with a small clipboard to fit shopping lists on.
Psychology
Use of shopping lists may be correlated to personality types. There are "demographic differences between list and non list shoppers; the former are more likely to be female, while the latter are more likely to be childless." Remembering a shopping list is a standard experiment in psychology. Shopping with a list is a commonly employed behavioral weight loss guideline designed to reduce food purchases and therefore food consumption. Studies are divided on the effectiveness of this technique.
Some studies show approximately 40% of grocery shoppers use shopping lists, while other studies show 61–67% use lists. Of the items listed, 80% were purchased. However, listed items only accounted for 40% of total items purchased. Use of shopping lists clearly impact shopping behaviour: "Written shopping lists significantly reduce average expenditure."
Incremental lists
The list may be compiled immediately before the shopping trip or incrementally as shopping needs arise throughout the week. Incremental lists typically have no structure and new items are added to the bottom of the list as they come up. If the list is compiled immediately before use, it can be organized by store layout (e.g. frozen foods are grouped together on the list) to minimize time in the store. Preprinted lists can be similarly organized.
See also
Look up shopping list in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Checklist, a job aid used for repetitive tasks or procedures
To do list, a list or "backlog" of pending tasks
References
^ "Roman shopping list deciphered". ABC News. 5 March 2001. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
^ O'Grady, Cathleen (2016-04-15). "Ancient shopping lists point to widespread Bible-era literacy". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-04-15.
^ Thomas, W., & Garland, R. (November–December 1998). "Grocery shopping: Why take a list to the supermarket?" (PDF). ANZMAC98 Conference. Dunedin, NZ: University of Otago. pp. 2603–17. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 2, 2007.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Giuliana Mazzoni (1997). "Remembering the Grocery Shopping List: a Study on Metacognitive Biases". Appl Cogn Psychol. 11 (3): 253–67. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(199706)11:3<253::aid-acp454>3.0.co;2-0.
^ Beneke WM; Davis CH (1985). "Relationship of hunger, use of a shopping list and obesity to food purchases". Int J Obes. 9 (6): 391–9. PMID 3830932.
^ Beneke WM; Davis CH; Vander Tuig JG (1988). "Effects of a behavioral weight-loss program food purchases: instructions to shop with a list". Int J Obes. 12 (4): 335–42. PMID 3198311.
^ "thestar.com | The Star | Canada's largest daily". thestar.com. Retrieved June 10, 2019.
^ Art Thomas and Ron Garland, Grocery shopping: Why take a list to the supermarket? Archived 2007-07-02 at the Wayback Machine
^ Lauren G. Block; Vicki G. Morwitz (1999). "Shopping Lists as an External Memory Aid for Grocery Shopping: Influences on List Writing and List Fulfillment". Journal of Consumer Psychology. 8 (4): 343–75. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.357.9751. doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp0804_01. JSTOR 1480440.
^ Thomas, A & Garland, B R. (2004). "Grocery shopping: list and non-list usage". Marketing Intelligence & Planning. 22 (6): 623–35. doi:10.1108/02634500410559015.
^ Art Thomas; Ron Garland (1993). "Supermarket shopping lists: their effect on consumer expenditure". International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. 21 (2). | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shopping_list_20170612.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michelangelo_shopping_list.jpg"},{"link_name":"Michelangelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List"},{"link_name":"shopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping"},{"link_name":"Consumers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer"},{"link_name":"groceries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groceries"},{"link_name":"grocery store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grocery_store"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biblical_Shopping_Lists-2"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"refrigerator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refrigerator"},{"link_name":"shopping carts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_cart"},{"link_name":"clipboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipboard"}],"text":"Modern grocery shopping list written with pen on paper from a notebookShopping list drawn in 1518 by Michelangelo for an illiterate servantA shopping list is a list of items needed to be purchased by a shopper. Consumers often compile a shopping list of groceries to purchase on the next visit to the grocery store (a grocery list). There are surviving examples of Roman[1] and Bible-era[2] shopping lists.The shopping list itself may be simply a scrap piece of paper or something more elaborate. There are pads with magnets for keeping an incremental list available at the home, typically on the refrigerator, but any magnetic clip with scraps of paper can be used to achieve the same result. There is even a specific device that dispenses a strip of paper from a roll for use in a shopping list. Some shopping carts come with a small clipboard to fit shopping lists on.","title":"Shopping list"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"consumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingestion"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Use of shopping lists may be correlated to personality types. There are \"demographic differences between list and non list shoppers; the former are more likely to be female, while the latter are more likely to be childless.\"[3] Remembering a shopping list is a standard experiment in psychology.[4] Shopping with a list is a commonly employed behavioral weight loss guideline designed to reduce food purchases and therefore food consumption. Studies are divided on the effectiveness of this technique.[5][6]Some studies show approximately 40% of grocery shoppers use shopping lists,[7] while other studies show 61–67% use lists.[8] Of the items listed, 80% were purchased. However, listed items only accounted for 40% of total items purchased.[9] Use of shopping lists clearly impact shopping behaviour:[10] \"Written shopping lists significantly reduce average expenditure.\"[11]","title":"Psychology"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The list may be compiled immediately before the shopping trip or incrementally as shopping needs arise throughout the week. Incremental lists typically have no structure and new items are added to the bottom of the list as they come up. If the list is compiled immediately before use, it can be organized by store layout (e.g. frozen foods are grouped together on the list) to minimize time in the store. Preprinted lists can be similarly organized.","title":"Incremental lists"}] | [{"image_text":"Modern grocery shopping list written with pen on paper from a notebook","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Shopping_list_20170612.jpg/220px-Shopping_list_20170612.jpg"},{"image_text":"Shopping list drawn in 1518 by Michelangelo for an illiterate servant","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Michelangelo_shopping_list.jpg/170px-Michelangelo_shopping_list.jpg"}] | [{"title":"shopping list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/shopping_list"},{"title":"Checklist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checklist"},{"title":"To do list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/To_do_list"}] | [{"reference":"\"Roman shopping list deciphered\". ABC News. 5 March 2001. Retrieved 18 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2001/03/05/253805.htm","url_text":"\"Roman shopping list deciphered\""}]},{"reference":"O'Grady, Cathleen (2016-04-15). \"Ancient shopping lists point to widespread Bible-era literacy\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2016-04-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/04/ancient-shopping-lists-point-to-widespread-bible-era-literacy/","url_text":"\"Ancient shopping lists point to widespread Bible-era literacy\""}]},{"reference":"Thomas, W., & Garland, R. (November–December 1998). \"Grocery shopping: Why take a list to the supermarket?\" (PDF). ANZMAC98 Conference. Dunedin, NZ: University of Otago. pp. 2603–17. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-party_system | Two-party system | ["1 Europe","1.1 Malta","1.2 Russia","1.3 Spain","1.4 United Kingdom","2 North America","2.1 Canada","2.2 Caribbean","2.3 United States","3 Africa","3.1 Ghana","3.2 Zimbabwe","4 Australia","4.1 House of Representatives","4.2 Senate","5 Latin America","6 Asia","6.1 Lebanon","6.2 South Korea","7 South America","7.1 Brazil","8 Comparison with other systems","9 Causes","10 Third parties","11 Advantages","12 Disadvantages","13 History","13.1 British parties","13.2 British emergence","13.3 American","14 See also","15 Notes","16 References","17 External links"] | Government system dominated by only two major political parties
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"Two-party state" redirects here. For telephone call recording laws and notification and requirements, see Telephone call recording laws § Two-party consent states.
A two-party system is a political party system in which two major political parties consistently dominate the political landscape. At any point in time, one of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is usually referred to as the majority or governing party while the other is the minority or opposition party. Around the world, the term has different meanings. For example, in the United States, the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Zimbabwe, the sense of two-party system describes an arrangement in which all or nearly all elected officials belong to either of the two major parties, and third parties rarely win any seats in the legislature. In such arrangements, two-party systems are thought to result from several factors, like "winner takes all" or "first past the post" election systems. The electoral competition is mostly limited to the two major parties.
In such systems, while chances for third-party candidates winning election to major national office are remote, it is possible for groups within the larger parties, or in opposition to one or both of them, to exert influence on the two major parties. In contrast, in Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia and in other parliamentary systems and elsewhere, the term two-party system is sometimes used to indicate an arrangement in which two major parties dominate elections but in which there are viable third parties or independents that do win some seats in the legislature, and in which the two major parties exert proportionately greater influence than their percentage of votes would suggest.
Explanations for why a political system with free elections may evolve into a two-party system have been debated. A leading theory, referred to as Duverger's law, states that two parties are a natural result of a winner-take-all voting system.
Other parties in these countries may have seen candidates elected to local or subnational office.
Europe
Malta
Main article: Politics of Malta
Malta is somewhat unusual in that while the electoral system is single transferable vote (STV), traditionally associated with proportional representation, minor parties have not had much success. Politics is dominated between the centre-left Labour Party and the centre-right Nationalist Party, with no third parties winning seats in Parliament between 1962 and 2017 and since 2022.
Russia
Post-Soviet Russia was close to having a competitive two-party system in 1999 when two "parties of power" (specifically, socio-political associations and parliamentary factions) were formed in the 3rd State Duma – Unity and Fatherland – All Russia. However, by the end of 2001, both had united into one pro-presidential party – United Russia.
On 24 March 2006, a meeting was held between the deputy head of the presidential administration, Vladislav Surkov, and the chairman of the Russian Party of Life, Sergey Mironov, and 30 deputies from the Russian Party of Life. At the meeting, Surkov first openly formulated the idea of building a two-party system in the country, in which, depending on the circumstances, the Kremlin could rely on one of the two system-forming parties. Surkov described the problem as follows: "Society does not have a "second leg" that it can shift to when the first one goes numb. Russia needs a second major party," which, according to the presidential administration's plan, should, in the future, gain the votes that are currently collected by parties "of a leftist bias and with a strong nationalist flavor." At the same time, Surkov left the role of the "main leg" for the coming years to United Russia: "The largest party, around which the political process will be built for a considerable time, in my opinion, of course, should be United Russia." Vladislav Surkov advised Russian Party of Life activists to rely on the protest electorate rather than on administrative resources: "It is better that this electorate, which is opposed to all types of administration, will be attracted to you than to destructive forces." A transcript of the meeting was published on 16 August 2006.
The A Just Russia party, which emerged in 2006, with some support from President Vladimir Putin, positioned itself as a competitor to United Russia within the framework of a potential two-party system.
However, as a result of the fact that during the Duma elections of 2007, Putin politically headed the United Russia party, which won an absolute victory in the elections, by the end of 2007, a dominant-party system had emerged in Russia, in which United Russia has a constitutional qualified majority in the Duma.
Spain
Main article: Political parties in Spain
A report in The Christian Science Monitor in 2008 suggested that Spain was moving toward a "greater two-party system" while acknowledging that Spain has many small parties. A 2015 article published by WashingtonPost.com written by academic Fernando Casal Bértoa noted the decline in support for the two main parties, the People's Party (PP) and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in recent years, with these two parties winning only 52 percent of the votes in that year's regional and local elections. He explained this as being due to the Spanish economic crisis, a series of political corruption scandals and broken campaign promises. He argued that the emergence of the new Citizens and Podemos parties would mean the political system would evolve into a two-bloc system, with an alliance of the PP and Citizens on the right facing a leftist coalition of PSOE, Podemos and the United Left. Far-right Vox party became the third largest group on the Spanish parliament recently.
United Kingdom
In countries such as Britain, two major parties which have strong influence emerge and tend to elect most of the candidates, but a multitude of lesser parties exist with varying degrees of influence, and sometimes these lesser parties are able to elect officials who participate in the legislature. In political systems based on the Westminster system, which is a particular style of parliamentary democracy based on the British model and found in many Commonwealth countries, a majority party will form the government and the minority party will form the opposition, and coalitions of lesser parties are possible; in the rare circumstance in which neither party is the majority, a hung parliament arises. Sometimes these systems are described as two-party systems, but they are usually referred to as multi-party systems or a two-party plus system. There is not always a sharp boundary between a two-party system and a multi-party system.
North America
Canada
Canada has a multiparty system at the federal and provincial levels. Some provinces have effectively become two-party systems in which only two parties regularly get members elected, while smaller parties largely fail to secure electoral representation, and two of the three territories are run under a non-partisan consensus government model rather than through a political party system. The provincial legislative assembly of Alberta currently has only two parties; two-party representation has also historically been common in the legislative assemblies of British Columbia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, although all did elect some third-party members in their most recent provincial elections.
Caribbean
The Commonwealth Caribbean while inheriting their basic political system from Great Britain have become two-party systems. The politics of Jamaica are between the People's National Party and the Jamaica Labour Party. The politics of Guyana are between the People's Progressive Party and APNU which is actually a coalition of smaller parties. The politics of Trinidad and Tobago are between the People's National Movement and the United National Congress. The Politics of Belize are between the United Democratic Party and the People's United Party. The Politics of the Bahamas are between the Progressive Liberal Party and the Free National Movement. The politics of Barbados are between the Democratic Labour Party and the Barbados Labour Party.
United States
Main article: Political parties in the United States
See also: First Party System, Second Party System, Third Party System, Fourth Party System, Fifth Party System, and Sixth Party SystemThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Two-party system" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
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The United States has two dominant political parties; historically, there have been few instances in which third party candidates won an election. In the First Party System, only Alexander Hamilton's Federalist Party and Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party were significant political parties. Toward the end of the First Party System, the Democratic-Republicans were dominant (primarily under the Presidency of James Monroe).
Under the Second Party System, the Democratic-Republican Party split during the 1824 United States presidential election into Adams' Men and Jackson's Men. In the 1828 presidential election, the modern Democratic Party formed in support of Andrew Jackson. The National Republicans were formed in support of John Quincy Adams. After the National Republicans collapsed, the Whig Party and the Free Soil Party quickly formed and collapsed.
In 1854 began the Third Party System when the modern Republican Party formed from a loose coalition of former Whigs, Free Soilers and other anti-slavery activists. The Republicans quickly became the dominant party nationally, and Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican President in the 1860 presidential election. The Democrats held a strong, loyal coalition in the Solid South. This period saw the American Civil War where the South (which was mostly dominated by the Southern Democrats) attempted to secede as the Confederate States of America, in an attempt to preserve racial slavery. The South lost the war and were forced to end slavery, and during the following Reconstruction Era the Republicans remained the most popular party nationally while the Democrats remained dominant in the South.
During the Fourth Party System from about 1896 to 1932, the Republicans remained the dominant Presidential party, although Democrats Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson were both elected to two terms.
The 1932 United States elections saw the onset of the Fifth Party System and a long period of Democratic dominance due to the New Deal Coalition. Democrat President Franklin D. Roosevelt won landslides in four consecutive elections. Other than the two terms of Republican Dwight Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961, Democrats retained firm control of the Presidency until the mid-1960s. In Congress, Democrats retained majorities in both houses for 60 years until the Republican Revolution, broken only by brief Republican majorities.
There was a significant change in U.S. politics in 1960, and this is seen by some as a transition to a sixth party system.
Since the mid-1960s, despite a couple of landslides (such as Richard Nixon carrying 49 states and 61% of the popular vote over George McGovern in 1972; Ronald Reagan carrying 49 states and 58% of the popular vote over Walter Mondale in 1984), Presidential elections have been competitive between the predominant Republican and Democratic parties and no one party has been able to hold the Presidency for more than three consecutive terms.
In the 2012 United States presidential election, only 4% separated the popular vote between Barack Obama (51%) and Mitt Romney (47%), although Obama won the electoral vote (332–206).
Throughout every American party system, no third party has won a Presidential election or majorities in either house of Congress. Despite that, third parties and third party candidates have gained traction and support. In the election of 1912, Theodore Roosevelt won 27% of the popular vote and 88 electoral votes running as a Progressive. In the 1992 Presidential election, Ross Perot won 19% of the popular vote but no electoral votes running as an Independent.
Modern American politics, in particular the electoral college system, has been described as duopolistic since the Republican and Democratic parties have dominated and framed policy debate as well as the public discourse on matters of national concern for about a century and a half. Third Parties have encountered various blocks in getting onto ballots at different levels of government as well as other electoral obstacles, such as denial of access to general election debates. Since 1987, the Commission on Presidential Debates, established by the Republican and Democratic parties themselves, supplanted debates run since 1976 by the League of Women Voters. The League withdrew its support in protest in 1988 over objections of alleged stagecraft such as rules for camera placement, filling the audience with supporters, approved moderators, predetermined question selection, room temperature and others. The Commission maintains its own rules for admittance and has only admitted a single third-party candidate to a televised debate, Ross Perot, in 1992.
Some parts of the US have had their own party systems, distinct from the rest of the country.
In Puerto Rico, there is a multi-party system with the Popular Democratic Party and New Progressive Party being the two strongest parties. Minor parties in the 2021 legislature include the Puerto Rican Independence Party, Citizens' Victory Movement and Project Dignity.
In Guam, the Popular Party was the only political party from 1949-1954, and was dominant until 1967 when they became affiliated with the Democrats. Since then, the Democrats and Republicans have been the two main parties.
In the Northern Mariana Islands, the Democrats and Republicans are the two main parties but as recently as 2013, the Governor was a member of the Covenant Party.
In American Samoa, the American Samoa Fono (territorial legislature) is non-partisan, and on ballots only candidate names are displayed, not political parties. The Governor has typically been either Democrat or Republican.
In the US Virgin Islands, the Democrats and Republicans have been the main two parties, but two Governors during the 1970s were part of the Independent Citizens Movement, and from 2015-2019 the Governor was an independent.
Africa
Ghana
The Republic of Ghana since its transition to democracy in 1992 have a strongly institutionalized two-party system led by New Patriotic Party and National Democratic Congress.
Zimbabwe
The politics of Zimbabwe are effectively a two-party system between the Robert Mugabe founded Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front and the opposition coalition Movement for Democratic Change.
Australia
Main article: Political parties of Australia
House of Representatives
Since the 1920s, the Australian House of Representatives (and thus the federal government) has in effect been a two-party system.
Since the end of World War II, Australia's House of Representatives has been dominated by two factions:
the centre-left Australian Labor Party
the centre-right Coalition.
The Coalition has been in government about two-thirds of time, broken by 4 periods of Labor governments: 1972-1975, 1983-1996, 2007-2013, and since 2022.
The ALP is Australia's largest and oldest continuing political party, formed in 1891 from the Australian labour movement. The party has branches in every state and territory.
The Coalition is a near-permanent alliance of several parties, primarily the Liberal Party of Australia (Australia's 2nd largest party) and National Party of Australia (4th largest). It was formed after the 1922 Australian federal election, when the Nationalist Party (ancestor of today's Liberal Party) lost its absolute majority, and was only able to remain in government by allying with the Country Party (now called the National Party). Under the Coalition agreement, if the Coalition forms government then the Prime Minister will be the leader of the Liberals, and the Deputy Prime Minister will be the leader of the Nationals. In theory, disagreements between the Coalition's constituent parties would lead to the Coalition being broken. However, the last time that this has happened at the federal level was in 1939-1940.
One reason for Australia's two-party system is because the House of Representatives (which chooses the Prime Minister of Australia) is elected through the instant-runoff voting electoral system. Although voters can preference third parties and independents above the major parties, and the voting method has a reduced spoiler effect, there is still only one member per electoral division (ie: a winner-take-all system) and so major parties tend to win the vast majority of seats even if they need to rely on preferences to do so. For example, a Labor candidate may win a seat with 30% of the vote for Labor and 21% from Australian Greens voters who ranked Labor second.
Senate
On the other hand, the Australian Senate is effectively a multi-party system, and a Senate majority matching the House is very rare. It uses single transferable vote with multiple Senators for each state/territory. This results in rough proportional representation and as a result, third parties have much more influence and often hold the balance of power. Since 2004, the Australian Greens have been the third largest party in the country, with 8-13% of the national vote and an equivalent amount of Senators. Prior to this, the Australian Democrats was the third largest party. Other current and past parties include One Nation, the Liberal Democrats and Family First.
Some Australian states have seen the rise of minor parties at either the state or federal level (eg: Centre Alliance in South Australia, Katter's Australian Party in northern Queensland, and the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party in western New South Wales), while some have seen long periods of dominance by one party. Some parties are absent entirely in parts of the country.
The Australian Capital Territory has had a Labor/Greens coalition government since 2012, opposed by the Liberals (Nationals not present). Labor was in government alone from 2001-2012.
Notably, the ACT is the only state/territory where the Greens have been in power.
In the Northern Territory, the two main parties are Labor and the Country Liberal Party (CLP), which aligns with the Coalition at the federal level.
In Western Australia, the Liberal and National parties are not in a permanent coalition at the state level. At the 2021 Western Australian state election Labor won 53 out of 59 lower house seats in a landslide victory. The National Party won 4 seats making them the official opposition. The Liberals won only 2 seats, putting them on the crossbench.
In New South Wales and Victoria, the main parties reflect the situation nationally: Labor versus the Coalition of the Liberals and Nationals. NSW is the only state where the Coalition has never split, but has also never merged into one party.
In South Australia and Tasmania, the main parties are Labor and the Liberals, with the Nationals not holding any seats.
In Queensland, the main parties are Labor and the Liberal-National Party (LNP). Historically, the Country Party was the largest Coalition member and they governed the state from 1957 until 1989. This was partially due to a malapportionment which heavily favoured rural seats. It had been originally designed by a Labor government, but ended up benefitting the Country Party as demographics shifted. Later, Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen increased his power by using Queensland Police to suppress political dissent, and enacted the Bjelkemander, worsening malapportionment in order to reduce the power of the Liberals so his Country Party could rule alone. Eventually, media reports and the Fitzgerald Inquiry revealed wide-ranging corruption police and government. Bjelke-Petersen was forced to resign in disgrace, while many high-ranking police and politicians were criminally charged. Labor has been in power for most the time since then, with the state Country and Liberal parties merging into the LNP, which is a member of the Coalition federally.
Latin America
Most Latin American countries also have presidential systems very similar to the US often with winner takes all systems. Due to the common accumulation of power in the presidential office both the official party and the main opposition became important political protagonists causing historically two-party systems. Some of the first manifestations of this particularity was with the liberals and conservatives that often fought for power in all Latin America causing the first two-party systems in most Latin American countries which often lead to civil wars in places like Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, the Central American Republic and Peru, with fights focusing specially on opposing/defending the privileges of the Catholic Church and the creole aristocracy. Other examples of primitive two-party systems included the Pelucones versus Pipiolos in Chile, Federalists versus Unitarians in Argentina, Colorados versus Liberals in Paraguay and Colorados versus Nationals in Uruguay.
As in other regions, the original rivalry between liberals and conservatives was overtaken by a rivalry between center-left (often social-democratic) parties versus center-right liberal conservative parties, focusing more in economic differences than in cultural and religious differences as it was common during the liberal versus conservative period. Examples of this include National Liberation Party versus Social Christian Unity Party in Costa Rica, the peronista Justicialist Party versus Radical Civic Union in Argentina, Democratic Action versus COPEI in Venezuela, the Colombian Liberal Party versus the Colombian Conservative Party in Colombia, Democratic Revolutionary Party versus Panameñista Party in Panama and Liberal Party versus National Party in Honduras. After the democratization of Central America following the end of the Central American crisis in the 1990s former far-left guerrillas and former right-wing authoritarian parties, now in peace, make some similar two-party systems in countries like Nicaragua between the Sandinista National Liberation Front and the Liberals and in El Salvador between the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front and the Nationalist Republican Alliance.
The traditional two-party dynamic started to break after a while, especially in the early 2000s; alternative parties won elections breaking the traditional two-party systems including Rafael Caldera's (National Convergence) victory in Venezuela in 1993, Álvaro Uribe (Colombia First) victory in 2002, Tabaré Vázquez (Broad Front) victory in Uruguay in 2004, Fernando Lugo (Christian Democratic Party) victory in Paraguay in 2008, Ricardo Martinelli (Democratic Change) victory in 2009 in Panama, Luis Guillermo Solís (Citizens' Action Party) victory in 2014 in Costa Rica, Mauricio Macri (Republican Proposal) victory in 2015 in Argentina, Nayib Bukele (Grand Alliance for National Unity) victory in 2019 in El Salvador, and Gabriel Boric (Approve Dignity) victory in 2021, all of them from non-traditional third parties in their respective countries. In some countries like Argentina, Chile and Venezuela the political system is now split in two large multi-party alliances or blocs, one on the left and one on the right of the spectrum, such as Frente de Todos versus Juntos por el Cambio in Argentina, and the Unitary Platform versus Great Patriotic Pole in Venezuela.
Asia
Lebanon
Main article: Politics of Lebanon
The Parliament of Lebanon is mainly made up of two bipartisan alliances. Although both alliances are made up of several political parties on both ends of the political spectrum the two-way political situation has mainly arisen due to strong ideological differences in the electorate. Once again this can mainly be attributed to the winner takes all thesis.
South Korea
Main article: Political parties of South Korea
South Korea has a multi-party system that has sometimes been described as having characteristics of a two-party system. Parties will have reconstructions based upon its leader, but the country continues to maintain two major parties. Currently these parties are the liberal Democratic Party of Korea and the conservative People Power Party.
South America
Brazil
Main article: Political parties in Brazil
During the imperial period, since 1840, two great parties with a national base alternated its dominance between legislatures: the Liberal and the Conservative. These parties were dissolved in 1889, after the republic was instituted in Brazil, in which the registration of party directories came under the jurisdiction of the states.
Brazil also had a two-party system for most of its military dictatorship (1964–1985): on October 27, 1965, the Institutional Act 2 decree banned all existing parties and conditioned the creation of new parties to the quorum of 1/3 of the then-elected National Congress; resulting in the creation of two parties: a pro-government party, the National Renewal Alliance (ARENA) and an opposition party, the Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB). Despite officially having a bipartisan system, complex electoral mechanisms, nominally neutral, were created to guarantee the prevalence of the ARENA in the National Congress, making Brazil, in practice, a dominant-party system in that period. The two parties were dissolved in 1979, when the regime allowed other parties to form.
Comparison with other systems
Two-party systems can be contrasted with:
Multi-party systems. In these, the effective number of parties is greater than two but usually fewer than five; in a two-party system, the effective number of parties is two (according to one analysis, the actual average number of parties varies between 1.7 and 2.1). The parties in a multi-party system can control government separately or as a coalition; in a two-party system, coalition governments rarely form. Nations with multi-party systems include Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Portugal, Ukraine, Suriname, Sweden and Thailand.
Dominant-party systems are present in countries which are formally democratic, but where a dominant party holds a vast majority for decades and the party institutions may be intertwined with, or hard to distinguish from the major institutions of the state. Unlike in one-party-states, civil rights and freedom of press are at least partly preserved. Examples of this type are the People's Action Party of Singapore, the African National Congress of South Africa, the SWAPO in Namibia, and the Dominica Labour Party in Dominica.
One-party systems happen in nations where no more than one party is codified in law and/or officially recognized, or where alternate parties are restricted by the dominant party which wields power. Examples are rule by the Chinese Communist Party, Workers' Party of Korea, Communist Party of Vietnam, and Communist Party of Cuba.
Causes
There are several reasons why, in some systems, two major parties dominate the political landscape. There has been speculation that a two-party system arose in the United States from early political battling between the federalists and anti-federalists in the first few decades after the ratification of the Constitution, according to several views. In addition, there has been more speculation that the winner-takes-all electoral system as well as particular state and federal laws regarding voting procedures helped to cause a two-party system.
In a two-party system, voters have mostly two options; in this sample ballot for an election in Summit, New Jersey, voters can choose between a Republican or Democrat, but there are no third party candidates.
Economist Jeffrey D. Sachs
Political scientists such as Maurice Duverger and William H. Riker claim that there are strong correlations between voting rules and type of party system. Jeffrey D. Sachs agreed that there was a link between voting arrangements and the effective number of parties. Sachs explained how the first-past-the-post voting arrangement tended to promote a two-party system:
The main reason for America's majoritarian character is the electoral system for Congress. Members of Congress are elected in single-member districts according to the "first-past-the-post" (FPTP) principle, meaning that the candidate with the plurality of votes is the winner of the congressional seat. The losing party or parties win no representation at all. The first-past-the-post election tends to produce a small number of major parties, perhaps just two, a principle known in political science as Duverger's Law. Smaller parties are trampled in first-past-the-post elections.— Sachs, The Price of Civilization, 2011
Consider a system in which voters can vote for any candidate from any one of many parties. Suppose further that if a party gets 15% of votes, then that party will win 15% of the seats in the legislature. This is termed proportional representation or more accurately as party-proportional representation. Political scientists speculate that proportional representation leads logically to multi-party systems, since it allows new parties to build a niche in the legislature:
Because even a minor party may still obtain at least a few seats in the legislature, smaller parties have a greater incentive to organize under such electoral systems than they do in the United States.— Schmidt, Shelley, Bardes (2008)
In contrast, a voting system that allows only a single winner for each possible legislative seat is sometimes termed a plurality voting system or single-winner voting system and is usually described under the heading of a winner-takes-all arrangement. Each voter can cast a single vote for any candidate within any given legislative district, but the candidate with the most votes wins the seat, although variants, such as requiring a majority, are sometimes used. What happens is that in a general election, a party that consistently comes in third in every district is unlikely to win any legislative seats even if there is a significant proportion of the electorate favoring its positions. This arrangement strongly favors large and well-organized political parties that are able to appeal to voters in many districts and hence win many seats, and discourages smaller or regional parties. Politically oriented people consider their only realistic way to capture political power is to run under the auspices of the two dominant parties, and legislators from both dominant parties have an incentive not to reform the system as it eliminates potential choices and always assures one of them will have power.
In the U.S., forty-eight states have a standard winner-takes-all electoral system for amassing presidential votes in the Electoral College system. The winner-takes-all principle applies in presidential elections, since if a presidential candidate gets the most votes in any particular state, all of the electoral votes from that state are awarded. In all but two states, Maine and Nebraska, the presidential candidate winning a plurality of votes wins all of the electoral votes, a practice called the unit rule.
Duverger concluded that "plurality election single-ballot procedures are likely to produce two-party systems, whereas proportional representation and runoff designs encourage multipartyism." He suggested there were two reasons why winner-takes-all systems leads to a two-party system. First, the weaker parties are pressured to form an alliance, sometimes called a fusion, to try to become big enough to challenge a large dominant party and, in so doing, gain political clout in the legislature. Second, voters learn, over time, not to vote for candidates outside of one of the two large parties since their votes for third party candidates are usually ineffectual. As a result, weaker parties are eliminated by voters over time. Duverger pointed to statistics and tactics to suggest that voters tended to gravitate towards one of the two main parties, a phenomenon which he called polarization, and tend to shun third parties. For example, some analysts suggest that the Electoral College system in the United States, by favoring a system of winner-takes-all in presidential elections, is a structural choice favoring only two major parties.
Gary Cox suggested that America's two-party system was highly related with economic prosperity in the country:
The bounty of the American economy, the fluidity of American society, the remarkable unity of the American people, and, most important, the success of the American experiment have all mitigated against the emergence of large dissenting groups that would seek satisfaction of their special needs through the formation of political parties.— Cox, according to George Edwards
An effort in 2012 by centrist groups to promote ballot access by third-party candidates called Americans Elect spent $15 million to get ballot access but failed to elect any candidates. The lack of choice in a two-party model in politics has often been compared to the variety of choices in the marketplace.
Politics has lagged our social and business evolution ... There are 30 brands of Pringles in our local grocery store. How is it that Americans have so much selection for potato chips and only two brands – and not very good ones – for political parties?— Scott Ehredt of the Centrist Alliance
Third parties
Main articles: Third party (politics) and Third party (United States)
According to one view, the winner-takes-all system discourages voters from choosing third party or independent candidates, and over time the process becomes entrenched so that only two major parties become viable.
Third parties, meaning a party other than one of the two dominant parties, are possible in two-party systems, but they are often unlikely to exert much influence by gaining control of legislatures or by winning elections. While there are occasional opinions in the media expressed about the possibility of third parties emerging in the United States, for example, political insiders such as the 1980 presidential candidate John Anderson think the chances of one appearing in the early twenty-first century is remote. A report in The Guardian suggested that American politics has been "stuck in a two-way fight between Republicans and Democrats" since the Civil War, and that third-party runs had little meaningful success.
Third parties in a two-party system can be:
Built around a particular ideology or interest group
Split off from one of the major parties or
Focused on a charismatic individual.
Party affiliation in the United States according to a 2004 study: Democratic with 72 million, Republican with 55 million and third parties collectively with 42 million registered citizens
When third parties are built around an ideology which is at odds with the majority mindset, many members belong to such a party not for the purpose of expecting electoral success but rather for personal or psychological reasons. In the U.S., third parties include older ones such as the Libertarian Party and the Green Party and newer ones such as the Pirate Party. Many believe that third parties do not affect American politics by winning elections, but they can act as "spoilers" by taking votes from one of the two major parties. They act like barometers of change in the political mood since they push the major parties to consider their demands. An analysis in New York Magazine by Ryan Lizza in 2006 suggested that third parties arose from time to time in the nineteenth century around single-issue movements such as abolition, women's suffrage, and the direct election of senators, but were less prominent in the twentieth century.
A so-called third party in the United Kingdom were historically the Liberal Democrats, prior to the Scottish National Party taken its place since the 2015 election by number of the House of Common seats. In the 2010 election, the Liberal Democrats received 23% of the votes but only 9% of the seats in the House of Commons. While electoral results do not necessarily translate into legislative seats, the Liberal Democrats can exert influence if there is a situation such as a hung parliament. In this instance, neither of the two main parties (at present, the Conservative Party and the Labour Party) have sufficient authority to run the government. Accordingly, the Liberal Democrats can in theory exert tremendous influence in such a situation since they can ally with one of the two main parties to form a coalition. This happened in the Coalition government of 2010. The two party system in the United Kingdom allows for other parties to exist, although the main two parties tend to dominate politics; in this arrangement, other parties are not excluded and can win seats in Parliament. In contrast, the two party system in the United States has been described as a duopoly or an enforced two-party system, such that politics is almost entirely dominated by either the Republicans or Democrats, and third parties rarely win seats in Congress.
Advantages
Some historians have suggested that two-party systems promote centrism and encourage political parties to find common positions which appeal to wide swaths of the electorate. It can lead to political stability which leads, in turn, to economic growth. Historian Patrick Allitt of the Teaching Company suggested that it is difficult to overestimate the long-term economic benefits of political stability. Sometimes two-party systems have been seen as preferable to multi-party systems because they are simpler to govern, with less fractiousness and greater harmony, since it discourages radical minor parties, while multi-party systems can sometimes lead to hung parliaments. Italy, with a multi-party system, has had years of divisive politics since 2000, although analyst Silvia Aloisi suggested in 2008 that the nation may be moving closer to a two-party arrangement. The two-party has been identified as simpler since there are fewer voting choices.
Disadvantages
Two-party systems have been criticized for downplaying alternative views, being less competitive, median voter theorem, encouraging voter apathy since there is a perception of fewer choices, and putting a damper on debate within a nation. In a proportional representation system, lesser parties can moderate policy since they are not usually eliminated from government. One analyst suggested the two-party approach may not promote inter-party compromise but may encourage partisanship. In The Tyranny of the Two-party system, Lisa Jane Disch criticizes two-party systems for failing to provide enough options since only two choices are permitted on the ballot. She wrote:
Herein lies the central tension of the two–party doctrine. It identifies popular sovereignty with choice, and then limits choice to one party or the other. If there is any truth to Schattschneider's analogy between elections and markets, America's faith in the two–party system begs the following question: Why do voters accept as the ultimate in political freedom a binary option they would surely protest as consumers? ... This is the tyranny of the two–party system, the construct that persuades United States citizens to accept two–party contests as a condition of electoral democracy.— Lisa Jane Disch, 2002
There have been arguments that the winner-take-all mechanism discourages independent or third-party candidates from running for office or promulgating their views. Ross Perot's former campaign manager wrote that the problem with having only two parties is that the nation loses "the ability for things to bubble up from the body politic and give voice to things that aren't being voiced by the major parties." One analyst suggested that parliamentary systems, which typically are multi-party in nature, lead to a better "centralization of policy expertise" in government. Multi-party governments permit wider and more diverse viewpoints in government, and encourage dominant parties to make deals with weaker parties to form winning coalitions. Analyst Chris Weigant of the Huffington Post wrote that "the parliamentary system is inherently much more open to minority parties getting much better representation than third parties do in the American system". After an election in which the party changes, there can be a "polar shift in policy-making" when voters react to changes.
Political analyst A. G. Roderick, writing in his book Two Tyrants, argued that the two American parties (the Republican Party and the Democratic Party) were highly unpopular (as of 2015), are not part of the political framework of state governments, and do not represent the 47% of the electorate who identify themselves as "independents". He makes a case that the American president should be elected on a non-partisan basis, and asserts that both political parties are "cut from the same cloth of corruption and corporate influence."
Others have accused two party systems of encouraging an environment which stifles individual thought processes and analysis. In a two party system, knowledge about political leaning facilitates assumptions to be made about an individual's opinions on a wide variety of topics (e.g. abortion, taxes, the space program, a viral pandemic, human sexuality, the environment, warfare, opinions on police, etc.) which are not necessarily connected."The more destructive problem is the way this skews the discussion of the issues facing the nation. The media – meaning news sources from Fox News to the New York Times and everything in between – seem largely incapable of dealing with any issue outside of the liberal versus conservative paradigm. Whether it's dealing with ISIS, the debt ceiling, or climate change, the media frames every issue as a simple debate between the Democratic and the Republican positions. This creates the ludicrous idea that every public policy problem has two, and only two, approaches. That's nonsense. Certainly some problems have only two resolutions, some have only one, but most have a range of possible solutions. But the "national" debate presents every issue as a simplistic duality, which trivializes everything."
—Michael Coblenz, 2016
History
British parties
Main articles: Tories (British political party) and Whigs (British political party)
Equestrian portrait of William III by Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688
The two-party system, in the sense of the looser definition, where two parties dominate politics but in which third parties can elect members and gain some representation in the legislature, can be traced to the development of political parties in the United Kingdom. There was a division in English politics at the time of the Civil War and Glorious Revolution in the late 17th century. The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule and the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Parliament. In the following century, the Whig party's support base widened to include emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants.
The basic matters of principle that defined the struggle between the two factions, were concerning the nature of constitutional monarchy, the desirability of a Catholic king, the extension of religious toleration to nonconformist Protestants, and other issues that had been put on the liberal agenda through the political concepts propounded by John Locke, Algernon Sidney and others.
Vigorous struggle between the two factions characterised the period from the Glorious Revolution to the 1715 Hanoverian succession, over the legacy of the overthrow of the Stuart dynasty and the nature of the new constitutional state. This proto two-party system fell into relative abeyance after the accession to the throne of George I and the consequent period of Whig supremacy under Robert Walpole, during which the Tories were systematically purged from high positions in government. Although the Tories were dismissed from office for 50 years, they retained a measure of party cohesion under William Wyndham and acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government. The ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party.
British emergence
The old Whig leadership dissolved in the 1760s into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the two party system was centred on a set of core principles held by both sides and that allowed the party out of power to remain as the Loyal Opposition to the governing party.
In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the center.
A genuine two-party system began to emerge, with the accession to power of William Pitt the Younger in 1783 leading the new Tories, against a reconstituted "Whig" party led by the radical politician Charles James Fox.
The two-party system matured in the early 19th century era of political reform, when the franchise was widened and politics entered into the basic divide between conservatism and liberalism that has fundamentally endured up to the present. The modern Conservative Party was created out of the "Pittite" Tories by Robert Peel, who issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone. The two party system had come of age at the time of Gladstone and his Conservative rival Benjamin Disraeli after the Reform Act 1867.
American
Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan, early political controversies in the 1790s saw the emergence of a two-party political system, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, centred on the differing views on federal government powers of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. A consensus on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.
Partisan politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay. The former evolved into the modern Democratic Party and the latter was replaced with the Republican Party as one of the two main parties in the 1850s.
See also
Duverger's law
False dichotomy
Multi-party system
Dominant-party system
One-party state
Political organisation
Notes
^ Note: in the politics of Australia, there are not two political parties but rather "two major political groupings"; for further information, see the Australian Coalition.
References
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^ Wong Chin Huat, fz.com, July 29, 2013, When winner takes all Archived 2013-08-01 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed August 12, 2013, "...This "winner-takes-all" characteristic of political contestation then forces political groups to consolidate into two blocs, hence, the two-party system..."
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^ "What mean will we regress to?". The Economist. October 5, 2010. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved November 7, 2010. Certainly, there have been a whole lot of hung parliaments and slow-forming coalitions around the world lately. (Canada, Australia, Britain, the Netherlands, Iraq...)
^ Silvia Aloisi (April 15, 2008). "Election pushes Italy towards two-party system". Reuters. Archived from the original on October 2, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2010. Italy's next parliament will have far fewer parties than the previous assembly, pushing the country closer to the two-party system that many commentators say is the only way to end years of political instability. ...
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^ a b Wisconsin Public Radio, Two Tyrants Archived 2016-05-06 at the Wayback Machine interview by Kathleen Dunn with author A.G. Roderick
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^ Melinda S. Zook, "The Restoration Remembered: The First Whigs and the Making of their History", Seventeenth Century, Autumn 2002, Vol. 17 Issue 2, pp. 213–34
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^ Washington's Farewell Address
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^ William Nisbet Chambers, ed. The First Party System (1972)
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External links
Two-party system at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from WiktionaryQuotations from WikiquoteData from Wikidata
Dunleavy, Patrick, "Duverger's Law is a dead parrot. Outside the USA, first-past-the-post voting has no tendency at all to produce two party politics", June 18, 2012, British Politics and Policy at LSE
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For telephone call recording laws and notification and requirements, see Telephone call recording laws § Two-party consent states.A two-party system is a political party system in which two major political parties[a] consistently dominate the political landscape. At any point in time, one of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is usually referred to as the majority or governing party while the other is the minority or opposition party. Around the world, the term has different meanings. For example, in the United States, the Bahamas, Jamaica, and Zimbabwe, the sense of two-party system describes an arrangement in which all or nearly all elected officials belong to either of the two major parties, and third parties rarely win any seats in the legislature. In such arrangements, two-party systems are thought to result from several factors, like \"winner takes all\" or \"first past the post\" election systems.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The electoral competition is mostly limited to the two major parties.In such systems, while chances for third-party candidates winning election to major national office are remote, it is possible for groups within the larger parties, or in opposition to one or both of them, to exert influence on the two major parties.[7][8][9][10][11][12] In contrast, in Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia and in other parliamentary systems and elsewhere, the term two-party system is sometimes used to indicate an arrangement in which two major parties dominate elections but in which there are viable third parties or independents that do win some seats in the legislature, and in which the two major parties exert proportionately greater influence than their percentage of votes would suggest.\nExplanations for why a political system with free elections may evolve into a two-party system have been debated. A leading theory, referred to as Duverger's law, states that two parties are a natural result of a winner-take-all voting system.Other parties in these countries may have seen candidates elected to local or subnational office.[13]","title":"Two-party system"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"single transferable vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_transferable_vote"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(Malta)"},{"link_name":"Nationalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Malta)"},{"link_name":"1962","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1962_Maltese_general_election"},{"link_name":"2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Maltese_general_election"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Malta","text":"Malta is somewhat unusual in that while the electoral system is single transferable vote (STV), traditionally associated with proportional representation, minor parties have not had much success. Politics is dominated between the centre-left Labour Party and the centre-right Nationalist Party, with no third parties winning seats in Parliament between 1962 and 2017 and since 2022.[14]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parties of power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_power"},{"link_name":"parliamentary factions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_group"},{"link_name":"3rd State Duma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_State_Duma"},{"link_name":"Unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_(Russian_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Fatherland – All Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatherland_%E2%80%93_All_Russia"},{"link_name":"United Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Russia"},{"link_name":"deputy head of the presidential administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8"},{"link_name":"Vladislav Surkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladislav_Surkov"},{"link_name":"Russian Party of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Party_of_Life"},{"link_name":"Sergey Mironov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Mironov"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kommersant-16"},{"link_name":"presidential administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Administration_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"leftist bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-wing_politics"},{"link_name":"nationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_nationalism"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kommersant-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"A Just Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Just_Russia"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"Duma elections of 2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Russian_legislative_election"},{"link_name":"dominant-party system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant-party_system"},{"link_name":"constitutional qualified majority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermajority"}],"sub_title":"Russia","text":"Post-Soviet Russia was close to having a competitive two-party system in 1999 when two \"parties of power\" (specifically, socio-political associations and parliamentary factions) were formed in the 3rd State Duma – Unity and Fatherland – All Russia. However, by the end of 2001, both had united into one pro-presidential party – United Russia.On 24 March 2006, a meeting was held between the deputy head of the presidential administration, Vladislav Surkov, and the chairman of the Russian Party of Life, Sergey Mironov, and 30 deputies from the Russian Party of Life. At the meeting, Surkov first openly formulated the idea of building a two-party system in the country, in which, depending on the circumstances, the Kremlin could rely on one of the two system-forming parties.[15] Surkov described the problem as follows: \"Society does not have a \"second leg\" that it can shift to when the first one goes numb. Russia needs a second major party,\" which, according to the presidential administration's plan, should, in the future, gain the votes that are currently collected by parties \"of a leftist bias and with a strong nationalist flavor.\" At the same time, Surkov left the role of the \"main leg\" for the coming years to United Russia: \"The largest party, around which the political process will be built for a considerable time, in my opinion, of course, should be United Russia.\" Vladislav Surkov advised Russian Party of Life activists to rely on the protest electorate rather than on administrative resources: \"It is better that this [protest] electorate, which is opposed to all types of administration, will be attracted to you than to destructive forces.\" A transcript of the meeting was published on 16 August 2006.[15][16]The A Just Russia party, which emerged in 2006, with some support from President Vladimir Putin, positioned itself as a competitor to United Russia within the framework of a potential two-party system.However, as a result of the fact that during the Duma elections of 2007, Putin politically headed the United Russia party, which won an absolute victory in the elections, by the end of 2007, a dominant-party system had emerged in Russia, in which United Russia has a constitutional qualified majority in the Duma.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Christian Science Monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGb-18"},{"link_name":"WashingtonPost.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WashingtonPost.com"},{"link_name":"People's Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Party_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"Spanish Socialist Workers' Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Socialist_Workers%27_Party"},{"link_name":"regional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Spanish_regional_elections"},{"link_name":"local","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Spanish_local_elections"},{"link_name":"Spanish economic crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%9316_Spanish_financial_crisis"},{"link_name":"political corruption scandals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_Spain#Corruption_cases_in_the_post-Franco_era"},{"link_name":"Citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_(Spanish_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Podemos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podemos_(Spanish_political_party)"},{"link_name":"United Left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Left_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Vox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)"}],"sub_title":"Spain","text":"A report in The Christian Science Monitor in 2008 suggested that Spain was moving toward a \"greater two-party system\" while acknowledging that Spain has many small parties.[17] A 2015 article published by WashingtonPost.com written by academic Fernando Casal Bértoa noted the decline in support for the two main parties, the People's Party (PP) and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in recent years, with these two parties winning only 52 percent of the votes in that year's regional and local elections. He explained this as being due to the Spanish economic crisis, a series of political corruption scandals and broken campaign promises. He argued that the emergence of the new Citizens and Podemos parties would mean the political system would evolve into a two-bloc system, with an alliance of the PP and Citizens on the right facing a leftist coalition of PSOE, Podemos and the United Left.[18] Far-right Vox party became the third largest group on the Spanish parliament recently.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Westminster system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system"},{"link_name":"parliamentary democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government"},{"link_name":"opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_(politics)"},{"link_name":"hung parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"In countries such as Britain, two major parties which have strong influence emerge and tend to elect most of the candidates, but a multitude of lesser parties exist with varying degrees of influence, and sometimes these lesser parties are able to elect officials who participate in the legislature. In political systems based on the Westminster system, which is a particular style of parliamentary democracy based on the British model and found in many Commonwealth countries, a majority party will form the government and the minority party will form the opposition, and coalitions of lesser parties are possible; in the rare circumstance in which neither party is the majority, a hung parliament arises. Sometimes these systems are described as two-party systems, but they are usually referred to as multi-party systems or a two-party plus system. There is not always a sharp boundary between a two-party system and a multi-party system.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"consensus government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consensus_government"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"Prince Edward Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"Canada has a multiparty system at the federal and provincial levels. Some provinces have effectively become two-party systems in which only two parties regularly get members elected, while smaller parties largely fail to secure electoral representation, and two of the three territories are run under a non-partisan consensus government model rather than through a political party system. The provincial legislative assembly of Alberta currently has only two parties; two-party representation has also historically been common in the legislative assemblies of British Columbia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, although all did elect some third-party members in their most recent provincial elections.","title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commonwealth Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_Caribbean"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"politics of Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Jamaica"},{"link_name":"People's National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_National_Party"},{"link_name":"Jamaica Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"politics of Guyana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Guyana"},{"link_name":"People's Progressive Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Progressive_Party_(Guyana)"},{"link_name":"APNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Partnership_for_National_Unity"},{"link_name":"politics of Trinidad and Tobago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago"},{"link_name":"People's National Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_National_Movement"},{"link_name":"United National Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_National_Congress"},{"link_name":"Politics of Belize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Belize"},{"link_name":"United Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Democratic_Party_(Belize)"},{"link_name":"People's United Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_United_Party"},{"link_name":"Politics of the Bahamas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Bahamas"},{"link_name":"Progressive Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Free National Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_National_Movement"},{"link_name":"politics of Barbados","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Barbados"},{"link_name":"Democratic Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Labour_Party_(Barbados)"},{"link_name":"Barbados Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados_Labour_Party"}],"sub_title":"Caribbean","text":"The Commonwealth Caribbean while inheriting their basic political system from Great Britain have become two-party systems. The politics of Jamaica are between the People's National Party and the Jamaica Labour Party. The politics of Guyana are between the People's Progressive Party and APNU which is actually a coalition of smaller parties. The politics of Trinidad and Tobago are between the People's National Movement and the United National Congress. The Politics of Belize are between the United Democratic Party and the People's United Party. The Politics of the Bahamas are between the Progressive Liberal Party and the Free National Movement. The politics of Barbados are between the Democratic Labour Party and the Barbados Labour Party.","title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"First Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Second Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Third Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Fourth Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Fifth Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Sixth Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Party_System"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"First Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Alexander Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Federalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_Party"},{"link_name":"Thomas Jefferson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson"},{"link_name":"Democratic-Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party"},{"link_name":"James Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Monroe"},{"link_name":"Second Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Party_System"},{"link_name":"1824 United States presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1824_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"1828 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1828_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Andrew Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jackson"},{"link_name":"National Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Republicans"},{"link_name":"John Quincy Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams"},{"link_name":"Whig Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Free Soil Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Soil_Party"},{"link_name":"Third Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Abraham Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"1860 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Solid South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_South"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Southern Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Democrats"},{"link_name":"Confederate States of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"racial slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"end slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction Era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_Era"},{"link_name":"Fourth Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Grover Cleveland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grover_Cleveland"},{"link_name":"Woodrow Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson"},{"link_name":"1932 United States elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_United_States_elections"},{"link_name":"Fifth Party System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Party_System"},{"link_name":"New Deal Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Deal_Coalition"},{"link_name":"Franklin D. Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Dwight Eisenhower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower"},{"link_name":"Republican Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"sixth party system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Party_System"},{"link_name":"Richard Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon"},{"link_name":"George McGovern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_McGovern"},{"link_name":"1972","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"Walter Mondale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Mondale"},{"link_name":"1984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"2012 United States presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"Mitt Romney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitt_Romney"},{"link_name":"1912","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Theodore Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Progressive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Party_(United_States,_1912)"},{"link_name":"1992 Presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Ross Perot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Perot"},{"link_name":"American politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"electoral college system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_electoral_college"},{"link_name":"policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy"},{"link_name":"Third Parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"getting onto ballots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballot_access"},{"link_name":"Commission on Presidential Debates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_on_Presidential_Debates"},{"link_name":"League of Women Voters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Women_Voters"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ross Perot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Perot"},{"link_name":"1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"multi-party system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system"},{"link_name":"Popular Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Party_(Puerto_Rico)"},{"link_name":"New Progressive Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Progressive_Party_(Puerto_Rico)"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican Independence Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Independence_Party"},{"link_name":"Citizens' Victory Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens%27_Victory_Movement"},{"link_name":"Project Dignity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Dignity"},{"link_name":"Guam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guam"},{"link_name":"Popular Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_Party_(Guam)"},{"link_name":"Northern Mariana Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands"},{"link_name":"Covenant Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_Party_(Northern_Mariana_Islands)"},{"link_name":"American Samoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Samoa"},{"link_name":"American Samoa Fono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Samoa_Fono"},{"link_name":"US Virgin Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Virgin_Islands"},{"link_name":"Independent Citizens Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Citizens_Movement"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"See also: First Party System, Second Party System, Third Party System, Fourth Party System, Fifth Party System, and Sixth Party SystemThe United States has two dominant political parties; historically, there have been few instances in which third party candidates won an election. In the First Party System, only Alexander Hamilton's Federalist Party and Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party were significant political parties. Toward the end of the First Party System, the Democratic-Republicans were dominant (primarily under the Presidency of James Monroe).Under the Second Party System, the Democratic-Republican Party split during the 1824 United States presidential election into Adams' Men and Jackson's Men. In the 1828 presidential election, the modern Democratic Party formed in support of Andrew Jackson. The National Republicans were formed in support of John Quincy Adams. After the National Republicans collapsed, the Whig Party and the Free Soil Party quickly formed and collapsed.In 1854 began the Third Party System when the modern Republican Party formed from a loose coalition of former Whigs, Free Soilers and other anti-slavery activists. The Republicans quickly became the dominant party nationally, and Abraham Lincoln became the first Republican President in the 1860 presidential election. The Democrats held a strong, loyal coalition in the Solid South. This period saw the American Civil War where the South (which was mostly dominated by the Southern Democrats) attempted to secede as the Confederate States of America, in an attempt to preserve racial slavery. The South lost the war and were forced to end slavery, and during the following Reconstruction Era the Republicans remained the most popular party nationally while the Democrats remained dominant in the South.During the Fourth Party System from about 1896 to 1932, the Republicans remained the dominant Presidential party, although Democrats Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson were both elected to two terms.The 1932 United States elections saw the onset of the Fifth Party System and a long period of Democratic dominance due to the New Deal Coalition. Democrat President Franklin D. Roosevelt won landslides in four consecutive elections. Other than the two terms of Republican Dwight Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961, Democrats retained firm control of the Presidency until the mid-1960s. In Congress, Democrats retained majorities in both houses for 60 years until the Republican Revolution, broken only by brief Republican majorities.There was a significant change in U.S. politics in 1960,[19] and this is seen by some as a transition to a sixth party system.Since the mid-1960s, despite a couple of landslides (such as Richard Nixon carrying 49 states and 61% of the popular vote over George McGovern in 1972; Ronald Reagan carrying 49 states and 58% of the popular vote over Walter Mondale in 1984), Presidential elections have been competitive between the predominant Republican and Democratic parties and no one party has been able to hold the Presidency for more than three consecutive terms.In the 2012 United States presidential election, only 4% separated the popular vote between Barack Obama (51%) and Mitt Romney (47%), although Obama won the electoral vote (332–206).Throughout every American party system, no third party has won a Presidential election or majorities in either house of Congress. Despite that, third parties and third party candidates have gained traction and support. In the election of 1912, Theodore Roosevelt won 27% of the popular vote and 88 electoral votes running as a Progressive. In the 1992 Presidential election, Ross Perot won 19% of the popular vote but no electoral votes running as an Independent.Modern American politics, in particular the electoral college system, has been described as duopolistic since the Republican and Democratic parties have dominated and framed policy debate as well as the public discourse on matters of national concern for about a century and a half. Third Parties have encountered various blocks in getting onto ballots at different levels of government as well as other electoral obstacles, such as denial of access to general election debates. Since 1987, the Commission on Presidential Debates, established by the Republican and Democratic parties themselves, supplanted debates run since 1976 by the League of Women Voters. The League withdrew its support in protest in 1988 over objections of alleged stagecraft such as rules for camera placement, filling the audience with supporters, approved moderators, predetermined question selection, room temperature and others.[20] The Commission maintains its own rules for admittance[21] and has only admitted a single third-party candidate to a televised debate, Ross Perot, in 1992.[22]Some parts of the US have had their own party systems, distinct from the rest of the country.In Puerto Rico, there is a multi-party system with the Popular Democratic Party and New Progressive Party being the two strongest parties. Minor parties in the 2021 legislature include the Puerto Rican Independence Party, Citizens' Victory Movement and Project Dignity.\nIn Guam, the Popular Party was the only political party from 1949-1954, and was dominant until 1967 when they became affiliated with the Democrats. Since then, the Democrats and Republicans have been the two main parties.\nIn the Northern Mariana Islands, the Democrats and Republicans are the two main parties but as recently as 2013, the Governor was a member of the Covenant Party.\nIn American Samoa, the American Samoa Fono (territorial legislature) is non-partisan, and on ballots only candidate names are displayed, not political parties. The Governor has typically been either Democrat or Republican.\nIn the US Virgin Islands, the Democrats and Republicans have been the main two parties, but two Governors during the 1970s were part of the Independent Citizens Movement, and from 2015-2019 the Governor was an independent.","title":"North America"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Africa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republic of Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Ghana"},{"link_name":"transition to democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_transition"},{"link_name":"New Patriotic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Patriotic_Party"},{"link_name":"National Democratic Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Democratic_Congress_(Ghana)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Ghana","text":"The Republic of Ghana since its transition to democracy in 1992 have a strongly institutionalized two-party system led by New Patriotic Party and National Democratic Congress.[23]","title":"Africa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"politics of Zimbabwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Zimbabwe"},{"link_name":"Robert Mugabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mugabe"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe_African_National_Union-Patriotic_Front"},{"link_name":"Movement for Democratic Change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movement_for_Democratic_Change_%E2%80%93_Tsvangirai"}],"sub_title":"Zimbabwe","text":"The politics of Zimbabwe are effectively a two-party system between the Robert Mugabe founded Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front and the opposition coalition Movement for Democratic Change.","title":"Africa"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australian House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"federal government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Australian Labor Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party"},{"link_name":"Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Australian labour movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_labour_movement"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"National Party of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"1922 Australian federal election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Australian_federal_election"},{"link_name":"Nationalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Deputy Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Prime_Minister_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"instant-runoff voting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant-runoff_voting"},{"link_name":"spoiler effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoiler_effect"},{"link_name":"Australian Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Greens"}],"sub_title":"House of Representatives","text":"Since the 1920s, the Australian House of Representatives (and thus the federal government) has in effect been a two-party system.Since the end of World War II, Australia's House of Representatives has been dominated by two factions:the centre-left Australian Labor Party\nthe centre-right Coalition.The Coalition has been in government about two-thirds of time, broken by 4 periods of Labor governments: 1972-1975, 1983-1996, 2007-2013, and since 2022.The ALP is Australia's largest and oldest continuing political party, formed in 1891 from the Australian labour movement. The party has branches in every state and territory.The Coalition is a near-permanent alliance of several parties, primarily the Liberal Party of Australia (Australia's 2nd largest party) and National Party of Australia (4th largest). It was formed after the 1922 Australian federal election, when the Nationalist Party (ancestor of today's Liberal Party) lost its absolute majority, and was only able to remain in government by allying with the Country Party (now called the National Party). Under the Coalition agreement, if the Coalition forms government then the Prime Minister will be the leader of the Liberals, and the Deputy Prime Minister will be the leader of the Nationals. In theory, disagreements between the Coalition's constituent parties would lead to the Coalition being broken. However, the last time that this has happened at the federal level was in 1939-1940.One reason for Australia's two-party system is because the House of Representatives (which chooses the Prime Minister of Australia) is elected through the instant-runoff voting electoral system. Although voters can preference third parties and independents above the major parties, and the voting method has a reduced spoiler effect, there is still only one member per electoral division (ie: a winner-take-all system) and so major parties tend to win the vast majority of seats even if they need to rely on preferences to do so. For example, a Labor candidate may win a seat with 30% of the vote for Labor and 21% from Australian Greens voters who ranked Labor second.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australian Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Senate"},{"link_name":"single transferable vote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_transferable_vote"},{"link_name":"proportional representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportional_representation"},{"link_name":"balance of power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_power_(parliament)"},{"link_name":"Australian Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Greens"},{"link_name":"Australian Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Democrats"},{"link_name":"One Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Nation_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Family First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_First_Party"},{"link_name":"Centre Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_Alliance"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"Katter's Australian Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katter%27s_Australian_Party"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooters,_Fishers_and_Farmers_Party"},{"link_name":"Australian Capital Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Capital_Territory"},{"link_name":"Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_(Australian_Capital_Territory_Branch)"},{"link_name":"Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACT_Greens"},{"link_name":"Liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia_(A.C.T._Division)"},{"link_name":"Northern Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territory"},{"link_name":"Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_(Northern_Territory_Branch)"},{"link_name":"Country Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Western Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"Liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Australia_(Western_Australian_Division)"},{"link_name":"National parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_of_Australia_(WA)"},{"link_name":"2021 Western Australian state election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Western_Australian_state_election"},{"link_name":"Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_(Western_Australian_Branch)"},{"link_name":"crossbench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossbench"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"Tasmania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania"},{"link_name":"Queensland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland"},{"link_name":"Labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Labor_Party_(Queensland_Branch)"},{"link_name":"Liberal-National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_National_Party_of_Queensland"},{"link_name":"malapportionment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malapportionment"},{"link_name":"Joh Bjelke-Petersen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joh_Bjelke-Petersen"},{"link_name":"Queensland Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_Police"},{"link_name":"Bjelkemander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bjelkemander"},{"link_name":"Fitzgerald Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitzgerald_Inquiry"}],"sub_title":"Senate","text":"On the other hand, the Australian Senate is effectively a multi-party system, and a Senate majority matching the House is very rare. It uses single transferable vote with multiple Senators for each state/territory. This results in rough proportional representation and as a result, third parties have much more influence and often hold the balance of power. Since 2004, the Australian Greens have been the third largest party in the country, with 8-13% of the national vote and an equivalent amount of Senators. Prior to this, the Australian Democrats was the third largest party. Other current and past parties include One Nation, the Liberal Democrats and Family First.Some Australian states have seen the rise of minor parties at either the state or federal level (eg: Centre Alliance in South Australia, Katter's Australian Party in northern Queensland, and the Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party in western New South Wales), while some have seen long periods of dominance by one party. Some parties are absent entirely in parts of the country.The Australian Capital Territory has had a Labor/Greens coalition government since 2012, opposed by the Liberals (Nationals not present). Labor was in government alone from 2001-2012.\nNotably, the ACT is the only state/territory where the Greens have been in power.\nIn the Northern Territory, the two main parties are Labor and the Country Liberal Party (CLP), which aligns with the Coalition at the federal level.\nIn Western Australia, the Liberal and National parties are not in a permanent coalition at the state level. At the 2021 Western Australian state election Labor won 53 out of 59 lower house seats in a landslide victory. The National Party won 4 seats making them the official opposition. The Liberals won only 2 seats, putting them on the crossbench.\nIn New South Wales and Victoria, the main parties reflect the situation nationally: Labor versus the Coalition of the Liberals and Nationals. NSW is the only state where the Coalition has never split, but has also never merged into one party.\nIn South Australia and Tasmania, the main parties are Labor and the Liberals, with the Nationals not holding any seats.\nIn Queensland, the main parties are Labor and the Liberal-National Party (LNP). Historically, the Country Party was the largest Coalition member and they governed the state from 1957 until 1989. This was partially due to a malapportionment which heavily favoured rural seats. It had been originally designed by a Labor government, but ended up benefitting the Country Party as demographics shifted. Later, Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen increased his power by using Queensland Police to suppress political dissent, and enacted the Bjelkemander, worsening malapportionment in order to reduce the power of the Liberals so his Country Party could rule alone. Eventually, media reports and the Fitzgerald Inquiry revealed wide-ranging corruption police and government. Bjelke-Petersen was forced to resign in disgrace, while many high-ranking police and politicians were criminally charged. Labor has been in power for most the time since then, with the state Country and Liberal parties merging into the LNP, which is a member of the Coalition federally.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"presidential systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_systems"},{"link_name":"winner takes all","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winner-Take-All_Politics"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"liberals and conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism_and_conservatism_in_Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"Central American Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_American_Republic"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_peoples"},{"link_name":"aristocracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristocracy"},{"link_name":"Pelucones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelucones"},{"link_name":"Pipiolos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipiolos"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"Federalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_Party_(Argentina)"},{"link_name":"Unitarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarian_Party"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Colorados","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Party_(Paraguay)"},{"link_name":"Liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentic_Radical_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Paraguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay"},{"link_name":"Colorados","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Party_(Uruguay)"},{"link_name":"Nationals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_(Uruguay)"},{"link_name":"Uruguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Constanza-26"},{"link_name":"center-left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center-left"},{"link_name":"social-democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social-democratic"},{"link_name":"center-right","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center-right"},{"link_name":"liberal conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_conservative"},{"link_name":"National Liberation Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberation_Party_(Costa_Rica)"},{"link_name":"Social Christian Unity Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Christian_Unity_Party"},{"link_name":"Costa Rica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica"},{"link_name":"peronista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peronista"},{"link_name":"Justicialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justicialist_Party"},{"link_name":"Radical Civic Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Civic_Union"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Democratic Action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Action_(Venezuela)"},{"link_name":"COPEI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COPEI"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"Colombian Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombian_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Colombian Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombian_Conservative_Party"},{"link_name":"Democratic Revolutionary Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Revolutionary_Party"},{"link_name":"Panameñista Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paname%C3%B1ista_Party"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_of_Honduras"},{"link_name":"National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Party_of_Honduras"},{"link_name":"Honduras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honduras"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angell-27"},{"link_name":"Central American crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_American_crisis"},{"link_name":"far-left","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-left"},{"link_name":"guerrillas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerrillas"},{"link_name":"right-wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-wing"},{"link_name":"Nicaragua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua"},{"link_name":"Sandinista National Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandinista_National_Liberation_Front"},{"link_name":"Liberals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism_in_Nicaragua"},{"link_name":"El Salvador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Salvador"},{"link_name":"Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farabundo_Mart%C3%AD_National_Liberation_Front"},{"link_name":"Nationalist Republican Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Republican_Alliance"},{"link_name":"Rafael Caldera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Caldera"},{"link_name":"National Convergence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Convergence_(Venezuela)"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Venezuelan_general_election"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"Álvaro Uribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Uribe"},{"link_name":"Colombia First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia_First"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_Colombian_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Tabaré Vázquez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabar%C3%A9_V%C3%A1zquez"},{"link_name":"Broad Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broad_Front_(Uruguay)"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Uruguayan_general_election"},{"link_name":"Uruguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay"},{"link_name":"Fernando Lugo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Lugo"},{"link_name":"Christian Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Party_(Paraguay)"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Paraguayan_general_election"},{"link_name":"Paraguay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraguay"},{"link_name":"Ricardo Martinelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Martinelli"},{"link_name":"Democratic Change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Change_(Panama)"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_Panamanian_general_election"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Luis Guillermo Solís","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Guillermo_Sol%C3%ADs"},{"link_name":"Citizens' Action Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens%27_Action_Party_(Costa_Rica)"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Costa_Rican_general_election"},{"link_name":"Costa Rica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Rica"},{"link_name":"Mauricio Macri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauricio_Macri"},{"link_name":"Republican Proposal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Proposal"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Argentine_general_election"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Nayib Bukele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayib_Bukele"},{"link_name":"Grand Alliance for National Unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Alliance_for_National_Unity"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Salvadoran_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"El Salvador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Salvador"},{"link_name":"Gabriel Boric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_Boric"},{"link_name":"Approve Dignity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apruebo_Dignidad"},{"link_name":"victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Chilean_general_election"},{"link_name":"third parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_party_(politics)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angell-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Constanza-26"},{"link_name":"Frente de Todos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frente_de_Todos"},{"link_name":"Juntos por el Cambio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juntos_por_el_Cambio"},{"link_name":"Unitary Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_Platform"},{"link_name":"Great Patriotic Pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Patriotic_Pole"}],"text":"Most Latin American countries also have presidential systems very similar to the US often with winner takes all systems. Due to the common accumulation of power in the presidential office both the official party and the main opposition became important political protagonists causing historically two-party systems.[24] Some of the first manifestations of this particularity was with the liberals and conservatives that often fought for power in all Latin America causing the first two-party systems in most Latin American countries which often lead to civil wars in places like Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, the Central American Republic and Peru, with fights focusing specially on opposing/defending the privileges of the Catholic Church and the creole aristocracy. Other examples of primitive two-party systems included the Pelucones versus Pipiolos in Chile, Federalists versus Unitarians in Argentina, Colorados versus Liberals in Paraguay and Colorados versus Nationals in Uruguay.[25]As in other regions, the original rivalry between liberals and conservatives was overtaken by a rivalry between center-left (often social-democratic) parties versus center-right liberal conservative parties, focusing more in economic differences than in cultural and religious differences as it was common during the liberal versus conservative period. Examples of this include National Liberation Party versus Social Christian Unity Party in Costa Rica, the peronista Justicialist Party versus Radical Civic Union in Argentina, Democratic Action versus COPEI in Venezuela, the Colombian Liberal Party versus the Colombian Conservative Party in Colombia, Democratic Revolutionary Party versus Panameñista Party in Panama and Liberal Party versus National Party in Honduras.[26] After the democratization of Central America following the end of the Central American crisis in the 1990s former far-left guerrillas and former right-wing authoritarian parties, now in peace, make some similar two-party systems in countries like Nicaragua between the Sandinista National Liberation Front and the Liberals and in El Salvador between the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front and the Nationalist Republican Alliance.The traditional two-party dynamic started to break after a while, especially in the early 2000s; alternative parties won elections breaking the traditional two-party systems including Rafael Caldera's (National Convergence) victory in Venezuela in 1993, Álvaro Uribe (Colombia First) victory in 2002, Tabaré Vázquez (Broad Front) victory in Uruguay in 2004, Fernando Lugo (Christian Democratic Party) victory in Paraguay in 2008, Ricardo Martinelli (Democratic Change) victory in 2009 in Panama, Luis Guillermo Solís (Citizens' Action Party) victory in 2014 in Costa Rica, Mauricio Macri (Republican Proposal) victory in 2015 in Argentina, Nayib Bukele (Grand Alliance for National Unity) victory in 2019 in El Salvador, and Gabriel Boric (Approve Dignity) victory in 2021, all of them from non-traditional third parties in their respective countries.[26] In some countries like Argentina, Chile and Venezuela the political system is now split in two large multi-party alliances or blocs, one on the left and one on the right of the spectrum,[25] such as Frente de Todos versus Juntos por el Cambio in Argentina, and the Unitary Platform versus Great Patriotic Pole in Venezuela.","title":"Latin America"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Parliament of Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"bipartisan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipartisan"},{"link_name":"political spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"winner takes all","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality_voting_system"}],"sub_title":"Lebanon","text":"The Parliament of Lebanon is mainly made up of two bipartisan alliances. Although both alliances are made up of several political parties on both ends of the political spectrum the two-way political situation has mainly arisen due to strong ideological differences in the electorate.[27] Once again this can mainly be attributed to the winner takes all thesis.","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_South_Korea"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism_in_South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party of Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Korea"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_South_Korea"},{"link_name":"People Power Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_Power_Party_(South_Korea)"}],"sub_title":"South Korea","text":"South Korea has a multi-party system[28] that has sometimes been described as having characteristics of a two-party system.[29] Parties will have reconstructions based upon its leader, but the country continues to maintain two major parties. Currently these parties are the liberal Democratic Party of Korea and the conservative People Power Party.","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"South America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"imperial period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(Brazil,_1831)"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(Brazil)"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"its military dictatorship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_military_government"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"National Renewal Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Renewal_Alliance"},{"link_name":"Brazilian Democratic Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Democratic_Movement"},{"link_name":"National Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Congress_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"dominant-party system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant-party_system"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Brazil","text":"During the imperial period, since 1840, two great parties with a national base alternated its dominance between legislatures: the Liberal and the Conservative. These parties were dissolved in 1889, after the republic was instituted in Brazil, in which the registration of party directories came under the jurisdiction of the states.Brazil also had a two-party system for most of its military dictatorship (1964–1985): on October 27, 1965, the Institutional Act 2 decree[30] banned all existing parties and conditioned the creation of new parties to the quorum of 1/3 of the then-elected National Congress; resulting in the creation of two parties: a pro-government party, the National Renewal Alliance (ARENA) and an opposition party, the Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB). Despite officially having a bipartisan system, complex electoral mechanisms, nominally neutral, were created to guarantee the prevalence of the ARENA in the National Congress, making Brazil, in practice, a dominant-party system in that period. The two parties were dissolved in 1979, when the regime allowed other parties to form.[31]","title":"South America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Multi-party systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system"},{"link_name":"effective number of parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_number_of_parties"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Suriname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriname"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Dominant-party systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant-party_system"},{"link_name":"civil rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_rights"},{"link_name":"freedom of press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_press"},{"link_name":"People's Action Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"African National Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_National_Congress"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"SWAPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWAPO"},{"link_name":"Namibia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia"},{"link_name":"Dominica Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"Dominica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica"},{"link_name":"One-party systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state"},{"link_name":"Chinese Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"},{"link_name":"Workers' Party of Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27_Party_of_Korea"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Communist Party of Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Cuba"}],"text":"Two-party systems can be contrasted with:Multi-party systems. In these, the effective number of parties is greater than two but usually fewer than five; in a two-party system, the effective number of parties is two (according to one analysis, the actual average number of parties varies between 1.7 and 2.1).[32] The parties in a multi-party system can control government separately or as a coalition; in a two-party system, coalition governments rarely form. Nations with multi-party systems include Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Nepal, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Portugal, Ukraine, Suriname, Sweden and Thailand.Dominant-party systems are present in countries which are formally democratic, but where a dominant party holds a vast majority for decades and the party institutions may be intertwined with, or hard to distinguish from the major institutions of the state. Unlike in one-party-states, civil rights and freedom of press are at least partly preserved. Examples of this type are the People's Action Party of Singapore, the African National Congress of South Africa, the SWAPO in Namibia, and the Dominica Labour Party in Dominica.One-party systems happen in nations where no more than one party is codified in law and/or officially recognized, or where alternate parties are restricted by the dominant party which wields power. Examples are rule by the Chinese Communist Party, Workers' Party of Korea, Communist Party of Vietnam, and Communist Party of Cuba.","title":"Comparison with other systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGi11-34"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two_Party_Ballot_In_New_Jersey.jpg"},{"link_name":"Summit, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summit,_New_Jersey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FMSTAN_%26_SPIDER_Global_meeting_in_Austrian_Foreign_Ministries_in_Vienna_(49120446508)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey D. Sachs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Sachs"},{"link_name":"Maurice Duverger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Duverger"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-35"},{"link_name":"William H. Riker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Riker"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey D. Sachs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_D._Sachs"},{"link_name":"first-past-the-post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-past-the-post"},{"link_name":"Duverger's Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duverger%27s_Law"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsM18xxuy-36"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"plurality voting system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality_voting_system"},{"link_name":"single-winner voting system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-winner_voting_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"Electoral College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGf1-37"},{"link_name":"electoral votes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_votes"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-35"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EricBlack-6"},{"link_name":"Electoral College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGf2-38"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GeorgeEdwards-35"},{"link_name":"ballot access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballot_access"},{"link_name":"Americans Elect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans_Elect"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cillizza-12"}],"text":"There are several reasons why, in some systems, two major parties dominate the political landscape. There has been speculation that a two-party system arose in the United States from early political battling between the federalists and anti-federalists in the first few decades after the ratification of the Constitution, according to several views.[1][33] In addition, there has been more speculation that the winner-takes-all electoral system as well as particular state and federal laws regarding voting procedures helped to cause a two-party system.[1]In a two-party system, voters have mostly two options; in this sample ballot for an election in Summit, New Jersey, voters can choose between a Republican or Democrat, but there are no third party candidates.Economist Jeffrey D. SachsPolitical scientists such as Maurice Duverger[34] and William H. Riker claim that there are strong correlations between voting rules and type of party system. Jeffrey D. Sachs agreed that there was a link between voting arrangements and the effective number of parties. Sachs explained how the first-past-the-post voting arrangement tended to promote a two-party system:The main reason for America's majoritarian character is the electoral system for Congress. Members of Congress are elected in single-member districts according to the \"first-past-the-post\" (FPTP) principle, meaning that the candidate with the plurality of votes is the winner of the congressional seat. The losing party or parties win no representation at all. The first-past-the-post election tends to produce a small number of major parties, perhaps just two, a principle known in political science as Duverger's Law. Smaller parties are trampled in first-past-the-post elections.— Sachs, The Price of Civilization, 2011[35]Consider a system in which voters can vote for any candidate from any one of many parties. Suppose further that if a party gets 15% of votes, then that party will win 15% of the seats in the legislature. This is termed proportional representation or more accurately as party-proportional representation. Political scientists speculate that proportional representation leads logically to multi-party systems, since it allows new parties to build a niche in the legislature:Because even a minor party may still obtain at least a few seats in the legislature, smaller parties have a greater incentive to organize under such electoral systems than they do in the United States.— Schmidt, Shelley, Bardes (2008)[1]In contrast, a voting system that allows only a single winner for each possible legislative seat is sometimes termed a plurality voting system or single-winner voting system and is usually described under the heading of a winner-takes-all arrangement. Each voter can cast a single vote for any candidate within any given legislative district, but the candidate with the most votes wins the seat, although variants, such as requiring a majority, are sometimes used. What happens is that in a general election, a party that consistently comes in third in every district is unlikely to win any legislative seats even if there is a significant proportion of the electorate favoring its positions. This arrangement strongly favors large and well-organized political parties that are able to appeal to voters in many districts and hence win many seats, and discourages smaller or regional parties. Politically oriented people consider their only realistic way to capture political power is to run under the auspices of the two dominant parties,[1] and legislators from both dominant parties have an incentive not to reform the system as it eliminates potential choices and always assures one of them will have power.In the U.S., forty-eight states have a standard winner-takes-all electoral system for amassing presidential votes in the Electoral College system.[36] The winner-takes-all principle applies in presidential elections, since if a presidential candidate gets the most votes in any particular state, all of the electoral votes from that state are awarded. In all but two states, Maine and Nebraska, the presidential candidate winning a plurality of votes wins all of the electoral votes, a practice called the unit rule.[1]Duverger concluded that \"plurality election single-ballot procedures are likely to produce two-party systems, whereas proportional representation and runoff designs encourage multipartyism.\"[34] He suggested there were two reasons why winner-takes-all systems leads to a two-party system. First, the weaker parties are pressured to form an alliance, sometimes called a fusion, to try to become big enough to challenge a large dominant party and, in so doing, gain political clout in the legislature. Second, voters learn, over time, not to vote for candidates outside of one of the two large parties since their votes for third party candidates are usually ineffectual.[1] As a result, weaker parties are eliminated by voters over time. Duverger pointed to statistics and tactics to suggest that voters tended to gravitate towards one of the two main parties, a phenomenon which he called polarization, and tend to shun third parties.[5] For example, some analysts suggest that the Electoral College system in the United States, by favoring a system of winner-takes-all in presidential elections, is a structural choice favoring only two major parties.[37]Gary Cox suggested that America's two-party system was highly related with economic prosperity in the country:The bounty of the American economy, the fluidity of American society, the remarkable unity of the American people, and, most important, the success of the American experiment have all mitigated against the emergence of large dissenting groups that would seek satisfaction of their special needs through the formation of political parties.— Cox, according to George Edwards[34]An effort in 2012 by centrist groups to promote ballot access by third-party candidates called Americans Elect spent $15 million to get ballot access but failed to elect any candidates.[38] The lack of choice in a two-party model in politics has often been compared to the variety of choices in the marketplace.Politics has lagged our social and business evolution ... There are 30 brands of Pringles in our local grocery store. How is it that Americans have so much selection for potato chips and only two brands – and not very good ones – for political parties?— Scott Ehredt of the Centrist Alliance[11]","title":"Causes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two_party_system_diagram.png"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsDecG44fwee-40"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsJanQ-41"},{"link_name":"charismatic individual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charisma"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsDecG44fwee-40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._party_affiliation.svg"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"Libertarian Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Pirate Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Pirate_Party"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsMarZ2la-43"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SchmidtTextbook-2"},{"link_name":"New York Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsDecG44aa-44"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Scottish National Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_National_Party"},{"link_name":"2015 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"2010 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"hung parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament"},{"link_name":"Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Coalition government of 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg_coalition"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"According to one view, the winner-takes-all system discourages voters from choosing third party or independent candidates, and over time the process becomes entrenched so that only two major parties become viable.Third parties, meaning a party other than one of the two dominant parties, are possible in two-party systems, but they are often unlikely to exert much influence by gaining control of legislatures or by winning elections.[1] While there are occasional opinions in the media expressed about the possibility of third parties emerging in the United States, for example, political insiders such as the 1980 presidential candidate John Anderson think the chances of one appearing in the early twenty-first century is remote.[39] A report in The Guardian suggested that American politics has been \"stuck in a two-way fight between Republicans and Democrats\" since the Civil War, and that third-party runs had little meaningful success.[40]Third parties in a two-party system can be:Built around a particular ideology or interest group\nSplit off from one of the major parties or\nFocused on a charismatic individual.[39]Party affiliation in the United States according to a 2004 study: Democratic with 72 million, Republican with 55 million and third parties collectively with 42 million registered citizens[41]When third parties are built around an ideology which is at odds with the majority mindset, many members belong to such a party not for the purpose of expecting electoral success but rather for personal or psychological reasons.[1] In the U.S., third parties include older ones such as the Libertarian Party and the Green Party and newer ones such as the Pirate Party.[1][42] Many believe that third parties do not affect American politics by winning elections, but they can act as \"spoilers\" by taking votes from one of the two major parties.[1] They act like barometers of change in the political mood since they push the major parties to consider their demands.[1] An analysis in New York Magazine by Ryan Lizza in 2006 suggested that third parties arose from time to time in the nineteenth century around single-issue movements such as abolition, women's suffrage, and the direct election of senators, but were less prominent in the twentieth century.[43]A so-called third party in the United Kingdom were historically the Liberal Democrats, prior to the Scottish National Party taken its place since the 2015 election by number of the House of Common seats. In the 2010 election, the Liberal Democrats received 23% of the votes but only 9% of the seats in the House of Commons. While electoral results do not necessarily translate into legislative seats, the Liberal Democrats can exert influence if there is a situation such as a hung parliament. In this instance, neither of the two main parties (at present, the Conservative Party and the Labour Party) have sufficient authority to run the government. Accordingly, the Liberal Democrats can in theory exert tremendous influence in such a situation since they can ally with one of the two main parties to form a coalition. This happened in the Coalition government of 2010. The two party system in the United Kingdom allows for other parties to exist, although the main two parties tend to dominate politics; in this arrangement, other parties are not excluded and can win seats in Parliament. In contrast, the two party system in the United States has been described as a duopoly or an enforced two-party system, such that politics is almost entirely dominated by either the Republicans or Democrats, and third parties rarely win seats in Congress.[44]","title":"Third parties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Patrick Allitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Allitt"},{"link_name":"Teaching Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_Company"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"},{"link_name":"hung parliaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hung_parliament"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGh33-46"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGc-47"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"}],"text":"Some historians have suggested that two-party systems promote centrism and encourage political parties to find common positions which appeal to wide swaths of the electorate. It can lead to political stability[3][failed verification] which leads, in turn, to economic growth. Historian Patrick Allitt of the Teaching Company suggested that it is difficult to overestimate the long-term economic benefits of political stability. Sometimes two-party systems have been seen as preferable to multi-party systems because they are simpler to govern, with less fractiousness and greater harmony, since it discourages radical minor parties,[3] while multi-party systems can sometimes lead to hung parliaments.[45] Italy, with a multi-party system, has had years of divisive politics since 2000, although analyst Silvia Aloisi suggested in 2008 that the nation may be moving closer to a two-party arrangement.[46] The two-party has been identified as simpler since there are fewer voting choices.[3]","title":"Advantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boundless-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cato-8"},{"link_name":"median voter theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median_voter_theorem"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boundless-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boundless-5"},{"link_name":"popular sovereignty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_sovereignty"},{"link_name":"citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsOctNfasfgg-48"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cato-8"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGf3-49"},{"link_name":"Ross Perot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_Perot"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsDecG44fwee-40"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGg45-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGi22-51"},{"link_name":"the Huffington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Huffington_Post"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsNovGi22-51"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Regis-4"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPR-52"},{"link_name":"American president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POTUS"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WPR-52"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twoTyrants-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsWNYCRadio-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-twsHonoMag1-55"},{"link_name":"abortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion"},{"link_name":"taxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax"},{"link_name":"space program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_program"},{"link_name":"viral pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic"},{"link_name":"human sexuality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sexuality"},{"link_name":"environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues"},{"link_name":"warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War"},{"link_name":"Fox News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News"},{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"ISIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State"},{"link_name":"debt ceiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_debt_ceiling"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"text":"Two-party systems have been criticized for downplaying alternative views,[3][4] being less competitive,[7] median voter theorem, encouraging voter apathy since there is a perception of fewer choices,[3] and putting a damper on debate[4] within a nation. In a proportional representation system, lesser parties can moderate policy since they are not usually eliminated from government.[3] One analyst suggested the two-party approach may not promote inter-party compromise but may encourage partisanship.[4] In The Tyranny of the Two-party system, Lisa Jane Disch criticizes two-party systems for failing to provide enough options since only two choices are permitted on the ballot. She wrote:Herein lies the central tension of the two–party doctrine. It identifies popular sovereignty with choice, and then limits choice to one party or the other. If there is any truth to Schattschneider's analogy between elections and markets, America's faith in the two–party system begs the following question: Why do voters accept as the ultimate in political freedom a binary option they would surely protest as consumers? ... This is the tyranny of the two–party system, the construct that persuades United States citizens to accept two–party contests as a condition of electoral democracy.— Lisa Jane Disch, 2002[47]There have been arguments that the winner-take-all mechanism discourages independent or third-party candidates from running for office or promulgating their views.[7][48] Ross Perot's former campaign manager wrote that the problem with having only two parties is that the nation loses \"the ability for things to bubble up from the body politic and give voice to things that aren't being voiced by the major parties.\"[39] One analyst suggested that parliamentary systems, which typically are multi-party in nature, lead to a better \"centralization of policy expertise\" in government.[49] Multi-party governments permit wider and more diverse viewpoints in government, and encourage dominant parties to make deals with weaker parties to form winning coalitions.[50] Analyst Chris Weigant of the Huffington Post wrote that \"the parliamentary system is inherently much more open to minority parties getting much better representation than third parties do in the American system\".[50] After an election in which the party changes, there can be a \"polar shift in policy-making\" when voters react to changes.[3]Political analyst A. G. Roderick, writing in his book Two Tyrants, argued that the two American parties (the Republican Party and the Democratic Party) were highly unpopular (as of 2015), are not part of the political framework of state governments, and do not represent the 47% of the electorate who identify themselves as \"independents\".[51] He makes a case that the American president should be elected on a non-partisan basis,[51][52][53] and asserts that both political parties are \"cut from the same cloth of corruption and corporate influence.\"[54]Others have accused two party systems of encouraging an environment which stifles individual thought processes and analysis. In a two party system, knowledge about political leaning facilitates assumptions to be made about an individual's opinions on a wide variety of topics (e.g. abortion, taxes, the space program, a viral pandemic, human sexuality, the environment, warfare, opinions on police, etc.) which are not necessarily connected.\"The more destructive problem is the way this skews the discussion of the issues facing the nation. The media – meaning news sources from Fox News to the New York Times and everything in between – seem largely incapable of dealing with any issue outside of the liberal versus conservative paradigm. Whether it's dealing with ISIS, the debt ceiling, or climate change, the media frames every issue as a simple debate between the Democratic and the Republican positions. This creates the ludicrous idea that every public policy problem has two, and only two, approaches. That's nonsense. Certainly some problems have only two resolutions, some have only one, but most have a range of possible solutions. But the \"national\" debate presents every issue as a simplistic duality, which trivializes everything.\"\n—Michael Coblenz, 2016[55]","title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_III_Landing_at_Brixham,_Torbay,_5_November_1688.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jan Wyck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Wyck"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"English politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_England"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Glorious Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Whigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whigs_(British_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"constitutional monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy"},{"link_name":"absolute rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_Monarchy"},{"link_name":"Tories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory_(British_political_party)"},{"link_name":"Royalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royalist"},{"link_name":"Cavalier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalier"},{"link_name":"English Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"constitutional monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy"},{"link_name":"religious toleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_toleration"},{"link_name":"nonconformist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Algernon Sidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algernon_Sidney"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Glorious Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Hanoverian succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoverian_succession"},{"link_name":"Stuart dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_dynasty"},{"link_name":"George I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_I_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Whig supremacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_supremacy"},{"link_name":"Robert Walpole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Walpole"},{"link_name":"William Wyndham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Wyndham,_3rd_Baronet"}],"sub_title":"British parties","text":"Equestrian portrait of William III by Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688The two-party system, in the sense of the looser definition, where two parties dominate politics but in which third parties can elect members and gain some representation in the legislature, can be traced to the development of political parties in the United Kingdom. There was a division in English politics at the time of the Civil War and Glorious Revolution in the late 17th century.[56] The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule and the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or \"Cavalier\") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Parliament.[57] In the following century, the Whig party's support base widened to include emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants.The basic matters of principle that defined the struggle between the two factions, were concerning the nature of constitutional monarchy, the desirability of a Catholic king, the extension of religious toleration to nonconformist Protestants, and other issues that had been put on the liberal agenda through the political concepts propounded by John Locke,[58] Algernon Sidney and others.[59]Vigorous struggle between the two factions characterised the period from the Glorious Revolution to the 1715 Hanoverian succession, over the legacy of the overthrow of the Stuart dynasty and the nature of the new constitutional state. This proto two-party system fell into relative abeyance after the accession to the throne of George I and the consequent period of Whig supremacy under Robert Walpole, during which the Tories were systematically purged from high positions in government. Although the Tories were dismissed from office for 50 years, they retained a measure of party cohesion under William Wyndham and acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the \"Opposition Whigs\", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government. The ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grenvillite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenvillite"},{"link_name":"Bedfordite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedfordite"},{"link_name":"Rockinghamite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockingham_Whigs"},{"link_name":"Chathamite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pitt,_1st_Earl_of_Chatham"},{"link_name":"Rockingham Whigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockingham_Whigs"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Charles Watson-Wentworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Watson-Wentworth,_2nd_Marquess_of_Rockingham"},{"link_name":"political philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Edmund Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke"},{"link_name":"Loyal Opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyal_Opposition"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A-Block-for-the-Wigs-Gillray.jpeg"},{"link_name":"James Gillray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gillray"},{"link_name":"Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_James_Fox"},{"link_name":"coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox%E2%80%93North_coalition"},{"link_name":"North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_North,_Lord_North"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"William Pitt the Younger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger"},{"link_name":"radical politician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicalism_(politics)"},{"link_name":"Charles James Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_James_Fox"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"era of political reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Act_1832"},{"link_name":"Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"\"Pittite\" Tories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Tory_Party#Pittites"},{"link_name":"Robert Peel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Peel"},{"link_name":"Tamworth Manifesto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamworth_Manifesto"},{"link_name":"Conservatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism"},{"link_name":"free trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade"},{"link_name":"Robert Peel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Peel"},{"link_name":"Radicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radicals_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Lord Palmerston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston"},{"link_name":"William Ewart Gladstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Disraeli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli"},{"link_name":"Reform Act 1867","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_Act_1867"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"British emergence","text":"The old Whig leadership dissolved in the 1760s into a decade of factional chaos with distinct \"Grenvillite\", \"Bedfordite\", \"Rockinghamite\", and \"Chathamite\" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as \"Whigs\". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs[60] under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as \"a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed\". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the two party system was centred on a set of core principles held by both sides and that allowed the party out of power to remain as the Loyal Opposition to the governing party.[61]In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the center.A genuine two-party system began to emerge,[62] with the accession to power of William Pitt the Younger in 1783 leading the new Tories, against a reconstituted \"Whig\" party led by the radical politician Charles James Fox.[63][64][65]The two-party system matured in the early 19th century era of political reform, when the franchise was widened and politics entered into the basic divide between conservatism and liberalism that has fundamentally endured up to the present. The modern Conservative Party was created out of the \"Pittite\" Tories by Robert Peel, who issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to \"a perpetual vortex of agitation\". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone. The two party system had come of age at the time of Gladstone and his Conservative rival Benjamin Disraeli after the Reform Act 1867.[66]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Founding Fathers of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Federalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Democratic-Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Secretary of the Treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Alexander Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton"},{"link_name":"James Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Era of Good Feelings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_of_Good_Feelings"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Jacksonian Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonian_Democracy"},{"link_name":"Andrew Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Whig Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Henry Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Clay"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_Republican_Party"}],"sub_title":"American","text":"Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan,[67] early political controversies in the 1790s saw the emergence of a two-party political system, the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, centred on the differing views on federal government powers of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton and James Madison.[68][69] A consensus on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.[70]Partisan politics revived in 1829 with the split of the Democratic-Republican Party into the Jacksonian Democrats led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay. The former evolved into the modern Democratic Party and the latter was replaced with the Republican Party as one of the two main parties in the 1850s.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"political parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party"},{"link_name":"the Australian Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_(Australia)"}],"text":"^ Note: in the politics of Australia, there are not two political parties but rather \"two major political groupings\"; for further information, see the Australian Coalition.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"In a two-party system, voters have mostly two options; in this sample ballot for an election in Summit, New Jersey, voters can choose between a Republican or Democrat, but there are no third party candidates.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Two_Party_Ballot_In_New_Jersey.jpg/220px-Two_Party_Ballot_In_New_Jersey.jpg"},{"image_text":"Economist Jeffrey D. Sachs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/FMSTAN_%26_SPIDER_Global_meeting_in_Austrian_Foreign_Ministries_in_Vienna_%2849120446508%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-FMSTAN_%26_SPIDER_Global_meeting_in_Austrian_Foreign_Ministries_in_Vienna_%2849120446508%29_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"According to one view, the winner-takes-all system discourages voters from choosing third party or independent candidates, and over time the process becomes entrenched so that only two major parties become viable.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Two_party_system_diagram.png/350px-Two_party_system_diagram.png"},{"image_text":"Party affiliation in the United States according to a 2004 study: Democratic with 72 million, Republican with 55 million and third parties collectively with 42 million registered citizens[41]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/U.S._party_affiliation.svg/220px-U.S._party_affiliation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Equestrian portrait of William III by Jan Wyck, commemorating the landing at Brixham, Torbay, 5 November 1688","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/William_III_Landing_at_Brixham%2C_Torbay%2C_5_November_1688.jpg/220px-William_III_Landing_at_Brixham%2C_Torbay%2C_5_November_1688.jpg"},{"image_text":"In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the center.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/A-Block-for-the-Wigs-Gillray.jpeg/300px-A-Block-for-the-Wigs-Gillray.jpeg"}] | [{"title":"Duverger's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duverger%27s_law"},{"title":"False dichotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_dichotomy"},{"title":"Multi-party system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system"},{"title":"Dominant-party system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant-party_system"},{"title":"One-party state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state"},{"title":"Political organisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_organisation"}] | [{"reference":"Schmidt, Steffen W.; Shelley, Mack C.; Bardes, Barbara A. (2008). \"American Government and Politics Today 2008–2009\". Wadsworth Publishing Company. ISBN 9780495503224. Archived from the original on February 29, 2020. Retrieved November 22, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steffen_Schmidt","url_text":"Schmidt, Steffen W."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QJrSm1q-gbQC&q=%22two-party+system%22+United+States+historical+foundations&pg=PA173","url_text":"\"American Government and Politics Today 2008–2009\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780495503224","url_text":"9780495503224"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200229003310/https://books.google.com/books?id=QJrSm1q-gbQC&pg=PA173&dq=%22two-party+system%22+United+States+historical+foundations#v=onepage&q=%22two-party%20system%22%20United%20States%20historical%20foundations&f=false","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cillizza, Chris (July 24, 2011). \"Voters' renewed anger at Washington spurs formation of third-party advocate groups\". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on June 21, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015857/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/voters-renewed-anger-at-washington-spurs-formation-of-third-party-advocate-groups/2011/07/24/gIQAts3KXI_story.html","url_text":"\"Voters' renewed anger at Washington spurs formation of third-party advocate groups\""},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/voters-renewed-anger-at-washington-spurs-formation-of-third-party-advocate-groups/2011/07/24/gIQAts3KXI_story.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Disch, Lisa Jane (2002). The Tyranny of the Two-Party System. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231110358. Archived from the original on December 26, 2011. Retrieved October 29, 2012 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Cm5a9X0hpyUC&q=two+party+system","url_text":"The Tyranny of the Two-Party System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231110358","url_text":"978-0231110358"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111226094322/http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm5a9X0hpyUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=two+party+system","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Borg, Bertrand (June 6, 2017). \"Marlene Farrugia's election met with counting hall taunts\". Times of Malta. Archived from the original on September 24, 2018. Retrieved June 9, 2017. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-decimal_notation | Dot-decimal notation | ["1 IPv4 address","2 OIDs","3 Version numbers","4 Libraries","5 Texts","6 Medicine","7 See also","8 References"] | Presentation format for numerical data
Dot-decimal notation is a presentation format for numerical data. It consists of a string of decimal numbers, using the full stop (dot) as a separation character.
A common use of dot-decimal notation is in information technology where it is a method of writing numbers in octet-grouped base-10 (decimal) numbers. In computer networking, Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) addresses are commonly written using the quad-dotted notation of four decimal integers, ranging from 0 to 255 each.
IPv4 address
An IP address (version 4) in both dot-decimal notation and binary code
In computer networking, the notation is associated with the specific use of quad-dotted notation to represent IPv4 addresses and used as a synonym for dotted-quad notation. Dot-decimal notation is a presentation format for numerical data expressed as a string of decimal numbers each separated by a full stop. For example, the hexadecimal number 0xFF000000 may be expressed in dot-decimal notation as 255.0.0.0.
An IPv4 address has 32 bits. For purposes of representation, the bits may be divided into four octets written in decimal numbers, ranging from 0 to 255, concatenated as a character string with full stop delimiters between each number. This octet-grouped dotted-decimal format may more specifically be called "dotted octet" format, or a "dotted quad address".
For example, the address of the loopback interface, usually assigned the host name localhost, is 127.0.0.1. It consists of the four octets, written in binary notation: 01111111, 00000000, 00000000, and 00000001. The 32-bit number is represented in hexadecimal notation as 0x7F000001.
No formal specification of this textual IP address representation exists. The first mention of this format in RFC documents was in RFC 780 for the Mail Transfer Protocol published May 1981, in which the IP address was supposed to be enclosed in brackets or represented as a 32-bit decimal integer prefixed by a pound sign. A table in RFC 790 (Assigned Numbers) used the dotted decimal format, zero-padding each number to three digits. RFC 1123 (Requirements for Internet Hosts – Application and Support) of October 1989 mentions a requirement for host software to accept “IP address in dotted-decimal ("#.#.#.#") form”, although it notes “his last requirement is not intended to specify the complete syntactic form for entering a dotted-decimal host number”. An IETF draft intended to define textual representation of IP addresses expired without further activity.
A popular implementation of IP networking, originating in 4.2BSD, contains a function inet_aton() for converting IP addresses in character string representation to internal binary storage. In addition to the basic four-decimals format and 32-bit numbers, it also supported intermediate syntax forms of octet.24bits (e.g. 10.1234567; for Class A addresses) and octet.octet.16bits (e.g. 172.16.12345; for Class B addresses). It also allowed the numbers to be written in hexadecimal and octal representations, by prefixing them with 0x and 0, respectively. These features continue to be supported in some software, even though they are considered as non-standard. This means addresses with a component written with a leading zero digit may be interpreted differently in programs that do or do not recognize such formats.
A POSIX-conforming variant of inet_aton, the inet_pton() function, supports only the four-decimal variant of IP addresses.
IP addresses in dot-decimal notation are also presented in CIDR notation, in which the IP address is suffixed with a slash and a number, used to specify the length of the associated routing prefix. For example, 127.0.0.1/8 specifies that the IP address has an eight-bit routing prefix, and therefore the subnet mask 255.0.0.0.
OIDs
Object identifiers use a style of dot-decimal notation to represent an arbitrarily deep hierarchy of objects identified by decimal numbers. They may also use textual words separated by dots, like some computer languages (see inheritance).
Version numbers
Software releases are often given version numbers in dot-decimal notation, with the first digit designating major revisions and the smaller ones progressively more minor releases. Version numbers with a leading zero, say "0.1.8", conventionally indicate that the software is still in beta and does not yet have complete features.
Libraries
Libraries use notation systems consisting of decimal numbers separated by dots, such as the older Dewey Decimal Classification and the Universal Decimal Classification, to classify books and other works by subject. The UDC additionally codes works with multiple dot-decimal topics, separated by colons.
Texts
Dot-decimal notation is often used for sections within a large text. This was standardized in ISO 2145.
Medicine
Toe bones or phalanges of the foot.
Distal phalanges of the foot
Middle phalanges of the foot
Proximal phalanges of the foot
Dot-decimal notation is also used to describe illnesses in a language-neutral way. For instance, the AO Foundation/Orthopaedic Trauma Association (AO/OTA) classification generates numeric codes for describing broken toes. They run 88.... So, for instance, 88.5.3.2 means a fracture to the little toe's outermost bone, in the center. There are other classifications for other fractures and dislocations.
See also
IPv6 address § Representation
ISO 2145
Decimal section numbering
References
^ "Gepunktete Dezimalschreibweise". Techplugged (in German).
^ "What is Dotted Decimal Notation? - Definition from Techopedia". Techopedia.com.
^ a b "IPv4 and IPv6 address formats". www.ibm.com. An IPv4 address has the following format: x . x . x . x where x is called an octet and must be a decimal value between 0 and 255. Octets are separated by periods. An IPv4 address must contain three periods and four octets. The following examples are valid IPv4 addresses: 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 01 . 102 . 103 . 104
^ "Dot address". TechTarget. Retrieved 2010-11-18.
^ "Dotted Decimal Notation". encyclopedia.com.
^ a b c d e Main, Andrew (23 February 2005). Textual Representation of IPv4 and IPv6 Addresses. IETF. I-D draft-main-ipaddr-text-rep-02.
^ "Definition of dot address". PCMAG.
^ Braden, Robert (1 October 1989). Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Application and Support. IETF. sec. 2.1.
^ "Ping and FTP resolve IP address with leading zero as octal". Microsoft Support. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06.
^ inet_pton(3) – Linux Library Functions Manual
^ Taylor, Arlene G. (2005). "15: Decimal Classification". Introduction to Cataloging and Classification (PDF) (10th ed.). preprint, to be published by Libraries Unlimited in2006.
^ a b c Godoy-Santos, AL; Giordano, V; Cesar, C; Sposeto, RB; Bitar, RC; Wajnsztejn, A; Sakaki, MH; Fernandes, TD (November 2020). "Hallux Proximal Phalanx Fracture in Adults: An Overlooked Diagnosis". Acta Ortopedica Brasileira. 28 (6): 318–322. doi:10.1590/1413-785220202806236612. PMC 7723381. PMID 33328790.
^ Meinberg, EG; Agel, J; Roberts, CS; Karam, MD; Kellam, JF (January 2018). "Fracture and Dislocation Classification Compendium-2018". Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma. 32 Suppl 1: S1–S170. doi:10.1097/BOT.0000000000001063. PMID 29256945. S2CID 39138324. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"full stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_stop"},{"link_name":"separation character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_separator#Digit_grouping"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"octet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octet_(computing)"},{"link_name":"decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"computer networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networking"},{"link_name":"Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM-3"}],"text":"Dot-decimal notation is a presentation format for numerical data. It consists of a string of decimal numbers, using the full stop (dot) as a separation character.[1]A common use of dot-decimal notation is in information technology where it is a method of writing numbers in octet-grouped base-10 (decimal) numbers.[2] In computer networking, Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) addresses are commonly written using the quad-dotted notation of four decimal integers, ranging from 0 to 255 each.[3]","title":"Dot-decimal notation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg"},{"link_name":"binary code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_code"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal_number"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipaddr-text-rep-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"loopback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loopback"},{"link_name":"localhost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localhost"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipaddr-text-rep-6"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments"},{"link_name":"Mail Transfer Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipaddr-text-rep-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-host-requirements-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipaddr-text-rep-6"},{"link_name":"4.2BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4.2BSD"},{"link_name":"Class A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classful_network"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"},{"link_name":"octal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipaddr-text-rep-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"CIDR notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIDR_notation"}],"text":"An IP address (version 4) in both dot-decimal notation and binary codeIn computer networking, the notation is associated with the specific use of quad-dotted notation to represent IPv4 addresses[4] and used as a synonym for dotted-quad notation.[5] Dot-decimal notation is a presentation format for numerical data expressed as a string of decimal numbers each separated by a full stop. For example, the hexadecimal number 0xFF000000 may be expressed in dot-decimal notation as 255.0.0.0.An IPv4 address has 32 bits. For purposes of representation, the bits may be divided into four octets written in decimal numbers, ranging from 0 to 255, concatenated as a character string with full stop delimiters between each number.[3] This octet-grouped dotted-decimal format may more specifically be called \"dotted octet\" format,[6] or a \"dotted quad address\".[7]For example, the address of the loopback interface, usually assigned the host name localhost, is 127.0.0.1. It consists of the four octets, written in binary notation: 01111111, 00000000, 00000000, and 00000001. The 32-bit number is represented in hexadecimal notation as 0x7F000001.No formal specification of this textual IP address representation exists.[6] The first mention of this format in RFC documents was in RFC 780 for the Mail Transfer Protocol published May 1981, in which the IP address was supposed to be enclosed in brackets or represented as a 32-bit decimal integer prefixed by a pound sign. A table in RFC 790 (Assigned Numbers) used the dotted decimal format, zero-padding each number to three digits.[6] RFC 1123 (Requirements for Internet Hosts – Application and Support) of October 1989 mentions a requirement for host software to accept “IP address in dotted-decimal (\"#.#.#.#\") form”, although it notes “[t]his last requirement is not intended to specify the complete syntactic form for entering a dotted-decimal host number”.[8] An IETF draft intended to define textual representation of IP addresses expired without further activity.[6]A popular implementation of IP networking, originating in 4.2BSD, contains a function inet_aton() for converting IP addresses in character string representation to internal binary storage. In addition to the basic four-decimals format and 32-bit numbers, it also supported intermediate syntax forms of octet.24bits (e.g. 10.1234567; for Class A addresses) and octet.octet.16bits (e.g. 172.16.12345; for Class B addresses). It also allowed the numbers to be written in hexadecimal and octal representations, by prefixing them with 0x and 0, respectively. These features continue to be supported in some software, even though they are considered as non-standard.[6] This means addresses with a component written with a leading zero digit may be interpreted differently in programs that do or do not recognize such formats.[9]A POSIX-conforming variant of inet_aton, the inet_pton() function, supports only the four-decimal variant of IP addresses.[10]IP addresses in dot-decimal notation are also presented in CIDR notation, in which the IP address is suffixed with a slash and a number, used to specify the length of the associated routing prefix. For example, 127.0.0.1/8 specifies that the IP address has an eight-bit routing prefix, and therefore the subnet mask 255.0.0.0.","title":"IPv4 address"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Object identifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_identifier"},{"link_name":"inheritance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)"}],"text":"Object identifiers use a style of dot-decimal notation to represent an arbitrarily deep hierarchy of objects identified by decimal numbers. They may also use textual words separated by dots, like some computer languages (see inheritance).","title":"OIDs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"version numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Version_number"},{"link_name":"beta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_software"}],"text":"Software releases are often given version numbers in dot-decimal notation, with the first digit designating major revisions and the smaller ones progressively more minor releases. Version numbers with a leading zero, say \"0.1.8\", conventionally indicate that the software is still in beta and does not yet have complete features.","title":"Version numbers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dewey Decimal Classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification"},{"link_name":"Universal Decimal Classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Decimal_Classification"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Libraries use notation systems consisting of decimal numbers separated by dots, such as the older Dewey Decimal Classification and the Universal Decimal Classification, to classify books and other works by subject. The UDC additionally codes works with multiple dot-decimal topics, separated by colons.[11]","title":"Libraries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sections within a large text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragraph#Decimal_numbering"},{"link_name":"ISO 2145","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_2145"}],"text":"Dot-decimal notation is often used for sections within a large text. This was standardized in ISO 2145.","title":"Texts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phalanges_of_left_foot_-_animation01.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phalanges_of_left_foot_-_animation02.gif"},{"link_name":"phalanges of the foot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanges_of_the_foot"},{"link_name":"Distal phalanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distal_phalanges"},{"link_name":"Middle phalanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_phalanges"},{"link_name":"Proximal phalanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximal_phalanges"},{"link_name":"AO Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AO_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Orthopaedic Trauma Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orthopaedic_Trauma_Association&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"broken toes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broken_toe"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-halprox-12"},{"link_name":"phalanges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalanges"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-halprox-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-halprox-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Toe bones or phalanges of the foot.\n\n Distal phalanges of the foot\n Middle phalanges of the foot\n Proximal phalanges of the footDot-decimal notation is also used to describe illnesses in a language-neutral way. For instance, the AO Foundation/Orthopaedic Trauma Association (AO/OTA) classification generates numeric codes for describing broken toes.[12] They run 88[meaning a fracture of the phalanges].[number-code of toe, with the big toe=1 and the little toe=5].[number-code of phalanx, counting 1-3 outwards from the foot].[number-code of location on the bone, with 1 being the inner end, 3 the outer, and 2 in-between].[12] So, for instance, 88.5.3.2 means a fracture to the little toe's outermost bone, in the center.[12] There are other classifications for other fractures and dislocations.[13]","title":"Medicine"}] | [{"image_text":"An IP address (version 4) in both dot-decimal notation and binary code","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg/300px-IPv4_address_structure_and_writing_systems-en.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"IPv6 address § Representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6_address#Representation"},{"title":"ISO 2145","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_2145"},{"title":"Decimal section numbering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_section_numbering"}] | [{"reference":"\"Gepunktete Dezimalschreibweise\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthem_(company) | Elevance Health | ["1 History","1.1 Anthem","1.2 Blue Cross of California","1.3 Anthem, Inc.","1.4 Elevance Health","2 Subsidiaries","2.1 Joint ventures","3 Quality of care","4 Controversies","4.1 Charitable donations","4.2 2007 DMHC Investigation: Illegal policy rescissions and Anthem's settlement","4.3 2010 Reuters Exposé: Algorithm targeting women with breast cancer for policy cancellation","4.4 Opposition to healthcare reform","4.5 Legal battle over premium increases in Maine","4.6 Controversial rate increases in California and the resulting investigation and public outrage","4.7 WellPoint's reclassification of administrative costs as medical care to meet the patient protection and affordable care act requirements","4.8 2009–2010 data breach in California exposing personal information of thousands of customers","4.9 Denial of benefits for cancer treatment despite payment of premiums and resulting public outcry","4.10 2015 data breach compromising over 37.5 million personal records and subsequent settlement and indictment of Chinese nationals","4.11 \"Avoidable ER Program\" denying reimbursement for certain emergency room visits and criticism for potentially harmful consequences","4.12 Neglecting complaints","4.13 2019 lawsuit: Sovereign Health vs. Anthem for coercive direct payments and financial pressure on vulnerable patients","4.14 Diagnostics fraud","4.15 Medicare Advantage star rating","5 Finances","6 Recognition","7 References","8 External links"] | American healthcare company
"Wellpoint" redirects here. For other uses, see Amerigroup.
Elevance Health, Inc.FormerlyAnthem, Inc. (2014–2022)Company typePublic companyTraded asNYSE: ELVS&P 500 componentIndustryManaged healthcareInsuranceFounded2004; 20 years ago (2004) from Anthem and WellPoint Health Networks mergerHeadquartersIndianapolis, Indiana, U.S.Key peopleElizabeth E. Tallett (Chairman)Gail Koziara Boudreaux (President & CEO)ProductsHealthcare servicesHealth insuranceHealth care providerPharmacy benefit managerRevenue US$171.34 billion (2023)Operating income US$7.71 billion (2023)Net income US$5.98 billion (2023)Total assets US$108.92 billion (2023)Total equity US$39.40 billion (2023)Number of employees102,300 (2022)Subsidiaries
Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield Affiliated Health Plans
Wellpoint
Carelon
Amerigroup
UniCare
National Government Services
Websiteelevancehealth.comFootnotes / references
The logo of Anthem Blue Cross Blue Shield
Elevance Health, Inc. is an American health insurance provider. Prior to June 2022, Elevance Health was named Anthem, Inc. The company's services include medical, pharmaceutical, dental, behavioral health, long-term care, and disability plans through affiliated companies such as Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Anthem Blue Cross in California, Wellpoint, and Carelon. It is the largest for-profit managed health care company in the Blue Cross Blue Shield Association. As of 2022, the company had 46.8 million members within its affiliated companies' health plans.
Based on its 2021 revenues, the company ranked 20th on the 2022 Fortune 500. In 2023, the company’s seat in Forbes Global 2000 was 78.
History
Anthem
In 1946, Anthem began in Indianapolis, Indiana, as Mutual Hospital Insurance Inc. and Mutual Medical Insurance Inc. The companies grew significantly, controlling 80% of the medical insurance market in Indiana by the 1970s.
In 1972, The two firms, then known as Blue Cross of Indiana and Blue Shield of Indiana, entered into a joint operating agreement.
In 1985, The two companies merged into Associated Insurance Companies, Inc,, later called, The Associated Group, a holding company, but usage of the name "Anthem" persisted.
In 1989, the company purchased American General Insurance Co. for $150 million and in 1991, it acquired The Shelby Insurance Co., based in Shelby, Ohio, for $125 million.
In 1989, The Associated Group founded Acordia, a brokerage that sold and serviced insurance and employee benefit programs.
In 1993, Acordia acquired American Business Insurance for $130 million and the Federal Kemper Insurance Company for $100 million. The Associated Group bought Southeastern Mutual Insurance Company, the operator of Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kentucky.
In 1994, it sold Raffensperger, Hughes & Co., Inc., Indiana's largest investment bank, to National City Corp.
In 1995, The Associated Group acquired Community Mutual Insurance, a provider of Blue Cross and Blue Shield insurance plans in Ohio with over 1.9 million policy holders), then set up Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield.
In 1996, The Associated Group changed its name to Anthem Insurance Company.
In August 1997, Anthem acquired Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Connecticut. It also sold Acordia to management.
In 1999, Anthem acquired Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Hampshire and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Colorado and Nevada. The acquisitions made since 1996 added 850,000 policy holders. Among its customer base were 2.4 million PPO and 964,000 HMO enrollees.
In 2000, Anthem acquired Blue Cross Blue Shield of Maine.
In 2001, In October, Anthem underwent demutualization and became a public company via an initial public offering, which made it the fourth largest public managed health care company in the United States.
In 2002, Anthem acquired Trigon Healthcare of Virginia, a Blue Cross and Blue Shield plan, the largest insurer in Virginia, for $4.04 billion. Anthem Insurance Company reached 11.9 million members.
Blue Cross of California
Blue Cross of California was the predecessor of WellPoint Health Network Inc.
In 1982, Blue Cross of California was founded with the consolidation of Blue Cross of Northern California (established in 1936) and Blue Cross of Southern California (established in 1937).
In 1992, WellPoint was formed to operate Blue Cross of California's managed care business.
In January 1993, Blue Cross of California spun off its managed care business into a publicly traded entity, WellPoint Health Networks Inc. Blue Cross of California retained an 80% interest and voting control.
In 1996, Blue Cross of California restructured to a for-profit corporation, designating WellPoint Health Networks Inc. as the parent organization.
In April 1996, WellPoint completed its acquisition of Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company's group life and health insurance subsidiaries for approximately $380 million, making it the second largest publicly held managed health company in the U.S. with 4 million policyholders.
In March 1997, WellPoint acquired the group health and life businesses of John Hancock Financial for $86.7 million. With this acquisition, WellPoint expanded its presence into Michigan, Texas, and the mid-Atlantic, and gained a unit that concentrated on serving the needs of large employers.
In 2000, WellPoint acquired PrecisionRx, a mail service pharmacy fulfillment center in Texas.
In 2001, WellPoint offered to acquire CareFirst BlueCross BlueShield for $1.37 billion, including $119 million in bonuses to Carefirst executives. In 2003, the offer was rejected by the Maryland insurance commissioner.
In March 2001, WellPoint acquired Rush Prudential Health Plans, a Chicago provider, for $204 million. In March 2001, WellPoint acquired Cerulean Companies, the parent company of Blue Cross Blue Shield of Georgia.
In 2002, WellPoint acquired RightChoice Managed Care, a Missouri-based company that ran Blue Cross and Blue Shield for part of the state, for $1.5 billion. RightChoice also owned provider network company HealthLink. WellPoint also acquired MethodistCare of Houston, Texas and HealthLink.
In 2003, WellPoint acquired Golden West Dental and Vision of Camarillo, California, and Cobalt, including Blue Cross and Blue Shield United of Wisconsin.
In November 2004, Wellpoint, Inc. was formed by the merger of Anthem Insurance Company and WellPoint Health Networks Inc. The merger was structured as Anthem acquiring WellPoint Health Networks and renaming itself WellPoint, Inc. WellPoint continued to use 'Anthem' as the brand name under which it operated. It sold its Blue Cross and Blue Shield products in 11 states.
In 2005, WellPoint acquired Alexandria, Virginia–based Lumenos, a provider of consumer-driven health care, for $185 million. Lumenos was the pioneer and market leader in consumer-driven health plans. In December, WellPoint acquired WellChoice, a New York City-based Blue Cross Blue Shield provider, for approximately $6.5 billion, making New York the 14th state in which WellPoint is a Blue Cross Blue Shield licensee.
In 2007, WellPoint acquired Chicago-based American Imaging Management, a radiology benefit management company that creates software to help physicians choose cost-effective locations for their patients to receive medical imaging tests. WellPoint also acquired Chicago-based American Imaging Management (AIM), the leading radiology benefit management company.
In January 2008, Leslie Margolin became the president of California operations. She resigned in July 2010.
In 2008, WellPoint acquired Resolution Health, a firm that analyzes patient history for potential medical problems such as adverse drug interactions.
In 2009, WellPoint acquired DeCare Dental, a dental insurance firm.
In 2011, WellPoint acquired CareMore, a Cerritos, California-based provider of insurance and care centers for elderly patients.
In 2012, WellPoint acquired Amerigroup for $4.9 billion, anticipating significant growth due to Medicaid expansion under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
In August 2012, CEO Angela Braly resigned due to pressure from investors.
On August 13, 2014, WellPoint announced it intended to change its name to Anthem, Inc., effective in December.
Anthem, Inc.
In February 2015, the company acquired Simply Healthcare Holdings, a Medicaid and Medicare managed care company based in Florida.
In June 2015, Anthem made an offer to acquire Cigna for more than $54 billion in cash and stock. In February 2017, United States district court Judge Amy Berman Jackson blocked the Cigna merger on grounds of anti-competitive practices. On February 14, Cigna called off its merger agreement with Anthem.
In October 2017, Anthem announced that it would not renew its pharmacy benefit management (PBM) relationship with Express Scripts saying it had been overcharged $3 billion and that instead, Anthem would eventually handle the PBM process itself through its new IngenioRx unit. Anthem announced that it would enter a 5-year contract with CVS Health. Cigna then announced plans in March 2018 to acquire Express Scripts for $58 billion.
On November 6, 2017, Gail Koziara Boudreaux was named CEO.
In 2018, the company announced a $20 million expansion of its headquarters and the signing of a lease in Atlanta for its technology center.
In March 2020, Anthem announced the acquisition of Beacon Health Options, and independently held behavioral health organization.
On February 2, 2021, Anthem announced the acquisition of InnovaCare Health's Puerto Rico subsidiaries including MMM Holdings, LLC (“MMM”) and its Medicare Advantage (MA) plan MMM Healthcare, LLC as well as affiliated companies and Medicaid plan.
In November 2021, Anthem announced the acquisition of Integra Managed Care in New York. The acquisition of the New York-based international health insurance company was completed on May 5, 2022.
On June 28, 2022, Anthem announced a change of its corporate name to Elevance Health, Inc. and also changed its stock ticker symbol from "ANTM" to "ELV".
Elevance Health
On January 23, 2023, Elevance announced that it entered a definitive agreement to acquire Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana, increasing Elevance's footprint to 15 states and adding 1.9 million new members.
In 2023, Elevance announced that it would rebrand its Amerigroup business as Wellpoint starting in 2024.
Subsidiaries
Elevance Health includes the following subsidiaries:
Amerigroup
District of Columbia (Medicaid)
Georgia (Medicaid)
New Mexico (Medicare Advantage)
Anthem Blue Cross
California
Blue Cross of California Partnership Plan (Medicaid)
New York (upstate)
Anthem Blue Cross Blue Shield
Colorado
Connecticut
Georgia
Indiana
Kentucky
Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield Medicaid
Maine
Missouri (excluding 30 counties in the Kansas City area)
Nevada
Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield Healthcare Solutions (Medicaid)
New Hampshire
New York (downstate)
Ohio
Virginia (excluding Alexandria City, Arlington County, Falls Church City, and parts of Fairfax County)
HealthKeepers (Medicaid)
Wisconsin
Carelon Behavioral Health
Carelon Behavioral Health of California
Carelon Behavioral Health of Kansas
Carelon Health of Pennsylvania
Carelon Global Solutions India
Freedom Health
Florida
Golden West Dental & Vision
California
HealthSun
Florida
MMM
Puerto Rico
Optimum Healthcare
Florida
Simply Healthcare
Florida
UniCare
West Virginia
WellPoint
Arizona (Medicare Advantage)
Iowa (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)
Maryland (Medicaid)
Massachusetts (government employees)
New Jersey (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)
Tennessee (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)
Texas (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)
Washington (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)
Joint ventures
Elevance Health operates joint ventures including:
Anthem | MaineHealth (with MaineHealth)
Maine
Blue Medicare Advantage (with Independence Blue Cross)
Pennsylvania
Colorado Community Health Alliance (with Centura Health, Physician Health Partners and Primary Physician Partners)
Colorado
Healthy Blue Kansas (with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas City)
Kansas
Healthy Blue Louisiana (with Blue Cross Blue Shield of Louisiana)
Louisiana
Summit Community Care
Arkansas
Quality of care
In 2011, in the category of "Meeting National Standards of Care," California's state patient advocacy office gave Anthem a rating of 2 out of 4 stars. In 2014, it received 3 out of 4 stars in the same category. In 2022, twenty-one of Elevance Health's affiliated Medicaid plans earned accreditation for health equity from the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA).
Controversies
Charitable donations
In 2007, WellPoint pledged to spend $30 million over three years, through the company's charitable foundation, to help the uninsured. In March 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that WellPoint's tax records and website showed that the company had given only $6.2 million by 2009. The company said that the foundation had indeed fulfilled its $30-million commitment by mid-2009, but refused to provide any financial details to support its claim.
2007 DMHC Investigation: Illegal policy rescissions and Anthem's settlement
In 2007, the California Department of Managed Health Care (DMHC) investigated Anthem's policies for revoking (rescinding) health care insurance policies. The DMHC randomly selected 90 instances where Anthem canceled the insurance of policy holders who had been diagnosed with costly or life-threatening illnesses, to find how many of these cancellations were legal. The agency concluded that all these cancellations were illegal.
In July 2008, Anthem Blue Cross agreed to a settlement with the California Department of Managed Health Care; however in doing so, WellPoint did not officially admit liability. To resolve allegations of improper policy rescissions (cancellations), WellPoint paid $10 million and reinstated plans for 1,770 policy-holders who were affected by cancelled policies. The company also agreed to provide compensation for any medical debts incurred by these policy-holders.
2010 Reuters Exposé: Algorithm targeting women with breast cancer for policy cancellation
In April 2010, Reuters alleged that Wellpoint "using a computer algorithm, identified women recently diagnosed with breast cancer and then singled them out for cancellation of their policies." The software used immediately triggered fraud investigation for those recently diagnosed with the disease as the company searched for some pretext to drop their policies. Wellpoint argued that its algorithm was scanning for diagnostic codes for conditions that patients might have known about during the insurance application. The story not only caused considerable public outrage, but it also led Secretary of Health and Human Services, Kathleen Sebelius, and President Barack Obama, to call on WellPoint to end the practice.
In 2011, Anthem began cancelling policies of members who had been paying premiums with credit cards, sometimes without calling or emailing the member ahead of time.
Opposition to healthcare reform
In August 2009, Anthem, the largest for-profit insurer in California, contacted its employees and urged them to get involved to oppose healthcare reforms proposed during the Obama administration. Consumer Watchdog, a nonprofit watchdog organization in Santa Monica, asked California Attorney General Jerry Brown to investigate its claim that WellPoint had illegally pushed workers to write to their elected officials, attend town hall meetings and enlist family and friends to ensure an overhaul that would match the firm's interests. According to Consumer Watchdog, California's labor code directly prohibits coercive communications, including forbidding employers from controlling, coercing or influencing employees' political activities or affiliations. WellPoint had not been contacted by the California attorney general and had not seen any complaint.
Through 2010 and into 2011, WellPoint senior executives met monthly with executives of other major health insurers to blunt the effect of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
Legal battle over premium increases in Maine
In 2009, Anthem Health Plans of Maine, a WellPoint subsidiary, sued the state of Maine for the right to increase premiums further. Since Maine licenses insurance companies through its Bureau of Insurance, Anthem needed the state's permission to raise rates. The Court disagreed with Anthem and found that, unlike with other forms of insurance, the Maine Insurance Code does not require the Superintendent to consider profits.
Controversial rate increases in California and the resulting investigation and public outrage
In February 2010, WellPoint announced that rates would increase on some Anthem Blue Cross individual policies in California by as high as 39%. The announcement resulted in an investigation by regulators from the Federal and California governments. Anthem Blue Cross gained worldwide media attention and became a poster child for the problem of rising cost of health care in the U.S. The rate increase came one year after Anthem had raised rates 68% on individual policy holders.
To explain the rate increases, some which were four times the rate of medical inflation, Anthem said the company had experienced a death spiral: the company claimed that with increased unemployment and declining wages, healthy customers dropped their insurance policies. Consequently, the remaining risk pool became sicker and thus more expensive to insure; and, in turn, prices were forced up and pushed more people out of the market.
In response to the outrage from politicians and consumers, Anthem postponed the rate increase until May 1, 2010.
Senator Dianne Feinstein of California proposed giving the Federal government of the United States authority to block insurance premium hikes that it considers to be "unjustified".
WellPoint's reclassification of administrative costs as medical care to meet the patient protection and affordable care act requirements
On 17 March 2010, WellPoint announced it was reclassifying some of its administrative costs as medical care costs in order to meet loss ratio requirements under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which requires insurers to spend at least 80% or 85% of customer premiums on health care services, depending on the type of plan.
2009–2010 data breach in California exposing personal information of thousands of customers
In June 2010, Anthem sent letters to 230,000 customers in California warning them that their personal data might have been accessed online via a data breach. After a routine upgrade in October 2009, a third-party vendor stated that all security measures had been properly reinstated, when in fact they had not. As a result, personal information of thousands of coverage applicants who were under the age of 65 was exposed in the open. After a Los Angeles-area woman found that her application for coverage was publicly available, she filed a class action lawsuit against Anthem. While gathering evidence for the proceeding, the woman's lawyers downloaded some confidential customer information from Anthem's website and alerted Anthem about the breach. According to the lawyers, confidential information had remained exposed for five months. Greg Zoeller, Indiana's Attorney General, filed a lawsuit against the company seeking $300,000 in civil penalties for the company alleged failure to notify its consumers about the breach.
Denial of benefits for cancer treatment despite payment of premiums and resulting public outcry
In May 2014, Anthem Blue Cross refused to pay for the hospitalization of a Sonoma County, California man for stage four cancers, although he had paid Anthem over $100,000 in premiums. Anthem ended up paying for coverage following public outcry.
2015 data breach compromising over 37.5 million personal records and subsequent settlement and indictment of Chinese nationals
Main article: Anthem medical data breach
On February 4, 2015, Anthem, Inc. disclosed that criminal hackers had broken into its servers and potentially stolen over 37.5 million records that contain personally identifiable information from its servers. According to Anthem, Inc., the data breach extended into multiple brands Anthem, Inc. uses to market its healthcare plans, including, Anthem Blue Cross, Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Georgia, Empire Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Amerigroup, Caremore, and UniCare. Healthlink was also victimized. Anthem says the medical information and financial data was not compromised. Anthem has offered free credit monitoring in the wake of the breach. According to Bloomberg News, China may be responsible for this data breach. Michael Daniel, chief adviser on cybersecurity for President Barack Obama, said he would be changing his own password. About 80 million company records were hacked, stoking fears that the stolen data could be used for identity theft. The compromised information contained names, birthdays, medical IDs, social security numbers, street addresses, e-mail addresses, employment information and income data. In June 2017, Anthem agreed to spend $115M to settle allegations that it failed to adequately protect the data of its clients, the sum was to be spent on two years of services to protect victims from identity theft. In 2019, two Chinese nationals were indicted for the breach.
"Avoidable ER Program" denying reimbursement for certain emergency room visits and criticism for potentially harmful consequences
Beginning in 2015, Anthem has been implementing and expanding its "Avoidable ER Program" which means not reimbursing ER visits when the cause is not covered by the company. A few patients found out that they had been stuck with bills of over $10,000 that Anthem refused to reimburse. According to a 2013 report by the Journal of the American Medical Association, 87 percent of patients initially triaged as non-urgent ended up with a diagnosis that constituted an emergency. Critics derided the scheme, citing that it was unlawful by federal law to cover a person based on diagnosis, not symptoms. It was also considered unsafe, as it pressured patients to diagnose themselves before going to the ER.
Neglecting complaints
In 2017, the California Department of Managed Health Care fined the company $5 million for untimely response to consumer complaints. In 2019, this was settled at $2.8 million.
2019 lawsuit: Sovereign Health vs. Anthem for coercive direct payments and financial pressure on vulnerable patients
In 2019, Sovereign Health pressed charges against Anthem, alleging that it was using direct payments to compel them to join Anthem's network under unfavorable terms. Sovereign owns facilities that treat people with addiction and mental health problems.
Diagnostics fraud
In March 2020, Anthem was sued by the Department of Justice. The lawsuit alleges that Anthem had submitted inaccurate diagnostics data in order to obtain increased Medicare reimbursements. The case was still pending in February 2022.
Medicare Advantage star rating
In January 2024, Elevance Health filed a lawsuit with the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) challenging changes in the Medicare Advantage star rating methodology. Star ratings are tied to key bonus payouts, and due to the new rating system in 2024 ratings have significantly decreased.
Finances
For the fiscal year 2017, Anthem reported earnings of US$3.843 billion, with an annual revenue of US$90.039 billion, an increase of 6.1% over the previous fiscal cycle. Anthem's shares traded at over $183 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$69.1 billion in October 2018.
Year
Revenuein mil. US$
Net incomein mil. US$
Total assetsin mil. US$
Price per sharein US$
Employees
2005
44,614
2,464
51,287
60.61
2006
57,058
3,095
51,575
66.39
2007
61,168
3,345
52,060
71.13
2008
61,251
2,491
48,403
46.09
2009
64,940
4,746
52,125
41.67
2010
58,699
2,887
50,167
50.00
2011
60,711
2,647
52,163
60.91
2012
61,497
2,656
58,955
57.16
2013
71,024
2,490
59,575
72.27
48,000
2014
73,874
2,570
61,676
101.39
51,000
2015
79,157
2,560
61,718
140.42
53,000
2016
84,863
2,470
65,083
129.28
53,000
2017
90,040
3,843
70,540
183.12
56,000
2018
92,105
3,750
71,571
248.34
63,900
2019
104,213
4,807
77,473
268.65
70,600
2020
121,867
4,572
86,615
2021
138,639
6,104
97,460
98,200
2022
156,595
6,025
102,772
102,300
Recognition
The company was featured on the S&P Dow Jones Sustainability Index from 2018 to 2022, was named by Fortune as one of the 100 Best Companies to Work For, and was included on the Corporate Equality Index's list of Best Places to Work for LGBTQ Equality from 2015 to 2022.
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^ Delaney, Arthur (October 5, 2009). "WellPoint Subsidiary Fights Maine Over Big Rate Hike (VIDEO)". HuffPost.
^ "Summary of Key Points of Anthem Health Plans of Maine, Inc. v. Superintendent of Insurance, Maine Attorney General, and Consumers for Affordable Health Care" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 16, 2022. Retrieved June 23, 2019.
^ a b c Colliver, Victoria (February 6, 2010). "Anthem blue cross raises premiums". San Francisco Chronicle.
^ Sack, Kevin (February 16, 2010). "In California, Exhibit A in Debate on Insurance". The New York Times.
^ "Anthem to delay insurance rate hike amid criticism". Newsday. Associated Press. February 14, 2010.
^ ZAPLER, MIKE (February 19, 2010). "Feinstein takes on anthem blue cross". San Jose Mercury News.
^ Volsky, Igor (March 31, 2010). "WellPoint Reclassifies Costs As 'Medical Care' To Meet Reform's Medical Loss Ratio Requirement". Think Progress.
^ Perkes, Courtney (October 23, 2010). "Personal data accessed on insurer Web site". Orange County Register.
^ "Indiana AG sues WellPoint over timing of breach notifications". Fierce Healthcare. November 8, 2010. Retrieved October 6, 2023.
^ Borba, Andria (May 28, 2014). "Sonoma County Man Battling Cancer Denied Coverage By Anthem Blue Cross After Paying $100K In Premiums". KPIX-TV. includes video and transcript of coverage.
^ "Unbelievable". tumblr.com. May 18, 2014.
^ "Anthem Blue Cross To Cover Sonoma County Cancer Patient After KPIX 5 Report". cbslocal.com.
^ "Data Breach at Health Insurer Anthem Could Impact Millions". Brian Krebs. February 4, 2015.
^ Pepitone, Julianne (February 5, 2015). "Anthem Hack: Credit Monitoring Won't Catch Medical Identity Theft". NBC News.
^ Riley, Michael A. (February 5, 2015). "Chinese State-Sponsored Hackers Suspected in Anthem Attack". Bloomberg News.
^ Abelson, Reed; Goldstein, Matthew (February 5, 2015). "Anthem Hacking Points to Security Vulnerability of Health Care Industry". The New York Times.
^ Weise, Elizabeth (February 4, 2015). "Massive breach at health care company Anthem Inc". USA Today.
^ "Anthem to pay record $115 million to settle U.S. lawsuits over data breach". Reuters. June 23, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
^ GELLER, ERIC (May 9, 2019). "Chinese nationals charged for Anthem hack, 'one of the worst data breaches in history'". Politico.
^ MILLER, MAGGIE (May 9, 2019). "Chinese nationals indicted for Anthem data breach, other cyber intrusions into U.S. companies". The Hill.
^ Perlroth, Nicole (May 9, 2019). "Two From China Are Charged in 2014 Anthem Data Breach". The New York Times.
^ a b Raphelson, Samantha (May 23, 2018). "Anthem Policy Discouraging 'Avoidable' Emergency Room Visits Faces Criticism". NPR. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
^ a b "Column: Anthem's effort to punish patients for 'unnecessary' ER visits has been a bust--but still burdens patients". Los Angeles Times. November 8, 2018. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
^ Raven, M.; Lowe, R. A.; Maselli, J.; Hsia, R. Y. (March 20, 2014). "Comparison of presenting complaint vs. discharge diagnosis for identifying "non-emergency" emergency department visits". Journal of the American Medical Association. 309 (11): 1145–1153. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.1948. PMC 3711676. PMID 23512061.
^ OSTROV, BARBARA FEDER (January 30, 2019). "Patients Suffer As Insurers And Big Health Systems Spar For Market Share". NPR.
^ ANDERSON, CATHIE (June 7, 2019). "Anthem to pay 'very large fine,' correct how it handles California patients' complaints". The Sacramento Bee. ISSN 0890-5738.
^ Wayne Drash (March 2019). "Insurer skips doctors and sends massive checks to patients, prompting million-dollar lawsuit". CNN. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
^ Reuter, Elise (March 28, 2020). "Justice Department accuses Anthem of Medicare fraud". MedCity News. Retrieved February 23, 2022.
^ "NYC selects Anthem for retirees' coverage — after feds sue over alleged Medicare fraud". nypost.com. February 14, 2022. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
^ "Elevance Health sues feds, challenging changes to MA star ratings methodology". Fierce Healthcare. Archived from the original on February 28, 2024. Retrieved February 27, 2024.
^ "Elevance Health Lawsuit Slams Medicare Advantage Star Ratings Calculation". Health Payer Intelligence. Archived from the original on February 10, 2024. Retrieved February 27, 2024.
^ "Anthem Revenue 2006-2018 | ANTM". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved October 31, 2018.
^ "Anthem's 2018 Annual Report" (PDF). annualreports.com. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
^ "Form 10-K Anthem, Inc" (PDF). annualreports.com. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
^ "Financial Highlights". antheminc.com. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
^ "Anthem, Inc. 2021 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 16, 2022.
^ Jakob Emerson (December 19, 2022). "4 payers named corporate sustainability leaders, per S&P Dow Jones". Becker's Payer Issues. Retrieved March 2, 2023.
^ "100 Best Companies to Work For Elevance Health". Forbes. Retrieved March 2, 2023.
^ "21 payers named best places to work for LGBTQ+ equality". Becker's Payer Issues. October 26, 2022. Retrieved March 2, 2023.
External links
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National
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amerigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerigroup"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anthem_Blue_Cross_Blue_Shield_Logo.svg"},{"link_name":"health insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_insurance"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"managed health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_health_care"},{"link_name":"Blue Cross Blue Shield Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Cross_Blue_Shield_Association"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Fortune 500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_500"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Forbes Global 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_Global_2000"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"\"Wellpoint\" redirects here. For other uses, see Amerigroup.The logo of Anthem Blue Cross Blue ShieldElevance Health, Inc. is an American health insurance provider. Prior to June 2022, Elevance Health was named Anthem, Inc.[2] The company's services include medical, pharmaceutical, dental, behavioral health, long-term care, and disability plans through affiliated companies such as Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Anthem Blue Cross in California,[3] Wellpoint, and Carelon.[4] It is the largest for-profit managed health care company in the Blue Cross Blue Shield Association. As of 2022, the company had 46.8 million members within its affiliated companies' health plans.[5]Based on its 2021 revenues, the company ranked 20th on the 2022 Fortune 500.[6] In 2023, the company’s seat in Forbes Global 2000 was 78.[7]","title":"Elevance Health"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indianapolis, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indianapolis,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-directory-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"holding company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holding_company"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Shelby, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelby,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-directory-8"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"National City Corp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_City_Corp."},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strategy-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-strategy-17"},{"link_name":"Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"demutualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demutualization"},{"link_name":"public company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_company"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"managed health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_health_care"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Anthem","text":"In 1946, Anthem began in Indianapolis, Indiana, as Mutual Hospital Insurance Inc. and Mutual Medical Insurance Inc. The companies grew significantly, controlling 80% of the medical insurance market in Indiana by the 1970s.[8]In 1972, The two firms, then known as Blue Cross of Indiana and Blue Shield of Indiana, entered into a joint operating agreement.[9]In 1985, The two companies merged into Associated Insurance Companies, Inc,, later called, The Associated Group, a holding company, but usage of the name \"Anthem\" persisted.[10]In 1989, the company purchased American General Insurance Co. for $150 million and in 1991, it acquired The Shelby Insurance Co., based in Shelby, Ohio, for $125 million.[11]In 1989, The Associated Group founded Acordia, a brokerage that sold and serviced insurance and employee benefit programs.[8]In 1993, Acordia acquired American Business Insurance for $130 million[12] and the Federal Kemper Insurance Company for $100 million.[13] The Associated Group bought Southeastern Mutual Insurance Company, the operator of Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kentucky.[14]In 1994, it sold Raffensperger, Hughes & Co., Inc., Indiana's largest investment bank, to National City Corp.[15]In 1995, The Associated Group acquired Community Mutual Insurance, a provider of Blue Cross and Blue Shield insurance plans in Ohio with over 1.9 million policy holders), then set up Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield.[16][17]In 1996, The Associated Group changed its name to Anthem Insurance Company.[17]In August 1997, Anthem acquired Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Connecticut.[18] It also sold Acordia to management.[19]In 1999, Anthem acquired Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Hampshire and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Colorado and Nevada. The acquisitions made since 1996 added 850,000 policy holders. Among its customer base were 2.4 million PPO and 964,000 HMO enrollees.[20]In 2000, Anthem acquired Blue Cross Blue Shield of Maine.[21]In 2001, In October, Anthem underwent demutualization and became a public company via an initial public offering, which made it the fourth largest public managed health care company in the United States.[22]In 2002, Anthem acquired Trigon Healthcare of Virginia, a Blue Cross and Blue Shield plan, the largest insurer in Virginia, for $4.04 billion. Anthem Insurance Company reached 11.9 million members.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"for-profit corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For-profit_corporation"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"John Hancock Financial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock_Financial"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"CareFirst BlueCross BlueShield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CareFirst_BlueCross_BlueShield"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Camarillo, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camarillo,_California"},{"link_name":"Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Alexandria, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"consumer-driven health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer-driven_health_care"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Cerritos, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerritos,_California"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Amerigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerigroup"},{"link_name":"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Angela Braly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Braly"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-changes-56"}],"sub_title":"Blue Cross of California","text":"Blue Cross of California was the predecessor of WellPoint Health Network Inc.In 1982, Blue Cross of California was founded with the consolidation of Blue Cross of Northern California (established in 1936) and Blue Cross of Southern California (established in 1937).[24]In 1992, WellPoint was formed to operate Blue Cross of California's managed care business.[25]In January 1993, Blue Cross of California spun off its managed care business into a publicly traded entity, WellPoint Health Networks Inc. Blue Cross of California retained an 80% interest and voting control.[26][27]In 1996, Blue Cross of California restructured to a for-profit corporation, designating WellPoint Health Networks Inc. as the parent organization.[28]In April 1996, WellPoint completed its acquisition of Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company's group life and health insurance subsidiaries for approximately $380 million, making it the second largest publicly held managed health company in the U.S. with 4 million policyholders.[29]In March 1997, WellPoint acquired the group health and life businesses of John Hancock Financial for $86.7 million. With this acquisition, WellPoint expanded its presence into Michigan, Texas, and the mid-Atlantic, and gained a unit that concentrated on serving the needs of large employers.[30]In 2000, WellPoint acquired PrecisionRx, a mail service pharmacy fulfillment center in Texas.[31]In 2001, WellPoint offered to acquire CareFirst BlueCross BlueShield for $1.37 billion, including $119 million in bonuses to Carefirst executives.[32] In 2003, the offer was rejected by the Maryland insurance commissioner.[33]In March 2001, WellPoint acquired Rush Prudential Health Plans, a Chicago provider, for $204 million.[34] In March 2001, WellPoint acquired Cerulean Companies, the parent company of Blue Cross Blue Shield of Georgia.[35]In 2002, WellPoint acquired RightChoice Managed Care, a Missouri-based company that ran Blue Cross and Blue Shield for part of the state, for $1.5 billion.[36][37] RightChoice also owned provider network company HealthLink.[38] WellPoint also acquired MethodistCare of Houston, Texas[39] and HealthLink.In 2003, WellPoint acquired Golden West Dental and Vision of Camarillo, California, and Cobalt, including Blue Cross and Blue Shield United of Wisconsin.[40][41]In November 2004, Wellpoint, Inc. was formed by the merger of Anthem Insurance Company and WellPoint Health Networks Inc. The merger was structured as Anthem acquiring WellPoint Health Networks and renaming itself WellPoint, Inc. WellPoint continued to use 'Anthem' as the brand name under which it operated. It sold its Blue Cross and Blue Shield products in 11 states.[42][43]In 2005, WellPoint acquired Alexandria, Virginia–based Lumenos, a provider of consumer-driven health care, for $185 million.[44] Lumenos was the pioneer and market leader in consumer-driven health plans. In December, WellPoint acquired WellChoice, a New York City-based Blue Cross Blue Shield provider, for approximately $6.5 billion,[45] making New York the 14th state in which WellPoint is a Blue Cross Blue Shield licensee.In 2007, WellPoint acquired Chicago-based American Imaging Management, a radiology benefit management company that creates software to help physicians choose cost-effective locations for their patients to receive medical imaging tests.[46] WellPoint also acquired Chicago-based American Imaging Management (AIM), the leading radiology benefit management company.In January 2008, Leslie Margolin became the president of California operations. She resigned in July 2010.[47]In 2008, WellPoint acquired Resolution Health, a firm that analyzes patient history for potential medical problems such as adverse drug interactions.[48]In 2009, WellPoint acquired DeCare Dental, a dental insurance firm.[49]In 2011, WellPoint acquired CareMore, a Cerritos, California-based provider of insurance and care centers for elderly patients.[50]In 2012, WellPoint acquired Amerigroup for $4.9 billion, anticipating significant growth due to Medicaid expansion under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.[51][52][53]In August 2012, CEO Angela Braly resigned due to pressure from investors.[54][55]On August 13, 2014, WellPoint announced it intended to change its name to Anthem, Inc., effective in December.[56]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Medicaid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicaid"},{"link_name":"Medicare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicare_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Cigna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigna"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"United States district court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_district_court"},{"link_name":"Amy Berman Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Berman_Jackson"},{"link_name":"anti-competitive practices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Cigna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigna"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"pharmacy benefit management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy_benefit_management"},{"link_name":"Express Scripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Express_Scripts"},{"link_name":"CVS Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CVS_Health"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Gail Koziara Boudreaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gail_Koziara_Boudreaux"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Beacon Health Options","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon_Health_Options"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Anthem, Inc.","text":"In February 2015, the company acquired Simply Healthcare Holdings, a Medicaid and Medicare managed care company based in Florida.[57]In June 2015, Anthem made an offer to acquire Cigna for more than $54 billion in cash and stock.[58][59] In February 2017, United States district court Judge Amy Berman Jackson blocked the Cigna merger on grounds of anti-competitive practices.[60] On February 14, Cigna called off its merger agreement with Anthem.[61]In October 2017, Anthem announced that it would not renew its pharmacy benefit management (PBM) relationship with Express Scripts saying it had been overcharged $3 billion and that instead, Anthem would eventually handle the PBM process itself through its new IngenioRx unit. Anthem announced that it would enter a 5-year contract with CVS Health.[62] Cigna then announced plans in March 2018 to acquire Express Scripts for $58 billion.[63]On November 6, 2017, Gail Koziara Boudreaux was named CEO.[64]In 2018, the company announced a $20 million expansion of its headquarters and the signing of a lease in Atlanta for its technology center.[65]In March 2020, Anthem announced the acquisition of Beacon Health Options, and independently held behavioral health organization.[66]On February 2, 2021, Anthem announced the acquisition of InnovaCare Health's Puerto Rico subsidiaries including MMM Holdings, LLC (“MMM”) and its Medicare Advantage (MA) plan MMM Healthcare, LLC as well as affiliated companies and Medicaid plan.[67]In November 2021, Anthem announced the acquisition of Integra Managed Care in New York.[68] The acquisition of the New York-based international health insurance company was completed on May 5, 2022.[69]On June 28, 2022, Anthem announced a change of its corporate name to Elevance Health, Inc. and also changed its stock ticker symbol from \"ANTM\" to \"ELV\".[70]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"sub_title":"Elevance Health","text":"On January 23, 2023, Elevance announced that it entered a definitive agreement to acquire Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Louisiana, increasing Elevance's footprint to 15 states and adding 1.9 million new members.[71]In 2023, Elevance announced that it would rebrand its Amerigroup business as Wellpoint starting in 2024.[72]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ldi-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Amerigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerigroup"}],"text":"Elevance Health includes the following subsidiaries:[73][74]Amerigroup\nDistrict of Columbia (Medicaid)\nGeorgia (Medicaid)\nNew Mexico (Medicare Advantage)\nAnthem Blue Cross\nCalifornia\nBlue Cross of California Partnership Plan (Medicaid)\nNew York (upstate)\nAnthem Blue Cross Blue Shield\nColorado\nConnecticut\nGeorgia\nIndiana\nKentucky\nAnthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield Medicaid\nMaine\nMissouri (excluding 30 counties in the Kansas City area)\nNevada\nAnthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield Healthcare Solutions (Medicaid)\nNew Hampshire\nNew York (downstate)\nOhio\nVirginia (excluding Alexandria City, Arlington County, Falls Church City, and parts of Fairfax County)\nHealthKeepers (Medicaid)\nWisconsin\nCarelon Behavioral Health\nCarelon Behavioral Health of California\nCarelon Behavioral Health of Kansas\nCarelon Health of Pennsylvania\nCarelon Global Solutions India\nFreedom Health\nFlorida\nGolden West Dental & Vision\nCalifornia\nHealthSun\nFlorida\nMMM\nPuerto Rico\nOptimum Healthcare\nFlorida\nSimply Healthcare\nFlorida\nUniCare\nWest Virginia\nWellPoint\nArizona (Medicare Advantage)\nIowa (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)\nMaryland (Medicaid)\nMassachusetts (government employees)\nNew Jersey (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)\nTennessee (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)\nTexas (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)\nWashington (Medicaid and Medicare Advantage)","title":"Subsidiaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ldi-73"},{"link_name":"Independence Blue Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence_Blue_Cross"},{"link_name":"Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Cross_and_Blue_Shield_of_Kansas_City"}],"sub_title":"Joint ventures","text":"Elevance Health operates joint ventures including:[73]Anthem | MaineHealth (with MaineHealth)\nMaine\nBlue Medicare Advantage (with Independence Blue Cross)\nPennsylvania\nColorado Community Health Alliance (with Centura Health, Physician Health Partners and Primary Physician Partners)\nColorado\nHealthy Blue Kansas (with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas and Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Kansas City)\nKansas\nHealthy Blue Louisiana (with Blue Cross Blue Shield of Louisiana)\nLouisiana\nSummit Community Care\nArkansas","title":"Subsidiaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"patient advocacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_advocacy"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"National Committee for Quality Assurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Committee_for_Quality_Assurance"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"text":"In 2011, in the category of \"Meeting National Standards of Care,\" California's state patient advocacy office gave Anthem a rating of 2 out of 4 stars.[75] In 2014, it received 3 out of 4 stars in the same category.[76] In 2022, twenty-one of Elevance Health's affiliated Medicaid plans earned accreditation for health equity from the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA).[77]","title":"Quality of care"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"}],"sub_title":"Charitable donations","text":"In 2007, WellPoint pledged to spend $30 million over three years, through the company's charitable foundation, to help the uninsured. In March 2010, the Los Angeles Times reported that WellPoint's tax records and website showed that the company had given only $6.2 million by 2009. The company said that the foundation had indeed fulfilled its $30-million commitment by mid-2009, but refused to provide any financial details to support its claim.[78]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California Department of Managed Health Care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Department_of_Managed_Health_Care"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"medical debts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_debt"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"sub_title":"2007 DMHC Investigation: Illegal policy rescissions and Anthem's settlement","text":"In 2007, the California Department of Managed Health Care (DMHC) investigated Anthem's policies for revoking (rescinding) health care insurance policies. The DMHC randomly selected 90 instances where Anthem canceled the insurance of policy holders who had been diagnosed with costly or life-threatening illnesses, to find how many of these cancellations were legal. The agency concluded that all these cancellations were illegal.[79][80]In July 2008, Anthem Blue Cross agreed to a settlement with the California Department of Managed Health Care; however in doing so, WellPoint did not officially admit liability. To resolve allegations of improper policy rescissions (cancellations), WellPoint paid $10 million and reinstated plans for 1,770 policy-holders who were affected by cancelled policies. The company also agreed to provide compensation for any medical debts incurred by these policy-holders.[81]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_algorithm"},{"link_name":"breast cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Kathleen Sebelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Sebelius"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"credit cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"sub_title":"2010 Reuters Exposé: Algorithm targeting women with breast cancer for policy cancellation","text":"In April 2010, Reuters alleged that Wellpoint \"using a computer algorithm, identified women recently diagnosed with breast cancer and then singled them out for cancellation of their policies.\"[82] The software used immediately triggered fraud investigation for those recently diagnosed with the disease as the company searched for some pretext to drop their policies.[83] Wellpoint argued that its algorithm was scanning for diagnostic codes for conditions that patients might have known about during the insurance application.[84] The story not only caused considerable public outrage, but it also led Secretary of Health and Human Services, Kathleen Sebelius, and President Barack Obama, to call on WellPoint to end the practice.[85]In 2011, Anthem began cancelling policies of members who had been paying premiums with credit cards, sometimes without calling or emailing the member ahead of time.[86]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"healthcare reforms proposed during the Obama administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care_reforms_proposed_during_the_Obama_administration"},{"link_name":"Santa Monica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Monica"},{"link_name":"Jerry Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Brown"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Opposition to healthcare reform","text":"In August 2009, Anthem, the largest for-profit insurer in California, contacted its employees and urged them to get involved to oppose healthcare reforms proposed during the Obama administration. Consumer Watchdog, a nonprofit watchdog organization in Santa Monica, asked California Attorney General Jerry Brown to investigate its claim that WellPoint had illegally pushed workers to write to their elected officials, attend town hall meetings and enlist family and friends to ensure an overhaul that would match the firm's interests. According to Consumer Watchdog, California's labor code directly prohibits coercive communications, including forbidding employers from controlling, coercing or influencing employees' political activities or affiliations. WellPoint had not been contacted by the California attorney general and had not seen any complaint.[87]Through 2010 and into 2011, WellPoint senior executives met monthly with executives of other major health insurers to blunt the effect of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.[88]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"sub_title":"Legal battle over premium increases in Maine","text":"In 2009, Anthem Health Plans of Maine, a WellPoint subsidiary, sued the state of Maine for the right to increase premiums further.[89] Since Maine licenses insurance companies through its Bureau of Insurance, Anthem needed the state's permission to raise rates.[90] The Court disagreed with Anthem and found that, unlike with other forms of insurance, the Maine Insurance Code does not require the Superintendent to consider profits.[91]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-raises-92"},{"link_name":"poster child","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poster_child"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-raises-92"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-raises-92"},{"link_name":"unemployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment"},{"link_name":"wages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wages"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Dianne Feinstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dianne_Feinstein"},{"link_name":"Federal government of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"}],"sub_title":"Controversial rate increases in California and the resulting investigation and public outrage","text":"In February 2010, WellPoint announced that rates would increase on some Anthem Blue Cross individual policies in California by as high as 39%. The announcement resulted in an investigation by regulators from the Federal and California governments.[92] Anthem Blue Cross gained worldwide media attention and became a poster child for the problem of rising cost of health care in the U.S.[92] The rate increase came one year after Anthem had raised rates 68% on individual policy holders.[92]To explain the rate increases, some which were four times the rate of medical inflation, Anthem said the company had experienced a death spiral: the company claimed that with increased unemployment and declining wages, healthy customers dropped their insurance policies. Consequently, the remaining risk pool became sicker and thus more expensive to insure; and, in turn, prices were forced up and pushed more people out of the market.[93]In response to the outrage from politicians and consumers, Anthem postponed the rate increase until May 1, 2010.[94]Senator Dianne Feinstein of California proposed giving the Federal government of the United States authority to block insurance premium hikes that it considers to be \"unjustified\".[95]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"loss ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_ratio"},{"link_name":"Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_Protection_and_Affordable_Care_Act"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"sub_title":"WellPoint's reclassification of administrative costs as medical care to meet the patient protection and affordable care act requirements","text":"On 17 March 2010, WellPoint announced it was reclassifying some of its administrative costs as medical care costs in order to meet loss ratio requirements under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which requires insurers to spend at least 80% or 85% of customer premiums on health care services, depending on the type of plan.[96]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data breach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_breach"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"class action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_action"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Greg Zoeller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Zoeller"},{"link_name":"Indiana's Attorney General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Attorney_General"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"}],"sub_title":"2009–2010 data breach in California exposing personal information of thousands of customers","text":"In June 2010, Anthem sent letters to 230,000 customers in California warning them that their personal data might have been accessed online via a data breach. After a routine upgrade in October 2009, a third-party vendor stated that all security measures had been properly reinstated, when in fact they had not. As a result, personal information of thousands of coverage applicants who were under the age of 65 was exposed in the open. After a Los Angeles-area woman found that her application for coverage was publicly available, she filed a class action lawsuit against Anthem. While gathering evidence for the proceeding, the woman's lawyers downloaded some confidential customer information from Anthem's website and alerted Anthem about the breach. According to the lawyers, confidential information had remained exposed for five months.[97] Greg Zoeller, Indiana's Attorney General, filed a lawsuit against the company seeking $300,000 in civil penalties for the company alleged failure to notify its consumers about the breach.[98]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sonoma County, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoma_County,_California"},{"link_name":"stage four cancers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_four_cancer"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"sub_title":"Denial of benefits for cancer treatment despite payment of premiums and resulting public outcry","text":"In May 2014, Anthem Blue Cross refused to pay for the hospitalization of a Sonoma County, California man for stage four cancers, although he had paid Anthem over $100,000 in premiums.[99][100] Anthem ended up paying for coverage following public outcry.[101]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"personally identifiable information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personally_identifiable_information"},{"link_name":"brands Anthem, Inc. uses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Cross_Blue_Shield_Association#Member_affiliated_companies"},{"link_name":"Amerigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerigroup"},{"link_name":"Caremore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caremore"},{"link_name":"UniCare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UniCare"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Bloomberg News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News"},{"link_name":"cybersecurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersecurity"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"identity theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_theft_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"social security numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_security_number"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"}],"sub_title":"2015 data breach compromising over 37.5 million personal records and subsequent settlement and indictment of Chinese nationals","text":"On February 4, 2015, Anthem, Inc. disclosed that criminal hackers had broken into its servers and potentially stolen over 37.5 million records that contain personally identifiable information from its servers. According to Anthem, Inc., the data breach extended into multiple brands Anthem, Inc. uses to market its healthcare plans, including, Anthem Blue Cross, Anthem Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Georgia, Empire Blue Cross and Blue Shield, Amerigroup, Caremore, and UniCare.[102] Healthlink was also victimized. Anthem says the medical information and financial data was not compromised. Anthem has offered free credit monitoring in the wake of the breach.[103] According to Bloomberg News, China may be responsible for this data breach. Michael Daniel, chief adviser on cybersecurity for President Barack Obama, said he would be changing his own password.[104] About 80 million company records were hacked, stoking fears that the stolen data could be used for identity theft.[105] The compromised information contained names, birthdays, medical IDs, social security numbers, street addresses, e-mail addresses, employment information and income data.[106] In June 2017, Anthem agreed to spend $115M to settle allegations that it failed to adequately protect the data of its clients, the sum was to be spent on two years of services to protect victims from identity theft.[107] In 2019, two Chinese nationals were indicted for the breach.[108][109][110]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-112"},{"link_name":"Journal of the American Medical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Medical_Association"},{"link_name":"triaged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triage"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-112"}],"sub_title":"\"Avoidable ER Program\" denying reimbursement for certain emergency room visits and criticism for potentially harmful consequences","text":"Beginning in 2015, Anthem has been implementing and expanding its \"Avoidable ER Program[111]\" which means not reimbursing ER visits when the cause is not covered by the company. A few patients found out that they had been stuck with bills of over $10,000 that Anthem refused to reimburse.[112] According to a 2013 report by the Journal of the American Medical Association, 87 percent of patients initially triaged as non-urgent ended up with a diagnosis that constituted an emergency.[113] Critics derided the scheme, citing that it was unlawful by federal law to cover a person based on diagnosis, not symptoms.[111] It was also considered unsafe, as it pressured patients to diagnose themselves before going to the ER.[112]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"sub_title":"Neglecting complaints","text":"In 2017, the California Department of Managed Health Care fined the company $5 million for untimely response to consumer complaints.[114] In 2019, this was settled at $2.8 million.[115]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"}],"sub_title":"2019 lawsuit: Sovereign Health vs. Anthem for coercive direct payments and financial pressure on vulnerable patients","text":"In 2019, Sovereign Health pressed charges against Anthem, alleging that it was using direct payments to compel them to join Anthem's network under unfavorable terms.[116] Sovereign owns facilities that treat people with addiction and mental health problems.","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"}],"sub_title":"Diagnostics fraud","text":"In March 2020, Anthem was sued by the Department of Justice. The lawsuit alleges that Anthem had submitted inaccurate diagnostics data in order to obtain increased Medicare reimbursements.[117] The case was still pending in February 2022.[118]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Department of Health and Human Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"}],"sub_title":"Medicare Advantage star rating","text":"In January 2024, Elevance Health filed a lawsuit with the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) challenging changes in the Medicare Advantage star rating methodology. Star ratings are tied to key bonus payouts, and due to the new rating system in 2024 ratings have significantly decreased.[119][120]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"}],"text":"For the fiscal year 2017, Anthem reported earnings of US$3.843 billion, with an annual revenue of US$90.039 billion, an increase of 6.1% over the previous fiscal cycle. Anthem's shares traded at over $183 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$69.1 billion in October 2018.[121]","title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"S&P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%26P_Global"},{"link_name":"Dow Jones Sustainability Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Jones_Sustainability_Index"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Fortune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"100 Best Companies to Work For","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_Best_Companies_to_Work_For"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Corporate Equality Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_Equality_Index"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"text":"The company was featured on the S&P Dow Jones Sustainability Index from 2018 to 2022,[126] was named by Fortune as one of the 100 Best Companies to Work For,[127] and was included on the Corporate Equality Index's list of Best Places to Work for LGBTQ Equality from 2015 to 2022.[128]","title":"Recognition"}] | [{"image_text":"The logo of Anthem Blue Cross Blue Shield","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/43/Anthem_Blue_Cross_Blue_Shield_Logo.svg/220px-Anthem_Blue_Cross_Blue_Shield_Logo.svg.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Elevance Health, Inc. 2022 Annual Report (Form 10-K)\". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 15, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1156039/000115603923000007/elv-20221231.htm","url_text":"\"Elevance Health, Inc. 2022 Annual Report (Form 10-K)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission","url_text":"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Form 8-K for Anthem Inc filed 05/18/2022\". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. May 18, 2022. Retrieved June 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1156039/000119312522154417/d349212d8k.htm","url_text":"\"Form 8-K for Anthem Inc filed 05/18/2022\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission","url_text":"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Anthem Health Plans\". Anthem Insurance Companies, Inc. Retrieved June 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anthem.com/anthem-health-plans","url_text":"\"Anthem Health Plans\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anthem (ANTM) Unveils Two Brands to Boost Whole Person Health\". zacks.com. June 16, 2022. Retrieved June 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zacks.com/stock/news/1939948/anthem-antm-unveils-two-brands-to-boost-whole-person-health","url_text":"\"Anthem (ANTM) Unveils Two Brands to Boost Whole Person Health\""}]},{"reference":"\"Anthem (ANTM) Q1 2022 Earnings Call Transcript\". fool.com. April 20, 2022. Retrieved June 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fool.com/earnings/call-transcripts/2022/04/20/anthem-antm-q1-2022-earnings-call-transcript","url_text":"\"Anthem (ANTM) Q1 2022 Earnings Call Transcript\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fortune 500\". Fortune.com. Retrieved June 24, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://fortune.com/company/elevance-health/fortune500","url_text":"\"Fortune 500\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Magazine","url_text":"Fortune"}]},{"reference":"\"The Global 2000 2023\". Forbes. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved February 7, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240129031905/https://www.forbes.com/lists/global2000/?sh=4f5ab07e5ac0","url_text":"\"The Global 2000 2023\""},{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/lists/global2000/?sh=51d599675ac0","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Brennan, Gerald; David E. Salamie (2009). Jay P. Pederson (ed.). \"WellPoint, Inc\". Vol. 103. International Directory of Company Histories. pp. 505–514.","urls":[]},{"reference":"BLUE CROSS BLUE SHIELD ANTITRUST LITIGATION (MDL No. 2406). Case has many plaintiffs and defendants","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"IN THE MATTER OF THE ACQUISITION OF CONTROL OF WELLCHOICE INSURANCE HEARING OFFICER'S OF NEW JERSEY, INC. BY WELLPOINT, INC. REPORT AND WELLPOINT HOLDING CORP\" (PDF). STATE OF NEW JERSEY DEPARTMENT OF BANKING AND INSURANCE.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nj.gov/dobi/orders/ho051228.pdf","url_text":"\"IN THE MATTER OF THE ACQUISITION OF CONTROL OF WELLCHOICE INSURANCE HEARING OFFICER'S OF NEW JERSEY, INC. BY WELLPOINT, INC. REPORT AND WELLPOINT HOLDING CORP\""}]},{"reference":"Andrews, Greg (July 24, 2015). \"FROM THE ARCHIVES: Anthem's path from laggard to leader\". American City Business Journals.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ibj.com/articles/54164-from-the-archives-anthems-path-from-laggard-to-leader","url_text":"\"FROM THE ARCHIVES: Anthem's path from laggard to leader\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_City_Business_Journals","url_text":"American City Business Journals"}]},{"reference":"Sekhri, Rajiv (February 17, 1997). \"Acordia/Rauh placed on auction block for third time\". American City Business Journals.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/stories/1997/02/17/story7.html","url_text":"\"Acordia/Rauh placed on auction block for third time\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_City_Business_Journals","url_text":"American City Business Journals"}]},{"reference":"\"Company news; kemper insurance unit to be sold for $100 million\". The New York Times. Bloomberg News. November 24, 1993.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1993/11/24/business/company-news-kemper-insurance-unit-to-be-sold-for-100-million.html","url_text":"\"Company news; kemper insurance unit to be sold for $100 million\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News","url_text":"Bloomberg News"}]},{"reference":"\"Indiana, Kentucky 'Blues' to merge\". United Press International. March 26, 1993.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.upi.com/Archives/1993/03/26/Indiana-Kentucky-Blues-to-merge/9128733122000/","url_text":"\"Indiana, Kentucky 'Blues' to merge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International","url_text":"United Press International"}]},{"reference":"\"National City Acquisition\". The New York Times. Reuters. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSAFE | BSAFE | ["1 Cryptography backdoors","1.1 Dual_EC_DRBG random number generator","1.2 Extended Random TLS extension","2 Varieties","3 Product suite support status","4 References","5 External links"] | Cryptography library
BSAFEDeveloper(s)Dell, formerly RSA SecurityInitial release1996Written inC, assembly, JavaOperating systemBSD, Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows, Android, iOS, AIX, SolarisTypeCryptography library, Commercial softwareLicenseProprietaryWebsitewww.dell.com
Dell BSAFE, formerly known as RSA BSAFE, is a FIPS 140-2 validated cryptography library, available in both C and Java. BSAFE was initially created by RSA Security, which was purchased by EMC and then, in turn, by Dell. When Dell sold the RSA business to Symphony Technology Group in 2020, Dell elected to retain the BSAFE product line. BSAFE was one of the most common encryption toolkits before the RSA patent expired in September 2000. It also contained implementations of the RCx ciphers, with the most common one being RC4. From 2004 to 2013 the default random number generator in the library was a NIST-approved RNG standard, widely known to be insecure from at least 2006, containing a kleptographic backdoor from the American National Security Agency (NSA), as part of its secret Bullrun program. In 2013 Reuters revealed that RSA had received a payment of $10 million to set the compromised algorithm as the default option. The RNG standard was subsequently withdrawn in 2014, and the RNG removed from BSAFE beginning in 2015.
Cryptography backdoors
Dual_EC_DRBG random number generator
From 2004 to 2013, the default cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) in BSAFE was Dual_EC_DRBG, which contained an alleged backdoor from NSA, in addition to being a biased and slow CSPRNG. The cryptographic community had been aware that Dual_EC_DRBG was a very poor CSPRNG since shortly after the specification was posted in 2005, and by 2007 it had become apparent that the CSPRNG seemed to be designed to contain a hidden backdoor for NSA, usable only by NSA via a secret key. In 2007, Bruce Schneier described the backdoor as "too obvious to trick anyone to use it." The backdoor was confirmed in the Snowden leaks in 2013, and it was insinuated that NSA had paid RSA Security US$10 million to use Dual_EC_DRBG by default in 2004, though RSA Security denied that they knew about the backdoor in 2004. The Reuters article which revealed the secret $10 million contract to use Dual_EC_DRBG described the deal as "handled by business leaders rather than pure technologists". RSA Security has largely declined to explain their choice to continue using Dual_EC_DRBG even after the defects and potential backdoor were discovered in 2006 and 2007, and has denied knowingly inserting the backdoor.
So why would RSA pick Dual_EC as the default? You got me. Not only is Dual_EC hilariously slow – which has real performance implications – it was shown to be a just plain bad random number generator all the way back in 2006. By 2007, when Shumow and Ferguson raised the possibility of a backdoor in the specification, no sensible cryptographer would go near the thing. And the killer is that RSA employs a number of highly distinguished cryptographers! It's unlikely that they'd all miss the news about Dual_EC.— Matthew Green, cryptographer and research professor at Johns Hopkins University, A Few Thoughts on Cryptographic Engineering (From after the backdoor was confirmed, but before the $10 million secret deal was revealed by Reuters.)
As a cryptographically secure random number generator is often the basis of cryptography, much data encrypted with BSAFE was not secure against NSA. Specifically it has been shown that the backdoor makes SSL/TLS completely breakable by the party having the private key to the backdoor (i.e. NSA). Since the US government and US companies have also used the vulnerable BSAFE, NSA can potentially have made US data less safe, if NSA's secret key to the backdoor had been stolen. It is also possible to derive the secret key by solving a single instance of the algorithm's elliptic curve problem (breaking an instance of elliptic curve cryptography is considered unlikely with current computers and algorithms, but a breakthrough may occur).
In June 2013, Edward Snowden began leaking NSA documents. In November 2013, RSA switched the default to HMAC DRBG with SHA-256 as the default option. The following month, Reuters published the report based on the Snowden leaks stating that RSA had received a payment of $10 million to set Dual_EC_DRBG as the default.
With subsequent releases of Crypto-C Micro Edition 4.1.2 (April 2016), Micro Edition Suite 4.1.5 (April 2016) and Crypto-J 6.2 (March 2015), Dual_EC_DRBG was removed entirely.
Extended Random TLS extension
"Extended Random" was a proposed extension for the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol, submitted for standardization to IETF by an NSA employee, although it never became a standard. The extension would otherwise be harmless, but together with the Dual_EC_DRBG, it would make it easier to take advantage of the backdoor.
The extension was previously not known to be enabled in any implementations, but in December 2017, it was found enabled on some Canon printer models, which use the RSA BSAFE library, because the extension number conflicted a part of TLS version 1.3.
Varieties
Crypto-J is a Java encryption library. In 1997, RSA Data Security licensed Baltimore Technologies' J/CRYPTO library, with plans to integrate it as part of its new JSAFE encryption toolkit and released the first version of JSAFE the same year. JSAFE 1.0 was featured in the January 1998 edition of Byte magazine.
Cert-J is a Public Key Infrastructure API software library, written in Java. It contains the cryptographic support necessary to generate certificate requests, create and sign digital certificates, and create and distribute certificate revocation lists. As of Cert-J 6.2.4, the entire API has been deprecated in favor of similar functionality provided BSAFE Crypto-J JCE API.
BSAFE Crypto-C Micro Edition (Crypto-C ME) was initially released in June 2001 under the name "RSA BSAFE Wireless Core 1.0". The initial release targeted Microsoft Windows, EPOC, Linux, Solaris and Palm OS.
BSAFE Micro Edition Suite is a cryptography SDK in C. BSAFE Micro Edition Suite was initially announced in February 2002 as a combined offering of BSAFE SSL-C Micro Edition, BSAFE Cert-C Micro Edition and BSAFE Crypto-C Micro Edition. Both SSL-C Micro Edition and Cert-C Micro Edition reached EOL in September 2014, while Micro Edition Suite remains supported with Crypto-C Micro Edition as its FIPS-validated cryptographic provider.
SSL-C is an SSL toolkit in the BSAFE suite. It was originally written by Eric A. Young and Tim J. Hudson, as a fork of the open library SSLeay, that they developed prior to joining RSA. SSL-C reached End Of Life in December 2016.
SSL-J is a Java toolkit that implements TLS. SSL-J was released as part of RSA JSAFE initial product offering in 1997. Crypto-J is the default cryptographic provider of SSL-J.
Product suite support status
On November 25, 2015, RSA announced End of Life (EOL) dates for BSAFE. The End of Primary Support (EOPS) was to be reached on January 31, 2017, and the End of Extended Support (EOXS) was originally set to be January 31, 2019. That date was later further extended by RSA for some versions until January 31, 2022. During Extended Support, even though the support policy stated that only the most severe problems would be patched, new versions were released containing bugfixes, security fixes and new algorithms.
On December 12, 2020, Dell announced the reversal of RSA's past decision, allowing BSAFE product support beyond January 2022 as well as the possibility to soon acquire new licenses. Dell also announced it was rebranding the toolkits to Dell BSAFE.
References
^ "BSAFE support and billing update | Dell US". www.dell.com. Archived from the original on 2021-07-26. Retrieved 2021-07-26.
^ RSA (September 1, 2020). "RSA Emerges as Independent Company Following Completion of Acquisition by Symphony Technology Group". RSA. Archived from the original on September 4, 2020. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
^ a b c d e Menn, Joseph (December 20, 2013). "Exclusive: Secret contract tied NSA and security industry pioneer". San Francisco. Reuters. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
^ a b Matthew Green (September 20, 2013). "RSA warns developers not to use RSA products". A Few Thoughts on Cryptographic Engineering. Archived from the original on October 10, 2013. Retrieved December 28, 2013.
^ a b c d Bruce Schneier. "The Strange Story of Dual_EC_DRBG". Archived from the original on 2019-04-23. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ "We don't enable backdoors in our crypto products, RSA tells customers". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 2014-10-12. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
^ Rescorla, Eric; Salter, Margaret (2 March 2009). "Extended Random Values for TLS". IETF draft standard. I-D draft-rescorla-tls-extended-random-02. Archived from the original on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 2023-09-28.
^ Menn, Joseph (31 March 2014). "Exclusive: NSA infiltrated RSA security more deeply than thought - stu". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
^ a b Green, Matthew (19 December 2017). "The strange story of "Extended Random"". Cryptographic Engineering blog. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
^ "RSA licenses Baltimore Technologies J/CRYPTO".
^ "RSA's BSafe toolkit spawns new Java version".
^ "Making Java Development JSafe" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-28. Retrieved 2020-04-27.
^ "RSA unveils three new products at its show". IT World. February 20, 2002.
^ Simson Garfinkel, Gene Spafford (2002). Web Security, Privacy & Commerce. O'Reilly. p. 114. ISBN 0596000456.
^ Ivan Ristic (2013). OpenSSL Cookbook: A Guide to the Most Frequently Used OpenSSL Features and Commands. Qualys. p. 1. ISBN 9781907117053.
^ "Securing IT Resources with Digital Certificates and LDAP". Archived from the original on 2020-07-31. Retrieved 2020-04-27.
^ RSA (November 25, 2015). "RSA announces End of Life (EOL) dates for RSA BSAFE". RSA. Archived from the original on October 3, 2018. Retrieved October 3, 2018.
^ RSA (June 20, 2018). "RSA announces support extension for some of the BSAFE® product suite". RSA. Archived from the original on October 3, 2018. Retrieved October 3, 2018.
^ RSA (September 11, 2019). "RSA announces the release of RSA BSAFE® Micro Edition Suite 4.4". RSA. Archived from the original on September 23, 2019. Retrieved September 11, 2019.
^ Dell (December 12, 2020). "Dell BSAFE products remain supported beyond January 2022, reversing RSA's past decision to end-of-life BSAFE toolkits". Dell.
External links
BSAFE Cert-J Support Page
BSAFE Crypto-J Support Page
BSAFE SSL-J Support Page
BSAFE Crypto-C Micro Edition Support Page
BSAFE Micro Edition Suite Support Page
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Kazakhstan MITM attack | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FIPS 140-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIPS_140-2"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Java.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"RSA Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_Security"},{"link_name":"EMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_EMC"},{"link_name":"Symphony Technology Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symphony_Technology_Group"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"RSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_(cryptosystem)#Patent"},{"link_name":"RC4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC4"},{"link_name":"random number generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_number_generation"},{"link_name":"NIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"kleptographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleptographic"},{"link_name":"backdoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backdoor_(computing)"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"Bullrun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullrun_(decryption_program)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSApaid-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSApaid-3"}],"text":"Dell BSAFE, formerly known as RSA BSAFE, is a FIPS 140-2 validated cryptography library, available in both C and Java. BSAFE was initially created by RSA Security, which was purchased by EMC and then, in turn, by Dell. When Dell sold the RSA business to Symphony Technology Group in 2020, Dell elected to retain the BSAFE product line.[1][2] BSAFE was one of the most common encryption toolkits before the RSA patent expired in September 2000. It also contained implementations of the RCx ciphers, with the most common one being RC4. From 2004 to 2013 the default random number generator in the library was a NIST-approved RNG standard, widely known to be insecure from at least 2006, containing a kleptographic backdoor from the American National Security Agency (NSA), as part of its secret Bullrun program.[3] In 2013 Reuters revealed that RSA had received a payment of $10 million to set the compromised algorithm as the default option.[3] The RNG standard was subsequently withdrawn in 2014, and the RNG removed from BSAFE beginning in 2015.","title":"BSAFE"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Cryptography backdoors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator"},{"link_name":"Dual_EC_DRBG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_EC_DRBG"},{"link_name":"NSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSA"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-green-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schneier-5"},{"link_name":"Bruce Schneier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Schneier"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schneier-5"},{"link_name":"Snowden leaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_surveillance_disclosure"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSApaid-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSApaid-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-green-4"},{"link_name":"TLS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schneier-5"},{"link_name":"elliptic curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve_cryptography"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schneier-5"},{"link_name":"Edward Snowden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Snowden"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSApaid-3"}],"sub_title":"Dual_EC_DRBG random number generator","text":"From 2004 to 2013, the default cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) in BSAFE was Dual_EC_DRBG, which contained an alleged backdoor from NSA, in addition to being a biased and slow CSPRNG.[4] The cryptographic community had been aware that Dual_EC_DRBG was a very poor CSPRNG since shortly after the specification was posted in 2005, and by 2007 it had become apparent that the CSPRNG seemed to be designed to contain a hidden backdoor for NSA, usable only by NSA via a secret key.[5] In 2007, Bruce Schneier described the backdoor as \"too obvious to trick anyone to use it.\"[5] The backdoor was confirmed in the Snowden leaks in 2013, and it was insinuated that NSA had paid RSA Security US$10 million to use Dual_EC_DRBG by default in 2004,[3] though RSA Security denied that they knew about the backdoor in 2004. The Reuters article which revealed the secret $10 million contract to use Dual_EC_DRBG described the deal as \"handled by business leaders rather than pure technologists\".[3] RSA Security has largely declined to explain their choice to continue using Dual_EC_DRBG even after the defects and potential backdoor were discovered in 2006 and 2007, and has denied knowingly inserting the backdoor.[6]So why would RSA pick Dual_EC as the default? You got me. Not only is Dual_EC hilariously slow – which has real performance implications – it was shown to be a just plain bad random number generator all the way back in 2006. By 2007, when Shumow and Ferguson raised the possibility of a backdoor in the specification, no sensible cryptographer would go near the thing. And the killer is that RSA employs a number of highly distinguished cryptographers! It's unlikely that they'd all miss the news about Dual_EC.— Matthew Green, cryptographer and research professor at Johns Hopkins University, A Few Thoughts on Cryptographic Engineering[4] (From after the backdoor was confirmed, but before the $10 million secret deal was revealed by Reuters.)As a cryptographically secure random number generator is often the basis of cryptography, much data encrypted with BSAFE was not secure against NSA. Specifically it has been shown that the backdoor makes SSL/TLS completely breakable by the party having the private key to the backdoor (i.e. NSA).[5] Since the US government and US companies have also used the vulnerable BSAFE, NSA can potentially have made US data less safe, if NSA's secret key to the backdoor had been stolen. It is also possible to derive the secret key by solving a single instance of the algorithm's elliptic curve problem[5] (breaking an instance of elliptic curve cryptography is considered unlikely with current computers and algorithms, but a breakthrough may occur).In June 2013, Edward Snowden began leaking NSA documents. In November 2013, RSA switched the default to HMAC DRBG with SHA-256 as the default option. The following month, Reuters published the report based on the Snowden leaks stating that RSA had received a payment of $10 million to set Dual_EC_DRBG as the default.[3]With subsequent releases of Crypto-C Micro Edition 4.1.2 (April 2016), Micro Edition Suite 4.1.5 (April 2016) and Crypto-J 6.2 (March 2015), Dual_EC_DRBG was removed entirely.","title":"Cryptography backdoors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transport Layer Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"},{"link_name":"IETF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_Inc."},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"}],"sub_title":"Extended Random TLS extension","text":"\"Extended Random\" was a proposed extension for the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol, submitted for standardization to IETF by an NSA employee,[7] although it never became a standard. The extension would otherwise be harmless, but together with the Dual_EC_DRBG, it would make it easier to take advantage of the backdoor.[8][9]The extension was previously not known to be enabled in any implementations, but in December 2017, it was found enabled on some Canon printer models, which use the RSA BSAFE library, because the extension number conflicted a part of TLS version 1.3.[9]","title":"Cryptography backdoors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RSA Data Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_Security"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Public Key Infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Key_Infrastructure"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Programming_Interface"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"digital certificates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_key_certificate"},{"link_name":"certificate revocation lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_revocation_list"},{"link_name":"JCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Cryptography_Extension"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"EPOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPOC_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Palm OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_OS"},{"link_name":"SDK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_kit"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"FIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Information_Processing_Standards"},{"link_name":"SSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"link_name":"SSLeay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSLeay"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-0596000456-114-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9781907117053-1-15"},{"link_name":"TLS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Crypto-J is a Java encryption library. In 1997, RSA Data Security licensed Baltimore Technologies' J/CRYPTO library, with plans to integrate it as part of its new JSAFE encryption toolkit[10] and released the first version of JSAFE the same year.[11] JSAFE 1.0 was featured in the January 1998 edition of Byte magazine.[12]\nCert-J is a Public Key Infrastructure API software library, written in Java. It contains the cryptographic support necessary to generate certificate requests, create and sign digital certificates, and create and distribute certificate revocation lists. As of Cert-J 6.2.4, the entire API has been deprecated in favor of similar functionality provided BSAFE Crypto-J JCE API.\nBSAFE Crypto-C Micro Edition (Crypto-C ME) was initially released in June 2001 under the name \"RSA BSAFE Wireless Core 1.0\". The initial release targeted Microsoft Windows, EPOC, Linux, Solaris and Palm OS.\nBSAFE Micro Edition Suite is a cryptography SDK in C. BSAFE Micro Edition Suite was initially announced in February 2002[13] as a combined offering of BSAFE SSL-C Micro Edition, BSAFE Cert-C Micro Edition and BSAFE Crypto-C Micro Edition. Both SSL-C Micro Edition and Cert-C Micro Edition reached EOL in September 2014, while Micro Edition Suite remains supported with Crypto-C Micro Edition as its FIPS-validated cryptographic provider.\nSSL-C is an SSL toolkit in the BSAFE suite. It was originally written by Eric A. Young and Tim J. Hudson, as a fork of the open library SSLeay, that they developed prior to joining RSA.[14][15] SSL-C reached End Of Life in December 2016.\nSSL-J is a Java toolkit that implements TLS. SSL-J was released as part of RSA JSAFE initial product offering in 1997.[16] Crypto-J is the default cryptographic provider of SSL-J.","title":"Varieties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"On November 25, 2015, RSA announced End of Life (EOL) dates for BSAFE.[17] The End of Primary Support (EOPS) was to be reached on January 31, 2017, and the End of Extended Support (EOXS) was originally set to be January 31, 2019. That date was later further extended by RSA for some versions until January 31, 2022.[18] During Extended Support, even though the support policy stated that only the most severe problems would be patched, new versions were released containing bugfixes, security fixes and new algorithms.[19]On December 12, 2020, Dell announced the reversal of RSA's past decision, allowing BSAFE product support beyond January 2022 as well as the possibility to soon acquire new licenses. Dell also announced it was rebranding the toolkits to Dell BSAFE.[20]","title":"Product suite support status"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"BSAFE support and billing update | Dell US\". www.dell.com. Archived from the original on 2021-07-26. Retrieved 2021-07-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dell.com/support/kbdoc/en-us/000125778/bsafe-support-and-billing-update","url_text":"\"BSAFE support and billing update | Dell US\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210726191644/https://www.dell.com/support/kbdoc/en-us/000125778/bsafe-support-and-billing-update","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"RSA (September 1, 2020). \"RSA Emerges as Independent Company Following Completion of Acquisition by Symphony Technology Group\". RSA. Archived from the original on September 4, 2020. Retrieved June 7, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rsa.com/en-us/company/news/rsa--emerges-as-independent-company","url_text":"\"RSA Emerges as Independent Company Following Completion of Acquisition by Symphony Technology Group\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200904082109/https://www.rsa.com/en-us/company/news/rsa--emerges-as-independent-company","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Menn, Joseph (December 20, 2013). \"Exclusive: Secret contract tied NSA and security industry pioneer\". San Francisco. Reuters. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved May 11, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-rsa-idUSBRE9BJ1C220131220","url_text":"\"Exclusive: Secret contract tied NSA and security industry pioneer\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924191918/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/20/us-usa-security-rsa-idUSBRE9BJ1C220131220","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Matthew Green (September 20, 2013). \"RSA warns developers not to use RSA products\". A Few Thoughts on Cryptographic Engineering. Archived from the original on October 10, 2013. Retrieved December 28, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2013/09/rsa-warns-developers-against-its-own.html","url_text":"\"RSA warns developers not to use RSA products\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131010085457/http://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2013/09/rsa-warns-developers-against-its-own.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bruce Schneier. \"The Strange Story of Dual_EC_DRBG\". Archived from the original on 2019-04-23. Retrieved 2013-12-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2007/11/the_strange_sto.html","url_text":"\"The Strange Story of Dual_EC_DRBG\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190423212823/https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2007/11/the_strange_sto.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"We don't enable backdoors in our crypto products, RSA tells customers\". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 2014-10-12. Retrieved 2017-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/security/2013/09/we-dont-enable-backdoors-in-our-crypto-products-rsa-tells-customers/","url_text":"\"We don't enable backdoors in our crypto products, RSA tells customers\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141012130722/http://arstechnica.com/security/2013/09/we-dont-enable-backdoors-in-our-crypto-products-rsa-tells-customers/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Rescorla, Eric; Salter, Margaret (2 March 2009). \"Extended Random Values for TLS\". IETF draft standard. I-D draft-rescorla-tls-extended-random-02. Archived from the original on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 2023-09-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-rescorla-tls-extended-random-02","url_text":"\"Extended Random Values for TLS\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171219203836/https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-rescorla-tls-extended-random-02","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Menn, Joseph (31 March 2014). \"Exclusive: NSA infiltrated RSA security more deeply than thought - stu\". Reuters. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-nsa-rsa/exclusive-nsa-infiltrated-rsa-security-more-deeply-than-thought-study-idUKBREA2U0TY20140331","url_text":"\"Exclusive: NSA infiltrated RSA security more deeply than thought - stu\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171229112257/https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-nsa-rsa/exclusive-nsa-infiltrated-rsa-security-more-deeply-than-thought-study-idUKBREA2U0TY20140331","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Green, Matthew (19 December 2017). \"The strange story of \"Extended Random\"\". Cryptographic Engineering blog. Archived from the original on 29 December 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2017/12/19/the-strange-story-of-extended-random/","url_text":"\"The strange story of \"Extended Random\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171229020021/https://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2017/12/19/the-strange-story-of-extended-random/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"RSA licenses Baltimore Technologies J/CRYPTO\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itnews.com/article/2076999/news-and-new-product-briefs--7-15-97-.html?page=2","url_text":"\"RSA licenses Baltimore Technologies J/CRYPTO\""}]},{"reference":"\"RSA's BSafe toolkit spawns new Java version\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.javaworld.com/article/2076942/-em-javaworld--em--news-briefs--5-1-97-.html?page=4","url_text":"\"RSA's BSafe toolkit spawns new Java version\""}]},{"reference":"\"Making Java Development JSafe\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-09-28. Retrieved 2020-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://vintageapple.org/byte/pdf/199801_Byte_Magazine_Vol_23-01_Next_Years_Top_Tech.pdf","url_text":"\"Making Java Development JSafe\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210928213114/https://vintageapple.org/byte/pdf/199801_Byte_Magazine_Vol_23-01_Next_Years_Top_Tech.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"RSA unveils three new products at its show\". IT World. February 20, 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itworld.com/article/2792505/rsa-unveils-three-new-products-at-its-show.html","url_text":"\"RSA unveils three new products at its show\""}]},{"reference":"Simson Garfinkel, Gene Spafford (2002). Web Security, Privacy & Commerce. O'Reilly. p. 114. ISBN 0596000456.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/websecuritypriva0000garf/page/114","url_text":"Web Security, Privacy & Commerce"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/websecuritypriva0000garf/page/114","url_text":"114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0596000456","url_text":"0596000456"}]},{"reference":"Ivan Ristic (2013). OpenSSL Cookbook: A Guide to the Most Frequently Used OpenSSL Features and Commands. Qualys. p. 1. ISBN 9781907117053.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781907117053","url_text":"9781907117053"}]},{"reference":"\"Securing IT Resources with Digital Certificates and LDAP\". Archived from the original on 2020-07-31. Retrieved 2020-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cnc9707/cnc9707.html","url_text":"\"Securing IT Resources with Digital Certificates and LDAP\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200731083811/https://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cnc9707/cnc9707.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"RSA (November 25, 2015). \"RSA announces End of Life (EOL) dates for RSA BSAFE\". RSA. Archived from the original on October 3, 2018. Retrieved October 3, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://community.rsa.com/docs/DOC-59312","url_text":"\"RSA announces End of Life (EOL) dates for RSA BSAFE\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181003181713/https://community.rsa.com/docs/DOC-59312","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"RSA (June 20, 2018). \"RSA announces support extension for some of the BSAFE® product suite\". RSA. Archived from the original on October 3, 2018. Retrieved October 3, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://community.rsa.com/docs/DOC-93720","url_text":"\"RSA announces support extension for some of the BSAFE® product suite\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181003181732/https://community.rsa.com/docs/DOC-93720","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"RSA (September 11, 2019). \"RSA announces the release of RSA BSAFE® Micro Edition Suite 4.4\". RSA. Archived from the original on September 23, 2019. Retrieved September 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://community.rsa.com/docs/DOC-107002","url_text":"\"RSA announces the release of RSA BSAFE® Micro Edition Suite 4.4\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190923221524/https://community.rsa.com/docs/DOC-107002","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dell (December 12, 2020). \"Dell BSAFE products remain supported beyond January 2022, reversing RSA's past decision to end-of-life BSAFE toolkits\". Dell.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dell.com/support/kbdoc/000180496","url_text":"\"Dell BSAFE products remain supported beyond January 2022, reversing RSA's past decision to end-of-life BSAFE toolkits\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.dell.com/","external_links_name":"www.dell.com"},{"Link":"https://www.dell.com/support/kbdoc/en-us/000125778/bsafe-support-and-billing-update","external_links_name":"\"BSAFE support and billing update | Dell US\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210726191644/https://www.dell.com/support/kbdoc/en-us/000125778/bsafe-support-and-billing-update","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.rsa.com/en-us/company/news/rsa--emerges-as-independent-company","external_links_name":"\"RSA Emerges as Independent Company Following Completion of Acquisition by Symphony Technology Group\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200904082109/https://www.rsa.com/en-us/company/news/rsa--emerges-as-independent-company","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-rsa-idUSBRE9BJ1C220131220","external_links_name":"\"Exclusive: Secret contract tied NSA and security industry pioneer\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924191918/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/20/us-usa-security-rsa-idUSBRE9BJ1C220131220","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2013/09/rsa-warns-developers-against-its-own.html","external_links_name":"\"RSA warns developers not to use RSA products\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131010085457/http://blog.cryptographyengineering.com/2013/09/rsa-warns-developers-against-its-own.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2007/11/the_strange_sto.html","external_links_name":"\"The Strange Story of Dual_EC_DRBG\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190423212823/https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2007/11/the_strange_sto.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/security/2013/09/we-dont-enable-backdoors-in-our-crypto-products-rsa-tells-customers/","external_links_name":"\"We don't enable backdoors in our crypto products, RSA tells customers\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141012130722/http://arstechnica.com/security/2013/09/we-dont-enable-backdoors-in-our-crypto-products-rsa-tells-customers/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-rescorla-tls-extended-random-02","external_links_name":"\"Extended Random Values for TLS\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171219203836/https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-rescorla-tls-extended-random-02","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://uk.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-nsa-rsa/exclusive-nsa-infiltrated-rsa-security-more-deeply-than-thought-study-idUKBREA2U0TY20140331","external_links_name":"\"Exclusive: NSA infiltrated RSA security more deeply than thought - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-220 | TO-220 | ["1 Typical applications","2 Variations","3 Common components that use the TO-220 package","4 National Standards","5 Related packages","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"] | Power semiconductor through-hole package
TO-220 front viewTO-220 back view
The TO-220 is a style of electronic package used for high-powered, through-hole components with 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin spacing. The "TO" designation stands for "transistor outline". TO-220 packages have three leads. Similar packages with two, four, five or seven leads are also manufactured. A notable characteristic is a metal tab with a hole, used to mount the case to a heatsink, allowing the component to dissipate more heat than one constructed in a TO-92 case. Common TO-220-packaged components include discrete semiconductors such as transistors and silicon-controlled rectifiers, as well as integrated circuits.
Typical applications
The TO-220 package is a "power package" intended for power semiconductors and an example of a through-hole design rather than a surface-mount technology type of package. TO-220 packages can be mounted to a heat sink to dissipate several watts of waste heat. On a so-called "infinite heat sink", this can be 50 W or more. The top of the package has a metal tab with a hole used to mount the component to a heat sink. Thermal compound is often applied between package and heatsink to further improve heat transfer.
The metal tab is often connected electrically to the internal circuitry. This does not normally pose a problem when using isolated heatsinks, but an electrically-insulating pad or sheet may be required to electrically isolate the component from the heatsink if the heatsink is electrically conductive, grounded or otherwise non-isolated. Many materials may be used to electrically isolate the TO-220 package, some of which have the added benefit of high thermal conductivity.
In applications that require a heatsink, damage or destruction of the TO-220 device due to overheating may occur if the heatsink is dislodged during operation.
A heatsinked TO-220 package dissipating 1 W of heat will have an internal (junction) temperature typically 2 to 5 °C higher than the package's temperature (due to the thermal resistance between the junction and the metal tab), and the metal tab of the TO-220 package will typically have a temperature 1 to 60 °C higher than the ambient temperature, depending on the type of heatsink (if any) used.
The junction-to-case thermal resistance of a TO-220 packaged device (which typically matters less than the case-to-ambient thermal resistance), depends on the thickness and the area of the semiconductor die inside the package, typically in a range between 0.5 °C/W and 3 °C/W (according to one textbook) or 1.5 °C/W and 4 °C/W (according to another).
If more heat needs to be dissipated, devices in the also widely used TO-247 (or TO-3P) package can be selected. TO-3P has a typical junction-to-ambient (heatsink) thermal resistance of only about 40 °C/W, and its TO-3PF variant a slightly lower one. Further increase of heat dissipation capability is possible with power modules.
When a TO-220 package is used without a heatsink, the package acts as its own heatsink, and the heatsink-to-ambient thermal resistance in air for a TO-220 package is approximately 70 °C/W.
Variations
TS7805 linear voltage regulator in a TO-220 variant package with electrically isolated tab.
The TO-220 family of outlines is defined by the JEDEC organization. There are a number of variations on this outline, such as:
TO-220F, TO-220FP a 3 lead JEDEC outline which plastic encapsulates the entire body and mounting tab metal that are normally exposed providing electrical insulation which inevitably increases the package thermal resistance relative to the uninsulated metal tab version.
TO-220AB a 3 lead JEDEC outline
TO-220AC a 2 lead JEDEC outline
Sometimes the designation is followed by the number of leads, as in TO-220AB-5L for five leads, etc.
There also some vendor-specific variations such as International Rectifier's SUPER-220, which dispenses with the hole in favor of clip-mounting, thus claiming TO-247-like thermal performance in a TO-220 footprint.
Common components that use the TO-220 package
The TO-220 case is found on semiconductor devices handling less than 100 amperes and operating at less than a few hundred volts. These devices operate at DC or relatively low (audio) frequencies, since the TO-220 package is not intended for devices operating at radio frequencies. In addition to bipolar, bipolar Darlington, and power MOSFET transistors, the TO-220 case is also used for fixed and variable linear voltage regulator integrated circuits, and for Schottky diode pairs.
National Standards
Standards organization
Standard
Designation for
TO-220-AA
TO-220-AB
TO-220-AC
IEC
IEC 60191
A73A
A74A
DIN
DIN 41869
14A3
EIAJ / JEITA
ED-7500A
SC45
SC46
–
Gosstandart
GOST 18472—88
–
KT-28-2
KT-28-1
Rosstandart
GOST R 57439—2017
Kombinat Mikroelektronik Erfurt
TGL 26713/09
–
H2B1
H2A1
^ Russian: КТ-28-2
^ Russian: КТ-28-1
Related packages
TO-257 is a hermetically sealed metal package that is otherwise considered equivalent to TO-220.
TO-220F also known as the SOT186 and SC67 is TO-220 like package, where the heatsink mounting tab has been encased in the plastic.
See also
TO-3, a metal package with similar power ratings
TO-126, a plastic package with lower power ratings
TO-263, the surface-mount equivalent of the TO-220
References
^ a b c "JEDEC TO-220 family package specification" (PDF). JEDEC. March 24, 1987. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 18, 2017.
^ List of semiconductor cases, http://malaysia.rs-online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=centre/eem_techref_semipack
^ Pandya, Kandarp (2003-12-01). "Torque Recommendations for TO-220 Devices" (PDF). Vishay Intertechnology.
^ "MC7800, MC7800A, NCV7805" (PDF). ON Semiconductor. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
^ a b Yong Liu (2012). Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4614-1053-9.
^ a b Mike Tooley (2006). Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications (3rd ed.). Routledge. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-7506-6923-8.
^ Yong Liu (2012). Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-4614-1053-9.
^ List of package types,
https://www.fairchildsemi.com/evaluate/package-specifications/
^ "TO-220F Package Dimensions" (PDF). Fairchild Semiconductor. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
^ "Outline Dimensions TO-220AB, TO-220AC" (PDF). Vishay Semiconductor. Retrieved 24 October 2019.
^ Sawle, Andrew; Woodworth, Arthur (2005-12-27). "Mounting Guidelines for the SUPER-220" (PDF). International Rectifier. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2021-12-01.
^ http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm340.pdf
^ http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~valvano/Datasheets/IRF540.pdf
^ https://www.st.com/content/ccc/resource/technical/document/datasheet/ac/7b/4b/a6/d0/51/4e/52/CD00000912.pdf/files/CD00000912.pdf/jcr:content/translations/en.CD00000912.pdf
^ https://www.infineon.com/dgdl/irfb4110pbf.pdf?fileId=5546d462533600a401535615a9571e0b
^ a b "TGL 26713/09: Gehäuse für Halbleiterbauelemente - Bauform H" (PDF) (in German). Leipzig: Verlag für Standardisierung. June 1988. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
^ "Semiconductor Databook" (PDF). Heilbronn: AEG-Telefunken. p. 19. Retrieved 2021-08-20.
^ "EIAJ ED-7500A Standards for the Dimensions of Semiconductor Devices" (PDF). JEITA. 1996. Retrieved 2021-06-14.
^ "ГОСТ 18472—88 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры" (PDF) (in Russian). Rosstandart. 1988. pp. 57–58. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
^ "ГОСТ Р 57439—2017 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры" (PDF) (in Russian). Gosstandart. 2017. pp. 72–73. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
^ "Power MOSFETs and IGBTs", Bill Travis, EDN: " and the TO-257 is a hermetic TO-220."
^ "SOT186".
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to TO-220 transistor packages.
TO-220 standard - JEDEC
TO-220 outline drawing - ON Semiconductor
TO-220AB outline drawing - Vishay Intertechnology
TO-220FP (Full Pack) - Amkor Technology
vteSemiconductor packagesSingle diode
DO-201 (DO-27)
DO-204 (DO-7 / DO-26 / DO-35 / DO-41)
DO-213 (MELF / SOD-80 / LL34)
DO-214 (SMA / SMB / SMC)
SOD (SOD-123 / SOD-323 / SOD-523 / SOD-923)
3...5-pin
SOT / TSOT
TO-3 (TH / Panel)
TO-5 (TH)
TO-8 (TH)
TO-18 (TH)
TO-39 (TH)
TO-66 (TH / Panel)
TO-92 (TH)
TO-126 (TH / Panel)
TO-202 (TH / Panel)
TO-220 (TH / Panel)
TO-247 (TH / Panel)
TO-251 (IPAK) (SMT)
TO-252 (DPAK) (SMT)
TO-262 (I2PAK) (SMT)
TO-263 (D2PAK) (SMT)
TO-268 (D3PAK) (SMT)
TO-273 (Super-220) (SMT)
TO-274 (Super-247) (SMT)
Single row
SIP / SIL
Dual row
DFN
DIP / DIL
Flat Pack
MSOP
SO / SOIC
SOP / SSOP
TSOP / HTSOP
TSSOP / HTSSOP
ZIP
Quad row
LCC
QIP / QIL
PLCC
QFN
QFP
QUIP / QUIL
Grid array
BGA
eWLB
LGA
PGA
Wafer
COB
COF
COG
CSP
Flip Chip
PoP
QP
UICC
WL-CSP / WLP
Related topics
Electronic packaging
Integrated circuit packaging
List of integrated circuit packaging types
Printed circuit board
Surface-mount technology
Through-hole technology
It is relatively common to find packages that contain other components than their designated ones, such as diodes or voltage regulators in transistor packages, etc. | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TO-220_Front_Coloured.svg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TO-220_Spec-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TO-220_Back_Coloured.svg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TO-220_Spec-1"},{"link_name":"package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_package"},{"link_name":"high-powered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device"},{"link_name":"through-hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole_technology"},{"link_name":"pin spacing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_pitch"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"heatsink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatsink"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"TO-92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-92"},{"link_name":"transistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"silicon-controlled rectifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon-controlled_rectifier"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"}],"text":"TO-220 front view[1]TO-220 back view[1]The TO-220 is a style of electronic package used for high-powered, through-hole components with 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin spacing. The \"TO\" designation stands for \"transistor outline\".[2] TO-220 packages have three leads. Similar packages with two, four, five or seven leads are also manufactured. A notable characteristic is a metal tab with a hole, used to mount the case to a heatsink,[3] allowing the component to dissipate more heat than one constructed in a TO-92 case. Common TO-220-packaged components include discrete semiconductors such as transistors and silicon-controlled rectifiers, as well as integrated circuits.","title":"TO-220"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"power semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device"},{"link_name":"surface-mount technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"heat sink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sink"},{"link_name":"waste heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_heat"},{"link_name":"Thermal compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_compound"},{"link_name":"thermal conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivity"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liu2012-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tooley2006-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liu2012b-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tooley2006-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Liu2012-5"},{"link_name":"power modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_module"}],"text":"The TO-220 package is a \"power package\" intended for power semiconductors and an example of a through-hole design rather than a surface-mount technology type of package. TO-220 packages can be mounted to a heat sink to dissipate several watts of waste heat. On a so-called \"infinite heat sink\", this can be 50 W or more. The top of the package has a metal tab with a hole used to mount the component to a heat sink. Thermal compound is often applied between package and heatsink to further improve heat transfer.The metal tab is often connected electrically to the internal circuitry. This does not normally pose a problem when using isolated heatsinks, but an electrically-insulating pad or sheet may be required to electrically isolate the component from the heatsink if the heatsink is electrically conductive, grounded or otherwise non-isolated. Many materials may be used to electrically isolate the TO-220 package, some of which have the added benefit of high thermal conductivity.In applications that require a heatsink, damage or destruction of the TO-220 device due to overheating may occur if the heatsink is dislodged during operation.A heatsinked TO-220 package dissipating 1 W of heat will have an internal (junction) temperature typically 2 to 5 °C higher than the package's temperature (due to the thermal resistance between the junction and the metal tab), and the metal tab of the TO-220 package will typically have a temperature 1 to 60 °C higher than the ambient temperature, depending on the type of heatsink (if any) used.[4][5][6]The junction-to-case thermal resistance of a TO-220 packaged device (which typically matters less than the case-to-ambient thermal resistance), depends on the thickness and the area of the semiconductor die inside the package, typically in a range between 0.5 °C/W and 3 °C/W (according to one textbook)[7] or 1.5 °C/W and 4 °C/W (according to another).[6]If more heat needs to be dissipated, devices in the also widely used TO-247 (or TO-3P) package can be selected. TO-3P has a typical junction-to-ambient (heatsink) thermal resistance of only about 40 °C/W, and its TO-3PF variant a slightly lower one.[5] Further increase of heat dissipation capability is possible with power modules.When a TO-220 package is used without a heatsink, the package acts as its own heatsink, and the heatsink-to-ambient thermal resistance in air for a TO-220 package is approximately 70 °C/W.","title":"Typical applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TS7805_voltage_regulator.JPG"},{"link_name":"JEDEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEC"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TO-220_Spec-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"International Rectifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Rectifier"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"TS7805 linear voltage regulator in a TO-220 variant package with electrically isolated tab.The TO-220 family of outlines is defined by the JEDEC organization. There are a number of variations on this outline,[1][8] such as:TO-220F, TO-220FP a 3 lead JEDEC outline which plastic encapsulates the entire body and mounting tab metal that are normally exposed providing electrical insulation which inevitably increases the package thermal resistance relative to the uninsulated metal tab version.[9]\nTO-220AB a 3 lead JEDEC outline\nTO-220AC a 2 lead JEDEC outline[10]Sometimes the designation is followed by the number of leads, as in TO-220AB-5L for five leads, etc.There also some vendor-specific variations such as International Rectifier's SUPER-220, which dispenses with the hole in favor of clip-mounting, thus claiming TO-247-like thermal performance in a TO-220 footprint.[11]","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bipolar Darlington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlington_transistor"},{"link_name":"MOSFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The TO-220 case is found on semiconductor devices handling less than 100 amperes and operating at less than a few hundred volts. These devices operate at DC or relatively low (audio) frequencies, since the TO-220 package is not intended for devices operating at radio frequencies. In addition to bipolar, bipolar Darlington, and power MOSFET transistors, the TO-220 case is also used for fixed and variable linear voltage regulator integrated circuits, and for Schottky diode pairs.[12][13][14][15]","title":"Common components that use the TO-220 package"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"}],"text":"^ Russian: КТ-28-2 \n\n^ Russian: КТ-28-1","title":"National Standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hermetically sealed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetic_seal"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"TO-257 is a hermetically sealed metal package that is otherwise considered equivalent to TO-220.[21]\nTO-220F also known as the SOT186 and SC67 is TO-220 like package, where the heatsink mounting tab has been encased in the plastic.[22]","title":"Related packages"}] | [{"image_text":"TS7805 linear voltage regulator in a TO-220 variant package with electrically isolated tab.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/TS7805_voltage_regulator.JPG/200px-TS7805_voltage_regulator.JPG"}] | [{"title":"TO-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-3"},{"title":"TO-126","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-126"},{"title":"TO-263","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-263"}] | [{"reference":"\"JEDEC TO-220 family package specification\" (PDF). JEDEC. March 24, 1987. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 18, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170618100127/https://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/To-220j.pdf","url_text":"\"JEDEC TO-220 family package specification\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEC","url_text":"JEDEC"},{"url":"https://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/To-220j.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pandya, Kandarp (2003-12-01). \"Torque Recommendations for TO-220 Devices\" (PDF). Vishay Intertechnology.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vishay.com/docs/72674/72674.pdf","url_text":"\"Torque Recommendations for TO-220 Devices\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishay_Intertechnology","url_text":"Vishay Intertechnology"}]},{"reference":"\"MC7800, MC7800A, NCV7805\" (PDF). ON Semiconductor. Retrieved 24 May 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://pdf.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheet2/9/0p4t1g1lw0spoo5ukh2s1uxchzky.pdf","url_text":"\"MC7800, MC7800A, NCV7805\""}]},{"reference":"Yong Liu (2012). Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4614-1053-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy","url_text":"Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy/page/n205","url_text":"188"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1053-9","url_text":"978-1-4614-1053-9"}]},{"reference":"Mike Tooley (2006). Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications (3rd ed.). Routledge. p. 353. ISBN 978-0-7506-6923-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-6923-8","url_text":"978-0-7506-6923-8"}]},{"reference":"Yong Liu (2012). Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 184. ISBN 978-1-4614-1053-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy","url_text":"Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy/page/n201","url_text":"184"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1053-9","url_text":"978-1-4614-1053-9"}]},{"reference":"\"TO-220F Package Dimensions\" (PDF). Fairchild Semiconductor. Retrieved 24 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.icbanq.com/icbank_data/semi_package/to220f.pdf","url_text":"\"TO-220F Package Dimensions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Outline Dimensions TO-220AB, TO-220AC\" (PDF). Vishay Semiconductor. Retrieved 24 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.vishay.com/docs/95180/to220abc.pdf","url_text":"\"Outline Dimensions TO-220AB, TO-220AC\""}]},{"reference":"Sawle, Andrew; Woodworth, Arthur (2005-12-27). \"Mounting Guidelines for the SUPER-220\" (PDF). International Rectifier. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2021-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160410194208/http://www.irf.com/technical-info/appnotes/an-1000.pdf","url_text":"\"Mounting Guidelines for the SUPER-220\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Rectifier","url_text":"International Rectifier"},{"url":"http://www.irf.com/technical-info/appnotes/an-1000.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"TGL 26713/09: Gehäuse für Halbleiterbauelemente - Bauform H\" [Outline drawings for semiconductor devices; Type H] (PDF) (in German). Leipzig: Verlag für Standardisierung. June 1988. Retrieved 2021-06-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbr-server.de/bauarchivddr/archiv/tglarchiv/tgl20001bis30000/tgl26501bis27000/tgl-26713-9-jun-1988.pdf","url_text":"\"TGL 26713/09: Gehäuse für Halbleiterbauelemente - Bauform H\""}]},{"reference":"\"Semiconductor Databook\" (PDF). Heilbronn: AEG-Telefunken. p. 19. Retrieved 2021-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://datasheet.datasheetarchive.com/originals/scans/Scans-110/158.pdf","url_text":"\"Semiconductor Databook\""}]},{"reference":"\"EIAJ ED-7500A Standards for the Dimensions of Semiconductor Devices\" (PDF). JEITA. 1996. Retrieved 2021-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://home.jeita.or.jp/tsc/std-pdf/ED-7500A.pdf","url_text":"\"EIAJ ED-7500A Standards for the Dimensions of Semiconductor Devices\""}]},{"reference":"\"ГОСТ 18472—88 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры\" [GOST 18472—88 Semiconductor devices - basic dimensions] (PDF) (in Russian). Rosstandart. 1988. pp. 57–58. Retrieved 2021-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://files.stroyinf.ru/Data2/1/4294834/4294834701.pdf","url_text":"\"ГОСТ 18472—88 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры\""}]},{"reference":"\"ГОСТ Р 57439—2017 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры\" [GOST R 57439—2017 Semiconductor devices - basic dimensions] (PDF) (in Russian). Gosstandart. 2017. pp. 72–73. Retrieved 2021-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://files.stroyinf.ru/Data/644/64413.pdf","url_text":"\"ГОСТ Р 57439—2017 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры\""}]},{"reference":"\"SOT186\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nxp.com/packages/SOT186.html","url_text":"\"SOT186\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170618100127/https://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/To-220j.pdf","external_links_name":"\"JEDEC TO-220 family package specification\""},{"Link":"https://www.jedec.org/sites/default/files/To-220j.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://malaysia.rs-online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=centre/eem_techref_semipack","external_links_name":"http://malaysia.rs-online.com/web/generalDisplay.html?id=centre/eem_techref_semipack"},{"Link":"http://www.vishay.com/docs/72674/72674.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Torque Recommendations for TO-220 Devices\""},{"Link":"http://pdf.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheet2/9/0p4t1g1lw0spoo5ukh2s1uxchzky.pdf","external_links_name":"\"MC7800, MC7800A, NCV7805\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy","external_links_name":"Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy/page/n205","external_links_name":"188"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy","external_links_name":"Power Electronic Packaging: Design, Assembly Process, Reliability and Modeling"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/powerelectronicp00liuy/page/n201","external_links_name":"184"},{"Link":"https://www.fairchildsemi.com/evaluate/package-specifications/","external_links_name":"https://www.fairchildsemi.com/evaluate/package-specifications/"},{"Link":"http://www.icbanq.com/icbank_data/semi_package/to220f.pdf","external_links_name":"\"TO-220F Package Dimensions\""},{"Link":"http://www.vishay.com/docs/95180/to220abc.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Outline Dimensions TO-220AB, TO-220AC\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160410194208/http://www.irf.com/technical-info/appnotes/an-1000.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Mounting Guidelines for the SUPER-220\""},{"Link":"http://www.irf.com/technical-info/appnotes/an-1000.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm340.pdf","external_links_name":"http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm340.pdf"},{"Link":"http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~valvano/Datasheets/IRF540.pdf","external_links_name":"http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~valvano/Datasheets/IRF540.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.st.com/content/ccc/resource/technical/document/datasheet/ac/7b/4b/a6/d0/51/4e/52/CD00000912.pdf/files/CD00000912.pdf/jcr:content/translations/en.CD00000912.pdf","external_links_name":"https://www.st.com/content/ccc/resource/technical/document/datasheet/ac/7b/4b/a6/d0/51/4e/52/CD00000912.pdf/files/CD00000912.pdf/jcr:content/translations/en.CD00000912.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.infineon.com/dgdl/irfb4110pbf.pdf?fileId=5546d462533600a401535615a9571e0b","external_links_name":"https://www.infineon.com/dgdl/irfb4110pbf.pdf?fileId=5546d462533600a401535615a9571e0b"},{"Link":"https://www.bbr-server.de/bauarchivddr/archiv/tglarchiv/tgl20001bis30000/tgl26501bis27000/tgl-26713-9-jun-1988.pdf","external_links_name":"\"TGL 26713/09: Gehäuse für Halbleiterbauelemente - Bauform H\""},{"Link":"https://datasheet.datasheetarchive.com/originals/scans/Scans-110/158.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Semiconductor Databook\""},{"Link":"https://home.jeita.or.jp/tsc/std-pdf/ED-7500A.pdf","external_links_name":"\"EIAJ ED-7500A Standards for the Dimensions of Semiconductor Devices\""},{"Link":"https://files.stroyinf.ru/Data2/1/4294834/4294834701.pdf","external_links_name":"\"ГОСТ 18472—88 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры\""},{"Link":"https://files.stroyinf.ru/Data/644/64413.pdf","external_links_name":"\"ГОСТ Р 57439—2017 ПРИБОРЫ ПОЛУПРОВОДНИКОВЫЕ - Основные размеры\""},{"Link":"http://www.nxp.com/packages/SOT186.html","external_links_name":"\"SOT186\""},{"Link":"https://www.jedec.org/document_search?search_api_views_fulltext=to-220","external_links_name":"TO-220 standard"},{"Link":"https://www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/221A-09.PDF","external_links_name":"TO-220 outline drawing"},{"Link":"https://www.vishay.com/docs/95222/to220ab.pdf","external_links_name":"TO-220AB outline drawing"},{"Link":"https://c44f5d406df450f4a66b-1b94a87d576253d9446df0a9ca62e142.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/2018/02/TO220FP_DS610.pdf","external_links_name":"TO-220FP (Full Pack)"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root | Cube root | ["1 Formal definition","2 Properties","2.1 Real numbers","2.2 Complex numbers","3 Impossibility of compass-and-straightedge construction","4 Numerical methods","5 Appearance in solutions of third and fourth degree equations","6 History","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | Number whose cube is a given number
In mathematics, a cube root of a number x is a number y such that y3 = x. All nonzero real numbers have exactly one real cube root and a pair of complex conjugate cube roots, and all nonzero complex numbers have three distinct complex cube roots. For example, the real cube root of 8, denoted
8
3
{\displaystyle {\sqrt{8}}}
, is 2, because 23 = 8, while the other cube roots of 8 are
−
1
+
i
3
{\displaystyle -1+i{\sqrt {3}}}
and
−
1
−
i
3
{\displaystyle -1-i{\sqrt {3}}}
. The three cube roots of −27i are:
3
i
,
3
3
2
−
3
2
i
,
and
−
3
3
2
−
3
2
i
.
{\displaystyle 3i,\quad {\frac {3{\sqrt {3}}}{2}}-{\frac {3}{2}}i,\quad {\text{and}}\quad -{\frac {3{\sqrt {3}}}{2}}-{\frac {3}{2}}i.}
In some contexts, particularly when the number whose cube root is to be taken is a real number, one of the cube roots (in this particular case the real one) is referred to as the principal cube root, denoted with the radical sign
3
.
{\displaystyle {\sqrt{~^{~}}}.}
The cube root is the inverse function of the cube function if considering only real numbers, but not if considering also complex numbers: although one has always
(
x
3
)
3
=
x
,
{\displaystyle \left({\sqrt{x}}\right)^{3}=x,}
the cube of a nonzero number has more than one complex cube root and its principal cube root may not be the number that was cubed. For example,
(
−
1
+
i
3
)
3
=
8
{\displaystyle (-1+i{\sqrt {3}})^{3}=8}
, but
8
3
=
2.
{\displaystyle {\sqrt{8}}=2.}
Plot of y = 3√x. The plot is symmetric with respect to origin, as it is an odd function. At x = 0 this graph has a vertical tangent.
A unit cube (side = 1) and a cube with twice the volume (side = 3√2 = 1.2599... OEIS: A002580).
Formal definition
The cube roots of a number x are the numbers y which satisfy the equation
y
3
=
x
.
{\displaystyle y^{3}=x.\ }
Properties
Real numbers
For any real number x, there is one real number y such that y3 = x. The cube function is increasing, so does not give the same result for two different inputs, and it covers all real numbers. In other words, it is a bijection, or one-to-one. Then we can define an inverse function that is also one-to-one. For real numbers, we can define a unique cube root of all real numbers. If this definition is used, the cube root of a negative number is a negative number.
The three cube roots of 1
If x and y are allowed to be complex, then there are three solutions (if x is non-zero) and so x has three cube roots. A real number has one real cube root and two further cube roots which form a complex conjugate pair. For instance, the cube roots of 1 are:
1
,
−
1
2
+
3
2
i
,
−
1
2
−
3
2
i
.
{\displaystyle 1,\quad -{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {\sqrt {3}}{2}}i,\quad -{\frac {1}{2}}-{\frac {\sqrt {3}}{2}}i.}
The last two of these roots lead to a relationship between all roots of any real or complex number. If a number is one cube root of a particular real or complex number, the other two cube roots can be found by multiplying that cube root by one or the other of the two complex cube roots of 1.
Complex numbers
Plot of the complex cube root together with its two additional leaves. The first image shows the main branch, which is described in the text.
Riemann surface of the cube root. One can see how all three leaves fit together.
For complex numbers, the principal cube root is usually defined as the cube root that has the greatest real part, or, equivalently, the cube root whose argument has the least absolute value. It is related to the principal value of the natural logarithm by the formula
x
1
3
=
exp
(
1
3
ln
x
)
.
{\displaystyle x^{\frac {1}{3}}=\exp \left({\frac {1}{3}}\ln {x}\right).}
If we write x as
x
=
r
exp
(
i
θ
)
{\displaystyle x=r\exp(i\theta )\,}
where r is a non-negative real number and θ lies in the range
−
π
<
θ
≤
π
{\displaystyle -\pi <\theta \leq \pi }
,
then the principal complex cube root is
x
3
=
r
3
exp
(
i
θ
3
)
.
{\displaystyle {\sqrt{x}}={\sqrt{r}}\exp \left({\frac {i\theta }{3}}\right).}
This means that in polar coordinates, we are taking the cube root of the radius and dividing the polar angle by three in order to define a cube root. With this definition, the principal cube root of a negative number is a complex number, and for instance 3√−8 will not be −2, but rather 1 + i√3.
This difficulty can also be solved by considering the cube root as a multivalued function: if we write the original complex number x in three equivalent forms, namely
x
=
{
r
exp
(
i
θ
)
,
r
exp
(
i
θ
+
2
i
π
)
,
r
exp
(
i
θ
−
2
i
π
)
.
{\displaystyle x={\begin{cases}r\exp(i\theta ),\\r\exp(i\theta +2i\pi ),\\r\exp(i\theta -2i\pi ).\end{cases}}}
Geometric representation of the 2nd to 6th roots of a complex number z, in polar form reiφ where r = |z | and φ = arg z. If z is real, φ = 0 or π. Principal roots are shown in black.
The principal complex cube roots of these three forms are then respectively
x
3
=
{
r
3
exp
(
i
θ
3
)
,
r
3
exp
(
i
θ
3
+
2
i
π
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{\displaystyle {\sqrt{x}}={\begin{cases}{\sqrt{r}}\exp \left({\frac {i\theta }{3}}\right),\\{\sqrt{r}}\exp \left({\frac {i\theta }{3}}+{\frac {2i\pi }{3}}\right),\\{\sqrt{r}}\exp \left({\frac {i\theta }{3}}-{\frac {2i\pi }{3}}\right).\end{cases}}}
Unless x = 0, these three complex numbers are distinct, even though the three representations of x were equivalent. For example, 3√−8 may then be calculated to be −2, 1 + i√3, or 1 − i√3.
This is related with the concept of monodromy: if one follows by continuity the function cube root along a closed path around zero, after a turn the value of the cube root is multiplied (or divided) by
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{\displaystyle e^{2i\pi /3}.}
Impossibility of compass-and-straightedge construction
Cube roots arise in the problem of finding an angle whose measure is one third that of a given angle (angle trisection) and in the problem of finding the edge of a cube whose volume is twice that of a cube with a given edge (doubling the cube). In 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved that neither of these can be done with a compass-and-straightedge construction.
Numerical methods
Newton's method is an iterative method that can be used to calculate the cube root. For real floating-point numbers this method reduces to the following iterative algorithm to produce successively better approximations of the cube root of a:
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{\displaystyle x_{n+1}={\frac {1}{3}}\left({\frac {a}{x_{n}^{2}}}+2x_{n}\right).}
The method is simply averaging three factors chosen such that
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{\displaystyle x_{n}\times x_{n}\times {\frac {a}{x_{n}^{2}}}=a}
at each iteration.
Halley's method improves upon this with an algorithm that converges more quickly with each iteration, albeit with more work per iteration:
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{\displaystyle x_{n+1}=x_{n}\left({\frac {x_{n}^{3}+2a}{2x_{n}^{3}+a}}\right).}
This converges cubically, so two iterations do as much work as three iterations of Newton's method. Each iteration of Newton's method costs two multiplications, one addition and one division, assuming that 1/3a is precomputed, so three iterations plus the precomputation require seven multiplications, three additions, and three divisions.
Each iteration of Halley's method requires three multiplications, three additions, and one division, so two iterations cost six multiplications, six additions, and two divisions. Thus, Halley's method has the potential to be faster if one division is more expensive than three additions.
With either method a poor initial approximation of x0 can give very poor algorithm performance, and coming up with a good initial approximation is somewhat of a black art. Some implementations manipulate the exponent bits of the floating-point number; i.e. they arrive at an initial approximation by dividing the exponent by 3.
Also useful is this generalized continued fraction, based on the nth root method:
If x is a good first approximation to the cube root of a and y = a − x3, then:
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{\displaystyle {\sqrt{a}}={\sqrt{x^{3}+y}}=x+{\cfrac {y}{3x^{2}+{\cfrac {2y}{2x+{\cfrac {4y}{9x^{2}+{\cfrac {5y}{2x+{\cfrac {7y}{15x^{2}+{\cfrac {8y}{2x+\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}}
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{\displaystyle =x+{\cfrac {2x\cdot y}{3(2x^{3}+y)-y-{\cfrac {2\cdot 4y^{2}}{9(2x^{3}+y)-{\cfrac {5\cdot 7y^{2}}{15(2x^{3}+y)-{\cfrac {8\cdot 10y^{2}}{21(2x^{3}+y)-\ddots }}}}}}}}.}
The second equation combines each pair of fractions from the first into a single fraction, thus doubling the speed of convergence.
Appearance in solutions of third and fourth degree equations
Cubic equations, which are polynomial equations of the third degree (meaning the highest power of the unknown is 3) can always be solved for their three solutions in terms of cube roots and square roots (although simpler expressions only in terms of square roots exist for all three solutions, if at least one of them is a rational number). If two of the solutions are complex numbers, then all three solution expressions involve the real cube root of a real number, while if all three solutions are real numbers then they may be expressed in terms of the complex cube root of a complex number.
Quartic equations can also be solved in terms of cube roots and square roots.
History
The calculation of cube roots can be traced back to Babylonian mathematicians from as early as 1800 BCE. In the fourth century BCE Plato posed the problem of doubling the cube, which required a compass-and-straightedge construction of the edge of a cube with twice the volume of a given cube; this required the construction, now known to be impossible, of the length 3√2.
A method for extracting cube roots appears in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a Chinese mathematical text compiled around the second century BCE and commented on by Liu Hui in the third century CE. The Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria devised a method for calculating cube roots in the first century CE. His formula is again mentioned by Eutokios in a commentary on Archimedes. In 499 CE Aryabhata, a mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, gave a method for finding the cube root of numbers having many digits in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.5).
See also
Methods of computing square roots
List of polynomial topics
Nth root
Square root
Nested radical
Root of unity
Shifting nth-root algorithm
References
^ a b "In Search of a Fast Cube Root". metamerist.com. 2008. Archived from the original on 27 December 2013.
^ Saggs, H. W. F. (1989). Civilization Before Greece and Rome. Yale University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-300-05031-8.
^ Crossley, John; W.-C. Lun, Anthony (1999). The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-19-853936-0.
^ Smyly, J. Gilbart (1920). "Heron's Formula for Cube Root". Hermathena. 19 (42). Trinity College Dublin: 64–67. JSTOR 23037103.
^ Aryabhatiya Archived 15 August 2011 at archive.today Marathi: आर्यभटीय, Mohan Apte, Pune, India, Rajhans Publications, 2009, p. 62, ISBN 978-81-7434-480-9
External links
Cube root calculator reduces any number to simplest radical form
Computing the Cube Root, Ken Turkowski, Apple Technical Report #KT-32, 1998. Includes C source code.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Cube Root". MathWorld. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"radical sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_sign"},{"link_name":"inverse function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function"},{"link_name":"cube function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cube-root_function.svg"},{"link_name":"odd function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odd_function"},{"link_name":"vertical tangent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_tangent"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cube_and_doubled_cube.svg"},{"link_name":"OEIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences"},{"link_name":"A002580","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A002580"}],"text":"In mathematics, a cube root of a number x is a number y such that y3 = x. All nonzero real numbers have exactly one real cube root and a pair of complex conjugate cube roots, and all nonzero complex numbers have three distinct complex cube roots. For example, the real cube root of 8, denoted \n \n \n \n \n \n 8\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{8}}}\n \n, is 2, because 23 = 8, while the other cube roots of 8 are \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n +\n i\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -1+i{\\sqrt {3}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n −\n i\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -1-i{\\sqrt {3}}}\n \n. The three cube roots of −27i are:3\n i\n ,\n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n 3\n 2\n \n \n i\n ,\n \n \n and\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n 3\n 2\n \n \n i\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 3i,\\quad {\\frac {3{\\sqrt {3}}}{2}}-{\\frac {3}{2}}i,\\quad {\\text{and}}\\quad -{\\frac {3{\\sqrt {3}}}{2}}-{\\frac {3}{2}}i.}In some contexts, particularly when the number whose cube root is to be taken is a real number, one of the cube roots (in this particular case the real one) is referred to as the principal cube root, denoted with the radical sign \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{~^{~}}}.}\n \n The cube root is the inverse function of the cube function if considering only real numbers, but not if considering also complex numbers: although one has always \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 3\n \n \n =\n x\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left({\\sqrt[{3}]{x}}\\right)^{3}=x,}\n \n the cube of a nonzero number has more than one complex cube root and its principal cube root may not be the number that was cubed. For example, \n \n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n +\n i\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n )\n \n 3\n \n \n =\n 8\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (-1+i{\\sqrt {3}})^{3}=8}\n \n, but \n \n \n \n \n \n 8\n \n 3\n \n \n \n =\n 2.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{8}}=2.}Plot of y = 3√x. The plot is symmetric with respect to origin, as it is an odd function. At x = 0 this graph has a vertical tangent.A unit cube (side = 1) and a cube with twice the volume (side = 3√2 = 1.2599... OEIS: A002580).","title":"Cube root"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The cube roots of a number x are the numbers y which satisfy the equationy\n \n 3\n \n \n =\n x\n .\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y^{3}=x.\\ }","title":"Formal definition"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cube function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(algebra)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3rd_roots_of_unity.svg"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"complex conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1"}],"sub_title":"Real numbers","text":"For any real number x, there is one real number y such that y3 = x. The cube function is increasing, so does not give the same result for two different inputs, and it covers all real numbers. In other words, it is a bijection, or one-to-one. Then we can define an inverse function that is also one-to-one. For real numbers, we can define a unique cube root of all real numbers. If this definition is used, the cube root of a negative number is a negative number.The three cube roots of 1If x and y are allowed to be complex, then there are three solutions (if x is non-zero) and so x has three cube roots. A real number has one real cube root and two further cube roots which form a complex conjugate pair. For instance, the cube roots of 1 are:1\n ,\n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 3\n \n 2\n \n \n i\n ,\n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n 3\n \n 2\n \n \n i\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1,\\quad -{\\frac {1}{2}}+{\\frac {\\sqrt {3}}{2}}i,\\quad -{\\frac {1}{2}}-{\\frac {\\sqrt {3}}{2}}i.}The last two of these roots lead to a relationship between all roots of any real or complex number. If a number is one cube root of a particular real or complex number, the other two cube roots can be found by multiplying that cube root by one or the other of the two complex cube roots of 1.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Complex_cube_root.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riemann_surface_cube_root.svg"},{"link_name":"Riemann surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_surface"},{"link_name":"real part","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_part"},{"link_name":"argument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_(complex_analysis)"},{"link_name":"absolute value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value"},{"link_name":"natural logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm"},{"link_name":"polar coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_coordinates"},{"link_name":"multivalued function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivalued_function"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Visualisation_complex_number_roots.svg"},{"link_name":"monodromy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monodromy"},{"link_name":"continuity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_function"}],"sub_title":"Complex numbers","text":"Plot of the complex cube root together with its two additional leaves. The first image shows the main branch, which is described in the text.Riemann surface of the cube root. One can see how all three leaves fit together.For complex numbers, the principal cube root is usually defined as the cube root that has the greatest real part, or, equivalently, the cube root whose argument has the least absolute value. It is related to the principal value of the natural logarithm by the formulax\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n \n =\n exp\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n ln\n \n \n x\n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{\\frac {1}{3}}=\\exp \\left({\\frac {1}{3}}\\ln {x}\\right).}If we write x asx\n =\n r\n exp\n \n (\n i\n θ\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=r\\exp(i\\theta )\\,}where r is a non-negative real number and θ lies in the range−\n π\n <\n θ\n ≤\n π\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -\\pi <\\theta \\leq \\pi }\n \n,then the principal complex cube root isx\n \n 3\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n exp\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n i\n θ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{x}}={\\sqrt[{3}]{r}}\\exp \\left({\\frac {i\\theta }{3}}\\right).}This means that in polar coordinates, we are taking the cube root of the radius and dividing the polar angle by three in order to define a cube root. With this definition, the principal cube root of a negative number is a complex number, and for instance 3√−8 will not be −2, but rather 1 + i√3.This difficulty can also be solved by considering the cube root as a multivalued function: if we write the original complex number x in three equivalent forms, namelyx\n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n r\n exp\n \n (\n i\n θ\n )\n ,\n \n \n \n \n r\n exp\n \n (\n i\n θ\n +\n 2\n i\n π\n )\n ,\n \n \n \n \n r\n exp\n \n (\n i\n θ\n −\n 2\n i\n π\n )\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x={\\begin{cases}r\\exp(i\\theta ),\\\\[3px]r\\exp(i\\theta +2i\\pi ),\\\\[3px]r\\exp(i\\theta -2i\\pi ).\\end{cases}}}Geometric representation of the 2nd to 6th roots of a complex number z, in polar form reiφ where r = |z | and φ = arg z. If z is real, φ = 0 or π. Principal roots are shown in black.The principal complex cube roots of these three forms are then respectivelyx\n \n 3\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n exp\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n i\n θ\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n exp\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n i\n θ\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 2\n i\n π\n \n 3\n \n \n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n 3\n \n \n \n exp\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n i\n θ\n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n 2\n i\n π\n \n 3\n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{x}}={\\begin{cases}{\\sqrt[{3}]{r}}\\exp \\left({\\frac {i\\theta }{3}}\\right),\\\\{\\sqrt[{3}]{r}}\\exp \\left({\\frac {i\\theta }{3}}+{\\frac {2i\\pi }{3}}\\right),\\\\{\\sqrt[{3}]{r}}\\exp \\left({\\frac {i\\theta }{3}}-{\\frac {2i\\pi }{3}}\\right).\\end{cases}}}Unless x = 0, these three complex numbers are distinct, even though the three representations of x were equivalent. For example, 3√−8 may then be calculated to be −2, 1 + i√3, or 1 − i√3.This is related with the concept of monodromy: if one follows by continuity the function cube root along a closed path around zero, after a turn the value of the cube root is multiplied (or divided) by \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n 2\n i\n π\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{2i\\pi /3}.}","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angle trisection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_trisection"},{"link_name":"doubling the cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubling_the_cube"},{"link_name":"Pierre Wantzel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Wantzel"},{"link_name":"compass-and-straightedge construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass-and-straightedge_construction"}],"text":"Cube roots arise in the problem of finding an angle whose measure is one third that of a given angle (angle trisection) and in the problem of finding the edge of a cube whose volume is twice that of a cube with a given edge (doubling the cube). In 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved that neither of these can be done with a compass-and-straightedge construction.","title":"Impossibility of compass-and-straightedge construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newton's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method"},{"link_name":"iterative method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_method"},{"link_name":"floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point"},{"link_name":"Halley's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_method"},{"link_name":"converges cubically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_convergence"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-metamerist-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-metamerist-1"},{"link_name":"generalized continued fraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_continued_fraction#Roots_of_positive_numbers"},{"link_name":"nth root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root#Computing_principal_roots"}],"text":"Newton's method is an iterative method that can be used to calculate the cube root. For real floating-point numbers this method reduces to the following iterative algorithm to produce successively better approximations of the cube root of a:x\n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n +\n 2\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{n+1}={\\frac {1}{3}}\\left({\\frac {a}{x_{n}^{2}}}+2x_{n}\\right).}The method is simply averaging three factors chosen such thatx\n \n n\n \n \n ×\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n ×\n \n \n a\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{n}\\times x_{n}\\times {\\frac {a}{x_{n}^{2}}}=a}at each iteration.Halley's method improves upon this with an algorithm that converges more quickly with each iteration, albeit with more work per iteration:x\n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n 3\n \n \n +\n 2\n a\n \n \n 2\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n 3\n \n \n +\n a\n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{n+1}=x_{n}\\left({\\frac {x_{n}^{3}+2a}{2x_{n}^{3}+a}}\\right).}This converges cubically, so two iterations do as much work as three iterations of Newton's method. Each iteration of Newton's method costs two multiplications, one addition and one division, assuming that 1/3a is precomputed, so three iterations plus the precomputation require seven multiplications, three additions, and three divisions.Each iteration of Halley's method requires three multiplications, three additions, and one division,[1] so two iterations cost six multiplications, six additions, and two divisions. Thus, Halley's method has the potential to be faster if one division is more expensive than three additions.With either method a poor initial approximation of x0 can give very poor algorithm performance, and coming up with a good initial approximation is somewhat of a black art. Some implementations manipulate the exponent bits of the floating-point number; i.e. they arrive at an initial approximation by dividing the exponent by 3.[1]Also useful is this generalized continued fraction, based on the nth root method:If x is a good first approximation to the cube root of a and y = a − x3, then:a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n y\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n =\n x\n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 4\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 9\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 5\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 7\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 15\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 8\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n ⋱\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}={\\sqrt[{3}]{x^{3}+y}}=x+{\\cfrac {y}{3x^{2}+{\\cfrac {2y}{2x+{\\cfrac {4y}{9x^{2}+{\\cfrac {5y}{2x+{\\cfrac {7y}{15x^{2}+{\\cfrac {8y}{2x+\\ddots }}}}}}}}}}}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n =\n x\n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n ⋅\n y\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n (\n 2\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n y\n )\n −\n y\n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n ⋅\n 4\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 9\n (\n 2\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n y\n )\n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 5\n ⋅\n 7\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 15\n (\n 2\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n y\n )\n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 8\n ⋅\n 10\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 21\n (\n 2\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n y\n )\n −\n ⋱\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle =x+{\\cfrac {2x\\cdot y}{3(2x^{3}+y)-y-{\\cfrac {2\\cdot 4y^{2}}{9(2x^{3}+y)-{\\cfrac {5\\cdot 7y^{2}}{15(2x^{3}+y)-{\\cfrac {8\\cdot 10y^{2}}{21(2x^{3}+y)-\\ddots }}}}}}}}.}The second equation combines each pair of fractions from the first into a single fraction, thus doubling the speed of convergence.","title":"Numerical methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cubic equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equation"},{"link_name":"polynomial equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_equation"},{"link_name":"rational number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"complex cube root of a complex number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casus_irreducibilis"},{"link_name":"Quartic equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_equation"}],"text":"Cubic equations, which are polynomial equations of the third degree (meaning the highest power of the unknown is 3) can always be solved for their three solutions in terms of cube roots and square roots (although simpler expressions only in terms of square roots exist for all three solutions, if at least one of them is a rational number). If two of the solutions are complex numbers, then all three solution expressions involve the real cube root of a real number, while if all three solutions are real numbers then they may be expressed in terms of the complex cube root of a complex number.Quartic equations can also be solved in terms of cube roots and square roots.","title":"Appearance in solutions of third and fourth degree equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Babylonian mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbgr-2"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"doubling the cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubling_the_cube#History"},{"link_name":"compass-and-straightedge construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass-and-straightedge_construction"},{"link_name":"cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art"},{"link_name":"Chinese mathematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Liu Hui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Hui"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxf-3"},{"link_name":"Greek mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Hero of Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Aryabhata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"astronomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer"},{"link_name":"Indian mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Indian astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Aryabhatiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhatiya"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The calculation of cube roots can be traced back to Babylonian mathematicians from as early as 1800 BCE.[2] In the fourth century BCE Plato posed the problem of doubling the cube, which required a compass-and-straightedge construction of the edge of a cube with twice the volume of a given cube; this required the construction, now known to be impossible, of the length 3√2.A method for extracting cube roots appears in The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, a Chinese mathematical text compiled around the second century BCE and commented on by Liu Hui in the third century CE.[3] The Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria devised a method for calculating cube roots in the first century CE. His formula is again mentioned by Eutokios in a commentary on Archimedes.[4] In 499 CE Aryabhata, a mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, gave a method for finding the cube root of numbers having many digits in the Aryabhatiya (section 2.5).[5]","title":"History"}] | [{"image_text":"Plot of y = 3√x. The plot is symmetric with respect to origin, as it is an odd function. At x = 0 this graph has a vertical tangent.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Cube-root_function.svg/288px-Cube-root_function.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A unit cube (side = 1) and a cube with twice the volume (side = 3√2 = 1.2599... OEIS: A002580).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Cube_and_doubled_cube.svg/220px-Cube_and_doubled_cube.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The three cube roots of 1","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/3rd_roots_of_unity.svg/220px-3rd_roots_of_unity.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Plot of the complex cube root together with its two additional leaves. The first image shows the main branch, which is described in the text.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Complex_cube_root.jpg/350px-Complex_cube_root.jpg"},{"image_text":"Riemann surface of the cube root. One can see how all three leaves fit together.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Riemann_surface_cube_root.svg/200px-Riemann_surface_cube_root.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Geometric representation of the 2nd to 6th roots of a complex number z, in polar form reiφ where r = |z | and φ = arg z. If z is real, φ = 0 or π. Principal roots are shown in black.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Visualisation_complex_number_roots.svg/250px-Visualisation_complex_number_roots.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Methods of computing square roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_of_computing_square_roots"},{"title":"List of polynomial topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polynomial_topics"},{"title":"Nth root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root"},{"title":"Square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root"},{"title":"Nested radical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nested_radical"},{"title":"Root of unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_of_unity"},{"title":"Shifting nth-root algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shifting_nth-root_algorithm"}] | [{"reference":"\"In Search of a Fast Cube Root\". metamerist.com. 2008. Archived from the original on 27 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131227144655/http://metamerist.com/cbrt/cbrt.htm","url_text":"\"In Search of a Fast Cube Root\""},{"url":"http://metamerist.com/cbrt/cbrt.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Saggs, H. W. F. (1989). Civilization Before Greece and Rome. Yale University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-300-05031-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300050318","url_text":"Civilization Before Greece and Rome"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300050318/page/227","url_text":"227"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05031-8","url_text":"978-0-300-05031-8"}]},{"reference":"Crossley, John; W.-C. Lun, Anthony (1999). The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and Commentary. Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-19-853936-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eiTJHRGTG6YC&pg=PA213","url_text":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and Commentary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853936-0","url_text":"978-0-19-853936-0"}]},{"reference":"Smyly, J. Gilbart (1920). \"Heron's Formula for Cube Root\". Hermathena. 19 (42). Trinity College Dublin: 64–67. JSTOR 23037103.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23037103","url_text":"23037103"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Cube Root\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubeRoot.html","url_text":"\"Cube Root\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131227144655/http://metamerist.com/cbrt/cbrt.htm","external_links_name":"\"In Search of a Fast Cube Root\""},{"Link":"http://metamerist.com/cbrt/cbrt.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300050318","external_links_name":"Civilization Before Greece and Rome"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300050318/page/227","external_links_name":"227"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eiTJHRGTG6YC&pg=PA213","external_links_name":"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art: Companion and Commentary"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/23037103","external_links_name":"23037103"},{"Link":"http://www.flipkart.com/aryabhatiya-mohan-apte-book-8174344802","external_links_name":"Aryabhatiya"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20110815204559/http://www.flipkart.com/aryabhatiya-mohan-apte-book-8174344802","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.mathwarehouse.com/arithmetic/cube-root-calculator.php","external_links_name":"Cube root calculator reduces any number to simplest radical form"},{"Link":"http://people.freebsd.org/~lstewart/references/apple_tr_kt32_cuberoot.pdf","external_links_name":"Computing the Cube Root, Ken Turkowski, Apple Technical Report #KT-32, 1998"},{"Link":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CubeRoot.html","external_links_name":"\"Cube Root\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_signal | Clock signal | ["1 Digital circuits","1.1 Single-phase clock","1.2 Two-phase clock","1.3 4-phase clock","1.4 Clock multiplier","1.5 Dynamic frequency change","2 Other circuits","3 Distribution","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading"] | Timing of electronic circuits
Clock signal and legend
In electronics and especially synchronous digital circuits, a clock signal (historically also known as logic beat) is an electronic logic signal (voltage or current) which oscillates between a high and a low state at a constant frequency and is used like a metronome to synchronize actions of digital circuits. In a synchronous logic circuit, the most common type of digital circuit, the clock signal is applied to all storage devices, flip-flops and latches, and causes them all to change state simultaneously, preventing race conditions.
A clock signal is produced by an electronic oscillator called a clock generator. The most common clock signal is in the form of a square wave with a 50% duty cycle. Circuits using the clock signal for synchronization may become active at either the rising edge, falling edge, or, in the case of double data rate, both in the rising and in the falling edges of the clock cycle.
Digital circuits
Most integrated circuits (ICs) of sufficient complexity use a clock signal in order to synchronize different parts of the circuit, cycling at a rate slower than the worst-case internal propagation delays. In some cases, more than one clock cycle is required to perform a predictable action. As ICs become more complex, the problem of supplying accurate and synchronized clocks to all the circuits becomes increasingly difficult. The preeminent example of such complex chips is the microprocessor, the central component of modern computers, which relies on a clock from a crystal oscillator. The only exceptions are asynchronous circuits such as asynchronous CPUs.
A clock signal might also be gated, that is, combined with a controlling signal that enables or disables the clock signal for a certain part of a circuit. This technique is often used to save power by effectively shutting down portions of a digital circuit when they are not in use, but comes at a cost of increased complexity in timing analysis.
Single-phase clock
Most modern synchronous circuits use only a "single phase clock" – in other words, all clock signals are (effectively) transmitted on 1 wire.
Two-phase clock
In synchronous circuits, a "two-phase clock" refers to clock signals distributed on 2 wires, each with non-overlapping pulses. Traditionally one wire is called "phase 1" or "φ1" (phi1), the other wire carries the "phase 2" or "φ2" signal. Because the two phases are guaranteed non-overlapping, gated latches rather than edge-triggered flip-flops can be used to store state information so long as the inputs to latches on one phase only depend on outputs from latches on the other phase. Since a gated latch uses only four gates versus six gates for an edge-triggered flip-flop, a two phase clock can lead to a design with a smaller overall gate count but usually at some penalty in design difficulty and performance.
Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) ICs typically used dual clock signals (a two-phase clock) in the 1970s. These were generated externally for both the Motorola 6800 and Intel 8080 microprocessors. The next generation of microprocessors incorporated the clock generation on chip. The 8080 uses a 2 MHz clock but the processing throughput is similar to the 1 MHz 6800. The 8080 requires more clock cycles to execute a processor instruction. The 6800 has a minimum clock rate of 100 kHz and the 8080 has a minimum clock rate of 500 kHz. Higher speed versions of both microprocessors were released by 1976.
The 6501 requires an external 2-phase clock generator.
The MOS Technology 6502 uses the same 2-phase logic internally, but also includes a two-phase clock generator on-chip, so it only needs a single phase clock input, simplifying system design.
4-phase clock
See also: Four-phase logic
Some early integrated circuits use four-phase logic, requiring a four phase clock input consisting of four separate, non-overlapping clock signals.
This was particularly common among early microprocessors such as the National Semiconductor IMP-16, Texas Instruments TMS9900, and the Western Digital MCP-1600 chipset used in the DEC LSI-11.
Four phase clocks have only rarely been used in newer CMOS processors such as the DEC WRL MultiTitan microprocessor. and in Intrinsity's Fast14 technology. Most modern microprocessors and microcontrollers use a single-phase clock.
Clock multiplier
Main article: Clock multiplier
Many modern microcomputers use a "clock multiplier" which multiplies a lower frequency external clock to the appropriate clock rate of the microprocessor. This allows the CPU to operate at a much higher frequency than the rest of the computer, which affords performance gains in situations where the CPU does not need to wait on an external factor (like memory or input/output).
Dynamic frequency change
The vast majority of digital devices do not require a clock at a fixed, constant frequency.
As long as the minimum and maximum clock periods are respected, the time between clock edges can vary widely from one edge to the next and back again.
Such digital devices work just as well with a clock generator that dynamically changes its frequency, such as spread-spectrum clock generation, dynamic frequency scaling, etc.
Devices that use static logic do not even have a maximum clock period (or in other words, minimum clock frequency); such devices can be slowed and paused indefinitely, then resumed at full clock speed at any later time.
Other circuits
Some sensitive mixed-signal circuits, such as precision analog-to-digital converters, use sine waves rather than square waves as their clock signals, because square waves contain high-frequency harmonics that can interfere with the analog circuitry and cause noise. Such sine wave clocks are often differential signals, because this type of signal has twice the slew rate, and therefore half the timing uncertainty, of a single-ended signal with the same voltage range. Differential signals radiate less strongly than a single line. Alternatively, a single line shielded by power and ground lines can be used.
In CMOS circuits, gate capacitances are charged and discharged continually. A capacitor does not dissipate energy, but energy is wasted in the driving transistors. In reversible computing, inductors can be used to store this energy and reduce the energy loss, but they tend to be quite large. Alternatively, using a sine wave clock, CMOS transmission gates and energy-saving techniques, the power requirements can be reduced.
Distribution
The most effective way to get the clock signal to every part of a chip that needs it, with the lowest skew, is a metal grid. In a large microprocessor, the power used to drive the clock signal can be over 30% of the total power used by the entire chip. The whole structure with the gates at the ends and all amplifiers in between have to be loaded and unloaded every cycle. To save energy, clock gating temporarily shuts off part of the tree.
The clock distribution network (or clock tree, when this network forms a tree such as an H-tree) distributes the clock signal(s) from a common point to all the elements that need it. Since this function is vital to the operation of a synchronous system, much attention has been given to the characteristics of these clock signals and the electrical networks used in their distribution. Clock signals are often regarded as simple control signals; however, these signals have some very special characteristics and attributes.
Clock signals are typically loaded with the greatest fanout and operate at the highest speeds of any signal within the synchronous system. Since the data signals are provided with a temporal reference by the clock signals, the clock waveforms must be particularly clean and sharp. Furthermore, these clock signals are particularly affected by technology scaling (see Moore's law), in that long global interconnect lines become significantly more resistive as line dimensions are decreased. This increased line resistance is one of the primary reasons for the increasing significance of clock distribution on synchronous performance. Finally, the control of any differences and uncertainty in the arrival times of
the clock signals can severely limit the maximum performance of the entire system and create catastrophic race conditions in which an incorrect data signal may latch within a register.
Most synchronous digital systems consist of cascaded banks of sequential registers with combinational logic between each set of registers. The functional requirements of the digital system are satisfied by the logic stages. Each logic stage introduces delay that affects timing performance, and the timing performance of the digital design can be evaluated relative to the timing requirements by a timing analysis. Often special consideration must be made to meet the timing requirements. For example, the global performance and local timing requirements may be satisfied by the careful insertion of pipeline registers into equally spaced time windows to satisfy critical worst-case timing constraints. The proper design of the clock distribution network helps ensure that critical timing requirements are satisfied and that no race conditions exist (see also clock skew).
The delay components that make up a general synchronous system are composed of the following three individual subsystems: the memory storage elements, the logic elements, and the clocking circuitry and distribution network.
Novel structures are currently under development to ameliorate these issues and provide effective solutions. Important areas of research include resonant clocking techniques ("resonant clock mesh"),
on-chip optical interconnect, and local synchronization methodologies.
See also
Bit-synchronous operation
Clock domain crossing
Clock rate
Design flow (EDA)
Electronic design automation
Four-phase logic
Integrated circuit design
Interface Logic Model
Jitter
Pulse-per-second signal
Self-clocking signal
References
^ FM1600B Microcircuit Computer Ferranti Digital Systems (PDF). Bracknell, Berkshire, UK: Ferranti Limited, Digital Systems Department. October 1968 . List DSD 68/6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2020-05-19.
^ Two-phase clock Archived November 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
^ Two-phase non-overlapping clock generator, Tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de, archived from the original on 2011-12-26, retrieved 2012-01-08
^ Concepts in Digital Imaging - Two Phase CCD Clocking, Micro.magnet.fsu.edu, retrieved 2012-01-08
^ Cell cgf104: Two phase non-overlapping clock generator, Hpc.msstate.edu, archived from the original on 2012-02-08, retrieved 2012-01-08
^ "How to drive a microprocessor". Electronics. 49 (8). New York: McGraw-Hill: 159. April 15, 1976. Motorola's Component Products Department sold hybrid ICs that included a quartz oscillator. These IC produced the two-phase non-overlapping waveforms the 6800 and 8080 required. Later Intel produced the 8224 clock generator and Motorola produced the MC6875. The Intel 8085 and the Motorola 6802 include this circuitry on the microprocessor chip.
^ "Intel's Higher Speed 8080 μP" (PDF). Microcomputer Digest. 2 (3). Cupertino CA: Microcomputer Associates: 7. September 1975. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-23. Retrieved 2011-01-24.
^ Concepts in digital imaging - Four Phase CCD Clocking, Micro.magnet.fsu.edu, retrieved 2012-01-08
^
Jouppi, N.P.; Tang, J.F. (1989). "A 20-MIPS sustained 32-bit CMOS microprocessor with high ratio of sustained to peak performance". IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 24 (5): 1348–59. Bibcode:1989IJSSC..24.1348J. doi:10.1109/JSSC.1989.572612.
^ Anand Lal Shimpi (2008), Intel's Atom Architecture: The Journey Begins
^ Paul V. Bolotoff (2007), Alpha: The history in facts and comments, archived from the original on 2012-02-18, retrieved 2012-01-03, power consumed by the clock subsystem of EV6 was about 32% of the total core power. To compare, it was about 25% for EV56, about 37% for EV5 and about 40% for EV4.
^
Chan, S. C.; Shepard, K. L.; Restle, P. J. (2005). "Uniform-phase uniform-amplitude resonant-load global clock distributions". IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 40 (1): 102. Bibcode:2005IJSSC..40..102C. doi:10.1109/JSSC.2004.838005. S2CID 16239014.
^
David Shan et. al.
"Resonant clock mega-mesh for the IBM z13".
2015.
^
Wulong Liu; Guoqing Chen; Yu Wang; Huazhong Yang.
"Modeling and optimization of low power resonant clock mesh".
2015.
^
"Clock tree synthesis".
Further reading
Eby G. Friedman (Ed.), Clock Distribution Networks in VLSI Circuits and Systems, ISBN 0-7803-1058-6, IEEE Press. 1995.
Eby G. Friedman, "Clock Distribution Networks in Synchronous Digital Integrated Circuits", Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 665–692, May 2001.
"ISPD 2010 High Performance Clock Network Synthesis Contest", International Symposium on Physical Design, Intel, IBM, 2010.
D.-J. Lee, "High-performance and Low-power Clock Network Synthesis in the Presence of Variation", Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 2011.
I. L. Markov, D.-J. Lee, "Algorithmic Tuning of Clock Trees and Derived Non-Tree Structures", in Proc. Int'l. Conf. Comp.-Aided Design (ICCAD), 2011.
V. G. Oklobdzija, V. M. Stojanovic, D. M. Markovic, and N. M. Nedovic, Digital System Clocking: High-Performance and Low-Power Aspects, ISBN 0-471-27447-X, IEEE Press/Wiley-Interscience, 2003.
Mitch Dale, "The power of RTL Clock-gating", Electronic Systems Design Engineering Incorporating Chip Design, January 20, 2007.
Adapted from Eby Friedman Archived 2014-08-12 at the Wayback Machine's column in the ACM SIGDA e-newsletter by Igor Markov
Original text is available at https://web.archive.org/web/20100711135550/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2005/eNews_051201.html | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clock_signal.png"},{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"digital circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_circuit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ferranti_1968-1"},{"link_name":"logic signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_signal"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"metronome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metronome"},{"link_name":"circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit"},{"link_name":"synchronous logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_logic"},{"link_name":"flip-flops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"race conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_condition"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)"},{"link_name":"electronic oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillator"},{"link_name":"clock generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_generator"},{"link_name":"square wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_wave"},{"link_name":"duty cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty_cycle"},{"link_name":"double data rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_data_rate"}],"text":"Clock signal and legendIn electronics and especially synchronous digital circuits, a clock signal (historically also known as logic beat)[1] is an electronic logic signal (voltage or current) which oscillates between a high and a low state at a constant frequency and is used like a metronome to synchronize actions of digital circuits. In a synchronous logic circuit, the most common type of digital circuit, the clock signal is applied to all storage devices, flip-flops and latches, and causes them all to change state simultaneously, preventing race conditions.A clock signal is produced by an electronic oscillator called a clock generator. The most common clock signal is in the form of a square wave with a 50% duty cycle. Circuits using the clock signal for synchronization may become active at either the rising edge, falling edge, or, in the case of double data rate, both in the rising and in the falling edges of the clock cycle.","title":"Clock signal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"propagation delays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_delay"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"crystal oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator"},{"link_name":"asynchronous circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_circuit"},{"link_name":"asynchronous CPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Processor"}],"text":"Most integrated circuits (ICs) of sufficient complexity use a clock signal in order to synchronize different parts of the circuit, cycling at a rate slower than the worst-case internal propagation delays. In some cases, more than one clock cycle is required to perform a predictable action. As ICs become more complex, the problem of supplying accurate and synchronized clocks to all the circuits becomes increasingly difficult. The preeminent example of such complex chips is the microprocessor, the central component of modern computers, which relies on a clock from a crystal oscillator. The only exceptions are asynchronous circuits such as asynchronous CPUs.A clock signal might also be gated, that is, combined with a controlling signal that enables or disables the clock signal for a certain part of a circuit. This technique is often used to save power by effectively shutting down portions of a digital circuit when they are not in use, but comes at a cost of increased complexity in timing analysis.","title":"Digital circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"synchronous circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_circuit"}],"sub_title":"Single-phase clock","text":"Most modern synchronous circuits use only a \"single phase clock\" – in other words, all clock signals are (effectively) transmitted on 1 wire.","title":"Digital circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"synchronous circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_circuit"},{"link_name":"phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Two-phase-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"gated latches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gated_latch"},{"link_name":"edge-triggered flip-flops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge-triggered_flip-flop"},{"link_name":"state information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(computer_science)#Digital_logic_circuit_state"},{"link_name":"Metal oxide semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_oxide_semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Motorola 6800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800"},{"link_name":"Intel 8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MC6870-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MD_Sep_1975_8080A-7"},{"link_name":"6501","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6501"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology 6502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502"}],"sub_title":"Two-phase clock","text":"In synchronous circuits, a \"two-phase clock\" refers to clock signals distributed on 2 wires, each with non-overlapping pulses. Traditionally one wire is called \"phase 1\" or \"φ1\" (phi1), the other wire carries the \"phase 2\" or \"φ2\" signal.[2][3][4][5] Because the two phases are guaranteed non-overlapping, gated latches rather than edge-triggered flip-flops can be used to store state information so long as the inputs to latches on one phase only depend on outputs from latches on the other phase. Since a gated latch uses only four gates versus six gates for an edge-triggered flip-flop, a two phase clock can lead to a design with a smaller overall gate count but usually at some penalty in design difficulty and performance.Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) ICs typically used dual clock signals (a two-phase clock) in the 1970s. These were generated externally for both the Motorola 6800 and Intel 8080 microprocessors.[6] The next generation of microprocessors incorporated the clock generation on chip. The 8080 uses a 2 MHz clock but the processing throughput is similar to the 1 MHz 6800. The 8080 requires more clock cycles to execute a processor instruction. The 6800 has a minimum clock rate of 100 kHz and the 8080 has a minimum clock rate of 500 kHz. Higher speed versions of both microprocessors were released by 1976.[7]The 6501 requires an external 2-phase clock generator.\nThe MOS Technology 6502 uses the same 2-phase logic internally, but also includes a two-phase clock generator on-chip, so it only needs a single phase clock input, simplifying system design.","title":"Digital circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Four-phase logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-phase_logic"},{"link_name":"four-phase logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-phase_logic"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"National Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"IMP-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMP-16"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments TMS9900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments_TMS9900"},{"link_name":"Western Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Digital"},{"link_name":"MCP-1600","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCP-1600"},{"link_name":"DEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"LSI-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11#LSI-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Intrinsity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsity"},{"link_name":"microcontrollers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"}],"sub_title":"4-phase clock","text":"See also: Four-phase logicSome early integrated circuits use four-phase logic, requiring a four phase clock input consisting of four separate, non-overlapping clock signals.[8]\nThis was particularly common among early microprocessors such as the National Semiconductor IMP-16, Texas Instruments TMS9900, and the Western Digital MCP-1600 chipset used in the DEC LSI-11.Four phase clocks have only rarely been used in newer CMOS processors such as the DEC WRL MultiTitan microprocessor.[9] and in Intrinsity's Fast14 technology. Most modern microprocessors and microcontrollers use a single-phase clock.","title":"Digital circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"microcomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer"},{"link_name":"clock multiplier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_multiplier"},{"link_name":"clock rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_rate"},{"link_name":"input/output","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output"}],"sub_title":"Clock multiplier","text":"Many modern microcomputers use a \"clock multiplier\" which multiplies a lower frequency external clock to the appropriate clock rate of the microprocessor. This allows the CPU to operate at a much higher frequency than the rest of the computer, which affords performance gains in situations where the CPU does not need to wait on an external factor (like memory or input/output).","title":"Digital circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spread-spectrum clock generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum_clock"},{"link_name":"dynamic frequency scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_frequency_scaling"},{"link_name":"static logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_logic_(digital_logic)"}],"sub_title":"Dynamic frequency change","text":"The vast majority of digital devices do not require a clock at a fixed, constant frequency.\nAs long as the minimum and maximum clock periods are respected, the time between clock edges can vary widely from one edge to the next and back again.\nSuch digital devices work just as well with a clock generator that dynamically changes its frequency, such as spread-spectrum clock generation, dynamic frequency scaling, etc.\nDevices that use static logic do not even have a maximum clock period (or in other words, minimum clock frequency); such devices can be slowed and paused indefinitely, then resumed at full clock speed at any later time.","title":"Digital circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mixed-signal circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"analog-to-digital converters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter"},{"link_name":"sine waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave"},{"link_name":"harmonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic"},{"link_name":"noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_noise"},{"link_name":"differential signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"slew rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slew_rate"},{"link_name":"single-ended signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-ended_signalling"},{"link_name":"reversible computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversible_computing"},{"link_name":"inductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor"},{"link_name":"transmission gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_gate"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Some sensitive mixed-signal circuits, such as precision analog-to-digital converters, use sine waves rather than square waves as their clock signals, because square waves contain high-frequency harmonics that can interfere with the analog circuitry and cause noise. Such sine wave clocks are often differential signals, because this type of signal has twice the slew rate, and therefore half the timing uncertainty, of a single-ended signal with the same voltage range. Differential signals radiate less strongly than a single line. Alternatively, a single line shielded by power and ground lines can be used.In CMOS circuits, gate capacitances are charged and discharged continually. A capacitor does not dissipate energy, but energy is wasted in the driving transistors. In reversible computing, inductors can be used to store this energy and reduce the energy loss, but they tend to be quite large. Alternatively, using a sine wave clock, CMOS transmission gates and energy-saving techniques, the power requirements can be reduced.[citation needed]","title":"Other circuits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"skew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_skew"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"clock gating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_gating"},{"link_name":"H-tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-tree"},{"link_name":"electrical networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_network"},{"link_name":"fanout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanout"},{"link_name":"waveforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveform"},{"link_name":"Moore's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_law"},{"link_name":"global interconnect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_interconnect"},{"link_name":"race conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_hazard"},{"link_name":"digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"},{"link_name":"registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"combinational logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinational_logic"},{"link_name":"functional requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_requirements"},{"link_name":"pipeline registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_(computing)"},{"link_name":"timing constraints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Timing_constraints&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"clock skew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_skew"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"local synchronization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_asynchronous_locally_synchronous"}],"text":"The most effective way to get the clock signal to every part of a chip that needs it, with the lowest skew, is a metal grid. In a large microprocessor, the power used to drive the clock signal can be over 30% of the total power used by the entire chip. The whole structure with the gates at the ends and all amplifiers in between have to be loaded and unloaded every cycle.[10][11] To save energy, clock gating temporarily shuts off part of the tree.The clock distribution network (or clock tree, when this network forms a tree such as an H-tree) distributes the clock signal(s) from a common point to all the elements that need it. Since this function is vital to the operation of a synchronous system, much attention has been given to the characteristics of these clock signals and the electrical networks used in their distribution. Clock signals are often regarded as simple control signals; however, these signals have some very special characteristics and attributes.Clock signals are typically loaded with the greatest fanout and operate at the highest speeds of any signal within the synchronous system. Since the data signals are provided with a temporal reference by the clock signals, the clock waveforms must be particularly clean and sharp. Furthermore, these clock signals are particularly affected by technology scaling (see Moore's law), in that long global interconnect lines become significantly more resistive as line dimensions are decreased. This increased line resistance is one of the primary reasons for the increasing significance of clock distribution on synchronous performance. Finally, the control of any differences and uncertainty in the arrival times of\nthe clock signals can severely limit the maximum performance of the entire system and create catastrophic race conditions in which an incorrect data signal may latch within a register.Most synchronous digital systems consist of cascaded banks of sequential registers with combinational logic between each set of registers. The functional requirements of the digital system are satisfied by the logic stages. Each logic stage introduces delay that affects timing performance, and the timing performance of the digital design can be evaluated relative to the timing requirements by a timing analysis. Often special consideration must be made to meet the timing requirements. For example, the global performance and local timing requirements may be satisfied by the careful insertion of pipeline registers into equally spaced time windows to satisfy critical worst-case timing constraints. The proper design of the clock distribution network helps ensure that critical timing requirements are satisfied and that no race conditions exist (see also clock skew).The delay components that make up a general synchronous system are composed of the following three individual subsystems: the memory storage elements, the logic elements, and the clocking circuitry and distribution network.Novel structures are currently under development to ameliorate these issues and provide effective solutions. Important areas of research include resonant clocking techniques (\"resonant clock mesh\"),[12][13][14][15]\non-chip optical interconnect, and local synchronization methodologies.","title":"Distribution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eby G. Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eby_Friedman"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7803-1058-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-1058-6"},{"link_name":"Eby G. Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eby_Friedman"},{"link_name":"\"Clock Distribution Networks in Synchronous Digital Integrated Circuits\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2F5.929649"},{"link_name":"\"ISPD 2010 High Performance Clock Network Synthesis Contest\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//archive.sigda.org/ispd/contests/10/ispd10cns.html"},{"link_name":"\"High-performance and Low-power Clock Network Synthesis in the Presence of Variation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.eecs.umich.edu/~imarkov/pubs/diss/DJdiss.pdf"},{"link_name":"I. L. Markov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_L._Markov"},{"link_name":"\"Algorithmic Tuning of Clock Trees and Derived Non-Tree Structures\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.eecs.umich.edu/~imarkov/pubs/conf/iccad11-tuto.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-27447-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-27447-X"},{"link_name":"\"The power of RTL Clock-gating\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131224102708/http://chipdesignmag.com/display.php?articleId=915"},{"link_name":"Eby Friedman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ece.rochester.edu/users/friedman/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140812225312/http://www.ece.rochester.edu/users/friedman/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"SIGDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sigda.org"},{"link_name":"e-newsletter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070208034716/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/index.html"},{"link_name":"Igor Markov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.eecs.umich.edu/~imarkov/"},{"link_name":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100711135550/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2005/eNews_051201.html","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100711135550/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2005/eNews_051201.html"}],"text":"Eby G. Friedman (Ed.), Clock Distribution Networks in VLSI Circuits and Systems, ISBN 0-7803-1058-6, IEEE Press. 1995.\nEby G. Friedman, \"Clock Distribution Networks in Synchronous Digital Integrated Circuits\", Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 665–692, May 2001.\n\"ISPD 2010 High Performance Clock Network Synthesis Contest\", International Symposium on Physical Design, Intel, IBM, 2010.\nD.-J. Lee, \"High-performance and Low-power Clock Network Synthesis in the Presence of Variation\", Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 2011.\nI. L. Markov, D.-J. Lee, \"Algorithmic Tuning of Clock Trees and Derived Non-Tree Structures\", in Proc. Int'l. Conf. Comp.-Aided Design (ICCAD), 2011.\nV. G. Oklobdzija, V. M. Stojanovic, D. M. Markovic, and N. M. Nedovic, Digital System Clocking: High-Performance and Low-Power Aspects, ISBN 0-471-27447-X, IEEE Press/Wiley-Interscience, 2003.\nMitch Dale, \"The power of RTL Clock-gating\", Electronic Systems Design Engineering Incorporating Chip Design, January 20, 2007.Adapted from Eby Friedman Archived 2014-08-12 at the Wayback Machine's column in the ACM SIGDA e-newsletter by Igor Markov\nOriginal text is available at https://web.archive.org/web/20100711135550/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2005/eNews_051201.html","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Clock signal and legend","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Clock_signal.png/220px-Clock_signal.png"}] | [{"title":"Bit-synchronous operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit-synchronous_operation"},{"title":"Clock domain crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_domain_crossing"},{"title":"Clock rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_rate"},{"title":"Design flow (EDA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_flow_(EDA)"},{"title":"Electronic design automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_design_automation"},{"title":"Four-phase logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-phase_logic"},{"title":"Integrated circuit design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit_design"},{"title":"Interface Logic Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Logic_Model"},{"title":"Jitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jitter"},{"title":"Pulse-per-second signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-per-second_signal"},{"title":"Self-clocking signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-clocking_signal"}] | [{"reference":"FM1600B Microcircuit Computer Ferranti Digital Systems (PDF). Bracknell, Berkshire, UK: Ferranti Limited, Digital Systems Department. October 1968 [September 1968]. List DSD 68/6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-05-19. Retrieved 2020-05-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sba.unipi.it/sites/default/files/2015_05_29_08_44_13.pdf","url_text":"FM1600B Microcircuit Computer Ferranti Digital Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Limited","url_text":"Ferranti Limited"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200519075443/https://www.sba.unipi.it/sites/default/files/2015_05_29_08_44_13.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Two-phase non-overlapping clock generator, Tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de, archived from the original on 2011-12-26, retrieved 2012-01-08","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111226073122/http://tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/applets/hades/webdemos/12-gatedelay/40-tpcg/two-phase-clock-gen.html","url_text":"Two-phase non-overlapping clock generator"},{"url":"http://tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/applets/hades/webdemos/12-gatedelay/40-tpcg/two-phase-clock-gen.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Concepts in Digital Imaging - Two Phase CCD Clocking, Micro.magnet.fsu.edu, retrieved 2012-01-08","urls":[{"url":"http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/digitalimaging/concepts/twophase.html","url_text":"Concepts in Digital Imaging - Two Phase CCD Clocking"}]},{"reference":"Cell cgf104: Two phase non-overlapping clock generator, Hpc.msstate.edu, archived from the original on 2012-02-08, retrieved 2012-01-08","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120208054348/http://www.hpc.msstate.edu/mpl/distributions/scmos/scmos_doc/cells/cgf104.html","url_text":"Cell cgf104: Two phase non-overlapping clock generator"},{"url":"http://www.hpc.msstate.edu/mpl/distributions/scmos/scmos_doc/cells/cgf104.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"How to drive a microprocessor\". Electronics. 49 (8). New York: McGraw-Hill: 159. April 15, 1976.","urls":[{"url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Motorola_MC6870_ad_April_1976.jpg","url_text":"\"How to drive a microprocessor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Intel's Higher Speed 8080 μP\" (PDF). Microcomputer Digest. 2 (3). Cupertino CA: Microcomputer Associates: 7. September 1975. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-01-23. Retrieved 2011-01-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190123102914/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/microcomputerAssociates/Microcomputer_Digest_v02n03_Sep75.pdf","url_text":"\"Intel's Higher Speed 8080 μP\""},{"url":"http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/microcomputerAssociates/Microcomputer_Digest_v02n03_Sep75.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Concepts in digital imaging - Four Phase CCD Clocking, Micro.magnet.fsu.edu, retrieved 2012-01-08","urls":[{"url":"http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/digitalimaging/concepts/fourphase.html","url_text":"Concepts in digital imaging - Four Phase CCD Clocking"}]},{"reference":"Jouppi, N.P.; Tang, J.F. (1989). \"A 20-MIPS sustained 32-bit CMOS microprocessor with high ratio of sustained to peak performance\". IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 24 (5): 1348–59. Bibcode:1989IJSSC..24.1348J. doi:10.1109/JSSC.1989.572612.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_P._Jouppi","url_text":"Jouppi, N.P."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989IJSSC..24.1348J","url_text":"1989IJSSC..24.1348J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJSSC.1989.572612","url_text":"10.1109/JSSC.1989.572612"}]},{"reference":"Anand Lal Shimpi (2008), Intel's Atom Architecture: The Journey Begins","urls":[{"url":"http://www.anandtech.com/showdoc.aspx?i=3276&p=14","url_text":"Intel's Atom Architecture: The Journey Begins"}]},{"reference":"Paul V. Bolotoff (2007), Alpha: The history in facts and comments, archived from the original on 2012-02-18, retrieved 2012-01-03, power consumed by the clock subsystem of EV6 was about 32% of the total core power. To compare, it was about 25% for EV56, about 37% for EV5 and about 40% for EV4.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120218005309/http://alasir.com/articles/alpha_history/alpha_21264.html","url_text":"Alpha: The history in facts and comments"},{"url":"http://alasir.com/articles/alpha_history/alpha_21264.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chan, S. C.; Shepard, K. L.; Restle, P. J. (2005). \"Uniform-phase uniform-amplitude resonant-load global clock distributions\". IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 40 (1): 102. Bibcode:2005IJSSC..40..102C. doi:10.1109/JSSC.2004.838005. S2CID 16239014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005IJSSC..40..102C","url_text":"2005IJSSC..40..102C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJSSC.2004.838005","url_text":"10.1109/JSSC.2004.838005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16239014","url_text":"16239014"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.sba.unipi.it/sites/default/files/2015_05_29_08_44_13.pdf","external_links_name":"FM1600B Microcircuit Computer Ferranti Digital Systems"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200519075443/https://www.sba.unipi.it/sites/default/files/2015_05_29_08_44_13.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.princeton.edu/~wolf/modern-vlsi/Overheads/CHAP5-2/sld010.htm","external_links_name":"Two-phase clock"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071109090150/http://www.princeton.edu/~wolf/modern-vlsi/Overheads/CHAP5-2/sld010.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111226073122/http://tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/applets/hades/webdemos/12-gatedelay/40-tpcg/two-phase-clock-gen.html","external_links_name":"Two-phase non-overlapping clock generator"},{"Link":"http://tams-www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/applets/hades/webdemos/12-gatedelay/40-tpcg/two-phase-clock-gen.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/digitalimaging/concepts/twophase.html","external_links_name":"Concepts in Digital Imaging - Two Phase CCD Clocking"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120208054348/http://www.hpc.msstate.edu/mpl/distributions/scmos/scmos_doc/cells/cgf104.html","external_links_name":"Cell cgf104: Two phase non-overlapping clock generator"},{"Link":"http://www.hpc.msstate.edu/mpl/distributions/scmos/scmos_doc/cells/cgf104.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Motorola_MC6870_ad_April_1976.jpg","external_links_name":"\"How to drive a microprocessor\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190123102914/http://bitsavers.org/pdf/microcomputerAssociates/Microcomputer_Digest_v02n03_Sep75.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Intel's Higher Speed 8080 μP\""},{"Link":"http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/microcomputerAssociates/Microcomputer_Digest_v02n03_Sep75.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/digitalimaging/concepts/fourphase.html","external_links_name":"Concepts in digital imaging - Four Phase CCD Clocking"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989IJSSC..24.1348J","external_links_name":"1989IJSSC..24.1348J"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJSSC.1989.572612","external_links_name":"10.1109/JSSC.1989.572612"},{"Link":"http://www.anandtech.com/showdoc.aspx?i=3276&p=14","external_links_name":"Intel's Atom Architecture: The Journey Begins"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120218005309/http://alasir.com/articles/alpha_history/alpha_21264.html","external_links_name":"Alpha: The history in facts and comments"},{"Link":"http://alasir.com/articles/alpha_history/alpha_21264.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005IJSSC..40..102C","external_links_name":"2005IJSSC..40..102C"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJSSC.2004.838005","external_links_name":"10.1109/JSSC.2004.838005"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16239014","external_links_name":"16239014"},{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7231308","external_links_name":"\"Resonant clock mega-mesh for the IBM z13\""},{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7059052","external_links_name":"\"Modeling and optimization of low power resonant clock mesh\""},{"Link":"https://www.techdesignforums.com/practice/guides/clock-tree-synthesis-distribution-strategies/","external_links_name":"\"Clock tree synthesis\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F5.929649","external_links_name":"\"Clock Distribution Networks in Synchronous Digital Integrated Circuits\""},{"Link":"http://archive.sigda.org/ispd/contests/10/ispd10cns.html","external_links_name":"\"ISPD 2010 High Performance Clock Network Synthesis Contest\""},{"Link":"http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~imarkov/pubs/diss/DJdiss.pdf","external_links_name":"\"High-performance and Low-power Clock Network Synthesis in the Presence of Variation\""},{"Link":"http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~imarkov/pubs/conf/iccad11-tuto.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Algorithmic Tuning of Clock Trees and Derived Non-Tree Structures\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224102708/http://chipdesignmag.com/display.php?articleId=915","external_links_name":"\"The power of RTL Clock-gating\""},{"Link":"http://www.ece.rochester.edu/users/friedman/","external_links_name":"Eby Friedman"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140812225312/http://www.ece.rochester.edu/users/friedman/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.sigda.org/","external_links_name":"SIGDA"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070208034716/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/index.html","external_links_name":"e-newsletter"},{"Link":"http://www.eecs.umich.edu/~imarkov/","external_links_name":"Igor Markov"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100711135550/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2005/eNews_051201.html","external_links_name":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100711135550/http://www.sigda.org/newsletter/2005/eNews_051201.html"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regulator | Linear regulator | ["1 Overview","1.1 Shunt regulators","1.2 Series regulators","2 Simple shunt regulator","3 Simple series regulator","4 Fixed regulators","4.1 Adjusting fixed regulators","5 Variable regulators","6 Dual tracking regulators","7 Protection","8 Using a linear regulator","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"] | Type of voltage regulator
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Block scheme for voltage regulator in an electronic circuit
In electronics, a linear regulator is a voltage regulator used to maintain a steady voltage. The resistance of the regulator varies in accordance with both the input voltage and the load, resulting in a constant voltage output. The regulating circuit varies its resistance, continuously adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage and continually dissipating the difference between the input and regulated voltages as waste heat. By contrast, a switching regulator uses an active device that switches on and off to maintain an average value of output. Because the regulated voltage of a linear regulator must always be lower than input voltage, efficiency is limited and the input voltage must be high enough to always allow the active device to reduce the voltage by some amount.
Linear regulators may place the regulating device in parallel with the load (shunt regulator) or may place the regulating device between the source and the regulated load (a series regulator). Simple linear regulators may only contain as little as a Zener diode and a series resistor; more complicated regulators include separate stages of voltage reference, error amplifier and power pass element. Because a linear voltage regulator is a common element of many devices, single-chip regulators ICs are very common. Linear regulators may also be made up of assemblies of discrete solid-state or vacuum tube components.
Despite their name, linear regulators are non-linear circuits because they contain non-linear components (such as Zener diodes, as shown below in the simple shunt regulator) and because the output voltage is ideally constant (and a circuit with a constant output that does not depend on its input is a non-linear circuit).
Overview
The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a voltage divider to establish the regulated output voltage. The output voltage is compared to a reference voltage to produce a control signal to the transistor which will drive its gate or base. With negative feedback and good choice of compensation, the output voltage is kept reasonably constant. Linear regulators are often inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current multiplied by the voltage difference between input and output voltage. The same function can often be performed much more efficiently by a switched-mode power supply, but a linear regulator may be preferred for light loads or where the desired output voltage approaches the source voltage. In these cases, the linear regulator may dissipate less power than a switcher. The linear regulator also has the advantage of not requiring magnetic devices (inductors or transformers) which can be relatively expensive or bulky, being often of simpler design, and cause less electromagnetic interference. Some designs of linear regulators use only transistors, diodes and resistors, which are easier to fabricate into an integrated circuit, further reducing their weight, footprint on a PCB, and price.
All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum amount higher than the desired output voltage. That minimum amount is called the dropout voltage. For example, a common regulator such as the 7805 has an output voltage of 5 V, but can only maintain this if the input voltage remains above about 7 V, before the output voltage begins sagging below the rated output. Its dropout voltage is therefore 7 V − 5 V = 2 V. When the supply voltage is less than about 2 V above the desired output voltage, as is the case in low-voltage microprocessor power supplies, so-called low dropout regulators (LDOs) must be used.
When the output regulated voltage must be higher than the available input voltage, no linear regulator will work (not even a low dropout regulator). In this situation, a boost converter or a charge pump must be used. Most linear regulators will continue to provide some output voltage approximately the dropout voltage below the input voltage for inputs below the nominal output voltage until the input voltage drops significantly.
Linear regulators exist in two basic forms: shunt regulators and series regulators. Most linear regulators have a maximum rated output current. This is generally limited by either power dissipation capability, or by the current carrying capability of the output transistor.
Shunt regulators
The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows directly to ground, making this form usually less efficient than the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits where the wasted current is too small to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits. A shunt regulator can usually only sink (absorb) current.
Series regulators
Series regulators are the more common form; they are more efficient than shunt designs. The series regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance, usually a transistor (in this role it is usually termed the series pass transistor); it is in the "top half" of the voltage divider - the bottom half being the load. The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating device. For efficiency and reduced stress on the pass transistor, designers try to minimize the voltage drop but not all circuits regulate well once the input (unregulated) voltage comes close to the required output voltage; those that do are termed low dropout regulators, A series regulator can usually only source (supply) current, unlike shunt regulators.
Simple shunt regulator
Simple shunt voltage regulator
The image shows a simple shunt voltage regulator that operates by way of the Zener diode's action of maintaining a constant voltage across itself when the current through it is sufficient to take it into the Zener breakdown region. The resistor R1 supplies the Zener current
I
Z
{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {Z} }}
as well as the load current IR2 (R2 is the load). R1 can be calculated as
R
1
=
V
S
−
V
Z
I
Z
+
I
R
2
{\displaystyle R1={\frac {V_{\mathrm {S} }-V_{\mathrm {Z} }}{I_{\mathrm {Z} }+I_{\mathrm {R2} }}}}
, where
V
Z
{\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {Z} }}
is the Zener voltage, and IR2 is the required load current.
This regulator is used for very simple low-power applications where the currents involved are very small and the load is permanently connected across the Zener diode (such as voltage reference or voltage source circuits). Once R1 has been calculated, removing R2 will allow the full load current (plus the Zener current) through the diode and may exceed the diode's maximum current rating, thereby damaging it. The regulation of this circuit is also not very good because the Zener current (and hence the Zener voltage) will vary depending on
V
S
{\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {S} }}
and inversely depending on the load current. In some designs, the Zener diode may be replaced with another similarly functioning device, especially in an ultra-low-voltage scenario, like (under forward bias) several normal diodes or LEDs in series.
Simple series regulator
Simple series voltage regulator
Adding an emitter follower stage to the simple shunt regulator forms a simple series voltage regulator and substantially improves the regulation of the circuit. Here, the load current IR2 is supplied by the transistor whose base is now connected to the Zener diode. Thus the transistor's base current (IB) forms the load current for the Zener diode and is much smaller than the current through R2. This regulator is classified as "series" because the regulating element, viz., the transistor, appears in series with the load.
R1 sets the Zener current (IZ) and is determined as
R
1
=
V
S
−
V
Z
I
Z
+
K
⋅
I
B
{\displaystyle R1={\frac {V_{\mathrm {S} }-V_{\mathrm {Z} }}{I_{\mathrm {Z} }+K\cdot I_{\mathrm {B} }}}}
where, VZ is the Zener voltage, IB is the transistor's base current, K = 1.2 to 2 (to ensure that R1 is low enough for adequate IB) and
I
B
=
I
R
2
h
F
E
(
m
i
n
)
{\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {B} }={\frac {I_{\mathrm {R2} }}{h_{\mathrm {FE(min)} }}}}
where, IR2 is the required load current and is also the transistor's emitter current (assumed to be equal to the collector current) and hFE(min) is the minimum acceptable DC current gain for the transistor.
This circuit has much better regulation than the simple shunt regulator, since the base current of the transistor forms a very light load on the Zener, thereby minimising variation in Zener voltage due to variation in the load. Note that the output voltage will always be about 0.65 V less than the Zener due to the transistor's VBE drop. Although this circuit has good regulation, it is still sensitive to the load and supply variation. This can be resolved by incorporating negative feedback circuitry into it. This regulator is often used as a "pre-regulator" in more advanced series voltage regulator circuits.
The circuit is readily made adjustable by adding a potentiometer across the Zener, moving the transistor base connection from the top of the Zener to the pot wiper. It may be made step adjustable by switching in different Zeners. Finally it is occasionally made microadjustable by adding a low value pot in series with the Zener; this allows a little voltage adjustment, but degrades regulation (see also capacitance multiplier).
Fixed regulators
An assortment of 78xx series ICs
Three-terminal linear regulators, used for generating "fixed" voltages, are readily available. They can generate plus or minus 3.3 V, 5 V, 6 V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V, with their performance generally peaking around a load of 1.5 Amperes.
The "78xx" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the "79xx" series (7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device number are the output voltage (e.g., a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a −15 V regulator). There are variants on the 78xx series ICs, such as 78L and 78S, some of which can supply up to 2 A.
Adjusting fixed regulators
By adding another circuit element to a fixed voltage IC regulator, it is possible to adjust the output voltage. Two example methods are:
A Zener diode or resistor may be added between the IC's ground terminal and ground. Resistors are acceptable where ground current is constant, but are ill-suited to regulators with varying ground current. By switching in different Zener diodes, diodes or resistors, the output voltage can be adjusted in a step-wise fashion.
A potentiometer can be placed in series with the ground terminal to increase the output voltage variably. However, this method degrades regulation, and is not suitable for regulators with varying ground current.
Variable regulators
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2012)
An adjustable regulator generates a fixed low nominal voltage between its output and its adjust terminal (equivalent to the ground terminal in a fixed regulator). This family of devices includes low power devices like LM723 and medium power devices like LM317 and L200. Some of the variable regulators are available in packages with more than three pins, including dual in-line packages. They offer the capability to adjust the output voltage by using external resistors of specific values.
Adjustable voltage regulator circuit showing 'adjust' terminal
For output voltages not provided by standard fixed regulators and load currents of less than 7 A, commonly available adjustable three-terminal linear regulators may be used. The LM317 series (+1.25 V) regulates positive voltages while the LM337 series (−1.25 V) regulates negative voltages. The adjustment is performed by constructing a potential divider with its ends between the regulator output and ground, and its centre-tap connected to the 'adjust' terminal of the regulator. The ratio of resistances determines the output voltage using the same feedback mechanisms described earlier.
Dual tracking regulators
Single IC dual tracking adjustable regulators are available for applications such as op-amp circuits needing matched positive and negative DC supplies. Some have selectable current limiting as well. Some regulators require a minimum load.
One example of a single IC dual tracking adjustable regulator is the LM125, which is a precision, dual, tracking, monolithic voltage regulator. It provides separate positive and negative regulated outputs, simplifying dual power supply designs. Operation requires few or no external components, depending on the application. Internal settings provide fixed output voltages at ±15V
Protection
Linear IC voltage regulators may include a variety of protection methods:
Current limiting such as constant-current limiting or foldback
Thermal shutdown
Safe operating area protection
Sometimes external protection is used, such as crowbar protection.
Using a linear regulator
Linear regulators can be constructed using discrete components but are usually encountered in integrated circuit forms. The most common linear regulators are three-terminal integrated circuits in the TO-220 package.
Common voltage regulators are the LM78xx-series (for positive voltages) and LM79xx-series (for negative voltages). Robust automotive voltage regulators, such as LM2940 / MIC2940A / AZ2940, can handle reverse battery connections and brief +50/-50V transients too. Some Low-dropout regulator (LDO) alternatives, such as MCP1700 / MCP1711 / TPS7A05 / XC6206, have a very low quiescent current of less than 5 μA (approximately 1,000 times less than the LM78xx series) making them better suited for battery-powered devices.
Common fixed voltages are 1.8 V, 2.5 V, 3.3 V (for low-voltage CMOS logic circuits), 5 V (for transistor-transistor logic circuits) and 12 V (for communications circuits and peripheral devices such as disk drives).
In fixed voltage regulators the reference pin is tied to ground, whereas in variable regulators the reference pin is connected to the centre point of a fixed or variable voltage divider fed by the regulator's output. A variable voltage divider such as a potentiometer allows the user to adjust the regulated voltage.
See also
Electronics portal
Brokaw bandgap reference
List of LM-series integrated circuits
Low-dropout regulator
Voltage regulator
References
^ "Understanding linear regulator and their key performance".
^ Apte, Shaila Dinkar (2016). Signals and Systems: Principles and Applications. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-107-14624-2.
^ When I designed my AM pocket radio powered by a 3.7 V lithium-ion battery, the 1.5–1.8 V power supply required by the TA7642 chip was provided using a Zener regulator using a red LED (with a forward voltage of 1.7 V) in forward in place of the Zener diode. This LED also doubled as the power indicator.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-13. Retrieved 2015-06-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link), Datasheet of L78xx Showing a model that can output 2 A
^ "LM125 Precision Dual Tracking Regulator" (PDF). shrubbery. Retrieved 9 June 2023.
External links
ECE 327: Procedures for Voltage Regulators Lab — Gives schematics, explanations, and analyses for Zener shunt regulator, series regulator, feedback series regulator, feedback series regulator with current limiting, and feedback series regulator with current foldback. Also discusses the proper use of the LM317 integrated circuit bandgap voltage reference and bypass capacitors.
ECE 327: Report Strategies for Voltage Regulators Lab — Gives more-detailed quantitative analysis of behavior of several shunt and series regulators in and out of normal operating ranges.
ECE 327: LM317 Bandgap Voltage Reference Example — Brief explanation of the temperature-independent bandgap reference circuit within the LM317.
"Zener regulator" at Hyperphysics
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mercury relay | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voltage_Regulator_connections-en.svg"},{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"voltage regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulator"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistance_and_conductance"},{"link_name":"voltage divider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_divider"},{"link_name":"waste heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_heat"},{"link_name":"switching regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switching_regulator"},{"link_name":"shunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"Zener diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diode"},{"link_name":"voltage regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulator"},{"link_name":"ICs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"non-linear circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_circuit#Linear_and_nonlinear_components"},{"link_name":"simple shunt regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Simple_shunt_regulator"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apte_2016-2"}],"text":"Block scheme for voltage regulator in an electronic circuitIn electronics, a linear regulator is a voltage regulator used to maintain a steady voltage.[1] The resistance of the regulator varies in accordance with both the input voltage and the load, resulting in a constant voltage output. The regulating circuit varies its resistance, continuously adjusting a voltage divider network to maintain a constant output voltage and continually dissipating the difference between the input and regulated voltages as waste heat. By contrast, a switching regulator uses an active device that switches on and off to maintain an average value of output. Because the regulated voltage of a linear regulator must always be lower than input voltage, efficiency is limited and the input voltage must be high enough to always allow the active device to reduce the voltage by some amount.Linear regulators may place the regulating device in parallel with the load (shunt regulator) or may place the regulating device between the source and the regulated load (a series regulator). Simple linear regulators may only contain as little as a Zener diode and a series resistor; more complicated regulators include separate stages of voltage reference, error amplifier and power pass element. Because a linear voltage regulator is a common element of many devices, single-chip regulators ICs are very common. Linear regulators may also be made up of assemblies of discrete solid-state or vacuum tube components.Despite their name, linear regulators are non-linear circuits because they contain non-linear components (such as Zener diodes, as shown below in the simple shunt regulator) and because the output voltage is ideally constant (and a circuit with a constant output that does not depend on its input is a non-linear circuit).[2]","title":"Linear regulator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"voltage divider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_divider"},{"link_name":"compensation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_compensation"},{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"switched-mode power supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference"},{"link_name":"dropout voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropout_voltage"},{"link_name":"7805","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78xx"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"low dropout regulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_dropout_regulator"},{"link_name":"boost converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter"},{"link_name":"charge pump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_pump"}],"text":"The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a voltage divider to establish the regulated output voltage. The output voltage is compared to a reference voltage to produce a control signal to the transistor which will drive its gate or base. With negative feedback and good choice of compensation, the output voltage is kept reasonably constant. Linear regulators are often inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current multiplied by the voltage difference between input and output voltage. The same function can often be performed much more efficiently by a switched-mode power supply, but a linear regulator may be preferred for light loads or where the desired output voltage approaches the source voltage. In these cases, the linear regulator may dissipate less power than a switcher. The linear regulator also has the advantage of not requiring magnetic devices (inductors or transformers) which can be relatively expensive or bulky, being often of simpler design, and cause less electromagnetic interference. Some designs of linear regulators use only transistors, diodes and resistors, which are easier to fabricate into an integrated circuit, further reducing their weight, footprint on a PCB, and price.All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum amount higher than the desired output voltage. That minimum amount is called the dropout voltage. For example, a common regulator such as the 7805 has an output voltage of 5 V, but can only maintain this if the input voltage remains above about 7 V, before the output voltage begins sagging below the rated output. Its dropout voltage is therefore 7 V − 5 V = 2 V. When the supply voltage is less than about 2 V above the desired output voltage, as is the case in low-voltage microprocessor power supplies, so-called low dropout regulators (LDOs) must be used.When the output regulated voltage must be higher than the available input voltage, no linear regulator will work (not even a low dropout regulator). In this situation, a boost converter or a charge pump must be used. Most linear regulators will continue to provide some output voltage approximately the dropout voltage below the input voltage for inputs below the nominal output voltage until the input voltage drops significantly.Linear regulators exist in two basic forms: shunt regulators and series regulators. Most linear regulators have a maximum rated output current. This is generally limited by either power dissipation capability, or by the current carrying capability of the output transistor.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"low-powered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-power_electronics"}],"sub_title":"Shunt regulators","text":"The shunt regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in the \"bottom half\" of the voltage divider). The current through the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows directly to ground, making this form usually less efficient than the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits where the wasted current is too small to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits. A shunt regulator can usually only sink (absorb) current.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Series regulators","text":"Series regulators are the more common form; they are more efficient than shunt designs. The series regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance, usually a transistor (in this role it is usually termed the series pass transistor); it is in the \"top half\" of the voltage divider - the bottom half being the load. The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating device. For efficiency and reduced stress on the pass transistor, designers try to minimize the voltage drop but not all circuits regulate well once the input (unregulated) voltage comes close to the required output voltage; those that do are termed low dropout regulators, A series regulator can usually only source (supply) current, unlike shunt regulators.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zener_reg.gif"},{"link_name":"Zener diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diode"},{"link_name":"Zener breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_breakdown"},{"link_name":"resistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor"},{"link_name":"voltage reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_reference"},{"link_name":"voltage source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_source"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Simple shunt voltage regulatorThe image shows a simple shunt voltage regulator that operates by way of the Zener diode's action of maintaining a constant voltage across itself when the current through it is sufficient to take it into the Zener breakdown region. The resistor R1 supplies the Zener current \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\mathrm {Z} }}\n \n as well as the load current IR2 (R2 is the load). R1 can be calculated as \n \n \n \n R\n 1\n =\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n S\n \n \n \n −\n \n V\n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n +\n \n I\n \n \n R\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R1={\\frac {V_{\\mathrm {S} }-V_{\\mathrm {Z} }}{I_{\\mathrm {Z} }+I_{\\mathrm {R2} }}}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathrm {Z} }}\n \n is the Zener voltage, and IR2 is the required load current.This regulator is used for very simple low-power applications where the currents involved are very small and the load is permanently connected across the Zener diode (such as voltage reference or voltage source circuits). Once R1 has been calculated, removing R2 will allow the full load current (plus the Zener current) through the diode and may exceed the diode's maximum current rating, thereby damaging it. The regulation of this circuit is also not very good because the Zener current (and hence the Zener voltage) will vary depending on \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathrm {S} }}\n \n and inversely depending on the load current. In some designs, the Zener diode may be replaced with another similarly functioning device, especially in an ultra-low-voltage scenario, like (under forward bias) several normal diodes or LEDs in series.[3]","title":"Simple shunt regulator"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Series_reg.gif"},{"link_name":"emitter follower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_collector"},{"link_name":"capacitance multiplier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance_multiplier"}],"text":"Simple series voltage regulatorAdding an emitter follower stage to the simple shunt regulator forms a simple series voltage regulator and substantially improves the regulation of the circuit. Here, the load current IR2 is supplied by the transistor whose base is now connected to the Zener diode. Thus the transistor's base current (IB) forms the load current for the Zener diode and is much smaller than the current through R2. This regulator is classified as \"series\" because the regulating element, viz., the transistor, appears in series with the load.\nR1 sets the Zener current (IZ) and is determined as \n \n \n \n R\n 1\n =\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n S\n \n \n \n −\n \n V\n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n +\n K\n ⋅\n \n I\n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R1={\\frac {V_{\\mathrm {S} }-V_{\\mathrm {Z} }}{I_{\\mathrm {Z} }+K\\cdot I_{\\mathrm {B} }}}}\n \n where, VZ is the Zener voltage, IB is the transistor's base current, K = 1.2 to 2 (to ensure that R1 is low enough for adequate IB) and \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n B\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n I\n \n \n R\n 2\n \n \n \n \n h\n \n \n F\n E\n (\n m\n i\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\mathrm {B} }={\\frac {I_{\\mathrm {R2} }}{h_{\\mathrm {FE(min)} }}}}\n \n where, IR2 is the required load current and is also the transistor's emitter current (assumed to be equal to the collector current) and hFE(min) is the minimum acceptable DC current gain for the transistor.This circuit has much better regulation than the simple shunt regulator, since the base current of the transistor forms a very light load on the Zener, thereby minimising variation in Zener voltage due to variation in the load. Note that the output voltage will always be about 0.65 V less than the Zener due to the transistor's VBE drop. Although this circuit has good regulation, it is still sensitive to the load and supply variation. This can be resolved by incorporating negative feedback circuitry into it. This regulator is often used as a \"pre-regulator\" in more advanced series voltage regulator circuits.The circuit is readily made adjustable by adding a potentiometer across the Zener, moving the transistor base connection from the top of the Zener to the pot wiper. It may be made step adjustable by switching in different Zeners. Finally it is occasionally made microadjustable by adding a low value pot in series with the Zener; this allows a little voltage adjustment, but degrades regulation (see also capacitance multiplier).","title":"Simple series regulator"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:7800_IC_regulatorsa.jpg"},{"link_name":"78xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78xx"},{"link_name":"78xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78xx"},{"link_name":"79xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/79xx"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"An assortment of 78xx series ICsThree-terminal linear regulators, used for generating \"fixed\" voltages, are readily available. They can generate plus or minus 3.3 V, 5 V, 6 V, 9 V, 12 V, or 15 V, with their performance generally peaking around a load of 1.5 Amperes.The \"78xx\" series (7805, 7812, etc.) regulate positive voltages while the \"79xx\" series (7905, 7912, etc.) regulate negative voltages. Often, the last two digits of the device number are the output voltage (e.g., a 7805 is a +5 V regulator, while a 7915 is a −15 V regulator). There are variants on the 78xx series ICs, such as 78L and 78S, some of which can supply up to 2 A.[4]","title":"Fixed regulators"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Adjusting fixed regulators","text":"By adding another circuit element to a fixed voltage IC regulator, it is possible to adjust the output voltage. Two example methods are:A Zener diode or resistor may be added between the IC's ground terminal and ground. Resistors are acceptable where ground current is constant, but are ill-suited to regulators with varying ground current. By switching in different Zener diodes, diodes or resistors, the output voltage can be adjusted in a step-wise fashion.\nA potentiometer can be placed in series with the ground terminal to increase the output voltage variably. However, this method degrades regulation, and is not suitable for regulators with varying ground current.","title":"Fixed regulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LM317","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LM317"},{"link_name":"dual in-line packages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_package"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Low_Drop_Voltage_Regulator.png"}],"text":"An adjustable regulator generates a fixed low nominal voltage between its output and its adjust terminal (equivalent to the ground terminal in a fixed regulator). This family of devices includes low power devices like LM723 and medium power devices like LM317 and L200. Some of the variable regulators are available in packages with more than three pins, including dual in-line packages. They offer the capability to adjust the output voltage by using external resistors of specific values.Adjustable voltage regulator circuit showing 'adjust' terminalFor output voltages not provided by standard fixed regulators and load currents of less than 7 A, commonly available adjustable three-terminal linear regulators may be used. The LM317 series (+1.25 V) regulates positive voltages while the LM337 series (−1.25 V) regulates negative voltages. The adjustment is performed by constructing a potential divider with its ends between the regulator output and ground, and its centre-tap connected to the 'adjust' terminal of the regulator. The ratio of resistances determines the output voltage using the same feedback mechanisms described earlier.","title":"Variable regulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Single IC dual tracking adjustable regulators are available for applications such as op-amp circuits needing matched positive and negative DC supplies. Some have selectable current limiting as well. Some regulators require a minimum load.One example of a single IC dual tracking adjustable regulator is the LM125, which is a precision, dual, tracking, monolithic voltage regulator. It provides separate positive and negative regulated outputs, simplifying dual power supply designs. Operation requires few or no external components, depending on the application. Internal settings provide fixed output voltages at ±15V [5]","title":"Dual tracking regulators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Current limiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_limiting"},{"link_name":"constant-current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_source"},{"link_name":"foldback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foldback_(power_supply_design)"},{"link_name":"Safe operating area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_operating_area"},{"link_name":"crowbar protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowbar_(circuit)"}],"text":"Linear IC voltage regulators may include a variety of protection methods:Current limiting such as constant-current limiting or foldback\nThermal shutdown\nSafe operating area protectionSometimes external protection is used, such as crowbar protection.","title":"Protection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"TO-220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TO-220"},{"link_name":"78xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/78xx"},{"link_name":"Low-dropout regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator"},{"link_name":"CMOS logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS_logic"},{"link_name":"transistor-transistor logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logic"},{"link_name":"disk drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_drive"},{"link_name":"ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"potentiometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometer"}],"text":"Linear regulators can be constructed using discrete components but are usually encountered in integrated circuit forms. The most common linear regulators are three-terminal integrated circuits in the TO-220 package.Common voltage regulators are the LM78xx-series (for positive voltages) and LM79xx-series (for negative voltages). Robust automotive voltage regulators, such as LM2940 / MIC2940A / AZ2940, can handle reverse battery connections and brief +50/-50V transients too. Some Low-dropout regulator (LDO) alternatives, such as MCP1700 / MCP1711 / TPS7A05 / XC6206, have a very low quiescent current of less than 5 μA (approximately 1,000 times less than the LM78xx series) making them better suited for battery-powered devices.Common fixed voltages are 1.8 V, 2.5 V, 3.3 V (for low-voltage CMOS logic circuits), 5 V (for transistor-transistor logic circuits) and 12 V (for communications circuits and peripheral devices such as disk drives).In fixed voltage regulators the reference pin is tied to ground, whereas in variable regulators the reference pin is connected to the centre point of a fixed or variable voltage divider fed by the regulator's output. A variable voltage divider such as a potentiometer allows the user to adjust the regulated voltage.","title":"Using a linear regulator"}] | [{"image_text":"Block scheme for voltage regulator in an electronic circuit","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Voltage_Regulator_connections-en.svg/300px-Voltage_Regulator_connections-en.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Simple shunt voltage regulator","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Zener_reg.gif"},{"image_text":"Simple series voltage regulator","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Series_reg.gif"},{"image_text":"An assortment of 78xx series ICs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/7800_IC_regulatorsa.jpg/200px-7800_IC_regulatorsa.jpg"},{"image_text":"Adjustable voltage regulator circuit showing 'adjust' terminal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Low_Drop_Voltage_Regulator.png/162px-Low_Drop_Voltage_Regulator.png"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png"},{"title":"Electronics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Electronics"},{"title":"Brokaw bandgap reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brokaw_bandgap_reference"},{"title":"List of LM-series integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_LM-series_integrated_circuits"},{"title":"Low-dropout regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-dropout_regulator"},{"title":"Voltage regulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_regulator"}] | [{"reference":"\"Understanding linear regulator and their key performance\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.renesas.com/document/whp/understanding-linear-regulators-and-their-key-performance-parameters?language=en","url_text":"\"Understanding linear regulator and their key performance\""}]},{"reference":"Apte, Shaila Dinkar (2016). Signals and Systems: Principles and Applications. Cambridge University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-1-107-14624-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-14624-2","url_text":"978-1-107-14624-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-13. Retrieved 2015-06-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150613174049/https://www1.elfa.se/data1/wwwroot/assets/datasheets/tcL78S_data_e.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://www1.elfa.se/data1/wwwroot/assets/datasheets/tcL78S_data_e.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"LM125 Precision Dual Tracking Regulator\" (PDF). shrubbery. Retrieved 9 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.shrubbery.net/~heas/willem/PDF/NSC/AN/AN-82.pdf","url_text":"\"LM125 Precision Dual Tracking Regulator\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Linear+regulator%22","external_links_name":"\"Linear regulator\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Linear+regulator%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Linear+regulator%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Linear+regulator%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Linear+regulator%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Linear+regulator%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linear_regulator&action=edit§ion=","external_links_name":"adding to it"},{"Link":"https://www.renesas.com/document/whp/understanding-linear-regulators-and-their-key-performance-parameters?language=en","external_links_name":"\"Understanding linear regulator and their key performance\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150613174049/https://www1.elfa.se/data1/wwwroot/assets/datasheets/tcL78S_data_e.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Archived copy\""},{"Link":"https://www1.elfa.se/data1/wwwroot/assets/datasheets/tcL78S_data_e.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.shrubbery.net/~heas/willem/PDF/NSC/AN/AN-82.pdf","external_links_name":"\"LM125 Precision Dual Tracking Regulator\""},{"Link":"http://www.tedpavlic.com/teaching/osu/ece327/lab3_vreg/lab3_vreg_procedure.pdf","external_links_name":"ECE 327: Procedures for Voltage Regulators Lab"},{"Link":"http://www.tedpavlic.com/teaching/osu/ece327/lab3_vreg/lab3_vreg_repstrat.pdf","external_links_name":"ECE 327: Report Strategies for Voltage Regulators Lab"},{"Link":"http://www.tedpavlic.com/teaching/osu/ece327/lab3_vreg/lab3_vreg_lm317_example.pdf","external_links_name":"ECE 327: LM317 Bandgap Voltage Reference Example"},{"Link":"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/zenereg.html","external_links_name":"\"Zener regulator\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matronymic | Matronymic | ["1 Terminology of English","2 Asia","2.1 India","2.2 Indonesia","2.3 Kyrgyzstan","2.4 Arabia","2.5 Mongolia","2.6 Philippines","2.7 Taiwan","2.8 Vietnam","3 Europe","3.1 England","3.2 Finland","3.3 France","3.4 Iceland","3.5 Ireland and Wales","3.6 Netherlands","3.7 Romania","3.8 Serbia","3.9 Ukraine","4 Other","4.1 Jewish traditions","5 See also","6 References"] | Personal name component related to the mother
Not to be confused with Metonymy.
For a family name inherited from one's mother (and maternal grandmother, etc.), see Matriname.
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A matronymic is a personal name or a parental name based on the given name of one's mother, grandmother, or any female ancestor. It is the female equivalent of a patronymic. Around the world, matronymic surnames are far less common than patronymic surnames. In some cultures in the past, matronymic last names were often given to children of unwed mothers. Or if a woman was especially well known or powerful, her descendants might adopt a matronym based on her name. A matronymic is a derived name, as compared to a matriname, which is an inherited name from a mother's side of the family, and which is unchanged.
Terminology of English
The word matronymic is first attested in English in 1794 and originates in the Greek μήτηρ mētēr "mother" (GEN μητρός mētros whence the combining form μητρo- mētro-), ὄνυμα onyma, a variant form of ὄνομα onoma "name", and the suffix -ικός -ikos, which was originally used to form adjectives with the sense "pertaining to" (thus "pertaining to the mother's name"). The Greek word μητρωνυμικός mētrōnymikos was then borrowed into Latin in a partially Latinised form (Greek mētēr, dialectally mātēr, corresponds to Latin mater), as matronomicus. These words were a source for coining the English matronymic as the female counterpart to patronymic (first attested in English in 1612). Whereas the Oxford English Dictionary records an English noun patronym in free variation with the noun patronymic, it does not, however, record a corresponding noun matronym.
More rarely, English writers use forms based wholly on Greek: the noun metronym (first attested in 1904); and the noun and adjective metronymic (first attested in 1868). These are, for example, the forms used in the 2016 The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland. Speakers are in practice likely to use female-line name, or name of "his/her mother" to be both specific and avoid use of technical terms.
Asia
India
The matrilineal communities in South and North-East India, like the Nairs, Bunts and Khasi, have family names which are inherited from their mother. Matronymic names are common in Kerala. Daughters take the names of their mothers as the second part of their name.
Indonesia
The Minangkabau of Indonesia are the largest group of people who use this naming system. People of Enggano Island also use a matronymic system. They also have family name/surname (marga).
Kyrgyzstan
In July 2023, the Constitutional Court of Kyrgyzstan decided that adults may have the right to use a matronymic instead of the traditional patronymic on their official documents. After pushback from conservative groups, the court reversed its decision in November.
Arabia
An example of an Arabic matronymic is the name of Jesus ‘Yeshua ibn Maryam, which means Jesus the son of Mary. The book Kitāb man nusiba ilá ummihi min al-shu‘arā’ (The book of poets who are named with the lineage of their mothers) by the 9th-century author Muḥammad ibn Ḥabīb is a study of the matronymics of Arabic poets. There exist other examples of matronymics in historical Arabic.
Mongolia
While most Mongolian names today are patronymic, some Mongolians are known to be matronymic. This could be due to, for example, an absence of the father such as in the case of Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, the first elected president of Mongolia.
Philippines
Filipino names legally have the maiden name of the child's mother as a middle name as opposed to Anglo-American use of secondary or tertiary given names. Filipino children born to unwed mothers, if not claimed by the father nor adopted by anyone else, automatically bear their mother's maiden name and sometimes middle name.
Taiwan
Amis people's daughter names are followed by the mother's name, while a son's name is followed by his father's name. Seediqs often get to choose which of their parents’ name to go after their own.
Vietnam
Some Vietnamese names also function this way, as less of a "tradition" than a style or trend, in which the mother's maiden name is the child's middle name.
Europe
England
Although many English matronyms were given to children of unwed mothers, it was not unusual for children of married women to also use a matronymic surname. For instance, it was traditional during the Middle Ages for children whose fathers died before their births to use a matronym, and it was not unheard of for children to be given a matronym if the father's name was foreign, difficult to pronounce, or had an unfortunate meaning. A child of a strong-minded woman might also take a matronym, as might a child whose name would otherwise be confused with that of a cousin or neighbour. There are even instances where royal houses used matronymics to strengthen claims to the English throne – for example, Empress Matilda's eldest son was known as Henry FitzEmpress (-fitz meaning "son of" from Latin filius). Common English matronyms include Madison, Beaton, Custer, Tiffany, Parnell, Hilliard, Marriott, Ibbetson, Babbs, and Megson.
Finland
In the old Finnish system, women were standardly given matronyms, while men were given patronyms, for example, Ainontytär (female) or Pekanpoika (male). Since the 19th century the system of inherited family names has been used, however, and today nearly all Finns have inherited surnames.
France
Family names derived from matronyms are found in France, especially in Normandy: Catherine, Marie, Jeanne, Adeline. In medieval Normandy (Duchy of Normandy), a matronym might be used when the mother was of greater prominence than the father or the basis for a claim of inheritance, such as in the cases of Henry FitzEmpress and Robert FitzWimarc.
Iceland
Further information: Icelandic name
Some Icelandic people, like Heiðar Helguson, have matronyms. A particularity by the Norse name of the trickster among the revered of Åsgard is that Loki got a matronymic, Loki Laufeyjarson. His father Fárbauti is associated with Wild Fire, and his mother, the leaves of the trees, the mother of all figs and birches, as in Askr and Embla.
Ireland and Wales
Matronymics appear in medieval Celtic tales such as Cath Maige Tuired and the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi (the children of Dôn). For instance the famous mythological King of Ulster, Conchobar mac Nessa is named after his mother Ness.
Netherlands
Matronymics are accepted in the Netherlands but are generally written as given names on identity cards.
Romania
Family names derived from matronyms are also found in Romania, especially in the region of Moldavia. Examples include: Aioanei, Ababei, Acatrinei, Ailincăi.
Serbia
Although far less common than patronymic surnames, matronymic surnames are widespread both in Serbia and in neighboring countries. Examples include surnames such as Katić, Sinđelić, Nedić, Marić, Višnjić, Janjić, Sarić, Miličić, Milenić, Natalić, Zorić, Smiljić, Anđelić and many others. Sometimes it is difficult to ascertain if name of a specific family is patronymic or matronymic considering many Serbian names have both male and female version (for example, surname Miljanić could come from both m.- Miljan and f.- Miljana). Cases where widows had to become heads of households were not uncommon during 18th and 19th century and when surnames were first standardized in Serbia in 1851 it was decided they would be based on the names of eldest living heads of households which in some cases were women. People who didn't know their father well would also take matronymic surnames, with notable cases being hero of the First Serbian Uprising Stevan Sinđelić, who took that surname in honor of his mother Sinđelija.
Ukraine
In Ukraine, the suffix czak interprets as "daughter of" implying an original history of matronyms (similar to American last names ending in 'son' ). In Ukraine all last names ending with -czak, such as Ratajczak, Katerczak, Alberczak, Bartczak, Szchak, etc... are matronyms. The practice of taking a mothers name ended in the mid 19th century, but the matriarch lines are still traced. Other historical examples of matronyms in Ukraine include: Olenych, Katerynchuk, Khyvrych. Oleg Yaroslavich, 12th century prince of Halych, was known as Oleg Nastasyich during his life to distinguish his claim from that of his half-brother Volodymyr.
Other
Jewish traditions
Most characters in the Bible are referred to with a patronymic. However, Abishai, Joab, and Asahel – the sons of Zeruiah, sister or stepsister of King David – are invariably referred to as "Sons of Zeruiah" and the name of their father remains unknown. Also the Biblical Judge Shamgar is referred to with the matronymic "Son of Anat".
There are indications of a Jewish history of matronymic names. Specifically, in East European Jewish society, there appeared various matronymic family names such as Rivlin (from Rivka/Rebecca), Sorkin (from Sarah), Zeitlin (from Zeitl), Rochlin (from Rachel), Feiglin (from Feige), Dworkin (from Dvora), and others. In certain Jewish prayers and blessings, matronyms are used, e.g., "Joseph ben (son of) Miriam". Specifically, when people are asked to pray urgently for the recovery of a person whose life is in danger, the endangered person's mother is named, the normal formula being "We call upon you to pray for the recovery of ", son/daughter of ".
In the 18th century, numerous European nations, such as the Holy Roman Empire, passed laws and issued decrees which mandated that Jews adopt consistent, legal surnames. While this applied to all Jews regardless of gender, for many, their surname came from their mothers, and not their fathers. As a result, a large number of today's surviving Ashkenazi surnames can be traced to a matrilineal ancestor rather than the more globally common trend of surnames being passed between male ancestors and their male descendants. Nevertheless, these surnames weren't matronymic in a strict sense. They are what is known as a matriname, since these particular cases don't derive family names from a mother's forename, instead opting to do so from their surnames. The pattern even precluded instances where a wife would legally adopt the surname of her husband; children would still retain their mother's maiden name as their own surname. The trend was in decline by the early 20th century, however; the 1910 Austro-Hungarian Jewish Census of Tarnopol recorded around 2,000 Jewish families, only 13 of whom possessed a mark of recte indicating a legal surname adopted from a mother's maiden name.
See also
Matriname
List of people who adopted matrilineal surnames
References
^ μήτηρ. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
^ ὄνομα in Liddell and Scott.
^ μητρωνυμικός in Liddell and Scott
^ mater. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
^ "matronymic, n. and adj.". OED Online, 3rd edition. March 2018. Oxford University Press.
^ "metronymic, n. and adj."; "metronym, n.". OED Online, 3rd edn. March 2018. Oxford University Press.
^ The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland, ed. by Patrick Hanks, Richard Coates, Peter McClure (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
^ Mother's name becoming common in naming conventions in Kerala (page 201), shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in; accessed May 18, 2017.
^ "Жителям Кыргызстана разрешили использовать матчество вместо отчества" . Meduza (in Russian). Retrieved 3 July 2023.
^ Podol'skaya, Dar'ya (3 July 2023). "Ошибка в трактовке. Конституционный суд разъясняет свое решение по матчеству" . 24.kg (in Russian). Retrieved 3 July 2023.
^ "Kyrgyz court allows 'matronymics' in a surprise nod to women's rights". Reuters. 4 July 2023. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
^ "В Кыргызстане снова запретили брать матчество вместо отчества". Сибирь Реалии (in Russian). 10 November 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
^ Levi della Vida, Giorgio; Ḥabīb, MuḥAmmad Ibn; Habib, Muhammad Ibn (1942). "Muḥammad Ibn Ḥabīb's "Matronymics of Poets"". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 62 (3). Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 3 (September 1942), pp. 156-71: 156–71. doi:10.2307/594132. JSTOR 594132.
^ Miku, Linda M. "Brickbat's - May 2006 LoP Page". atensubmissions.nexiliscom.com. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
^ Forster, Charles. The Historical Geography of Arabia, Volume 2, University of Michigan, Duncan and Malcolm, Page 27
^ Bowman, William Dodgson. The Story of Surnames. London, George Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1932. No ISBN.
^ Review, Iceland (5 March 2008). "In the Name of the Father". Retrieved 18 May 2017.
^ Thomas Kinsella (translator), The Táin, Oxford University Press, 1969, p. 3
^ Instituut, Meertens. "NVB : voornaam eindigt op 'zoon'". www.meertens.knaw.nl. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
^ Cross, Earle Bennett (1910). "Traces of the Matronymic Family in the Hebrew Social Organization". The Biblical World. 36 (6). JSTOR: The Biblical World, Vol. 36, No. 6 (Dec., 1910 ), pp. 407-14: 407–14. doi:10.1086/474406. JSTOR 3141456. S2CID 143899711.
^ 1910 Jewish Census Surname List
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Category:Lists of names | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metonymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy"},{"link_name":"Matriname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriname"},{"link_name":"personal name or a parental name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_name"},{"link_name":"given name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Given_name"},{"link_name":"patronymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic"},{"link_name":"patronymic surnames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic_surname"},{"link_name":"matriname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriname"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Metonymy.For a family name inherited from one's mother (and maternal grandmother, etc.), see Matriname.A matronymic is a personal name or a parental name based on the given name of one's mother, grandmother, or any female ancestor. It is the female equivalent of a patronymic. Around the world, matronymic surnames are far less common than patronymic surnames. In some cultures in the past, matronymic last names were often given to children of unwed mothers. Or if a woman was especially well known or powerful, her descendants might adopt a matronym based on her name. A matronymic is a derived name, as compared to a matriname, which is an inherited name from a mother's side of the family, and which is unchanged.","title":"Matronymic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"GEN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive_case"},{"link_name":"combining form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combining_form"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"-ικός","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"free variation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The word matronymic is first attested in English in 1794 and originates in the Greek μήτηρ mētēr \"mother\" (GEN μητρός mētros whence the combining form μητρo- mētro-),[1] ὄνυμα onyma, a variant form of ὄνομα onoma \"name\",[2] and the suffix -ικός -ikos, which was originally used to form adjectives with the sense \"pertaining to\" (thus \"pertaining to the mother's name\"). The Greek word μητρωνυμικός mētrōnymikos[3] was then borrowed into Latin in a partially Latinised form (Greek mētēr, dialectally mātēr, corresponds to Latin mater),[4] as matronomicus. These words were a source for coining the English matronymic as the female counterpart to patronymic (first attested in English in 1612).[5] Whereas the Oxford English Dictionary records an English noun patronym in free variation with the noun patronymic, it does not, however, record a corresponding noun matronym.More rarely, English writers use forms based wholly on Greek: the noun metronym (first attested in 1904); and the noun and adjective metronymic (first attested in 1868).[6] These are, for example, the forms used in the 2016 The Oxford Dictionary of Family Names in Britain and Ireland.[7] Speakers are in practice likely to use female-line name, or name of \"his/her mother\" to be both specific and avoid use of technical terms.","title":"Terminology of English"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairs"},{"link_name":"Bunts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunt_(community)"},{"link_name":"Khasi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khasi_people"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"The matrilineal communities in South and North-East India, like the Nairs, Bunts and Khasi, have family names which are inherited from their mother. Matronymic names are common in Kerala.[8] Daughters take the names of their mothers as the second part of their name.[citation needed]","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minangkabau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minangkabau_people"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"Enggano Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enggano_Island"}],"sub_title":"Indonesia","text":"The Minangkabau of Indonesia are the largest group of people who use this naming system. People of Enggano Island also use a matronymic system. They also have family name/surname (marga).","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Constitutional Court of Kyrgyzstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Kyrgyzstan"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Kyrgyzstan","text":"In July 2023, the Constitutional Court of Kyrgyzstan decided that adults may have the right to use a matronymic instead of the traditional patronymic on their official documents.[9][10][11] After pushback from conservative groups, the court reversed its decision in November.[12]","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Arabia","text":"An example of an Arabic matronymic is the name of Jesus ‘Yeshua ibn Maryam, which means Jesus the son of Mary. The book Kitāb man nusiba ilá ummihi min al-shu‘arā’ (The book of poets who are named with the lineage of their mothers) by the 9th-century author Muḥammad ibn Ḥabīb is a study of the matronymics of Arabic poets.[13] There exist other examples of matronymics in historical Arabic.[14][15]","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mongolian names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_names"},{"link_name":"patronymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic#Mongolia"},{"link_name":"absence of the father","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_absence"},{"link_name":"Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punsalmaagiin_Ochirbat"}],"sub_title":"Mongolia","text":"While most Mongolian names today are patronymic, some Mongolians are known to be matronymic. This could be due to, for example, an absence of the father such as in the case of Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, the first elected president of Mongolia.","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Filipino names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_name"},{"link_name":"maiden name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden_name"},{"link_name":"middle name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_name"},{"link_name":"unwed mothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unwed_mother"}],"sub_title":"Philippines","text":"Filipino names legally have the maiden name of the child's mother as a middle name as opposed to Anglo-American use of secondary or tertiary given names. Filipino children born to unwed mothers, if not claimed by the father nor adopted by anyone else, automatically bear their mother's maiden name and sometimes middle name.","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amis people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amis_people"},{"link_name":"Seediqs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seediq_people"}],"sub_title":"Taiwan","text":"Amis people's daughter names are followed by the mother's name, while a son's name is followed by his father's name. Seediqs often get to choose which of their parents’ name to go after their own.","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vietnamese names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_names"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Vietnam","text":"Some Vietnamese names also function this way, as less of a \"tradition\" than a style or trend, in which the mother's maiden name[citation needed] is the child's middle name.","title":"Asia"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"children whose fathers died before their births","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posthumous_birth"},{"link_name":"Henry FitzEmpress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_FitzEmpress"},{"link_name":"fitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitz"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"England","text":"Although many English matronyms were given to children of unwed mothers, it was not unusual for children of married women to also use a matronymic surname. For instance, it was traditional during the Middle Ages for children whose fathers died before their births to use a matronym, and it was not unheard of for children to be given a matronym if the father's name was foreign, difficult to pronounce, or had an unfortunate meaning. A child of a strong-minded woman might also take a matronym, as might a child whose name would otherwise be confused with that of a cousin or neighbour. There are even instances where royal houses used matronymics to strengthen claims to the English throne – for example, Empress Matilda's eldest son was known as Henry FitzEmpress (-fitz meaning \"son of\" from Latin filius). Common English matronyms include Madison, Beaton, Custer, Tiffany, Parnell, Hilliard, Marriott, Ibbetson, Babbs, and Megson.[16]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Finland","text":"In the old Finnish system, women were standardly given matronyms, while men were given patronyms, for example, Ainontytär (female) or Pekanpoika (male). Since the 19th century the system of inherited family names has been used, however, and today nearly all Finns have inherited surnames.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy"},{"link_name":"Henry FitzEmpress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"Robert FitzWimarc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_FitzWimarc"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"Family names derived from matronyms are found in France, especially in Normandy: Catherine, Marie, Jeanne, Adeline. In medieval Normandy (Duchy of Normandy), a matronym might be used when the mother was of greater prominence than the father or the basis for a claim of inheritance, such as in the cases of Henry FitzEmpress and Robert FitzWimarc.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Icelandic name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_name"},{"link_name":"Icelandic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"},{"link_name":"Heiðar Helguson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hei%C3%B0ar_Helguson"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Åsgard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85sgard"},{"link_name":"Loki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loki"}],"sub_title":"Iceland","text":"Further information: Icelandic nameSome Icelandic people, like Heiðar Helguson, have matronyms.[17] A particularity by the Norse name of the trickster among the revered of Åsgard is that Loki got a matronymic, Loki Laufeyjarson. His father Fárbauti is associated with Wild Fire, and his mother, the leaves of the trees, the mother of all figs and birches, as in Askr and Embla.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cath Maige Tuired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cath_Maige_Tuired"},{"link_name":"Mabinogi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabinogi"},{"link_name":"Dôn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B4n"},{"link_name":"Conchobar mac Nessa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conchobar_mac_Nessa"},{"link_name":"Ness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ness_(Irish_mythology)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Ireland and Wales","text":"Matronymics appear in medieval Celtic tales such as Cath Maige Tuired and the Fourth Branch of the Mabinogi (the children of Dôn). For instance the famous mythological King of Ulster, Conchobar mac Nessa is named after his mother Ness.[18]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Netherlands","text":"Matronymics are accepted in the Netherlands but are generally written as given names on identity cards.[19]","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Moldavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia"}],"sub_title":"Romania","text":"Family names derived from matronyms are also found in Romania, especially in the region of Moldavia. Examples include: Aioanei, Ababei, Acatrinei, Ailincăi.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Serbia","text":"Although far less common than patronymic surnames, matronymic surnames are widespread both in Serbia and in neighboring countries. Examples include surnames such as Katić, Sinđelić, Nedić, Marić, Višnjić, Janjić, Sarić, Miličić, Milenić, Natalić, Zorić, Smiljić, Anđelić and many others. Sometimes it is difficult to ascertain if name of a specific family is patronymic or matronymic considering many Serbian names have both male and female version (for example, surname Miljanić could come from both m.- Miljan and f.- Miljana). Cases where widows had to become heads of households were not uncommon during 18th and 19th century and when surnames were first standardized in Serbia in 1851 it was decided they would be based on the names of eldest living heads of households which in some cases were women. People who didn't know their father well would also take matronymic surnames, with notable cases being hero of the First Serbian Uprising Stevan Sinđelić, who took that surname in honor of his mother Sinđelija.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oleg Yaroslavich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_Yaroslavich"}],"sub_title":"Ukraine","text":"In Ukraine, the suffix czak interprets as \"daughter of\" implying an original history of matronyms (similar to American last names ending in 'son' [Davidson, Williamson]). In Ukraine all last names ending with -czak, such as Ratajczak, Katerczak, Alberczak, Bartczak, Szchak, etc... are matronyms. The practice of taking a mothers name ended in the mid 19th century, but the matriarch lines are still traced. Other historical examples of matronyms in Ukraine include: Olenych, Katerynchuk, Khyvrych. Oleg Yaroslavich, 12th century prince of Halych, was known as Oleg Nastasyich during his life to distinguish his claim from that of his half-brother Volodymyr.","title":"Europe"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"Abishai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abishai_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Joab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joab"},{"link_name":"Asahel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahel"},{"link_name":"Zeruiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeruiah"},{"link_name":"King David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_David"},{"link_name":"Shamgar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamgar"},{"link_name":"Anat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anat"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Rivlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivlin"},{"link_name":"Rivka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivka"},{"link_name":"Rebecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca"},{"link_name":"Sorkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorkin"},{"link_name":"Sarah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah"},{"link_name":"Zeitlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitlin"},{"link_name":"Rochlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochlin"},{"link_name":"Rachel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel"},{"link_name":"Feiglin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feiglin"},{"link_name":"Feige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feige"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Ashkenazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashkenazi"},{"link_name":"matriname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriname"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary"},{"link_name":"Tarnopol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarnopol"},{"link_name":"recte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recte"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Jewish traditions","text":"Most characters in the Bible are referred to with a patronymic. However, Abishai, Joab, and Asahel – the sons of Zeruiah, sister or stepsister of King David – are invariably referred to as \"Sons of Zeruiah\" and the name of their father remains unknown. Also the Biblical Judge Shamgar is referred to with the matronymic \"Son of Anat\".[citation needed]There are indications of a Jewish history of matronymic names. Specifically, in East European Jewish society, there appeared various matronymic family names such as Rivlin (from Rivka/Rebecca), Sorkin (from Sarah), Zeitlin (from Zeitl), Rochlin (from Rachel), Feiglin (from Feige), Dworkin (from Dvora), and others.[20] In certain Jewish prayers and blessings, matronyms are used, e.g., \"Joseph ben (son of) Miriam\".[citation needed] Specifically, when people are asked to pray urgently for the recovery of a person whose life is in danger, the endangered person's mother is named, the normal formula being \"We call upon you to pray for the recovery of \"[person's name], son/daughter of [mother's name]\".In the 18th century, numerous European nations, such as the Holy Roman Empire, passed laws and issued decrees which mandated that Jews adopt consistent, legal surnames. While this applied to all Jews regardless of gender, for many, their surname came from their mothers, and not their fathers. As a result, a large number of today's surviving Ashkenazi surnames can be traced to a matrilineal ancestor rather than the more globally common trend of surnames being passed between male ancestors and their male descendants. Nevertheless, these surnames weren't matronymic in a strict sense. They are what is known as a matriname, since these particular cases don't derive family names from a mother's forename, instead opting to do so from their surnames. The pattern even precluded instances where a wife would legally adopt the surname of her husband; children would still retain their mother's maiden name as their own surname. The trend was in decline by the early 20th century, however; the 1910 Austro-Hungarian Jewish Census of Tarnopol recorded around 2,000 Jewish families, only 13 of whom possessed a mark of recte indicating a legal surname adopted from a mother's maiden name.[21]","title":"Other"}] | [] | [{"title":"Matriname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matriname"},{"title":"List of people who adopted matrilineal surnames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_adopted_matrilineal_surnames"}] | [{"reference":"\"Жителям Кыргызстана разрешили использовать матчество вместо отчества\" [Residents of Kyrgyzstan permitted to use matronymic instead of patronymic]. Meduza (in Russian). Retrieved 3 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://meduza.io/news/2023/07/03/zhitelyam-kyrgyzstana-razreshili-ispolzovat-matchestvo-vmesto-otchestva","url_text":"\"Жителям Кыргызстана разрешили использовать матчество вместо отчества\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meduza","url_text":"Meduza"}]},{"reference":"Podol'skaya, Dar'ya (3 July 2023). \"Ошибка в трактовке. Конституционный суд разъясняет свое решение по матчеству\" [Error in interpretation. Constitutional court clarifies its decision about matronymics]. 24.kg (in Russian). Retrieved 3 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://24.kg/vlast/269463_oshibka_vtraktovke_konstitutsionnyiy_sud_razyyasnyaet_svoe_reshenie_pomatchestvu/","url_text":"\"Ошибка в трактовке. Конституционный суд разъясняет свое решение по матчеству\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kyrgyz court allows 'matronymics' in a surprise nod to women's rights\". Reuters. 4 July 2023. Retrieved 5 September 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/kyrgyz-court-allows-matronymics-surprise-nod-womens-rights-2023-07-04/","url_text":"\"Kyrgyz court allows 'matronymics' in a surprise nod to women's rights\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"}]},{"reference":"\"В Кыргызстане снова запретили брать матчество вместо отчества\". Сибирь Реалии (in Russian). 10 November 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sibreal.org/a/v-kyrgyzstane-snova-zapretili-brat-matchestvo-vmesto-otchestva/32679596.html","url_text":"\"В Кыргызстане снова запретили брать матчество вместо отчества\""}]},{"reference":"Levi della Vida, Giorgio; Ḥabīb, MuḥAmmad Ibn; Habib, Muhammad Ibn (1942). \"Muḥammad Ibn Ḥabīb's \"Matronymics of Poets\"\". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 62 (3). Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 62, No. 3 (September 1942), pp. 156-71: 156–71. doi:10.2307/594132. JSTOR 594132.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F594132","url_text":"10.2307/594132"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/594132","url_text":"594132"}]},{"reference":"Miku, Linda M. \"Brickbat's - May 2006 LoP Page\". atensubmissions.nexiliscom.com. Retrieved 18 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://atensubmissions.nexiliscom.com/6-2006LoP.shtml","url_text":"\"Brickbat's - May 2006 LoP Page\""}]},{"reference":"Review, Iceland (5 March 2008). \"In the Name of the Father\". Retrieved 18 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://icelandreview.com/icelandreview/daily_life/?cat_id=16571&ew_0_a_id=302030","url_text":"\"In the Name of the Father\""}]},{"reference":"Instituut, Meertens. \"NVB : voornaam eindigt op 'zoon'\". www.meertens.knaw.nl. Retrieved 18 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.meertens.knaw.nl/nvb/naam/eindigtop/zoon","url_text":"\"NVB : voornaam eindigt op 'zoon'\""}]},{"reference":"Cross, Earle Bennett (1910). \"Traces of the Matronymic Family in the Hebrew Social Organization\". The Biblical World. 36 (6). JSTOR: The Biblical World, Vol. 36, No. 6 (Dec., 1910 ), pp. 407-14: 407–14. doi:10.1086/474406. JSTOR 3141456. S2CID 143899711.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F474406","url_text":"10.1086/474406"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3141456","url_text":"3141456"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143899711","url_text":"143899711"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Matronymic%22","external_links_name":"\"Matronymic\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Matronymic%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Matronymic%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Matronymic%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Matronymic%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Matronymic%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=mh/thr","external_links_name":"μήτηρ"},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=o)/noma","external_links_name":"ὄνομα"},{"Link":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=mhtrwnumiko/s","external_links_name":"μητρωνυμικός"},{"Link":"http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=mater","external_links_name":"mater"},{"Link":"http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/2594/12/12_chapter%203.pdf","external_links_name":"Mother's name becoming common in naming conventions in Kerala (page 201)"},{"Link":"https://meduza.io/news/2023/07/03/zhitelyam-kyrgyzstana-razreshili-ispolzovat-matchestvo-vmesto-otchestva","external_links_name":"\"Жителям Кыргызстана разрешили использовать матчество вместо отчества\""},{"Link":"https://24.kg/vlast/269463_oshibka_vtraktovke_konstitutsionnyiy_sud_razyyasnyaet_svoe_reshenie_pomatchestvu/","external_links_name":"\"Ошибка в трактовке. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_George_Sydney_Paige | Ted Paige | ["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Illness and death","4 Personal life","5 Honors and awards","5.1 Fellowships","5.2 Honorary appointments","5.3 Awards","6 Works","6.1 Patents","7 References"] | British physicist and engineer
Ted PaigeBornEdward George Sydney Paige(1930-07-18)18 July 1930Northiam, EnglandDied20 February 2004(2004-02-20) (aged 73)EducationRye Grammar SchoolAlma materReading UniversityPartnerHelen GillChildren4AwardsEPS Europhysics Prize (1979)Scientific careerFieldsPhysicsElectrical EngineeringInstitutionsRadar Research EstablishmentOxford UniversityDoctoral advisorWilliam Mitchell
Professor Edward George Sydney Paige FRS (18 July 1930 – 20 February 2004), known as Ted Paige, was a British physicist and engineer. His main areas of research were semiconductor devices to improve radar, including work on surface acoustic waves, and optical techniques using programmable phase plates.
Early life and education
Paige was an only child born and raised in Northiam, Sussex, where he developed a lifelong interest in ornithology. Paige was raised in “a thatched cottage, reputedly of sixteenth-century vintage, in Northiam, a village on the border between Kent and East Sussex.” Paige's father, in keeping with family tradition, worked for the railroad, serving the stationmaster at the town's railway station. The family did not have running water until Paige was five years old, and did not have electricity until some time later. His parents “were encouraging and supportive but…had little contact with the world of learning or with intellectual pursuits.” An only child, Paige “developed a passion for bird watching, which he sustained throughout his life. He also “suffered periodically from chest complaints,” and his mother later told him that the doctor had lowered his fees for the family to make treatment affordable. Paige described this as “the source of his subsequent socialist leanings.”
From 1935 to 1941, Paige attended Sandhurst primary school in Kent. He went on to Rye Grammar School, where he planned a career in the Navy. A member of the Sea Cadets, he expected to attend the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, Devon, after leaving school. He eventually decided, however, that military regimentation did not appeal to him. He “remained throughout his life of an agnostic disposition.”
It was at Rye Grammar School that he developed an interest in science. He performed experiments on his own and created explosives. It was only at the suggestion of his headmaster, who recognized his gifts, that Paige, whose family had no history of higher education, stayed on into the sixth form. At first his scientific interests were focused on biology, but when the school hired a master, Leslie Elliott, to teach physics and chemistry, Paige was attracted to those subjects. His results on the test for a Higher School Certificate earned him a County Scholarship, allowing him to proceed to Reading University to read physics.
During his undergraduate years (1949–52) Paige studied physics, chemistry and mathematics, earning a first-class honours degree in physics. He also earned a British Association for the Advancement of Science Exhibition. While he was an undergraduate, he held a summer job in an electronics factory.
Paige proceeded to doctoral studies. His supervisor was Dr (later Sir) William Mitchell (FRS 1986). Indeed, Paige was the first doctoral student that Mitchell ever supervised. Their association developed into a decades-long collaboration and lifelong friendship. Paige's doctoral research was focused on radiation damage in quartz caused by X-rays and neutrons, and established that “optical absorption in the visible part of the spectrum was attributable to aluminium impurities.” Shortly after marrying, Paige received his PhD in 1955.
Career
Given the choice of either pursuing a postdoctoral fellowship at the National Research Council in Canada or accepting a Civil Service Commission Junior Fellowship at a government-run research establishment of his choice in the UK, Paige chose the latter, ultimately choosing the Radar Research Establishment (RRE) in Malvern, where the research was focused entirely on pure science. Paige began working at that institution in 1955 with the title of Junior Research Fellow to the Deputy Chief Scientific Officer. In 1973, he was promoted to Deputy Chief Scientific Officer. In 1976, the RRE was incorporated into the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment.
Eventually, Paige joined the RRE's Transistor Physics Division, led by Alan Gibson, where he Paige “studied the behaviour of free carriers in semiconductors.”
In the late 1950s he taught classes at Birmingham University and led seminars in the Physics Department of Oxford University.
In 1966 Paige went to Copenhagen, where he spent six months as a visiting professor teaching a course on solid state plasmas.
In 1968 he became leader of a research group investigating Rayleigh waves on semiconductor surfaces. Its findings were useful in designing the radar for the RAF's Nimrod reconnaissance aircraft, and the team won the Ministry of Defence's Wolfe Award. Paige also teamed up with Dr Tom McLean, and together they wrote twenty papers on germanium.
In 1970, Paige formed a team, the UK SAW Liaison Group, that engaged in research and development into surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. Th group “flourished for most of a decade” and “was a fruitful venture, engendering good collaboration between university, industry and government groups.” The group's work resulted in many patents, publications and applications, and “the team's reputation spread internationally.” The team, which included physicists Graham Marshall, Meirion Lewis, and Dennis Maines, developed SAW electronic filters, which had many applications, including mobile phones, when they later emerged. The team “developed close links with several university groups, first of all in the field of acousto-electronics. The liaisons extended to groups in France, and for some period there were regular Anglo-French consortia meetings, with the British contingent led by Paige.”
In 1977 Paige became the Chair of Electrical Engineering at Oxford and a Fellow of St. John's College, titles he retained until 1997, which involved a shift in focus from physics to engineering and from research to a com bination of research and teaching. He has been described as “a brilliant teacher.” In 1984, for a brief time he was acting head of the Engineering Science Department. “In the late 1970s he initiated the introduction of information technology into the department, and 10 years later he introduced optoelectronics. Both areas are flourishing.” At Oxford he focused on restructuring the department and upgrading the teaching laboratories. In the 1980s he developed an interest in optoelectronics, including programmable light modulators for sub-micron lithography.
In 1986–87, he spent a sabbatical year at Stanford University, where he worked with Professor J. W. Goodman on optoelectronics. Returning to Oxford he “developed an interest in programmable light modulators, using them to develop optical techniques with potential for sub-micron lithography....A three-dimensional image system for use as a head-mounted display also followed from his work.”
By the early 1990s he “was opening up an important new field using a ferroelectric spatial light modulator (SLM) in a novel phase-only mode.…Within a few years a wealth of developments and applications were found by Paige and his group, making his last years before retirement both productive and intellectually rewarding.”
In 1997, Paige retired from Oxford, but he was “active and productive” in his role as an emeritus professor, and received a Leverhulme Fellowship.
Paige was also involved with the Science Research Council.
Illness and death
Paige was diagnosed with HFE hereditary haemochromatosis in 1996 a genetic disorder that creates iron overload in the body.
From 2000 until he died in 2004, Paige was a director of the Haemochromatosis Society, a group founded in 1990 to help with awareness and research into genetic haemochromatosis. Paige used his statistical expertise to help the society to better survey and document the disease. Paige died of liver cancer in 2004 which was caused by his genetic condition.
Personal life
He was married to Helen Gill and they had four children.
Honors and awards
Fellowships
In 1967 Paige was named a Fellow of the Institute of Physics; in 1977, a Fellow of St John's College, Oxford; in 1978, a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers; in 1983, a Fellow of the Royal Society; in 1997, a Leverhulme Emeritus Fellow.
Honorary appointments
In 1966, he was a visiting professor at the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen; in 1986, a visiting professor at Stanford University.
Awards
In 1978 he received the Institute of Physics' Duddell Medal and the Institute of Acoustics' Rayleigh Medal. In the same year he won the Gabor Medal from the Institute of Physics. In the 1980s he developed an interest in optoelectronics, including programmable light modulators for sub-micron lithography.
Works
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2014)
Paige, E.G.S.; Sucharov, L.O.D. (2001). "Enhancement of imaging performance of a variable focus Fresnel zone plate based on a single, binary, phase-only SLM". Optics Communications. 193 (1–6): 27–38. doi:10.1016/s0030-4018(01)01178-6.
Mannivannan, N.; Neil, M.A.A.; Paige, E.G.S. (2000). "Optical multiple pattern recognition with a correlator using a single binary phase-only filter". Optics Communications. 178 (1): 37–51. doi:10.1016/s0030-4018(00)00633-7.
Chen, H.Y.; Mayhew, N.; Paige, E.G.S.; Yang, G.G. (1996). "Enhancement of submicron optical lithography performance using phase-only pupil filters". Microelectronic Engineering. 30 (1–4): 95–98. doi:10.1016/0167-9317(95)00202-2.
Patents
Maines James Dennis, Paige Edward George Sydney: Frequency sensitive detecting and measuring circuits based on the acoustic electric effect. National Research Development Corporation. May 2, 1972: US 3660756
Maines James Dennis, Paige Edward George Sydney: Application of acousto-electric oscillators. Secr Defence. Apr, 19 1972: GB 1271495-A
David John Gunton, Edward George Sydney Paige: Directional coupler having interdigital comb electrodes, 31 May 1977: US 4027254
Edward George Sydney Paige: Surface acoustic wave devices, 17 August 1976: US 3975697 and US 3978437
With F. G. Marshall: Acoustic surface wave devices. 1974:GB 1372235
With F. G. Marshall: Acoustic surface wave device amplifiers. 1975:GB 1385055
With P. D. Bloch & M. E. Barnard: Inclined chirp transducer. 1983: GB 2145893
References
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Ash, Eric A; E. Peter Raynes (December 2009). "Edward George Sydney Paige. 18 July 1930 – 20 February 2004". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 55: 185–200. doi:10.1098/rsbm.2009.0009.
^ a b c d e f Clark, Colin (24 March 2004). "Professor E. G. S. Paige". The Independent. Archived from the original on 26 May 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
^ Clark, Colin; Professor E. G. S. Paige; The Independent; March 24, 2004;
^ Clark, Colin; Professor E. G. S. Paige; The Independent; March 24, 2004;
^ Clark, Colin; Professor E. G. S. Paige; The Independent; March 24, 2004;
^ Gabor Medal, iop.org, retrieved 22 December 2013
^ Clark, Colin; Professor E. G. S. Paige; The Independent; March 24, 2004;
^ Clark, Colin; Professor E. G. S. Paige; The Independent; March 24, 2004;
^ a b Haemochromatosis Society Archived 22 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, retrieved 22 December 2013
^ Obituary Ted Paige, soue.org.uk, retrieved December 2013
^ Gabor Medal, iop.org, retrieved 22 December 2013
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United States
Netherlands | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"surface acoustic waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_acoustic_wave"},{"link_name":"programmable phase plates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveplate"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"text":"Professor Edward George Sydney Paige FRS (18 July 1930 – 20 February 2004), known as Ted Paige, was a British physicist and engineer. His main areas of research were semiconductor devices to improve radar, including work on surface acoustic waves, and optical techniques using programmable phase plates.[1]","title":"Ted Paige"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northiam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northiam"},{"link_name":"ornithology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"Rye Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye_Grammar_School"},{"link_name":"Royal Naval College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_Royal_Naval_College"},{"link_name":"Reading University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"William Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Mitchell_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clark-2"}],"text":"Paige was an only child born and raised in Northiam, Sussex, where he developed a lifelong interest in ornithology. Paige was raised in “a thatched cottage, reputedly of sixteenth-century vintage, in Northiam, a village on the border between Kent and East Sussex.” Paige's father, in keeping with family tradition, worked for the railroad, serving the stationmaster at the town's railway station. The family did not have running water until Paige was five years old, and did not have electricity until some time later. His parents “were encouraging and supportive but…had little contact with the world of learning or with intellectual pursuits.” An only child, Paige “developed a passion for bird watching, which he sustained throughout his life. He also “suffered periodically from chest complaints,” and his mother later told him that the doctor had lowered his fees for the family to make treatment affordable. Paige described this as “the source of his subsequent socialist leanings.”[1]From 1935 to 1941, Paige attended Sandhurst primary school in Kent. He went on to Rye Grammar School, where he planned a career in the Navy. A member of the Sea Cadets, he expected to attend the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth, Devon, after leaving school. He eventually decided, however, that military regimentation did not appeal to him. He “remained throughout his life of an agnostic disposition.”It was at Rye Grammar School that he developed an interest in science. He performed experiments on his own and created explosives. It was only at the suggestion of his headmaster, who recognized his gifts, that Paige, whose family had no history of higher education, stayed on into the sixth form. At first his scientific interests were focused on biology, but when the school hired a master, Leslie Elliott, to teach physics and chemistry, Paige was attracted to those subjects. His results on the test for a Higher School Certificate earned him a County Scholarship, allowing him to proceed to Reading University to read physics.[1]During his undergraduate years (1949–52) Paige studied physics, chemistry and mathematics, earning a first-class honours degree in physics. He also earned a British Association for the Advancement of Science Exhibition. While he was an undergraduate, he held a summer job in an electronics factory.Paige proceeded to doctoral studies. His supervisor was Dr (later Sir) William Mitchell (FRS 1986). Indeed, Paige was the first doctoral student that Mitchell ever supervised. Their association developed into a decades-long collaboration and lifelong friendship. Paige's doctoral research was focused on radiation damage in quartz caused by X-rays and neutrons, and established that “optical absorption in the visible part of the spectrum was attributable to aluminium impurities.” Shortly after marrying, Paige received his PhD in 1955.[1][2]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Council_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Radar Research Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_Research_Establishment"},{"link_name":"Malvern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvern,_Worcestershire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"Royal Signals and Radar Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Signals_and_Radar_Establishment"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductors"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Birmingham University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_waves"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clark-2"},{"link_name":"RAF's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Nimrod reconnaissance aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeley_Nimrod"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clark-2"},{"link_name":"germanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"surface acoustic wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_acoustic_wave"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Graham Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Graham_Marshall_(physicist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"electronic filters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_filters"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"acousto-electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousto-electronics"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"optoelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clark-2"},{"link_name":"optoelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"ferroelectric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroelectric"},{"link_name":"spatial light modulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_light_modulator"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Science Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"text":"Given the choice of either pursuing a postdoctoral fellowship at the National Research Council in Canada or accepting a Civil Service Commission Junior Fellowship at a government-run research establishment of his choice in the UK, Paige chose the latter, ultimately choosing the Radar Research Establishment (RRE) in Malvern,[1] where the research was focused entirely on pure science.[1] Paige began working at that institution in 1955 with the title of Junior Research Fellow to the Deputy Chief Scientific Officer. In 1973, he was promoted to Deputy Chief Scientific Officer.[1] In 1976, the RRE was incorporated into the Royal Signals and Radar Establishment.[1]Eventually, Paige joined the RRE's Transistor Physics Division, led by Alan Gibson, where he Paige “studied the behaviour of free carriers in semiconductors.”[3]In the late 1950s he taught classes at Birmingham University and led seminars in the Physics Department of Oxford University.[1]In 1966 Paige went to Copenhagen, where he spent six months as a visiting professor teaching a course on solid state plasmas.In 1968 he became leader of a research group investigating Rayleigh waves on semiconductor surfaces.[2] Its findings were useful in designing the radar for the RAF's Nimrod reconnaissance aircraft, and the team won the Ministry of Defence's Wolfe Award.[2] Paige also teamed up with Dr Tom McLean, and together they wrote twenty papers on germanium.[1]In 1970, Paige formed a team, the UK SAW Liaison Group, that engaged in research and development into surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices. Th group “flourished for most of a decade” and “was a fruitful venture, engendering good collaboration between university, industry and government groups.”[1] The group's work resulted in many patents, publications and applications, and “the team's reputation spread internationally.”[4] The team, which included physicists Graham Marshall, Meirion Lewis, and Dennis Maines, developed SAW electronic filters, which had many applications, including mobile phones, when they later emerged.[1] The team “developed close links with several university groups, first of all in the field of acousto-electronics. The liaisons extended to groups in France, and for some period there were regular Anglo-French consortia meetings, with the British contingent led by Paige.”[1]In 1977 Paige became the Chair of Electrical Engineering at Oxford and a Fellow of St. John's College, titles he retained until 1997, which involved a shift in focus from physics to engineering and from research to a com bination of research and teaching. He has been described as “a brilliant teacher.” In 1984, for a brief time he was acting head of the Engineering Science Department. “In the late 1970s he initiated the introduction of information technology into the department, and 10 years later he introduced optoelectronics. Both areas are flourishing.”[5][1] At Oxford he focused on restructuring the department and upgrading the teaching laboratories.[6] In the 1980s he developed an interest in optoelectronics, including programmable light modulators for sub-micron lithography.[2]In 1986–87, he spent a sabbatical year at Stanford University, where he worked with Professor J. W. Goodman on optoelectronics. Returning to Oxford he “developed an interest in programmable light modulators, using them to develop optical techniques with potential for sub-micron lithography....A three-dimensional image system for use as a head-mounted display also followed from his work.”[7]By the early 1990s he “was opening up an important new field using a ferroelectric spatial light modulator (SLM) in a novel phase-only mode.…Within a few years a wealth of developments and applications were found by Paige and his group, making his last years before retirement both productive and intellectually rewarding.”[1][8]In 1997, Paige retired from Oxford, but he was “active and productive” in his role as an emeritus professor, and received a Leverhulme Fellowship.Paige was also involved with the Science Research Council.[1]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HFE hereditary haemochromatosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HFE_hereditary_haemochromatosis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"iron overload","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_overload"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haemochromatosis_Society-9"},{"link_name":"Haemochromatosis Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haemochromatosis_Society&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haemochromatosis_Society-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"text":"Paige was diagnosed with HFE hereditary haemochromatosis in 1996[1] a genetic disorder that creates iron overload in the body.[9]\nFrom 2000 until he died in 2004, Paige was a director of the Haemochromatosis Society, a group founded in 1990 to help with awareness and research into genetic haemochromatosis.[9] Paige used his statistical expertise to help the society to better survey and document the disease.[1] Paige died of liver cancer in 2004 which was caused by his genetic condition.[1]","title":"Illness and death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"text":"He was married to Helen Gill and they had four children.[1]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Honors and awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Institute of Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics"},{"link_name":"St John's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Institute of Electrical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_Engineers"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Leverhulme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leverhulme"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clark-2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"sub_title":"Fellowships","text":"In 1967 Paige was named a Fellow of the Institute of Physics; in 1977, a Fellow of St John's College, Oxford; in 1978, a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers; in 1983, a Fellow of the Royal Society; in 1997, a Leverhulme Emeritus Fellow.[2][10][1]","title":"Honors and awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Technical University of Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_University_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"sub_title":"Honorary appointments","text":"In 1966, he was a visiting professor at the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen; in 1986, a visiting professor at Stanford University.[1]","title":"Honors and awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Institute of Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics"},{"link_name":"Duddell Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duddell_Medal_and_Prize"},{"link_name":"Institute of Acoustics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Acoustics_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_Medal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"Gabor Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabor_Medal"},{"link_name":"Institute of Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"optoelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectronics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clark-2"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"In 1978 he received the Institute of Physics' Duddell Medal and the Institute of Acoustics' Rayleigh Medal.[1] In the same year he won the Gabor Medal from the Institute of Physics.[11] In the 1980s he developed an interest in optoelectronics, including programmable light modulators for sub-micron lithography.[2]","title":"Honors and awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/s0030-4018(01)01178-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0030-4018%2801%2901178-6"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/s0030-4018(00)00633-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0030-4018%2800%2900633-7"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0167-9317(95)00202-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0167-9317%2895%2900202-2"}],"text":"Paige, E.G.S.; Sucharov, L.O.D. (2001). \"Enhancement of imaging performance of a variable focus Fresnel zone plate based on a single, binary, phase-only SLM\". Optics Communications. 193 (1–6): 27–38. doi:10.1016/s0030-4018(01)01178-6.\nMannivannan, N.; Neil, M.A.A.; Paige, E.G.S. (2000). \"Optical multiple pattern recognition with a correlator using a single binary phase-only filter\". Optics Communications. 178 (1): 37–51. doi:10.1016/s0030-4018(00)00633-7.\nChen, H.Y.; Mayhew, N.; Paige, E.G.S.; Yang, G.G. (1996). \"Enhancement of submicron optical lithography performance using phase-only pupil filters\". Microelectronic Engineering. 30 (1–4): 95–98. doi:10.1016/0167-9317(95)00202-2.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ash-1"}],"sub_title":"Patents","text":"Maines James Dennis, Paige Edward George Sydney: Frequency sensitive detecting and measuring circuits based on the acoustic electric effect. National Research Development Corporation. May 2, 1972: US 3660756\nMaines James Dennis, Paige Edward George Sydney: Application of acousto-electric oscillators. Secr Defence. Apr, 19 1972: GB 1271495-A\nDavid John Gunton, Edward George Sydney Paige: Directional coupler having interdigital comb electrodes, 31 May 1977: US 4027254\nEdward George Sydney Paige: Surface acoustic wave devices, 17 August 1976: US 3975697 and US 3978437\nWith F. G. Marshall: Acoustic surface wave devices. 1974:GB 1372235[1]\nWith F. G. Marshall: Acoustic surface wave device amplifiers. 1975:GB 1385055[1]\nWith P. D. Bloch & M. E. Barnard: Inclined chirp transducer. 1983: GB 2145893[1]","title":"Works"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Paige, E.G.S.; Sucharov, L.O.D. (2001). \"Enhancement of imaging performance of a variable focus Fresnel zone plate based on a single, binary, phase-only SLM\". Optics Communications. 193 (1–6): 27–38. doi:10.1016/s0030-4018(01)01178-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0030-4018%2801%2901178-6","url_text":"10.1016/s0030-4018(01)01178-6"}]},{"reference":"Mannivannan, N.; Neil, M.A.A.; Paige, E.G.S. (2000). \"Optical multiple pattern recognition with a correlator using a single binary phase-only filter\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_F._Sundman | Karl F. Sundman | ["1 Awards, recognition","2 See also","3 References","4 Sources"] | Finnish mathematician (1873–1949)
Karl F. Sundman.
Karl Frithiof Sundman (28 October 1873, in Kaskinen – 28 September 1949, in Helsinki) was a Finnish mathematician who used analytic methods to prove the existence of a convergent infinite series solution to the three-body problem in two papers published in 1907 and 1909. His results gained fame when they were reproduced in Acta Mathematica in 1912. He also published a paper on regularization methods in mechanics in 1912.
Awards, recognition
Sundman was awarded the Pontécoulant prize by the French Academy of Science in 1913 for this work. In 1908 Sundman was elected member of the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters and in 1947 foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The crater Sundman on the Moon is named after him, as is the asteroid 1424 Sundmania.
See also
Qiudong Wang generalized Sundman's solution to the case of more than three bodies In the 1990s.
References
^ a b Karl Frithiof Sundman bio
^ Sundman, Karl F. "Recherches sur le problème des trois corps". Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicæ. XXXIV (1907) N:o 6.
^ Sundman, Karl F. "Nouvelles recherches sur le problème des trois corps". Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicæ. XXXV (1909) N:o 9.
^ Sundman, K. (1912). "Mémoire sur le problème des trois corps". Acta Mathematica. 36: 105–179. doi:10.1007/BF02422379.
^ Elfving, Fredr. (1938). Finska Vetenskapssocietetens historia 1838-1938. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum (in Swedish). Helsingfors: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.
^ "Lista över ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien". Retrieved 2022-01-04.
^ Babadzanjanz, L. K. (1979), "Existence of the continuations in the N-body problem", Celestial Mechanics, 20 (1): 43–57, Bibcode:1979CeMec..20...43B, doi:10.1007/BF01236607, MR 0538663, S2CID 120358878.
^ Wang, Qiu Dong (1991), "The global solution of the n-body problem", Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, 50 (1): 73–88, Bibcode:1991CeMDA..50...73W, doi:10.1007/BF00048987, MR 1117788, S2CID 118132097.
^ Babadzanjanz, L. K. (1993), "On the global solution of the N-body problem", Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, 56 (3): 427–449, Bibcode:1993CeMDA..56..427B, doi:10.1007/BF00691812, MR 1225892, S2CID 120617936.
Sources
Järnefelt, G.: "Karl Fridhiof Sundman." Soc. Sci. Fenn. Arsbok 30 (2) (1953), 1–13.
Järnefelt, G.: "Karl F. Sundman in Memoriam." Acta Mathematica 83 (1950), i–vi.
Barrow-Green, June (2010). "The dramatic episode of Sundman. Historia Mathematica, 37 (2): 164-203.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
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This article about a Finnish scientist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This article about a European mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karl_Sundman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kaskinen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaskinen"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hist-st.andrews-1"},{"link_name":"infinite series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_series"},{"link_name":"three-body problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-body_problem#Three-body_problem"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Acta Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"regularization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularization_(physics)"},{"link_name":"mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics"}],"text":"Karl F. Sundman.Karl Frithiof Sundman (28 October 1873, in Kaskinen – 28 September 1949, in Helsinki) was a Finnish mathematician[1] who used analytic methods to prove the existence of a convergent infinite series solution to the three-body problem in two papers published in 1907[2] and 1909.[3] His results gained fame when they were reproduced in Acta Mathematica in 1912.[4] He also published a paper on regularization methods in mechanics in 1912.","title":"Karl F. 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Sci. Fenn. Arsbok 30 (2) (1953), 1–13.\nJärnefelt, G.: \"Karl F. Sundman in Memoriam.\" Acta Mathematica 83 (1950), i–vi.\nBarrow-Green, June (2010). \"The dramatic episode of Sundman. Historia Mathematica, 37 (2): 164-203.Authority control databases International\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nNorway\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nFinland\nNetherlands\nPoland\nAcademics\nMathSciNet\nMathematics Genealogy Project\nzbMATH\nPeople\nDeutsche Biographie\nOther\nIdRefThis article about a Finnish scientist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vteThis article about a European mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Sources"}] | [{"image_text":"Karl F. 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Acta Mathematica. 36: 105–179. doi:10.1007/BF02422379.","urls":[{"url":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=msu.31293004078543;view=1up;seq=577","url_text":"\"Mémoire sur le problème des trois corps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta_Mathematica","url_text":"Acta Mathematica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02422379","url_text":"10.1007/BF02422379"}]},{"reference":"Elfving, Fredr. (1938). Finska Vetenskapssocietetens historia 1838-1938. Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum (in Swedish). Helsingfors: Societas Scientiarum Fennica.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Lista över ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien\". Retrieved 2022-01-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.owlapps.net/owlapps_apps/articles?id=1334660&lang=sv","url_text":"\"Lista över ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien\""}]},{"reference":"Babadzanjanz, L. K. (1979), \"Existence of the continuations in the N-body problem\", Celestial Mechanics, 20 (1): 43–57, Bibcode:1979CeMec..20...43B, doi:10.1007/BF01236607, MR 0538663, S2CID 120358878","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979CeMec..20...43B","url_text":"1979CeMec..20...43B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01236607","url_text":"10.1007/BF01236607"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0538663","url_text":"0538663"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120358878","url_text":"120358878"}]},{"reference":"Wang, Qiu Dong (1991), \"The global solution of the n-body problem\", Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, 50 (1): 73–88, Bibcode:1991CeMDA..50...73W, doi:10.1007/BF00048987, MR 1117788, S2CID 118132097","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiudong_Wang","url_text":"Wang, Qiu Dong"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991CeMDA..50...73W","url_text":"1991CeMDA..50...73W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00048987","url_text":"10.1007/BF00048987"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1117788","url_text":"1117788"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118132097","url_text":"118132097"}]},{"reference":"Babadzanjanz, L. 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(1993), \"On the global solution of the N-body problem\", Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy, 56 (3): 427–449, Bibcode:1993CeMDA..56..427B, doi:10.1007/BF00691812, MR 1225892, S2CID 120617936","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993CeMDA..56..427B","url_text":"1993CeMDA..56..427B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00691812","url_text":"10.1007/BF00691812"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MR_(identifier)","url_text":"MR"},{"url":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1225892","url_text":"1225892"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120617936","url_text":"120617936"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Sundman.html","external_links_name":"Karl Frithiof Sundman bio"},{"Link":"https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=msu.31293004078543;view=1up;seq=577","external_links_name":"\"Mémoire sur le problème des trois corps\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02422379","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF02422379"},{"Link":"http://www.owlapps.net/owlapps_apps/articles?id=1334660&lang=sv","external_links_name":"\"Lista över ledamöter av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979CeMec..20...43B","external_links_name":"1979CeMec..20...43B"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01236607","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF01236607"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0538663","external_links_name":"0538663"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120358878","external_links_name":"120358878"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991CeMDA..50...73W","external_links_name":"1991CeMDA..50...73W"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00048987","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF00048987"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1117788","external_links_name":"1117788"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118132097","external_links_name":"118132097"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993CeMDA..56..427B","external_links_name":"1993CeMDA..56..427B"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00691812","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF00691812"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1225892","external_links_name":"1225892"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120617936","external_links_name":"120617936"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000013597046","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/25386548","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJyWPKQ7MHfwv7VHBhhPwC","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/49699","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17017473b","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17017473b","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/11769780X","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000083825","external_links_name":"Finland"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p243959508","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810559927405606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/547088","external_links_name":"MathSciNet"},{"Link":"https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=234098","external_links_name":"Mathematics Genealogy Project"},{"Link":"https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:sundman.karl-frithiof","external_links_name":"zbMATH"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11769780X.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/179782029","external_links_name":"IdRef"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl_F._Sundman&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karl_F._Sundman&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra:_Overture | Penumbra: Overture | ["1 Gameplay","2 Plot","3 Development","3.1 Tech demo","3.2 Release","4 Reception","5 References","6 External links"] | 2007 video gamePenumbra: OvertureDeveloper(s)Frictional GamesPublisher(s)Lexicon EntertainmentDesigner(s)Jens NilssonProgrammer(s)Thomas GripArtist(s)Anton AdamseWriter(s)Tom JubertComposer(s)Mikko TarmiaEngineHPL Engine 1Platform(s)Windows, Linux, Mac OS XReleaseWindowsWW: 30 March 2007NA: 8 May 2007 (Retail)LinuxWW: 31 May 2007WW: 11 December 2012 (Steam)OS X10 January 2008Genre(s)Survival horrorMode(s)Single-player
Penumbra: Overture (also known as Penumbra: Overture – Episode One) is the first in a series of episodic survival horror games developed by Frictional Games. The game follows a physicist named Philip who travels to Greenland after his mother's death and is forced to explore an abandoned mine. Penumbra: Overture received average reception from critics.
The game was originally intended as the first episode of a trilogy. With the announcement of the second episode, Penumbra: Black Plague, it was stated that the second game would be the final chapter. However, an expansion has been released since then: Penumbra: Requiem, technically giving the series a third chapter.
Gameplay
Although Frictional Games describes Penumbra: Overture as a "first-person adventure", the game blends the genres of survival horror, psychological horror, and adventure. The use of the Newton Game Dynamics physics engine emphasizes physics-based puzzles as well as physics-based combat. The game also takes advantage of advanced artificial intelligence to respond realistically to noises and light, creating stealth-based gameplay. There are no firearms in the game, so during combat the player is limited to improvised melee fighting with a hammer or pickaxe, or throwing objects at attacking creatures. The game is designed to emphasize stealth and avoidance over direct conflict. For example, Philip can close doors behind him to temporarily hold off attacking enemies.
The game's main focus is on exploration and classic adventure game object interaction: examining and collecting objects and using them to solve puzzles. These mostly involve finding keys or other objects that can either be used by themselves or in combination with each other to solve certain problems. In addition to these standard inventory based puzzles, Overture also offers several physics-based puzzles where certain objects must be moved or manipulated in real time. Environmental objects such as doors, desk drawers, and switches on machinery must be opened or manipulated using realistic movements mirroring their use in the real world, and certain obstructions can only be cleared by utilizing certain objects in a specific way; for example, in order to solve one of the game's puzzles a player may choose to stack boxes and barrels in such a manner as to allow for the player to be able to leap past an obstacle, such as an electrical fence, or to reach a certain area normally too high to reach.
Essential to puzzle solving is the ability to read written notes scattered around the mine by its previous inhabitants, which often offer clues or solutions as to how to get past a certain area, as well as providing plot exposition and character development. The player also has access to a notebook where important information and the players goals and objectives are recorded.
Plot
Set in the year 2001, Penumbra: Overture follows the story of Philip, a thirty-year-old physicist whose mother has recently died. After receiving a mysterious letter from his supposedly dead father, Philip follows a series of clues that lead him to a mysterious location in uninhabited northern Greenland. The harsh cold forces him to take shelter in an abandoned mine, the entrance of which collapses as he enters it, and he is forced to move deeper inside. Within the mine, Philip discovers diary extracts written by a stranded scientist who gradually resorted to eating cave-dwelling spiders as an alternative food source as his supplies diminished.
The scientist also describes discovering a psychoactive toxin in the spiders and deduces that, after eight months of using them to supplement his diet, it was beginning to have an effect on him. Philip begins to receive radio messages from Tom "Red" Redwood, a man driven insane by cabin fever. Red promises that, if he is found, he will give Philip answers. The game follows Philip as he descends deeper into the mines in search of Red while unravelling the secrets of their previous and current inhabitants.
Philip quickly discovers that the mine is inhabited by an ecosystem of abnormally large and hostile animals: dogs, giant spiders, and gargantuan earthworms, among others. Abandoned outposts and various papers scattered throughout the mine indicate that a secret society is studying some unusual phenomena inside the mines.
Following clues and solving various puzzles, Philip eventually comes to an area deep within the mine where Red is waiting for him. Red waits inside an incinerator, where he begs Philip to kill him. With no other option, Philip activates the incinerator and, amongst Red's remains, he finds an item that he needs in order to progress into a new area of the mine identified as "The Shelter". Once inside, Philip notices what appears to be a human watching him. Philip approaches the figure, but the lighting is suddenly extinguished, and Philip is knocked out and dragged away.
Development
The Penumbra Tech Demo from 2006
The full commercial game Overture
Tech demo
Penumbra: Overture is based on Frictional Games' earlier game Penumbra, a short tech demo meant to demonstrate the capabilities of the company's HPL Engine 1.
The developers admitted to making significant modifications of the original engine to accommodate the 3D graphics in this game: "The engine is built from an engine created when making a thesis job which resulted in the platform game Energetic. Before moving into the 3rd dimension I made some cleanup of the engine (which was quite rushed in some places) and started to add a base for 3D rendering. I would not say that the original 2D engine was modified to add 3D, but rather a 3D layer was added so all of the 2D stuff is still there. It is still possible to make a 2D tile game using our engine".
While not initially intended to be a commercial product, Penumbra was received exceedingly well, and Frictional decided to develop it into a full-length game.
Release
The first episode of Penumbra was released on 30 March 2007, through various online distribution websites. The game was simultaneously released in a boxed edition in the United Kingdom, and the boxed release in the United States was shipped to retailers on 8 May. On 30 May, the full version for Linux was released on the Frictional Games store.
In addition, the game became available on GameTap on 4 October. On 10 January 2008, the full version for Mac OS X was released on the Frictional Games forum for PowerPC and Intel architectures. In March 2009, Paradox Interactive released Penumbra Overture in a collection pack along with Penumbra: Black Plague and Penumbra: Requiem. The game became available via Steam on 7 March.
Overture was released as part of the Humble Indie Bundle, and when the Bundle made more than $1 million, Overture's source code was released under the GNU GPL-3.0-or-later. Frictional Games also hosts a dedicated forum on their website where people can discuss the code and any projects based around it.
Reception
ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic73/100Review scoresPublicationScore1Up.comCAdventure GamersEurogamer7/10GameSpot7.8/10GamesTM6/10GameZone7.5/10IGN7/10PC Format79%PC Gamer (US)74%VideoGamer.com6/10The New York Times(positive)
The game received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. It was criticized on a number of fronts, especially for its rather crude combat system and sometimes confusing or poorly implemented story elements, causing Eurogamer to comment that the game would "do better if it relied on its own inherent spookiness rather than trying to create artificial atmosphere by banging on about a character we don't have any real reason to care about, something about his dad, destiny and miners writing stupidly long notes to themselves about their imminent horrible deaths". It did however praise the character of Red, stating that he was "the most compelling element of the narrative, and wonderfully acted". GameSpot in its review commented on the combat by saying that fights are often "so frenetic that it's almost impossible to control your movements" and that "it would have been much more sensible for the camera to lock on and move with enemies". It did however note that it did help differentiate Overture from more action oriented titles, saying that the "end result of the difficult combat is that you feel like an average Joe who wants to avoid zombie dogs with glowing eyes, not a video game superman out to stack dead canines like cordwood".
Despite these apparent flaws, the game was praised for its unsettling and creepy atmosphere, with The Adrenaline Vault deciding that "every element in the game is geared to set a dark, scary mood. On occasion, you’ll feel helpless, overwhelmed, guilty and frightened. I think this is helped, rather than hindered, by the developer’s choice to keep physical fights intermittent and less gory and bloody than in many other horror games. The result is a sense of depressing solitude, with the disturbing knowledge that you’re not alone". The game's approach to puzzle solving was also generally well received, with Worthplaying stating that "the control scheme adds an interesting touch to the game and helps with the immersion", although GameZone in their review of the game complained that "sometimes having to interact with things in this way lead to problems, as in when necessary actions were hard to accomplish". While the game's production values were lower than some of the other titles released around the same time, Adventure Gamers noted that for "an independent project from a team of four people, the game looks great, besides a few shoddy textures", and saying that the game's sound effects "help set the mood" and are "realistic and jarring".
Many of the criticisms directed at Overture were taken into consideration during the development of the next episode Penumbra: Black Plague. These changes included the removal of dogs and other combat related enemies, as well as moving away somewhat from a reliance on written notes. The combat system was also dropped entirely and the physics system somewhat reworked, leading the game to be even more stealth based than its predecessor. Black Plague received slightly more positive reviews from critics, and its design was for the most part mirrored with only a few additions by Frictional's critically acclaimed 2010 spiritual successor to the series, Amnesia: The Dark Descent.
References
^ a b c Bardinelli, John (31 May 2007). "Indie horror adventure Penumbra: Overture available on Linux, coming to Mac". Engadget (Joystiq). Oath Inc. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ "Penumbra: Overture premieres game on Gamer's Gate". Paradox Interactive. 2 February 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Greeley, Melanie (13 September 2007). "Penumbra to spread to computers again next year". Adventure Gamers. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Eklund, Johan (16 April 2008). "Penumbra får en tredje del trots allt!". Gameplayer.se (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 13 January 2009.
^ a b "Penumbra: Overture". Frictional Games. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Haas, Juergen (18 July 2009). "Penumbra Horror Games Overture, Black Plague, and Requiem Ported to Linux". About.com. The New York Times Company. Archived from the original on 22 July 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Williamson, Steven (19 January 2007). "Hands-on Penumbra Overture". Hexus. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Elrod, Corvus (31 May 2007). "Penumbra Linux Release". The Escapist. Defy Media. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2010.
^ Philip receives the letter in 2000, but the game starts a year later: 1MadeMan1 (8 May 2007). "Penumbra Overture Upustvo: Boat Cabin". GameFAQs (in Bosnian). CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ srlinuxx (5 June 2008). "Penumbra Overture - If You Dare". Tux Machines. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
^ Jong, Philip (25 December 2007). "Jens Nilsson, Thomas Grip, TJ Jubert - Frictional Games". Adventure Classic Gaming. Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 15 October 2008.
^ "Penumbra: Overture: FAQ". Got Game Entertainment. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Nilsson, Jens (10 January 2008). "2008-01 Thursday 10th, Penumbra: Overture released for Mac OS X!". Frictional Games. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ van Leeuwen, Jeffrey (15 May 2010). " Frictional Games". TGDB (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 20 May 2010.
^ jens (14 May 2010). "Penumbra: Overture, HPL1 Engine and OALWrapper released as open source". Frictional Games. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
^ "Penumbra: Overture Game And Engine Source Code Released For Free". MegaGames. 14 May 2010. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ a b "Penumbra Overture for PC Reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
^ Ardai, Charles (16 May 2007). "Penumbra Overture". 1UP.com. Ziff Davis. Archived from the original on 12 June 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
^ a b Boosinger, Austin (15 May 2007). "Penumbra: Overture". Adventure Gamers. Archived from the original on 17 May 2022. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ a b Meer, Alec (30 March 2007). "Penumbra: Overture". Eurogamer. Gamer Network. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
^ a b Todd, Brett (4 May 2007). "Penumbra: Overture -- Episode One Review". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ "Penumbra: Overture". GamesTM. Future plc. April 2007. p. 106.
^ a b Hollingshead, Anise (11 May 2007). "Penumbra: Overture - PC - Review". GameZone. Archived from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ Adams, Dan (1 June 2007). "Penumbra: Overture Review". IGN. Ziff Davis. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
^ "Penumbra: Overture". PC Format. No. 199. Future plc. April 2007. p. 71.
^ "Penumbra: Overture". PC Gamer. Vol. 14, no. 8. Future US. August 2007. p. 66.
^ Orry, Tom (5 April 2007). "Penumbra: Overture Review". VideoGamer.com. Resero Network. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
^ Herold, Charles (17 May 2007). "A Pair of Creepy, Yet Cerebral, Action-Adventures". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2018.
^ Mandel, Bob (28 June 2007). "Penumbra: Overture PC review". The Adrenaline Vault. Archived from the original on 1 April 2011. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
^ King, James (18 May 2007). "PC Review - 'Penumbra: Overture'". Worthplaying. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
^ Walker, John (21 July 2008). "RPS Interview: Penumbra's Tom Jubert". Rock, Paper, Shotgun. Gamer Network. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Penumbra: Overture.
Official website
Original Penumbra tech demo
Penumbra's github repository
Penumbra: Overture at MobyGames
vteFrictional GamesPenumbra series
Overture
Black Plague
Requiem
Amnesia series
The Dark Descent
A Machine for Pigs
Rebirth
The Bunker
Other
Soma | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"episodic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episodic_games"},{"link_name":"survival horror games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival_horror"},{"link_name":"Frictional Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frictional_Games"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"link_name":"trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilogy"},{"link_name":"Penumbra: Black Plague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra:_Black_Plague"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Penumbra: Requiem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra:_Requiem"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"2007 video gamePenumbra: Overture (also known as Penumbra: Overture – Episode One) is the first in a series of episodic survival horror games developed by Frictional Games.[2] The game follows a physicist named Philip who travels to Greenland after his mother's death and is forced to explore an abandoned mine. Penumbra: Overture received average reception from critics.The game was originally intended as the first episode of a trilogy. With the announcement of the second episode, Penumbra: Black Plague, it was stated that the second game would be the final chapter.[3] However, an expansion has been released since then: Penumbra: Requiem, technically giving the series a third chapter.[4]","title":"Penumbra: Overture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-game_description-5"},{"link_name":"survival horror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival_horror"},{"link_name":"psychological horror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_horror"},{"link_name":"adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_game"},{"link_name":"Newton Game Dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_Game_Dynamics"},{"link_name":"physics engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_engine"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_physics"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"stealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_game"},{"link_name":"pickaxe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickaxe"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-engadget-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"electrical fence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_fence"},{"link_name":"notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook"}],"text":"Although Frictional Games describes Penumbra: Overture as a \"first-person adventure\",[5] the game blends the genres of survival horror, psychological horror, and adventure. The use of the Newton Game Dynamics physics engine emphasizes physics-based puzzles as well as physics-based combat.[6] The game also takes advantage of advanced artificial intelligence to respond realistically to noises and light, creating stealth-based gameplay. There are no firearms in the game, so during combat the player is limited to improvised melee fighting with a hammer or pickaxe,[7] or throwing objects at attacking creatures. The game is designed to emphasize stealth and avoidance over direct conflict. For example, Philip can close doors behind him to temporarily hold off attacking enemies.[1]The game's main focus is on exploration and classic adventure game object interaction: examining and collecting objects and using them to solve puzzles.[8] These mostly involve finding keys or other objects that can either be used by themselves or in combination with each other to solve certain problems. In addition to these standard inventory based puzzles, Overture also offers several physics-based puzzles where certain objects must be moved or manipulated in real time. Environmental objects such as doors, desk drawers, and switches on machinery must be opened or manipulated using realistic movements mirroring their use in the real world, and certain obstructions can only be cleared by utilizing certain objects in a specific way; for example, in order to solve one of the game's puzzles a player may choose to stack boxes and barrels in such a manner as to allow for the player to be able to leap past an obstacle, such as an electrical fence, or to reach a certain area normally too high to reach.Essential to puzzle solving is the ability to read written notes scattered around the mine by its previous inhabitants, which often offer clues or solutions as to how to get past a certain area, as well as providing plot exposition and character development. The player also has access to a notebook where important information and the players goals and objectives are recorded.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"psychoactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoactive"}],"text":"Set in the year 2001,[9] Penumbra: Overture follows the story of Philip, a thirty-year-old physicist whose mother has recently died. After receiving a mysterious letter from his supposedly dead father, Philip follows a series of clues that lead him to a mysterious location in uninhabited northern Greenland.[10] The harsh cold forces him to take shelter in an abandoned mine, the entrance of which collapses as he enters it, and he is forced to move deeper inside. Within the mine, Philip discovers diary extracts written by a stranded scientist who gradually resorted to eating cave-dwelling spiders as an alternative food source as his supplies diminished.The scientist also describes discovering a psychoactive toxin in the spiders and deduces that, after eight months of using them to supplement his diet, it was beginning to have an effect on him. Philip begins to receive radio messages from Tom \"Red\" Redwood, a man driven insane by cabin fever. Red promises that, if he is found, he will give Philip answers. The game follows Philip as he descends deeper into the mines in search of Red while unravelling the secrets of their previous and current inhabitants.Philip quickly discovers that the mine is inhabited by an ecosystem of abnormally large and hostile animals: dogs, giant spiders, and gargantuan earthworms, among others. Abandoned outposts and various papers scattered throughout the mine indicate that a secret society is studying some unusual phenomena inside the mines.Following clues and solving various puzzles, Philip eventually comes to an area deep within the mine where Red is waiting for him. Red waits inside an incinerator, where he begs Philip to kill him. With no other option, Philip activates the incinerator and, amongst Red's remains, he finds an item that he needs in order to progress into a new area of the mine identified as \"The Shelter\". Once inside, Philip notices what appears to be a human watching him. Philip approaches the figure, but the lighting is suddenly extinguished, and Philip is knocked out and dragged away.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penumbra-2006-Tech-Demo.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penumbra-Overture-2007.png"}],"text":"The Penumbra Tech Demo from 2006The full commercial game Overture","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tech demo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_demo"},{"link_name":"HPL Engine 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPL_Engine_1"},{"link_name":"engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_engine"},{"link_name":"3D graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"tile game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile-based_video_game"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-game_description-5"}],"sub_title":"Tech demo","text":"Penumbra: Overture is based on Frictional Games' earlier game Penumbra, a short tech demo meant to demonstrate the capabilities of the company's HPL Engine 1.The developers admitted to making significant modifications of the original engine to accommodate the 3D graphics in this game: \"The engine is built from an engine created when making a thesis job which resulted in the platform game Energetic. Before moving into the 3rd dimension I made some cleanup of the engine (which was quite rushed in some places) and started to add a base for 3D rendering. I would not say that the original 2D engine was modified to add 3D, but rather a 3D layer was added so all of the 2D stuff is still there. It is still possible to make a 2D tile game using our engine\".[11]While not initially intended to be a commercial product, Penumbra was received exceedingly well, and Frictional decided to develop it into a full-length game.[5]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_distribution"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-engadget-1"},{"link_name":"GameTap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameTap"},{"link_name":"Mac OS X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Paradox Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Penumbra: Black Plague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra:_Black_Plague"},{"link_name":"Penumbra: Requiem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra:_Requiem"},{"link_name":"Steam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_(service)"},{"link_name":"Humble Indie Bundle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humble_Indie_Bundle"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"GNU GPL-3.0-or-later","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Release","text":"The first episode of Penumbra was released on 30 March 2007, through various online distribution websites. The game was simultaneously released in a boxed edition in the United Kingdom, and the boxed release in the United States was shipped to retailers on 8 May.[12] On 30 May, the full version for Linux was released on the Frictional Games store.[1]In addition, the game became available on GameTap on 4 October. On 10 January 2008, the full version for Mac OS X was released on the Frictional Games forum for PowerPC and Intel architectures.[13] In March 2009, Paradox Interactive released Penumbra Overture in a collection pack along with Penumbra: Black Plague and Penumbra: Requiem. The game became available via Steam on 7 March.Overture was released as part of the Humble Indie Bundle,[14] and when the Bundle made more than $1 million, Overture's source code was released under the GNU GPL-3.0-or-later.[15] Frictional Games also hosts a dedicated forum on their website where people can discuss the code and any projects based around it.[16]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MC-17"},{"link_name":"1Up.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1Up.com"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Adventure Gamers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_Gamers"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AG-19"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuroG-20"},{"link_name":"GameSpot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot-21"},{"link_name":"GamesTM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamesTM"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamezone-23"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"PC Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Format"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"PC Gamer (US)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Gamer"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"review aggregation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_aggregator"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MC-17"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuroG-20"},{"link_name":"GameSpot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot-21"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamezone-23"},{"link_name":"Adventure Gamers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_Gamers"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AG-19"},{"link_name":"Penumbra: Black Plague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penumbra:_Black_Plague"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Amnesia: The Dark Descent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesia:_The_Dark_Descent"}],"text":"ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic73/100[17]Review scoresPublicationScore1Up.comC[18]Adventure Gamers[19]Eurogamer7/10[20]GameSpot7.8/10[21]GamesTM6/10[22]GameZone7.5/10[23]IGN7/10[24]PC Format79%[25]PC Gamer (US)74%[26]VideoGamer.com6/10[27]The New York Times(positive)[28]The game received \"average\" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.[17] It was criticized on a number of fronts, especially for its rather crude combat system and sometimes confusing or poorly implemented story elements, causing Eurogamer to comment that the game would \"do better if it relied on its own inherent spookiness rather than trying to create artificial atmosphere by banging on about a character we don't have any real reason to care about, something about his dad, destiny and miners writing stupidly long notes to themselves about their imminent horrible deaths\". It did however praise the character of Red, stating that he was \"the most compelling element of the narrative, and wonderfully acted\".[20] GameSpot in its review commented on the combat by saying that fights are often \"so frenetic that it's almost impossible to control your movements\" and that \"it would have been much more sensible for the camera to lock on and move with enemies\". It did however note that it did help differentiate Overture from more action oriented titles, saying that the \"end result of the difficult combat is that you feel like an average Joe who wants to avoid zombie dogs with glowing eyes, not a video game superman out to stack dead canines like cordwood\".[21]Despite these apparent flaws, the game was praised for its unsettling and creepy atmosphere, with The Adrenaline Vault deciding that \"every element in the game is geared to set a dark, scary mood. On occasion, you’ll feel helpless, overwhelmed, guilty and frightened. I think this is helped, rather than hindered, by the developer’s choice to keep physical fights intermittent and less gory and bloody than in many other horror games. The result is a sense of depressing solitude, with the disturbing knowledge that you’re not alone\".[29] The game's approach to puzzle solving was also generally well received, with Worthplaying stating that \"the control scheme adds an interesting touch to the game and helps with the immersion\",[30] although GameZone in their review of the game complained that \"sometimes having to interact with things in this way lead to problems, as in when necessary actions were hard to accomplish\".[23] While the game's production values were lower than some of the other titles released around the same time, Adventure Gamers noted that for \"an independent project from a team of four people, the game looks great, besides a few shoddy textures\", and saying that the game's sound effects \"help set the mood\" and are \"realistic and jarring\".[19]Many of the criticisms directed at Overture were taken into consideration during the development of the next episode Penumbra: Black Plague. These changes included the removal of dogs and other combat related enemies, as well as moving away somewhat from a reliance on written notes. The combat system was also dropped entirely and the physics system somewhat reworked, leading the game to be even more stealth based than its predecessor.[31] Black Plague received slightly more positive reviews from critics, and its design was for the most part mirrored with only a few additions by Frictional's critically acclaimed 2010 spiritual successor to the series, Amnesia: The Dark Descent.","title":"Reception"}] | [{"image_text":"The Penumbra Tech Demo from 2006","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/37/Penumbra-2006-Tech-Demo.png/220px-Penumbra-2006-Tech-Demo.png"},{"image_text":"The full commercial game Overture","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fc/Penumbra-Overture-2007.png/220px-Penumbra-Overture-2007.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"Bardinelli, John (31 May 2007). \"Indie horror adventure Penumbra: Overture available on Linux, coming to Mac\". Engadget (Joystiq). Oath Inc. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engadget.com/2007/05/31/indie-horror-adventure-penumbra-on-linux-coming-to-mac/","url_text":"\"Indie horror adventure Penumbra: Overture available on Linux, coming to Mac\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engadget","url_text":"Engadget"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystiq","url_text":"Joystiq"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oath_Inc.","url_text":"Oath Inc."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170703145115/https://www.engadget.com/2007/05/31/indie-horror-adventure-penumbra-on-linux-coming-to-mac/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Penumbra: Overture premieres game on Gamer's Gate\". Paradox Interactive. 2 February 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011600/http://www.paradoxplaza.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=144&Itemid=129","url_text":"\"Penumbra: Overture premieres game on Gamer's Gate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox_Interactive","url_text":"Paradox Interactive"},{"url":"http://www.paradoxplaza.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=144&Itemid=129","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Greeley, Melanie (13 September 2007). \"Penumbra to spread to computers again next year\". Adventure Gamers. Archived from the original on 16 July 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://adventuregamers.com/news/view/20375","url_text":"\"Penumbra to spread to computers again next year\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_Gamers","url_text":"Adventure Gamers"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160716020353/http://www.adventuregamers.com/news/view/20375","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Eklund, Johan (16 April 2008). \"Penumbra får en tredje del trots allt!\". Gameplayer.se (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 13 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090113033924/http://gameplayer.se/news.php?pub_id=10663","url_text":"\"Penumbra får en tredje del trots allt!\""},{"url":"http://gameplayer.se/news.php?pub_id=10663","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Penumbra: Overture\". Frictional Games. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070703053453/http://penumbra-overture.com/game.php","url_text":"\"Penumbra: Overture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frictional_Games","url_text":"Frictional Games"},{"url":"http://penumbra-overture.com/game.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Haas, Juergen (18 July 2009). \"Penumbra Horror Games Overture, Black Plague, and Requiem Ported to Linux\". About.com. The New York Times Company. Archived from the original on 22 July 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090722030158/http://linux.about.com/b/2009/07/18/penumbra-horror-games-overture-black-plague-and-requiem-ported-to-linux.htm","url_text":"\"Penumbra Horror Games Overture, Black Plague, and Requiem Ported to Linux\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About.com","url_text":"About.com"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Company","url_text":"The New York Times Company"},{"url":"http://linux.about.com/b/2009/07/18/penumbra-horror-games-overture-black-plague-and-requiem-ported-to-linux.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Williamson, Steven (19 January 2007). \"Hands-on Penumbra Overture\". Hexus. Archived from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://hexus.net/gaming/previews/pc/7698-hands-on-penumbra-overture-pc/","url_text":"\"Hands-on Penumbra Overture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexus","url_text":"Hexus"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211113013614/https://hexus.net/gaming/previews/pc/7698-hands-on-penumbra-overture-pc/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Elrod, Corvus (31 May 2007). \"Penumbra Linux Release\". The Escapist. Defy Media. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110613080146/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/news/view/72315-Penumbra-Linux-Release","url_text":"\"Penumbra Linux Release\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Escapist_(magazine)","url_text":"The Escapist"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defy_Media","url_text":"Defy Media"},{"url":"http://www.escapistmagazine.com/news/view/72315-Penumbra-Linux-Release","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"1MadeMan1 (8 May 2007). \"Penumbra Overture [Episode One] Upustvo: Boat Cabin\". GameFAQs (in Bosnian). CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. 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Adventure Classic Gaming. Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 15 October 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.adventureclassicgaming.com/index.php/site/interviews/293/","url_text":"\"Jens Nilsson, Thomas Grip, TJ Jubert - Frictional Games\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adventure_Classic_Gaming&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Adventure Classic Gaming"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080929141103/http://www.adventureclassicgaming.com/index.php/site/interviews/293/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Penumbra: Overture: FAQ\". Got Game Entertainment. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. 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Retrieved 2 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2008/07/21/rps-interview-penumbras-tom-jubert/","url_text":"\"RPS Interview: Penumbra's Tom Jubert\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock,_Paper,_Shotgun","url_text":"Rock, Paper, Shotgun"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201104122126/https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2008/07/21/rps-interview-penumbras-tom-jubert/","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.engadget.com/2007/05/31/indie-horror-adventure-penumbra-on-linux-coming-to-mac/","external_links_name":"\"Indie horror adventure Penumbra: Overture available on Linux, coming to Mac\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170703145115/https://www.engadget.com/2007/05/31/indie-horror-adventure-penumbra-on-linux-coming-to-mac/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928011600/http://www.paradoxplaza.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=144&Itemid=129","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra: Overture premieres game on Gamer's Gate\""},{"Link":"http://www.paradoxplaza.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=144&Itemid=129","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://adventuregamers.com/news/view/20375","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra to spread to computers again next year\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160716020353/http://www.adventuregamers.com/news/view/20375","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090113033924/http://gameplayer.se/news.php?pub_id=10663","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra får en tredje del trots allt!\""},{"Link":"http://gameplayer.se/news.php?pub_id=10663","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070703053453/http://penumbra-overture.com/game.php","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra: Overture\""},{"Link":"http://penumbra-overture.com/game.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090722030158/http://linux.about.com/b/2009/07/18/penumbra-horror-games-overture-black-plague-and-requiem-ported-to-linux.htm","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra Horror Games Overture, Black Plague, and Requiem Ported to Linux\""},{"Link":"http://linux.about.com/b/2009/07/18/penumbra-horror-games-overture-black-plague-and-requiem-ported-to-linux.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://hexus.net/gaming/previews/pc/7698-hands-on-penumbra-overture-pc/","external_links_name":"\"Hands-on Penumbra Overture\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211113013614/https://hexus.net/gaming/previews/pc/7698-hands-on-penumbra-overture-pc/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110613080146/http://www.escapistmagazine.com/news/view/72315-Penumbra-Linux-Release","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra Linux Release\""},{"Link":"http://www.escapistmagazine.com/news/view/72315-Penumbra-Linux-Release","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://gamefaqs.gamespot.com/unixlinux/734155-penumbra-collection/faqs/48259","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra Overture [Episode One] Upustvo: Boat Cabin\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190401221240/https://gamefaqs.gamespot.com/unixlinux/734155-penumbra-collection/faqs/48259","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.tuxmachines.org/node/28379","external_links_name":"\"Penumbra Overture - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Advanced_GPS_Receiver | Defense Advanced GPS Receiver | ["1 Features","2 Comparison to PLGR","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"] | Handheld military-grade GPS receiver
The Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR). Coordinates are for Rockwell Collins headquarters in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
The AN/PSN-13 Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR; colloquially, "dagger") is a handheld GPS receiver used by the United States Department of Defense and select foreign military services. It is a military-grade, dual-frequency receiver, and has the security hardware necessary to decode the encrypted P(Y)-code GPS signals.
Manufactured by Rockwell Collins, the DAGR entered production in March 2004, with the 40,000th unit delivered in September 2005. It was estimated by the news source Defense Industry Daily that, by the end of 2006, the USA and various allies around the world had issued almost $300 million worth of DAGR contracts, and ordered almost 125,000 units. The DAGR replaced the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR), which was first fielded in 1994.
Rockwell Collins also manufactures a GPS receiver known as the "Polaris Guide", that looks like a DAGR, but uses only the civilian C/A code signals. These units are labelled as "SPS", for "Standard Positioning Service", and may be possessed by non-military users.
Features
Graphical screen, with the ability to overlay map images.
12-channel continuous satellite tracking for "all-in-view" operation.
Simultaneous L1/L2 dual frequency GPS signal reception.
Capable of Direct-Y code acquisition
Cold start first fix in less than 100 seconds.
Extended performance in a diverse jamming environment.
41 dB J/S maintaining state 5 tracking.
24 dB during initial C/A code acquisition.
Utilizes Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).
Selective Availability/Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) compatible (currently version 3.2).
Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE) compatible.
Resistant to multi-path effects.
Can be used as survey for weapons systems
Fielded to the U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force and select foreign military forces
Designed to fit in a Battle Dress Uniform's 2-magazine ammo pouch
Approximate cost to government per unit to acquire: $1,832
Comparison to PLGR
Parameter
PLGR
DAGR
Introduced
1990
2004
Frequency bands
Dual (L1 & L2)
Dual (L1 & L2)
Security
PPS-SM
SAASM
Display
Text only
GUI with maps
Number of channels (satellites)
5
12 (all in view)
Anti-Jam resistance
24 dB
41 dB
Time to first fix (TTFF)
360 seconds
100 seconds
Time to subsequent fix (TTSF)
60 seconds
< 22 seconds
Weight
2.75 lb (1.25 kg)
0.94 lb (0.43 kg)
Dimensions (in inches)
9.5" tall, 4.1" wide, 2.6" thick
6.4" tall, 3.5" wide, 1.6" thick(Fits in 2-magazine ammo pouch)
Battery life
13 hours (8 batteries)
14 hours (4 batteries)
Reliability
2000 hours
5000 hours
See also
Moving map display
References
^ $82.7M more for DAGR GPS Receivers. Defense Industry Daily
^ GPS enables DAGR to track ‘bad guys’ Archived 2007-07-08 at the Wayback Machine. Air Force Space Command News
External links
Rockwell Collins' DAGR technical specifications
US Army DAGR information page
Wikileaks' US Army AN/PSN-13A DAGR Operator's Manual -- Change 1
Brooke Clarke's excellent DAGR Information Page
GPS Tracker | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Defense_Advanced_GPS_Receiver.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cedar Rapids, Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar_Rapids,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"GPS signals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS_signal"},{"link_name":"Rockwell Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_Collins"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_Lightweight_GPS_Receiver"},{"link_name":"Standard Positioning Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Positioning_Service"}],"text":"The Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR). Coordinates are for Rockwell Collins headquarters in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.The AN/PSN-13 Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR; colloquially, \"dagger\") is a handheld GPS receiver used by the United States Department of Defense and select foreign military services. It is a military-grade, dual-frequency receiver, and has the security hardware necessary to decode the encrypted P(Y)-code GPS signals.Manufactured by Rockwell Collins, the DAGR entered production in March 2004, with the 40,000th unit delivered in September 2005. It was estimated by the news source Defense Industry Daily that, by the end of 2006, the USA and various allies around the world had issued almost $300 million worth of DAGR contracts, and ordered almost 125,000 units.[1] The DAGR replaced the Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver (PLGR), which was first fielded in 1994.Rockwell Collins also manufactures a GPS receiver known as the \"Polaris Guide\", that looks like a DAGR, but uses only the civilian C/A code signals. These units are labelled as \"SPS\", for \"Standard Positioning Service\", and may be possessed by non-military users.","title":"Defense Advanced GPS Receiver"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"jamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_jamming"},{"link_name":"Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_Autonomous_Integrity_Monitoring"},{"link_name":"Selective Availability/Anti-Spoofing Module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAASM"},{"link_name":"Wide Area GPS Enhancement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Area_GPS_Enhancement"},{"link_name":"U.S. Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Army"},{"link_name":"U.S. Marine Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Marine_Corps"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy"},{"link_name":"U.S. Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Battle Dress Uniform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_Dress_Uniform"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Graphical screen, with the ability to overlay map images.\n12-channel continuous satellite tracking for \"all-in-view\" operation.\nSimultaneous L1/L2 dual frequency GPS signal reception.\nCapable of Direct-Y code acquisition\nCold start first fix in less than 100 seconds.\nExtended performance in a diverse jamming environment.\n41 dB J/S maintaining state 5 tracking.\n24 dB during initial C/A code acquisition.\nUtilizes Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).\nSelective Availability/Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) compatible (currently version 3.2).\nWide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE) compatible.\nResistant to multi-path effects.\nCan be used as survey for weapons systems\nFielded to the U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force and select foreign military forces\nDesigned to fit in a Battle Dress Uniform's 2-magazine ammo pouch\nApproximate cost to government per unit to acquire: $1,832[2]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Comparison to PLGR"}] | [{"image_text":"The Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR). Coordinates are for Rockwell Collins headquarters in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Defense_Advanced_GPS_Receiver.jpg/220px-Defense_Advanced_GPS_Receiver.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Moving map display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_map_display"}] | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/827m-more-for-dagr-gps-receivers-02829/","external_links_name":"$82.7M more for DAGR GPS Receivers"},{"Link":"http://www.afspc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123017018","external_links_name":"GPS enables DAGR to track ‘bad guys’"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070708020114/http://www.afspc.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123017018","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.rockwellcollins.com/Products_and_Services/Defense/Navigation/Ground_Products/Defense_Advanced_GPS_Receiver_-DAGR.aspx","external_links_name":"DAGR technical specifications"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070327113136/http://army-gps.robins.af.mil/UE/dagr.html","external_links_name":"DAGR information page"},{"Link":"https://wikileaks.org/wiki/US_military_GPS_PSN-13A_DAGR_manual_%282005%29","external_links_name":"AN/PSN-13A DAGR Operator's Manual -- Change 1"},{"Link":"http://www.prc68.com/I/DAGR.shtml","external_links_name":"DAGR Information Page"},{"Link":"https://tracki.com/pages/how-gps-trackers-work","external_links_name":"GPS Tracker"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Watts | Philip Watts | ["1 Early life","2 Shell career","3 Nigeria","4 Business reputation","5 Reserves","6 Retirement","7 Styles","8 References"] | Church of england priest
For the naval architect, see Philip Watts (naval architect).
Sir Philip Beverley Watts KCMG (born 25 June 1945) is a former chairman of the multinational energy company Shell and a priest in the Church of England.
Early life
Watts was born on 25 June 1945 in Leicester and grew up in the Midlands where his father worked in the textile industry. He attended the Wyggeston and Dixie grammar schools in Leicestershire and the University of Leeds where he studied physics, graduating as BSc in 1968. After university he taught briefly in Sierra Leone before returning to Leeds to study for a master's degree in geophysics (MA).
Star and badge of KCMG
In 1969 Watts joined Shell for whom he worked until 2004. In October 2012, he was appointed priest-in-charge of Waltham St Lawrence parish church.
Shell career
1969–1983; Seismologist
1983–1987; Exploration director, Shell UK
1987–1991; Various in Shell's production liaison and planning operations
1991–1994; managing director, Shell Nigeria
1994–1995; Regional coordinator, Shell Europe
1995–1998; Director for "Strategic Planning, Sustainable Development, and External Affairs", Shell International
1998–2001; managing director, and CEO Exploration and Production Division
2001–2004; Chairman
Nigeria
During Watts's tenure as managing director of Shell Nigeria in the early 1990s a major area of exploration in the country was the oil-rich Niger River delta and here Shell came into conflict with the Ogoni people. The conflict with the Ogonis eventually culminated in the execution by the Nigerian regime of activist Ken Saro-Wiwa. In 2002 a class action lawsuit was filed by the Philadelphia law firm of Berger & Montague alleging that Shell "engaged in militarized commerce in a conspiracy with the former military government of Nigeria…purchasing ammunition and using its helicopters and boats and providing logistical support for … a military foray into Ogoniland designed to terrorize the civilian population into ending peaceful protests." Shell dismissed the allegations as "groundless", but Watts was questioned in London by representatives of Berger & Montague in mid-April 2004 although he was not named a defendant in the lawsuit, which was brought solely against the company.
Business reputation
Watts succeeded Sir Mark Moody-Stuart in mid-2001 as chairman of Shell's "Committee of Managing Directors". Within Shell this appointment was greeted with some surprise as the seemingly abrasive Watts was a contrast with his patrician predecessor. Externally the appointment was at first welcomed as a sign that Shell was going to move aggressively to reduce costs, however Watts soon fell into disfavour with Shell's institutional investors, in large part because he was seen as aloof and uncommunicative. This unpopularity was reflected inside Shell where many were privately critical of his aggressive form of management and poor communications style. His devotion to Shell could not be faulted and he wore a ring on his right hand which had been engraved with the Shell symbol, the pecten.
Delivering the keynote address at the opening of the Shell Centre for Sustainability at Houston's Rice University in March 2003, Watts spoke out forcefully in favour of Sustainable Development. Later that year he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for "services to British business and to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development", which he served as chairman.
Reserves
Less than three years after taking over the chairmanship Watts was swept out of office in early 2004 by revelations that the company had overstated its proved oil and gas reserves by nearly 25 percent.
On 9 January 2004, Shell announced that it was cutting its estimate of proven oil and gas reserves by roughly 3.9 billion barrels, close to 20 percent of total reserves. Investors began calling for Watts to resign.
Reports surfaced of internal memoranda addressed to many of Shell's senior executives months earlier discussing the possibility that the company's proven reserves had been overestimated. Watts had stated that he had not been informed that there might be a need to restate reserves until late in 2003. During 2003, increasingly fractious e-mails from Walter van de Vijver, Watts' successor as CEO of Shell Exploration and Production, made it clear that senior executives had been discussing the issues around reserves for some time. In an appearance in front of around 1,000 staff in Shell Centre's sports hall in January 2004, Watts stated that he had been informed of the problem in late 2003 and that his first response had been to write down on a piece of paper that he (and, by implication, Shell) should 'get the facts and do the right thing.'
In April 2004, the US law firm of Davis Polk & Wardwell released a report on its review of Shell's reserves overbooking crisis. The report alleged that top company executives, including Watts, had known about the reserves shortfall since early 2002. As a result of the Davis Polk Report, the Board asked Watts to resign.
Watts (who had consistently said that he had "...acted properly and in good faith at all times") was investigated by the UK Financial Services Authority (FSA) about his role in relation to the recategorisation of the company's hydrocarbon reserves. In November 2005 the FSA announced that it had "closed its inquiries" when its "Regulatory Decisions Committee," decided that the regulator should take no action. Watts had earlier been refused permission to proceed with a counter action against the FSA by the "Financial Services and Markets Tribunal" when he filed an action seeking to show that the FSA had unfairly prejudiced him in statements made in its settlement with Shell that appeared to condone the findings in the Davis Polk report.
Watts was also investigated by the US Justice Department and the Securities and Exchange Commission for allegedly misleading the stock market by allowing the overstated reserves figures to stand. These investigations are now closed with "no case to answer."
The Securities and Exchange Commission has proposed new regulations regarding the accounting of oil reserves that, according to a Dow Jones article may serve to vindicate Watts, since the proposed changes involve changing many of the SEC proved reserves criteria that prompted Shell's large debooking.
Retirement
Watts and his wife live at Binfield, Berkshire, where he serves as a curate after his ordination as a priest in 2011.
Styles
Mr Philip Watts (1945–2004)
Sir Philip Watts KCMG (2004–11)
The Revd Sir Philip Watts KCMG (2011–present)
References
^ "Shell chairman is forced to quit". BBC News. 3 March 2004. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
^ "Birthday's today". The Telegraph. 25 June 2013. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2014. Sir Philip Watts, Managing Director, 1997–2004, and Chairman, 2001–04, Shell Transport and Trading, 68
^ Perin, Monica (4 August 2002). "Rice University receives Shell Oil funding for 'green' energy center Read more: Rice University receives Shell Oil funding for 'green' energy center | Houston Business Journal". Houston Business Journal. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
^ "New Year Honours". The Telegraph. 31 December 2002.
^ Timmons, Heather (29 May 2004). "Shell Discloses a Large Pay Package for Its Former Chairman". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
^ "Bishop to ordain 30 deacons". Oxford Mail. 30 June 2011.
Business positions
Preceded byMark Moody-Stuart
Chairman of the Committee of Managing Directorsof Royal Dutch Shell 2001–2004
Succeeded byJeroen van der Veer
Chairman of Shell Transport and Trading 2001–2004
Succeeded byRonald Oxburgh, Baron Oxburgh
vteChief Executives of ShellPre-1946Managing Director/ General MD of Royal Dutch Petroleum Company (1890-1946)
1890-1901 titled MD
1890–1892: Johannes Arnoldus de Gelder
1893–1900: Jean Baptiste August Kessler
1901–1902: Henri Wilhelm August Deterding
1902-1940 titled General MD
1902–1936: Henri Wilhelm August Deterding
1937–1940: Frits de Kok
Chairman of The Shell Transport and Trading Company (1897–1946)
1897–1921: Marcus Samuel
1921–1946: Walter Samuel
1946 to 2005Chairman of the Committee of Managing Directors of the Royal Dutch / Shell Group
1946–1948 Guus Kessler
1949–1951 Barthold Theodoor Willem van Hasselt
1952–1965 John Hugo Loudon
1965–1970 Jan Brouwer
1970–1972 David Haven Barran
1972–1977 Gerrit Wagner
1977–1979 Carmichael Charles Peter Pocock
1979–1982 Dirk de Bruyne
1982–1985 Peter Brian Baxendell
1985–1992 Lodewijk Christiaan van Wachem
1992–1993 Peter Fenwick Holmes
1993–1998 Cor Herkströter
1998–2001 Mark Moody-Stuart
2001–2004 Philip Watts
2004–2005 Jeroen van der Veer
2005 – presentChief executive officer of:– Royal Dutch Shell plc (2005–2021)– Shell plc (as from 2022)
2005–2009 Jeroen van der Veer
2009–2013 Peter Voser
2014–2022 Ben van Beurden
2023–present Wael Sawan
vteShell plcDivisions and subsidiariesCurrent
Shell Australia
QGC
Shell Energy Australia
Shell Canada
Shell Chemicals
Shell Gas & Power
Shell Nigeria
Shell Pakistan
Shell USA
Shell WindEnergy
Former
Mexican Eagle
Showa Shell Sekiyu
Woodside Petroleum
Joint venturesCurrent
Aera Energy
Albian Sands
Brunei LNG
North West Shelf Venture
Oman LNG
Pearl GTL
Sakhalin Energy
Former
Anglo-Egyptian Oilfields
Asiatic Petroleum Company
Cellana
Motiva
Shell-Mex & BP
Brands
Jiffy Lube
Pennzoil
Quaker State
Rotella
V-Power
Facilities and places
Asia Building
Brent Spar
Hancock Whitney Center
Mars
Montreal East Refinery
One Shell Plaza
Plaza Shell
Rocky Mountain Arsenal
Scotford Upgrader
Shell Building
Shell Centre
Shell Centre (Calgary)
Shell Development Emeryville
Shell Haven
Shell
Shell Mex House
Shell Pennsylvania Petrochemicals Complex
Controversies
Corrib gas controversy
Ken Saro-Wiwa
Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People
Wiwa v Royal Dutch Shell
Other
Answer Man
Club (former)
Foundation
Guides
In situ conversion process
Lennard's Carrying v Asiatic Petroleum
Novelty Service Station
Spectacular sign
Turbo Chargers
People
M. King Hubbert
André Bénard
Fred Meissner
John Jennings
Rob Routs
Jorma Ollila
Gale Norton
Chief Executivessee List of Chief Executives of Shell vteChief Executives of ShellPre-1946Managing Director/ General MD of Royal Dutch Petroleum Company (1890-1946)
1890-1901 titled MD
1890–1892: Johannes Arnoldus de Gelder
1893–1900: Jean Baptiste August Kessler
1901–1902: Henri Wilhelm August Deterding
1902-1940 titled General MD
1902–1936: Henri Wilhelm August Deterding
1937–1940: Frits de Kok
Chairman of The Shell Transport and Trading Company (1897–1946)
1897–1921: Marcus Samuel
1921–1946: Walter Samuel
1946 to 2005Chairman of the Committee of Managing Directors of the Royal Dutch / Shell Group
1946–1948 Guus Kessler
1949–1951 Barthold Theodoor Willem van Hasselt
1952–1965 John Hugo Loudon
1965–1970 Jan Brouwer
1970–1972 David Haven Barran
1972–1977 Gerrit Wagner
1977–1979 Carmichael Charles Peter Pocock
1979–1982 Dirk de Bruyne
1982–1985 Peter Brian Baxendell
1985–1992 Lodewijk Christiaan van Wachem
1992–1993 Peter Fenwick Holmes
1993–1998 Cor Herkströter
1998–2001 Mark Moody-Stuart
2001–2004 Philip Watts
2004–2005 Jeroen van der Veer
2005 – presentChief executive officer of:– Royal Dutch Shell plc (2005–2021)– Shell plc (as from 2022)
2005–2009 Jeroen van der Veer
2009–2013 Peter Voser
2014–2022 Ben van Beurden
2023–present Wael Sawan
Category
Commons
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
France
BnF data
Israel
United States
Netherlands
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philip Watts (naval architect)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Watts_(naval_architect)"},{"link_name":"KCMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George"},{"link_name":"Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"}],"text":"For the naval architect, see Philip Watts (naval architect).Sir Philip Beverley Watts KCMG (born 25 June 1945) is a former chairman of the multinational energy company Shell[1] and a priest in the Church of England.","title":"Philip Watts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Birth-2"},{"link_name":"Leicester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester"},{"link_name":"Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midlands_(England)"},{"link_name":"Wyggeston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyggeston_Grammar_School_for_Boys"},{"link_name":"Leicestershire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicestershire"},{"link_name":"University of Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leeds"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"Sierra Leone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone"},{"link_name":"geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KCMG_Jpegfile.jpg"},{"link_name":"KCMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_St_Michael_and_St_George"},{"link_name":"Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell"},{"link_name":"priest-in-charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest-in-charge"},{"link_name":"Waltham St Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waltham_St_Lawrence"}],"text":"Watts was born on 25 June 1945[2] in Leicester and grew up in the Midlands where his father worked in the textile industry. He attended the Wyggeston and Dixie grammar schools in Leicestershire and the University of Leeds where he studied physics, graduating as BSc in 1968. After university he taught briefly in Sierra Leone before returning to Leeds to study for a master's degree in geophysics (MA).Star and badge of KCMGIn 1969 Watts joined Shell for whom he worked until 2004. In October 2012, he was appointed priest-in-charge of Waltham St Lawrence parish church.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shell Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_Nigeria"}],"text":"1969–1983; Seismologist\n1983–1987; Exploration director, Shell UK\n1987–1991; Various in Shell's production liaison and planning operations\n1991–1994; managing director, Shell Nigeria\n1994–1995; Regional coordinator, Shell Europe\n1995–1998; Director for \"Strategic Planning, Sustainable Development, and External Affairs\", Shell International\n1998–2001; managing director, and CEO Exploration and Production Division\n2001–2004; Chairman","title":"Shell career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Niger River delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River_delta"},{"link_name":"Ogoni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogoni"},{"link_name":"Ken Saro-Wiwa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Saro-Wiwa"},{"link_name":"class action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_action"},{"link_name":"Ogoniland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogoniland"}],"text":"During Watts's tenure as managing director of Shell Nigeria in the early 1990s a major area of exploration in the country was the oil-rich Niger River delta and here Shell came into conflict with the Ogoni people. The conflict with the Ogonis eventually culminated in the execution by the Nigerian regime of activist Ken Saro-Wiwa. In 2002 a class action lawsuit was filed by the Philadelphia law firm of Berger & Montague alleging that Shell \"engaged in militarized commerce in a conspiracy with the former military government of Nigeria…purchasing ammunition and using its helicopters and boats and providing logistical support for … a military foray into Ogoniland designed to terrorize the civilian population into ending peaceful protests.\" Shell dismissed the allegations as \"groundless\", but Watts was questioned in London by representatives of Berger & Montague in mid-April 2004 although he was not named a defendant in the lawsuit, which was brought solely against the company.","title":"Nigeria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mark Moody-Stuart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Moody-Stuart"},{"link_name":"pecten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pecten_maximus"},{"link_name":"Rice University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_University"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Sustainable Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development"},{"link_name":"knighted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"World Business Council for Sustainable Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Business_Council_for_Sustainable_Development"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Watts succeeded Sir Mark Moody-Stuart in mid-2001 as chairman of Shell's \"Committee of Managing Directors\". Within Shell this appointment was greeted with some surprise as the seemingly abrasive Watts was a contrast with his patrician predecessor. Externally the appointment was at first welcomed as a sign that Shell was going to move aggressively to reduce costs, however Watts soon fell into disfavour with Shell's institutional investors, in large part because he was seen as aloof and uncommunicative. This unpopularity was reflected inside Shell where many were privately critical of his aggressive form of management and poor communications style. His devotion to Shell could not be faulted and he wore a ring on his right hand which had been engraved with the Shell symbol, the pecten.Delivering the keynote address at the opening of the Shell Centre for Sustainability at Houston's Rice University in March 2003,[3] Watts spoke out forcefully in favour of Sustainable Development. Later that year he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for \"services to British business and to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development\", which he served as chairman.[4]","title":"Business reputation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Walter van de Vijver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_van_de_Vijver"},{"link_name":"Davis Polk & Wardwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davis_Polk_%26_Wardwell"},{"link_name":"Financial Services Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Services_Authority"},{"link_name":"Financial Services and Markets Tribunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Services_and_Markets_Tribunal"},{"link_name":"US Justice Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Justice_Department"},{"link_name":"Securities and Exchange Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//news.morningstar.com/newsnet/ViewNews.aspx?article=/DJ/200807071556DOWJONESDJONLINE000426_univ.xml"}],"text":"Less than three years after taking over the chairmanship Watts was swept out of office in early 2004 by revelations that the company had overstated its proved oil and gas reserves by nearly 25 percent.[5]On 9 January 2004, Shell announced that it was cutting its estimate of proven oil and gas reserves by roughly 3.9 billion barrels, close to 20 percent of total reserves. Investors began calling for Watts to resign.Reports surfaced of internal memoranda addressed to many of Shell's senior executives months earlier discussing the possibility that the company's proven reserves had been overestimated. Watts had stated that he had not been informed that there might be a need to restate reserves until late in 2003. During 2003, increasingly fractious e-mails from Walter van de Vijver, Watts' successor as CEO of Shell Exploration and Production, made it clear that senior executives had been discussing the issues around reserves for some time. In an appearance in front of around 1,000 staff in Shell Centre's sports hall in January 2004, Watts stated that he had been informed of the problem in late 2003 and that his first response had been to write down on a piece of paper that he (and, by implication, Shell) should 'get the facts and do the right thing.'In April 2004, the US law firm of Davis Polk & Wardwell released a report on its review of Shell's reserves overbooking crisis. The report alleged that top company executives, including Watts, had known about the reserves shortfall since early 2002. As a result of the Davis Polk Report, the Board asked Watts to resign.Watts (who had consistently said that he had \"...acted properly and in good faith at all times\") was investigated by the UK Financial Services Authority (FSA) about his role in relation to the recategorisation of the company's hydrocarbon reserves. In November 2005 the FSA announced that it had \"closed its inquiries\" when its \"Regulatory Decisions Committee,\" decided that the regulator should take no action. Watts had earlier been refused permission to proceed with a counter action against the FSA by the \"Financial Services and Markets Tribunal\" when he filed an action seeking to show that the FSA had unfairly prejudiced him in statements made in its settlement with Shell that appeared to condone the findings in the Davis Polk report.Watts was also investigated by the US Justice Department and the Securities and Exchange Commission for allegedly misleading the stock market by allowing the overstated reserves figures to stand. These investigations are now closed with \"no case to answer.\"The Securities and Exchange Commission has proposed new regulations regarding the accounting of oil reserves that, according to a Dow Jones article [1] may serve to vindicate Watts, since the proposed changes involve changing many of the SEC proved reserves criteria that prompted Shell's large debooking.","title":"Reserves"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Binfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binfield"},{"link_name":"curate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curate"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Watts and his wife live at Binfield, Berkshire, where he serves as a curate after his ordination as a priest in 2011.[6]","title":"Retirement"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Mr Philip Watts (1945–2004)\nSir Philip Watts KCMG (2004–11)\nThe Revd Sir Philip Watts KCMG (2011–present)","title":"Styles"}] | [{"image_text":"Star and badge of KCMG","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/KCMG_Jpegfile.jpg/90px-KCMG_Jpegfile.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Shell chairman is forced to quit\". BBC News. 3 March 2004. Retrieved 27 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3529801.stm","url_text":"\"Shell chairman is forced to quit\""}]},{"reference":"\"Birthday's today\". The Telegraph. 25 June 2013. Archived from the original on 25 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2014. Sir Philip Watts, Managing Director, 1997–2004, and Chairman, 2001–04, Shell Transport and Trading, 68","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130625030751/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/archive/2013-6-25.html","url_text":"\"Birthday's today\""},{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/archive/2013-6-25.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Perin, Monica (4 August 2002). \"Rice University receives Shell Oil funding for 'green' energy center Read more: Rice University receives Shell Oil funding for 'green' energy center | Houston Business Journal\". Houston Business Journal. Retrieved 27 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bizjournals.com/houston/stories/2002/08/05/newscolumn5.html","url_text":"\"Rice University receives Shell Oil funding for 'green' energy center Read more: Rice University receives Shell Oil funding for 'green' energy center | Houston Business Journal\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Year Honours\". The Telegraph. 31 December 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1417477/New-Year-Honours.html","url_text":"\"New Year Honours\""}]},{"reference":"Timmons, Heather (29 May 2004). \"Shell Discloses a Large Pay Package for Its Former Chairman\". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/29/business/international-business-shell-discloses-large-pay-package-for-its-former-chairman.html","url_text":"\"Shell Discloses a Large Pay Package for Its Former Chairman\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bishop to ordain 30 deacons\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bleichenbacher | Daniel Bleichenbacher | ["1 RSA Attacks","1.1 BB'98 attack: chosen ciphertext attack against the RSA PKCS#1 encryption standard","1.2 BB'06 attack: signature forgery attack against the RSA PKCS#1 signature standard","2 References"] | Cryptographer (born 1964)
Daniel Bleichenbacher (born 1964) is a Swiss cryptographer, previously a researcher at Bell Labs, and currently employed at Google. He received his Ph.D. from ETH Zurich in 1996 for contributions to computational number theory, particularly concerning message verification in the ElGamal and RSA public-key cryptosystems. His doctoral advisor was Ueli Maurer.
RSA Attacks
Bleichenbacher is particularly notable for devising attacks against the RSA public-key cryptosystem, namely when used with the PKCS#1 v1 standard published by RSA Laboratories. These attacks were able to break both RSA encryption and signatures produced using the PKCS #1 standard.
BB'98 attack: chosen ciphertext attack against the RSA PKCS#1 encryption standard
In 1998, Daniel Bleichenbacher demonstrated a practical attack against systems using RSA encryption in concert with the PKCS #1 encoding function, including a version of the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol used by thousands of web servers at the time.
This attack was the first practical reason to consider adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks.
BB'06 attack: signature forgery attack against the RSA PKCS#1 signature standard
In 2006 at a rump session at CRYPTO, Bleichenbacher described a "pencil and paper"-simple attack against RSA signature validation as implemented in common cryptographic toolkits. Both OpenSSL and the NSS security engine in Firefox were later found to be vulnerable to the attack, which would allow an attacker to forge the SSL certificates that protect sensitive websites.
References
^ "Bleichenbacher Thesis" (PS). cr.yp.to. Archived from the original on 2022-07-12.
^ Bleichenbacher, Daniel (1998). "Chosen Ciphertext Attacks Against Protocols Based on the RSA Encryption Standard PKCS #1". Crypto '98: 1–12. Archived from the original (PS) on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2011-12-07.
^ Bleichenbacher's RSA signature forgery based on implementation error
^ Analysis on Bleichenbacher's Forgery Attack. IEEE. 2007.
Authority control databases: Academics
DBLP | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"cryptographer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographer"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"ETH Zurich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETH_Zurich"},{"link_name":"ElGamal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ElGamal"},{"link_name":"RSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA_(algorithm)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ueli Maurer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ueli_Maurer_(cryptographer)"}],"text":"Daniel Bleichenbacher (born 1964) is a Swiss cryptographer, previously a researcher at Bell Labs, and currently employed at Google. 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These attacks were able to break both RSA encryption and signatures produced using the PKCS #1 standard.","title":"RSA Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Secure Sockets Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"link_name":"web servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_chosen-ciphertext_attack"}],"sub_title":"BB'98 attack: chosen ciphertext attack against the RSA PKCS#1 encryption standard","text":"In 1998, Daniel Bleichenbacher demonstrated a practical attack against systems using RSA encryption in concert with the PKCS #1 encoding function, including a version of the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocol used by thousands of web servers at the time.[2]\nThis attack was the first practical reason to consider adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks.","title":"RSA Attacks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CRYPTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRYPTO"},{"link_name":"OpenSSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenSSL"},{"link_name":"Firefox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefox"},{"link_name":"SSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"},{"link_name":"certificates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_key_certificate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"BB'06 attack: signature forgery attack against the RSA PKCS#1 signature standard","text":"In 2006 at a rump session at CRYPTO, Bleichenbacher described a \"pencil and paper\"-simple attack against RSA signature validation as implemented in common cryptographic toolkits. Both OpenSSL and the NSS security engine in Firefox were later found to be vulnerable to the attack, which would allow an attacker to forge the SSL certificates that protect sensitive websites.[3][4]","title":"RSA Attacks"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Bleichenbacher Thesis\" (PS). cr.yp.to. Archived from the original on 2022-07-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://cr.yp.to/bib/1996/bleichenbacher-thesis.ps","url_text":"\"Bleichenbacher Thesis\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220712003045/http://cr.yp.to/bib/1996/bleichenbacher-thesis.ps","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bleichenbacher, Daniel (1998). \"Chosen Ciphertext Attacks Against Protocols Based on the RSA Encryption Standard PKCS #1\". Crypto '98: 1–12. Archived from the original (PS) on 2012-02-04. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper_Laboratory | Draper Laboratory | ["1 History","2 Locations","3 Technical areas","4 Notable projects","4.1 Inertial navigation","4.2 Space navigation","4.3 Commercial Lunar Payload Services","4.4 Intelligent systems","4.5 Medical systems","5 Notable innovations","6 Outreach programs","6.1 Exhibitions","6.2 Technical education","6.3 Draper Prize","7 See also","8 References"] | US research and development organization
Draper LaboratoryCompany typeIndependent, non-profit corporationIndustryDefense Space Biomedical EnergyFoundedMIT Confidential Instrument Development Laboratory (1932)The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. (1973)Headquarters555 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139-3563Number of locations4Key peopleDr. Jerry M. Wohletz, President and CEO (2022–)Revenue$672.2 million (fiscal year 2020)Number of employees1,700Websitewww.draper.com
Draper Laboratory is an American non-profit research and development organization, headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts; its official name is The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc (sometimes abbreviated as CSDL). The laboratory specializes in the design, development, and deployment of advanced technology solutions to problems in national security, space exploration, health care and energy.
The laboratory was founded in 1932 by Charles Stark Draper at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to develop aeronautical instrumentation, and came to be called the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. During this period the laboratory is best known for developing the Apollo Guidance Computer, the first silicon integrated circuit–based computer. It was renamed for its founder in 1970, and separated from MIT in 1973 to become an independent, non-profit organization.
The expertise of the laboratory staff includes the areas of guidance, navigation, and control technologies and systems; fault-tolerant computing; advanced algorithms and software systems; modeling and simulation; and microelectromechanical systems and multichip module technology.
History
The display and keyboard (DSKY) interface of the Apollo Guidance Computer, mounted on the control panel of the Command Module, with the Flight Director Attitude Indicator (FDAI) above
In 1932 Charles Stark Draper, an MIT aeronautics professor, founded a teaching laboratory to develop the instrumentation needed for tracking, controlling and navigating aircraft. During World War II, Draper's lab was known as the Confidential Instrument Development Laboratory. Later, the name was changed to the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory or I-Lab. As of 1970, it was located at 45 Osborn Street in Cambridge.
The laboratory was renamed for its founder in 1970 and remained a part of MIT until 1973 when it became an independent, not-for-profit research and development corporation. The transition to an independent corporation arose out of pressures for divestment of MIT laboratories doing military research at the time of the Vietnam War, despite the absence of a role of the laboratory in that war.
As it divested from MIT, the laboratory was initially moved to 75 Cambridge Parkway and other scattered buildings near MIT, until a centralized new 450,000-square-foot (42,000 m2) building could be erected at 555 Technology Square. The complex, designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chicago), was opened in 1976 (later renamed the "Robert A. Duffy Building" in 1992).
In 1984, the newly-built 170,000-square-foot (16,000 m2) Albert G. Hill Building was opened at One Hampshire Street, and connected across the street to the main building via a securely enclosed pedestrian skybridge. However in 1989, Draper Lab was compelled to cut its workforce of over 2000 in half, through a combination of early retirement, attrition, and involuntary layoffs. This drastic shrinkage was caused by cutbacks in defense funding, and changes in government contracting rules. In response, Draper expanded its work addressing non-defense national goals in areas such as space exploration, energy resources, medicine, robotics, and artificial intelligence, and also took measures to increase its non-government work, eventually growing to 1400 employees within the decade.
In 2017, a formerly open-air courtyard between the original buildings was converted into an enclosed 20,000-square-foot (1,900 m2) multistory atrium to accommodate security scanning, reception, semipublic areas, temporary exhibition space, and employee dining facilities. The open, airy interior space, designed by Boston architects Elkus Manfredi, features a green wall planting and plentiful seating.
A primary focus of the laboratory's programs throughout its history has been the development and early application of advanced guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C) technologies to meet the needs of the US Department of Defense and NASA. The laboratory's achievements include the design and development of accurate and reliable guidance systems for undersea-launched ballistic missiles, as well as for the Apollo Guidance Computer that unfailingly guided the Apollo astronauts to the Moon and back safely to Earth.
The laboratory contributed to the development of inertial sensors, software, and other systems for the GN&C of commercial and military aircraft, submarines, strategic and tactical missiles, spacecraft, and uncrewed vehicles. Inertial-based GN&C systems were central for navigating ballistic missile submarines for long periods of time undersea to avoid detection, and guiding their submarine-launched ballistic missiles to their targets, starting with the UGM-27 Polaris missile program.
The Apollo software team was led by Margaret Hamilton (wrote code to provide visual queue when prioritization was working correctly) and included work by programmers such as Hal Laning (prioritization in executive), Dick Battin and Don Eyles.
Locations
Draper has locations in several US cities:
Cambridge, Massachusetts (headquarters)
Houston, Texas at NASA Johnson Space Center, as well as a separate office
Reston, Virginia Reston Campus
Odon, Indiana Odon Campus
Washington, DC Washington Navy Yard
Huntsville, Alabama at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, as well as a separate office
St. Petersburg, Florida Rapid Prototyping Facility and 16th Street Facility
Pittsfield, Massachusetts US Navy Integrated Repair Facility
Cape Canaveral, Florida US Navy Trident Guidance Program Technical Support Facility
Former locations include Tampa, Florida at University of South Florida (Bioengineering Center).
Technical areas
The original logo emphasized navigation and guidance technology; the laboratory has since diversified its areas of expertise
According to its website, the laboratory staff applies its expertise to autonomous air, land, sea and space systems; information integration; distributed sensors and networks; precision-guided munitions; biomedical engineering; chemical/biological defense; and energy system modeling and management. When appropriate, Draper works with partners to transition their technology to commercial production.
The laboratory encompasses seven areas of technical expertise:
Strategic Systems: Application of guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C) expertise to hybrid GPS-aided technologies and to submarine navigation and strategic weapons security.
Space Systems: As "NASA's technology development partner and transition agent for planetary exploration", development of GN&C and high-performance science instruments. Expertise also addresses the national security space sector.
Tactical Systems: Development of maritime intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) platforms, miniaturized munitions guidance, guided aerial delivery systems for materiel, soldier-centered physical and decision support systems, secure electronics and communications, and early intercept guidance for missile defense engagement.
Special Programs: Concept development, prototyping, low-rate production, and field support for first-of-a-kind systems, connected with the other technical areas.
Biomedical Systems: Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidic applications of medical technology, and miniaturized smart medical devices.
Air Warfare and ISR: Intelligence technology for targeting and target planning applications.
Energy Solutions: Managing the reliability, efficiency, and performance of equipment throughout complex energy generation and consumption systems, including coal-fired power plants or the International Space Station.
Notable projects
The USS George Washington (SSBN-598) relied on inertial navigation while submerged and its UGM-27 Polaris missiles relied on inertial guidance to find their targets.
Project areas that have surfaced in the news referred to Draper Laboratory's core expertise in inertial navigation, as recently as 2003. More recently, emphasis has shifted to research in innovative space navigation topics, intelligent systems that rely on sensors and computers to make autonomous decisions, and nano-scale medical devices.
Inertial navigation
The laboratory staff has studied ways to integrate input from Global Positioning System (GPS) into Inertial navigation system-based navigation in order to lower costs and improve reliability. Military inertial navigation systems (INS) cannot totally rely on GPS satellite availability for course correction (which is necessitated by gradual error growth or "drift"), because of the threat of hostile blocking or jamming of signal. A less accurate inertial system usually means a less costly system, but one that requires more frequent recalibration of position from another source, like GPS. Systems which integrate GPS with INS are classified as "loosely coupled" (pre-1995), "tightly coupled" (1996-2002), or "deeply integrated" (2002 onwards), depending on the degree of integration of the hardware. As of 2006, it was envisioned that many military and civilian uses would integrate GPS with INS, including the possibility of artillery shells with a deeply integrated system that can withstand 20,000 g, when fired from a cannon.
Space navigation
The operation of the International Space Station employs several Draper Laboratory technologies.
In 2010 Draper Laboratory and MIT collaborated with two other partners as part of the Next Giant Leap team to win a grant towards achieving the Google Lunar X Prize send the first privately funded robot to the Moon. To qualify for the prize, the robot must travel 500 meters across the lunar surface and transmit video, images and other data back to Earth. A team developed a "Terrestrial Artificial Lunar and Reduced Gravity Simulator" to simulate operations in the space environment, using Draper Laboratory's guidance, navigation and control algorithm for reduced gravity.
In 2012, Draper Laboratory engineers in Houston, Texas developed a new method for turning the International Space Station, called the "optimal propellant maneuver", which achieved a 94 percent savings over previous practice. The algorithm takes into account everything that affects how the station moves, including "the position of its thrusters and the effects of gravity and gyroscopic torque".
As of 2013, at a personal scale, Draper was developing a garment for use in orbit that uses Controlled Moment Gyros (CMGs) that creates resistance to movement of an astronaut's limbs to help mitigate bone loss and maintain muscle tone during prolonged space flight. The unit is called a Variable Vector Countermeasure suit, or V2Suit, which uses CMGs also to assist in balance and movement coordination by creating resistance to movement and an artificial sense of "down". Each CMG module is about the size of a deck of cards. The concept is for the garment to be worn "in the lead-up to landing back on Earth or periodically throughout a long mission".
In 2013, a Draper/MIT/NASA team was also developing a CMG-augmented spacesuit that would expand the current capabilities of NASA's "Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue" (SAFER)—a spacesuit designed for "propulsive self-rescue" for when an astronaut accidentally becomes untethered from a spacecraft. The CMG-augmented suit would provide better counterforce than is now available for when astronauts use tools in low-gravity environments. Counterforce is available on Earth from gravity. Without it an applied force would result in an equal force in the opposite direction, either in a straight line or spinning. In space, this could send an astronaut out of control. Currently, astronauts must affix themselves to the surface being worked on. The CMGs would offer an alternative to mechanical connection or gravitational force.
Commercial Lunar Payload Services
Further information: Commercial Lunar Payload Services
On November 29, 2018, Draper Laboratory was named a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) contractor by NASA, which makes it eligible to bid on delivering science and technology payloads to the Moon for NASA. Draper Lab formally proposed a lunar lander called Artemis-7. The company explained that the number 7 denotes the 7th lunar lander mission in which Draper Laboratory would be involved, after the six Apollo lunar landings. The lander concept is based on a design by a Japanese company called ispace, which is a team member of Draper in this venture. Subcontractors in this venture include General Atomics which will manufacture the lander, and Spaceflight Industries, which will arrange launch services for the lander. As of September 2023, Draper and ispace are developing a lunar lander called APEX 1.0 to deliver CLPS payloads to the moon
in 2026.
Intelligent systems
Draper researchers develop artificial intelligence systems to allow robotic devices to learn from their mistakes, This work is in support of DARPA-funded work, pertaining to the Army Future Combat System. This capability would allow an autonomous under fire to learn that that road is dangerous and find a safer route or to recognize that its fuel status and damage status. As of 2008, Paul DeBitetto reportedly led the cognitive robotics group at the laboratory in this effort.
As of 2009, the US Department of Homeland Security funded Draper Laboratory and other collaborators to develop a technology to detect potential terrorists with cameras and other sensors that monitor behaviors of people being screened. The project is called Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST). The application would be for security checkpoints to assess candidates for follow-up screening. In a demonstration of the technology, the project manager Robert P. Burns explained that the system is designed to distinguish between malicious intent and benign expressions of distress by employing a substantial body research into the psychology of deception.
As of 2010 Neil Adams, a director of tactical systems programs for Draper Laboratory, led the systems integration of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) Nano Aerial Vehicle (NAV) program to miniaturize flying reconnaissance platforms. This entails managing the vehicle, communications and ground control systems allow NAVs to function autonomously to carry a sensor payload to achieve the intended mission. The NAVS must work in urban areas with little or no GPS signal availability, relying on vision-based sensors and systems.
Medical systems
Microfluidic devices have the potential for implantation in humans to deliver corrective therapies.
In 2009, Draper collaborated with the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary to develop an implantable drug-delivery device, which "merges aspects of microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS, with microfluidics, which enables the precise control of fluids on very small scales". The device is a "flexible, fluid-filled machine", which uses tubes that expand and contract to promote fluid flow through channels with a defined rhythm, driven by a micro-scale pump, which adapts to environmental input. The system, funded by the National Institutes of Health, may treat hearing loss by delivering "tiny amounts of a liquid drug to a very delicate region of the ear, the implant will allow sensory cells to regrow, ultimately restoring the patient's hearing".
As of 2010, Heather Clark of Draper Laboratory was developing a method to measure blood glucose concentration without finger-pricking. The method uses a nano-sensor, like a miniature tattoo, just several millimeters across, that patients apply to the skin. The sensor uses near-infrared or visible light ranges to determine glucose concentrations. Normally to regulate their blood glucose levels, diabetics must measure their blood glucose several times a day by taking a drop of blood obtained by a pinprick and inserting the sample into a machine that can measure glucose level. The nano-sensor approach would supplant this process.
Notable innovations
Laboratory staff worked in teams to create novel navigation systems, based on inertial guidance and on digital computers to support the necessary calculations for determining spatial positioning.
Mark 14 Gunsight (1942)—Improved gunsight accuracy of anti-aircraft guns used aboard naval vessels in WWII
Space Inertial Reference Equipment (SPIRE) (1953)—An autonomous all-inertial navigation for aircraft whose feasibility the laboratory demonstrated in a series of 1953 flight tests.
The Laning and Zierler system (1954: also called, "George")—An early algebraic compiler, designed by Hal Laning and Neal Zierler.
Q-guidance—A method of missile guidance, developed by Hal Laning and Richard Battin
Apollo Guidance Computer—The first deployed computer to exploit integrated circuit technology of on board, autonomous navigation in space
Digital fly-by-wire—A control system that allows a pilot to control the aircraft without being connected mechanically to the aircraft's control surfaces
Fault-tolerant Computing—Use of several computers work on a task simultaneously. If any one of the computers fails, the others can take over a vital capability when the safety of an aircraft or other system is at stake.
Micro-electromechanical (MEMS) technologies—Micro-mechanical systems that enabled the first micromachined gyroscope.
Autonomous systems algorithms—Algorithms, which allow autonomous rendezvous and docking of spacecraft; systems for underwater vehicles
GPS coupled with inertial navigation system—A means to allow continuous navigation when the vehicle or system goes into a GPS-denied environment
Outreach programs
Draper Laboratory applies some of its resources to developing and recognizing technical talent through educational programs and public exhibitions. It also sponsors the Charles Stark Draper Prize, one of the three so-called "Nobel Prizes of Engineering" administered by the US National Academy of Engineering.
Exhibitions
Apollo Guidance Computer at the Hack the Moon exhibition, with a picture of software pioneer Margaret Hamilton at upper right
From time to time, Draper Laboratory hosts free exhibitions and events open to the public, which are presented in special semi-public spaces at the front of the central atrium space in the main Duffy Building. For example, in 2019 Draper presented Hack the Moon, a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the first Apollo Moon landing on July 20, 1969. The exhibition featured artifacts, such as the Apollo Guidance Computer hardware developed at Draper, and the mission software developed by Draper staffers including Don Eyles, Margaret Hamilton, and Hal Laning. Visitors could practice landing the Apollo Lunar Module on a software simulator, and then attempt to land while riding inside a full-sized motion simulator like the one used by the astronauts to practice the actual mission. Talks by Draper staffers and retirees, and free public concerts rounded out the festivities. A special Hack the Moon website was created to memorialize the celebration.
Other exhibitions have highlighted different aspects of the research projects conducted at Draper, including information about employment opportunities. All visitors must pass through a security scanner similar to those used at airports, but special security clearances are not required to access the semi-public areas.
Technical education
The research-based Draper Fellow Program sponsors about 50 graduate students each year. Students are trained to fill leadership positions in the government, military, industry, and education. The laboratory also supports on-campus funded research with faculty and principal investigators through the University R&D program. It offers undergraduate student employment and internship opportunities.
Draper Laboratory conducts a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) K–12 and community education outreach program, which it established in 1984. Each year, the laboratory distributes more than $175,000 through its community relations programs. These funds include support of internships, co-ops, participation in science festivals and the provision of tours and speakers-is an extension of this mission.
As of 2021, Draper Laboratory also sponsors Draper Spark!Lab, at the National Museum of American History on the National Mall in Washington, DC. The hands-on invention workspace operated by the Smithsonian Institution is free to all visitors, and focuses on educational activities for children aged 6 to 12 years.
Draper Prize
The company endows the Charles Stark Draper Prize, which is administered by the National Academy of Engineering. It is awarded "to recognize innovative engineering achievements and their reduction to practice in ways that have led to important benefits and significant improvement in the well-being and freedom of humanity". Achievements in any engineering discipline are eligible for the $500,000 prize.
See also
List of United States college laboratories conducting basic defense research
References
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"The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.—History". Funding Universe. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ "Our Leadership" (Press release). Cambridge, MA: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
^ "The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory revenue". Craft. Craft Co. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
^ a b c "Profile: Draper". The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ Levy, Mark (10 October 2009). "The top 10 employers in Cambridge—and how to contact them". Cambridge Day.
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"Founding Consortium Institution: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc". Center for Integration of Medicine and Innovative Technology (CIMIT). Archived from the original on 2011-12-13.
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Morgan, Christopher; O'Connor, Joseph; Hoag, David (1998). "Draper at 25—Innovation for the 21st Century" (PDF). The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-01. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ "Draper Laboratory". MIT Course Catalog 2013–2014. MIT.
^ "Draper Overview, our Global Challenges Initiative, and Selected Projects" (PDF). The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ MIT I-Lab demonstration: protesters marching past the Instrumentation Laboratory, February 1970 (photo)
^ "History". The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ Leslie, Stuart W. (2010). Kaiser, David (ed.). Becoming MIT: Moments of Decision. MIT Press. pp. 124–137. ISBN 978-0-262-11323-6.
^ "Albert Hill, developer of radar and air defenses, dies at 86". MIT News. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. October 30, 1996. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ a b O'Brien, Kelly J. "First look: Draper shows off $60M atrium and newest tech". Boston Business Journal. American City Business Journals. Retrieved 2021-02-18.
^ "Draper Breaks Ground on $60 Million Addition". Draper. The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ "The Atrium at Draper". Vanceva Color Studio. 28 February 2020. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ "Draper Laboratory Project". Kubikoff. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ "Draper Labs". Haworth. Haworth Inc. Archived from the original on 2022-12-16. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
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^ a b Schmidt, George T. "INS/GPS Technology Trends" (PDF). NATO R&T Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-24. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
^ Klamper, Amy (13 April 2011). "Draper, MIT Students Test Lunar Hopper with Eyes on Prize". Space News. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
^ Wall, Mike (27 January 2011). "Coming Soon: Hopping Moon Robots for Private Lunar Landing". Space.com. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
^ Bleicher, Ariel (2 August 2012). "NASA Saves Big on Fuel in ISS Rotation". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
^ Kolawole, Emi (1 June 2013). "When you think gyroscopes, go ahead and think the future of spacesuits and jet packs, too". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
^ Garber, Megan (30 May 2013). "The Future of the Spacesuit—It involves gyroscopes. And better jetpacks". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2013-12-25.
^ "NASA Announces New Partnerships for Commercial Lunar Payload Delivery Services". NASA. 29 November 2018. Retrieved November 29, 2018.
^ Draper developing technologies for lunar landings. Jeff Foust, Space News. 18 July 2019.
^ a b Draper bids on NASA commercial lunar lander competition. Jeff Foust, Space News. 10 October 2018.
^ a b Draper Unveils Team for NASA's Next Moonshot. Draper Laboratory press release on 9 October 2018.
^ NASA to soon announce winner of first commercial lunar lander competition. Stephen Clark, Spaceflight Now. May 2019.
^ Foust, Jeff (29 September 2023). "Ispace revises design of lunar lander for NASA CLPS mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
^ Jean, Grace V. (March 2008). "Robots Get Smarter, But Who Will Buy Them?". National Defense. National Defense Industrial Association. Archived from the original on 2013-12-25. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
^ Johnson, Carolyn Y. (September 18, 2009). "Spotting a terrorist—Next-generation system for detecting suspects in public settings holds promise, sparks privacy concerns". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
^ Smith, Ned (1 July 2010). "Military Plans Hummingbird-Sized Spies in the Sky". Tech News Daily. Archived from the original on 2014-02-23. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
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Borenstein, Jeffrey T. (30 October 2009). "Flexible Microsystems Deliver Drugs Through the Ear—A MEMS-based microfluidic implant could open up many difficult-to-treat diseases to drug therapy". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2013-12-23.
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Kranz, Rebecca; Gwosdow, Andrea (September 2009). "Honey I Shrunk the...Sensor?". What a Year. Massachusetts Society for Medical Research. Retrieved 2013-12-24.
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^ Gruntman, Mike (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry. AIAA. p. 204. ISBN 9781563477058.
^ Battin, Richard H. (1995-06-07). "On algebraic compilers and planetary fly-by orbits". Acta Astronautica. 38 (12). Jerusalem: 895–902. Bibcode:1996AcAau..38..895B. doi:10.1016/s0094-5765(96)00095-1.
^ Spinardi, Graham (1994). From Polaris to Trident: The Development of US Fleet Ballistic Missile. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–45.
^ Hall, Eldon C. (1996). Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer. AIAA. ISBN 9781563471858.
^ "Draper, Digital Fly-by-Wire Team Enters Space Hall of Fame". Space Foundation. 15 April 2010. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ Rennels, David A. (1999). "Fault-Tolerant Computing" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Computer Science. UCLA. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ Sarvestani, Arezu (8 June 2011). "Draper's tiny bio-MEM tech goes from a head-scratcher to a no-brainer". Mass Device. Massachusetts Medical Devices Journal. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ "Hack the Moon". Hack the Moon. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ "Digital Trove of Apollo Artifacts Debuts on Draper's New Website: Hack the Moon". Cision PRWeb. Vocus PRW Holdings, LLC. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ Jungreis, Max (July 19, 2019). "Draper dusts off treasures of the Apollo era - The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ "Visitor Information". Draper. The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ Donnelly, Julie M. (4 January 2011). "Draper program prepares fellows for advanced, niche roles". Mass High Tech. Boston Business Journal. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ Mytko, Denise. "Educational Outreach". The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ "2010 Tech Citizenship honoree: Charles Stark Draper Laboratory Inc". Mass High Tech. Boston Business Journal. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ Mytko, Denise. "Community Relations". The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Spark!Lab". Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. Smithsonian Institution. 14 March 2020. Retrieved 2021-02-24.
^ "Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering". National Academy of Engineering. 26 September 2013. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
Authority control databases
ISNI | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Charles Stark Draper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSDLFUNDINGUNIVERSE-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"microelectromechanical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSDL-Overview-9"}],"text":"Draper Laboratory is an American non-profit research and development organization, headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts; its official name is The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc (sometimes abbreviated as CSDL).[6] The laboratory specializes in the design, development, and deployment of advanced technology solutions to problems in national security, space exploration, health care and energy.The laboratory was founded in 1932 by Charles Stark Draper at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to develop aeronautical instrumentation, and came to be called the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. During this period the laboratory is best known for developing the Apollo Guidance Computer, the first silicon integrated circuit–based computer.[7] It was renamed for its founder in 1970, and separated from MIT in 1973 to become an independent, non-profit organization.[1][7][8]The expertise of the laboratory staff includes the areas of guidance, navigation, and control technologies and systems; fault-tolerant computing; advanced algorithms and software systems; modeling and simulation; and microelectromechanical systems and multichip module technology.[9]","title":"Draper Laboratory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dsky.jpg"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSDLFUNDINGUNIVERSE-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moments-12"},{"link_name":"Technology Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_Square_(Cambridge,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"Skidmore, Owings & Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skidmore,_Owings_%26_Merrill"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"Albert G. Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_G._Hill"},{"link_name":"skybridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HillObit-13"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DRAPERAT25-7"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OBrien2017-14"},{"link_name":"atrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrium_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSDL-Atrium-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OBrien2017-14"},{"link_name":"Elkus Manfredi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elkus_Manfredi"},{"link_name":"green wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_wall"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vanceva-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kubikoff-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haworth-18"},{"link_name":"US Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Astronavigation-19"},{"link_name":"ballistic missile submarines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine"},{"link_name":"submarine-launched ballistic missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"UGM-27 Polaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris"},{"link_name":"Margaret Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Hamilton_(software_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Hal Laning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Laning"},{"link_name":"Don Eyles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Eyles"}],"text":"The display and keyboard (DSKY) interface of the Apollo Guidance Computer, mounted on the control panel of the Command Module, with the Flight Director Attitude Indicator (FDAI) aboveIn 1932 Charles Stark Draper, an MIT aeronautics professor, founded a teaching laboratory to develop the instrumentation needed for tracking, controlling and navigating aircraft. During World War II, Draper's lab was known as the Confidential Instrument Development Laboratory. Later, the name was changed to the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory or I-Lab. As of 1970, it was located at 45 Osborn Street in Cambridge.[10]The laboratory was renamed for its founder in 1970 and remained a part of MIT until 1973 when it became an independent, not-for-profit research and development corporation.[1][7][11] The transition to an independent corporation arose out of pressures for divestment of MIT laboratories doing military research at the time of the Vietnam War, despite the absence of a role of the laboratory in that war.[12]As it divested from MIT, the laboratory was initially moved to 75 Cambridge Parkway and other scattered buildings near MIT, until a centralized new 450,000-square-foot (42,000 m2) building could be erected at 555 Technology Square. The complex, designed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chicago), was opened in 1976 (later renamed the \"Robert A. Duffy Building\" in 1992).[7]In 1984, the newly-built 170,000-square-foot (16,000 m2) Albert G. Hill Building was opened at One Hampshire Street, and connected across the street to the main building via a securely enclosed pedestrian skybridge.[7][13] However in 1989, Draper Lab was compelled to cut its workforce of over 2000 in half, through a combination of early retirement, attrition, and involuntary layoffs.[7] This drastic shrinkage was caused by cutbacks in defense funding, and changes in government contracting rules.[7] In response, Draper expanded its work addressing non-defense national goals in areas such as space exploration, energy resources, medicine, robotics, and artificial intelligence, and also took measures to increase its non-government work,[7] eventually growing to 1400 employees within the decade.[14]In 2017, a formerly open-air courtyard between the original buildings was converted into an enclosed 20,000-square-foot (1,900 m2) multistory atrium to accommodate security scanning, reception, semipublic areas, temporary exhibition space, and employee dining facilities.[15][14] The open, airy interior space, designed by Boston architects Elkus Manfredi, features a green wall planting and plentiful seating.[16][17][18]A primary focus of the laboratory's programs throughout its history has been the development and early application of advanced guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C) technologies to meet the needs of the US Department of Defense and NASA. The laboratory's achievements include the design and development of accurate and reliable guidance systems for undersea-launched ballistic missiles, as well as for the Apollo Guidance Computer that unfailingly guided the Apollo astronauts to the Moon and back safely to Earth.The laboratory contributed to the development of inertial sensors, software, and other systems for the GN&C of commercial and military aircraft, submarines, strategic and tactical missiles, spacecraft, and uncrewed vehicles.[19] Inertial-based GN&C systems were central for navigating ballistic missile submarines for long periods of time undersea to avoid detection, and guiding their submarine-launched ballistic missiles to their targets, starting with the UGM-27 Polaris missile program.The Apollo software team was led by Margaret Hamilton (wrote code to provide visual queue when prioritization was working correctly) and included work by programmers such as Hal Laning (prioritization in executive), Dick Battin and Don Eyles.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABOUTDRAPER-4"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"NASA Johnson Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Johnson_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"Reston, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reston,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"Odon, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odon,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"Washington, DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC"},{"link_name":"Huntsville, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"St. Petersburg, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Petersburg,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Pittsfield, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsfield,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral,_Florida"},{"link_name":"Tampa, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampa,_Florida"},{"link_name":"University of South Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_South_Florida"}],"text":"Draper has locations in several US cities:[4]Cambridge, Massachusetts (headquarters)\nHouston, Texas at NASA Johnson Space Center, as well as a separate office\nReston, Virginia Reston Campus\nOdon, Indiana Odon Campus\nWashington, DC Washington Navy Yard\nHuntsville, Alabama at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, as well as a separate office\nSt. Petersburg, Florida Rapid Prototyping Facility and 16th Street Facility\nPittsfield, Massachusetts US Navy Integrated Repair Facility\nCape Canaveral, Florida US Navy Trident Guidance Program Technical Support FacilityFormer locations include Tampa, Florida at University of South Florida (Bioengineering Center).","title":"Locations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Draper_Laboratory.png"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABOUTDRAPER-4"},{"link_name":"Microelectromechanical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems"},{"link_name":"coal-fired power plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal-fired_power_plants"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"}],"text":"The original logo emphasized navigation and guidance technology; the laboratory has since diversified its areas of expertiseAccording to its website,[4] the laboratory staff applies its expertise to autonomous air, land, sea and space systems; information integration; distributed sensors and networks; precision-guided munitions; biomedical engineering; chemical/biological defense; and energy system modeling and management. When appropriate, Draper works with partners to transition their technology to commercial production.The laboratory encompasses seven areas of technical expertise:Strategic Systems: Application of guidance, navigation, and control (GN&C) expertise to hybrid GPS-aided technologies and to submarine navigation and strategic weapons security.\nSpace Systems: As \"NASA's technology development partner and transition agent for planetary exploration\", development of GN&C and high-performance science instruments. Expertise also addresses the national security space sector.\nTactical Systems: Development of maritime intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) platforms, miniaturized munitions guidance, guided aerial delivery systems for materiel, soldier-centered physical and decision support systems, secure electronics and communications, and early intercept guidance for missile defense engagement.\nSpecial Programs: Concept development, prototyping, low-rate production, and field support for first-of-a-kind systems, connected with the other technical areas.\nBiomedical Systems: Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidic applications of medical technology, and miniaturized smart medical devices.\nAir Warfare and ISR: Intelligence technology for targeting and target planning applications.\nEnergy Solutions: Managing the reliability, efficiency, and performance of equipment throughout complex energy generation and consumption systems, including coal-fired power plants or the International Space Station.","title":"Technical areas"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USS_George_Washington_(SSBN-598)_underway_at_sea,_circa_in_the_1970s.jpg"},{"link_name":"USS George Washington (SSBN-598)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_George_Washington_(SSBN-598)"},{"link_name":"UGM-27 Polaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris"},{"link_name":"inertial navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation"}],"text":"The USS George Washington (SSBN-598) relied on inertial navigation while submerged and its UGM-27 Polaris missiles relied on inertial guidance to find their targets.Project areas that have surfaced in the news referred to Draper Laboratory's core expertise in inertial navigation, as recently as 2003. More recently, emphasis has shifted to research in innovative space navigation topics, intelligent systems that rely on sensors and computers to make autonomous decisions, and nano-scale medical devices.","title":"Notable projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Global Positioning System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System"},{"link_name":"Inertial navigation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schmidt-20"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-force"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NATO-21"}],"sub_title":"Inertial navigation","text":"The laboratory staff has studied ways to integrate input from Global Positioning System (GPS) into Inertial navigation system-based navigation in order to lower costs and improve reliability. Military inertial navigation systems (INS) cannot totally rely on GPS satellite availability for course correction (which is necessitated by gradual error growth or \"drift\"), because of the threat of hostile blocking or jamming of signal. A less accurate inertial system usually means a less costly system, but one that requires more frequent recalibration of position from another source, like GPS. Systems which integrate GPS with INS are classified as \"loosely coupled\" (pre-1995), \"tightly coupled\" (1996-2002), or \"deeply integrated\" (2002 onwards), depending on the degree of integration of the hardware.[20] As of 2006[update], it was envisioned that many military and civilian uses would integrate GPS with INS, including the possibility of artillery shells with a deeply integrated system that can withstand 20,000 g, when fired from a cannon.[21]","title":"Notable projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"Google Lunar X Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Lunar_X_Prize"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Talaris-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISS-24"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-V2Suit-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CMG_suit-26"}],"sub_title":"Space navigation","text":"The operation of the International Space Station employs several Draper Laboratory technologies.In 2010 Draper Laboratory and MIT collaborated with two other partners as part of the Next Giant Leap team to win a grant towards achieving the Google Lunar X Prize send the first privately funded robot to the Moon. To qualify for the prize, the robot must travel 500 meters across the lunar surface and transmit video, images and other data back to Earth. A team developed a \"Terrestrial Artificial Lunar and Reduced Gravity Simulator\" to simulate operations in the space environment, using Draper Laboratory's guidance, navigation and control algorithm for reduced gravity.[22][23]In 2012, Draper Laboratory engineers in Houston, Texas developed a new method for turning the International Space Station, called the \"optimal propellant maneuver\", which achieved a 94 percent savings over previous practice. The algorithm takes into account everything that affects how the station moves, including \"the position of its thrusters and the effects of gravity and gyroscopic torque\".[24]As of 2013[update], at a personal scale, Draper was developing a garment for use in orbit that uses Controlled Moment Gyros (CMGs) that creates resistance to movement of an astronaut's limbs to help mitigate bone loss and maintain muscle tone during prolonged space flight. The unit is called a Variable Vector Countermeasure suit, or V2Suit, which uses CMGs also to assist in balance and movement coordination by creating resistance to movement and an artificial sense of \"down\". Each CMG module is about the size of a deck of cards. The concept is for the garment to be worn \"in the lead-up to landing back on Earth or periodically throughout a long mission\".[25]In 2013, a Draper/MIT/NASA team was also developing a CMG-augmented spacesuit that would expand the current capabilities of NASA's \"Simplified Aid for EVA Rescue\" (SAFER)—a spacesuit designed for \"propulsive self-rescue\" for when an astronaut accidentally becomes untethered from a spacecraft. The CMG-augmented suit would provide better counterforce than is now available for when astronauts use tools in low-gravity environments. Counterforce is available on Earth from gravity. Without it an applied force would result in an equal force in the opposite direction, either in a straight line or spinning. In space, this could send an astronaut out of control. Currently, astronauts must affix themselves to the surface being worked on. The CMGs would offer an alternative to mechanical connection or gravitational force.[26]","title":"Notable projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services"},{"link_name":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLPS_win-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLEPS_Artemis_7-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLEPS_Artemis_7-29"},{"link_name":"ispace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispace_(Japanese_company)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLEPS_partners-30"},{"link_name":"General Atomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Atomics"},{"link_name":"Spaceflight Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceflight_Industries"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLEPS_partners-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"APEX 1.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=APEX_1.0&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","text":"Further information: Commercial Lunar Payload ServicesOn November 29, 2018, Draper Laboratory was named a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) contractor by NASA, which makes it eligible to bid on delivering science and technology payloads to the Moon for NASA.[27] Draper Lab formally proposed a lunar lander called Artemis-7.[28][29] The company explained that the number 7 denotes the 7th lunar lander mission in which Draper Laboratory would be involved, after the six Apollo lunar landings.[29] The lander concept is based on a design by a Japanese company called ispace, which is a team member of Draper in this venture.[30] Subcontractors in this venture include General Atomics which will manufacture the lander, and Spaceflight Industries, which will arrange launch services for the lander.[30][31] As of September 2023, Draper and ispace are developing a lunar lander called APEX 1.0 to deliver CLPS payloads to the moon \nin 2026.[32]","title":"Notable projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DARPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA"},{"link_name":"Future Combat System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Combat_System"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Autonomous-33"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Department of Homeland Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security"},{"link_name":"Future Attribute Screening Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Attribute_Screening_Technology"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FAST-34"},{"link_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hummingbird-35"}],"sub_title":"Intelligent systems","text":"Draper researchers develop artificial intelligence systems to allow robotic devices to learn from their mistakes, This work is in support of DARPA-funded work, pertaining to the Army Future Combat System. This capability would allow an autonomous under fire to learn that that road is dangerous and find a safer route or to recognize that its fuel status and damage status. As of 2008[update], Paul DeBitetto reportedly led the cognitive robotics group at the laboratory in this effort.[33]As of 2009[update], the US Department of Homeland Security funded Draper Laboratory and other collaborators to develop a technology to detect potential terrorists with cameras and other sensors that monitor behaviors of people being screened. The project is called Future Attribute Screening Technology (FAST). The application would be for security checkpoints to assess candidates for follow-up screening. In a demonstration of the technology, the project manager Robert P. Burns explained that the system is designed to distinguish between malicious intent and benign expressions of distress by employing a substantial body research into the psychology of deception.[34]As of 2010 Neil Adams, a director of tactical systems programs for Draper Laboratory, led the systems integration of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) Nano Aerial Vehicle (NAV) program to miniaturize flying reconnaissance platforms. This entails managing the vehicle, communications and ground control systems allow NAVs to function autonomously to carry a sensor payload to achieve the intended mission. The NAVS must work in urban areas with little or no GPS signal availability, relying on vision-based sensors and systems.[35]","title":"Notable projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Microfluidics.jpg"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Eye_and_Ear_Infirmary"},{"link_name":"microelectromechanical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectromechanical_systems"},{"link_name":"National Institutes of Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MEM-36"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit"},{"link_name":"diabetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetics"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blood-37"}],"sub_title":"Medical systems","text":"Microfluidic devices have the potential for implantation in humans to deliver corrective therapies.In 2009, Draper collaborated with the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary to develop an implantable drug-delivery device, which \"merges aspects of microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS, with microfluidics, which enables the precise control of fluids on very small scales\". The device is a \"flexible, fluid-filled machine\", which uses tubes that expand and contract to promote fluid flow through channels with a defined rhythm, driven by a micro-scale pump, which adapts to environmental input. The system, funded by the National Institutes of Health, may treat hearing loss by delivering \"tiny amounts of a liquid drug to a very delicate region of the ear, the implant will allow sensory cells to regrow, ultimately restoring the patient's hearing\".[36]As of 2010[update], Heather Clark of Draper Laboratory was developing a method to measure blood glucose concentration without finger-pricking. The method uses a nano-sensor, like a miniature tattoo, just several millimeters across, that patients apply to the skin. The sensor uses near-infrared or visible light ranges to determine glucose concentrations. Normally to regulate their blood glucose levels, diabetics must measure their blood glucose several times a day by taking a drop of blood obtained by a pinprick and inserting the sample into a machine that can measure glucose level. The nano-sensor approach would supplant this process.[37]","title":"Notable projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NATO-21"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Laning and Zierler system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laning_and_Zierler_system"},{"link_name":"Hal Laning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Laning"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Q-guidance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-guidance"},{"link_name":"Richard Battin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Battin"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"fly-by-wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fly-by-wire"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"MEMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schmidt-20"}],"text":"Laboratory staff worked in teams to create novel navigation systems, based on inertial guidance and on digital computers to support the necessary calculations for determining spatial positioning.Mark 14 Gunsight (1942)—Improved gunsight accuracy of anti-aircraft guns used aboard naval vessels in WWII[38]\nSpace Inertial Reference Equipment (SPIRE) (1953)—An autonomous all-inertial navigation for aircraft whose feasibility the laboratory demonstrated in a series of 1953 flight tests.[21][39]\nThe Laning and Zierler system (1954: also called, \"George\")—An early algebraic compiler, designed by Hal Laning and Neal Zierler.[40]\nQ-guidance—A method of missile guidance, developed by Hal Laning and Richard Battin[41]\nApollo Guidance Computer—The first deployed computer to exploit integrated circuit technology of on board, autonomous navigation in space[42]\nDigital fly-by-wire—A control system that allows a pilot to control the aircraft without being connected mechanically to the aircraft's control surfaces[43]\nFault-tolerant Computing—Use of several computers work on a task simultaneously. If any one of the computers fails, the others can take over a vital capability when the safety of an aircraft or other system is at stake.[44]\nMicro-electromechanical (MEMS) technologies—Micro-mechanical systems that enabled the first micromachined gyroscope.[45]\nAutonomous systems algorithms—Algorithms, which allow autonomous rendezvous and docking of spacecraft; systems for underwater vehicles\nGPS coupled with inertial navigation system—A means to allow continuous navigation when the vehicle or system goes into a GPS-denied environment[20]","title":"Notable innovations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Stark Draper Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper_Prize"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering"}],"text":"Draper Laboratory applies some of its resources to developing and recognizing technical talent through educational programs and public exhibitions. It also sponsors the Charles Stark Draper Prize, one of the three so-called \"Nobel Prizes of Engineering\" administered by the US National Academy of Engineering.","title":"Outreach programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apollo_Gudiance_Computer_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"Margaret Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Hamilton_(software_engineer)"},{"link_name":"first Apollo Moon landing on July 20, 1969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11"},{"link_name":"Apollo Guidance Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Guidance_Computer"},{"link_name":"Don Eyles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Eyles"},{"link_name":"Margaret Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Hamilton_(software_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Hal Laning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Laning"},{"link_name":"Apollo Lunar Module","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Lunar_Module"},{"link_name":"motion simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_simulator"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HackMoon-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Trove-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jungreis-48"},{"link_name":"security scanner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_body_scanner"},{"link_name":"security clearances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_clearance"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSDL-Visitor-49"}],"sub_title":"Exhibitions","text":"Apollo Guidance Computer at the Hack the Moon exhibition, with a picture of software pioneer Margaret Hamilton at upper rightFrom time to time, Draper Laboratory hosts free exhibitions and events open to the public, which are presented in special semi-public spaces at the front of the central atrium space in the main Duffy Building. For example, in 2019 Draper presented Hack the Moon, a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the first Apollo Moon landing on July 20, 1969. The exhibition featured artifacts, such as the Apollo Guidance Computer hardware developed at Draper, and the mission software developed by Draper staffers including Don Eyles, Margaret Hamilton, and Hal Laning. Visitors could practice landing the Apollo Lunar Module on a software simulator, and then attempt to land while riding inside a full-sized motion simulator like the one used by the astronauts to practice the actual mission. Talks by Draper staffers and retirees, and free public concerts rounded out the festivities. A special Hack the Moon website was created to memorialize the celebration.[46][47][48]Other exhibitions have highlighted different aspects of the research projects conducted at Draper, including information about employment opportunities. All visitors must pass through a security scanner similar to those used at airports, but special security clearances are not required to access the semi-public areas.[49]","title":"Outreach programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"STEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM_fields"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit"},{"link_name":"National Museum of American History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History"},{"link_name":"National Mall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Mall"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SparkLab-54"}],"sub_title":"Technical education","text":"The research-based Draper Fellow Program sponsors about 50 graduate students each year.[50] Students are trained to fill leadership positions in the government, military, industry, and education. The laboratory also supports on-campus funded research with faculty and principal investigators through the University R&D program. It offers undergraduate student employment and internship opportunities.Draper Laboratory conducts a STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) K–12 and community education outreach program, which it established in 1984.[51] Each year, the laboratory distributes more than $175,000 through its community relations programs.[52] These funds include support of internships, co-ops, participation in science festivals and the provision of tours and speakers-is an extension of this mission.[53]As of 2021[update], Draper Laboratory also sponsors Draper Spark!Lab, at the National Museum of American History on the National Mall in Washington, DC. The hands-on invention workspace operated by the Smithsonian Institution is free to all visitors, and focuses on educational activities for children aged 6 to 12 years.[54]","title":"Outreach programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Stark Draper Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper_Prize"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Draper Prize","text":"The company endows the Charles Stark Draper Prize, which is administered by the National Academy of Engineering. It is awarded \"to recognize innovative engineering achievements and their reduction to practice in ways that have led to important benefits and significant improvement in the well-being and freedom of humanity\". Achievements in any engineering discipline are eligible for the $500,000 prize.[55]","title":"Outreach programs"}] | [{"image_text":"The display and keyboard (DSKY) interface of the Apollo Guidance Computer, mounted on the control panel of the Command Module, with the Flight Director Attitude Indicator (FDAI) above","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Dsky.jpg/220px-Dsky.jpg"},{"image_text":"The original logo emphasized navigation and guidance technology; the laboratory has since diversified its areas of expertise","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Draper_Laboratory.png"},{"image_text":"The USS George Washington (SSBN-598) relied on inertial navigation while submerged and its UGM-27 Polaris missiles relied on inertial guidance to find their targets.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/USS_George_Washington_%28SSBN-598%29_underway_at_sea%2C_circa_in_the_1970s.jpg/220px-USS_George_Washington_%28SSBN-598%29_underway_at_sea%2C_circa_in_the_1970s.jpg"},{"image_text":"The operation of the International Space Station employs several Draper Laboratory technologies.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg/220px-STS-134_International_Space_Station_after_undocking.jpg"},{"image_text":"Microfluidic devices have the potential for implantation in humans to deliver corrective therapies.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Microfluidics.jpg/170px-Microfluidics.jpg"},{"image_text":"Apollo Guidance Computer at the Hack the Moon exhibition, with a picture of software pioneer Margaret Hamilton at upper right","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Apollo_Gudiance_Computer_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg/220px-Apollo_Gudiance_Computer_at_Draper_Hack_the_Moon_exhibit.agr.jpg"}] | [{"title":"List of United States college laboratories conducting basic defense research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_college_laboratories_conducting_basic_defense_research"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.—History\". 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(30 October 2009). \"Flexible Microsystems Deliver Drugs Through the Ear—A MEMS-based microfluidic implant could open up many difficult-to-treat diseases to drug therapy\". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2013-12-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/flexible-microsystems-deliver-drugs-through-the-ear","url_text":"\"Flexible Microsystems Deliver Drugs Through the Ear—A MEMS-based microfluidic implant could open up many difficult-to-treat diseases to drug therapy\""}]},{"reference":"Kranz, Rebecca; Gwosdow, Andrea (September 2009). \"Honey I Shrunk the...Sensor?\". What a Year. Massachusetts Society for Medical Research. Retrieved 2013-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.whatayear.org/09_09.html","url_text":"\"Honey I Shrunk the...Sensor?\""}]},{"reference":"Gruntman, Mike (2004). Blazing the Trail: The Early History of Spacecraft and Rocketry. AIAA. p. 204. 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From Polaris to Trident: The Development of US Fleet Ballistic Missile. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–45.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8mH-EbdNl0UC&q=q-guidance+equation+draper&pg=PA44","url_text":"From Polaris to Trident: The Development of US Fleet Ballistic Missile"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Eldon C. (1996). Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer. AIAA. ISBN 9781563471858.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G8Dml1x55r0C","url_text":"Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781563471858","url_text":"9781563471858"}]},{"reference":"\"Draper, Digital Fly-by-Wire Team Enters Space Hall of Fame\". Space Foundation. 15 April 2010. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013. 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Retrieved 2013-12-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nae.edu/Activities/Projects/Awards/DraperPrize.aspx","url_text":"\"Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.draper.com/","external_links_name":"www.draper.com"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draper_Laboratory&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/the-charles-stark-draper-laboratory-inc-history/","external_links_name":"\"The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.—History\""},{"Link":"https://www.draper.com/about/leadership","external_links_name":"\"Our Leadership\""},{"Link":"https://craft.co/draper/revenue","external_links_name":"\"The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory revenue\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110612194412/http://www.draper.com/profile.html","external_links_name":"\"Profile: Draper\""},{"Link":"http://draper.com/profile.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.cambridgeday.com/2009/10/10/the-top-10-employers-in-cambridge-%E2%80%94-and-how-to-contact-them/","external_links_name":"\"The top 10 employers in Cambridge—and how to contact them\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111213012827/http://www.cimit.org/about-consortium-draper-laboratory.html","external_links_name":"\"Founding Consortium Institution: The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc\""},{"Link":"http://www.cimit.org/about-consortium-draper-laboratory.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140501071138/http://www.draper.com/Documents/draperat25.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Draper at 25—Innovation for the 21st Century\""},{"Link":"http://www.draper.com/Documents/draperat25.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://web.mit.edu/catalog/inter.resea.drape.html","external_links_name":"\"Draper Laboratory\""},{"Link":"https://www.colorado.edu/aerospace/sites/default/files/attached-files/stephanie_golmon_smead_scholar_alum_update_12apr2019.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Draper Overview, our Global Challenges Initiative, and Selected Projects\""},{"Link":"http://credo.library.umass.edu/view/zoom/muph057-b003-sl401-i027","external_links_name":"MIT I-Lab demonstration: protesters marching past the Instrumentation Laboratory, February 1970"},{"Link":"http://www.draper.com/history","external_links_name":"\"History\""},{"Link":"https://news.mit.edu/1996/hill-1030","external_links_name":"\"Albert Hill, developer of radar and air defenses, dies at 86\""},{"Link":"https://www.bizjournals.com/boston/news/2017/10/05/first-look-draper-shows-off-60m-atrium-and-newest.html","external_links_name":"\"First look: Draper shows off $60M atrium and newest tech\""},{"Link":"https://www.draper.com/news-releases/draper-breaks-ground-60-million-addition","external_links_name":"\"Draper Breaks Ground on $60 Million Addition\""},{"Link":"https://www.vanceva.com/gallery/atrium-draper","external_links_name":"\"The Atrium at Draper\""},{"Link":"https://www.kubikoff.com/news/charles-stark-draper-lab-atrium/","external_links_name":"\"Draper Laboratory Project\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221216133149/https://www.haworth.com/na/en/projects/customer-projects/draper-labs.html","external_links_name":"\"Draper Labs\""},{"Link":"https://www.haworth.com/na/en/projects/customer-projects/draper-labs.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-4205/ch2-4.html","external_links_name":"Astronavigation - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSV_Alvin | DSV Alvin | ["1 Design","2 History","2.1 Early career","2.2 Sinking","2.3 Post-sinking refit","2.4 Mid-Atlantic Ridge","2.5 Hydrothermal vents","2.6 Exploration of RMS Titanic","2.7 Recent overhauls","2.8 2008 upgrade","2.9 2011 to 2014 rebuild","2.10 2020 to 2022 upgrade","3 Current status","4 Operation","5 See also","5.1 Alvin-class DSV","5.2 Other deep submergence vehicles","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"] | Crewed deep-ocean research submersible
"ALVIN" redirects here. For other uses, see Alvin.
Alvin in 1978, a year after first exploring hydrothermal vents. The rack hanging at the bow holds sample containers.
History
United States
NameAlvin
NamesakeAllyn Vine
OperatorWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution
BuilderGeneral Mills' Electronics Group
AcquiredMay 26, 1964
In serviceJune 5, 1964
Statusin active service, as of 2023
General characteristics
TypeDeep-submergence vehicle
Displacement17 t (17 long tons)
Length7.1 m (23 ft 4 in)
Beam2.6 m (8 ft 6 in)
Height3.7 m (12 ft 2 in)
Draft2.3 m (7 ft 7 in)
Speed2 knots (3.7 km/h; 2.3 mph)
Range5 km (3.1 mi)
Endurance72 hours with 3 crew
Test depth6,500 m (21,300 ft)
Capacity680 kg (1,500 lb) payload
Crew3 (1 pilot, 2 scientific observers)
Alvin (DSV-2) is a crewed deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The original vehicle was built by General Mills' Electronics Group in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Named to honor the prime mover and creative inspiration for the vehicle, Allyn Vine, Alvin was commissioned on June 5, 1964.
The submersible is launched from the deep submergence support vessel RV Atlantis (AGOR-25), which is also owned by the U.S. Navy and operated by WHOI. The submersible has made more than 5,200 dives, carrying two scientists and a pilot, observing the lifeforms that must cope with super-pressures and move about in total darkness, as well as exploring the wreck of Titanic. Research conducted by Alvin has been featured in nearly 2,000 scientific papers.
Design
Emergency separation
General layout
Alvin was designed as a replacement for bathyscaphes and other less maneuverable oceanographic vehicles. Its more nimble design was made possible in part by the development of syntactic foam, which is buoyant and yet strong enough to serve as a structural material at great depths.
The vessel weighs 17 tons. It allows for two scientists and one pilot to dive for up to nine hours at 6,500 metres (21,300 ft). The submersible features two robotic arms and can be fitted with mission-specific sampling and experimental gear. The plug hatch of the vessel is 0.48 m (1 ft 7 in) in diameter and somewhat thicker than the 2-inch (51 mm) thick titanium sphere pressure hull; it is held in place by the pressure of the water above it.
In an emergency, if previous versions of Alvin were stuck underwater with occupants inside, an upper part of the submersible including the titanium sphere could be released using controls inside the hull. This would then rise to the surface uncontrolled. The current version of the vehicle uses releasable weights and emergency releases on jettisonable equipment.
Harold E. Froehlich was one of the principal designers of Alvin.
History
Early career
Alvin, first of its ship class of deep submergence vehicle (DSV), was built to dive to 2,440 metres (8,010 ft). Each of the Alvin-class DSVs have different depth capabilities. However, Alvin is the only one seconded to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), with the others staying with the United States Navy.
Alvin's first deep sea tests took place off Andros Island, the Bahamas, where it made a successful 12-hour, uncrewed tethered 7,500-foot (2,300 m) test dive. On July 20, 1965 Alvin made its first 6,000-foot (1,800 m) crewed dive for the Navy to obtain certification. On March 17, 1966, Alvin was used to locate a submerged 1.45-megaton hydrogen bomb lost in a United States Air Force midair accident over Palomares, Spain. The bomb, found resting on a steep slope nearly 2,500 ft (760 m) deep, was located by Albin but the submersible had difficulty raising it up, initially causing it to fall deeper to 2,800 ft (850 m). The bomb was eventually raised intact on April 7 by a Navy CURV-I and the experience gained by the Alvin crew's 34 dives with over 220 hours logged led to new improvements to the vehicle's naviations systems.
On July 6, 1967, the Alvin was attacked by a swordfish during dive 202. The swordfish became trapped in the Alvin's skin. The attack took place at 2,000 feet (610 m) below the surface. The fish was recovered at the surface and cooked for dinner. During Dive 209, on September 24, 1968 Alvin found an F6F Hellcat, #42782, 125 miles southeast of Nantucket. The aircraft had ditched September 30, 1944 during carrier qualifications, with the pilot surviving.
Sinking
The sunken Alvin on the ocean bottom in June 1969, photographed by USNS Mizar (T-AGOR-11).
Alvin, aboard the Navy tender ship Lulu, was lost as it was being transported on October 26, 1968. Lulu, a vessel created from a pair of decommissioned U.S. Navy pontoon boats with a support structure added on, was lowering Alvin over the side when two steel cables snapped. There were three crew members aboard Alvin at the time, and the hatch was open. Situated between the pontoons with no deck underneath, Alvin entered the water and rapidly began to sink. The three crew members managed to escape, but Alvin flooded and sank in 1,500 m (4,900 ft) of water in the Atlantic Ocean at approximately 39°53′30″N 069°15′30″W / 39.89167°N 69.25833°W / 39.89167; -69.25833 ("DSV Alvin"), about 88 nautical miles (101 mi; 163 km) south of Nantucket Island.
Severe weather prevented the recovery of Alvin throughout late 1968, but it was photographed at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean in June 1969 by a sled towed by USS Mizar. Alvin was found to be upright and appeared intact except for damage to the stern. It was decided to attempt recovery; although no object of Alvin's size had ever been recovered from a depth of 5,000 feet (1,500 m), recovery was "deemed to be within the state of the art". In August 1969, the Aluminaut, a DSV built by Reynolds Metals Company, descended to Alvin but had trouble attaching the required lines, and side effects from Hurricane Camille were producing worsening weather, causing the team to return to Woods Hole to regroup. The second attempt started on August 27, and Aluminaut was able to secure a line and safety slings on Alvin, and wrapped a prefabricated nylon net around its hull, allowing it to be hauled up by Mizar. Alvin was towed, submerged at 40 feet (12 m), at a speed of 2 knots (3.7 km/h), back to Woods Hole.
Post-sinking refit
Alvin during refit of the personnel sphere, 1974.
In 1973, Alvin's pressure hull was replaced by a newer titanium pressure hull. The new hull extended the submersible's depth rating.: p36
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Main article: Mid-Atlantic RidgeWith a new, stronger pressure hull Alvin could now reach the floor of the rift valley of this seafloor spreading center. In the summer of 1974 American and French scientists joined in Project FAMOUS to explore the creation of new sea floor at this spreading center. The French provided submersibles Archimède and CYANA. A total of forty-four dives were completed that succeeded in defining the crustal accretion zone in the floor of the rift valley.
Hydrothermal vents
Main article: Hydrothermal vent
Marine geologists using Alvin in the Pacific Ocean discovered deep-sea hydrothermal vents and associated biologic communities during two expeditions to ocean spreading centers. In 1977 scientists in Alvin discovered low temperature (~20 °C) vents on the Galapagos spreading center east of those same islands. During the RISE expedition in 1979 scientists using Alvin discovered high temperature vents (380 °C) popularly known as ‘black smokers’ on the crest of the East Pacific Rise at 21° N. These discoveries revealed deep-sea ecosystems that exist without sunlight and are based on chemosynthesis.
Exploration of RMS Titanic
Alvin was involved in the exploration of the wreckage of RMS Titanic in 1986. Launched from her support ship RV Atlantis II, she carried Dr. Robert Ballard and two companions to the wreckage of the White Star Liner Titanic, which sank in 1912 after striking an iceberg while crossing the North Atlantic Ocean on her maiden voyage.
Alvin, accompanied by a small remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named Jason Jr., was able to conduct detailed photographic surveys and inspections of Titanic's wreckage. Many of the photographs of the expedition have been published in the magazine of the National Geographic Society, which was a major sponsor of the expedition.
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution team involved in the Titanic expedition also explored the wreck of the USS Scorpion (SSN-589), a Skipjack-class submarine armed with nuclear torpedoes, which sank off the coast of the Azores in 1968 in uncertain circumstances. Alvin obtained photographic and other environmental monitoring data from the remains of Scorpion.
Recent overhauls
See also: Ship of Theseus
Mountains in the Sea Expedition, 2004.
Over the years, Alvin has undergone many overhauls to improve its equipment and extend its lifetime. In 2001, among other equipment, motor controllers and computer systems were added. The current Alvin is the same as the original vessel in name and general design only. All components of the vessel, including the frame and personnel sphere, have been replaced at least once. Alvin is completely disassembled every three to five years for a complete inspection. A new robotic arm was added in 2006.
2008 upgrade
In June 2008 construction started on a stronger and slightly larger personnel sphere which was used to upgrade Alvin, before being used in an entirely new vehicle. The new sphere was designed, and then forged, from solid titanium ingots, in two equal halves, at Ladish Forge, Cudahy, Wisconsin, and then the 15.5 tonnes of titanium was machined and assembled, utilizing five view ports (instead of the previous three) and is designed for depths of over 6,000 m (20,000 ft), where Alvin's original depth limit was 4,500 m (14,800 ft). This, along with a general upgrade of support systems, instruments and materials, will allow Alvin to reach 98% of the ocean floor.
2011 to 2014 rebuild
After one last dive to assess damage to the Gulf of Mexico's seafloor after the Deepwater Horizon disaster, Alvin was refitted starting January 2011. Alvin began an extensive rebuild that featured new cameras, lighting, and a larger titanium personnel sphere. This three-and-a-half-year effort to upgrade the vessel implemented the core infrastructure to eventually increase its depth capability from 4,500 meters (14,800 ft) to 6,500 meters (21,300 ft). In 2014, an extensively refitted Alvin conducted verification testing in the Gulf of Mexico, and was certified to return to service. In March and April 2014, Alvin was used to explore the site of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill.
2020 to 2022 upgrade
Starting in 2020, the second phase to upgrade Alvin for 6,500 meters (21,300 ft) operation began; the 2014 rebuild with new, larger titanium, personnel hull and rebuilt structural frame being the first phase. In this phase, Alvin got new titanium ballast spheres, a second Schilling manipulator arm, a 4K imaging system, several new syntactic foam modules, an upgrade to the hydraulic system, and new thrusters. During 2022, Alvin successfully completed sea trials and was certified for operating down to 6500 meters.
Current status
As of 2024, Alvin is in active service, operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The research ship RV Atlantis serves as its support ship.
Operation
DSV Alvin on the fantail (stern) of RV Atlantis following a dive. On the right side of the photograph the A-frame crane can be seen that lowers Alvin into the water and lifts it back on board, and on the left, Alvin's hangar.
Like most deep submergence vehicles, Alvin is normally transported on board its support vessel. It is launched shortly before a dive, and recovered after the dive, using a suitable launch and recovery system (LARS) mounted on the support vessel. The support vessel is usually the R/V Atlantis, but several others have been used.
Alvin uses four 208-pound (94 kg) steel weights (~1.7 cubic feet of steel) to provide negative buoyancy for the trip to the ocean floor. Alvin contains a ballast and trim system, but the steel weights allow deep dives to be achieved more rapidly. These weights are jettisoned on each dive and left at the bottom.
See also
Hydrothermal vent – Fissure in a planet's surface from which heated water emits
Deep-submergence vehicle – Self-propelled deep-diving crewed submersible
Mid-ocean ridge – Basaltic underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonic spreading
RISE project – 1979 international marine research project
Jack Corliss – Geochemical oceanographer, discoverer of geothermal vent life, origin of life investigator
Bruce P. Luyendyk – American geophysicist and oceanographer (born 1943)
Kenneth C. Macdonald – American oceanographer (born 1947)
Fred Spiess – American marine biologist
Alvin-class DSV
Turtle (DSV-3) – US Navy crewed deep-ocean research submersible
Sea Cliff (DSV-4) – US Navy crewed deep-ocean research submersible
Nemo (DSV-5) – Submersible used by the United States Navy
Other deep submergence vehicles
Aluminaut – First aluminum hulled submarine
Trieste – Deep sea scientific submersible
Trieste II – US Navy's second bathyscaphe (DSV-1)
SP-350 Denise – French two-person submarine
Jiaolong – Chinese crewed deep-sea research submersible
DSRV-1 Mystic – US Navy deep-submergence rescue vehicle
DSRV-2 Avalon – Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle
NR-1 – Experimental nuclear submarine
MIR 1 and MIR 2 – Self-propelled deep submergence vehicle
Nautile – Crewed submersible owned by Ifremer
Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle – Three person research deep-submergence vehicles
Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe – Chinese bathyscaphe class
Dragon class bathyscaphe – Chinese bathyscaphe class
Harmony class bathyscaphe – Chinese bathyscaphe class
DSV Shinkai 6500 – Japanese crewed research submersible
Shinkai 2000 – Japanese crewed research submersible
Deepsea Challenger – Submersible that traveled to the Challenger Deep
DSV Limiting Factor – Crewed full ocean depth rated submersible
References
^ a b c d e "History of Alvin". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 1 December 2005. Retrieved 11 November 2017.
^ a b "Alvin Specifications". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
^ Safety
^ Pearce, Jeremy (26 May 2007). "Harold Froehlich, 84, Dies; Designed Deep-Sea Minisub". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 March 2017.
^ "The story of "Little Alvin" and the lost H-bomb". whoi.edu. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
^ "F6F 42782 - Luftwaffe and Allied Air Forces Discussion Forum". forum.12oclockhigh.net. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
^ a b SALVOPS 69, Washington, D.C.:Department of the Navy Naval Ship Systems Command, 1969, pp. 1–18. Archived 24 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ Strickrott, W. Bruce (2017). "The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin" (PDF). The Journal of Ocean Technology. 12 (1).
^ Heirtzler, J. R.; Van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1 April 1977). "Project FAMOUS: Its origin, programs, and setting". GSA Bulletin. 88 (4): 481–487. Bibcode:1977GSAB...88..481H. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<481:pfiopa>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0016-7606.
^ Heirtzler, James R.; Le Pichon, Xavier (1 June 1974). "FAMOUS: A Plate Tectonics Study of the Genesis of the Lithosphere". Geology. 2 (6): 273–274. Bibcode:1974Geo.....2..273H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1974)2<273:faptso>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
^ Luyendyk, Ken C.; Macdonald, Ken C. Bruce P. (1 June 1976). "Spreading center terms and concepts". Geology. 4 (6): 369–370. Bibcode:1976Geo.....4..369L. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4<369:sctac>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
^ Moore, James G.; Fleming, Henry S.; Phillips, Joseph D. (1 September 1974). "Preliminary Model for Extrusion and Rifting at the Axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 36°48′ North". Geology. 2 (9): 437–440. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1974)2<437:pmfear>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
^ a b Corliss, John B.; Dymond, Jack; Gordon, Louis I.; Edmond, John M.; von Herzen, Richard P.; Ballard, Robert D.; Green, Kenneth; Williams, David; Bainbridge, Arnold (16 March 1979). "Submarine Thermal Springs on the Galápagos Rift". Science. 203 (4385): 1073–1083. Bibcode:1979Sci...203.1073C. doi:10.1126/science.203.4385.1073. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17776033. S2CID 39869961.
^ Spiess, F. N.; Macdonald, K. C.; Atwater, T.; Ballard, R.; Carranza, A.; Cordoba, D.; Cox, C.; Garcia, V. M. D.; Francheteau, J. (28 March 1980). "East Pacific Rise: Hot Springs and Geophysical Experiments". Science. 207 (4438): 1421–1433. Bibcode:1980Sci...207.1421S. doi:10.1126/science.207.4438.1421. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17779602. S2CID 28363398.
^ "Human Occupied Vehicle Alvin". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
^ Broad, William J. (26 August 2008). "Forging a new sphere". The New York Times. p. F1.
^ Borel, Brooke, "Alvin Redux", Popular Science, March 2013
^ Hsu, Jeremy (16 December 2010). "Upgraded Sub Could Reach 98 Percent of Ocean Deep". OurAmazingPlanet.com. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
^ Amos, Jonathan (16 December 2010). "Ocean science giant Alvin set for upgrade". BBC News. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
^ a b "Who is Alvin". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2022. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023.
^ Lippsett, Lonny (13 March 2014). "Not Your Grandfather's Cadillac". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Retrieved 18 March 2014.
^ "Alvin cleared to return to service". National Science Foundation. 2014. Archived from the original on 24 June 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2023.
^ Juhasz, Antonia (1 April 2014), "The Deepwater Horizon Spill, Four Years On", Harper's
^ Casey, Susan (2023). The Underworld: Journeys to the Depths of the Ocean. Diversified Publishing. ISBN 059374425X.
^ deGruy, Mike (18 November 1999). "Marine Advanced Technology Education (MATE) Center – Expedition Log". marinetech.org. Archived from the original on 20 July 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
^ Nevala, Amy E. (3 August 2005). "Alvin's Pilots". Oceanus. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
Further reading
Kaharl, Victoria A. (1 October 1990). Water Baby: The Story of Alvin. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-506191-8.
Kunzig, Robert (1 March 1999). The Restless Sea: Exploring the World Beneath the Waves (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04562-5.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alvin (DSV-2).
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Underwaterhabitat
Aquarius Reef Base
Continental Shelf Station Two
Helgoland Habitat
Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
SEALAB
Tektite habitat
Remotely operatedunderwater vehicles
8A4-class ROUV
ABISMO
Atlantis ROV Team
CURV
Deep Drone
Épaulard
Global Explorer ROV
Goldfish-class ROUV
Kaikō ROV
Kaşif ROUV
Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
Mini Rover ROV
OpenROV
ROV KIEL 6000
ROV PHOCA
Scorpio ROV
Sea Dragon-class ROV
Seabed tractor
Seafox drone
SeaPerch
SJT-class ROUV
T1200 Trenching Unit
VideoRay UROVs
Safety equipment
Diver down flag
Diving shot
ENOS Rescue-System
Hyperbaric lifeboat
Hyperbaric stretcher
Jackstay
Jonline
Reserve gas supply
General
Diving spread
Air spread
Saturation spread
Hot water system
Sonar
Underwater acoustic positioning system
Underwater acoustic communication
FreedivingActivities
Aquathlon
Apnoea finswimming
Freediving
Haenyeo
Pearl hunting
Ama
Snorkeling
Spearfishing
Underwater football
Underwater hockey
Underwater rugby
Underwater target shooting
Competitions
Nordic Deep
Vertical Blue
Disciplines
Constant weight (CWT)
Constant weight bi-fins (CWTB)
Constant weight without fins (CNF)
Dynamic apnea (DYN)
Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
Free immersion (FIM)
No-limits apnea (NLT)
Static apnea (STA)
Skandalopetra diving
Variable weight apnea (VWT)
Variable weight apnea without fins
Equipment
Diving mask
Diving suit
Hawaiian sling
Polespear
Snorkel (swimming)
Speargun
Swimfins
Monofin
Water polo cap
Freedivers
Deborah Andollo
Simone Arrigoni
Peppo Biscarini
Michael Board
Sara Campbell
Derya Can Göçen
Goran Čolak
Carlos Coste
Robert Croft
Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
Yasemin Dalkılıç
Leonardo D'Imporzano
Flavia Eberhard
Şahika Ercümen
Emma Farrell
Francisco Ferreras
Pierre Frolla
Flavia Eberhard
Mehgan Heaney-Grier
Elisabeth Kristoffersen
Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych
Loïc Leferme
Enzo Maiorca
Jacques Mayol
Audrey Mestre
Karol Meyer
Kate Middleton
Stéphane Mifsud
Alexey Molchanov
Natalia Molchanova
Dave Mullins
Patrick Musimu
Guillaume Néry
Herbert Nitsch
Umberto Pelizzari
Liv Philip
Annelie Pompe
Stig Severinsen
Tom Sietas
Aharon Solomons
Martin Štěpánek
Walter Steyn
Tanya Streeter
William Trubridge
Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
Fatma Uruk
Danai Varveri
Alessia Zecchini
Nataliia Zharkova
Hazards
Barotrauma
Drowning
Freediving blackout
Deep-water blackout
Shallow-water blackout
Hypercapnia
Hypothermia
Historical
Ama
Octopus wrestling
Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming
Organisations
AIDA International
Scuba Schools International
Australian Underwater Federation
British Freediving Association
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
Performance Freediving International
Professional divingOccupations
Ama
Commercial diver
Commercial offshore diver
Hazmat diver
Divemaster
Diving instructor
Diving safety officer
Diving superintendent
Diving supervisor
Haenyeo
Media diver
Police diver
Public safety diver
Scientific diver
Underwater archaeologist
Militarydiving
Army engineer diver
Canadian Armed Forces Divers
Clearance diver
Frogman
Minentaucher
Royal Navy ships diver
United States military divers
U.S. Navy diver
U.S.Navy master diver
Militarydivingunits
Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)
Commando Hubert
Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)
Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei
Decima Flottiglia MAS
Frogman Corps (Denmark)
Fuerzas Especiales
Fukuryu
GRUMEC
Grup Gerak Khas
Jagdkommando
JW Formoza
JW GROM
JW Komandosów
Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine
KOPASKA
MARCOS
Marine Commandos
Marinejegerkommandoen
Marine Raider Regiment
Minedykkerkommandoen
Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit
Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)
Naval Service Diving Section
Naval Special Operations Command
Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)
Royal Engineers
Russian commando frogmen
Sappers Divers Group
Shayetet 13
Special Air Service
Special Air Service Regiment
Special Actions Detachment
Special Boat Service
Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)
Special Forces Command (Turkey)
Special Forces Group (Belgium)
Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)
Special Service Group (Navy)
Special Warfare Diving and Salvage
Tactical Divers Group
US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance
US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions
US Navy SEALs
Underwater Construction Teams
Underwater Demolition Command
Underwater Demolition Team
Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)
UNGERIN
Underwaterwork
Commercial offshore diving
Dive leader
Diver training
Recreational diver training
Hazmat diving
Hyperbaric welding
Marine construction
Offshore construction
Underwater construction
Media diving
Nondestructive testing
Pearl hunting
Police diving
Potable water diving
Public safety diving
Scientific diving
Ships husbandry
Sponge diving
Submarine pipeline
Underwater archaeology
Archaeology of shipwrecks
Underwater cutting and welding
Underwater demolition
Underwater inspection
Underwater logging
Underwater photography
Underwater search and recovery
Underwater searches
Underwater videography
Underwater survey
Salvage diving
SS Egypt
Kronan
La Belle
SS Laurentic
RMS Lusitania
Mars
Mary Rose
USS Monitor
HMS Royal George
Vasa
Divingcontractors
COMEX
Helix Energy Solutions Group
International Marine Contractors Association
Tools andequipment
Abrasive waterjet
Airlift
Baited remote underwater video
In-water surface cleaning
Brush cart
Cavitation cleaning
Pressure washing
Pigging
Lifting bag
Remotely operated underwater vehicle
Thermal lance
Tremie
Water jetting
Underwaterweapons
Limpet mine
Speargun
Hawaiian sling
Polespear
Underwaterfirearm
Gyrojet
Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
Powerhead
Underwater pistols
Heckler & Koch P11
SPP-1 underwater pistol
Underwater revolvers
AAI underwater revolver
Underwater rifles
ADS amphibious rifle
APS underwater rifle
ASM-DT amphibious rifle
QBS-06
Recreational diving
Recreational dive sites
Index of recreational dive sites
List of wreck diving sites
Outline of recreational dive sites
Specialties
Altitude diving
Cave diving
Deep diving
Ice diving
Muck diving
Open-water diving
Rebreather diving
Sidemount diving
Solo diving
Technical diving
Underwater photography
Wreck diving
Diverorganisations
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
Cave Diving Group (CDG)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
Quintana Roo Speleological Survey (QRSS)
Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)
Diving tourismindustry
Dive center
Diving in East Timor
Diving in the Maldives
Environmental impact of recreational diving
Scuba diving tourism
Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands
Shark tourism
Sinking ships for wreck diving sites
Underwater diving on Guam
Diving eventsand festivals
Diversnight
Underwater Bike Race
Diving safety
Human factors in diving equipment design
Human factors in diving safety
Life-support system
Safety-critical system
Scuba diving fatalities
Underwater diving emergency
Water safety
Water surface searches
Divinghazards
List of diving hazards and precautions
Environmental
Current
Delta-P
Entanglement hazard
Overhead
Silt out
Wave action
Equipment
Freeflow
Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment
Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus
Single point of failure
Physiological
Cold shock response
Decompression
Nitrogen narcosis
Oxygen toxicity
Seasickness
Uncontrolled decompression
Diver behaviour and competence
Lack of competence
Overconfidence effect
Panic
Task loading
Trait anxiety
Willful violation
Consequences
Barotrauma
Decompression sickness
Drowning
Hypothermia
Hypoxia
Hypercapnia
Hyperthermia
Non-freezing cold injury
Divingprocedures
Ascending and descending
Emergency ascent
Boat diving
Canoe and kayak diving
Buddy diving
buddy check
Decompression
Decompression practice
Pyle stop
Ratio decompression
Dive briefing
Dive log
Dive planning
Rule of thirds
Scuba gas planning
Diver communications
Diver rescue
Diver training
Doing It Right
Drift diving
Gas blending for scuba diving
Night diving
Rebreather diving
Scuba gas management
Solo diving
Riskmanagement
Checklist
Hazard identification and risk assessment
Hazard analysis
Job safety analysis
Risk assessment
Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue
Risk control
Hierarchy of hazard controls
Incident pit
Lockout–tagout
Permit To Work
Redundancy
Safety data sheet
Situation awareness
Diving team
Bellman
Chamber operator
Diver medical technician
Diver's attendant
Diving supervisor
Diving systems technician
Gas man
Life support technician
Stand-by diver
Equipmentsafety
Breathing gas quality
Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
Hydrostatic test
Sustained load cracking
Diving regulator
Breathing performance of regulators
Occupationalsafety andhealth
Association of Diving Contractors International
International Marine Contractors Association
Code of practice
Contingency plan
Diving regulations
Emergency response plan
Diving safety officer
Diving superintendent
Diving supervisor
Operations manual
Standard operating procedure
Diving medicineDivingdisorders
List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
Cramp
Motion sickness
Surfer's ear
Pressurerelated
Alternobaric vertigo
Barostriction
Barotrauma
Air embolism
Aerosinusitis
Barodontalgia
Dental barotrauma
Middle ear barotrauma
Pulmonary barotrauma
Compression arthralgia
Decompression illness
Dysbarism
Oxygen
Freediving blackout
Hyperoxia
Hypoxia
Oxygen toxicity
Inert gases
Avascular necrosis
Decompression sickness
Dysbaric osteonecrosis
Inner ear decompression sickness
Isobaric counterdiffusion
Taravana
High-pressure nervous syndrome
Hydrogen narcosis
Nitrogen narcosis
Carbon dioxide
Hypercapnia
Hypocapnia
Breathing gascontaminants
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Immersionrelated
Asphyxia
Drowning
Hypothermia
Immersion diuresis
Instinctive drowning response
Laryngospasm
Salt water aspiration syndrome
Swimming-induced pulmonary edema
Treatment
Demand valve oxygen therapy
First aid
Hyperbaric medicine
Hyperbaric treatment schedules
In-water recompression
Oxygen therapy
Therapeutic recompression
Personnel
Diving Medical Examiner
Diving Medical Practitioner
Diving Medical Technician
Hyperbaric nursing
Screening
Atrial septal defect
Effects of drugs on fitness to dive
Fitness to dive
Psychological fitness to dive
ResearchResearchers indiving physiologyand medicine
Arthur J. Bachrach
Albert R. Behnke
Peter B. Bennett
Paul Bert
George F. Bond
Robert Boyle
Alf O. Brubakk
Albert A. Bühlmann
John R. Clarke
Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
Kenneth William Donald
William Paul Fife
John Scott Haldane
Robert William Hamilton Jr.
Henry Valence Hempleman
Leonard Erskine Hill
Brian Andrew Hills
Felix Hoppe-Seyler
Christian J. Lambertsen
Simon Mitchell
Charles Momsen
Neal W. Pollock
John Rawlins
Charles Wesley Shilling
Edward D. Thalmann
Jacques Triger
Diving medicalresearchorganisations
Aerospace Medical Association
Divers Alert Network (DAN)
Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
Rubicon Foundation
South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)
Law
Civil liability in recreational diving
Diving regulations
Duty of care
List of legislation regulating underwater diving
Investigation of diving accidents
Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage
History of underwater diving
History of decompression research and development
History of Diving Museum
History of scuba diving
List of researchers in underwater diving
Lyons Maritime Museum
Man in the Sea Museum
Timeline of diving technology
Pearling in Western Australia
US Navy decompression models and tables
Archeologicalsites
SS Commodore
USS Monitor
Queen Anne's Revenge
Whydah Gally
Underwater artand artists
The Diver
Jason deCaires Taylor
Engineersand inventors
Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont
William Beebe
Georges Beuchat
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
Joseph-Martin Cabirol
John R. Clarke
Jacques Cousteau
Charles Anthony Deane
John Deane
Louis de Corlieu
Auguste Denayrouze
Ted Eldred
Henry Fleuss
Émile Gagnan
Karl Heinrich Klingert
Peter Kreeft
Christian J. Lambertsen
Yves Le Prieur
John Lethbridge
Ernest William Moir
Joseph Salim Peress
Auguste Piccard
Joe Savoie
Willard Franklyn Searle
Gordon Smith
Augustus Siebe
Pierre-Marie Touboulic
Jacques Triger
Historicalequipment
Aqua-Lung
RV Calypso
SP-350 Denise
Magnesium torch
Nikonos
Porpoise regulator
Standard diving dress
Sub Marine Explorer
Vintage scuba
Diverpropulsionvehicles
Advanced SEAL Delivery System
Cosmos CE2F series
Dry Combat Submersible
Human torpedo
Motorised Submersible Canoe
Necker Nymph
R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
SEAL Delivery Vehicle
Shallow Water Combat Submersible
Siluro San Bartolomeo
Welfreighter
Wet Nellie
Military andcovert operations
Raid on Alexandria (1941)
Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
Scientific projects
1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
Mission 31
Awards and events
Hans Hass Award
International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame
London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures
NOGI Awards
Women Divers Hall of Fame
IncidentsDive boat incidents
Sinking of MV Conception
Diver rescues
Alpazat cave rescue
Tham Luang cave rescue
Early diving
John Day (carpenter)
Charles Spalding
Ebenezer Watson
Freediving fatalities
Loïc Leferme
Audrey Mestre
Nicholas Mevoli
Natalia Molchanova
Offshorediving incidents
Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
Drill Master diving accident
Star Canopus diving accident
Stena Seaspread diving accident
Venture One diving accident
Waage Drill II diving accident
Wildrake diving accident
Professionaldiving fatalities
Roger Baldwin
John Bennett
Victor F. Guiel Jr.
Francis P. Hammerberg
Craig M. Hoffman
Peter Henry Michael Holmes
Johnson Sea Link accident
Edwin Clayton Link
Gerard Anthony Prangley
Per Skipnes
Robert John Smyth
Albert D. Stover
Richard A. Walker
Lothar Michael Ward
Joachim Wendler
Bradley Westell
Arne Zetterström
Scuba divingfatalities
1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident
Ricardo Armbruster
Allan Bridge
David Bright
Berry L. Cannon
Cotton Coulson
Cláudio Coutinho
E. Yale Dawson
Deon Dreyer
Milan Dufek
Sheck Exley
Maurice Fargues
Fernando Garfella Palmer
Guy Garman
Steve Irwin
death
Jim Jones
Henry Way Kendall
Artur Kozłowski
Yuri Lipski
Kirsty MacColl
Agnes Milowka
François de Roubaix
Chris and Chrissy Rouse
Dave Shaw
Wesley C. Skiles
Dewey Smith
Rob Stewart
Esbjörn Svensson
Josef Velek
PublicationsManuals
NOAA Diving Manual
U.S. Navy Diving Manual
Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival
Underwater Handbook
Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving
Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving
The new science of skin and scuba diving
Professional Diver's Handbook
Basic Scuba
Standards andCodes of Practice
Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)
DIN 7876
IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving
ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers
General non-fiction
The Darkness Beckons
Goldfinder
The Last Dive
Shadow Divers
The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure
Research
List of Divers Alert Network publications
Dive guides
Training and registrationDivertraining
Competence and assessment
Competency-based learning
Refresher training
Skill assessment
Diver training standard
Diving instructor
Diving school
Occupational diver training
Commercial diver training
Military diver training
Public safety diver training
Scientific diver training
Recreational diver training
Introductory diving
Teaching method
Muscle memory
Overlearning
Stress exposure training
Skills
Combat sidestroke
Diver navigation
Diver trim
Ear clearing
Frenzel maneuver
Valsalva maneuver
Finning techniques
Scuba skills
Buddy breathing
Low impact diving
Diamond Reef System
Surface-supplied diving skills
Underwater searches
RecreationalscubacertificationlevelsCore diving skills
Advanced Open Water Diver
Autonomous diver
CMAS* scuba diver
CMAS** scuba diver
Introductory diving
Low Impact Diver
Master Scuba Diver
Open Water Diver
Supervised diver
Leadership skills
Dive leader
Divemaster
Diving instructor
Master Instructor
Specialist skills
Rescue Diver
Solo diver
Diver trainingcertificationand registrationorganisations
European Underwater Federation (EUF)
International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
List of diver certification organizations
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Nautical Archaeology Society
Universal Referral Program
World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)
Commercial divercertificationauthorities
Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
Commercial diver registration in South Africa
Divers Institute of Technology
Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
Department of Employment and Labour
Commercial divingschools
Divers Academy International
Norwegian diver school
Free-divingcertificationagencies
AIDA International (AIDA)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Performance Freediving International (PI)
Scuba Schools International (SSI)
Recreationalscubacertificationagencies
American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
International Life Saving Federation (ILS)
Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
Scuba Diving International (SDI)
Scuba Educators International (SEI)
Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
Scuba Schools International (SSI)
Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
United Diving Instructors (UDI)
YMCA SCUBA Program
Scientific divercertificationauthorities
American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
CMAS Scientific Committee
Technical divercertificationagencies
American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
Professional Technical and Recreational Diving (ProTec)
Rebreather Association of International Divers (RAID)
Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
Technical Extended Range (TXR)
Cavediving
Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
Cave Diving Group (CDG)
Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
Technical Diving International (TDI)
Military divertraining centres
Defence Diving School
Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center
Underwater Escape Training Unit
Military divertraining courses
United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course
Underwater sportsSurface snorkeling
Finswimming
Snorkeling/breath-hold
Spearfishing
Underwater football
Underwater hockey
Australia
Turkey
Underwater rugby
Colombia
United States
Underwater target shooting
Breath-hold
Aquathlon
Apnoea finswimming
Freediving
Open Circuit Scuba
Immersion finswimming
Sport diving
Underwater cycling
Underwater orienteering
Underwater photography
Rebreather
Underwater photography
Sports governingorganisations and federations
International
AIDA International
Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
National
AIDA Hellas
Australian Underwater Federation
British Freediving Association
British Octopush Association
British Underwater Sports Association
Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
South African Underwater Sports Federation
Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
Underwater Society of America)
Competitions
14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship
Underwater Hockey World Championships
Underwater Orienteering World Championships
Underwater Rugby World Championships
Underwater diversPioneersof diving
Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro
Aquanaut
Mary Bonnin
Amelia Behrens-Furniss
James F. Cahill
Jacques Cousteau
Billy Deans
Dottie Frazier
Trevor Hampton
Hans Hass
Dick Rutkowski
Teseo Tesei
Arne Zetterström
Underwaterscientistsarchaeologists andenvironmentalists
Michael Arbuthnot
Robert Ballard
George Bass
Mensun Bound
Louis Boutan
Hugh Bradner
Cathy Church
Eugenie Clark
James P. Delgado
Sylvia Earle
John Christopher Fine
George R. Fischer
Anders Franzén
Honor Frost
Fernando Garfella Palmer
David Gibbins
Graham Jessop
Swietenia Puspa Lestari
Pilar Luna
Robert F. Marx
Anna Marguerite McCann
Innes McCartney
Charles T. Meide
Mark M. Newell
Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova
John Peter Oleson
Mendel L. Peterson
Richard Pyle
Andreas Rechnitzer
William R. Royal
Margaret Rule
Gunter Schöbel
Stephanie Schwabe
Myriam Seco
E. Lee Spence
Robert Sténuit
Peter Throckmorton
Cristina Zenato
Scuba recordholders
Pascal Bernabé
Jim Bowden
Mark Ellyatt
Sheck Exley
Nuno Gomes
Claudia Serpieri
Krzysztof Starnawski
Underwaterfilmmakersand presenters
Samir Alhafith
David Attenborough
Ramón Bravo
Jean-Michel Cousteau
Richie Kohler
Paul Rose
Andy Torbet
Ivan Tors
Andrew Wight
Underwaterphotographers
Doug Allan
Tamara Benitez
Georges Beuchat
Adrian Biddle
Jonathan Bird
Eric Cheng
Neville Coleman
Jacques Cousteau
John D. Craig
Ben Cropp
Bernard Delemotte
David Doubilet
Candice Farmer
John Christopher Fine
Rodney Fox
Ric Frazier
Stephen Frink
Peter Gimbel
Monty Halls
Hans Hass
Henry Way Kendall
Rudie Kuiter
Joseph B. MacInnis
Luis Marden
Agnes Milowka
Noel Monkman
Pete Oxford
Steve Parish
Zale Parry
Pierre Petit
Leni Riefenstahl
Peter Scoones
Brian Skerry
Wesley C. Skiles
E. Lee Spence
Philippe Tailliez
Ron Taylor
Valerie Taylor
Albert Tillman
John Veltri
Stan Waterman
Michele Westmorland
John Ernest Williamson
J. Lamar Worzel
Underwaterexplorers
Caves
Graham Balcombe
Sheck Exley
Martyn Farr
Jochen Hasenmayer
Jill Heinerth
Jarrod Jablonski
William Hogarth Main
Tom Mount
Jack Sheppard
Bill Stone
Reefs
Arthur C. Clarke
Wrecks
Leigh Bishop
John Chatterton
Clive Cussler
Bill Nagle
Valerie van Heest
Aristotelis Zervoudis
Aquanauts
Andrew Abercromby
Joseph M. Acaba
Clayton Anderson
Richard R. Arnold
Serena Auñón-Chancellor
Michael Barratt (astronaut)
Robert A. Barth
Robert L. Behnken
Randolph Bresnik
Timothy J. Broderick
Justin Brown
Berry L. Cannon
Scott Carpenter
Gregory Chamitoff
Steve Chappell
Catherine Coleman
Robin Cook
Craig B. Cooper
Fabien Cousteau
Philippe Cousteau
Timothy Creamer
Jonathan Dory
Pedro Duque
Sylvia Earle
Jeanette Epps
Sheck Exley
Albert Falco
Andrew J. Feustel
Michael Fincke
Satoshi Furukawa
Ronald J. Garan Jr.
Michael L. Gernhardt
Christopher E. Gerty
David Gruber
Chris Hadfield
Jeremy Hansen
José M. Hernández
John Herrington
Paul Hill
Akihiko Hoshide
Mark Hulsbeck
Emma Hwang
Norishige Kanai
Les Kaufman
Scott Kelly
Karen Kohanowich
Timothy Kopra
Dominic Landucci
Jon Lindbergh
Kjell N. Lindgren
Michael López-Alegría
Joseph B. MacInnis
Sandra Magnus
Thomas Marshburn
Matthias Maurer
K. Megan McArthur
Craig McKinley
Jessica Meir
Simone Melchior
Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger
Andreas Mogensen
Karen Nyberg
John D. Olivas
Takuya Onishi
Luca Parmitano
Nicholas Patrick
Tim Peake
Thomas Pesquet
Marc Reagan
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United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"submersible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submersible"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution"},{"link_name":"Woods Hole, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"General Mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Mills"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHOI-Hist-1"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis, Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis,_Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Allyn Vine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allyn_Vine"},{"link_name":"RV Atlantis (AGOR-25)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV_Atlantis_(AGOR-25)"},{"link_name":"wreck of Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreck_of_the_RMS_Titanic"}],"text":"\"ALVIN\" redirects here. For other uses, see Alvin.Alvin (DSV-2) is a crewed deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The original vehicle was built by General Mills' Electronics Group[1] in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Named to honor the prime mover and creative inspiration for the vehicle, Allyn Vine, Alvin was commissioned on June 5, 1964.The submersible is launched from the deep submergence support vessel RV Atlantis (AGOR-25), which is also owned by the U.S. Navy and operated by WHOI. The submersible has made more than 5,200 dives, carrying two scientists and a pilot, observing the lifeforms that must cope with super-pressures and move about in total darkness, as well as exploring the wreck of Titanic. Research conducted by Alvin has been featured in nearly 2,000 scientific papers.","title":"DSV Alvin"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alvin_(DSV-2)_drawing3.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alvin_(DSV-2)_drawing2.jpg"},{"link_name":"bathyscaphes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathyscaphe"},{"link_name":"oceanographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography"},{"link_name":"syntactic foam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_foam"},{"link_name":"plug hatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_door"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHOI-Specs-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Harold E. Froehlich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_E._Froehlich"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Emergency separationGeneral layoutAlvin was designed as a replacement for bathyscaphes and other less maneuverable oceanographic vehicles. Its more nimble design was made possible in part by the development of syntactic foam, which is buoyant and yet strong enough to serve as a structural material at great depths.The vessel weighs 17 tons. It allows for two scientists and one pilot to dive for up to nine hours at 6,500 metres (21,300 ft). The submersible features two robotic arms and can be fitted with mission-specific sampling and experimental gear. The plug hatch of the vessel is 0.48 m (1 ft 7 in) in diameter and somewhat thicker than the 2-inch (51 mm) thick titanium sphere pressure hull;[2] it is held in place by the pressure of the water above it.In an emergency, if previous versions of Alvin were stuck underwater with occupants inside, an upper part of the submersible including the titanium sphere could be released using controls inside the hull. This would then rise to the surface uncontrolled.[3] The current version of the vehicle uses releasable weights and emergency releases on jettisonable equipment.Harold E. Froehlich was one of the principal designers of Alvin.[4]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ship class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_class"},{"link_name":"deep submergence vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_submergence_vehicle"},{"link_name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration"},{"link_name":"United States Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navy"},{"link_name":"Andros Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andros_Island"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHOI-Hist-1"},{"link_name":"hydrogen bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"midair accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966_Palomares_B-52_crash"},{"link_name":"Palomares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palomares,_Almer%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Navy CURV-I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CURV"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"swordfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swordfish"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHOI-Hist-1"},{"link_name":"F6F Hellcat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F6F_Hellcat"},{"link_name":"Nantucket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantucket"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHOI-Hist-1"}],"sub_title":"Early career","text":"Alvin, first of its ship class of deep submergence vehicle (DSV), was built to dive to 2,440 metres (8,010 ft). Each of the Alvin-class DSVs have different depth capabilities. However, Alvin is the only one seconded to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), with the others staying with the United States Navy.Alvin's first deep sea tests took place off Andros Island, the Bahamas, where it made a successful 12-hour, uncrewed tethered 7,500-foot (2,300 m) test dive. On July 20, 1965 Alvin made its first 6,000-foot (1,800 m) crewed dive for the Navy to obtain certification.[1] On March 17, 1966, Alvin was used to locate a submerged 1.45-megaton hydrogen bomb lost in a United States Air Force midair accident over Palomares, Spain. The bomb, found resting on a steep slope nearly 2,500 ft (760 m) deep, was located by Albin but the submersible had difficulty raising it up, initially causing it to fall deeper to 2,800 ft (850 m). The bomb was eventually raised intact on April 7 by a Navy CURV-I and the experience gained by the Alvin crew's 34 dives with over 220 hours logged led to new improvements to the vehicle's naviations systems.[5]\nOn July 6, 1967, the Alvin was attacked by a swordfish during dive 202. The swordfish became trapped in the Alvin's skin. The attack took place at 2,000 feet (610 m) below the surface. The fish was recovered at the surface and cooked for dinner.[1] During Dive 209, on September 24, 1968 Alvin found an F6F Hellcat, #42782, 125 miles southeast of Nantucket.[6] The aircraft had ditched September 30, 1944 during carrier qualifications, with the pilot surviving.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alvin_(DSV-2)_sunk_1968.jpg"},{"link_name":"USNS Mizar (T-AGOR-11)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS_Mizar"},{"link_name":"pontoon boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontoon_(boat)"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"39°53′30″N 069°15′30″W / 39.89167°N 69.25833°W / 39.89167; -69.25833 (\"DSV Alvin\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=DSV_Alvin¶ms=39_53_30_N_069_15_30_W_&title=%22DSV+%27%27Alvin%27%27%22"},{"link_name":"nautical miles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautical_mile"},{"link_name":"Nantucket Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nantucket_Island"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salvops69-7"},{"link_name":"USS Mizar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS_Mizar_(T-AGOR-11)"},{"link_name":"Aluminaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminaut"},{"link_name":"Reynolds Metals Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_Metals_Company"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Camille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Camille"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salvops69-7"}],"sub_title":"Sinking","text":"The sunken Alvin on the ocean bottom in June 1969, photographed by USNS Mizar (T-AGOR-11).Alvin, aboard the Navy tender ship Lulu, was lost as it was being transported on October 26, 1968. Lulu, a vessel created from a pair of decommissioned U.S. Navy pontoon boats with a support structure added on, was lowering Alvin over the side when two steel cables snapped. There were three crew members aboard Alvin at the time, and the hatch was open. Situated between the pontoons with no deck underneath, Alvin entered the water and rapidly began to sink. The three crew members managed to escape, but Alvin flooded and sank in 1,500 m (4,900 ft) of water in the Atlantic Ocean at approximately 39°53′30″N 069°15′30″W / 39.89167°N 69.25833°W / 39.89167; -69.25833 (\"DSV Alvin\"), about 88 nautical miles (101 mi; 163 km) south of Nantucket Island.[7]Severe weather prevented the recovery of Alvin throughout late 1968, but it was photographed at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean in June 1969 by a sled towed by USS Mizar. Alvin was found to be upright and appeared intact except for damage to the stern. It was decided to attempt recovery; although no object of Alvin's size had ever been recovered from a depth of 5,000 feet (1,500 m), recovery was \"deemed to be within the state of the art\". In August 1969, the Aluminaut, a DSV built by Reynolds Metals Company, descended to Alvin but had trouble attaching the required lines, and side effects from Hurricane Camille were producing worsening weather, causing the team to return to Woods Hole to regroup. The second attempt started on August 27, and Aluminaut was able to secure a line and safety slings on Alvin, and wrapped a prefabricated nylon net around its hull, allowing it to be hauled up by Mizar. Alvin was towed, submerged at 40 feet (12 m), at a speed of 2 knots (3.7 km/h), back to Woods Hole.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alvin_(DSV-2)_gets_refitted_with_new_personal_sphere.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strickrott_2017-8"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Post-sinking refit","text":"Alvin during refit of the personnel sphere, 1974.In 1973, Alvin's pressure hull was replaced by a newer titanium pressure hull. The new hull extended the submersible's depth rating.[8]: p36 [clarification needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Project FAMOUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_FAMOUS"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Archimède","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archim%C3%A8de"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Mid-Atlantic Ridge","text":"With a new, stronger pressure hull Alvin could now reach the floor of the rift valley of this seafloor spreading center. In the summer of 1974 American and French scientists joined in Project FAMOUS to explore the creation of new sea floor at this spreading center.[9][10] The French provided submersibles Archimède and CYANA. A total of forty-four dives were completed that succeeded in defining the crustal accretion zone[11] in the floor of the rift valley.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"hydrothermal vents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent"},{"link_name":"spreading centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreading_center"},{"link_name":"Galapagos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"RISE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISE_project_(oceanography)"},{"link_name":"black smokers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Black_smokers"},{"link_name":"East Pacific Rise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Pacific_Rise"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"chemosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosynthesis"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"}],"sub_title":"Hydrothermal vents","text":"Marine geologists using Alvin in the Pacific Ocean discovered deep-sea hydrothermal vents and associated biologic communities during two expeditions to ocean spreading centers. In 1977 scientists in Alvin discovered low temperature (~20 °C) vents on the Galapagos spreading center east of those same islands.[13] During the RISE expedition in 1979 scientists using Alvin discovered high temperature vents (380 °C) popularly known as ‘black smokers’ on the crest of the East Pacific Rise at 21° N.[14] These discoveries revealed deep-sea ecosystems that exist without sunlight and are based on chemosynthesis.[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RMS Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic"},{"link_name":"RV Atlantis II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV_Atlantis_II"},{"link_name":"Robert Ballard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Ballard"},{"link_name":"White Star Liner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Star_Line"},{"link_name":"iceberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceberg"},{"link_name":"remotely operated vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remotely_operated_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Jason Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Jr."},{"link_name":"National Geographic Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Society"},{"link_name":"USS Scorpion (SSN-589)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Scorpion_(SSN-589)"},{"link_name":"Skipjack-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skipjack-class_submarine"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"nuclear torpedoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_45_torpedo"}],"sub_title":"Exploration of RMS Titanic","text":"Alvin was involved in the exploration of the wreckage of RMS Titanic in 1986. Launched from her support ship RV Atlantis II, she carried Dr. Robert Ballard and two companions to the wreckage of the White Star Liner Titanic, which sank in 1912 after striking an iceberg while crossing the North Atlantic Ocean on her maiden voyage.Alvin, accompanied by a small remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named Jason Jr., was able to conduct detailed photographic surveys and inspections of Titanic's wreckage. Many of the photographs of the expedition have been published in the magazine of the National Geographic Society, which was a major sponsor of the expedition.The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution team involved in the Titanic expedition also explored the wreck of the USS Scorpion (SSN-589), a Skipjack-class submarine armed with nuclear torpedoes, which sank off the coast of the Azores in 1968 in uncertain circumstances. Alvin obtained photographic and other environmental monitoring data from the remains of Scorpion.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ship of Theseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alvin_(DSV-2)_and_Atlantis_II(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Recent overhauls","text":"See also: Ship of TheseusMountains in the Sea Expedition, 2004.Over the years, Alvin has undergone many overhauls to improve its equipment and extend its lifetime. In 2001, among other equipment, motor controllers and computer systems were added. The current Alvin is the same as the original vessel in name and general design only. All components of the vessel, including the frame and personnel sphere, have been replaced at least once. Alvin is completely disassembled every three to five years for a complete inspection.[15] A new robotic arm was added in 2006.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Cudahy, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cudahy,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"2008 upgrade","text":"In June 2008 construction started on a stronger and slightly larger personnel sphere which was used to upgrade Alvin, before being used in an entirely new vehicle.[16] The new sphere was designed, and then forged, from solid titanium ingots, in two equal halves, at Ladish Forge, Cudahy, Wisconsin, and then the 15.5 tonnes of titanium was machined and assembled, utilizing five view ports (instead of the previous three) and is designed for depths of over 6,000 m (20,000 ft), where Alvin's original depth limit was 4,500 m (14,800 ft).[17] This, along with a general upgrade of support systems, instruments and materials, will allow Alvin to reach 98% of the ocean floor.[18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gulf of Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Deepwater Horizon disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2022_seatrials-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2014_retrun-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"2011 to 2014 rebuild","text":"After one last dive to assess damage to the Gulf of Mexico's seafloor after the Deepwater Horizon disaster, Alvin was refitted starting January 2011.[19] Alvin began an extensive rebuild that featured new cameras, lighting, and a larger titanium personnel sphere. This three-and-a-half-year effort to upgrade the vessel implemented the core infrastructure to eventually increase its depth capability from 4,500 meters (14,800 ft) to 6,500 meters (21,300 ft).[20] In 2014, an extensively refitted Alvin conducted verification testing in the Gulf of Mexico, and was certified to return to service. [21][22] In March and April 2014, Alvin was used to explore the site of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2022_seatrials-20"}],"sub_title":"2020 to 2022 upgrade","text":"Starting in 2020, the second phase to upgrade Alvin for 6,500 meters (21,300 ft) operation began; the 2014 rebuild with new, larger titanium, personnel hull and rebuilt structural frame being the first phase. In this phase, Alvin got new titanium ballast spheres, a second Schilling manipulator arm, a 4K imaging system, several new syntactic foam modules, an upgrade to the hydraulic system, and new thrusters. During 2022, Alvin successfully completed sea trials and was certified for operating down to 6500 meters.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RV Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV_Atlantis_(AGOR-25)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"As of 2024, Alvin is in active service, operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. The research ship RV Atlantis serves as its support ship.[24]","title":"Current status"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ALVIN_Panorama.jpg"},{"link_name":"RV Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV_Atlantis_(AGOR-25)"},{"link_name":"launch and recovery system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology:_H%E2%80%93O#launch_and_recovery_system"},{"link_name":"R/V Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RV_Atlantis_(AGOR-25)"},{"link_name":"ballast and trim system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballast_and_trim_system"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"DSV Alvin on the fantail (stern) of RV Atlantis following a dive. On the right side of the photograph the A-frame crane can be seen that lowers Alvin into the water and lifts it back on board, and on the left, Alvin's hangar.Like most deep submergence vehicles, Alvin is normally transported on board its support vessel. It is launched shortly before a dive, and recovered after the dive, using a suitable launch and recovery system (LARS) mounted on the support vessel. The support vessel is usually the R/V Atlantis, but several others have been used.Alvin uses four 208-pound (94 kg) steel weights (~1.7 cubic feet of steel) to provide negative buoyancy for the trip to the ocean floor. Alvin contains a ballast and trim system, but the steel weights allow deep dives to be achieved more rapidly. These weights are jettisoned on each dive and left at the bottom.[25][26]","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-506191-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-506191-8"},{"link_name":"The Restless Sea: Exploring the World Beneath the Waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/restlessseaexplo00kunz"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-393-04562-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04562-5"}],"text":"Kaharl, Victoria A. (1 October 1990). Water Baby: The Story of Alvin. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-506191-8.\nKunzig, Robert (1 March 1999). The Restless Sea: Exploring the World Beneath the Waves (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04562-5.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Emergency separation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_drawing3.jpg/220px-Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_drawing3.jpg"},{"image_text":"General layout","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_drawing2.jpg/260px-Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_drawing2.jpg"},{"image_text":"The sunken Alvin on the ocean bottom in June 1969, photographed by USNS Mizar (T-AGOR-11).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_sunk_1968.jpg/220px-Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_sunk_1968.jpg"},{"image_text":"Alvin during refit of the personnel sphere, 1974.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_gets_refitted_with_new_personal_sphere.jpg/220px-Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_gets_refitted_with_new_personal_sphere.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mountains in the Sea Expedition, 2004.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_and_Atlantis_II%282%29.jpg/220px-Alvin_%28DSV-2%29_and_Atlantis_II%282%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"DSV Alvin on the fantail (stern) of RV Atlantis following a dive. On the right side of the photograph the A-frame crane can be seen that lowers Alvin into the water and lifts it back on board, and on the left, Alvin's hangar.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/ALVIN_Panorama.jpg/800px-ALVIN_Panorama.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Hydrothermal vent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent"},{"title":"Deep-submergence vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-submergence_vehicle"},{"title":"Mid-ocean ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge"},{"title":"RISE project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISE_project"},{"title":"Jack Corliss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Corliss"},{"title":"Bruce P. Luyendyk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_P._Luyendyk"},{"title":"Kenneth C. Macdonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_C._Macdonald"},{"title":"Fred Spiess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Spiess"}] | [{"reference":"\"History of Alvin\". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 1 December 2005. Retrieved 11 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=10737","url_text":"\"History of Alvin\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alvin Specifications\". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120509221913/http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=9915","url_text":"\"Alvin Specifications\""},{"url":"http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=9915","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pearce, Jeremy (26 May 2007). \"Harold Froehlich, 84, Dies; Designed Deep-Sea Minisub\". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/26/us/26froehlich.html","url_text":"\"Harold Froehlich, 84, Dies; Designed Deep-Sea Minisub\""}]},{"reference":"\"The story of \"Little Alvin\" and the lost H-bomb\". whoi.edu. Retrieved 14 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/little-alvin-and-the-lost-h-bomb/","url_text":"\"The story of \"Little Alvin\" and the lost H-bomb\""}]},{"reference":"\"F6F 42782 - Luftwaffe and Allied Air Forces Discussion Forum\". forum.12oclockhigh.net. Retrieved 4 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://forum.12oclockhigh.net/showthread.php?t=41818","url_text":"\"F6F 42782 - Luftwaffe and Allied Air Forces Discussion Forum\""}]},{"reference":"Strickrott, W. Bruce (2017). \"The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin\" (PDF). The Journal of Ocean Technology. 12 (1).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whoi.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/JOT_Article_250024.pdf","url_text":"\"The Deep Submergence Vehicle Alvin\""}]},{"reference":"Heirtzler, J. R.; Van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1 April 1977). \"Project FAMOUS: Its origin, programs, and setting\". GSA Bulletin. 88 (4): 481–487. Bibcode:1977GSAB...88..481H. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<481:pfiopa>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0016-7606.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/88/4/481/202106/project-famous-its-origin-programs-and-setting","url_text":"\"Project FAMOUS: Its origin, programs, and setting\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977GSAB...88..481H","url_text":"1977GSAB...88..481H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0016-7606%281977%2988%3C481%3Apfiopa%3E2.0.co%3B2","url_text":"10.1130/0016-7606(1977)88<481:pfiopa>2.0.co;2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7606","url_text":"0016-7606"}]},{"reference":"Heirtzler, James R.; Le Pichon, Xavier (1 June 1974). \"FAMOUS: A Plate Tectonics Study of the Genesis of the Lithosphere\". Geology. 2 (6): 273–274. Bibcode:1974Geo.....2..273H. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1974)2<273:faptso>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/2/6/273/205537/famous-a-plate-tectonics-study-of-the-genesis-of","url_text":"\"FAMOUS: A Plate Tectonics Study of the Genesis of the Lithosphere\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Geo.....2..273H","url_text":"1974Geo.....2..273H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0091-7613%281974%292%3C273%3Afaptso%3E2.0.co%3B2","url_text":"10.1130/0091-7613(1974)2<273:faptso>2.0.co;2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0091-7613","url_text":"0091-7613"}]},{"reference":"Luyendyk, Ken C.; Macdonald, Ken C. Bruce P. (1 June 1976). \"Spreading center terms and concepts\". Geology. 4 (6): 369–370. Bibcode:1976Geo.....4..369L. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4<369:sctac>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/4/6/369/191576/spreading-center-terms-and-concepts","url_text":"\"Spreading center terms and concepts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1976Geo.....4..369L","url_text":"1976Geo.....4..369L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0091-7613%281976%294%3C369%3Asctac%3E2.0.co%3B2","url_text":"10.1130/0091-7613(1976)4<369:sctac>2.0.co;2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0091-7613","url_text":"0091-7613"}]},{"reference":"Moore, James G.; Fleming, Henry S.; Phillips, Joseph D. 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ISBN 0-393-04562-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/restlessseaexplo00kunz","url_text":"The Restless Sea: Exploring the World Beneath the Waves"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-04562-5","url_text":"0-393-04562-5"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=10736","external_links_name":"[ref]"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=DSV_Alvin¶ms=39_53_30_N_069_15_30_W_&title=%22DSV+%27%27Alvin%27%27%22","external_links_name":"39°53′30″N 069°15′30″W / 39.89167°N 69.25833°W / 39.89167; -69.25833 (\"DSV Alvin\")"},{"Link":"https://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=10737","external_links_name":"\"History of Alvin\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120509221913/http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=9915","external_links_name":"\"Alvin Specifications\""},{"Link":"http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=9915","external_links_name":"the 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_SAGE_Subsector | Experimental SAGE Subsector | ["1 ESS Computer System","2 Radar stations","3 System Operation Testing","4 1959 Experimental Testing","5 References"] | For the subsequent computer system with different peripherals and IBM's Kingston XD-2 computer; and for the late 1960s system for discerning incoming ICBM warheads, see AN/FSQ-7 and Lexington Discrimination System.
The Experimental Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) Sector (ESS, Experimental SAGE Subsector until planned Sectors/Subsectors were renamed NORAD Regions, Divisions, and Sectors) was a prototype Cold War Air Defense Sector for developing the Semi Automatic Ground Environment. The Lincoln Laboratory control center in a new building was at Lexington, Massachusetts.
ESS Computer System
The network's Direction Center was completed in a new 1954 building (Building F, 42°27′37″N 071°16′04″W / 42.46028°N 71.26778°W / 42.46028; -71.26778) with prototype peripherals and a single IBM XD-1 computer, a successor to Lincoln Lab's Whirlwind I computer (WWI). In 1955, Air Force personnel began IBM training at the Kingston, New York, prototype facility, and the "4620th Air Defense Wing (experimental SAGE) was established at Lincoln Laboratory"—its "primary mission was computer programming".
ESS had a capacity of 48 tracks and used a pre-SAGE ground environment in a "prototype intercept monitor room MIT's Barta building" with "track situation displays, which geographically showed Air Defense Identification Zone lines and antiaircraft circles each console also had a 5-inch CRT for digital information display. Audible alert signals were used, with a different signal for each symbol on a situation display."
Radar stations
Initial service test models of the Burroughs AN/FST-2 Coordinate Data Transmitting Set were placed with radars at South Truro and West Bath, Maine; followed by Texas Tower#2 (TT2) in the Atlantic Ocean, which provided a "triangular pattern with overlap" radar coverage (TT2 later had a connection from the XD-1 via the GE G/A Data Link Output Subsystem through North Truro Air Force Station.) By August 1955, 13 radar stations were networked by the subsector, e.g.:
Chatham
Clinton, Massachusetts with gap-filler radar
Great Boars Head
Halibut Point
Killingly, Connecticut (41°51′57″N 71°49′15″W / 41.865734°N 71.820958°W / 41.865734; -71.820958).with gap-filler radar
Rockport Air Force Station
Scituate, Massachusetts
South Truro
West Bath, Maine (43°54′7″N 69°50′43″W / 43.90194°N 69.84528°W / 43.90194; -69.84528) with AN/FPS-31 on Jug Handle Hill: ("Lincoln Laboratories experimental radar station")
Required by 21 November 1955 were 44 consoles: 38 for the operations floor, 3 on the computer floor for display maintenance, and 3 near the maintenance console (program checkout). WWI was connected to the Experimental SAGE Subsector to verify crosstelling (collateral communication) with the ESS DC, and WWI was also used for a Ground-to-Air (G/A) experiment using a transmitter of the GE G/A Data Link Output Subsystem on Prospect Hill, Waltham, MA sending data to simulated airborne equipment at Lexington. Transmissions from the WWI SAGE Evaluation (WISE) computer system to XD-1 and back were without error by December 1955 when operational software specifications were frozen. Operating procedures for the ESS external sites were complete in March 1956, and
System Operation Testing
From November 15, 1955, to November 7, 1956, three System Operation Tests were conducted which used voice "Ground-to-Air" communication from the Barta control room to aircraft outfitted with SAGE receivers (F-86 interceptors modified to F-86L models in "Project FOLLOW-ON".) Test teams included employees of Bell Telephone Laboratories, Western Electric-ADES, IBM, the RAND Corporation, and Lincoln Labs' Division 6, Division 3, & Division 2 (Division 6 had been created for ESS support.)
The North Truro P-10 AN/FST-2 was moved to Almaden Air Force Station (M-96)c. 1957-8 and on August 7, 1958, control of an airborne BOMARC missile that had malfunctioned transferred from the "Experimental SAGE Sector" to a Westinghouse AN/GPA-35 Ground Environment system and the missile crashed into the Atlantic Ocean. By December 31, 1958, ADC Manual 55-28 described the Model 3 SAGE System.
External images Military operators at ESS consoles ""Prototype intercept monitor room in the SAGE direction center in MIT's Barta building." todaytPdY2]
1959 Experimental Testing
"To prove out the revised SAGE computer program" for Automatic Targeting and Battery Evaluation and ADDC-AADCP crosstelling, a "SAGE/Missile Master" test was conducted beginning in September 1959 with communications between the ESS XD-1 and Martin AN/FSG-1 Antiaircraft Defense System equipment at Fort Banks planned for the CONAD Joint Control Center at Fort Heath—a "SAGE ATABE Simulation Study" (SASS) was also completed 1959–60 by MITRE Corporation.
References
^ "Data Reliability of Three Bell A1 Magnetic Tape Recording Systems". Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on January 3, 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ North American Air Defense Command Historical Summary (Report).
^ a b c d Wildes, Karl L.; Lindgren, Nilo A. (1986) . A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882-1982. MIT Press. p. 299. ISBN 9780262231190. Retrieved 2014-08-07. The first experimental subsector was a square approximately 400 nautical miles on a side and centered at Sourh Truro, Massachusetts. A new building was constructed at Lincoln Laboratory to house the XD-1 computer was received from IBM in January
^ a b Redmond, Kent C; Smith, Thomas Malcom (2000). From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of The SAGE Air Defense Computer (Google Books). MIT Press. ISBN 9780262264266. Retrieved 2013-05-02. in Poughkeepsie…IBM engineers ran through a final series of tests before dismantling the XD-1 for shipment… Division 6 engineers began to ready the XD-1 for…the Experimental SAGE Subsector … eight subsystems input or output channels to the XD-1.14 … preliminary testing of ESS subsystems into which the pieces of equipment were integrated… gap-filler inputs, long-range radar inputs, height-finder inputs, ground-to-air outputs, automatic teletype outputs, crosstelling, ground-to air voice radio, and wire communications. …test teams were composed of individuals from Division 6, Division 3, Division 2, Bell Labs, Western Electric-ADES, IBM, and the RAND Corporation…17 … a small-scale air defense system, Whirlwind I SAGE Evaluation (WISE)…much simpler than the 1954 Cape Cod System… WISE will be modified for crosstelling to XD-1.21
^ "Display site". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "Introduction". Ed-Thelen.org. (p. 7)
^ "Vigilance and Vacuum Tubes: The SAGE System 1956-63" (SAGE Talk Transcript). Ed-Thelen.org. 1998. Retrieved 2013-02-16. the Whirlwind computer, which was a digital version of the ASCA, was about five million dollars, in 1950's dollars … For the 1949 fiscal year, MIT requested 1.5 million dollars for the Whirlwind project. … one was at Lincoln Lab, …the XD-1, and the other one was at Kingston, the XD-2. So we used both those sites for development. … The XD-1 was a simplex system…not duplex … the original vacuum-tube computers—the last one was finally taken down in 1983, still operating. … IBM got…about 500 million dollars…to build the 56 computers.
^ Edwards, Benj (January 24, 2013). "…World's First Computer Art…". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
^ Schaffel, Kenneth (1991). Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945-1960 (45MB pdf). General Histories (Report). Office of Air Force History. p. 283 (pdf). ISBN 0-912799-60-9. Retrieved 2011-09-26.
^ a b c "MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: Cape Cod SAGE Prototype (Continued)". Archived from the original on 2014-08-11. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
^ https://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40551/MC665_r15_M-3832.pdf?sequence=1 |quote=ADES JPO initial Burroughs service test models of FST-2…would be placed at South Truro and Bath, respectively, in order to have an operational experimental subsector containing two heavy radars by 1 April 1956 the third FST-2 on Texas Tower #2 a triangular pattern providing overlap. XD-1 display system External Environment of XD-1…XD-1 Direction Center
^ a b Biweekly Report For Period Ending 23 March 1956 (synopsis (MC665_r14_6M-3797.pdf)) (Report). Lincoln Laboratory Division 6. Retrieved 2014-08-02.
^ "Display site". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "Pinetree Line Miscellaneous - Radar Equipment". 67.69.104.76:84. Archived from the original on 2014-08-15. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo". northamericanforts.com. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo". northamericanforts.com. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ (see also Radomes.org listing for West Bath
^ "Recent photos of Scituate (MA) Experimental SAGE Subsector (ESS) Radar Site". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "MITRE Radar Test Sites South Truro, Cape Cod, MA; Jug Handle Hill, West Bath, ME; Montauk LI, NY". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "West Bath MITRE AN/FPS-31 Radar Test Site". wikimapia.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: SAGE Radars (part 3)". ll.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-12. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ "Bath Independent, May 10, 1956". newspaperarchive.com. 10 May 1956. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ . dome.mit.edu http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40520/MC665_r15_M-3857.pdf?sequence=1. Retrieved 2015-05-18. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
^ Johnson, Stephen B. The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965 (Google Books). Air Force History Support Office. p. 159. ISBN 9781428990272.
^ Memorandum 6M-4071 "Requirements for Operating Procedures for External Sites in the Experimental SAGE Subsector (ESS)" by M. DiCarlo-Cottone. (cited by Lincoln memo 6M-3797)
^ From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of the SAGE Air Defense Computer. MIT Press. 2000-10-10. p. 374. ISBN 9780262264266. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ a b Cite NORAD Historical Summary |year=1956-7 |quote=Project FOLLOW-ON provided the third improved model -the F-86L --which was an F-86D with modernized electronic gear and wings with slatted leading edges. … Project FOLLOW-ON was to make the F-86D compatible with the new AN/GPA-37. … Eleven squadrons were meeting Project FOLLOW-ON schedules by 30 June 1957.
^ Stephen B. Johnson. The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965. DIANE Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 9781428990272. Retrieved 2015-05-18.
^ McMullen, R. F. (15 Feb 1980). History of Air Defense Weapons 1946–1962 (Report). Vol. ADC Historical Study No. 14. Historical Division, Office of information, HQ ADC. p. 312.
^ http://www.airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/461/733.xml |quote=SAGE SYSTEM DESCRIPTION, MODEL 3, ADCM 55-28 COMPLETED AND PUBLISHED
^ Cite NORAD Historical Summary |year=1958 |period=July–December
^ lst Ind, (ADC to CONAD, "Site Adaptation Plans for CONAD Joint Direction Centers,"
22 Oct 1957), CINCNORAD to C/S USAF, 1 Nov 1957 [cited by the NORAD Historical Summary for 1957 July–December)
^ . deepblue.lib.umich.edu http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/4298/bab9742.0001.001.pdf?sequence=5. Retrieved 2015-05-18. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston,_New_York"},{"link_name":"AN/FSQ-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AN/FSQ-7"},{"link_name":"Lexington Discrimination System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC_6600"},{"link_name":"Semi-Automatic Ground Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dtic-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NORAD1958A-2"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Air Defense Sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Defense_Sector_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Semi Automatic Ground Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi_Automatic_Ground_Environment"},{"link_name":"Lincoln Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WildesNilo-3"},{"link_name":"Lexington, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Massachusetts"}],"text":"For the subsequent computer system with different peripherals and IBM's Kingston XD-2 computer; and for the late 1960s system for discerning incoming ICBM warheads, see AN/FSQ-7 and Lexington Discrimination System.The Experimental Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) Sector (ESS, Experimental SAGE Subsector[1] until planned Sectors/Subsectors were renamed NORAD Regions, Divisions, and Sectors)[2] was a prototype Cold War Air Defense Sector for developing the Semi Automatic Ground Environment. The Lincoln Laboratory control center in a new building[3] was at Lexington, Massachusetts.","title":"Experimental SAGE Subsector"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WildesNilo-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RedmondSmith-4"},{"link_name":"42°27′37″N 071°16′04″W / 42.46028°N 71.26778°W / 42.46028; -71.26778","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Experimental_SAGE_Subsector¶ms=42_27_37_N_071_16_04_W_"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-radomes-5"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"XD-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_XD-1&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intro-6"},{"link_name":"Whirlwind I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlwind_I"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SageTalk-7"},{"link_name":"Kingston, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EdwardsBenj-8"},{"link_name":"4620th Air Defense Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4620th_Air_Defense_Wing"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schaffel-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCS-ESS-10"}],"text":"The network's Direction Center was completed in a new 1954 building[3] (Building F,[4] 42°27′37″N 071°16′04″W / 42.46028°N 71.26778°W / 42.46028; -71.26778[5]) with prototype peripherals and a single IBM XD-1 computer,[6] a successor to Lincoln Lab's Whirlwind I computer (WWI).[7] In 1955, Air Force personnel began IBM training at the Kingston, New York, prototype facility,[8] and the \"4620th Air Defense Wing (experimental SAGE) was established[when?] at Lincoln Laboratory\"—its \"primary mission was computer programming\".[9]ESS had a capacity of 48 tracks and used a pre-SAGE ground environment in a \"prototype intercept monitor room [at] MIT's Barta building\" with \"track situation displays, which geographically showed Air Defense Identification Zone lines and antiaircraft circles [and] each console also had a 5-inch CRT for digital information display. Audible alert signals were used, with a different signal for each symbol on a situation display.\"[10]","title":"ESS Computer System"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Burroughs AN/FST-2 Coordinate Data Transmitting Set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_AN/FST-2_Coordinate_Data_Transmitting_Set"},{"link_name":"South Truro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Truro&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"West Bath, Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bath,_Maine"},{"link_name":"Texas Tower#2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Tower#2"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M-3832-11"},{"link_name":"GE G/A Data Link Output Subsystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GE_G/A_Data_Link_Output_Subsystem&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"North Truro Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Truro_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M-4263-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCS-ESS-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-radomes2-13"},{"link_name":"Clinton, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pinetreeline-14"},{"link_name":"Great Boars Head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Boars_Head&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-northamericanforts-15"},{"link_name":"Halibut Point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Halibut_Point&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-northamericanforts2-16"},{"link_name":"Killingly, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killingly,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"41°51′57″N 71°49′15″W / 41.865734°N 71.820958°W / 41.865734; -71.820958","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Experimental_SAGE_Subsector¶ms=41.865734_N_71.820958_W_"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Rockport Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockport_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Scituate, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scituate,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-radomes3-18"},{"link_name":"South Truro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Truro&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-radomes4-19"},{"link_name":"West Bath, Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bath,_Maine"},{"link_name":"43°54′7″N 69°50′43″W / 43.90194°N 69.84528°W / 43.90194; -69.84528","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Experimental_SAGE_Subsector¶ms=43_54_7_N_69_50_43_W_"},{"link_name":"AN/FPS-31","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AN/FPS-31&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wikimapia-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mit-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newspaperarchive-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mit2-23"},{"link_name":"GE G/A Data Link Output Subsystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GE_G/A_Data_Link_Output_Subsystem&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Prospect Hill, Waltham, MA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospect_Hill,_Waltham,_MA"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M-4263-12"},{"link_name":"WWI SAGE Evaluation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlwind_I"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WildesNilo-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WildesNilo-3"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Initial service test models of the Burroughs AN/FST-2 Coordinate Data Transmitting Set were placed with radars at South Truro and West Bath, Maine; followed by Texas Tower#2 (TT2) in the Atlantic Ocean, which provided a \"triangular pattern with overlap\" radar coverage[11] (TT2 later had a connection from the XD-1 via the GE G/A Data Link Output Subsystem through North Truro Air Force Station.)[12] By August 1955, 13 radar stations were networked by the subsector,[10] e.g.:Chatham[13]\nClinton, Massachusetts with gap-filler radar[14]\nGreat Boars Head[15]\nHalibut Point[16]\nKillingly, Connecticut (41°51′57″N 71°49′15″W / 41.865734°N 71.820958°W / 41.865734; -71.820958).with gap-filler radar[17]\nRockport Air Force Station\nScituate, Massachusetts[18]\nSouth Truro[19]\nWest Bath, Maine (43°54′7″N 69°50′43″W / 43.90194°N 69.84528°W / 43.90194; -69.84528) with AN/FPS-31[20] on Jug Handle Hill:[21] (\"Lincoln Laboratories experimental radar station\")[22]Required by 21 November 1955 were 44 consoles: 38 for the operations floor, 3 on the computer floor for display maintenance, and 3 near the maintenance console (program checkout).[23] WWI was connected to the Experimental SAGE Subsector to verify crosstelling (collateral communication) with the ESS DC, and WWI was also used for a Ground-to-Air (G/A) experiment using a transmitter of the GE G/A Data Link Output Subsystem on Prospect Hill, Waltham, MA sending data to simulated airborne equipment at Lexington.[12] Transmissions from the WWI SAGE Evaluation (WISE) computer system[3] to XD-1 and back were without error by December 1955[3] when operational software specifications were frozen.[24] Operating procedures for the ESS external sites were complete in March 1956,[25] and","title":"Radar stations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CCS-ESS-10"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google-26"},{"link_name":"Project FOLLOW-ON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project_FOLLOW-ON&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NORAD1956-7-27"},{"link_name":"Bell Telephone Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"Western Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Electric"},{"link_name":"ADES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Air_Defense_Engineering_Service&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"RAND Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RedmondSmith-4"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google2-28"},{"link_name":"Almaden Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almaden_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NORAD1956-7-27"},{"link_name":"BOMARC missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BOMARC_missile"},{"link_name":"Westinghouse AN/GPA-35 Ground Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_AN/GPA-35_Ground_Environment"},{"link_name":"where?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McMullen1980-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"From November 15, 1955, to November 7, 1956, three System Operation Tests were conducted[10] which used voice \"Ground-to-Air\" communication from the Barta control room to aircraft outfitted with SAGE receivers[26] (F-86 interceptors modified to F-86L models in \"Project FOLLOW-ON\".)[27] Test teams included employees of Bell Telephone Laboratories, Western Electric-ADES, IBM, the RAND Corporation, and Lincoln Labs' Division 6, Division 3, & Division 2[4] (Division 6 had been created for ESS support.)[28]The North Truro P-10 AN/FST-2 was moved to Almaden Air Force Station (M-96)c. 1957-8[27] and on August 7, 1958, control of an airborne BOMARC missile that had malfunctioned transferred from the \"Experimental SAGE Sector\" to a Westinghouse AN/GPA-35 Ground Environment system[where?] and the missile crashed into the Atlantic Ocean.[29] By December 31, 1958, ADC Manual 55-28 described the Model 3 SAGE System.[30]","title":"System Operation Testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Automatic Targeting and Battery Evaluation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_Targeting_and_Battery_Evaluation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ADDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Defense_Direction_Center"},{"link_name":"AADCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Air_Defense_Command_Post"},{"link_name":"Missile Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile_Master"},{"link_name":"Martin AN/FSG-1 Antiaircraft Defense System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_AN/FSG-1_Antiaircraft_Defense_System"},{"link_name":"Fort Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Banks_(Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"CONAD Joint Control Center at Fort Heath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Heath_radar_station"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"MITRE Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MITRE_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-umich-33"}],"text":"\"To prove out the revised SAGE computer program\" for Automatic Targeting and Battery Evaluation and ADDC-AADCP crosstelling, a \"SAGE/Missile Master\" test was conducted beginning in September 1959 with communications between the ESS XD-1 and Martin AN/FSG-1 Antiaircraft Defense System equipment at Fort Banks[31] planned for the CONAD Joint Control Center at Fort Heath[32]—a \"SAGE ATABE Simulation Study\" (SASS) was also completed 1959–60 by MITRE Corporation.[33]","title":"1959 Experimental Testing"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Data Reliability of Three Bell A1 Magnetic Tape Recording Systems\". Defense Technical Information Center. Archived from the original on January 3, 2015. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150103070657/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD0419183","url_text":"\"Data Reliability of Three Bell A1 Magnetic Tape Recording Systems\""},{"url":"http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD0419183","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"North American Air Defense Command Historical Summary (Report).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.google.com/#hl=en&sclient=psy-ab&q=%EF%BB%BFNorth+American+Air+Defense+Command+Historical+Summary:+January+-+June+1958%EF%BB%BF+site%3Awww.northcom.mil&oq=%EF%BB%BFNorth+American+Air+Defense+Command+Historical+Summary:+January+-+June+1958%EF%BB%BF+site%3Awww.northcom.mil&gs_l=serp.3%E2%80%A64665.10015.0.10346.22.22.0.0.0.1.1219.4653.0j18j2j0j1j7-1.22.0%E2%80%A60.0%E2%80%A61c.1.11.psy-ab.PtW1PnDduyg&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&fp=94c1fca23fa8c111&biw=1600&bih=793","url_text":"North American Air Defense Command Historical Summary"}]},{"reference":"Wildes, Karl L.; Lindgren, Nilo A. (1986) [1985]. A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882-1982. MIT Press. p. 299. ISBN 9780262231190. Retrieved 2014-08-07. The first experimental subsector was a square approximately 400 nautical miles on a side and centered at Sourh Truro, Massachusetts. A new building was constructed at Lincoln Laboratory to house the XD-1 computer [which] was received from IBM in January","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild","url_text":"A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882-1982"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild/page/299","url_text":"299"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262231190","url_text":"9780262231190"}]},{"reference":"Redmond, Kent C; Smith, Thomas Malcom (2000). From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of The SAGE Air Defense Computer (Google Books). MIT Press. ISBN 9780262264266. Retrieved 2013-05-02. in Poughkeepsie…IBM engineers ran through a final series of tests before dismantling the XD-1 for shipment… Division 6 engineers began to ready the XD-1 for…the Experimental SAGE Subsector … eight subsystems [were] input or output channels to the XD-1.14 … preliminary testing of ESS subsystems into which the pieces of equipment were integrated… gap-filler inputs, long-range radar inputs, height-finder inputs, ground-to-air outputs, automatic teletype outputs, crosstelling, ground-to air voice radio, and wire communications. …test teams were composed of individuals from Division 6, Division 3, Division 2, Bell Labs, Western Electric-ADES, IBM, and the RAND Corporation…17 … a small-scale air defense system, Whirlwind I SAGE Evaluation (WISE)…much simpler than the 1954 Cape Cod System… WISE will be modified for crosstelling to XD-1.21","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dxZVbxcf_IoC&q=SAGE+ESS+mitre&pg=PA374","url_text":"From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of The SAGE Air Defense Computer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262264266","url_text":"9780262264266"}]},{"reference":"\"Display site\". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/showsite.php?site=Lincoln+Lab+ESS,+MA","url_text":"\"Display site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introduction\". Ed-Thelen.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://ed-thelen.org/SageIntro.html","url_text":"\"Introduction\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vigilance and Vacuum Tubes: The SAGE System 1956-63\" (SAGE Talk Transcript). Ed-Thelen.org. 1998. Retrieved 2013-02-16. the Whirlwind computer, which was a digital version of the ASCA, was about five million dollars, in 1950's [sic] dollars … For the 1949 fiscal year, MIT requested 1.5 million dollars for the Whirlwind project. … one [SAGE computer] was at Lincoln Lab, …the XD-1, and the other one was at Kingston, the XD-2. So we used both those sites for development. … The XD-1 was a simplex system…not duplex … the original vacuum-tube computers—the last one was finally taken down in 1983, still operating. … IBM got…about 500 million dollars…to build the 56 computers.","urls":[{"url":"http://ed-thelen.org/Sage-Talk.html","url_text":"\"Vigilance and Vacuum Tubes: The SAGE System 1956-63\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Airplane_Stability_and_Control_Analyzer&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"ASCA"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic","url_text":"sic"}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Benj (January 24, 2013). \"…World's First Computer Art…\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2013-02-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/01/the-never-before-told-story-of-the-worlds-first-computer-art-its-a-sexy-dame/267439/","url_text":"\"…World's First Computer Art…\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic","url_text":"The Atlantic"}]},{"reference":"Schaffel, Kenneth (1991). Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945-1960 (45MB pdf). General Histories (Report). Office of Air Force History. p. 283 (pdf). ISBN 0-912799-60-9. Retrieved 2011-09-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/TheEmergingShield/page/283","url_text":"Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945-1960"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pdf","url_text":"pdf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Office_of_Air_Force_History&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Office of Air Force History"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/TheEmergingShield/page/283","url_text":"283 (pdf)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912799-60-9","url_text":"0-912799-60-9"}]},{"reference":"\"MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: Cape Cod SAGE Prototype (Continued)\". Archived from the original on 2014-08-11. Retrieved 2014-08-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140811144042/http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/capecodprototype-2.html","url_text":"\"MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: Cape Cod SAGE Prototype (Continued)\""},{"url":"http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/capecodprototype-2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Biweekly Report For Period Ending 23 March 1956 (synopsis (MC665_r14_6M-3797.pdf)) (Report). Lincoln Laboratory Division 6. Retrieved 2014-08-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/46009/MC665_r14_6M-4263.pdf?sequence=1","url_text":"Biweekly Report For Period Ending 23 March 1956"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Laboratory","url_text":"Lincoln Laboratory"}]},{"reference":"\"Display site\". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/showsite.php?site=Chatham+ESS,+MA","url_text":"\"Display site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pinetree Line Miscellaneous - Radar Equipment\". 67.69.104.76:84. Archived from the original on 2014-08-15. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140815204636/http://67.69.104.76:84/Pinetreeline/misc/equip/misc12aa.html","url_text":"\"Pinetree Line Miscellaneous - Radar Equipment\""},{"url":"http://67.69.104.76:84/Pinetreeline/misc/equip/misc12aa.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo\". northamericanforts.com. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.northamericanforts.com/East/New_Hampshire/Towers/Great_Boars_Head.html","url_text":"\"Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo\""}]},{"reference":"\"Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo\". northamericanforts.com. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.northamericanforts.com/East/New_Hampshire/Towers/Halibut_Point.html","url_text":"\"Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo\""}]},{"reference":"\"Recent photos of Scituate (MA) Experimental SAGE Subsector (ESS) Radar Site\". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/recent/ScituateESSMA.html","url_text":"\"Recent photos of Scituate (MA) Experimental SAGE Subsector (ESS) Radar Site\""}]},{"reference":"\"MITRE Radar Test Sites South Truro, Cape Cod, MA; Jug Handle Hill, West Bath, ME; Montauk LI, NY\". radomes.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/MITRESouthTruroMA.html","url_text":"\"MITRE Radar Test Sites South Truro, Cape Cod, MA; Jug Handle Hill, West Bath, ME; Montauk LI, NY\""}]},{"reference":"\"West Bath MITRE AN/FPS-31 Radar Test Site\". wikimapia.org. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://wikimapia.org/17058280/West-Bath-MITRE-AN-FPS-31-Radar-Test-Site","url_text":"\"West Bath MITRE AN/FPS-31 Radar Test Site\""}]},{"reference":"\"MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: SAGE Radars (part 3)\". ll.mit.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-03-12. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130312152819/http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/earlywarningradars3.html","url_text":"\"MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: SAGE Radars (part 3)\""},{"url":"http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/earlywarningradars3.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Bath Independent, May 10, 1956\". newspaperarchive.com. 10 May 1956. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://newspaperarchive.com/us/maine/bath/bath-independent/1956/05-10/page-5","url_text":"\"Bath Independent, May 10, 1956\""}]},{"reference":". dome.mit.edu http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40520/MC665_r15_M-3857.pdf?sequence=1. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40520/MC665_r15_M-3857.pdf?sequence=1","url_text":"http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40520/MC665_r15_M-3857.pdf?sequence=1"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Stephen B. The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965 (Google Books). Air Force History Support Office. p. 159. ISBN 9781428990272.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3HgQp6f9yGQC&q=%22Master+Direction+Center%22&pg=PA156","url_text":"The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781428990272","url_text":"9781428990272"}]},{"reference":"From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of the SAGE Air Defense Computer. MIT Press. 2000-10-10. p. 374. ISBN 9780262264266. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dxZVbxcf_IoC","url_text":"From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of the SAGE Air Defense Computer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262264266","url_text":"9780262264266"}]},{"reference":"Stephen B. Johnson. The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965. DIANE Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 9781428990272. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3HgQp6f9yGQC","url_text":"The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781428990272","url_text":"9781428990272"}]},{"reference":"McMullen, R. F. (15 Feb 1980). History of Air Defense Weapons 1946–1962 (Report). Vol. ADC Historical Study No. 14. Historical Division, Office of information, HQ ADC. p. 312.","urls":[]},{"reference":". deepblue.lib.umich.edu http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/4298/bab9742.0001.001.pdf?sequence=5. Retrieved 2015-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/4298/bab9742.0001.001.pdf?sequence=5","url_text":"http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/4298/bab9742.0001.001.pdf?sequence=5"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Experimental_SAGE_Subsector¶ms=42_27_37_N_071_16_04_W_","external_links_name":"42°27′37″N 071°16′04″W / 42.46028°N 71.26778°W / 42.46028; -71.26778"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Experimental_SAGE_Subsector¶ms=41.865734_N_71.820958_W_","external_links_name":"41°51′57″N 71°49′15″W / 41.865734°N 71.820958°W / 41.865734; -71.820958"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Experimental_SAGE_Subsector¶ms=43_54_7_N_69_50_43_W_","external_links_name":"43°54′7″N 69°50′43″W / 43.90194°N 69.84528°W / 43.90194; -69.84528"},{"Link":"http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment_(SAGE)_1951-1958","external_links_name":"Military operators at ESS consoles"},{"Link":"http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/capecodprototype-2.html","external_links_name":"\"Prototype intercept monitor room in the SAGE direction center in MIT's Barta building."},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150103070657/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD0419183","external_links_name":"\"Data Reliability of Three Bell A1 Magnetic Tape Recording Systems\""},{"Link":"http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=AD0419183","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.google.com/#hl=en&sclient=psy-ab&q=%EF%BB%BFNorth+American+Air+Defense+Command+Historical+Summary:+January+-+June+1958%EF%BB%BF+site%3Awww.northcom.mil&oq=%EF%BB%BFNorth+American+Air+Defense+Command+Historical+Summary:+January+-+June+1958%EF%BB%BF+site%3Awww.northcom.mil&gs_l=serp.3%E2%80%A64665.10015.0.10346.22.22.0.0.0.1.1219.4653.0j18j2j0j1j7-1.22.0%E2%80%A60.0%E2%80%A61c.1.11.psy-ab.PtW1PnDduyg&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&fp=94c1fca23fa8c111&biw=1600&bih=793","external_links_name":"North American Air Defense Command Historical Summary"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild","external_links_name":"A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882-1982"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/centuryofelectri0000wild/page/299","external_links_name":"299"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dxZVbxcf_IoC&q=SAGE+ESS+mitre&pg=PA374","external_links_name":"From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of The SAGE Air Defense Computer"},{"Link":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/showsite.php?site=Lincoln+Lab+ESS,+MA","external_links_name":"\"Display site\""},{"Link":"http://ed-thelen.org/SageIntro.html","external_links_name":"\"Introduction\""},{"Link":"http://ed-thelen.org/Sage-Talk.html","external_links_name":"\"Vigilance and Vacuum Tubes: The SAGE System 1956-63\""},{"Link":"https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/01/the-never-before-told-story-of-the-worlds-first-computer-art-its-a-sexy-dame/267439/","external_links_name":"\"…World's First Computer Art…\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/TheEmergingShield/page/283","external_links_name":"Emerging Shield: The Air Force and the Evolution of Continental Air Defense 1945-1960"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/TheEmergingShield/page/283","external_links_name":"283 (pdf)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140811144042/http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/capecodprototype-2.html","external_links_name":"\"MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: Cape Cod SAGE Prototype (Continued)\""},{"Link":"http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/capecodprototype-2.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40551/MC665_r15_M-3832.pdf?sequence=1","external_links_name":"https://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40551/MC665_r15_M-3832.pdf?sequence=1"},{"Link":"http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/46009/MC665_r14_6M-4263.pdf?sequence=1","external_links_name":"Biweekly Report For Period Ending 23 March 1956"},{"Link":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/showsite.php?site=Chatham+ESS,+MA","external_links_name":"\"Display site\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140815204636/http://67.69.104.76:84/Pinetreeline/misc/equip/misc12aa.html","external_links_name":"\"Pinetree Line Miscellaneous - Radar Equipment\""},{"Link":"http://67.69.104.76:84/Pinetreeline/misc/equip/misc12aa.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.northamericanforts.com/East/New_Hampshire/Towers/Great_Boars_Head.html","external_links_name":"\"Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo\""},{"Link":"http://www.northamericanforts.com/East/New_Hampshire/Towers/Halibut_Point.html","external_links_name":"\"Download Mozilla Firefox Optimized for Yahoo\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20140806141358/http://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/abandoned-radar-site-13.kml","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/showsite.php?site=MITRE+Test+Site,+West+Bath,+ME","external_links_name":"Radomes.org listing for West Bath"},{"Link":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/recent/ScituateESSMA.html","external_links_name":"\"Recent photos of Scituate (MA) Experimental SAGE Subsector (ESS) Radar Site\""},{"Link":"http://www.radomes.org/museum/equip/MITRESouthTruroMA.html","external_links_name":"\"MITRE Radar Test Sites South Truro, Cape Cod, MA; Jug Handle Hill, West Bath, ME; Montauk LI, NY\""},{"Link":"http://wikimapia.org/17058280/West-Bath-MITRE-AN-FPS-31-Radar-Test-Site","external_links_name":"\"West Bath MITRE AN/FPS-31 Radar Test Site\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130312152819/http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/earlywarningradars3.html","external_links_name":"\"MIT Lincoln Laboratory: History: SAGE Radars (part 3)\""},{"Link":"http://www.ll.mit.edu/about/History/earlywarningradars3.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://newspaperarchive.com/us/maine/bath/bath-independent/1956/05-10/page-5","external_links_name":"\"Bath Independent, May 10, 1956\""},{"Link":"http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40520/MC665_r15_M-3857.pdf?sequence=1","external_links_name":"http://dome.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.3/40520/MC665_r15_M-3857.pdf?sequence=1"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3HgQp6f9yGQC&q=%22Master+Direction+Center%22&pg=PA156","external_links_name":"The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dxZVbxcf_IoC","external_links_name":"From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of the SAGE Air Defense Computer"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3HgQp6f9yGQC","external_links_name":"The United States Air Force and the culture of innovation 1945-1965"},{"Link":"http://www.airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/461/733.xml","external_links_name":"http://www.airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/461/733.xml"},{"Link":"http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/4298/bab9742.0001.001.pdf?sequence=5","external_links_name":"http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/4298/bab9742.0001.001.pdf?sequence=5"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_License | Apache License | ["1 History","2 Licensing conditions","2.1 Apache License 2.0","3 Compatibility","4 Reception and adoption","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Free software license
Apache LicenseThe Apache Software Foundation logoAuthorThe Apache Software FoundationLatest version2.0PublisherThe Apache Software FoundationPublishedJanuary 2004; 20 years ago (2004-01)SPDX identifierApache-2.0Apache-1.1Apache-1.0Debian FSG compatibleYesFSF approvedYesOSI approvedYesGPL compatibleOnly version 2.0 is compatible with only GPLv3.CopyleftNoLinking from code with a different licenceYesWebsitewww.apache.org/licenses
The Apache License is a permissive free software license written by the Apache Software Foundation (ASF). It allows users to use the software for any purpose, to distribute it, to modify it, and to distribute modified versions of the software under the terms of the license, without concern for royalties. The ASF and its projects release their software products under the Apache License. The license is also used by many non-ASF projects.
History
Beginning in 1995, the Apache Group (later the Apache Software Foundation) released successive versions of the Apache HTTP Server. Its initial license was essentially the same as the original 4-clause BSD license, with only the names of the organizations changed, and with an additional clause forbidding derivative works from bearing the Apache name.
In July 1999, the Berkeley Software Distribution accepted the argument put to it by the Free Software Foundation and retired their advertising clause (clause 3) to form the new 3-clause BSD license. In 2000, Apache did likewise and created the Apache License 1.1, in which derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation. Individual packages licensed under the 1.1 version may have used different wording due to varying requirements for attribution or mark identification, but the binding terms were the same.
In January 2004, ASF decided to depart from the BSD model and produced the Apache License 2.0. The stated goals of the license included making it easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents. This license requires the preservation of the copyright notice and disclaimer.
Licensing conditions
The Apache License is permissive; unlike copyleft licenses, it does not require a derivative work of the software, or modifications to the original, to be distributed using the same license. It still requires application of the same license to all unmodified parts. In every licensed file, original copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices must be preserved (excluding notices that do not pertain to any part of the derivative works). In every licensed file changed, a notification must be added stating that changes have been made to that file.
If a NOTICE text file is included as part of the distribution of the original work, then derivative works must include a readable copy of these notices within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the derivative works, within the source form or documentation, or within a display generated by the derivative works (wherever such third-party notices normally appear).
The contents of the NOTICE file do not modify the license, as they are for informational purposes only, and adding more attribution notices as addenda to the NOTICE text is permissible, provided that these notices cannot be understood as modifying the license. Modifications may have appropriate copyright notices, and may provide different license terms for the modifications.
Unless explicitly stated otherwise, any contributions submitted by a licensee to a licensor will be under the terms of the license without any terms and conditions, but this does not preclude any separate agreements with the licensor regarding these contributions.
Apache License 2.0
The Apache License 2.0 attempts to forestall potential patent litigation in Section 3. The user is granted a patent license from each contributor to "make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work." Through an in terrorem clause, if the user sues anyone alleging that the software or a contribution within it constitutes patent infringement, any such patent licenses for that work are terminated.
Compatibility
The Apache Software Foundation and the Free Software Foundation agree that the Apache License 2.0 is a free software license, compatible with the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 3, meaning that code under GPLv3 and Apache License 2.0 can be combined, as long as the resulting software is licensed under the GPLv3.
The Free Software Foundation considers all versions of the Apache License to be incompatible with the previous GPL versions 1 and 2. Furthermore, it considers Apache License versions before 2.0 incompatible with GPLv3. Because of version 2.0's patent license requirements, the Free Software Foundation recommends it over other non-copyleft licenses. If the Apache License with the LLVM exception is used, then it is compatible with GPLv2.
Reception and adoption
In October 2012, 8,708 projects located at SourceForge.net were available under the terms of the Apache License. In a blog post from May 2008, Google mentioned that over 25% of the nearly 100,000 projects then hosted on Google Code were using the Apache License, including the Android operating system.
As of 2015, according to Black Duck Software and GitHub, the Apache license is the third most popular license in the FOSS domain after MIT License and GPLv2.
The OpenBSD project does not consider the Apache License 2.0 to be an acceptable free license because of its patent provisions. The OpenBSD policy believes that when the license forces one to give up a legal right that one otherwise has, that license is no longer free. Moreover, the project objects to involving contract law with copyright law, stating "...Copyright law is somewhat standardized by international agreements, contract law differs wildly among jurisdictions. So what the license means in different jurisdictions may vary and is hard to predict."
See also
Free and open-source software portal
Comparison of free and open-source software licenses
Software using the Apache license (category)
References
^ "The Apache Software License (ASL)". The Big DFSG-compatible Licenses. Debian Project. Retrieved 6 July 2009.
^ a b c d e "Apache License, Version 2.0". Various Licenses and Comments about Them. Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 July 2009.
^ "OSI-approved licenses by name David Gutierrez & David Louie Gutierrez". Open Source Initiative. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2011.
^ New Media Rights (12 September 2008). "Open Source Licensing Guide". California Western School of Law. Retrieved 28 November 2015. The 'BSD-like' licenses such as the BSD, MIT, and Apache licenses are extremely permissive, requiring little more than attributing the original portions of the licensed code to the original developers in your own code and/or documentation.
^ a b "Apache License, Version 2.0". Apache Software Foundation. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
^ Apache Software Foundation. "Apache License v2.0 and GPL Compatibility". Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2008.
^ "How to choose a license for your own work". gnu.org. Free Software Foundation. 15 December 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
^ "LLVM Exception | Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX)". spdx.org. Retrieved 22 June 2022.
^ "Projects at SourceForge under Apache License". Retrieved 28 October 2012.
^ Stein, Greg (28 May 2008). "Standing Against License Proliferation". Google Open Source Blog.
^ "Licenses". Android Open Source Project. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
^ "Top 20 licenses". Black Duck Software. 19 November 2015. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
^ Balter, Ben (9 March 2015). "Open source license usage on GitHub.com". GitHub.
^ "OpenBSD copyright policy". openbsd.org. OpenBSD Project. 28 May 2019.
External links
Apache Licenses
Quick Summary of the Apache License 2.0
vteThe Apache Software FoundationTop-levelprojects
Accumulo
ActiveMQ
Airavata
Airflow
Allura
Ambari
Ant
Aries
Arrow
Apache HTTP Server
APR
Avro
Axis
Axis2
Beam
Bloodhound
Brooklyn
Calcite
Camel
CarbonData
Cassandra
Cayenne
CloudStack
Cocoon
Cordova
CouchDB
cTAKES
CXF
Derby
Directory
Drill
Druid
Empire-db
Felix
Flex
Flink
Flume
FreeMarker
Geronimo
Groovy
Guacamole
Gump
Hadoop
HBase
Helix
Hive
Iceberg
Ignite
Impala
Jackrabbit
James
Jena
JMeter
Kafka
Kudu
Kylin
Lucene
Mahout
Maven
MINA
mod_perl
MyFaces
Mynewt
NiFi
NetBeans
Nutch
NuttX
OFBiz
Oozie
OpenEJB
OpenJPA
OpenNLP
OрenOffice
ORC
PDFBox
Parquet
Phoenix
POI
Pig
Pinot
Pivot
Qpid
Roller
RocketMQ
Samza
Shiro
SINGA
Sling
Solr
Spark
Storm
SpamAssassin
Struts 1
Struts 2
Subversion
Superset
SystemDS
Tapestry
Thrift
Tika
TinkerPop
Tomcat
Trafodion
Traffic Server
UIMA
Velocity
Wicket
Xalan
Xerces
XMLBeans
Yetus
ZooKeeper
Commons
BCEL
BSF
Daemon
Jelly
Logging
Incubator
Taverna
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Batik
FOP
Ivy
Log4j
Attic
Apex
AxKit
Beehive
Bluesky
iBATIS
Click
Continuum
Deltacloud
Etch
Giraph
Hama
Harmony
Jakarta
Marmotta
MXNet
ODE
River
Shale
Slide
Sqoop
Stanbol
Tuscany
Wave
XML
Licenses
Apache License
Category
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Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_free_software_licence"},{"link_name":"free software license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-software_license"},{"link_name":"Apache Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nmr-permissive-4"},{"link_name":"royalties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royalties"}],"text":"The Apache License is a permissive free software license written by the Apache Software Foundation (ASF).[4] It allows users to use the software for any purpose, to distribute it, to modify it, and to distribute modified versions of the software under the terms of the license, without concern for royalties. The ASF and its projects release their software products under the Apache License. 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Its initial license was essentially the same as the original 4-clause BSD license, with only the names of the organizations changed, and with an additional clause forbidding derivative works from bearing the Apache name.In July 1999, the Berkeley Software Distribution accepted the argument put to it by the Free Software Foundation and retired their advertising clause (clause 3) to form the new 3-clause BSD license. In 2000, Apache did likewise and created the Apache License 1.1, in which derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation. Individual packages licensed under the 1.1 version may have used different wording due to varying requirements for attribution or mark identification, but the binding terms were the same.In January 2004, ASF decided to depart from the BSD model and produced the Apache License 2.0. The stated goals of the license included making it easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents.[5] This license requires the preservation of the copyright notice and disclaimer.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_free_software_license"},{"link_name":"copyleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft"},{"link_name":"derivative work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_work"}],"text":"The Apache License is permissive; unlike copyleft licenses, it does not require a derivative work of the software, or modifications to the original, to be distributed using the same license. It still requires application of the same license to all unmodified parts. In every licensed file, original copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices must be preserved (excluding notices that do not pertain to any part of the derivative works). In every licensed file changed, a notification must be added stating that changes have been made to that file.If a NOTICE text file is included as part of the distribution of the original work, then derivative works must include a readable copy of these notices within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the derivative works, within the source form or documentation, or within a display generated by the derivative works (wherever such third-party notices normally appear).The contents of the NOTICE file do not modify the license, as they are for informational purposes only, and adding more attribution notices as addenda to the NOTICE text is permissible, provided that these notices cannot be understood as modifying the license. Modifications may have appropriate copyright notices, and may provide different license terms for the modifications.Unless explicitly stated otherwise, any contributions submitted by a licensee to a licensor will be under the terms of the license without any terms and conditions, but this does not preclude any separate agreements with the licensor regarding these contributions.","title":"Licensing conditions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in terrorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_terrorem"}],"sub_title":"Apache License 2.0","text":"The Apache License 2.0 attempts to forestall potential patent litigation in Section 3. The user is granted a patent license from each contributor to \"make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work.\" Through an in terrorem clause, if the user sues anyone alleging that the software or a contribution within it constitutes patent infringement, any such patent licenses for that work are terminated.","title":"Licensing conditions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"free software license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_license"},{"link_name":"GNU General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apache_licenses-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsflist-2"},{"link_name":"GPLv3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License#Version_3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"incompatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/License_compatibility"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsflist-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsflist-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The Apache Software Foundation and the Free Software Foundation agree that the Apache License 2.0 is a free software license, compatible with the GNU General Public License[5] (GPL) version 3,[2] meaning that code under GPLv3 and Apache License 2.0 can be combined, as long as the resulting software is licensed under the GPLv3.[6]The Free Software Foundation considers all versions of the Apache License to be incompatible with the previous GPL versions 1 and 2.[2] Furthermore, it considers Apache License versions before 2.0 incompatible with GPLv3. Because of version 2.0's patent license requirements, the Free Software Foundation recommends it over other non-copyleft licenses.[7][2] If the Apache License with the LLVM exception is used, then it is compatible with GPLv2.[8]","title":"Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SourceForge.net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SourceForge.net"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Google Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Code"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Android operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apache_License&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Black Duck Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Duck_Software"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blackduck2015-12"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-github-13"},{"link_name":"FOSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOSS"},{"link_name":"MIT License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_License"},{"link_name":"GPLv2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPLv2"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"contract law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_law"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"In October 2012, 8,708 projects located at SourceForge.net were available under the terms of the Apache License.[9] In a blog post from May 2008, Google mentioned that over 25% of the nearly 100,000 projects then hosted on Google Code were using the Apache License,[10] including the Android operating system.[11]As of 2015[update], according to Black Duck Software[12] and GitHub,[13] the Apache license is the third most popular license in the FOSS domain after MIT License and GPLv2.The OpenBSD project does not consider the Apache License 2.0 to be an acceptable free license because of its patent provisions. The OpenBSD policy believes that when the license forces one to give up a legal right that one otherwise has, that license is no longer free. Moreover, the project objects to involving contract law with copyright law, stating \"...Copyright law is somewhat standardized by international agreements, contract law differs wildly among jurisdictions. So what the license means in different jurisdictions may vary and is hard to predict.\"[14]","title":"Reception and adoption"}] | [] | [{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"Comparison of free and open-source software licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_free_and_open-source_software_licenses"},{"title":"Software using the Apache license (category)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Software_using_the_Apache_license"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Apache Software License (ASL)\". The Big DFSG-compatible Licenses. Debian Project. Retrieved 6 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://wiki.debian.org/DFSGLicenses#The_Apache_Software_License_.28ASL.29","url_text":"\"The Apache Software License (ASL)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian_Project","url_text":"Debian Project"}]},{"reference":"\"Apache License, Version 2.0\". Various Licenses and Comments about Them. Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html#apache2","url_text":"\"Apache License, Version 2.0\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation","url_text":"Free Software Foundation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090716201618/https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"OSI-approved licenses by name David Gutierrez & David Louie Gutierrez\". Open Source Initiative. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. 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The 'BSD-like' licenses such as the BSD, MIT, and Apache licenses are extremely permissive, requiring little more than attributing the original portions of the licensed code to the original developers in your own code and/or documentation.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newmediarights.org/open_source/new_media_rights_open_source_licensing_guide","url_text":"\"Open Source Licensing Guide\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Western_School_of_Law","url_text":"California Western School of Law"}]},{"reference":"\"Apache License, Version 2.0\". Apache Software Foundation. Retrieved 15 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0","url_text":"\"Apache License, Version 2.0\""}]},{"reference":"Apache Software Foundation. \"Apache License v2.0 and GPL Compatibility\". Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.apache.org/licenses/GPL-compatibility.html","url_text":"\"Apache License v2.0 and GPL Compatibility\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080115045635/http://www.apache.org/licenses/GPL-compatibility.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"How to choose a license for your own work\". gnu.org. Free Software Foundation. 15 December 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://gnu.org/licenses/license-recommendations.html","url_text":"\"How to choose a license for your own work\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation","url_text":"Free Software Foundation"}]},{"reference":"\"LLVM Exception | Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX)\". spdx.org. Retrieved 22 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://spdx.org/licenses/LLVM-exception.html","url_text":"\"LLVM Exception | Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Projects at SourceForge under Apache License\". Retrieved 28 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://sourceforge.net/search/?&fq%5B%5D=trove%3A401","url_text":"\"Projects at SourceForge under Apache License\""}]},{"reference":"Stein, Greg (28 May 2008). \"Standing Against License Proliferation\". Google Open Source Blog.","urls":[{"url":"http://google-opensource.blogspot.com/2008/05/standing-against-license-proliferation.html","url_text":"\"Standing Against License Proliferation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Licenses\". Android Open Source Project. Retrieved 25 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://source.android.com/setup/start/licenses","url_text":"\"Licenses\""}]},{"reference":"\"Top 20 licenses\". Black Duck Software. 19 November 2015. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160719043600/https://www.blackducksoftware.com/top-open-source-licenses","url_text":"\"Top 20 licenses\""},{"url":"http://www.blackducksoftware.com/resources/data/top-20-licenses","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Balter, Ben (9 March 2015). \"Open source license usage on GitHub.com\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/blog/1964-license-usage-on-github-com","url_text":"\"Open source license usage on GitHub.com\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenBSD copyright policy\". openbsd.org. OpenBSD Project. 28 May 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.openbsd.org/policy.html","url_text":"\"OpenBSD copyright policy\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.apache.org/licenses","external_links_name":"www.apache.org/licenses"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apache_License&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://wiki.debian.org/DFSGLicenses#The_Apache_Software_License_.28ASL.29","external_links_name":"\"The Apache Software License (ASL)\""},{"Link":"https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html#apache2","external_links_name":"\"Apache License, Version 2.0\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090716201618/https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.opensource.org/licenses/alphabetical","external_links_name":"\"OSI-approved licenses by name David Gutierrez & David Louie Gutierrez\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110428141712/http://opensource.org/licenses/alphabetical","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.newmediarights.org/open_source/new_media_rights_open_source_licensing_guide","external_links_name":"\"Open Source Licensing Guide\""},{"Link":"https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0","external_links_name":"\"Apache License, Version 2.0\""},{"Link":"http://www.apache.org/licenses/GPL-compatibility.html","external_links_name":"\"Apache License v2.0 and GPL Compatibility\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080115045635/http://www.apache.org/licenses/GPL-compatibility.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://gnu.org/licenses/license-recommendations.html","external_links_name":"\"How to choose a license for your own work\""},{"Link":"https://spdx.org/licenses/LLVM-exception.html","external_links_name":"\"LLVM Exception | Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX)\""},{"Link":"http://sourceforge.net/search/?&fq%5B%5D=trove%3A401","external_links_name":"\"Projects at SourceForge under Apache License\""},{"Link":"http://google-opensource.blogspot.com/2008/05/standing-against-license-proliferation.html","external_links_name":"\"Standing Against License Proliferation\""},{"Link":"https://source.android.com/setup/start/licenses","external_links_name":"\"Licenses\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160719043600/https://www.blackducksoftware.com/top-open-source-licenses","external_links_name":"\"Top 20 licenses\""},{"Link":"http://www.blackducksoftware.com/resources/data/top-20-licenses","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://github.com/blog/1964-license-usage-on-github-com","external_links_name":"\"Open source license usage on GitHub.com\""},{"Link":"http://www.openbsd.org/policy.html","external_links_name":"\"OpenBSD copyright policy\""},{"Link":"https://www.apache.org/licenses","external_links_name":"Apache Licenses"},{"Link":"https://tldrlegal.com/license/apache-license-2.0-%28apache-2.0%29","external_links_name":"Quick Summary of the Apache License 2.0"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_address | Address | ["1 History","2 Current addressing schemes","2.1 House numbering or naming","2.2 Quadrants","2.3 Street-naming conventions","2.4 Postal codes","2.5 Postal alternatives to physical addresses","3 Address format","4 Format by country and area","4.1 Argentina","4.2 Australia","4.3 Austria","4.4 Bangladesh","4.5 Belarus","4.6 Belgium","4.7 Brazil","4.8 Bulgaria","4.9 Canada","4.10 Chile","4.11 China","4.12 Colombia","4.13 Croatia","4.14 Czech Republic","4.15 Denmark","4.16 Estonia","4.17 Finland","4.18 France","4.19 Germany","4.20 Greece","4.21 Hong Kong","4.22 Hungary","4.23 Iceland","4.24 India","4.25 Indonesia","4.26 Iran","4.27 Iraq","4.28 Ireland","4.29 Israel","4.30 Italy","4.31 Japan","4.32 Latvia","4.33 Macao","4.34 Malaysia","4.35 Mexico","4.36 Netherlands","4.37 New Zealand","4.38 Norway","4.39 Oman","4.40 Pakistan","4.41 Peru","4.42 Philippines","4.43 Poland","4.44 Portugal","4.45 Qatar","4.46 Romania","4.47 Russia","4.48 Saudi Arabia","4.49 Serbia","4.50 Singapore","4.51 Slovakia","4.52 Slovenia","4.53 South Korea","4.54 Spain","4.55 Sri Lanka","4.56 Sweden","4.57 Switzerland","4.58 Taiwan","4.59 Thailand","4.60 Turkey","4.61 Ukraine","4.62 United Arab Emirates","4.63 United Kingdom","4.64 United States","4.65 Vietnam","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"] | Collection of information that describes the location of a building, apartment, or other structure
For other uses, see Address (disambiguation).
Illuminated address to see better at night
An address is a collection of information, presented in a mostly fixed format, used to give the location of a building, apartment, or other structure or a plot of land, generally using political boundaries and street names as references, along with other identifiers such as house or apartment numbers and organization name. Some addresses also contain special codes, such as a postal code, to make identification easier and aid in the routing of mail.
Addresses provide a means of physically locating a building. They are used in identifying buildings as the end points of a postal system and as parameters in statistics collection, especially in census-taking and the insurance industry. Address formats are different in different places, and unlike latitude and longitude coordinates, there is no simple mapping from an address to a location.
History
Further information: House numbering § History
Until the 18th and 19th centuries, most houses and buildings were not numbered.
Street naming and numbering began under the age of Enlightenment, also as part of campaigns for census and military conscription, such as in the dominions of Maria Theresa in the mid 18th century.
Numbering allowed the efficient delivery of mail, as the postal system evolved in the 18th and 19th centuries to reach widespread usage.
Comprehensive addressing of all buildings is still incomplete, even in developed countries. For example, the Navajo Nation in the United States was still assigning rural addresses as of 2015 and the lack of addresses can be used for voter disenfranchisement in the USA. In many cities in Asia, most minor streets were never named, and this is still the case today in much of Japan. Over a third of addresses in Ireland shared their address with at least one other property at the time of the Eircode's introduction in 2015.
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)
Current addressing schemes
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House numbering or naming
Main article: House numbering
In most English-speaking countries, the usual method of house numbering is an alternating numbering scheme progressing in each direction along a street, with odd numbers on one side (often west or south or the left-hand side leading away from a main road) and even numbers on the other side, although there is significant variation on this basic pattern. Many older towns and cities in the UK have "up and down" numbering where the numbers progress sequentially along one side of the road, and then sequentially back down the other side. Cities in North America, particularly those planned on a grid plan, often incorporate block numbers, quadrants (explained below), and cardinal directions into their street numbers, so that in many such cities, addresses roughly follow a Cartesian coordinate system. Some other cities around the world have their own schemes.
Although house numbering is the principal identification scheme in many parts of the world, it is also common for houses in the United Kingdom and Ireland to be identified by name, rather than number, especially in villages. In these cases, the street name will usually follow the house name. Such an address might read: "Smith Cottage, Frog Lane, Barchester, Barsetshire, BZ9 9BA" or "Dunroamin, Emo, Co. Laois, Ireland" (fictional examples).
Quadrants
In cities with Cartesian-coordinate-based addressing systems, the streets that form the north–south and east–west dividing lines constitute the x and y axes of a Cartesian coordinate plane and thus divide the city into quadrants. The quadrants are typically identified in the street names, although the manner of doing so varies from city to city. For example, in one city, all streets in the northeast quadrant may have "NE" prefixed or suffixed to their street names, while in another, the intersection of North Calvert Street and East 27th Street can be only in the northeast quadrant.
Street-naming conventions
Street names may follow a variety of themes. In many North American cities, such as San Francisco, USA, and Edmonton, Alberta and Vancouver, British Columbia, streets are simply numbered sequentially across the street grid. Numbered streets originated in the United States in Philadelphia by Thomas Holme who laid out the original plan for the city in 1683. Washington, D.C. has its numbered streets running north–south and lettered or alphabetically named streets running east–west, while diagonal avenues are typically named after states. In Salt Lake City, and many other Utah cities, streets are in a large grid and are numbered in increments of 100 based on their location relative to the center of the city in blocks. A similar system is in use in Detroit with the Mile Road System. In some housing developments in North America and elsewhere, street names may all follow the same theme (for example, bird species), or start with the same letter. Streets in Continental Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America are often named after famous people or significant dates.
Postal codes
Postal codes are a relatively recent development in addressing, designed to speed the sorting and processing of mail by assigning unique numeric or alphanumeric codes to each geographical locality.
Postal alternatives to physical addresses
For privacy and other purposes, postal services have made it possible to receive mail without revealing one's physical address or even having a fixed physical address. Examples are post office boxes, service addresses and poste restante (general delivery).
Address format
Write Your Address Clearly, public service poster, James Fitton (1958)
In most of the world, addresses are written in order from most specific to general, i.e. finest to coarsest information, starting with the addressee and ending with the largest geographical unit. For example:
Format
Example
Name of recipient Company name Street number, name City area/District City/Town/Village County Postal code Country (in French or English)
Mr A. Payne ARAMARK Ltd. 30 Commercial Road Fratton PORTSMOUTH Hampshire PO1 1AA UNITED KINGDOM
In English-speaking countries, the postal code usually comes last. In much of Europe, the code precedes the town name, thus: "1010 Lausanne". Sometimes, the ISO 3166 country code is placed in front of the postal code: "CH-1010 Lausanne".
If a house number is provided, it is written on the same line as the street name; a house name is written on the previous line. When addresses are written inline, line breaks are replaced by commas. Conventions on the placing of house numbers differ: either before or after the street name. Similarly, there are differences in the placement of postal codes: in the UK, they are written on a separate line at the end of the address; in Australia, Canada and the United States, they usually appear immediately after the state or province, on the same line; in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany and The Netherlands they appear before the city, on the same line.
East Asian addressing systems, including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese addressing systems, when written in their native scripts, use the big-endian order, from the largest geographical area to the smallest geographical area, followed by the recipient's name. However, both have the same order as western countries when written in the Latin script. The Hungarian system also goes from large to small units, except that the name of the addressee is put into the first line.
The Universal Postal Convention strongly recommends the following:
"The addressee's address shall be worded in a precise and complete manner. It shall be written very legibly in roman letters and Arabic numerals. If other letters and numerals are used in the country of destination, it shall be recommended that the address be given also in these letters and numerals. The name of the place of destination and the name of the country of destination shall be written in capital letters together with the correct postcode number or delivery zone number or post office box number, if any. The name of the country of destination shall be written preferably in the language of the country of origin. To avoid any difficulty in the countries of transit, it is desirable for the name of the country of destination to be added in an internationally known language. Designated operators may recommend that, on items addressed to countries where the recommended position of the postcode is in front of the name of the location of destination, the postcode should be preceded by the EN ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code followed by a hyphen. This shall in no way detract from the requirement for the name of the destination country to be printed in full."
Format by country and area
Argentina
In Argentina, an address must be mailed this way:
Format
Example
Name Street name, number Complements, Neighbourhood (if needed) Postal code, Municipality
Luis EscalaPiedras 623Piso 2, depto 4C1070AAM, Capital Federal
The postal code has been changed from a four digit format to an eight digit format, which is shown in the example. The new format adds a district or province letter code at the beginning, which allows it to be identified. As the system has been changed recently, the four digit format can still be used: in that case it is necessary to add the name of the province or district.
Old Format (4d)
New Format (8d)
Luis Escala French 392 Banfield (1828) Lomas de Zamora, Pcia Buenos Aires
Luis EscalaFrench 392BanfieldB1828HKH, Lomas de Zamora
Australia
Main article: Postcodes in Australia
In common with the rest of the English-speaking world, addresses in Australia put the street number—which may be a range—before the street name, and the placename before the postcode. Unlike addresses in most other comparable places, the city is not included in the address, but rather a much more fine-grained locality is used, usually referred to in Australia as a suburb or locality – although these words are understood in a different way than in other countries. Because the suburb or town serves to locate the street or delivery type, the postcode serves only as routing information rather than to distinguish previous other parts of an address. As an example, there are around 8,000 localities in Victoria (cf. List of localities in Victoria (Australia) and List of Melbourne suburbs), yet around 700 unique geographic postcodes. For certain large volume receivers or post offices, the "locality" may be an institution or street name. It is always considered incorrect to include the city or metropolis name in an address (unless this happens to be the name of the suburb), and doing so may delay delivery.
Australia Post recommends that the last line of the address should be set in capital letters. In Australia, subunits are essential and should be separated from the street by two spaces; apartments, flats and units are typically separated with a forward slash (/) instead.
Apartment, flat and unit numbers, if necessary, are shown immediately prior to the street number (which might be a range), and, as noted above, are separated from the street number by a forward slash. These conventions can cause confusion. To clarify, 3/17 Adam Street would mean Apartment 3 (before the slash) at 17 Adam Street (in the case of a residential address) or Unit 3 at 17 Adam St (in the case of a business park). On the other hand, 3–17 Adam Street would specify a large building (or cluster of related buildings) occupying the lots spanning street numbers 3 to 17 on one side of Adam St (without specifying any particular place within the buildings). These forms can be combined, so 3/5–9 Eve Street signifies Apartment 3 (before the slash) in a building which spans street numbers 5 to 9 on one side of Eve Street.
As in the US, the state/territory is crucial information as many placenames are reused in different states/territories; it is usually separated from the suburb with two spaces and abbreviated. In printed matter, the postcode follows after two spaces; in handwritten matter, the postcode should be written in the boxes provided.
Format
Example
Street address
Recipient Name
Other recipient information
(etc.)
Street (Subunit Number Name)
Locality State Postcode
Ms H Williams
Finance and Accounting
Australia Post
219–241 Cleveland St
STRAWBERRY HILLS NSW 1427
Other delivery type
Recipient Name
Other recipient information (etc.)
Type Number
Locality State Postcode
Mr J. O'Donnell
Lighthouse Promotions
PO Box 215
SPRINGVALE VIC 3171
In addition to PO Boxes, other delivery types (which are typically abbreviated) may include:
Delivery type
Abbreviation
Care of post office
CARE PO
Community mail bag
CMB
General Post Box (in capital cities)
GPO BOX
Mail service
MS
Roadside delivery
RSD
Roadside mail service
RMS
Community mail agent
CMA
Community postal agent
CPA
Locked bag
LOCKED BAG
Roadside mail box/bag
RMB
Private bag
PRIVATE BAG
Australian Post Addressing Guidelines
In rural areas, "Property numbers are worked out based on the distance from the start of the road to the entrance of the property. That distance (in metres) is divided by ten. Even numbers are on the right and odd numbers are on the left. For example: the entrance to a property 5,080 metres from the start of the road on the right hand side becomes number 508. The start of the road is determined as the fastest and safest road accessed from the nearest major road or town. Rural road maps are being drawn up to define the name, the start point and direction of every rural road."
Austria
In Austria, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Addressee (Natural person/Organization) More detailed description of addressee (optional) Street name + number Postal code + town Country (if other than Austria)
Firma ABCKundendienstHauptstr. 51234 Musterstadt
The postal code always consists of four digits.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, the format used for rural and urban addresses is different.
Urban Addresses
Format
Example
Addressee (Natural person/Organization) More detailed description of addressee (optional) Flat Number, Building Name (if available)Street name + number Town + postal code Country (for international mail)
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman -- -- Dhanmondi. 32 Dhaka-1209 Bangladesh
The postal code always consists of four digits.
Rural Addresses
Format
Example
NameMore detailed description of addressee (optional)Village NamePost office Thana NameDistrict Name Country (for international mail)
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman --Village: TungiparaP.O.: TungiparaThana: TungiparaDistrict: GopalganjBangladesh
Belarus
In Belarus, some neighbourhoods may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings don't face a named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, a "main" building may have the same number as one or more "subsidiary" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as vul. Lenina, d. 123 (123 Lenin St) An address may also cover one or more subsidiary buildings behind the main building, addressed as vul. Lenina, d. 123, bud. 2 (123 Lenin St, unit 2, where bud. (abbreviation for будынак, budynak) means a '(subsidiary) building'). In newer areas with more regular street plans, apartment buildings that do not face a named street may be designated with Cyrillic letters appended to the building number, e.g. 123-а, 123-б, etc., in Cyrillic alphabetical order.
In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, d. 123, kv. 56, i.e. 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.
Format
Cyrillic example
Latin example
Name of addressee Street name, number, apartment/room Village (in rural areas when different from post office) Postal code, post office (in rural areas) or city/town Raion Region Country (for international mail)
Свістунову Івану Пятровічувул. Цэнтральная, д. 20в. Караліставічы223016, п/а Новы ДворМінскага р-на.Мінскай вобл.Беларусь (BELARUS)
Svistunov Ivan Piatrovičvul. Centraĺnaja, d. 20v. Karalistavičy223016, p/a Novy DvorMinskaha r-naMinskaj vobl.BELARUS
Source: Belposhta
Belgium
In Belgium, the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border mail.)
Spatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.
The street number is placed after the thoroughfare name (unlike in France), separated by a space. Separators such as punctuation (point, comma or other signs) or "nº", or "nr" are not allowed. Extension designation (box numbers), if present, appears in the delivery point location line, preceded by the word for "box" (bus in Dutch, bte in French). Symbols such as b, Bt, #, -, / are not allowed as separators between the street number element and the box number element.
Examples of a correctly formatted postal address:
Format
Example (French)
Example (Dutch)
Addressee individual information Function / department (optional) Organization (if applicable) Spatial/dispatching information (if applicable) thoroughfare + street number + box number Postal code + town Country (only for international mail)
Monsieur Alain DupontDirecteur Service ClientsAcme SABloc A - étage 4Rue du Vivier 7C bte 51000 BruxellesBELGIQUE
Dhr Paul JanssensAfdeling KwaliteitAcme NVGebouw A - Verdieping 3Volklorenlaan 81 bus 152610 WilrijkBELGIË
The Belgian addressing guidelines are registered with the Universal Postal Union (UPU and see the link Universal Postal Union – Postal addressing systems in member countries). These guidelines indicate exactly how to combine the various address components in order to obtain a correctly formatted postal address.
The complete set of addressing guidelines can be found on the website of the Belgian postal operator (bpost). The correct representation of an address is not limited to the correct structure of address components but also relates to the content of addresses and their position on envelopes (see bpost - Lettres & cartes - Envoi - Comment addresser ? (in French)).
It is also possible to validate a Belgian postal address on bpost's website and to receive feedback on the content and the format of an address.
Brazil
In Brazil, an address must be written this way:
Format
Example
Name Street type (avenue/terrace), Street name, number, apartment/room (if needed) Neighbourhood (optional) Municipality, State abbreviation Postal Code
Carlos RossiAvenida João Jorge, 112, ap. 31Vila IndustrialCampinas - SP13035-680
States can have their name written in full, abbreviated in some way, or totally abbreviated to two letters (SP = São Paulo, RJ = Rio de Janeiro, etc.).
Only towns with 60,000 inhabitants and above have postal codes individualized for streets, roads, avenues, etc. One street can have several postal codes (by odd/even numbers side or by segment). These postcodes range from -000 to -899. Other towns have only a generic postcode with the suffix -000. Recipients of bulk mail (large companies, condos, etc.) have specific postcodes, with a suffix ranging from -900 to -959. P.O. boxes are mailed to Correios offices, with suffixes ranging from -970 to -979. Some rural settlements have community postboxes with suffix -990.
Bulgaria
Similar to Belgium and most other European countries, in Bulgaria the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (town and postcode for domestic mail or country for cross border (international) mail.)
Spatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.
The street number is placed after the thoroughfare name (unlike in France), separated by a space and the symbol 'No. '. Separators such as punctuation (point, comma or other signs) are allowed if needed. Extension designation (box numbers), if present, appears in the delivery point location line, preceded by the word for "box" ("П.К. {numeral}", "П. К. {numeral}", or "Пощенска кутия {numeral}"). Symbols such as #, -, / are not strictly disallowed as separators between the street number element and the box number element. Note that there may sometimes be a confusion between П.К. (пощенски код, postal code (of the local post office)) and П.К. (пощенска кутия, P.O. (post office box), the individual physical P.O. box of a specific address or a subscription-based physical P.O. box inside a post-office branch).
Format
Format (in Bulgarian)
Example (in Bulgarian)
Example (in English/Latin script, for international mail or parcel deliveries)
Name (of addressee (personal name, second name (father's name+'{some suffix}' for Bulgarians), surname)) Function (job title) / department (optional) Company/Organization name (if applicable; optional) Spatial/dispatching information (if applicable, it is mandatory in most cases!): thoroughfare, Street/Boulevard/Sq. (Pl. = town square) (Str./Blvd.; UK-style: St.) name and number, (apartment) block and number, entrance and number, floor and number, apartment/room/flat and number Post-office box (P.O. (box)) and number + Neighborhood (optional) Rayon (City/Town/village area/district/sub-region (rayon, район)) (optional) City/town/village + Postal code (P.O. of the post-office) Oblast (Province, i.e. Region/County) (optional, use when there are identically named locations in different parts of the country or region) COUNTRY (for international mail, it can be omitted for addresses in Bulgaria)
Име, презиме и фамилияФункция/Длъжност, Отдел (незадължително)Организация/фирма (незадължително)Адрес - ул./бул., номер, блок, вход, етаж, апартаментПощенска кутия (П.К.) + номер и квартал (незадължително)Градски район (незадължително)Наименование на населеното място и Пощенски код (да не се бърка с пощенска кутия (П.К.))Община (незадължително)Област (незадължително)За международните: и наименованието на държавата.)
(Адрес на подател:)Николай Георгиев Сармаковсвещениккъм църква "Св. Параскева" (неортодоксална, несвързана с БПЦ (Българската православна църква))ул. "Патриарх Евтимий" No. 1011 (the quotes may be omitted!), бл. 1, вх. 2, ет. 1, ап. 1П.К. 10117 Стария град(Район Централен)Пловдив 4000(Община Пловдив)(Област Пловдив)БЪЛГАРИЯ
(Sender (From:) or Receiver/Recipient/Addressee (To:))
Nikolay Georgiev Sarmakov priest
with the Sv. (Saint) Paraskeva Church (non-orthodox, not related to the Bulgarian Orthodox Church)
1011 Patriarh Evtimiy Str. (Patriarch Saint Euthymius of Tarnovo), block 1, entrance 2, floor 1 (NOTE: The 1st floor in buildings in Bulgaria is the so-called ground/street-level floor in the UK; in the US, the first floor is also the ground floor and the 2nd floor is above ground), flat (apartment) 1
P.O.(box) 101178 The Old Town
(Central District)
Plovdiv 4000
(Plovdiv Municipality)
(Plovdiv Province)
BULGARIA
The convention is that the addressee's information is written on the bottom right portion of the letter. The sender's information is written either on the top left portion of the letter or on the top reverse side of the letter (except for parcel packages).
Domestic post letters, parcels and postal money transfers are written in Bulgarian Cyrillic while the international postal letters and parcels are written in the Latin script (usually in English due to its global usage) with Arabic numerals.
Apart delivering mail and parcel packages to individual addresses, the Bulgarian Posts also delivers to local post offices (which then notify the recipient that he/she has mail to collect from the post office; so-called до поискване (letters on demand/request)) or to a subscription mailbox within a local post office.
Examples of a correctly formatted postal address:
Format for mail exchange between private individuals (между частни абонати):
Format for letters and parcel packages ON REQUEST (до поискване):
Format for mail and parcel exchange between business partners (между бизнес-партньори):
Format for letters and parcel packages ON REQUEST (до поискване):
Format for mail and parcel sending to an individual subscription mailbox within a local office of Bulgarian Posts (до абонаментна кутия):
Format for letters and parcel packages ON REQUEST (до поискване):
The Bulgarian postal addressing guidelines are registered with the Universal Postal Union (UPU and see the link Universal Postal Union – Postal addressing systems in member countries). These guidelines indicate exactly how to combine the various address components in order to obtain a correctly formatted postal address.
The complete set of addressing guidelines can be found on the website of the Bulgarian postal operator (Bulgarian Posts). The correct representation of an address is not limited to the correct structure of address components but also relates to the content of addresses and their position on envelopes (see Български пощи (Български пощи) (in Bulgarian)).
It is also possible to validate a Bulgarian postal address on Bulgarian Posts' website and to receive feedback on the content and the format of an address. More information can be found at (see Български пощи (in Bulgarian)).
Canada
Addressing guidelines can differ between English- and French-speaking populations in Canada. Here are some formatting rules that are used in common:
Cardinal directions like North, North West, etc. can be abbreviated in either English or French, and appear after the street name. Ordinal numbered streets (e.g. 6th, 2nd) can be written in either English or French.
If there is an apartment number it should be written before the house number and separated by a hyphen.
Name of city or town followed by two letter provincial abbreviations
Postal codes come in a letter-number-letter-space-number-letter-number format, for example: A1A 1A1. There should be two spaces between the province abbreviation and the postal code.
If sending a parcel from outside Canada, the word "CANADA" must be placed at the very bottom.
See the example below for a comparison of the English and French address formats:
English (from Canada Post):
NICOLE MARTIN
123 SHERBROOKE ST
TORONTO ON L3R 9P6
French (from the OQLF):
Monsieur Jean-Pierre Lamarre
101–3485, rue de la Montagne
Montréal (Québec) H3G 2A6
See Canada Post's Addressing Guidelines for accurate, up-to-date information on the addressing guidelines most commonly used in Canada.
See the Office québécois de la langue française's Adressage webpage (in French only) for more information about how to write an address according to guidelines used in Quebec and other French-speaking areas.
Chile
Chilean urban addresses require only the street name, house number, apartment number (if necessary) and municipality; however, more information is frequently included, such as commune (neighbourhood or town) and region. Postal codes are rarely included by people. All postal codes have seven digits, the first three indicating the municipality, the next four identifying a block or in large and scarcely populated areas a quadrant within the municipal territory.
The territories of most of the larger cities comprise several adjacent municipalities, so it is important to mention it.
Format
Example
Recipient name Street and number Apartment (if needed) Postal code (rarely used) Municipality Region
Sr. Rodrigo DomínguezAv. Bellavista N° 185Dep. 6098420507 RECOLETAREGION METROPOLITANA
Smaller cities often consist of only one municipality with several unofficial comunes (neighborhoods) that are usually mentioned even for official addressing purposes.
Format
Example
Recipient name Street and number, Apartment number Neighbourhood Region
Sra. Isidora RetamalNelson N° 10, Dep. 415CERRO BARONV REGION VALPARAISO
Several large and mostly rural municipalities contain more than one small town, in such cases, the recipient address must mention either the town, the postal code or both.
Format
Example
Recipient name Street and number Postal code Town or village Region
Inversiones Aldunate y Cía. S.A.Los Aromos N° 1218525000311 MAITENCILLOV REGION VALPARAISO
In other towns or rural communities there are no house numbers and addresses are generally identified by company name followed by only a street name follow by some reference point.
Format
Example
Recipient name Street and rest of address information Postal code Town or village Region
Sra. Isidora RetamalCamino Publico S/N, Tunca Arriba2970000 SAN VICENT DE T.T.VI REGION O'HIGGINS
China
In mainland China, the postal area when written in Chinese characters (preferably Simplified Chinese characters), has the big-endian order, which means that the Chinese-language address is written from the largest geographical area to the smallest geographical area. The Chinese-language address format is:
Province, prefecture-level city, district or county (sometimes omitted), township or town or subdistrict (often omitted), village or community (usually omitted), road name, road number, building name, floor/level, room number
However, as a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU), China Post also supports UPU's English-language address in the little-endian order, which means that English-language address is written from the smallest geographical area to the largest geographical area. The English-language address format is:
Room number, floor/level, building name
road number, road name, village or community (usually omitted), township or town or subdistrict (often omitted)
district or county (sometimes omitted), prefecture-level city
postcode and province
country name
Chinese domestic letters only support Chinese-language address in the big-endian order. The example is:
Format
Chinese example
Literal meaning(in Chinese word order)
Postcode (written in squares in the upper left corner)
Province, Prefecture-level city, County, Town, Road Name, Road Number
Recipient's name, Title, The character "收" (receive)
3 5 0 5 0 3
福建省福州市连江县丹阳镇新洋村团结路10号
陈立国 先生 收
350503
Fujian Province, Fuzhou City, Lianjiang County, Danyang Town, Xinyang Village, Tuanjie Road, 10th number
CHEN Liguo, mister, receive
The international letters to China support English-language address in the little-endian order. The example is:
Format
English example
Recipient
Road Number, Road Name, Village, Town
County, Prefecture-level city
Postcode, PROVINCE
COUNTRY
Mr. CHEN Liguo
No. 10 Tuanjie Road, Xinyang Village, Danyang Town
Lianjiang County, Fuzhou City
350503 FUJIAN
P.R. CHINA
Colombia
In Colombia the address format uses a numeric format based on calles which increase the number from south to north and carreras which increase the number from east to west.
Format
Example
Calle number Number of the Carrera and the house City
Calle 34#24 - 30Bogotá
Croatia
Croatian Post recommends the following format:
Format
Example
Addressee (individual or organization)Locality (if applicable and different from post office name)Floor and door (only if necessary)Street name + house numberPostal code + post office nameCountry (if sent internationally)
Hrvoje HorvatSoblinec1. kat, stan 2Soblinečka ulica 110360 SESVETECROATIA
Croatia uses five-digit postal code numbers. The Croatian postal service recommends using 2-letter ISO country codes as prefixes before international and domestic postal codes, though the practice is not mandatory.
Czech Republic
Common format in the Czech Republic:
Format
Example
(Company + department) Name Street name (or village name) + number Postal code + Town (or post office)
První informačníJosef NovákBrněnská 2256/16123 07 Jitrnice
Postal codes are in the format "### ##" (i.e. 158 00 = Prague 58) or "CZ-#####" (especially for international mail). On pre-printed Czech postcards and envelopes, the postal code is written on a separate last row in boxes for each number. If the envelope doesn't have pre-printed rows and boxes, the postal code should be before the town (or post office) name.
On private letters, the first line is usually constituted by a courtesy title (pan, paní, slečna, žák...) For private mails addressed to the workplace, the order is (name + company), while in official mails it is (company + name).
The basic system of house numbering uses conscription house numbers (čísla popisná, čp. or č. p.). For a temporary or recreational house, an evidentional house number (číslo evidenční, ev. č. or če., or distinguished by initial 0 or E prefix) is used instead. In most larger cities and also in some towns and large villages with street names, there is a double system of house numbering. The first number is the conscription or evidentional number (which corresponds to the chronological order of cadastral registration of the house), and the second number (after a slash) is the orientational number (orientační číslo, č. or., č. o.) which expresses the position in the street. Sometimes only one of the two numbers is used, or the numbers are used in reverse order, and it can be difficult to distinguish which number is which. Generally, orientation numbers (if they exist) are preferred for mail services.
How to correctly address mail
Denmark
Further information: List of postal codes in Denmark
In Denmark, apartment buildings will usually have two or three apartments per floor. Thus, if the addressee lives in an apartment, the address should contain the floor they live on, and a side (t.v., mf. or t.h., meaning "to the left", "in the middle" and "to the right", respectively) or an alphanumeric character (1, 2, 3... or A, B, C...= starting from left seen from the top most step just before the floor).
Also, for postal codes 2000 and up, there is a 1:1 relationship between postal code and town.
Format
Example
NameStreet name + number + apartment floor and t.h./mf./t.v. (optional)Postal code + town
Stig JensenSolvej 5, 4. t.v.5250 Odense SV
Estonia
In Estonia, use the following format.
Format
Example
NameStreet + Building number + apartment numberPostal code + townCOUNTRY
Kati KaskAia tn 1–2310615 TallinnESTONIA
Finland
Format
Example
CompanyName or DepartmentStreet name + number + *apartment numberPostal code + Town (uppercase)Country (if other than Finland)
EduskuntaMatti MallikainenMannerheimintie 30 as. 100100 HELSINKIFinland
In Finland, if a person's name is written before the company name in the address field of a letter, then that person is considered the recipient. In this case, no other employee is allowed to open the letter but the indicated recipient. If the company name is before the person's name, then the company is the recipient and any employee is allowed to open the letter.
The apartment number can formatted as "as 5" (as is an abbreviation for asunto, apartment) or as "C 55" (the letter indicates the correct staircase in apartment blocks with several entrances.)
Finland uses a five-digit postal code. Note that some larger companies and organizations have their own postal codes.
France
Main article: Postal codes in France
In France, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Addressee (Natural person/Organization)More detailed description of addressee (optional)House number + Street namePostal code + uppercase locationCountry (if other than France)
Entreprise ABCM. Frank Bender12 rue de la Montagne01234 EXAMPLEVILLE
The postal code always consists of five digits. The location is usually a town, but may be other territorial entities (up to a département)
Organisations, government agencies, and companies which receive large amounts of mail often have a special CEDEX address which goes after the last line (for instance, "75001 PARIS CEDEX").
Germany
In Germany, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Addressee (Natural person/Organization)More detailed description of addressee (optional)Street name + numberPostal code + townCountry (if other than Germany)
Firma ABCKundendienstHauptstr. 501234 Musterstadt
The postal code always consists of five digits.
Organizations that receive large amounts of mail may be assigned a bulk customer postal code. These are different from regular postal codes in that they do not have a street name line. Some bulk customer postal codes are shared between several organizations.
There are a few places that have house numbers but no street names (e.g. Baltrum) as well as addresses that have a street name but no house number.
Some (but not all) private post companies are also able to deliver to Deutsche Post-operated P.O. boxes.
Post codes follow the structure of DPAG's mail routing, not administrative boundaries.
Each post code is used exclusively for street addresses, P.O. boxes or bulk recipients.
Sub-building information, such as apartment numbers, is rarely used—a name on the post box is usually the only method of identification of an addressee within a building.
Greece
Hellenic Post recommends the following format for Greek addresses:
Format
Example (Greek)
Example (Latin)
RecipientStreet name + numberPostcode, Town
Πέτρος ΠαύλουΔοϊράνης 25653 02, Καβάλα
Petros PavlouDoiranis 25653 02, Kavala
The most widespread format, shown above, gives on the last line the recipient's five-digit post code (with a single space between the third and fourth digits) and the name of the town or village that is the base of a post office, in capital letters and separated from the postcode by two spaces. When sending mail abroad, or when sending mail from abroad to Greece, Hellenic Post recommends the following format:
Format
Example (Greek)
Example (Latin)
RecipientStreet name + numberCOUNTRY CODE-Postcode, TownCountry
Αποστόλης ΑποστόλουΚαρκησίας 6GR-111 42, ΑθήναGreece
Apostolis ApostolouKarkisias 6GR-111 42, AthinaGreece
As with domestic mail, mail sent from abroad must contain the postcode in the same manner, but the postcode must be preceded by the international prefix of the country of delivery (for Greece, GR). Below the destination, the country of delivery must be written in capital letters, either in English or French (for Greece, GRÈCE or GREECE).
Hong Kong
The official languages of Hong Kong are Chinese and English. For domestic mail within Hong Kong, the address may be written entirely in either Chinese or English. For overseas mail going out from Hong Kong, the address may be written in the language of the destination country, provided that the city name and the country name are in English. However, for an overseas mail from Hong Kong to Mainland China, Macao, Taiwan or Singapore, the address may be written entirely in Chinese. While traditional Chinese characters are commonly used in Hong Kong, simplified Chinese characters are also understood by Hong Kong's postmen. Note that Hong Kong does not use any postal codes, though many rural properties have a property identification code, e.g. HKT-12345.
An address written in English should begin with the smallest unit and end with the largest unit, as in the following example for a domestic mail within Hong Kong.
Format
Example
Name of addresseeFlat number, Floor number, Name of building (if a rural address: (Flat number, Floor number,) Name/number of house)Street number and street name (if a rural address: Village name)Name of district"Hong Kong", "Hong Kong Island" or "H. K." for Hong Kong Island/"Kowloon" or "Kln" for Kowloon/"New Territories" or "N. T." for New Territories
Mr. Jackie ChanFlat 25, 12/F, Acacia Building150 Kennedy RoadWan ChaiHong Kong Island
An address written in Chinese should begin with the largest unit and end with the smallest unit, as in the following example for a piece of domestic mail within Hong Kong. Traditional Chinese characters are used in this example.
Format
Example
(if a rural address: ) (if a rural address: ())
香港島灣仔堅尼地道105號雅佳大廈12樓25室陳港生先生
For mail to Hong Kong from overseas, "Hong Kong" should be added at the end of an address written in English, and 香港 should be added at the beginning of an address written in Chinese.
Hungary
In Hungarian mail addresses, the city/town name precedes the street address. The post code then comes after the street address.
Format
Example
Addressee (name or company name)City or townStreet name and number and floor/door, or P.O. Box number
Postal code
Kis ZoltánBudapestÁrpád fejedelem útja 82. fszt. 21036
Hungarian family names precede given names in Hungarian. In this example, Kis is the family name.
Sometimes a district number might appear after the name of the city/town.
Various abbreviations might appear in the precise street/building address: for instance, specifying the street type (út, utca, krt., tér, etc.), or em. for emelet (floor), or hrsz for helyrajzi szám (which means Land Registry number, or lot number), or fszt for földszint (ground floor) and so on.
The postal code consists of four digits.
Iceland
Further information: List of postal codes in Iceland
In Iceland, the following format is used.
Format
Example
Explanation
NameStreet name + NumberComplementsPostal code + Place
Agnes GísladóttirHoltsflöt 4íbúð 202 (flat 202)300 Akranes
first name(s), last name (usually patronymic)street address in the dative caseflat number etc.place: municipality, town or rural area
India
In India, multiple formats are used.
General Address
Format
Example
Name Son/Daughter Of (DO/SO) Or Husband/Wife Of (H/O or W/O)Door number:Street Number, Street NameVIA NAME (VIA)Post Name (PO)Taluk Name (TK)Locality or NeighbourhoodCITY - Postal Code (PIN)District NameStateCountry
Ms Rajaram S/O Amirthalingam32-BV.NAGAR, ROAD NO: 1RASIPURAMRASIPURAMRASIPURAMNear SAMUNDI THEATRENAMAKKAL 637408NAMAKKALTAMILNADUINDIA
The format used for rural and urban addresses is different.
Rural Addresses
Format
Example
NameStreet Number, Street NameVILLAGE NAMEDistrict NamePostal Code (PIN)State
Lorha Singh 5, Mahatma Gandhi RoadBUDHAGAONDistrict Sangli471594Maharashtra
Urban Addresses
Format
Example
NameOccupation (Optional)Flat Number, Building NameStreet Number, Street NameLocality or NeighbourhoodCITY - Postal Code (PIN)State
Dr. Ashok PadhyeGeneral PhysicianA-205, Natasha Apartments2, Inner Ring RoadDomlurBANGALORE - 560071Karnataka
The state is optional in both cases, but is typically used.
Indonesia
In Indonesia, the address format is as follows:
Address Type
Format
Example
Residential with Street Names
Recipient's name
Street name + Building Number + Neighborhood Association /Community Association
Village/Subdistrict , District
City/Regency , Province (Optional) + Postal Code
Budiman
Jl. Surya No. 10 RT.05/RW.02
Kel. Cempaka Putih, Kec. Cempaka Baru
Kota Jakarta Pusat 10640
Residential with Housing Complex or Apartment
Recipient's name
Name of housing complex or apartment + Building or Room Number + Neighborhood Association /Community Association (Optional)
Village/Subdistrict , District
City/Regency , Province (Optional) + Postal Code
Hendro Agiman
Perumahan Citra Harmoni Cluster Green Valley Blok A No. 6
Kel. Karang Satria Kec. Tambun Selatan
Kab. Bekasi 17510
Business with Street Names
Recipient's name with salutation
Name of Position & Department of Recipient
Company name
Street name + Building Number + Neighborhood Association /Community Association (Optional)
Village/Subdistrict , District
City/Regency , Province (Optional) + Postal Code
Ibu Ani Wibowo
Kepala Departemen Personalia
PT Maju Jaya Abadi
Jl. Pahlawan Revolusi No. 28A
Kel. Cipete Utara, Kec. Kebayoran Baru
Kota Jakarta Selatan 12150
Business with PO Box
Recipient's name with salutation
Name of Position & Department of Recipient
Company name
"PO Box" + Number of the PO Box and Code of Post Office Branch
City/Regency + Postal Code
Bapak Heru Satyanto
Kepala Departemen Pemasaran
PT. Sejahtera Makmur
PO Box 1234 JKS
Jakarta 10001
Generally Jalan or Jl. means 'street' and should be written before the street name, e.g. Jalan Cemara. For more about Indonesian administrative divisions, see administrative divisions of Indonesia.
Iran
Postal addresses in Iran have a standard which should be used by mail or parcel senders. This standard is registered and qualified by the Universal Postal Union (UPU). According to the below table, Iran has 4 types of standard address:
Address Type
Format
Urban
Urban LocalityStreetPremiseProvincePostcode
Rural
Rural LocalityStreetPremiseProvincePostcode
PO Box
LocalityProvincePO Box
Post Restante
RestanteLocalityProvincePost Office
Iraq
In Iraq, the following format is used:
Format
Example
Name of AddresseeName of the DistrictMahla (Area) + NumberZuqaq (Alley) + Number Building numberName of ProvincePostal code Country
Ali Hassan Al-Mansour Mahla 609 Zuqaq 8 House no. 12 Baghdad 10013 Iraq
Ireland
Main article: Postal addresses in the Republic of Ireland
In July 2015, the Republic of Ireland introduced Eircodes, a seven digit alphanumeric code, consisting of a 3 character routing key and a 4 character unique identifier for the property. Example A65 F4E2. Up until the introduction of Eircodes Dublin was the only county with a form of postal district identifier; these have been incorporated into the Eircode scheme. For example, Dublin 2 is routing code D02.
Format
Example Dublin
Example outside Dublin
Addressee's NameNumber or name of house and street name/townlandPOST TOWN + Postal district number (For Dublin addresses only) County name (where required)Eircode
The Shelbourne Hotel27 St Stephen's GreenDublinD02 H529
Lissadell HouseLissadellBallinfullCo. SligoF91 ED70
Rural addresses are specified by the county, nearest post town, and the townland. Urban addresses are specified by county, city or town name, street name, house number, and apartment or flat number where relevant. A house name may be used instead of a number. The Eircode is appended to the bottom of the address.
Israel
In Israel, the Universal Postal Union recommends the following:
Format
Example
NameNumber + Street namePostal code + town
Yisrael Yisraeli16 Jaffa Street9414219 Tel Aviv
In apartment buildings the building number should appear first and then the apartment number separated by a "/". In the below example, "16" is the building number while "20" is the apartment number:
Format
Example
NameNumber + Street namePostal code + town
Yisrael Yisraeli16/20 Jaffa Street9414219 Tel Aviv
Example of common address with building entrance and apartment number:
Format
Example
Namenumber incl. entrance + Street name, + apartment Postal code + town
Yisrael Yisraeli1 B HaDoar, Apt. 209414219 Tel Aiv
Or
Format
Example
Namenumber incl. entrance/apartment + Street name Postal code + town
Yisrael Yisraeli1B/20 HaDoar9414219 Tel Aviv, ISRAEL
A seven digit postal code for all addresses was introduced in 2013 which can cover an entire locality for a small town or village. In bigger cities postal areas are divided along streets and neighbourhoods.
Italy
A domestic address in Italy must be composed of three to five rows. Up to six rows can be used for international mail:
Format
Example
Addressee's name and surname or company nameOptional – Additional information about the addresseeIf required – Additional information about the building (building number, floor, apartment number)Street name and number (via/viale/corso/piazza...)Postcode + Town + Province abbreviationForeign State name
Claudio Verdivia Roma 3581055 Santa Maria Capua Vetere CE
Post Office Box Addresses
Recipient Name
Name of delivery post office
Post office box number
Postcode + Town + Province abbreviation
Claudio VerdiUfficio Roma TrulloCASELLA POSTALE 1412300149 Roma RM
Line ordering may not be changed.
Japan
Main article: Japanese addressing system
Example in Japanese
Romanized, Japanese order
Format
(日本国)〒112-0001東京都文京区白山4丁目3番2号3階B号室田中花子 様
(Nippon-koku)〒112-0001Tōkyō-to, Bunkyō-ku, Hakusan-4-chōme, 3-ban, 2-gō,3-kai, B-gōshitsuTanaka Hanako sama
Country name (Japan)
Postal code
Address line(from larger to smaller division)
Recipient
English, in Western order
Ms. Hanako Tanaka
3rd Fl. Rm. B
4-3-2 Hakusan
Bunkyō-ku, Tōkyō 112-0001
(Japan)
Recipient
Address line (secondary unit)
Address line (sub-municipal level)
Municipal, prefecture names and postal code
Country name (Japan)
Japanese
Romanized
Anglicized
Postal code
112-0001
Prefecture-level division
東京都
Tōkyō-to
Tokyo (Prefecture)
Municipal-level subdivision
文京区
Bunkyō-ku
Bunkyo (Ward)
Land-lot number
白山4丁目3番2号
Hakusan-4-chōme 3-ban 2-gō
4-3-2 Hakusan (Neighborhood)
Secondary unit
3階B号室
3-kai B-gōshitsu
3rd Fl. Rm. B
Name of the recipient
田中花子 様
Tanaka Hanako sama
Ms. Hanako Tanaka
A Japanese postal address, when written in Japanese phonetic and Chinese characters, starts with the largest geographical division, continues with progressively smaller subdivisions before ending with the addressee, i.e. country, prefecture, town, chōme, banchi, building number, building name, floor number, company name, addressee. This is the most common addressing format used when mailing within Japan. It is common practice to add the appropriate honorific to the addressee's name, e.g. 様 for a private individual or 御中 for a company or institution.
When written in the Latin alphabet, the address begins with the smallest geographical area and ends with the largest one as in the Anglicized example in the table. Macrons (as on ō and ū) may be omitted.
Japanese-style envelopes are vertically aligned and the address is written from top to bottom, then right to left. Western-style envelopes are horizontally aligned and the address is written from left to right, top to bottom.
Latvia
In Latvia, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Address Type
Format
Example
Rural Area
Addressee Name Street Name, House Number, Flat Number or House Name Village (if applicable) Parish (if applicable) Amalgamated Municipality Postal Code
Andris LapaLiepu iela 1ĒrberģeMazzalves pag.Neretas nov.LV-5133
Urban Area
Addressee Name Street Name, House Number, Flat Number City or Town Amalgamated Municipality (if applicable) Postal Code
Andris LapaJelgavas iela 1–12AizputeAizputes nov.LV-3456
Notes:
Each address element should be written on a separate line, starting with the more detailed element.
Including the addressee's name is not mandatory and the address can be considered complete without it.
In Latvian, the addressee's name should be provided in the dative case, i.e., Andrim Liepam. There are two generally accepted official salutation forms that can be used in front of the addressee's name: A.god. (with a man's name) or Ļ.cien. (with a man's or woman's name).
Indicate the full street name, house and flat number (if applicable). Separate house and flat number with a hyphen.
It is acceptable to abbreviate the parish (pag., abbreviation of pagasts) and amalgamated municipality (nov., abbreviation of novads).
The postal code consists of two capital letters (LV) and four digits separated with a hyphen.
For international mail the destination country must be indicated in block letters.
Further reference: Latvijas Pasts
Macao
The official languages of Macao are Cantonese and Portuguese. For domestic mail within Macau, the address may be written entirely in either Portuguese or Chinese. For overseas mail going out from Macau, the address may be written in the language of the destination country, provided that the city name and the country name are in English. However, for overseas mail from Macau to mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan or Singapore, the address may be written entirely in Chinese. While traditional Chinese characters are commonly used in Macau, simplified Chinese characters are also understood by Macau's postmen. Note that Macau does not use any postal codes.
An address written in Portuguese should begin with the street name and end with the area in Macau, as in the following example for domestic mail within Macau.
Format
Example
Name of addresseeStreet name, Street number, Name of building, Floor number, Flat number,Península de Macau for Macau Peninsula/Taipa for Taipa/Coloane for Coloane/Cotai for Cotai
Sr. João KuokRua de Macau, n.o 1, Edifício ABC, 2 andar, moradia C,Península de Macau
An address written in Chinese should begin with the largest unit and end with the smallest unit, as in the following example for a piece of domestic mail within Macau. Traditional Chinese characters are used in this example.
Format
Example
澳門半島澳門街1號ABC大廈2樓C室郭若昂先生
For mail to Macau from overseas, "Macau" should be added at the end of an address written in Portuguese, and "Macao" at the end of an address written in English; 澳門 should be added at the beginning of an address written in Chinese.
Malaysia
Main article: Addresses in Malaysia
Pos Malaysia recommends the following formats:
Address Type
Format
Example
Residential
Salutation, Name of recipient Unit number, Street name Residential area Postcode Post office/Mail centre State (optional) Country
Mr. Zack Ahmad11 Jalan Budi 1Taman Budiman42700 BANTINGSELANGORMALAYSIA
Business
Salutation, Name of recipient Name of Position & Department (if applicable) Company name Unit/Lot number, Building name/Commercial area Lot number (for building), Street name Postcode Post office/Mail centre State (optional) Country
Dato' S.M. Nasrudin Managing Director Capital Shipping Bhd. Lot 323, 1st Floor, Bintang Commercial Centre 29 Jalan Sekilau 81300 JOHOR BAHRU JOHOR MALAYSIA
Business + Post Office Box /Locked Bag /Counter Deposit Ticket
Salutation, Name of recipient Name of Position & Department (if applicable) Company name Unit/Lot number, Building name/Commercial areaLot number (for building), Street namePostcode, Post office/Mail centreP.O. Box numberPostcode of P.O. Box, Post office/Mail centre of P.O. BoxCountry
Ms. Jenny ChanCOOTarget Insurance BrokersLevel 2, Principal Towers11 Jalan Sultan Ismail50250 KUALA LUMPUR P.O. BOX 1007350704 KUALA LUMPUR MALAYSIA
Notes:
The Country line MALAYSIA is always omitted when mailing from within Malaysia.
The State line is strictly optional, the mailing system will not be affected if the State line is omitted.
The Post office/Mail centre field is the name of the town/city which post office/mail centre jurisdiction covers the mailing address, and in several cases, may not be the actual town/city which the address is geographically located.
It is recommended to have the Post office/Mail centre written in block letters, e.g. KUALA LUMPUR.
The postcode is always in the 5-digit format and must correspond to the respective post office / mail centre. Further information: Postal codes in Malaysia
Pos Malaysia allows usage of P.O. Box for both residential and business addresses. Whenever a P.O. Box address is used, its respective postcode and post office/mail centre must be written on the last line of an address. If both postcodes are present (original and P.O. Box), mail will be sent to the P.O. Box on its first attempt.
Mexico
In Mexico, Correos de México recommends the following formats:
Address Type
Format
Example
Personal
Recipient's NameStreet Type and Name + NumberSettlement Type and NamePostal Code + Locality (Optional), Municipality, Federal Entity
Alejandro RamírezC. Francisco I. Madero No. 115Col. Nuevo Casas Grandes Centro31700 Nuevo Casas Grandes, Chih.
Business
Recipient's NameCompany Department or Position within Company (Optional)Company NameStreet Type and Name + NumberSettlement Type and NamePostal Code + Locality (Optional), Municipality, Federal Entity
Ing. Juan Rodríguez AltamiranoFarmacéutica AltamiranoAv. Durango No. 264 Int. 1Col. Primer Cuadro81200 Los Mochis, Ahome, Sin.
Apartado Postal,Lista de Correosor Poste Restante
Recipient's Name Company Department or Position within Company (Optional) Company NameDelivery Method + NumberPostal AdministrationPost Office's Postal Code + Locality (Optional), Municipality, Federal Entity
Daniel González OrtizApartado Postal A44Administración PostalCalvillo20801 Calvillo, Ags.Esteban Martínez HernándezLista de CorreosAdministración PostalEsperanza85211 Cajeme, Son.Esperanza Rodríguez DomínguezPoste RestanteAdministración PostalBermejillo35231 Mapimí, Dgo.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Name(Businesspark name etc.)Street + number or Postbus (P.O.Box number)Postal code + townCountry - Optional
Jan JansenBoschdijk 10925627 BX EINDHOVENNETHERLANDS
The postal code is a unique street identifier, and always consists of four numbers followed by a space and then two capital letters. PostNL, which is appointed by the Dutch government to carry out the UPD (Dutch for Universal Postal Service), recommends putting two spaces between postal code and town. Also, the name of the town should be written in capitals.
Because the Dutch postal code uniquely identifies a street, a shortened format may also be used. This method only needs the postal code and the number. The ideal format for this method is the number after the postal code, meaning that this: '5627 BX 1092' will still get the letter delivered to the correct location.
It is also possible to replace the street name line with a PO box (e.g. "postbus 1200") or freepost number (e.g. "antwoordnummer 150"), which have their own postal code.
Further information: Category:Postal system of the Netherlands
New Zealand
Main article: Postcodes in New Zealand § Examples
In New Zealand, New Zealand Post recommends the following format:
Format
Example
Recipient name Flat number/House number Street address or PO Box number Suburb or RD Number or PO Box lobby name (if not the same as the town/city)Town/City Postcode
Mr John Smith 43 Vogel Street Roslyn Palmerston North 4414
Note that no space or full stops exists between P and O in PO Box or R and D in RD. One should put only one space between the town/city and the postcode.
Note for Wellington metropolitan area, users should use the city name (i.e. Wellington, Lower Hutt, Upper Hutt, Porirua), not the metropolitan area name. For example:
Incorrect
Correct
Correct
1 Molesworth Street Taita Wellington 5011
1 Molesworth Street Taita Lower Hutt 5011
1 Molesworth Street Thorndon Wellington 6011
The city in this case is important, as if Wellington is used instead of Lower Hutt and the postcode is unclear (note only the first digit differs), someone's private mail could accidentally be sent to the New Zealand Parliament Buildings instead (or vice versa).
One anomaly about this system is the Wellington Mail Centre, which is addressed as Wellington Mail Centre, Lower Hutt 5045, due to its location in the Lower Hutt suburb of Petone.
Norway
Postal addresses in Norway are formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Recipient (Person or Entity)Street Name + NumberPostal Code + Postal Town
Kari NormannStorgata 81A6415 Molde
The first line, Recipient (Person or Entity), is the legal recipient of the item being sent. The Recipient's name must be marked on the Recipient's mail box in order for the item to be delivered.
Flat or floor number is not part of Norwegian postal addresses.
The postal code (always four digits) is mandatory. If a PO box is used (e.g. Postboks 250 Sentrum), it replaces Street name + Number. PO box addresses have postal codes which differ from those used for street addresses. Some areas do not have street names. For these areas, Street name + Number is replaced by a local designation determined by the Norwegian postal service.
Oman
In the Sultanate of Oman (2012), the address is formatted as follows:
Format
Example
NameStreet number + house numberBlock numberAreaCity
Way 2259, 2919Block 222Murtafaat Al QurmMuscat
Physical addresses only exist in major urban centers like those of Greater Muscat, Sohar, Salalah, Sur and Nizwa.
Pakistan
The format used in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
Official Addresses
Format
Example
NameStreet Number, Street NameUnion Council, TownCITY NAMEDistrict NamePostal Code (PIN)Province
Muhammad Abdullah Umar 15, M. A. Jinnah RoadKharadar, SaddarKarachiKarachi District457700Sindh
Peru
In Peru, addresses in the Metropolitan Area of Lima and Callao are generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
NameStreet name, numberApartment (if needed)DistrictPostal code
Roberto PradaJuan de Aliaga 230Dpto 12 Magdalena del MarLima 17
Addresses elsewhere in the country are formatted as follows:
Format
Example
NameStreet name, numberApartment (if needed)DistrictCity (province)
Camilo RadaAv. del Ejército 450Dpto 5 YanahuaraArequipa
Philippines
Main article: Postal addresses in the Philippines
The Philippines follows Western conventions on addressing. Addresses in the Philippines either uses these formats.
Origin
Destination
Format
Example
Within Metro Manila
Addressee
Street number Street name
Barangay/Administrative district
ZIP Code City (in capitals)
Mr. Juan Dela Cruz
123 Rizal Ave., Santa Cruz
1014 MANILA
Outside Metro Manila
To Metro Manila
Addressee
Street Number, Street Name, Barangay/Administrative district, City/Municipality
Postcode METRO MANILA
Mr. Juan Maliksi
121 Epifanio Delos Santos Ave., Wack-wack Greenhills, Mandaluyong
1550 METRO MANILA
or
Mr. Juan Dela Cruz
123 Rizal Ave., Santa Cruz, Manila
1014 METRO MANILA
To provinces
Addressee
Street number Street name, Barangay/Administrative district, City/Municipality
Postcode Name of Province (in capitals)
Mr. Joel Magalang
23 MacArthur Hwy., San Matias, Santo Tomas
2020 PAMPANGA
To residential area (including purok/sitio)/subdivision
House number, Street name, Subdivision/Residential area
Barangay/Administrative district, City/Municipality
Postcode Metro Manila/Province name (in capitals)
Ms. Joanna Dela Cruz
B11-L20 Genesis St., San Lorenzo South Subdivision
Malitlit, Santa Rosa
4026 LAGUNA
or
Mr. Juan Galang
10 Saint John St., Purok 7
San Nicolas 1st, Guagua
2003 PAMPANGA
Poland
In Poland, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Example (PO box)
First name & surname of addresseeand/or company name & departmentul. Street name + house (building) number / flat numberor al. Avenuename + house (building) number / flat numberor pl. Squarename + house (building) number / flat numberor Smalltown/Village name + house numberPostal code + City or townCountry name (optional)
Jan Kowalskiul. Wiejska 4/600-902 WARSZAWAPOLAND (POLSKA)
Jan Kowalskiskrytka pocztowa nr 26660-700 POZNAŃ 2
ul. = Str (Street)
al. = Ave (Avenue)
pl. = Sq (Square, or Circus)
Some streets have names not containing the word "street". Then the full description is written with initial caps, e.g. "Zaułek Marii" (Court of Mary) or "Aleje Ujazdowskie" (plural for Ujazdowskie Ave.). If the first word of name is "Aleje" it may be abbreviated to "Al." (with initial capital).
The abbreviation "m." (meaning "mieszkanie" = "flat") can be used instead of "/" before the flat number.
Some large buildings occupy two or more cadastral plots. Sometimes to maintain consistency all numbers are included in address. The very well-known example is the address of Polish Radio Three: "ul. Myśliwiecka 3/5/7" (occupying three neighbouring plots). In examples like in above table the number "4/6" is ambiguous and not knowing the locality you cannot tell if "6" is the apartment number or the building is large.
When using a p.o. box the abbreviation "skr. poczt." may be used and "nr" (no.) may be omitted. Polish Post allows the box user to register an alias for their name. In such case it is written instead of the real name of the recipient. It is required to write the full name of post office including a number if it exists.
The postal code always consists of five digits separated with a hyphen (in the "XX-XXX" format), i.e. 00-486 (00 = Warsaw); 20-486 (20 = Lublin), etc. The first digit signifies the postal district, the second: the code zone, the third: the code sector, the fourth and fifth signify the post office and its area of operation. Usually the code is unique on the street level for cities and the town level for smaller towns and villages. Contrary to popular belief the name after postal code is a locality of addressee, not their post office. So if a small town has no street names you do write its name twice. The post office location (and a number if there are many) is written only on letters to p.o. box or poste restante.
There is a strong recommendation to use all caps in the line with postal code and city.
Portugal
Portuguese postal addresses is similar to continental European addresses:
Format
Example (manuscript)
Example (computer)
Example (PO Box)
Addressee Street name + Street number + door Postal code + Town Country
José Saramago Rua da Liberdade, 34, 2º Esq. 4000-000 Porto Portugal
José Saramago Rua da Liberdade 34 2 Esq 4000-000 Porto Portugal
José Saramago Apartado 1234 4000-000 Porto Portugal
Postal codes have the NNNN-NNN format. Street name and the number is traditionally separated by a comma, but nowadays CTT recommends just a blank space, or two blank spaces for extra clarity; this is to avoid OCR mistakes. The º after the number is the ordinal for floor number. Usually followed by "Esq." (Left, abbr from "Esquerdo") or "Dir." (Right, abbr from "Direito"), or an apartment letter (A, B, C, etc.). PO Boxes are called Apartado, followed by a number (e.g., Apartado 1001).
Qatar
In Qatar, Q-Post recommends the following format:
Format
Example
Name of addressee P.O. Box number Name of town Country
Mr. Ali Al-Matwi P.O. Box 1714 Doha Qatar
Not all of Qatar's roads and buildings are numbered, Q-Post doesn't deliver to any street addresses, and no postal codes are used in Qatar.
Romania
In Romania, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Examples
First name & surname of addressee and/or company name & departmentStreet Type*. (or abbreviation for street type) + Street Name + nr. (abbreviation for street number) + Number (for apartment buildings) bl. (abbreviation for building) + Building number + sc. (abbreviation for entrance) + Entrance number/letteret. (abbreviation for floor number) + Floor number + ap. (abbreviation for apartment number) + NumberCity/Village + jud. (abbreviation for county) / sector (city district – for residents of Bucharest) + County name / Sector number (in the case of Bucharest) + Postal codeCountry name (optional)
Mihail Ionescustr. Pacienței, nr. 9 bl. U13A, sc. Met. 7, ap. 96Victoria, jud. Brașov, 505722România
Gheorghe Codreanustr. Virtuții, nr. 44 București, sector 6, 313988România
According to NACREP – National agency for cadastral and real estate publicity (in Romanian ANCPI – Agenția Națională de Cadastru și publicitate imobiliară) in Romania there are 29 street types such as:
No.
Street Type
Abbreviation
Example
1
Alee
Al.
Aleea Lungulețu (or Al. Lungulețu with abbreviation)
2
Bulevard
Bd.
Bulevardul Unirii (or Bd-ul Unirii with abbreviation)
3
Cale
-
-
4
Canal
-
-
5
Cartier
-
-
6
Colonie
-
-
7
Curte
-
-
8
Drum
-
-
9
Fundac
-
-
10
Fundatură
-
-
11
Hotar
-
-
12
Intrare
Intr.
Intrarea Albinelor (or Intr. Albinelor with abbreviation)
13
Parc
-
14
Pasaj
-
-
15
Piață
-
-
16
Pietonal
-
-
17
Platou
-
-
18
Potecă
-
-
19
Prelungire
Prel.
Prelungirea Ferentari (or Prel. Ferentari with abbreviation)
20
Rampă
-
-
21
Scuar
-
-
22
Șir
-
-
23
Șosea
Șos.
Șoseaua Olteniței (or Șos. Olteniței with abbreviation)
24
Splai
Spl.
-
25
Stradă
Str.
Strada Lungă (or Str. Lungă with abbreviation)
26
Stradelă
-
-
27
Suiș
-
-
28
Trecere
-
-
29
Variantă
Var.
-
Russia
In Russia, the address must be written in Cyrillic or Latin alphabet, in usual format (from most specific to general).
Example:
Format
Cyrillic example
Latin example
Name of addressee
Street name, number, apartment/room
City/town/village
Raion (Sub-region)
Oblast (region)
Postal code
Country
Гусев Иван Сергеевич
ул. Победы, д. 20, кв. 29
пос. Октябрьский
Борский р-н
Нижегородская обл.
606480
Russia, Россия
Gusev Ivan
ul. Pobedy, d. 20, kv. 29
pos. Oktyabrskiy
Borskiy r-n
Nizhegorodskaya obl.
606480
RUSSIA
Note: sub-region and region/oblast names are void if the city is Moscow or Saint Petersburg or if it is sub-region administrative center.
Some neighbourhoods may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings face no named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, such as the historical center of Moscow, a "main" building may have the same number as one or more "subsidiary" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as, for example, ul. Lenina, d. 123 (that is, 123 Lenin St). An address may also cover one or more subsidiary buildings behind the main building, addressed as ul. Lenina, d. 123, str. 2 (123 Lenin St, Unit 2, where str. (abbreviation for строение, stroenie) means a 'subsidiary building'). In newer areas with more regular street plans, apartment buildings that face no named street may be designated with Cyrillic letters appended to the building number, such as 123-а, 123-б, etc., in alphabetic order.
In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, d. 123, kv. 56, that is, 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.
Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, the address could be written in Arabic or English in the following format:
Format
Example
Addressee Building Number + Street Name + Neighbourhood (if applicable) City + Postal code + Additional Numbers Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Mohammed Ali Al-Ahmed 8228 Imam Ali Road – Alsalam Neighbourhood Riyadh 12345-6789 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Serbia
Serbian postal addresses conform to rules similar to continental European rules:
Format
Example
Addressee Street name + Number Postal code + Town Country (if other than Serbia)
Petar Petrović Krunska 5 11000 Beograd
In addition to 5-digit postal code, another line can be added containing PAK, a six-digit number which encodes the town, street and house number section.
Singapore
In Singapore, SingPost recommends the following format for addresses:
Format
Example
Name of addresseeStreet number and nameName of town + Postcode
Ms. Tan Bee Soo16 Sandilands RoadSINGAPORE 546080SINGAPORE
Name of addresseeBlock number and street nameFloor – Apartment number + Building nameName of town + Postcode
Mr. M. RajendranBlk 35 Mandalay Road # 13–37 Mandalay Towers SINGAPORE 308215 SINGAPORE
Generally, the last line SINGAPORE is omitted when posting within the country. Addresses are usually written in the English language.
Slovakia
Common format in Slovakia:
Format
Example
Addressee (Name or Company) Company or Department or Landlord (if applicable) Street name + number Postal code + Town COUNTRY (if sent abroad)
Jozef Vymyslený Firma s.r.o. Nezábudková 3084/25 84545 Bratislava Slovensko
Postal codes are in the format "### ##" (i.e. 851 01 = Bratislava 5).
Street numbers can be written as orientation numbers (related to street) or descriptive numbers (unique within the town) or as a combination separated by a slash (descriptive/orientation). Descriptive numbers are also used within small villages that do not have named streets.
If the delivery is intended exclusively for a specific person at a company site, the address should begin with the individual's name and the company name should follow. The standard format of addresses enables anyone at the company to receive the delivery.
http://www.posta.sk/potrebujem/spravne-napisat-adresu ("How to write addresses correctly", in Slovak, with pictures)
Slovenia
Slovenia uses a four-digit postal number. The first digit indicates the area:
1xxx for Ljubljana
2xxx for Maribor
3xxx for Celje
4xxx for Kranj
5xxx for Nova Gorica
6xxx for Koper
7xxx not used
8xxx for Novo Mesto
9xxx for Murska Sobota
The simpler the code, the bigger the locality: 1000 Ljubljana, 2000 Maribor (big cities); 1310 Ribnica, 9250 Gornja Radgona (mid-sized towns); 4263 Bohinjska Bela, 8262 Krška vas (smaller settlements, including villages).
Some cities have more than one post office, thus having multiple postcodes (usually in the x1xx format). For example, Ljubljana which has a "general" postcode 1000, also has additional ones, ranging from 1101 to 1133 (for some reason, however, omitting 1103 and 1105), Kamnik has 1240 and 1241, etc. Albeit they exist, it is not necessary to use them – usually the "general" postcodes are used.
Format
Example
Street address
Company name and/orRecipient's nameStreet (road, place, etc.) + numberPostcode + Post town
Cvet, d. o. o.G. Janez Novak1Slovenska cesta 64 A2,32241 Spodnji Duplek
Locality address (places with unnamed streets)
Company name and/orRecipient's nameLocation (village, hamlet, etc.) + numberPostcode + Post town
Juha, s. p.Ga. Angela KovačPleterje 48922324 Kidričevo
PO Box address (poštni predal)4
Company name and/orRecipient's namep. p. + numberPostcode + Post town
Vino, d. d.Gdč. Marija Reparp. p. 121234 Mengeš
Special postcode holders5
Company namePostcode + Post town
Nova Ljubljanska banka1520 Ljubljana
Poste restante
Recipient's namePOŠTNO LEŽEČEPostcode + Post town
G. Peter ŠiljPOŠTNO LEŽEČE4270 Jesenice
^1 The abbreviations are: g. for gospod (Mr), ga. for gospa (Mrs), and gdč. for gospodična (Miss) – all always capitalized if in the beginning of the line.
^2 Numbers can have a suffix like A, B, C, etc.
^3 Common abbreviations are: c. for cesta (Street), and ul. for ulica (Road) – both always capitalised if in the beginning of the line.
^4 Bigger towns have special postcodes for PO Boxes in the xxx1 format, e.g. 1001 Ljubljana, 4001 Kranj.
^5 Big companies which receive large amounts of mail are designated their special postcodes in the x5xx format.
South Korea
Main article: Addresses in South Korea
Example in Korean
Romanized, in Korean order
Format
(대한민국)서울특별시 종로구 사직로9길 23,102동 304호홍길동 귀하30174
(Daehan-minguk)
Seoul-teukbyeolsi, Jongno-gu, Sajik-ro 9-gil 23,102-dong 304-ho
Hong Gil-dong gwiha
30174
Country name (South Korea)
Address line
(From larger to smaller division)
Recipient
Postal code
English, in Western order
English, alternative
Mr. Gil-dong Hong
Apt. 102–304
23 Sajik-ro 9-gil
Jongno-gu, Seoul 30174
(South Korea)
Mr. Gil-dong Hong
Bldg. 102 Unit 304
23 Sajik-ro 9-gil
Jongno-gu, Seoul 30174
(South Korea)
Recipient
Address line (secondary unit)
Address line (street level)
City, province names and postal code
Country name (South Korea)
Korean
Romanized
Anglicized
Provincial- or metropolitan-level division
서울특별시
Seoul-teukbyeolsi
Seoul (Special City)
County- or district-level subdivision
종로구
Jongno-gu
Jongno (District)
Street name and number
사직로9길 23
Sajik-ro 9-gil 23
23 Sajik-ro 9-gil (Road)
Secondary unit
102동 304호
102-dong 304-ho
Apt. 102–304(or, Bldg. 102 Unit 304)
Name of the recipient
홍길동 (귀하)
Hong Gil-dong (gwiha)
(Mr.) Gil-dong Hong
Postal code
30174
South Korea uses a system similar to Western addressing, but previously used a system similar to Japanese addressing. South Korean addresses start with the largest unit (country, province), as with other East Asian countries.
Spain
In Spain, the addresses are generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Recipient name Street type, name, number, storey and door Postal code and cityProvince
Sr. Francisco Ansó García Paseo de la Castellana, 185, 5ºB 29001 Madrid Madrid
5ºB means 5th floor (Spanish: quinto), door B. Also, there may be door number, printed as 1ª (primera-first). Suffixes "o" and "a" derives from Spanish words piso (floor) which is masculine and puerta (door) which is feminine.
Format
Example
Recipient name Street type, name, number, storey and door Postal code and cityProvince
Dña. Antonia Fernandez Garcia Av. de las Delicias, 14, 1º Dcha. 29001 Madrid Madrid
Some doors may be indicated with the abbreviations Izq. or Dcha., to indicate either left (Izquierda) or right (Derecha). Streets and avenues can be indicated with the abbreviations C. (for calle) and Av. (for avenida).
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka Post recommends the following format:
Format
Example
Name of addressee Street number and name Name of town Postcode Country
Mr. A. L. Perera 201 Silkhouse Street KANDY 20000 SRI LANKA
Sri Lanka uses a five-digit postal code. Generally, the last line SRI LANKA is omitted when posting within the country. Addresses are usually written in English and Sinhala.
Sweden
In Sweden, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
NameStreet name + numberPostal code + Post townCountry (if sent from abroad)
Anna BjörklundStorgatan 1112 01 StockholmSWEDEN
The postal code is always a five-digit number divided into groups of three and two (e.g. SE-414 73) with the prefix SE (ISO-code for Sweden) used only if sent from abroad. It is also possible to replace the street name line with a PO box (e.g. Box 51).
Switzerland
In Switzerland, the address is generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example (German)
Example (German with canton)
Example (French)
Example (French with canton)
Salutation Recipient name Street name and number Postal code, city and (if needed) cantonCountry (if sent abroad)
HerrnRudolf WeberMarktplatz 14051 BaselSwitzerland
FrauClaudia WeberSolothurnerstrasse 282544 Bettlach SOSwitzerland
MonsieurPierre DupontRue Pépinet 101003 LausanneSwitzerland
MadameSophie DupontRue du Marché 81556 Cerniaz VDSwitzerland
The canton abbreviation (SO, VD in the examples) is needed only for cities/town that have the same name but in another canton for example: Renens and Renan which were both, in the past, called Renens, the difference stays today and Renens is often mentioned as Renens VD.
Taiwan
Main article: Postal addresses in Taiwan
In Taiwan, addresses are regulated by the Department of Household Registration, while mails are handled by the Chunghwa Post. As a result, senders are required to write addresses in different formats in different situations.
Address Type
Format
Example
Chinese-language domestic mail, vertical sender
County or City Township, town, city or distinct Road or Street name Building numberSender FloorPostal codes
台 北 市 市 府 路王 ２小 號明 ２緘 樓１１０６０
Chinese-language domestic mail, vertical receiver
Postal codesReceiver County or City Township, town, city or distinct Road or Street name Building number Floor
１１０６０王 台小 北明 市收 市 府 路 ２ 號 ２ 樓
Chinese-language domestic mail, horizontal
Postal codesAddressName or Company
11060台北市信義區市府路2號2樓王小明收
English-language international mail
Name or CompanyNumber, Alley, Lane, Road/Street NameTownship and District, County and City, Postal codesCountry
Mr. Wang2F., No.2, Shifu Rd.Xinyi Dist., Taipei City 11060Taiwan
Complete address for Department of Household Registration, Ministry of Interior
Number, Alley, Lane, Road/Street Name, Neighbourhood, Village, Township and District, County and City
2F., No.2, Shifu Rd., Neighbourhood 8, Xicun Vil., Xinyi Dist., Taipei City, Taiwan
Thailand
Main article: Thai addressing system
In Thailand, address are generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Name Surname
House (building) number / Flat number
Sub-District, District
Province
Postal code
Country
Mr. Siam Rakchart
238/54 Phaithong Village
Bang Yai, Bang Yai
Nonthaburi
11140
Thailand
Turkey
Turkish addressing system is as follows:
Format
Example
Natural person Organisation and department or position (both optional) Neighbourhood or village Street name (if applicable) + Building name (if applicable) + Building number + Floor number (optional) + Flat number (if applicable) Postal code + Town (if applicable) + District (if applicable) + Province Country (for international mail)
AHMET KORKMAZ ETİLER MAH. BADEM SOK. TOPRAK APT. NO:13 K:4 D:8 34732 BEŞİKTAŞ / İSTANBUL TURKEY
Ukraine
Some neighbourhoods in Ukraine may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings don't face a named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, a "main" building may have the same number as one or more "subsidiary" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as vul. Bandery, d. 123 (123 Bandera St) An address may also cover one or more subsidiary buildings behind the main building, addressed as vul. Bandery, d. 123, bud. 2 (123 Bandera St, unit 2, where bud. (abbreviation for будинок, budynоk) means a '(subsidiary) building'). In newer areas with more regular street plans, apartment buildings that don't face a named street may be designated with Cyrillic letters appended to the building number, e.g. 123-а, 123-б, etc., in Cyrillic alphabetical order.
In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, bud. 123, kv. 56, i.e. 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.
Format
Cyrillic example
Latin example
Name of addressee
Street name, number, apartment/room
Village/city/town
Raion, Region
Postal code
Country
Петренко Іван Леонідович
вул. Шевченка, буд. 17
м. Біла Церква
Київська обл.
09117
Україна (UKRAINE)
Petrenko Ivan Leonidovych
vul. Shevchenka, bud. 17
m. Bila Tserkva
Kyivs'ka obl.
09117
UKRAINE
United Arab Emirates
In the United Arab Emirates, Emirates Post Group recommends the following format:
Format
Example
Name of addressee P.O. Box number Name of the Emirate Country
Mr. Ali Al-Matwi P.O. Box 1714 Dubai United Arab Emirates (UAE)
Not all of the roads and buildings in the UAE are numbered consistently and no postal codes are used in the United Arab Emirates. All mail by post are delivered only to PO boxes in the United Arab Emirates. If delivering to a street address it is customary to include recipient's telephone number should the delivery driver need to make a phone call to ascertain the address or let the recipient know that the package is already delivered.
United Kingdom
Further information: Postcodes in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the format specified by the postal operator Royal Mail is as follows:
Format
Example
Addressee's name Number supplement and street name Locality (only if required) POST TOWN POSTCODE
Mr A Smith 3a High Street Hedge End SOUTHAMPTON SO31 4NG
The locality is required only where its absence would cause ambiguity, for example where a post town or postcode district includes two streets with the same name. Royal Mail specifies that post towns should be written in block capitals. Until 1996 a postal county (or permitted abbreviation) was required after the post town, unless it was a special post town, for example London. The post town and postcode should each be on a separate line. Historically, each line of an address ended with a comma and was indented from the previous line. Royal Mail discourage this usage and specify that all lines should start from the same point and not be staggered or aligned to the centre. The postcode identifies, from left to right, increasingly smaller units of the postal delivery system. The first half of the postcode, known as the outward code, contains the postcode area and postcode district. The second half, known as the inward code, contains the postcode sector and postcode unit.
United States
Further information: United States Postal Service § Elements of addressing and preparing domestic mail
See also: Fire sign (address)
In the United States, addresses are generally formatted as follows:
Format
Example
Name of addresseeHouse number and street name + Apartment/Suite/Room number (if any)Name of post office + State abbreviation + ZIP code(typical handwritten format)
Jeremy Martinson, Jr.455 Larkspur Dr. Apt 23Baviera, CA 92908
Name of addresseeHouse number and street name +Apartment/Suite/Room number if anyName of post office + State abbreviation + ZIP+4 code(USPS-recommended format)
JEREMY MARTINSON JR455 LARKSPUR DR APT 23BAVIERA CA 92908‑4601
The street address line can take a number of alternate formats:
"GENERAL DELIVERY" marks the item to be held for pickup from the post office (see General delivery § United States)
Some street names are simply the names of highways, like "KY STATE HIGHWAY 625" (a Kentucky state highway), "INTERSTATE 55 BYP" (an auxiliary Interstate bypass), "FM 1200" (a "farm to market" road) or "LOOP 410".
In rural areas, mail is addressed according to the mail route rather than the physical street address. The street address line might be something like "RR 9 BOX 19-1A" (a "rural route", previously RFD or RD "rural delivery") "HC 68 BOX 23A" for "highway contract" routes (formerly "star routes") The physical street address may appear in the line above the "RR" line without hindering delivery. Since the nineties, the trend has been to replace rural-route addresses with conventional street addresses to aid 9-1-1 dispatchers. The new address is found using the USPS Locatable Address Conversion System.
In Hawaii and Southern California, some addresses have a hyphen in the street number, which should not be removed if matched to the ZIP+4 file. Almost all addresses in the New York City borough of Queens have hyphens, for example "123–45 QUEENS BLVD".
In Utah, some addresses are given in a grid style, where the "street name" consists of a cardinal direction, a number that is a multiple of 100, and an orthogonal cardinal direction. For example, "401 West 500 North" is on the grid in St. George, Utah, on the road West 500 North between its intersections with North 400 West and North 500 West.
In Wisconsin and northern Illinois, grid addresses are sometimes written as a sequence of numbers and directional letters, e.g. "N6W23001 BLUEMOUND RD".
In Puerto Rico, street addresses often include an urbanization or condominium name. The USPS allows for Spanish conventions on the island.
United States Virgin Islands street addresses sometimes include only an estate name or a street name with no number, and many street names do not have common suffixes like "Street" or "Road".
Notes:
Traditionally, only the United States Postal Service (USPS) has been permitted to deliver to a P.O. Box. For this reason the recipient may choose to insert their physical (aka street) address in the second line, expanding the complete address to four lines. Providing both allows a sender to ship via the USPS or via a private carrier. Some USPS facilities allow a user of a P.O. box to use the street address of the postal facility with the P.O. box number in the place of a suite number, in which case the user may receive packages from private carriers.
Mail will be delivered to the line immediately above the city, state, ZIP code line.
The state and type of street, e.g. Lane, is often abbreviated as shown in the PO standard.
The USPS discourages the use of all punctuation except the hyphen in ZIP+4 codes, slashes in fractional addresses (e.g. 123 1/2 Main Street), hyphenated street numbers, and periods in decimal addresses (e.g. the street name contains a decimal point). Hyphenated street numbers are common in the New York City borough of Queens, Hawaii, and Southern California; as well as the town of Fair Lawn, New Jersey; see house numbering.
Sometimes the name of the town required by the United States Postal Service does not necessarily mean that address is within that city. See also ZIP codes and previous zoning lines. The reason is that the USPS establishes ZIP Codes to maximize the efficiency of its system, not to recognize jurisdictional boundaries.
In some other cases, the boundaries of towns as recognized by the U.S. Postal Service are much smaller than the area within the city limits. For one example, mail to much of the city of Los Angeles cannot be addressed to "Los Angeles".
The U.S. Postal Service does not recognize "New York City" as a valid postal address. "New York" is a valid postal address only for Manhattan; mail to the city's other boroughs must be addressed with the borough name or, in Queens, with the neighborhood name associated with the recipient's ZIP Code.
The USPS prefers that territories be addressed in the standard domestic format (e.g. "San Juan PR 00907") but in practice territory names are sometimes written as if they are a country (e.g. "San Juan 00907 Puerto Rico").
International United States Department of State mail will use "DPO" as the city; military mail will use "APO" or "FPO". Both use "AE", "AP", or "AA" in place of the state code, depending on the continent.
Three independent countries with a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. (Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia) have their own domestic government-run mail services, but are integrated into the USPS addressing and ZIP code system. (See United States Postal Service#International services.)
Vietnam
In Vietnam, addresses are generally formatted as follows:
Format
Vietnamese example
English example
Name of addressee (if needed, name of the head of the family)House number and street nameWard or townDistrictCityProvinceCountry (if sent from abroad)
Lê Văn Bình (mẹ là Lý Thị Hoa), số 123A Trần Hưng Đạo,phường Nguyễn Du, quận Hai Bà Trưng, thành phố Hà Nội
Mr Lê Văn Bình (mother is Lý Thị Hoa)number 123A Trần Hưng Đạo street,Nguyễn Du ward,Hai Bà Trưng district,Hà Nội city,Việt Nam
Notes:
Name of province is optional for municipalities and provinces which name are the same with their city counterparts.
See also
Delivery point
Fire sign (address)
Geocode
Handwritten Address Interpretation (HWAI)
Human geography
Japanese addressing system
National Land and Property Gazetteer
service d'adresse mondial (sedamo) or worldwide address service
References
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^ a b c Royal Mail, Address Management Guide, (2004)
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^ 911 Bringing New Names, Addresses For Rural Routes The Change Is Necessary To Help 911 Dispatchers Get Emergency Help To The Scene Quickly, A Luzerne County Official Says, Times Leader, October 3, 1998
^ a b LACSLink and Rural Routes Converted to 9-1-1 Addresses
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^ City of Houston Annexation FAQ
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Further reading
Mask, Deirdre (2020). The Address Book. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 9781250134790.
Tantner, Anton (2015). House Numbers: Pictures of a Forgotten History. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781780235189.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Address (geography).
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Frank's compulsive guide to postal addresses
Universal Postal Union Archived 24 July 2009 at the Portuguese Web Archive Postal addressing systems by country
ISO TC 154 ISO Technical Committee 154 on Processes, data elements and documents in commerce, industry and administration
United States Postal Service Address Guidelines
Authority control databases: National
Israel
United States
Japan | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Address (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lit_up_address.webp"},{"link_name":"Illuminated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illumination_(lighting)"},{"link_name":"political boundaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border"},{"link_name":"street names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_name"},{"link_name":"house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_number"},{"link_name":"postal code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_code"},{"link_name":"mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail"},{"link_name":"postal system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail"},{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance"}],"text":"For other uses, see Address (disambiguation).Illuminated address to see better at nightAn address is a collection of information, presented in a mostly fixed format, used to give the location of a building, apartment, or other structure or a plot of land, generally using political boundaries and street names as references, along with other identifiers such as house or apartment numbers and organization name. Some addresses also contain special codes, such as a postal code, to make identification easier and aid in the routing of mail.Addresses provide a means of physically locating a building. They are used in identifying buildings as the end points of a postal system and as parameters in statistics collection, especially in census-taking and the insurance industry. Address formats are different in different places, and unlike latitude and longitude coordinates, there is no simple mapping from an address to a location.","title":"Address"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"House numbering § History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_numbering#History"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mask-1"},{"link_name":"age of Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"},{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"Maria Theresa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Theresa"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mask-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mask-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mask-1"},{"link_name":"Navajo Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_Nation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"voter disenfranchisement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voter_disenfranchisement"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mask-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia"},{"link_name":"Eircode's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eircode"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Further information: House numbering § HistoryUntil the 18th and 19th centuries, most houses and buildings were not numbered.[1]\nStreet naming and numbering began under the age of Enlightenment, also as part of campaigns for census and military conscription, such as in the dominions of Maria Theresa in the mid 18th century.[1]\nNumbering allowed the efficient delivery of mail, as the postal system evolved in the 18th and 19th centuries to reach widespread usage.[1]Comprehensive addressing of all buildings is still incomplete, even in developed countries.[1] For example, the Navajo Nation in the United States was still assigning rural addresses as of 2015[2][3] and the lack of addresses can be used for voter disenfranchisement in the USA.[1][4] In many cities in Asia, most minor streets were never named, and this is still the case today in much of Japan. Over a third of addresses in Ireland shared their address with at least one other property at the time of the Eircode's introduction in 2015.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Current addressing schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"grid plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_plan"},{"link_name":"block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_block"},{"link_name":"cardinal directions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_directions"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mocoplanning-6"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"}],"sub_title":"House numbering or naming","text":"In most English-speaking countries, the usual method of house numbering is an alternating numbering scheme progressing in each direction along a street, with odd numbers on one side (often west or south or the left-hand side leading away from a main road) and even numbers on the other side, although there is significant variation on this basic pattern. Many older towns and cities in the UK have \"up and down\" numbering where the numbers progress sequentially along one side of the road, and then sequentially back down the other side. Cities in North America, particularly those planned on a grid plan, often incorporate block numbers, quadrants (explained below), and cardinal directions into their street numbers, so that in many such cities, addresses roughly follow a Cartesian coordinate system.[6] Some other cities around the world have their own schemes.Although house numbering is the principal identification scheme in many parts of the world, it is also common for houses in the United Kingdom and Ireland to be identified by name, rather than number, especially in villages. In these cases, the street name will usually follow the house name. Such an address might read: \"Smith Cottage, Frog Lane, Barchester, Barsetshire, BZ9 9BA\" or \"Dunroamin, Emo, Co. Laois, Ireland\" (fictional examples).","title":"Current addressing schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_plane"}],"sub_title":"Quadrants","text":"In cities with Cartesian-coordinate-based addressing systems, the streets that form the north–south and east–west dividing lines constitute the x and y axes of a Cartesian coordinate plane and thus divide the city into quadrants. The quadrants are typically identified in the street names, although the manner of doing so varies from city to city. For example, in one city, all streets in the northeast quadrant may have \"NE\" prefixed or suffixed to their street names, while in another, the intersection of North Calvert Street and East 27th Street can be only in the northeast quadrant.","title":"Current addressing schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Street names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_name"},{"link_name":"North American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Edmonton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"numbered sequentially","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbered_street"},{"link_name":"Numbered streets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbered_street"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Thomas Holme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Holme"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Salt Lake City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_Lake_City"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah"},{"link_name":"Detroit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"Mile Road System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mile_Road_System_(Detroit)"},{"link_name":"Continental Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Europe"},{"link_name":"Middle East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"}],"sub_title":"Street-naming conventions","text":"Street names may follow a variety of themes. In many North American cities, such as San Francisco, USA, and Edmonton, Alberta and Vancouver, British Columbia, streets are simply numbered sequentially across the street grid. Numbered streets originated in the United States in Philadelphia by Thomas Holme who laid out the original plan for the city in 1683. Washington, D.C. has its numbered streets running north–south and lettered or alphabetically named streets running east–west, while diagonal avenues are typically named after states. In Salt Lake City, and many other Utah cities, streets are in a large grid and are numbered in increments of 100 based on their location relative to the center of the city in blocks. A similar system is in use in Detroit with the Mile Road System. In some housing developments in North America and elsewhere, street names may all follow the same theme (for example, bird species), or start with the same letter. Streets in Continental Europe, the Middle East, and Latin America are often named after famous people or significant dates.","title":"Current addressing schemes"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Postal codes","text":"Postal codes are a relatively recent development in addressing, designed to speed the sorting and processing of mail by assigning unique numeric or alphanumeric codes to each geographical locality.","title":"Current addressing schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"post office boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box"},{"link_name":"service addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_address"},{"link_name":"poste restante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poste_restante"}],"sub_title":"Postal alternatives to physical addresses","text":"For privacy and other purposes, postal services have made it possible to receive mail without revealing one's physical address or even having a fixed physical address. Examples are post office boxes, service addresses and poste restante (general delivery).","title":"Current addressing schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Write_Your_Address_Clearly_1958_The_British_Postal_Museum_%26_Archive.jpg"},{"link_name":"James Fitton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fitton_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"postal code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_code"},{"link_name":"Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne"},{"link_name":"ISO 3166","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166"},{"link_name":"CH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"East Asian addressing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=East_Asian_addressing_system&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_addressing_system"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addresses_in_South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Taiwanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_addresses_in_Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Latin script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script"},{"link_name":"EN ISO 3166-1 alpha-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-1_alpha-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Write Your Address Clearly, public service poster, James Fitton (1958)In most of the world, addresses are written in order from most specific to general, i.e. finest to coarsest information, starting with the addressee and ending with the largest geographical unit. For example:[7]In English-speaking countries, the postal code usually comes last. In much of Europe, the code precedes the town name, thus: \"1010 Lausanne\". Sometimes, the ISO 3166 country code is placed in front of the postal code: \"CH-1010 Lausanne\".[8]If a house number is provided, it is written on the same line as the street name; a house name is written on the previous line. When addresses are written inline, line breaks are replaced by commas. Conventions on the placing of house numbers differ: either before or after the street name. Similarly, there are differences in the placement of postal codes: in the UK, they are written on a separate line at the end of the address; in Australia, Canada and the United States, they usually appear immediately after the state or province, on the same line; in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany and The Netherlands they appear before the city, on the same line.East Asian addressing systems, including Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese addressing systems, when written in their native scripts, use the big-endian order, from the largest geographical area to the smallest geographical area, followed by the recipient's name. However, both have the same order as western countries when written in the Latin script. The Hungarian system also goes from large to small units, except that the name of the addressee is put into the first line.The Universal Postal Convention strongly recommends the following:\"The addressee's address shall be worded in a precise and complete manner. It shall be written very legibly in roman letters and Arabic numerals. If other letters and numerals are used in the country of destination, it shall be recommended that the address be given also in these letters and numerals. The name of the place of destination and the name of the country of destination shall be written in capital letters together with the correct postcode number or delivery zone number or post office box number, if any. The name of the country of destination shall be written preferably in the language of the country of origin. To avoid any difficulty in the countries of transit, it is desirable for the name of the country of destination to be added in an internationally known language. Designated operators may recommend that, on items addressed to countries where the recommended position of the postcode is in front of the name of the location of destination, the postcode should be preceded by the EN ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code followed by a hyphen. This shall in no way detract from the requirement for the name of the destination country to be printed in full.\"[9]","title":"Address format"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"postal code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Argentina"}],"sub_title":"Argentina","text":"In Argentina, an address must be mailed this way:The postal code has been changed from a four digit format to an eight digit format, which is shown in the example. The new format adds a district or province letter code at the beginning, which allows it to be identified. As the system has been changed recently, the four digit format can still be used: in that case it is necessary to add the name of the province or district.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"suburb or locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbs_and_localities_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"postcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcodes_in_Australia"},{"link_name":"List of localities in Victoria (Australia)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_localities_in_Victoria_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"List of Melbourne suburbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Melbourne_suburbs"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburbs_and_localities_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"business park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_park"},{"link_name":"Australian Post Addressing Guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//auspost.com.au/personal/addressing-guidelines.html"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"In common with the rest of the English-speaking world, addresses in Australia put the street number—which may be a range—before the street name, and the placename before the postcode. Unlike addresses in most other comparable places, the city is not included in the address, but rather a much more fine-grained locality is used, usually referred to in Australia as a suburb or locality – although these words are understood in a different way than in other countries. Because the suburb or town serves to locate the street or delivery type, the postcode serves only as routing information rather than to distinguish previous other parts of an address. As an example, there are around 8,000 localities in Victoria (cf. List of localities in Victoria (Australia) and List of Melbourne suburbs), yet around 700 unique geographic postcodes.[10] For certain large volume receivers or post offices, the \"locality\" may be an institution or street name. It is always considered incorrect to include the city or metropolis name in an address (unless this happens to be the name of the suburb), and doing so may delay delivery.Australia Post recommends[11] that the last line of the address should be set in capital letters. In Australia, subunits are essential and should be separated from the street by two spaces; apartments, flats and units are typically separated with a forward slash (/) instead.Apartment, flat and unit numbers, if necessary, are shown immediately prior to the street number (which might be a range), and, as noted above, are separated from the street number by a forward slash. These conventions can cause confusion. To clarify, 3/17 Adam Street would mean Apartment 3 (before the slash) at 17 Adam Street (in the case of a residential address) or Unit 3 at 17 Adam St (in the case of a business park). On the other hand, 3–17 Adam Street would specify a large building (or cluster of related buildings) occupying the lots spanning street numbers 3 to 17 on one side of Adam St (without specifying any particular place within the buildings). These forms can be combined, so 3/5–9 Eve Street signifies Apartment 3 (before the slash) in a building which spans street numbers 5 to 9 on one side of Eve Street.As in the US, the state/territory is crucial information as many placenames are reused in different states/territories; it is usually separated from the suburb with two spaces and abbreviated. In printed matter, the postcode follows after two spaces; in handwritten matter, the postcode should be written in the boxes provided.In addition to PO Boxes, other delivery types (which are typically abbreviated) may include:Australian Post Addressing GuidelinesIn rural areas, \"Property numbers are worked out based on the distance from the start of the road to the entrance of the property. That distance (in metres) is divided by ten. Even numbers are on the right and odd numbers are on the left. For example: the entrance to a property 5,080 metres from the start of the road on the right hand side becomes number 508. The start of the road is determined as the fastest and safest road accessed from the nearest major road or town. Rural road maps are being drawn up to define the name, the start point and direction of every rural road.\"[12]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"}],"sub_title":"Austria","text":"In Austria, the address is generally formatted as follows:The postal code always consists of four digits.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh"}],"sub_title":"Bangladesh","text":"In Bangladesh, the format used for rural and urban addresses is different.Urban AddressesThe postal code always consists of four digits.Rural Addresses","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic alphabetical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script"},{"link_name":"microraion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microraion"},{"link_name":"Belposhta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080916160728/http://www.belpost.by/info/postage/address/"}],"sub_title":"Belarus","text":"In Belarus, some neighbourhoods may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings don't face a named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, a \"main\" building may have the same number as one or more \"subsidiary\" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as vul. Lenina, d. 123 (123 Lenin St) An address may also cover one or more subsidiary buildings behind the main building, addressed as vul. Lenina, d. 123, bud. 2 (123 Lenin St, unit 2, where bud. (abbreviation for будынак, budynak) means a '(subsidiary) building'). In newer areas with more regular street plans, apartment buildings that do not face a named street may be designated with Cyrillic letters appended to the building number, e.g. 123-а, 123-б, etc., in Cyrillic alphabetical order.In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, d. 123, kv. 56, i.e. 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.Source: Belposhta","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"UPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPU"},{"link_name":"Universal Postal Union – Postal addressing systems in member countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.upu.int/en/activities/addressing/postal-addressing-systems-in-member-countries.html"},{"link_name":"bpost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bpost"},{"link_name":"bpost - Lettres & cartes - Envoi - Comment addresser ?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130420085220/http://www.bpost.be/site/fr/residential/letters-cards/send/best_practices.html"}],"sub_title":"Belgium","text":"In Belgium, the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (postcode and town for domestic mail or country for cross border mail.)\nSpatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.The street number is placed after the thoroughfare name (unlike in France), separated by a space. Separators such as punctuation (point, comma or other signs) or \"nº\", or \"nr\" are not allowed. Extension designation (box numbers), if present, appears in the delivery point location line, preceded by the word for \"box\" (bus in Dutch, bte in French). Symbols such as b, Bt, #, -, / are not allowed as separators between the street number element and the box number element.Examples of a correctly formatted postal address:The Belgian addressing guidelines are registered with the Universal Postal Union (UPU and see the link Universal Postal Union – Postal addressing systems in member countries). These guidelines indicate exactly how to combine the various address components in order to obtain a correctly formatted postal address.The complete set of addressing guidelines can be found on the website of the Belgian postal operator (bpost). The correct representation of an address is not limited to the correct structure of address components but also relates to the content of addresses and their position on envelopes (see bpost - Lettres & cartes - Envoi - Comment addresser ? (in French)).It is also possible to validate a Belgian postal address on bpost's website and to receive feedback on the content and the format of an address.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States_of_Brazil"},{"link_name":"São Paulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_(state)"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"}],"sub_title":"Brazil","text":"In Brazil, an address must be written this way:States can have their name written in full, abbreviated in some way, or totally abbreviated to two letters (SP = São Paulo, RJ = Rio de Janeiro, etc.).Only towns with 60,000 inhabitants and above have postal codes individualized for streets, roads, avenues, etc. One street can have several postal codes (by odd/even numbers side or by segment). These postcodes range from -000 to -899. Other towns have only a generic postcode with the suffix -000. Recipients of bulk mail (large companies, condos, etc.) have specific postcodes, with a suffix ranging from -900 to -959. P.O. boxes are mailed to Correios offices, with suffixes ranging from -970 to -979. Some rural settlements have community postboxes with suffix -990.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Latin script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_script"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Arabic numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals"},{"link_name":"Bulgarian Posts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Posts"},{"link_name":"UPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPU"},{"link_name":"Universal Postal Union – Postal addressing systems in member countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.upu.int/en/activities/addressing/postal-addressing-systems-in-member-countries.html"},{"link_name":"Български пощи","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bgpost.bg/bg/487"},{"link_name":"Български пощи","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20190609135205/http://www.bgpost.bg/bg/487"},{"link_name":"Български пощи","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bgpost.bg/bg/17"}],"sub_title":"Bulgaria","text":"Similar to Belgium and most other European countries, in Bulgaria the address starts with the most specific information (addressee individual identification) and ends with the most general information (town and postcode for domestic mail or country for cross border (international) mail.)\nSpatial information of a physical address (including building, wing, stairwell, floor and door) may be useful for internal path of delivery, but is not allowed in the delivery point location line (i.e. the line containing street, number and box number). If needed, this information will appear on a line above the delivery point location line.The street number is placed after the thoroughfare name (unlike in France), separated by a space and the symbol 'No. '. Separators such as punctuation (point, comma or other signs) are allowed if needed. Extension designation (box numbers), if present, appears in the delivery point location line, preceded by the word for \"box\" (\"П.К. {numeral}\", \"П. К. {numeral}\", or \"Пощенска кутия {numeral}\"). Symbols such as #, -, / are not strictly disallowed as separators between the street number element and the box number element. Note that there may sometimes be a confusion between П.К. (пощенски код, postal code (of the local post office)) and П.К. (пощенска кутия, P.O. (post office box), the individual physical P.O. box of a specific address or a subscription-based physical P.O. box inside a post-office branch).The convention is that the addressee's information is written on the bottom right portion of the letter. The sender's information is written either on the top left portion of the letter or on the top reverse side of the letter (except for parcel packages).Domestic post letters, parcels and postal money transfers are written in Bulgarian Cyrillic while the international postal letters and parcels are written in the Latin script (usually in English due to its global usage) with Arabic numerals.Apart delivering mail and parcel packages to individual addresses, the Bulgarian Posts also delivers to local post offices (which then notify the recipient that he/she has mail to collect from the post office; so-called до поискване (letters on demand/request)) or to a subscription mailbox within a local post office.Examples of a correctly formatted postal address:Format for mail exchange between private individuals (между частни абонати):Format for letters and parcel packages ON REQUEST (до поискване):Format for mail and parcel exchange between business partners (между бизнес-партньори):Format for letters and parcel packages ON REQUEST (до поискване):Format for mail and parcel sending to an individual subscription mailbox within a local office of Bulgarian Posts (до абонаментна кутия):Format for letters and parcel packages ON REQUEST (до поискване):The Bulgarian postal addressing guidelines are registered with the Universal Postal Union (UPU and see the link Universal Postal Union – Postal addressing systems in member countries). These guidelines indicate exactly how to combine the various address components in order to obtain a correctly formatted postal address.The complete set of addressing guidelines can be found on the website of the Bulgarian postal operator (Bulgarian Posts). The correct representation of an address is not limited to the correct structure of address components but also relates to the content of addresses and their position on envelopes (see Български пощи (Български пощи) (in Bulgarian)).It is also possible to validate a Bulgarian postal address on Bulgarian Posts' website and to receive feedback on the content and the format of an address. More information can be found at (see Български пощи (in Bulgarian)).","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"provincial abbreviations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_postal_abbreviations_for_provinces_and_territories#Names_and_abbreviations"},{"link_name":"Postal codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Canada Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Post"},{"link_name":"OQLF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_de_la_langue_fran%C3%A7aise"},{"link_name":"Canada Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Post"},{"link_name":"Addressing Guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.canadapost.ca/tools/pg/manual/PGaddress-e.asp"},{"link_name":"Office québécois de la langue française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_de_la_langue_fran%C3%A7aise"},{"link_name":"Adressage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//vitrinelinguistique.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/index.php?id=23415"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"Addressing guidelines can differ between English- and French-speaking populations in Canada. Here are some formatting rules that are used in common:Cardinal directions like North, North West, etc. can be abbreviated in either English or French, and appear after the street name. Ordinal numbered streets (e.g. 6th, 2nd) can be written in either English or French.\nIf there is an apartment number it should be written before the house number and separated by a hyphen.\nName of city or town followed by two letter provincial abbreviations\nPostal codes come in a letter-number-letter-space-number-letter-number format, for example: A1A 1A1. There should be two spaces between the province abbreviation and the postal code.\nIf sending a parcel from outside Canada, the word \"CANADA\" must be placed at the very bottom.See the example below for a comparison of the English and French address formats:English (from Canada Post):NICOLE MARTIN\n123 SHERBROOKE ST\nTORONTO ON L3R 9P6French (from the OQLF):Monsieur Jean-Pierre Lamarre\n101–3485, rue de la Montagne\nMontréal (Québec) H3G 2A6See Canada Post's Addressing Guidelines for accurate, up-to-date information on the addressing guidelines most commonly used in Canada.\nSee the Office québécois de la langue française's Adressage webpage (in French only) for more information about how to write an address according to guidelines used in Quebec and other French-speaking areas.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chilean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_Chile"}],"sub_title":"Chile","text":"Chilean urban addresses require only the street name, house number, apartment number (if necessary) and municipality; however, more information is frequently included, such as commune (neighbourhood or town) and region. Postal codes are rarely included by people. All postal codes have seven digits, the first three indicating the municipality, the next four identifying a block or in large and scarcely populated areas a quadrant within the municipal territory.The territories of most of the larger cities comprise several adjacent municipalities, so it is important to mention it.Smaller cities often consist of only one municipality with several unofficial comunes (neighborhoods) that are usually mentioned even for official addressing purposes.Several large and mostly rural municipalities contain more than one small town, in such cases, the recipient address must mention either the town, the postal code or both.In other towns or rural communities there are no house numbers and addresses are generally identified by company name followed by only a street name follow by some reference point.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Simplified Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_character"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guobiao_chinese_address-13"},{"link_name":"Universal Postal Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Postal_Union"},{"link_name":"China Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Post"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chinese_address_in_english-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guobiao_chinese_address-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chinese_address_in_english-14"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"In mainland China, the postal area when written in Chinese characters (preferably Simplified Chinese characters), has the big-endian order, which means that the Chinese-language address is written from the largest geographical area to the smallest geographical area.[13] The Chinese-language address format is:Province, prefecture-level city, district or county (sometimes omitted), township or town or subdistrict (often omitted), village or community (usually omitted), road name, road number, building name, floor/level, room numberHowever, as a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU), China Post also supports UPU's English-language address in the little-endian order, which means that English-language address is written from the smallest geographical area to the largest geographical area.[14] The English-language address format is:Room number, floor/level, building name\nroad number, road name, village or community (usually omitted), township or town or subdistrict (often omitted)\ndistrict or county (sometimes omitted), prefecture-level city\npostcode and province\n\ncountry nameChinese domestic letters only support Chinese-language address in the big-endian order. The example is:[13]The international letters to China support English-language address in the little-endian order. The example is:[14]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"}],"sub_title":"Colombia","text":"In Colombia the address format uses a numeric format based on calles which increase the number from south to north and carreras which increase the number from east to west.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Croatian Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrvatska_po%C5%A1ta"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Croatia","text":"Croatian Post recommends the following format:[15]Croatia uses five-digit postal code numbers. The Croatian postal service recommends using 2-letter ISO country codes as prefixes before international and domestic postal codes, though the practice is not mandatory.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"house numbering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_numbering"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"How to correctly address mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ceskaposta.cz/en/rady-a-navody/jak-spravne-nadepsat-zasilku"}],"sub_title":"Czech Republic","text":"Common format in the Czech Republic:Postal codes are in the format \"### ##\" (i.e. 158 00 = Prague 58) or \"CZ-#####\" (especially for international mail). On pre-printed Czech postcards and envelopes, the postal code is written on a separate last row in boxes for each number. If the envelope doesn't have pre-printed rows and boxes, the postal code should be before the town (or post office) name.On private letters, the first line is usually constituted by a courtesy title (pan, paní, slečna, žák...) For private mails addressed to the workplace, the order is (name + company), while in official mails it is (company + name).The basic system of house numbering uses conscription[clarification needed] house numbers (čísla popisná, čp. or č. p.). For a temporary or recreational house[clarification needed], an evidentional[clarification needed] house number (číslo evidenční, ev. č. or če., or distinguished by initial 0 or E prefix) is used instead. In most larger cities and also in some towns and large villages with street names, there is a double system of house numbering. The first number is the conscription or evidentional number (which corresponds to the chronological order of cadastral registration of the house), and the second number (after a slash) is the orientational number (orientační číslo, č. or., č. o.) which expresses the position in the street. Sometimes only one of the two numbers is used, or the numbers are used in reverse order, and it can be difficult to distinguish which number is which. Generally, orientation numbers (if they exist) are preferred for mail services.How to correctly address mail","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of postal codes in Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_postal_codes_in_Denmark&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"}],"sub_title":"Denmark","text":"Further information: List of postal codes in DenmarkIn Denmark, apartment buildings will usually have two or three apartments per floor. Thus, if the addressee lives in an apartment, the address should contain the floor they live on, and a side (t.v., mf. or t.h., meaning \"to the left\", \"in the middle\" and \"to the right\", respectively) or an alphanumeric character (1, 2, 3... or A, B, C...= starting from left seen from the top most step just before the floor).Also, for postal codes 2000 and up, there is a 1:1 relationship between postal code and town.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"}],"sub_title":"Estonia","text":"In Estonia, use the following format.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"}],"sub_title":"Finland","text":"In Finland, if a person's name is written before the company name in the address field of a letter, then that person is considered the recipient. In this case, no other employee is allowed to open the letter but the indicated recipient. If the company name is before the person's name, then the company is the recipient and any employee is allowed to open the letter.The apartment number can formatted as \"as 5\" (as is an abbreviation for asunto, apartment) or as \"C 55\" (the letter indicates the correct staircase in apartment blocks with several entrances.)Finland uses a five-digit postal code. Note that some larger companies and organizations have their own postal codes.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"CEDEX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEDEX_(France)"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"In France, the address is generally formatted as follows:The postal code always consists of five digits. The location is usually a town, but may be other territorial entities (up to a département)Organisations, government agencies, and companies which receive large amounts of mail often have a special CEDEX address which goes after the last line (for instance, \"75001 PARIS CEDEX\").","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Baltrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltrum"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Post"},{"link_name":"DPAG's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Post_AG"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"In Germany, the address is generally formatted as follows:The postal code always consists of five digits.\nOrganizations that receive large amounts of mail may be assigned a bulk customer postal code. These are different from regular postal codes in that they do not have a street name line. Some bulk customer postal codes are shared between several organizations.\nThere are a few places that have house numbers but no street names (e.g. Baltrum) as well as addresses that have a street name but no house number.\nSome (but not all) private post companies are also able to deliver to Deutsche Post-operated P.O. boxes.\nPost codes follow the structure of DPAG's mail routing, not administrative boundaries.\nEach post code is used exclusively for street addresses, P.O. boxes or bulk recipients.\nSub-building information, such as apartment numbers, is rarely used—a name on the post box is usually the only method of identification of an addressee within a building.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hellenic Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Post"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"post code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Greece"},{"link_name":"Hellenic Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Post"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"}],"sub_title":"Greece","text":"Hellenic Post recommends the following format for Greek addresses:[17]The most widespread format, shown above, gives on the last line the recipient's five-digit post code (with a single space between the third and fourth digits) and the name of the town or village that is the base of a post office, in capital letters and separated from the postcode by two spaces. When sending mail abroad, or when sending mail from abroad to Greece, Hellenic Post recommends the following format:[18]As with domestic mail, mail sent from abroad must contain the postcode in the same manner, but the postcode must be preceded by the international prefix of the country of delivery (for Greece, GR). Below the destination, the country of delivery must be written in capital letters, either in English or French (for Greece, GRÈCE or GREECE).","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"official languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_language"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Macao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macao"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_character"},{"link_name":"simplified Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_character"},{"link_name":"Traditional Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_character"}],"sub_title":"Hong Kong","text":"The official languages of Hong Kong are Chinese and English. For domestic mail within Hong Kong, the address may be written entirely in either Chinese or English. For overseas mail going out from Hong Kong, the address may be written in the language of the destination country, provided that the city name and the country name are in English.[19] However, for an overseas mail from Hong Kong to Mainland China, Macao, Taiwan or Singapore, the address may be written entirely in Chinese. While traditional Chinese characters are commonly used in Hong Kong, simplified Chinese characters are also understood by Hong Kong's postmen. Note that Hong Kong does not use any postal codes, though many rural properties have a property identification code, e.g. HKT-12345.An address written in English should begin with the smallest unit and end with the largest unit, as in the following example for a domestic mail within Hong Kong.An address written in Chinese should begin with the largest unit and end with the smallest unit, as in the following example for a piece of domestic mail within Hong Kong. Traditional Chinese characters are used in this example.For mail to Hong Kong from overseas, \"Hong Kong\" should be added at the end of an address written in English, and 香港 should be added at the beginning of an address written in Chinese.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"}],"sub_title":"Hungary","text":"In Hungarian mail addresses, the city/town name precedes the street address. The post code then comes after the street address.Hungarian family names precede given names in Hungarian. In this example, Kis is the family name.Sometimes a district number might appear after the name of the city/town.Various abbreviations might appear in the precise street/building address: for instance, specifying the street type (út, utca, krt., tér, etc.), or em. for emelet (floor), or hrsz for helyrajzi szám (which means Land Registry number, or lot number), or fszt for földszint (ground floor) and so on.The postal code consists of four digits.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of postal codes in Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postal_codes_in_Iceland"},{"link_name":"Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland"}],"sub_title":"Iceland","text":"Further information: List of postal codes in IcelandIn Iceland, the following format is used.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"In India, multiple formats are used.General AddressThe format used for rural and urban addresses is different.Rural AddressesUrban AddressesThe state is optional in both cases, but is typically used.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"administrative divisions of Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Indonesia"}],"sub_title":"Indonesia","text":"In Indonesia, the address format is as follows:Generally Jalan or Jl. means 'street' and should be written before the street name, e.g. Jalan Cemara. For more about Indonesian administrative divisions, see administrative divisions of Indonesia.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"}],"sub_title":"Iran","text":"Postal addresses in Iran have a standard which should be used by mail or parcel senders. This standard is registered and qualified by the Universal Postal Union (UPU). According to the below table, Iran has 4 types of standard address:","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq"}],"sub_title":"Iraq","text":"In Iraq, the following format is used:","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republic of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Eircodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.eircode.ie"},{"link_name":"county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"post town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_town"},{"link_name":"townland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townland"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-An_Post-21"}],"sub_title":"Ireland","text":"In July 2015, the Republic of Ireland introduced Eircodes, a seven digit alphanumeric code, consisting of a 3 character routing key and a 4 character unique identifier for the property. Example A65 F4E2. Up until the introduction of Eircodes Dublin was the only county with a form of postal district identifier; these have been incorporated into the Eircode scheme. For example, Dublin 2 is routing code D02.Rural addresses are specified by the county, nearest post town, and the townland. Urban addresses are specified by county, city or town name, street name, house number, and apartment or flat number where relevant. A house name may be used instead of a number. The Eircode is appended to the bottom of the address.[21]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"}],"sub_title":"Israel","text":"In Israel, the Universal Postal Union recommends the following:In apartment buildings the building number should appear first and then the apartment number separated by a \"/\". In the below example, \"16\" is the building number while \"20\" is the apartment number:Example of common address with building entrance and apartment number:OrA seven digit postal code for all addresses was introduced in 2013 which can cover an entire locality for a small town or village. In bigger cities postal areas are divided along streets and neighbourhoods.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"}],"sub_title":"Italy","text":"A domestic address in Italy must be composed of three to five rows. Up to six rows can be used for international mail:Line ordering may not be changed.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"}],"sub_title":"Japan","text":"A Japanese postal address, when written in Japanese phonetic and Chinese characters, starts with the largest geographical division, continues with progressively smaller subdivisions before ending with the addressee, i.e. country, prefecture, town, chōme, banchi, building number, building name, floor number, company name, addressee. This is the most common addressing format used when mailing within Japan. It is common practice to add the appropriate honorific to the addressee's name, e.g. 様 for a private individual or 御中 for a company or institution.When written in the Latin alphabet, the address begins with the smallest geographical area and ends with the largest one as in the Anglicized example in the table. Macrons (as on ō and ū) may be omitted.Japanese-style envelopes are vertically aligned and the address is written from top to bottom, then right to left. Western-style envelopes are horizontally aligned and the address is written from left to right, top to bottom.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia"},{"link_name":"dative case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dative_case"},{"link_name":"Latvijas Pasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.pasts.lv/lv/uzzinas/adrese/"}],"sub_title":"Latvia","text":"In Latvia, the address is generally formatted as follows:Notes:Each address element should be written on a separate line, starting with the more detailed element.\nIncluding the addressee's name is not mandatory and the address can be considered complete without it.\nIn Latvian, the addressee's name should be provided in the dative case, i.e., Andrim Liepam. There are two generally accepted official salutation forms that can be used in front of the addressee's name: A.god. (with a man's name) or Ļ.cien. (with a man's or woman's name).\nIndicate the full street name, house and flat number (if applicable). Separate house and flat number with a hyphen.\nIt is acceptable to abbreviate the parish (pag., abbreviation of pagasts) and amalgamated municipality (nov., abbreviation of novads).\nThe postal code consists of two capital letters (LV) and four digits separated with a hyphen.\nFor international mail the destination country must be indicated in block letters.Further reference: Latvijas Pasts","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"official languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_language"},{"link_name":"Macao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macau"},{"link_name":"Cantonese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"mainland China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"simplified Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"Traditional Chinese characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"}],"sub_title":"Macao","text":"The official languages of Macao are Cantonese and Portuguese. For domestic mail within Macau, the address may be written entirely in either Portuguese or Chinese. For overseas mail going out from Macau, the address may be written in the language of the destination country, provided that the city name and the country name are in English. However, for overseas mail from Macau to mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan or Singapore, the address may be written entirely in Chinese. While traditional Chinese characters are commonly used in Macau, simplified Chinese characters are also understood by Macau's postmen. Note that Macau does not use any postal codes.An address written in Portuguese should begin with the street name and end with the area in Macau, as in the following example for domestic mail within Macau.An address written in Chinese should begin with the largest unit and end with the smallest unit, as in the following example for a piece of domestic mail within Macau. Traditional Chinese characters are used in this example.For mail to Macau from overseas, \"Macau\" should be added at the end of an address written in Portuguese, and \"Macao\" at the end of an address written in English; 澳門 should be added at the beginning of an address written in Chinese.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pos Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pos_Malaysia"},{"link_name":"Postal codes in Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_codes_in_Malaysia"},{"link_name":"Pos Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pos_Malaysia"}],"sub_title":"Malaysia","text":"Pos Malaysia recommends the following formats:Notes:The Country line MALAYSIA is always omitted when mailing from within Malaysia.\nThe State line is strictly optional, the mailing system will not be affected if the State line is omitted.\nThe Post office/Mail centre field is the name of the town/city which post office/mail centre jurisdiction covers the mailing address, and in several cases, may not be the actual town/city which the address is geographically located.\nIt is recommended to have the Post office/Mail centre written in block letters, e.g. KUALA LUMPUR.\nThe postcode is always in the 5-digit format and must correspond to the respective post office / mail centre. Further information: Postal codes in Malaysia\nPos Malaysia allows usage of P.O. Box for both residential and business addresses. Whenever a P.O. Box address is used, its respective postcode and post office/mail centre must be written on the last line of an address. If both postcodes are present (original and P.O. Box), mail will be sent to the P.O. Box on its first attempt.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Correos de México","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correos_de_M%C3%A9xico"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"In Mexico, Correos de México recommends the following formats:[22]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"PostNL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostNL"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Dutch postal code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_postal_code"},{"link_name":"freepost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freepost"},{"link_name":"Category:Postal system of the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Postal_system_of_the_Netherlands"}],"sub_title":"Netherlands","text":"In the Netherlands, the address is generally formatted as follows:The postal code is a unique street identifier, and always consists of four numbers followed by a space and then two capital letters. PostNL, which is appointed by the Dutch government to carry out the UPD (Dutch for Universal Postal Service), recommends putting two spaces between postal code and town. Also, the name of the town should be written in capitals.[23]Because the Dutch postal code uniquely identifies a street, a shortened format may also be used. This method only needs the postal code and the number. The ideal format for this method is the number after the postal code, meaning that this: '5627 BX 1092' will still get the letter delivered to the correct location.It is also possible to replace the street name line with a PO box (e.g. \"postbus 1200\") or freepost number (e.g. \"antwoordnummer 150\"), which have their own postal code.Further information: Category:Postal system of the Netherlands","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"New Zealand Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Post"},{"link_name":"Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington"},{"link_name":"New Zealand Parliament Buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Parliament_Buildings"},{"link_name":"Petone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petone"}],"sub_title":"New Zealand","text":"In New Zealand, New Zealand Post recommends the following format:Note that no space or full stops exists between P and O in PO Box or R and D in RD. One should put only one space between the town/city and the postcode.Note for Wellington metropolitan area, users should use the city name (i.e. Wellington, Lower Hutt, Upper Hutt, Porirua), not the metropolitan area name. For example:The city in this case is important, as if Wellington is used instead of Lower Hutt and the postcode is unclear (note only the first digit differs), someone's private mail could accidentally be sent to the New Zealand Parliament Buildings instead (or vice versa).One anomaly about this system is the Wellington Mail Centre, which is addressed as Wellington Mail Centre, Lower Hutt 5045, due to its location in the Lower Hutt suburb of Petone.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"}],"sub_title":"Norway","text":"Postal addresses in Norway are formatted as follows:The first line, Recipient (Person or Entity), is the legal recipient of the item being sent. The Recipient's name must be marked on the Recipient's mail box in order for the item to be delivered.Flat or floor number is not part of Norwegian postal addresses.The postal code (always four digits) is mandatory. If a PO box is used (e.g. Postboks 250 Sentrum), it replaces Street name + Number. PO box addresses have postal codes which differ from those used for street addresses. Some areas do not have street names. For these areas, Street name + Number is replaced by a local designation determined by the Norwegian postal service.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sultanate of Oman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Oman","text":"In the Sultanate of Oman (2012), the address is formatted as follows:[24]Physical addresses only exist in major urban centers like those of Greater Muscat, Sohar, Salalah, Sur and Nizwa.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"}],"sub_title":"Pakistan","text":"The format used in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.Official Addresses","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"}],"sub_title":"Peru","text":"In Peru, addresses in the Metropolitan Area of Lima and Callao are generally formatted as follows:Addresses elsewhere in the country are formatted as follows:","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"}],"sub_title":"Philippines","text":"The Philippines follows Western conventions on addressing. Addresses in the Philippines either uses these formats.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"Polish Radio Three","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polskie_Radio_Program_III"}],"sub_title":"Poland","text":"In Poland, the address is generally formatted as follows:ul. = Str (Street)\nal. = Ave (Avenue)\npl. = Sq (Square, or Circus)Some streets have names not containing the word \"street\". Then the full description is written with initial caps, e.g. \"Zaułek Marii\" (Court of Mary) or \"Aleje Ujazdowskie\" (plural for Ujazdowskie Ave.). If the first word of name is \"Aleje\" it may be abbreviated to \"Al.\" (with initial capital).The abbreviation \"m.\" (meaning \"mieszkanie\" = \"flat\") can be used instead of \"/\" before the flat number.Some large buildings occupy two or more cadastral plots. Sometimes to maintain consistency all numbers are included in address. The very well-known example is the address of Polish Radio Three: \"ul. Myśliwiecka 3/5/7\" (occupying three neighbouring plots). In examples like in above table the number \"4/6\" is ambiguous and not knowing the locality you cannot tell if \"6\" is the apartment number or the building is large.When using a p.o. box the abbreviation \"skr. poczt.\" may be used and \"nr\" (no.) may be omitted. Polish Post allows the box user to register an alias for their name. In such case it is written instead of the real name of the recipient. It is required to write the full name of post office including a number if it exists.The postal code always consists of five digits separated with a hyphen (in the \"XX-XXX\" format), i.e. 00-486 (00 = Warsaw); 20-486 (20 = Lublin), etc. The first digit signifies the postal district, the second: the code zone, the third: the code sector, the fourth and fifth signify the post office and its area of operation. Usually the code is unique on the street level for cities and the town level for smaller towns and villages. Contrary to popular belief the name after postal code is a locality of addressee, not their post office. So if a small town has no street names you do write its name twice. The post office location (and a number if there are many) is written only on letters to p.o. box or poste restante.There is a strong recommendation to use all caps in the line with postal code and city.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"CTT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTT_Correios_de_Portugal,_S.A."},{"link_name":"OCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_character_recognition"}],"sub_title":"Portugal","text":"Portuguese postal addresses is similar to continental European addresses:Postal codes have the NNNN-NNN format. Street name and the number is traditionally separated by a comma, but nowadays CTT recommends just a blank space, or two blank spaces for extra clarity; this is to avoid OCR mistakes. The º after the number is the ordinal for floor number. Usually followed by \"Esq.\" (Left, abbr from \"Esquerdo\") or \"Dir.\" (Right, abbr from \"Direito\"), or an apartment letter (A, B, C, etc.). PO Boxes are called Apartado, followed by a number (e.g., Apartado 1001).","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Qatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Q-Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-Post"}],"sub_title":"Qatar","text":"In Qatar, Q-Post recommends the following format:Not all of Qatar's roads and buildings are numbered, Q-Post doesn't deliver to any street addresses, and no postal codes are used in Qatar.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"ANCPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ancpi.ro?action=history"}],"sub_title":"Romania","text":"In Romania, the address is generally formatted as follows:According to NACREP – National agency for cadastral and real estate publicity (in Romanian ANCPI – Agenția Națională de Cadastru și publicitate imobiliară) in Romania there are 29 street types such as:","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"}],"sub_title":"Russia","text":"In Russia, the address must be written in Cyrillic or Latin alphabet, in usual format (from most specific to general).Example:[25]Note: sub-region and region/oblast names are void if the city is Moscow or Saint Petersburg or if it is sub-region administrative center.Some neighbourhoods may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings face no named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, such as the historical center of Moscow, a \"main\" building may have the same number as one or more \"subsidiary\" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as, for example, ul. Lenina, d. 123 (that is, 123 Lenin St). An address may also cover one or more subsidiary buildings behind the main building, addressed as ul. Lenina, d. 123, str. 2 (123 Lenin St, Unit 2, where str. (abbreviation for строение, stroenie) means a 'subsidiary building'). In newer [when?] areas with more regular street plans, apartment buildings that face no named street may be designated with Cyrillic letters appended to the building number, such as 123-а, 123-б, etc., in alphabetic order.In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, d. 123, kv. 56, that is, 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Saudi Arabia","text":"In Saudi Arabia, the address could be written in Arabic or English in the following format:[26][27][28]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia"}],"sub_title":"Serbia","text":"Serbian postal addresses conform to rules similar to continental European rules:In addition to 5-digit postal code, another line can be added containing PAK, a six-digit number which encodes the town, street and house number section.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"SingPost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SingPost"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Singapore","text":"In Singapore, SingPost recommends the following format for addresses:[29][30]Generally, the last line SINGAPORE is omitted when posting within the country. Addresses are usually written in the English language.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"descriptive numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_numbering"},{"link_name":"http://www.posta.sk/potrebujem/spravne-napisat-adresu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.posta.sk/potrebujem/spravne-napisat-adresu"}],"sub_title":"Slovakia","text":"Common format in Slovakia:Postal codes are in the format \"### ##\" (i.e. 851 01 = Bratislava 5).Street numbers can be written as orientation numbers (related to street) or descriptive numbers (unique within the town) or as a combination separated by a slash (descriptive/orientation). Descriptive numbers are also used within small villages that do not have named streets.If the delivery is intended exclusively for a specific person at a company site, the address should begin with the individual's name and the company name should follow. The standard format of addresses enables anyone at the company to receive the delivery.http://www.posta.sk/potrebujem/spravne-napisat-adresu (\"How to write addresses correctly\", in Slovak, with pictures)","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Ljubljana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljana"},{"link_name":"Maribor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maribor"},{"link_name":"Celje","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celje"},{"link_name":"Kranj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kranj"},{"link_name":"Nova Gorica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Gorica"},{"link_name":"Koper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koper"},{"link_name":"Novo Mesto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novo_Mesto"},{"link_name":"Murska Sobota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murska_Sobota"},{"link_name":"Ribnica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribnica,_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Gornja Radgona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gornja_Radgona"},{"link_name":"Bohinjska Bela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohinjska_Bela"},{"link_name":"Krška vas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C5%A1ka_Vas,_Bre%C5%BEice"},{"link_name":"Kamnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamnik"},{"link_name":"^1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_1"},{"link_name":"^2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_2"},{"link_name":"^3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_3"},{"link_name":"^4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_4"},{"link_name":"^5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_5"}],"sub_title":"Slovenia","text":"Slovenia uses a four-digit postal number. The first digit indicates the area:1xxx for Ljubljana\n2xxx for Maribor\n3xxx for Celje\n4xxx for Kranj\n5xxx for Nova Gorica\n6xxx for Koper\n7xxx not used\n8xxx for Novo Mesto\n9xxx for Murska SobotaThe simpler the code, the bigger the locality: 1000 Ljubljana, 2000 Maribor (big cities); 1310 Ribnica, 9250 Gornja Radgona (mid-sized towns); 4263 Bohinjska Bela, 8262 Krška vas (smaller settlements, including villages).Some cities have more than one post office, thus having multiple postcodes (usually in the x1xx format). For example, Ljubljana which has a \"general\" postcode 1000, also has additional ones, ranging from 1101 to 1133 (for some reason, however, omitting 1103 and 1105), Kamnik has 1240 and 1241, etc. Albeit they exist, it is not necessary to use them – usually the \"general\" postcodes are used.^1 The abbreviations are: g. for gospod (Mr), ga. for gospa (Mrs), and gdč. for gospodična (Miss) – all always capitalized if in the beginning of the line.^2 Numbers can have a suffix like A, B, C, etc.^3 Common abbreviations are: c. for cesta (Street), and ul. for ulica (Road) – both always capitalised if in the beginning of the line.^4 Bigger towns have special postcodes for PO Boxes in the xxx1 format, e.g. 1001 Ljubljana, 4001 Kranj.^5 Big companies which receive large amounts of mail are designated their special postcodes in the x5xx format.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"}],"sub_title":"South Korea","text":"South Korea uses a system similar to Western addressing, but previously used a system similar to Japanese addressing. South Korean addresses start with the largest unit (country, province), as with other East Asian countries.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"}],"sub_title":"Spain","text":"In Spain, the addresses are generally formatted as follows:5ºB means 5th floor (Spanish: quinto), door B. Also, there may be door number, printed as 1ª (primera-first). Suffixes \"o\" and \"a\" derives from Spanish words piso (floor) which is masculine and puerta (door) which is feminine.Some doors may be indicated with the abbreviations Izq. or Dcha., to indicate either left (Izquierda) or right (Derecha). Streets and avenues can be indicated with the abbreviations C. (for calle) and Av. (for avenida).","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sri Lanka Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Post"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka"},{"link_name":"Sinhala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhala_language"}],"sub_title":"Sri Lanka","text":"Sri Lanka Post recommends the following format:Sri Lanka uses a five-digit postal code. Generally, the last line SRI LANKA is omitted when posting within the country. Addresses are usually written in English and Sinhala.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"}],"sub_title":"Sweden","text":"In Sweden, the address is generally formatted as follows:The postal code is always a five-digit number divided into groups of three and two (e.g. SE-414 73) with the prefix SE (ISO-code for Sweden) used only if sent from abroad. It is also possible to replace the street name line with a PO box (e.g. Box 51).","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Renens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renens"},{"link_name":"Renan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renan,_Switzerland"}],"sub_title":"Switzerland","text":"In Switzerland, the address is generally formatted as follows:[31]The canton abbreviation (SO, VD in the examples) is needed only for cities/town that have the same name but in another canton for example: Renens and Renan which were both, in the past, called Renens, the difference stays today and Renens is often mentioned as Renens VD.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Chunghwa Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunghwa_Post"}],"sub_title":"Taiwan","text":"In Taiwan, addresses are regulated by the Department of Household Registration, while mails are handled by the Chunghwa Post. As a result, senders are required to write addresses in different formats in different situations.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"}],"sub_title":"Thailand","text":"In Thailand, address are generally formatted as follows:","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turkish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Turkey","text":"Turkish addressing system is as follows:[35]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic alphabetical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script"},{"link_name":"microraion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microraion"}],"sub_title":"Ukraine","text":"Some neighbourhoods in Ukraine may be planned in such a way that some, or most, apartment buildings don't face a named street. In this case, a number of expedients can be used. In older neighbourhoods, a \"main\" building may have the same number as one or more \"subsidiary\" buildings accessible via driveways behind the main building. They will be addressed as vul. Bandery, d. 123 (123 Bandera St) An address may also cover one or more subsidiary buildings behind the main building, addressed as vul. Bandery, d. 123, bud. 2 (123 Bandera St, unit 2, where bud. (abbreviation for будинок, budynоk) means a '(subsidiary) building'). In newer areas with more regular street plans, apartment buildings that don't face a named street may be designated with Cyrillic letters appended to the building number, e.g. 123-а, 123-б, etc., in Cyrillic alphabetical order.In some microraion neighbourhoods, with few, if any, buildings facing named streets, the name (or more likely number of the microraion (planned housing development)) would be used instead of the street name; thus someone may live at 4-th microrayon, bud. 123, kv. 56, i.e. 123 - 4th Microraion, apt. 56.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Arab Emirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"}],"sub_title":"United Arab Emirates","text":"In the United Arab Emirates, Emirates Post Group recommends the following format:Not all of the roads and buildings in the UAE are numbered consistently and no postal codes are used in the United Arab Emirates. All mail by post are delivered only to PO boxes in the United Arab Emirates. If delivering to a street address it is customary to include recipient's telephone number should the delivery driver need to make a phone call to ascertain the address or let the recipient know that the package is already delivered.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Postcodes in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcodes_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Royal Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Mail"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Royal_Mail-36"},{"link_name":"postal county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_counties_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"special post town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_post_town"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_postal_district"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Royal_Mail-36"},{"link_name":"postcode area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postcode_areas_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"postcode district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_postcode_districts_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Royal_Mail-36"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"Further information: Postcodes in the United KingdomIn the United Kingdom, the format specified by the postal operator Royal Mail is as follows:[36]The locality is required only where its absence would cause ambiguity, for example where a post town or postcode district includes two streets with the same name. Royal Mail specifies that post towns should be written in block capitals. Until 1996 a postal county (or permitted abbreviation) was required after the post town, unless it was a special post town, for example London. The post town and postcode should each be on a separate line. Historically, each line of an address ended with a comma and was indented from the previous line. Royal Mail discourage this usage and specify that all lines should start from the same point and not be staggered or aligned to the centre.[36] The postcode identifies, from left to right, increasingly smaller units of the postal delivery system. The first half of the postcode, known as the outward code, contains the postcode area and postcode district. The second half, known as the inward code, contains the postcode sector and postcode unit.[36]","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Postal Service § Elements of addressing and preparing domestic mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service#Elements_of_addressing_and_preparing_domestic_mail"},{"link_name":"Fire sign (address)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_sign_(address)"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"General delivery § United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_delivery#United_States"},{"link_name":"Kentucky state highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_state_highway"},{"link_name":"auxiliary Interstate bypass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bypass_(road)#United_States"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"RFD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_Free_Delivery"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"9-1-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9-1-1"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timesleader-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smarty-42"},{"link_name":"Locatable Address Conversion System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locatable_Address_Conversion_System"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smarty-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"cardinal direction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_direction"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"St. George, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George,_Utah"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"United States Virgin Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands"},{"link_name":"estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Administrative_divisions"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"United States Postal Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service"},{"link_name":"P.O. Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.O._Box"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Queens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Fair Lawn, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Lawn,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"house numbering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_numbering"},{"link_name":"United States Postal Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service"},{"link_name":"ZIP codes and previous zoning lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZIP_code#Preferred_place_names:_ZIP_Codes_and_previous_zoning_lines"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"Queens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"United States Department of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"military mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_mail"},{"link_name":"Compact of Free Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_of_Free_Association"},{"link_name":"Palau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palau"},{"link_name":"Marshall Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Islands"},{"link_name":"Federated States of Micronesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia"},{"link_name":"United States Postal Service#International services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service#International_services"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"Further information: United States Postal Service § Elements of addressing and preparing domestic mailSee also: Fire sign (address)In the United States, addresses are generally formatted as follows:The street address line can take a number of alternate formats:\"GENERAL DELIVERY\" marks the item to be held for pickup from the post office (see General delivery § United States)\nSome street names are simply the names of highways, like \"KY STATE HIGHWAY 625\" (a Kentucky state highway), \"INTERSTATE 55 BYP\" (an auxiliary Interstate bypass), \"FM 1200\" (a \"farm to market\" road) or \"LOOP 410\".[37]\nIn rural areas, mail is addressed according to the mail route rather than the physical street address. The street address line might be something like \"RR 9 BOX 19-1A\" (a \"rural route\", previously RFD or RD \"rural delivery\")[38] \"HC 68 BOX 23A\" for \"highway contract\" routes[39] (formerly \"star routes\")[40] The physical street address may appear in the line above the \"RR\" line without hindering delivery. Since the nineties, the trend has been to replace rural-route addresses with conventional street addresses to aid 9-1-1 dispatchers.[41][42] The new address is found using the USPS Locatable Address Conversion System.[42]\nIn Hawaii and Southern California, some addresses have a hyphen in the street number, which should not be removed if matched to the ZIP+4 file. Almost all addresses in the New York City borough of Queens have hyphens, for example \"123–45 QUEENS BLVD\".[43]\nIn Utah, some addresses are given in a grid style, where the \"street name\" consists of a cardinal direction, a number that is a multiple of 100, and an orthogonal cardinal direction.[44] For example, \"401 West 500 North\" is on the grid in St. George, Utah, on the road West 500 North between its intersections with North 400 West and North 500 West.\nIn Wisconsin and northern Illinois, grid addresses are sometimes written as a sequence of numbers and directional letters, e.g. \"N6W23001 BLUEMOUND RD\".[45][46]\nIn Puerto Rico, street addresses often include an urbanization or condominium name.[47] The USPS allows for Spanish conventions on the island.[48]\nUnited States Virgin Islands street addresses sometimes include only an estate name or a street name with no number, and many street names do not have common suffixes like \"Street\" or \"Road\".[49]Notes:Traditionally, only the United States Postal Service (USPS) has been permitted to deliver to a P.O. Box. For this reason the recipient may choose to insert their physical (aka street) address in the second line, expanding the complete address to four lines. Providing both allows a sender to ship via the USPS or via a private carrier. Some USPS facilities allow a user of a P.O. box to use the street address of the postal facility with the P.O. box number in the place of a suite number, in which case the user may receive packages from private carriers.[50]\nMail will be delivered to the line immediately above the city, state, ZIP code line.\nThe state and type of street, e.g. Lane, is often abbreviated as shown in the PO standard.\nThe USPS discourages the use of all punctuation except the hyphen in ZIP+4 codes,[51] slashes in fractional addresses (e.g. 123 1/2 Main Street), hyphenated street numbers, and periods in decimal addresses (e.g. the street name contains a decimal point).[52] Hyphenated street numbers are common in the New York City borough of Queens, Hawaii, and Southern California;[53] as well as the town of Fair Lawn, New Jersey; see house numbering.\nSometimes the name of the town required by the United States Postal Service does not necessarily mean that address is within that city. See also ZIP codes and previous zoning lines. The reason is that the USPS establishes ZIP Codes to maximize the efficiency of its system, not to recognize jurisdictional boundaries.[54]\nIn some other cases, the boundaries of towns as recognized by the U.S. Postal Service are much smaller than the area within the city limits. For one example, mail to much of the city of Los Angeles cannot be addressed to \"Los Angeles\".\nThe U.S. Postal Service does not recognize \"New York City\" as a valid postal address. \"New York\" is a valid postal address only for Manhattan; mail to the city's other boroughs must be addressed with the borough name or, in Queens, with the neighborhood name associated with the recipient's ZIP Code.\nThe USPS prefers that territories be addressed in the standard domestic format (e.g. \"San Juan PR 00907\")[55][56] but in practice territory names are sometimes written as if they are a country (e.g. \"San Juan 00907 Puerto Rico\").\nInternational United States Department of State mail will use \"DPO\" as the city; military mail will use \"APO\" or \"FPO\". Both use \"AE\", \"AP\", or \"AA\" in place of the state code, depending on the continent.\nThree independent countries with a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. (Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia) have their own domestic government-run mail services, but are integrated into the USPS addressing and ZIP code system. (See United States Postal Service#International services.)","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam"}],"sub_title":"Vietnam","text":"In Vietnam, addresses are generally formatted as follows:Notes:Name of province is optional for municipalities and provinces which name are the same with their city counterparts.","title":"Format by country and area"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781250134790","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781250134790"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781780235189","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780235189"}],"text":"Mask, Deirdre (2020). The Address Book. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 9781250134790.\nTantner, Anton (2015). House Numbers: Pictures of a Forgotten History. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781780235189.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Illuminated address to see better at night","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Lit_up_address.webp/220px-Lit_up_address.webp.png"},{"image_text":"Write Your Address Clearly, public service poster, James Fitton (1958)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Write_Your_Address_Clearly_1958_The_British_Postal_Museum_%26_Archive.jpg/220px-Write_Your_Address_Clearly_1958_The_British_Postal_Museum_%26_Archive.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Delivery point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delivery_point"},{"title":"Fire sign (address)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_sign_(address)"},{"title":"Geocode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocode"},{"title":"Handwritten Address Interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwritten_Address_Interpretation"},{"title":"Human geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_geography"},{"title":"Japanese addressing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_addressing_system"},{"title":"National Land and Property Gazetteer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Land_and_Property_Gazetteer"},{"title":"service d'adresse mondial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27adresse_mondial"}] | [{"reference":"Deirdre Mask (19 October 2018). \"Where the Streets Have No Names, the People Have No Vote\". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 October 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/19/opinion/sunday/north-dakota-addresses-voting-id.html","url_text":"\"Where the Streets Have No Names, the People Have No Vote\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181019210555/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/19/opinion/sunday/north-dakota-addresses-voting-id.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Navigating Navajo Nation Soon To Be Easier For Amazon, Ambulances\". NPR.org. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named_entity | Named entity | ["1 See also","2 References"] | This article may be in need of reorganization to comply with Wikipedia's layout guidelines. Please help by editing the article to make improvements to the overall structure. (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In information extraction, a named entity is a real-world object, such as a person, location, organization, product, etc., that can be denoted with a proper name. It can be abstract or have a physical existence. Examples of named entities include Barack Obama, New York City, Volkswagen Golf, or anything else that can be named. Named entities can simply be viewed as entity instances (e.g., New York City is an instance of a city).
From a historical perspective, the term Named Entity was coined during the MUC-6 evaluation campaign and contained ENAMEX (entity name expressions e.g. persons, locations and organizations) and NUMEX (numerical expression).
A more formal definition can be derived from the rigid designator by Saul Kripke. In the expression "Named Entity", the word "Named" aims to restrict the possible set of entities to only those for which one or many rigid designators stands for the referent. A designator is rigid when it designates the same thing in every possible world. On the contrary, flaccid designators may designate different things in different possible worlds.
As an example, consider the sentence, "Biden is the president of the United States". Both "Biden" and the "United States" are named entities since they refer to specific objects (Joe Biden and United States). However, "president" is not a named entity since it can be used to refer to many different objects in different worlds (in different presidential periods referring to different persons, or even in different countries or organizations referring to different people). Rigid designators usually include proper names as well as certain natural terms like biological species and substances.
There is also a general agreement in the Named Entity Recognition community to consider temporal and numerical expressions as named entities, such as amounts of money and other types of units, which may violate the rigid designator perspective.
The task of recognizing named entities in text is Named Entity Recognition while the task of determining the identity of the named entities mentioned in text is called Named Entity Disambiguation. Both tasks require dedicated algorithms and resources to be addressed.
See also
Named-entity recognition (also referred to as entity identification, entity chunking and entity extraction)
Entity linking (also referred to as named entity linking (NEL), named entity disambiguation (NED), named entity recognition and disambiguation (NERD) or named entity normalization)
Information extraction
Knowledge extraction
Text mining (also referred to as text data mining)
Truecasing
Apache OpenNLP
spaCy
General Architecture for Text Engineering
Natural Language Toolkit
References
^ Grishman, Ralph; Sundheim, Beth (1996). Design of the MUC-6 evaluation (PDF). TIPSTER '96 Proceedings.
^ Nadeau, David; Sekine, Satoshi (2007). A survey of named entity recognition and classification (PDF). Lingvisticae Investigationes.
^ Nouvel, Damien; Ehrmann, Maud; Rosset, Sophie (2015). Wiley (ed.). Named Entities for Computational Linguistics. ISBN 978-1-84821-838-3. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"information extraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_extraction"},{"link_name":"real-world object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_world_object"},{"link_name":"proper name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_name"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen Golf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Golf"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City"},{"link_name":"MUC-6 evaluation campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_Understanding_Conference"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"rigid designator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_designator"},{"link_name":"Saul Kripke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Kripke"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"flaccid designators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-rigid_designator"},{"link_name":"Joe Biden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Biden"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Named Entity Recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named_Entity_Recognition"},{"link_name":"Named Entity Recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named_Entity_Recognition"},{"link_name":"Named Entity Disambiguation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity_Linking"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"In information extraction, a named entity is a real-world object, such as a person, location, organization, product, etc., that can be denoted with a proper name. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Goleman | Daniel Goleman | ["1 Biography","2 Career","2.1 Awards","3 Publishing history","3.1 Books","3.2 Journal articles (selected)","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | American author and science journalist
Daniel GolemanGoleman at the 2011 WEFBorn (1946-03-07) March 7, 1946 (age 78)Stockton, California, U.S.OccupationPsychologist, WriterAlma materAmherst CollegeHarvard UniversitySpouseTara Bennett-GolemanWebsitedanielgoleman.info
Daniel Goleman (born March 7, 1946) is an American psychologist, author, and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. His 1995 book Emotional Intelligence was on The New York Times Best Seller list for a year and a half, a bestseller in many countries, and is in print worldwide in 40 languages. Apart from his books on emotional intelligence, Goleman has written books on topics including self-deception, creativity, transparency, meditation, social and emotional learning, ecoliteracy and the ecological crisis, and the Dalai Lama's vision for the future.
Biography
Daniel Goleman grew up in a Jewish household in Stockton, California, the son of Fay Goleman (née Weinberg; 1910–2010), professor of sociology at the University of the Pacific, and Irving Goleman (1898–1961), humanities professor at Stockton College (now San Joaquin Delta College). His maternal uncle was nuclear physicist Alvin M. Weinberg.
Goleman attended Amherst College, graduating magna cum laude. He also attended the University of California at Berkeley through Amherst's Independent Scholar program. He went on to earn a PhD in Clinical Psychology at Harvard University.
Goleman studied in India using a pre-doctoral fellowship from Harvard and a post-doctoral grant from the Social Science Research Council. While in India, he spent time with spiritual teacher Neem Karoli Baba, who was also the guru to Ram Dass, Krishna Das, and Larry Brilliant. He wrote his first book based on travel in India and Sri Lanka.
Goleman then returned as a visiting lecturer to Harvard, where during the 1970s his course on the psychology of consciousness was popular. David McClelland, his mentor at Harvard, recommended him for a job at Psychology Today, from which he was recruited by The New York Times in 1984.Daniel Goleman on 22 Oct 2009In 1993 Goleman co-founded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at Yale University's Child Studies Center, which then moved to the University of Illinois at Chicago. Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) the organization's mission is to introduce social and emotional learning into the education of students from preschool to high school. Social and emotional learning (SEL) entails the methods by which children and young adults develop and use the knowledge, attitudes, and abilities required to comprehend and regulate emotions, and accomplish constructive goals, empathize with others, form and sustain beneficial relationships, and make ethical choices. Goleman also co-founded Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations (CREIO) in 1996. The organization is dedicated to enhancing the understanding and application of emotional and social intelligence within organizations by fostering the creation and sharing of knowledge. Currently he co-directs the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University. He is on the board of the Mind & Life Institute.
Career
Goleman was a science journalist at the New York Times until 1996, covering psychology, emotions, and the brain. He was twice nominated for the Pulitzer Prize for his work at the Times. While there, he wrote the internationally bestselling book Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Books, 1995), which spent more than a year and a half on The New York Times Best Seller list.
Emotional intelligence diagram, Daniel Goleman's model.
Goleman gained widespread recognition for his contributions to the field of emotional intelligence, a notion that includes the abilities of self-awareness, managing one's own emotions, empathy, and social skills – essentially, how effectively we manage our emotions and understand the emotions of others. His book Emotional Intelligence has been translated into 40 languages globally and was celebrated by TIME magazine as one of the top 25 most pivotal books in the realm of business management.
In his first book, The Varieties of Meditative Experience (1977) (republished in 1988 as The Meditative Mind), Goleman describes almost a dozen different meditation systems. He wrote that "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in the recipe for altering consciousness of every meditation system".
In Working with Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Books, 1998), Goleman developed the argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as IQ for workplace success, and made a similar argument for leadership effectiveness in Primal Leadership (Harvard Business School Press, 2001). Goleman's most recent bestseller is Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence (Harper, 2013). In Goleman's Book Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence (Harper, 2013) he discusses the secret to success, and how mindfulness allows us to concentrate on what's important. Goleman explains that high achievers of mindfulness have mastered a "triple-focus," which encompasses three distinct types of attention: "inner," "other," and "outer." "Inner" focus is about self-awareness, "other" focus pertains to empathy, and "outer" focus involves an understanding of our surroundings. Goleman emphasizes that for business leaders, the practice of mindfulness is especially critical. The essence of leadership depends on the successful steering of the collective focus. This requires not only monitoring external developments relative to the organization but also engaging and guiding the focus of individuals both within and beyond the company's boundaries.
Awards
Goleman has received many awards, including:
Career Achievement award for Excellence in the Media (1984) from the American Psychological Association.
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in recognition of his efforts to communicate the behavioral sciences to the public
Washburn Award for Science Journalism in 1997
Ranked 39th on the 2011 Thinkers50
Centennial Medal from the Harvard Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in 2023
Publishing history
Books
Armenian: Cover of the Armenian edition of the book 'Emotional Intelligence' on 5 Jul 2021
1977: The Varieties of the Meditative Experience, Irvington Publishers. ISBN 0-470-99191-7. Republished in 1988 as The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience, Tarcher/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5
1985: Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of Self-Deception, Bloomsbury Publishers. ISBN 0684831074
1988: The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience. Tarcherperigee. ISBN 9780874778335
1995: Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-38371-3
1997: Healing Emotions: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Mindfulness, Emotions, and Health. Shambhala. ISBN 9780553381054
1998: Harvard Business Review on What Makes a Leader? Co-authors: Michael MacCoby, Thomas Davenport, John C. Beck, Dan Clampa, Michael Watkins. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 9781578516377
1998: Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books. ISBN 978-1856135016
2001: The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select for, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 9780787956905
2002: Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, with Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee, Harvard Business Review Press. ISBN 978-1578514861
2003: Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama. Bantam Books. ISBN 9780553381054
2006: Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553803525
2009: Ecological Intelligence: The Hidden Impacts of What We Buy. Random House. ISBN 9780385527828
2013: Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence, Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-0062114969
2015: A Force for Good: The Dalai Lama's Vision for Our World, Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553394894
2017: Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body, with Richard Davidson, Avery. ISBN 978-0399184383
2019: The Emotionally Intelligent Leader, Harvard Business Review Press. ISBN 978-1-63369-733-1
2022: Why We Meditate: The Science and Practice of Clarity and Compassion, with Tsoknyi Rinpoche, Atria Books. ISBN 978-0241527870
Journal articles (selected)
Miller, Dorothy H.; Goleman, Daniel J. (1970). "Predicting Post-Release Risk among Hospitalized Suicide Attempters". OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 1 (1): 71–84. doi:10.2190/93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4. S2CID 144464545.
Adler, Nancy E.; Goleman, Daniel (1975). "Goal Setting, T-Group Participation, and Self-Rated Change: An Experimental Study". The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 11 (2): 197–208. doi:10.1177/002188637501100205. S2CID 143998258.
Goleman, Daniel J.; Schwartz, Gary E. (1976). "Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 44 (3): 456–466. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.456. PMID 777059.
Goleman, Daniel (January 1976). "Meditation and Consciousness: An Asian Approach to Mental Health". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 30 (1): 41–54. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1976.30.1.41. PMID 1259055.
Davidson, Richard J.; Goleman, Daniel J.; Schwartz, Gary E. (1976). "Attentional and affective concomitants of meditation: A cross-sectional study". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 85 (2): 235–238. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.85.2.235. PMID 1254784.
Davidson, Richard J.; Goleman, Daniel J. (1977). "The role of attention in meditation and hypnosis: A psychobiological perspective on transformations of consciousness". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 25 (4): 291–308. doi:10.1080/00207147708415986. PMID 330418.
See also
Emotional aperture
References
^ Schawbel, Dan. "Daniel Goleman on the Importance of Ecological Intelligence". Forbes. Retrieved June 16, 2020.
^ "Goleman was Pacific professor, women's advocate". The Record. Archived from the original on April 6, 2019. Retrieved September 13, 2015.
^ "Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences". gsas.harvard.edu. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
^ Goleman, Daniel (1974). Meditation and stress reactivity (PhD thesis). Harvard University. OCLC 1235360172.
^ a b c "Bio". Daniel Goleman. Archived from the original on June 26, 2012. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
^ Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body.
^ "Krishna Das : Songwriter Interviews". www.songfacts.com. Retrieved April 19, 2018.
^ "Emotional Intelligence Consortium – About Us". www.eiconsortium.org. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
^ "Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences". gsas.harvard.edu. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
^ "Our Mission and Work". CASEL. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
^ "Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations". HBS Working Knowledge. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
^ "Goleman, D. Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman".
^ Bernhut, Stephen. "Primal Leadership, with Daniel Goleman". Ivey Business Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5, 2002, Pp. 14–15.
^ "About Daniel Goleman – Daniel Goleman". Retrieved November 8, 2023.
^ "Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences". gsas.harvard.edu. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
^ Daniel Goleman, The Varieties of Meditative Experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. p. 107.
^ Palin, A. (2013). 'Focus: The hidden driver of excellence', by daniel goleman. FT.Com, Retrieved 2023-11-04
^ No authorship indicated (1985). "American Psychological Foundation awards for 1984: Gold Medal, Distinguished Teaching in Psychology, Distinguished Teaching of Group Process, and the National Psychology Awards for Excellence in the Media". American Psychologist. 40 (3): 340–345. doi:10.1037/h0092175.. The award was given through the APA-affiliated American Psychological Foundation.
^ "Interview with Daniel Goleman". Development and Learning in Organizations. 23 (2): dlo.2009.08123baf.001. February 13, 2009. doi:10.1108/dlo.2009.08123baf.001. ISSN 1477-7282.
^ "Washburn Award | Museum of Science, Boston". www.mos.org. Retrieved November 8, 2023.
^ "Daniel Goleman Interview – Thinkers50". thinkers50.com. September 5, 2013. Retrieved November 8, 2023.
^ Hahn, Kelly (May 24, 2023). "Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation". Retrieved May 19, 2024.
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"psychologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist"},{"link_name":"science journalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalist"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Emotional Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"The New York Times Best Seller list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"emotional intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_intelligence"},{"link_name":"ecological crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_crisis"},{"link_name":"Dalai Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama"}],"text":"Daniel Goleman (born March 7, 1946) is an American psychologist, author, and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. His 1995 book Emotional Intelligence was on The New York Times Best Seller list for a year and a half, a bestseller in many countries, and is in print worldwide in 40 languages.[1] Apart from his books on emotional intelligence, Goleman has written books on topics including self-deception, creativity, transparency, meditation, social and emotional learning, ecoliteracy and the ecological crisis, and the Dalai Lama's vision for the future.","title":"Daniel Goleman"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Jews"},{"link_name":"Stockton, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockton,_California"},{"link_name":"University of the Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Pacific_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin Delta College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_Delta_College"},{"link_name":"Alvin M. Weinberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_M._Weinberg"},{"link_name":"Amherst College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst_College"},{"link_name":"magna cum laude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_cum_laude"},{"link_name":"University of California at Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Social Science Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-5"},{"link_name":"Neem Karoli Baba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neem_Karoli_Baba"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Ram Dass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_Dass"},{"link_name":"Krishna Das","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_Das_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Larry Brilliant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Brilliant"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Sri Lanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka"},{"link_name":"David McClelland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McClelland"},{"link_name":"Psychology Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_Today"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Daniel_Goleman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//casel.org/"},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"University of Illinois at Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Chicago"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Rutgers University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University"},{"link_name":"Mind & Life Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind_and_Life_Institute"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-5"}],"text":"Daniel Goleman grew up in a Jewish household in Stockton, California, the son of Fay Goleman (née Weinberg; 1910–2010), professor of sociology at the University of the Pacific,[2] and Irving Goleman (1898–1961), humanities professor at Stockton College (now San Joaquin Delta College). His maternal uncle was nuclear physicist Alvin M. Weinberg.Goleman attended Amherst College, graduating magna cum laude. He also attended the University of California at Berkeley through Amherst's Independent Scholar program. He went on to earn a PhD in Clinical Psychology at Harvard University.[3][4]Goleman studied in India using a pre-doctoral fellowship from Harvard and a post-doctoral grant from the Social Science Research Council.[5] While in India, he spent time with spiritual teacher Neem Karoli Baba,[6] who was also the guru to Ram Dass, Krishna Das, and Larry Brilliant.[7] He wrote his first book based on travel in India and Sri Lanka.Goleman then returned as a visiting lecturer to Harvard, where during the 1970s his course on the psychology of consciousness was popular. David McClelland, his mentor at Harvard, recommended him for a job at Psychology Today, from which he was recruited by The New York Times in 1984.[5][8]Daniel Goleman on 22 Oct 2009In 1993 Goleman co-founded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at Yale University's Child Studies Center, which then moved to the University of Illinois at Chicago.[9] Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) the organization's mission is to introduce social and emotional learning into the education of students from preschool to high school. Social and emotional learning (SEL) entails the methods by which children and young adults develop and use the knowledge, attitudes, and abilities required to comprehend and regulate emotions, and accomplish constructive goals, empathize with others, form and sustain beneficial relationships, and make ethical choices.[10] Goleman also co-founded Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations (CREIO) in 1996.[11] The organization is dedicated to enhancing the understanding and application of emotional and social intelligence within organizations by fostering the creation and sharing of knowledge. Currently he co-directs the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University. He is on the board of the Mind & Life Institute.[5]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EQi-2.0-Model.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-15"},{"link_name":"The Varieties of Meditative Experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meditative_Mind"},{"link_name":"meditation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation"},{"link_name":"attention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention"},{"link_name":"concentration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_control"},{"link_name":"mindfulness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindfulness"},{"link_name":"altering consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_states_of_consciousness"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-varmed-16"},{"link_name":"IQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Goleman was a science journalist at the New York Times until 1996, covering psychology, emotions, and the brain. He was twice nominated for the Pulitzer Prize for his work at the Times.[12] While there, he wrote the internationally bestselling book Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Books, 1995), which spent more than a year and a half on The New York Times Best Seller list.[13][14]Emotional intelligence diagram, Daniel Goleman's model.Goleman gained widespread recognition for his contributions to the field of emotional intelligence, a notion that includes the abilities of self-awareness, managing one's own emotions, empathy, and social skills – essentially, how effectively we manage our emotions and understand the emotions of others. His book Emotional Intelligence has been translated into 40 languages globally and was celebrated by TIME magazine as one of the top 25 most pivotal books in the realm of business management.[15]In his first book, The Varieties of Meditative Experience (1977) (republished in 1988 as The Meditative Mind), Goleman describes almost a dozen different meditation systems. He wrote that \"the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in the recipe for altering consciousness of every meditation system\".[16]In Working with Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Books, 1998), Goleman developed the argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as IQ for workplace success, and made a similar argument for leadership effectiveness in Primal Leadership (Harvard Business School Press, 2001). Goleman's most recent bestseller is Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence (Harper, 2013). In Goleman's Book Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence (Harper, 2013) he discusses the secret to success, and how mindfulness allows us to concentrate on what's important. Goleman explains that high achievers of mindfulness have mastered a \"triple-focus,\" which encompasses three distinct types of attention: \"inner,\" \"other,\" and \"outer.\" \"Inner\" focus is about self-awareness, \"other\" focus pertains to empathy, and \"outer\" focus involves an understanding of our surroundings. Goleman emphasizes that for business leaders, the practice of mindfulness is especially critical. The essence of leadership depends on the successful steering of the collective focus. This requires not only monitoring external developments relative to the organization but also engaging and guiding the focus of individuals both within and beyond the company's boundaries.[17]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Psychological Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-award85-18"},{"link_name":"American Association for the Advancement of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Thinkers50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//thinkers50.com/"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"Goleman has received many awards, including:Career Achievement award for Excellence in the Media (1984) from the American Psychological Association.[18]\nFellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in recognition of his efforts to communicate the behavioral sciences to the public[19]\nWashburn Award for Science Journalism in 1997[20]\nRanked 39th on the 2011 Thinkers50[21]\nCentennial Medal from the Harvard Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in 2023[22]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Publishing history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Varieties of the Meditative Experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meditative_Mind"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-470-99191-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-99191-7"},{"link_name":"Tarcher/Penguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TarcherPerigee"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-87477-833-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87477-833-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0684831074","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684831074"},{"link_name":"Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"Bantam Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantam_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-553-38371-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-38371-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1856135016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1856135016"},{"link_name":"Richard Boyatzis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Boyatzis"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1578514861","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1578514861"},{"link_name":"Harper Collins Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_Collins_Publishers"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0062114969","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062114969"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0553394894","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0553394894"},{"link_name":"Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_Traits"},{"link_name":"Richard Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Davidson"},{"link_name":"Avery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0399184383","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0399184383"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-63369-733-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63369-733-1"},{"link_name":"Tsoknyi Rinpoche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsoknyi_Rinpoche"},{"link_name":"Atria Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atria_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0241527870","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0241527870"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Armenian: Cover of the Armenian edition of the book 'Emotional Intelligence' on 5 Jul 20211977: The Varieties of the Meditative Experience, Irvington Publishers. ISBN 0-470-99191-7. Republished in 1988 as The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience, Tarcher/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5\n1985: Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of Self-Deception, Bloomsbury Publishers. ISBN 0684831074\n1988: The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience. Tarcherperigee. ISBN 9780874778335\n1995: Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-38371-3\n1997: Healing Emotions: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Mindfulness, Emotions, and Health. Shambhala. ISBN 9780553381054\n1998: Harvard Business Review on What Makes a Leader? Co-authors: Michael MacCoby, Thomas Davenport, John C. Beck, Dan Clampa, Michael Watkins. Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 9781578516377\n1998: Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books. ISBN 978-1856135016\n2001: The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select for, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 9780787956905\n2002: Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, with Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee, Harvard Business Review Press. ISBN 978-1578514861\n2003: Destructive Emotions: A Scientific Dialogue with the Dalai Lama. Bantam Books. ISBN 9780553381054\n2006: Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553803525\n2009: Ecological Intelligence: The Hidden Impacts of What We Buy. Random House. ISBN 9780385527828\n2013: Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence, Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 978-0062114969\n2015: A Force for Good: The Dalai Lama's Vision for Our World, Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0553394894\n2017: Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body, with Richard Davidson, Avery. ISBN 978-0399184383\n2019: The Emotionally Intelligent Leader, Harvard Business Review Press. ISBN 978-1-63369-733-1\n2022: Why We Meditate: The Science and Practice of Clarity and Compassion, with Tsoknyi Rinpoche, Atria Books. ISBN 978-0241527870","title":"Publishing history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_(journal)"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2190/93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2190%2F93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"144464545","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144464545"},{"link_name":"Adler, Nancy E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Adler"},{"link_name":"The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Applied_Behavioral_Science"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1177/002188637501100205","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1177%2F002188637501100205"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"143998258","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143998258"},{"link_name":"Schwartz, Gary E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Schwartz"},{"link_name":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Consulting_and_Clinical_Psychology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.456","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-006X.44.3.456"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"777059","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/777059"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Psychotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Psychotherapy"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1976.30.1.41","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.psychotherapy.1976.30.1.41"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1259055","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1259055"},{"link_name":"Davidson, Richard J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_J._Davidson"},{"link_name":"Schwartz, Gary E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Schwartz"},{"link_name":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Abnormal_Psychology"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1037/0021-843X.85.2.235","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-843X.85.2.235"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1254784","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1254784"},{"link_name":"Davidson, Richard J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_J._Davidson"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/00207147708415986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F00207147708415986"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"330418","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/330418"}],"sub_title":"Journal articles (selected)","text":"Miller, Dorothy H.; Goleman, Daniel J. (1970). \"Predicting Post-Release Risk among Hospitalized Suicide Attempters\". OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 1 (1): 71–84. doi:10.2190/93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4. S2CID 144464545.\nAdler, Nancy E.; Goleman, Daniel (1975). \"Goal Setting, T-Group Participation, and Self-Rated Change: An Experimental Study\". The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 11 (2): 197–208. doi:10.1177/002188637501100205. S2CID 143998258.\nGoleman, Daniel J.; Schwartz, Gary E. (1976). \"Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity\". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 44 (3): 456–466. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.456. PMID 777059.\nGoleman, Daniel (January 1976). \"Meditation and Consciousness: An Asian Approach to Mental Health\". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 30 (1): 41–54. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1976.30.1.41. PMID 1259055.\nDavidson, Richard J.; Goleman, Daniel J.; Schwartz, Gary E. (1976). \"Attentional and affective concomitants of meditation: A cross-sectional study\". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 85 (2): 235–238. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.85.2.235. PMID 1254784.\nDavidson, Richard J.; Goleman, Daniel J. (1977). \"The role of attention in meditation and hypnosis: A psychobiological perspective on transformations of consciousness\". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 25 (4): 291–308. doi:10.1080/00207147708415986. PMID 330418.","title":"Publishing history"}] | [{"image_text":"Daniel Goleman on 22 Oct 2009","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Daniel_Goleman.jpg/170px-Daniel_Goleman.jpg"},{"image_text":"Emotional intelligence diagram, Daniel Goleman's model.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/EQi-2.0-Model.jpg/220px-EQi-2.0-Model.jpg"},{"image_text":"Armenian: Cover of the Armenian edition of the book 'Emotional Intelligence' on 5 Jul 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF.jpg/170px-%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Emotional aperture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_aperture"}] | [{"reference":"Miller, Dorothy H.; Goleman, Daniel J. (1970). \"Predicting Post-Release Risk among Hospitalized Suicide Attempters\". OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying. 1 (1): 71–84. doi:10.2190/93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4. S2CID 144464545.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_(journal)","url_text":"OMEGA: Journal of Death and Dying"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2190%2F93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4","url_text":"10.2190/93R9-GXD6-7PX8-CYG4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144464545","url_text":"144464545"}]},{"reference":"Adler, Nancy E.; Goleman, Daniel (1975). \"Goal Setting, T-Group Participation, and Self-Rated Change: An Experimental Study\". The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science. 11 (2): 197–208. doi:10.1177/002188637501100205. S2CID 143998258.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Adler","url_text":"Adler, Nancy E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Applied_Behavioral_Science","url_text":"The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002188637501100205","url_text":"10.1177/002188637501100205"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143998258","url_text":"143998258"}]},{"reference":"Goleman, Daniel J.; Schwartz, Gary E. (1976). \"Meditation as an intervention in stress reactivity\". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 44 (3): 456–466. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.456. PMID 777059.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Schwartz","url_text":"Schwartz, Gary E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Consulting_and_Clinical_Psychology","url_text":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-006X.44.3.456","url_text":"10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.456"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/777059","url_text":"777059"}]},{"reference":"Goleman, Daniel (January 1976). \"Meditation and Consciousness: An Asian Approach to Mental Health\". American Journal of Psychotherapy. 30 (1): 41–54. doi:10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1976.30.1.41. 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Retrieved September 13, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190406091836/https://www.recordnet.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100926/A_NEWS/9260312","url_text":"\"Goleman was Pacific professor, women's advocate\""},{"url":"http://www.recordnet.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20100926/A_NEWS/9260312","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences\". gsas.harvard.edu. Retrieved November 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://gsas.harvard.edu/news/daniel-goleman-2023-centennial-medal-citation","url_text":"\"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences\""}]},{"reference":"Goleman, Daniel (1974). Meditation and stress reactivity (PhD thesis). Harvard University. OCLC 1235360172.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1235360172","url_text":"1235360172"}]},{"reference":"\"Bio\". Daniel Goleman. Archived from the original on June 26, 2012. Retrieved July 12, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120626161738/http://danielgoleman.info/biography/","url_text":"\"Bio\""},{"url":"http://danielgoleman.info/biography/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Krishna Das : Songwriter Interviews\". www.songfacts.com. Retrieved April 19, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.songfacts.com/blog/interviews/krishna_das/","url_text":"\"Krishna Das : Songwriter Interviews\""}]},{"reference":"\"Emotional Intelligence Consortium – About Us\". www.eiconsortium.org. Retrieved November 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eiconsortium.org/about_us.htm","url_text":"\"Emotional Intelligence Consortium – About Us\""}]},{"reference":"\"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences\". gsas.harvard.edu. Retrieved November 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://gsas.harvard.edu/news/daniel-goleman-2023-centennial-medal-citation","url_text":"\"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our Mission and Work\". CASEL. Retrieved November 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://casel.org/about-us/our-mission-work/","url_text":"\"Our Mission and Work\""}]},{"reference":"\"Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations\". HBS Working Knowledge. Retrieved November 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/1702.htmlconsortium-for-research-on-emotional-intelligence-in-organizations","url_text":"\"Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations\""}]},{"reference":"\"Goleman, D. Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/69105/emotional-intelligence-by-daniel-goleman/9780553804911/readers-guide/","url_text":"\"Goleman, D. Emotional intelligence by Daniel Goleman\""}]},{"reference":"Bernhut, Stephen. \"Primal Leadership, with Daniel Goleman\". Ivey Business Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5, 2002, Pp. 14–15.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"About Daniel Goleman – Daniel Goleman\". Retrieved November 8, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.danielgoleman.info/biography/","url_text":"\"About Daniel Goleman – Daniel Goleman\""}]},{"reference":"\"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences\". gsas.harvard.edu. Retrieved November 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://gsas.harvard.edu/news/daniel-goleman-2023-centennial-medal-citation","url_text":"\"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences\""}]},{"reference":"No authorship indicated (1985). \"American Psychological Foundation awards for 1984: Gold Medal, Distinguished Teaching in Psychology, Distinguished Teaching of Group Process, and the National Psychology Awards for Excellence in the Media\". American Psychologist. 40 (3): 340–345. doi:10.1037/h0092175.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychologist","url_text":"American Psychologist"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0092175","url_text":"10.1037/h0092175"}]},{"reference":"\"Interview with Daniel Goleman\". Development and Learning in Organizations. 23 (2): dlo.2009.08123baf.001. February 13, 2009. doi:10.1108/dlo.2009.08123baf.001. 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Retrieved November 8, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://thinkers50.com/blog/leadership/daniel-goleman-interview/","url_text":"\"Daniel Goleman Interview – Thinkers50\""}]},{"reference":"Hahn, Kelly (May 24, 2023). \"Daniel Goleman: 2023 Centennial Medal Citation\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microeconomics | Microeconomics | ["1 Assumptions and definitions","1.1 Allocation of scarce resources","2 History","3 Microeconomic theory","3.1 Consumer demand theory","3.2 Production theory","3.3 Cost-of-production theory of value","3.4 Fixed and variable costs","3.5 Opportunity cost","3.6 Price theory","4 Microeconomic models","4.1 Supply and demand","5 Market structure","5.1 Perfect competition","5.2 Imperfect competition","5.3 Monopolistic competition","5.4 Monopoly","5.5 Oligopoly","5.6 Monopsony","5.7 Bilateral monopoly","5.8 Oligopsony","6 Game theory","7 Information economics","8 Applied","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"] | Behavior of individuals and firms
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Microeconomics analyzes the market mechanisms that enable buyers and sellers to establish relative prices among goods and services. Shown is a marketplace in Delhi.
Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources and the interactions among these individuals and firms. Microeconomics focuses on the study of individual markets, sectors, or industries as opposed to the national economy as a whole, which is studied in macroeconomics.
One goal of microeconomics is to analyze the market mechanisms that establish relative prices among goods and services and allocate limited resources among alternative uses. Microeconomics shows conditions under which free markets lead to desirable allocations. It also analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results.
While microeconomics focuses on firms and individuals, macroeconomics focuses on the sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation, and unemployment—and with national policies relating to these issues. Microeconomics also deals with the effects of economic policies (such as changing taxation levels) on microeconomic behavior and thus on the aforementioned aspects of the economy. Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theories has been built upon microfoundations—i.e., based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behavior.
Assumptions and definitions
Microeconomic study historically has been performed according to general equilibrium theory, developed by Léon Walras in Elements of Pure Economics (1874) and partial equilibrium theory, introduced by Alfred Marshall in Principles of Economics (1890).
Microeconomic theory typically begins with the study of a single rational and utility maximizing individual. To economists, rationality means an individual possesses stable preferences that are both complete and transitive.
The technical assumption that preference relations are continuous is needed to ensure the existence of a utility function. Although microeconomic theory can continue without this assumption, it would make comparative statics impossible since there is no guarantee that the resulting utility function would be differentiable.
Microeconomic theory progresses by defining a competitive budget set which is a subset of the consumption set. It is at this point that economists make the technical assumption that preferences are locally non-satiated. Without the assumption of LNS (local non-satiation) there is no 100% guarantee but there would be a rational rise
in individual utility. With the necessary tools and assumptions in place the utility maximization problem (UMP) is developed.
The utility maximization problem is the heart of consumer theory. The utility maximization problem attempts to explain the action axiom by imposing rationality axioms on consumer preferences and then mathematically modeling and analyzing the consequences. The utility maximization problem serves not only as the mathematical foundation of consumer theory but as a metaphysical explanation of it as well. That is, the utility maximization problem is used by economists to not only explain what or how individuals make choices but why individuals make choices as well.
The utility maximization problem is a constrained optimization problem in which an individual seeks to maximize utility subject to a budget constraint. Economists use the extreme value theorem to guarantee that a solution to the utility maximization problem exists. That is, since the budget constraint is both bounded and closed, a solution to the utility maximization problem exists. Economists call the solution to the utility maximization problem a Walrasian demand function or correspondence.
The utility maximization problem has so far been developed by taking consumer tastes (i.e. consumer utility) as the primitive. However, an alternative way to develop microeconomic theory is by taking consumer choice as the primitive. This model of microeconomic theory is referred to as revealed preference theory.
The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). The graph depicts a right-shift in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new market-clearing equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).
The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive. This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them have the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services. In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers have the ability to influence prices. Quite often, a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good model. However, the theory works well in situations meeting these assumptions.
Mainstream economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization. In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where market failures lead to resource allocation that is suboptimal and creates deadweight loss. A classic example of suboptimal resource allocation is that of a public good. In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that avoid waste, either directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by creating "missing markets" to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed.
This is studied in the field of collective action and public choice theory. "Optimal welfare" usually takes on a Paretian norm, which is a mathematical application of the Kaldor–Hicks method. This can diverge from the Utilitarian goal of maximizing utility because it does not consider the distribution of goods between people. Market failure in positive economics (microeconomics) is limited in implications without mixing the belief of the economist and their theory.
The demand for various commodities by individuals is generally thought of as the outcome of a utility-maximizing process, with each individual trying to maximize their own utility under a budget constraint and a given consumption set.
Allocation of scarce resources
Individuals and firms need to allocate limited resources to ensure all agents in the economy are well off. Firms decide which goods and services to produce considering low costs involving labor, materials and capital as well as potential profit margins. Consumers choose the good and services they want that will maximize their happiness taking into account their limited wealth.
The government can make these allocation decisions or they can be independently made by the consumers and firms. For example, in the former Soviet Union, the government played a part in informing car manufacturers which cars to produce and which consumers will gain access to a car.
History
Main article: History of microeconomics
Economists commonly consider themselves microeconomists or macroeconomists. The difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics likely was introduced in 1933 by the Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch, the co-recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969. However, Frisch did not actually use the word "microeconomics", instead drawing distinctions between "micro-dynamic" and "macro-dynamic" analysis in a way similar to how the words "microeconomics" and "macroeconomics" are used today. The first known use of the term "microeconomics" in a published article was from Pieter de Wolff in 1941, who broadened the term "micro-dynamics" into "microeconomics".
Microeconomic theory
Consumer demand theory
Main article: Consumer choice
Consumer demand theory relates preferences for the consumption of both goods and services to the consumption expenditures; ultimately, this relationship between preferences and consumption expenditures is used to relate preferences to consumer demand curves. The link between personal preferences, consumption and the demand curve is one of the most closely studied relations in economics. It is a way of analyzing how consumers may achieve equilibrium between preferences and expenditures by maximizing utility subject to consumer budget constraints.
Production theory
Main article: Production theory
Production theory is the study of production, or the economic process of converting inputs into outputs. Production uses resources to create a good or service that is suitable for use, gift-giving in a gift economy, or exchange in a market economy. This can include manufacturing, storing, shipping, and packaging. Some economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than consumption. They see every commercial activity other than the final purchase as some form of production.
Cost-of-production theory of value
Main article: Cost-of-production theory of value
The cost-of-production theory of value states that the price of an object or condition is determined by the sum of the cost of the resources that went into making it. The cost can comprise any of the factors of production (including labor, capital, or land) and taxation. Technology can be viewed either as a form of fixed capital (e.g. an industrial plant) or circulating capital (e.g. intermediate goods).
In the mathematical model for the cost of production, the short-run total cost is equal to fixed cost plus total variable cost. The fixed cost refers to the cost that is incurred regardless of how much the firm produces. The variable cost is a function of the quantity of an object being produced. The cost function can be used to characterize production through the duality theory in economics, developed mainly by Ronald Shephard (1953, 1970) and other scholars (Sickles & Zelenyuk, 2019, ch. 2).
Fixed and variable costs
Fixed cost (FC) – This cost does not change with output. It includes business expenses such as rent, salaries and utility bills.
Variable cost (VC) – This cost changes as output changes. This includes raw materials, delivery costs and production supplies.
Over a short time period (few months), most costs are fixed costs as the firm will have to pay for salaries, contracted shipment and materials used to produce various goods. Over a longer time period (2-3 years), costs can become variable. Firms can decide to reduce output, purchase fewer materials and even sell some machinery. Over 10 years, most costs become variable as workers can be laid off or new machinery can be bought to replace the old machinery
Sunk Costs – This is a fixed cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered. An example of this can be in R&D development like in the pharmaceutical industry. Hundreds of millions of dollars are spent to achieve new drug breakthroughs but this is challenging as its increasingly harder to find new breakthroughs and meet tighter regulation standards. Thus many projects are written off leading to losses of millions of dollars
Opportunity cost
Main article: Opportunity cost
Opportunity cost is closely related to the idea of time constraints. One can do only one thing at a time, which means that, inevitably, one is always giving up other things. The opportunity cost of any activity is the value of the next-best alternative thing one may have done instead. Opportunity cost depends only on the value of the next-best alternative. It does not matter whether one has five alternatives or 5,000.
Opportunity costs can tell when not to do something as well as when to do something. For example, one may like waffles, but like chocolate even more. If someone offers only waffles, one would take it. But if offered waffles or chocolate, one would take the chocolate. The opportunity cost of eating waffles is sacrificing the chance to eat chocolate. Because the cost of not eating the chocolate is higher than the benefits of eating the waffles, it makes no sense to choose waffles. Of course, if one chooses chocolate, they are still faced with the opportunity cost of giving up having waffles. But one is willing to do that because the waffle's opportunity cost is lower than the benefits of the chocolate. Opportunity costs are unavoidable constraints on behavior because one has to decide what's best and give up the next-best alternative.
Price theory
Microeconomics is also known as price theory to highlight the significance of prices in relation to buyer and sellers as these agents determine prices due to their individual actions. Price theory is a field of economics that uses the supply and demand framework to explain and predict human behavior. It is associated with the Chicago School of Economics. Price theory studies competitive equilibrium in markets to yield testable hypotheses that can be rejected.
Price theory is not the same as microeconomics. Strategic behavior, such as the interactions among sellers in a market where they are few, is a significant part of microeconomics but is not emphasized in price theory. Price theorists focus on competition believing it to be a reasonable description of most markets that leaves room to study additional aspects of tastes and technology. As a result, price theory tends to use less game theory than microeconomics does.
Price theory focuses on how agents respond to prices, but its framework can be applied to a wide variety of socioeconomic issues that might not seem to involve prices at first glance. Price theorists have influenced several other fields including developing public choice theory and law and economics. Price theory has been applied to issues previously thought of as outside the purview of economics such as criminal justice, marriage, and addiction.
Microeconomic models
Supply and demand
Main article: Supply and demand
Supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a perfectly competitive market. It concludes that in a perfectly competitive market with no externalities, per unit taxes, or price controls, the unit price for a particular good is the price at which the quantity demanded by consumers equals the quantity supplied by producers. This price results in a stable economic equilibrium.
The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase (that is, right-shift) in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).
Prices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy. The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.
For a given market of a commodity, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure). Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. A term for this is "constrained utility maximization" (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand). Here, utility refers to the hypothesized relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred.
The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related. That is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things unchanged). As the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the substitution effect). In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect). Other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a normal good outward relative to the origin, as in the figure. All determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply.
Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price. It may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied. Producers, for example business firms, are hypothesized to be profit maximizers, meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit. Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.
That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure. The higher price makes it profitable to increase production. Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement. The "Law of Supply" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply. Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors of inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply.
Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above. At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This is posited to bid the price up. At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes the price down. The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply.
For a given quantity of a consumer good, the point on the demand curve indicates the value, or marginal utility, to consumers for that unit. It measures what the consumer would be prepared to pay for that unit. The corresponding point on the supply curve measures marginal cost, the increase in total cost to the supplier for the corresponding unit of the good. The price in equilibrium is determined by supply and demand. In a perfectly competitive market, supply and demand equate marginal cost and marginal utility at equilibrium.
On the supply side of the market, some factors of production are described as (relatively) variable in the short run, which affects the cost of changing output levels. Their usage rates can be changed easily, such as electrical power, raw-material inputs, and over-time and temp work. Other inputs are relatively fixed, such as plant and equipment and key personnel. In the long run, all inputs may be adjusted by management. These distinctions translate to differences in the elasticity (responsiveness) of the supply curve in the short and long runs and corresponding differences in the price-quantity change from a shift on the supply or demand side of the market.
Marginalist theory, such as above, describes the consumers as attempting to reach most-preferred positions, subject to income and wealth constraints while producers attempt to maximize profits subject to their own constraints, including demand for goods produced, technology, and the price of inputs. For the consumer, that point comes where marginal utility of a good, net of price, reaches zero, leaving no net gain from further consumption increases. Analogously, the producer compares marginal revenue (identical to price for the perfect competitor) against the marginal cost of a good, with marginal profit the difference. At the point where marginal profit reaches zero, further increases in production of the good stop. For movement to market equilibrium and for changes in equilibrium, price and quantity also change "at the margin": more-or-less of something, rather than necessarily all-or-nothing.
Other applications of demand and supply include the distribution of income among the factors of production, including labor and capital, through factor markets. In a competitive labor market for example the quantity of labor employed and the price of labor (the wage rate) depends on the demand for labor (from employers for production) and supply of labor (from potential workers). Labor economics examines the interaction of workers and employers through such markets to explain patterns and changes of wages and other labor income, labor mobility, and (un)employment, productivity through human capital, and related public-policy issues.
Demand-and-supply analysis is used to explain the behavior of perfectly competitive markets, but as a standard of comparison it can be extended to any type of market. It can also be generalized to explain variables across the economy, for example, total output (estimated as real GDP) and the general price level, as studied in macroeconomics. Tracing the qualitative and quantitative effects of variables that change supply and demand, whether in the short or long run, is a standard exercise in applied economics. Economic theory may also specify conditions such that supply and demand through the market is an efficient mechanism for allocating resources.
Market structure
Main article: Market structure
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Market structure refers to features of a market, including the number of firms in the market, the distribution of market shares between them, product uniformity across firms, how easy it is for firms to enter and exit the market, and forms of competition in the market. A market structure can have several types of interacting market systems.
Different forms of markets are a feature of capitalism and market socialism, with advocates of state socialism often criticizing markets and aiming to substitute or replace markets with varying degrees of government-directed economic planning.
Competition acts as a regulatory mechanism for market systems, with government providing regulations where the market cannot be expected to regulate itself. Regulations help to mitigate negative externalities of goods and services when the private equilibrium of the market does not match the social equilibrium. One example of this is with regards to building codes, which if absent in a purely competition regulated market system, might result in several horrific injuries or deaths to be required before companies would begin improving structural safety, as consumers may at first not be as concerned or aware of safety issues to begin putting pressure on companies to provide them, and companies would be motivated not to provide proper safety features due to how it would cut into their profits.
The concept of "market type" is different from the concept of "market structure". Nevertheless, there are a variety of types of markets.
The different market structures produce cost curves based on the type of structure present. The different curves are developed based on the costs of production, specifically the graph contains marginal cost, average total cost, average variable cost, average fixed cost, and marginal revenue, which is sometimes equal to the demand, average revenue, and price in a price-taking firm.
Perfect competition
Main article: Perfect competition
Perfect competition is a situation in which numerous small firms producing identical products compete against each other in a given industry. Perfect competition leads to firms producing the socially optimal output level at the minimum possible cost per unit. Firms in perfect competition are "price takers" (they do not have enough market power to profitably increase the price of their goods or services). A good example would be that of digital marketplaces, such as eBay, on which many different sellers sell similar products to many different buyers. Consumers in a perfect competitive market have perfect knowledge about the products that are being sold in this market.
Imperfect competition
Main article: Imperfect competition
Imperfect competition is a type of market structure showing some but not all features of competitive markets. In perfect competition, market power is not achievable due to a high level of producers causing high levels of competition. Therefore, prices are brought down to a marginal cost level. In a monopoly, market power is achieved by one firm leading to prices being higher than the marginal cost level.
Between these two types of markets are firms that are neither perfectly competitive or monopolistic. Firms such as Pepsi and Coke and Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft dominate the cola and video game industry respectively. These firms are in imperfect competition
Monopolistic competition
Main article: Monopolistic competition
Monopolistic competition is a situation in which many firms with slightly different products compete. Production costs are above what may be achieved by perfectly competitive firms, but society benefits from the product differentiation. Examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include restaurants, cereal, clothing, shoes, and service industries in large cities.
Monopoly
Main article: Monopoly
A monopoly is a market structure in which a market or industry is dominated by a single supplier of a particular good or service. Because monopolies have no competition, they tend to sell goods and services at a higher price and produce below the socially optimal output level. However, not all monopolies are a bad thing, especially in industries where multiple firms would result in more costs than benefits (i.e. natural monopolies).
Natural monopoly: A monopoly in an industry where one producer can produce output at a lower cost than many small producers.
Oligopoly
Main article: Oligopoly
An oligopoly is a market structure in which a market or industry is dominated by a small number of firms (oligopolists). Oligopolies can create the incentive for firms to engage in collusion and form cartels that reduce competition leading to higher prices for consumers and less overall market output. Alternatively, oligopolies can be fiercely competitive and engage in flamboyant advertising campaigns.
Duopoly: A special case of an oligopoly, with only two firms. Game theory can elucidate behavior in duopolies and oligopolies.
Monopsony
Main article: Monopsony
A monopsony is a market where there is only one buyer and many sellers.
Bilateral monopoly
Main article: Bilateral monopoly
A bilateral monopoly is a market consisting of both a monopoly (a single seller) and a monopsony (a single buyer).
Oligopsony
Main article: Oligopsony
An oligopsony is a market where there are a few buyers and many sellers.
Game theory
Main article: Game theory
Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents. The term "game" here implies the study of any strategic interaction between people. Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as auctions, bargaining, mergers & acquisitions pricing, fair division, duopolies, oligopolies, social network formation, agent-based computational economics, general equilibrium, mechanism design, and voting systems, and across such broad areas as experimental economics, behavioral economics, information economics, industrial organization, and political economy.
Information economics
Main article: Information economics
Information economics is a branch of microeconomic theory that studies how information and information systems affect an economy and economic decisions. Information has special characteristics. It is easy to create but hard to trust. It is easy to spread but hard to control. It influences many decisions. These special characteristics (as compared with other types of goods) complicate many standard economic theories. The economics of information has recently become of great interest to many - possibly due to the rise of information-based companies inside the technology industry. From a game theory approach, the usual constraints that agents have complete information can be loosened to further examine the consequences of having incomplete information. This gives rise to many results which are applicable to real life situations. For example, if one does loosen this assumption, then it is possible to scrutinize the actions of agents in situations of uncertainty. It is also possible to more fully understand the impacts – both positive and negative – of agents seeking out or acquiring information.
Applied
United States Capitol Building: meeting place of the United States Congress, where many tax laws are passed, which directly impact economic welfare. This is studied in the subject of public economics.
Applied microeconomics includes a range of specialized areas of study, many of which draw on methods from other fields.
Economic history examines the evolution of the economy and economic institutions, using methods and techniques from the fields of economics, history, geography, sociology, psychology, and political science.
Education economics examines the organization of education provision and its implication for efficiency and equity, including the effects of education on productivity.
Financial economics examines topics such as the structure of optimal portfolios, the rate of return to capital, econometric analysis of security returns, and corporate financial behavior.
Health economics examines the organization of health care systems, including the role of the health care workforce and health insurance programs.
Industrial organization examines topics such as the entry and exit of firms, innovation, and the role of trademarks.
Law and economics applies microeconomic principles to the selection and enforcement of competing legal regimes and their relative efficiencies.
Political economy examines the role of political institutions in determining policy outcomes.
Public economics examines the design of government tax and expenditure policies and economic effects of these policies (e.g., social insurance programs).
Urban economics, which examines the challenges faced by cities, such as sprawl, air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and poverty, draws on the fields of urban geography and sociology.
Labor economics examines primarily labor markets, but comprises a large range of public policy issues such as immigration, minimum wages, or inequality.
See also
Business and economics portal
Macroeconomics
First-order approach
Critique of political economy
References
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Further reading
* Bade, Robin; Michael Parkin (2001). Foundations of Microeconomics (1st paperback ed.). Addison Wesley.
Bouman, John: Principles of Microeconomics – free fully comprehensive Principles of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics texts. Columbia, Maryland, 2011
Colander, David. Microeconomics. McGraw-Hill Paperback, 7th ed.: 2008.
Dunne, Timothy; J. Bradford Jensen; Mark J. Roberts (2009). Producer Dynamics: New Evidence from Micro Data. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-17256-9.
Eaton, B. Curtis; Eaton, Diane F.; and Douglas W. Allen. Microeconomics. Prentice Hall, 5th ed.: 2002.
Frank, Robert H.; Microeconomics and Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 6th ed.: 2006.
Friedman, Milton. Price Theory. Aldine Transaction: 1976
Hagendorf, Klaus: Labour Values and the Theory of the Firm. Part I: The Competitive Firm. Paris: EURODOS; 2009.
Harberger, Arnold C. (2008). "Microeconomics". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0-86597-665-8. OCLC 237794267.
Hicks, John R. Value and Capital. Clarendon Press. 1946, 2nd ed.
Hirshleifer, Jack., Glazer, Amihai, and Hirshleifer, David, Price theory and applications: Decisions, markets, and information. Cambridge University Press, 7th ed.: 2005.
Jaffe, Sonia; Minton, Robert; Mulligan, Casey B.; and Murphy, Kevin M.: Chicago Price Theory. Princeton University Press, 2019
Jehle, Geoffrey A.; and Philip J. Reny. Advanced Microeconomic Theory. Addison Wesley Paperback, 2nd ed.: 2000.
Katz, Michael L.; and Harvey S. Rosen. Microeconomics. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 3rd ed.: 1997.
Kreps, David M. A Course in Microeconomic Theory. Princeton University Press: 1990
Landsburg, Steven. Price Theory and Applications. South-Western College Pub, 5th ed.: 2001.
Mankiw, N. Gregory. Principles of Microeconomics. South-Western Pub, 2nd ed.: 2000.
Mas-Colell, Andreu; Whinston, Michael D.; and Jerry R. Green. Microeconomic Theory. Oxford University Press, US: 1995.
McGuigan, James R.; Moyer, R. Charles; and Frederick H. Harris. Managerial Economics: Applications, Strategy and Tactics. South-Western Educational Publishing, 9th ed.: 2001.
Nicholson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. South-Western College Pub, 8th ed.: 2001.
Perloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics. Pearson – Addison Wesley, 4th ed.: 2007.
Perloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics: Theory and Applications with Calculus. Pearson – Addison Wesley, 1st ed.: 2007
Pindyck, Robert S.; and Daniel L. Rubinfeld. Microeconomics. Prentice Hall, 7th ed.: 2008.
Ruffin, Roy J.; and Paul R. Gregory. Principles of Microeconomics. Addison Wesley, 7th ed.: 2000.
Varian, Hal R. (1987). "microeconomics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 461–463.
Varian, Hal R. Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach. W. W. Norton & Company, 8th ed.: 2009.
Varian, Hal R. Microeconomic Analysis. W.W. Norton & Company, 3rd ed.: 1992.
The economic times (2023). What is Microeconomics. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/microeconomics.
External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Microeconomics
Wikiversity has learning resources about Microeconomics
Library resources about Microeconomics
Resources in your library
X-Lab: A Collaborative Micro-Economics and Social Sciences Research Laboratory
Simulations in Microeconomics Archived 2010-10-31 at the Wayback Machine
A brief history of microeconomics
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Korea | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Macroeconomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Delhi_main_bazaar.jpg"},{"link_name":"market mechanisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_mechanism"},{"link_name":"relative prices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_price"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"firms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_the_firm"},{"link_name":"scarce resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarcity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glossary-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"macroeconomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics"},{"link_name":"market mechanisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_mechanism"},{"link_name":"relative prices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_price"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"market failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_failure"},{"link_name":"efficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_efficiency"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth"},{"link_name":"inflation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation"},{"link_name":"unemployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glossary-2"},{"link_name":"taxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Lucas critique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_critique"},{"link_name":"microfoundations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfoundations"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Macroeconomics.Microeconomics analyzes the market mechanisms that enable buyers and sellers to establish relative prices among goods and services. Shown is a marketplace in Delhi.Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies the behavior of individuals and firms in making decisions regarding the allocation of scarce resources and the interactions among these individuals and firms.[1][2][3] Microeconomics focuses on the study of individual markets, sectors, or industries as opposed to the national economy as a whole, which is studied in macroeconomics.One goal of microeconomics is to analyze the market mechanisms that establish relative prices among goods and services and allocate limited resources among alternative uses[citation needed]. Microeconomics shows conditions under which free markets lead to desirable allocations. It also analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results.[4]While microeconomics focuses on firms and individuals, macroeconomics focuses on the sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation, and unemployment—and with national policies relating to these issues.[2] Microeconomics also deals with the effects of economic policies (such as changing taxation levels) on microeconomic behavior and thus on the aforementioned aspects of the economy.[5] Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theories has been built upon microfoundations—i.e., based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behavior.","title":"Microeconomics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"utility maximizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_maximization_problem"},{"link_name":"rationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality"},{"link_name":"preferences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference_(economics)"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference_(economics)#Types_of_preferences"},{"link_name":"transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"technical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_economics"},{"link_name":"continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_function"},{"link_name":"utility function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility#Quantifying_utility"},{"link_name":"comparative statics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_statics"},{"link_name":"differentiable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable_function"},{"link_name":"competitive budget set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_set"},{"link_name":"consumption set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_set"},{"link_name":"locally non-satiated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_nonsatiation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility"},{"link_name":"utility maximization problem (UMP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_maximization_problem"},{"link_name":"consumer theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_choice"},{"link_name":"action axiom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_axiom"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"metaphysical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics"},{"link_name":"constrained optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constrained_optimization"},{"link_name":"budget constraint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_constraint"},{"link_name":"extreme value theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem"},{"link_name":"budget constraint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_set"},{"link_name":"Walrasian demand function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshallian_demand_function"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"revealed preference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revealed_preference"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"perfectly competitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_competition"},{"link_name":"Mainstream economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainstream_economics"},{"link_name":"a priori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/a_priori#Adjective"},{"link_name":"market failures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_failure"},{"link_name":"resource allocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_allocation"},{"link_name":"deadweight loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadweight_loss"},{"link_name":"public good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_good_(economics)"},{"link_name":"economists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist"},{"link_name":"missing markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_market"},{"link_name":"collective action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action"},{"link_name":"public choice theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice_theory"},{"link_name":"Paretian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency"},{"link_name":"Kaldor–Hicks method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaldor%E2%80%93Hicks_efficiency"},{"link_name":"Utilitarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilitarianism"},{"link_name":"utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_(economics)"},{"link_name":"budget constraint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_constraint"}],"text":"Microeconomic study historically has been performed according to general equilibrium theory, developed by Léon Walras in Elements of Pure Economics (1874) and partial equilibrium theory, introduced by Alfred Marshall in Principles of Economics (1890).[6]Microeconomic theory typically begins with the study of a single rational and utility maximizing individual. To economists, rationality means an individual possesses stable preferences that are both complete and transitive.The technical assumption that preference relations are continuous is needed to ensure the existence of a utility function. Although microeconomic theory can continue without this assumption, it would make comparative statics impossible since there is no guarantee that the resulting utility function would be differentiable.Microeconomic theory progresses by defining a competitive budget set which is a subset of the consumption set. It is at this point that economists make the technical assumption that preferences are locally non-satiated. Without the assumption of LNS (local non-satiation) there is no 100% guarantee but there would be a rational rise [citation needed]\nin individual utility. With the necessary tools and assumptions in place the utility maximization problem (UMP) is developed.The utility maximization problem is the heart of consumer theory. The utility maximization problem attempts to explain the action axiom by imposing rationality axioms on consumer preferences and then mathematically modeling and analyzing the consequences. [citation needed] The utility maximization problem serves not only as the mathematical foundation of consumer theory but as a metaphysical explanation of it as well. That is, the utility maximization problem is used by economists to not only explain what or how individuals make choices but why individuals make choices as well.The utility maximization problem is a constrained optimization problem in which an individual seeks to maximize utility subject to a budget constraint. Economists use the extreme value theorem to guarantee that a solution to the utility maximization problem exists. That is, since the budget constraint is both bounded and closed, a solution to the utility maximization problem exists. Economists call the solution to the utility maximization problem a Walrasian demand function or correspondence. [citation needed]The utility maximization problem has so far been developed by taking consumer tastes (i.e. consumer utility) as the primitive. However, an alternative way to develop microeconomic theory is by taking consumer choice as the primitive. This model of microeconomic theory is referred to as revealed preference theory.The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). The graph depicts a right-shift in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new market-clearing equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive. This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them have the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services. In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers have the ability to influence prices. Quite often, a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good model. However, the theory works well in situations meeting these assumptions.Mainstream economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization. In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where market failures lead to resource allocation that is suboptimal and creates deadweight loss. A classic example of suboptimal resource allocation is that of a public good. In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that avoid waste, either directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by creating \"missing markets\" to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed.This is studied in the field of collective action and public choice theory. \"Optimal welfare\" usually takes on a Paretian norm, which is a mathematical application of the Kaldor–Hicks method. This can diverge from the Utilitarian goal of maximizing utility because it does not consider the distribution of goods between people. Market failure in positive economics (microeconomics) is limited in implications without mixing the belief of the economist and their theory.The demand for various commodities by individuals is generally thought of as the outcome of a utility-maximizing process, with each individual trying to maximize their own utility under a budget constraint and a given consumption set.","title":"Assumptions and definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"}],"sub_title":"Allocation of scarce resources","text":"Individuals and firms need to allocate limited resources to ensure all agents in the economy are well off. Firms decide which goods and services to produce considering low costs involving labor, materials and capital as well as potential profit margins. Consumers choose the good and services they want that will maximize their happiness taking into account their limited wealth.[7]The government can make these allocation decisions or they can be independently made by the consumers and firms. For example, in the former Soviet Union, the government played a part in informing car manufacturers which cars to produce and which consumers will gain access to a car.[7]","title":"Assumptions and definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ragnar Frisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Frisch"},{"link_name":"Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varian_H.R._1987-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varian_H.R._1987-9"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Economists commonly consider themselves microeconomists or macroeconomists. The difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics likely was introduced in 1933 by the Norwegian economist Ragnar Frisch, the co-recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969.[8][9] However, Frisch did not actually use the word \"microeconomics\", instead drawing distinctions between \"micro-dynamic\" and \"macro-dynamic\" analysis in a way similar to how the words \"microeconomics\" and \"macroeconomics\" are used today.[8][10] The first known use of the term \"microeconomics\" in a published article was from Pieter de Wolff in 1941, who broadened the term \"micro-dynamics\" into \"microeconomics\".[9][11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"preferences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preference_(economics)"},{"link_name":"goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics)"},{"link_name":"consumer demand curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"demand curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_curve"},{"link_name":"equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrium_(economics)"},{"link_name":"utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility"},{"link_name":"budget constraints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_constraint"}],"sub_title":"Consumer demand theory","text":"Consumer demand theory relates preferences for the consumption of both goods and services to the consumption expenditures; ultimately, this relationship between preferences and consumption expenditures is used to relate preferences to consumer demand curves. The link between personal preferences, consumption and the demand curve is one of the most closely studied relations in economics. It is a way of analyzing how consumers may achieve equilibrium between preferences and expenditures by maximizing utility subject to consumer budget constraints.","title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_(economics)"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource"},{"link_name":"good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics)"},{"link_name":"service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)"},{"link_name":"gift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift"},{"link_name":"gift economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_economy"},{"link_name":"exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade"},{"link_name":"market economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_economy"},{"link_name":"manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"shipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping"},{"link_name":"packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packaging"},{"link_name":"consumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_(economics)"}],"sub_title":"Production theory","text":"Production theory is the study of production, or the economic process of converting inputs into outputs.[12] Production uses resources to create a good or service that is suitable for use, gift-giving in a gift economy, or exchange in a market economy. This can include manufacturing, storing, shipping, and packaging. Some economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than consumption. They see every commercial activity other than the final purchase as some form of production.","title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"factors of production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factors_of_production"},{"link_name":"labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_labour"},{"link_name":"capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(economics)"},{"link_name":"land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_(economics)"},{"link_name":"Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology"},{"link_name":"fixed capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_capital"},{"link_name":"industrial plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_plant"},{"link_name":"circulating capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulating_capital"},{"link_name":"intermediate goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_goods"},{"link_name":"fixed cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_cost"},{"link_name":"variable cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_cost"},{"link_name":"Ronald Shephard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Shephard"}],"sub_title":"Cost-of-production theory of value","text":"The cost-of-production theory of value states that the price of an object or condition is determined by the sum of the cost of the resources that went into making it. The cost can comprise any of the factors of production (including labor, capital, or land) and taxation. Technology can be viewed either as a form of fixed capital (e.g. an industrial plant) or circulating capital (e.g. intermediate goods).In the mathematical model for the cost of production, the short-run total cost is equal to fixed cost plus total variable cost. The fixed cost refers to the cost that is incurred regardless of how much the firm produces. The variable cost is a function of the quantity of an object being produced. The cost function can be used to characterize production through the duality theory in economics, developed mainly by Ronald Shephard (1953, 1970) and other scholars (Sickles & Zelenyuk, 2019, ch. 2).","title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fixed cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_cost"},{"link_name":"Variable cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_cost"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Sunk Costs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunk_Costs"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Fixed and variable costs","text":"Fixed cost (FC) – This cost does not change with output. It includes business expenses such as rent, salaries and utility bills.\nVariable cost (VC) – This cost changes as output changes. This includes raw materials, delivery costs and production supplies.Over a short time period (few months), most costs are fixed costs as the firm will have to pay for salaries, contracted shipment and materials used to produce various goods. Over a longer time period (2-3 years), costs can become variable. Firms can decide to reduce output, purchase fewer materials and even sell some machinery. Over 10 years, most costs become variable as workers can be laid off or new machinery can be bought to replace the old machinery [13]Sunk Costs – This is a fixed cost that has already been incurred and cannot be recovered. An example of this can be in R&D development like in the pharmaceutical industry. Hundreds of millions of dollars are spent to achieve new drug breakthroughs but this is challenging as its increasingly harder to find new breakthroughs and meet tighter regulation standards. Thus many projects are written off leading to losses of millions of dollars [14]","title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Opportunity cost","text":"Opportunity cost is closely related to the idea of time constraints. One can do only one thing at a time, which means that, inevitably, one is always giving up other things. The opportunity cost of any activity is the value of the next-best alternative thing one may have done instead. Opportunity cost depends only on the value of the next-best alternative. It does not matter whether one has five alternatives or 5,000.Opportunity costs can tell when not to do something as well as when to do something. For example, one may like waffles, but like chocolate even more. If someone offers only waffles, one would take it. But if offered waffles or chocolate, one would take the chocolate. The opportunity cost of eating waffles is sacrificing the chance to eat chocolate. Because the cost of not eating the chocolate is higher than the benefits of eating the waffles, it makes no sense to choose waffles. Of course, if one chooses chocolate, they are still faced with the opportunity cost of giving up having waffles. But one is willing to do that because the waffle's opportunity cost is lower than the benefits of the chocolate. Opportunity costs are unavoidable constraints on behavior because one has to decide what's best and give up the next-best alternative.","title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"Chicago School of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_school_of_economics"},{"link_name":"competitive equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)"},{"link_name":"game theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory"},{"link_name":"public choice theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_choice"},{"link_name":"law and economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_economics"}],"sub_title":"Price theory","text":"Microeconomics is also known as price theory to highlight the significance of prices in relation to buyer and sellers as these agents determine prices due to their individual actions.[7] Price theory is a field of economics that uses the supply and demand framework to explain and predict human behavior. It is associated with the Chicago School of Economics. Price theory studies competitive equilibrium in markets to yield testable hypotheses that can be rejected.Price theory is not the same as microeconomics. Strategic behavior, such as the interactions among sellers in a market where they are few, is a significant part of microeconomics but is not emphasized in price theory. Price theorists focus on competition believing it to be a reasonable description of most markets that leaves room to study additional aspects of tastes and technology. As a result, price theory tends to use less game theory than microeconomics does.Price theory focuses on how agents respond to prices, but its framework can be applied to a wide variety of socioeconomic issues that might not seem to involve prices at first glance. Price theorists have influenced several other fields including developing public choice theory and law and economics. Price theory has been applied to issues previously thought of as outside the purview of economics such as criminal justice, marriage, and addiction.","title":"Microeconomic theory"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Microeconomic models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"economic model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_model"},{"link_name":"price determination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_determination"},{"link_name":"market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)"},{"link_name":"perfectly competitive market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_competition"},{"link_name":"externalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externality"},{"link_name":"per unit taxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excise"},{"link_name":"price controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_controls"},{"link_name":"unit price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_price"},{"link_name":"good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics)"},{"link_name":"economic equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_equilibrium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"Prices and quantities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prices_and_quantities"},{"link_name":"market economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_economy"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"perfect competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_competition"},{"link_name":"power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_power"},{"link_name":"commodity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_(economics_and_accounting)"},{"link_name":"Demand theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_theory"},{"link_name":"rationally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_choice_theory"},{"link_name":"wealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_(economics)"},{"link_name":"constraints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budget_constraint"},{"link_name":"utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility"},{"link_name":"law of demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_demand"},{"link_name":"unchanged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceteris_paribus"},{"link_name":"substitution effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution_effect"},{"link_name":"purchasing power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power"},{"link_name":"income effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_effect"},{"link_name":"normal good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_good"},{"link_name":"Market equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(economics)"},{"link_name":"marginal utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_utility"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"marginal cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_cost"},{"link_name":"perfectly competitive market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_competition"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hicks-17"},{"link_name":"short run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_run"},{"link_name":"long run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_run"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"elasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_elasticity_of_supply"},{"link_name":"Marginalist theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginalism"},{"link_name":"income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income#Meaning_in_economics_and_use_in_economic_theory"},{"link_name":"wealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_(economics)"},{"link_name":"marginal revenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_revenue"},{"link_name":"marginal cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_cost"},{"link_name":"distribution of income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_(economics)"},{"link_name":"factors of production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factors_of_production"},{"link_name":"labor market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_market"},{"link_name":"demand for labor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_economics#Neoclassical_microeconomic_model_%E2%80%93_Demand"},{"link_name":"Labor economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_economics"},{"link_name":"labor mobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_mobility"},{"link_name":"human capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_capital"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy"},{"link_name":"real GDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_GDP"},{"link_name":"price level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_level"},{"link_name":"macroeconomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"qualitative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_economics"},{"link_name":"applied economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Supply and demand","text":"Supply and demand is an economic model of price determination in a perfectly competitive market. It concludes that in a perfectly competitive market with no externalities, per unit taxes, or price controls, the unit price for a particular good is the price at which the quantity demanded by consumers equals the quantity supplied by producers. This price results in a stable economic equilibrium.The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase (that is, right-shift) in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).Prices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy.[15] The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.For a given market of a commodity, demand is the relation of the quantity that all buyers would be prepared to purchase at each unit price of the good. Demand is often represented by a table or a graph showing price and quantity demanded (as in the figure). Demand theory describes individual consumers as rationally choosing the most preferred quantity of each good, given income, prices, tastes, etc. A term for this is \"constrained utility maximization\" (with income and wealth as the constraints on demand). Here, utility refers to the hypothesized relation of each individual consumer for ranking different commodity bundles as more or less preferred.The law of demand states that, in general, price and quantity demanded in a given market are inversely related. That is, the higher the price of a product, the less of it people would be prepared to buy (other things unchanged). As the price of a commodity falls, consumers move toward it from relatively more expensive goods (the substitution effect). In addition, purchasing power from the price decline increases ability to buy (the income effect). Other factors can change demand; for example an increase in income will shift the demand curve for a normal good outward relative to the origin, as in the figure. All determinants are predominantly taken as constant factors of demand and supply.Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price. It may be represented as a table or graph relating price and quantity supplied. Producers, for example business firms, are hypothesized to be profit maximizers, meaning that they attempt to produce and supply the amount of goods that will bring them the highest profit. Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.That is, the higher the price at which the good can be sold, the more of it producers will supply, as in the figure. The higher price makes it profitable to increase production. Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement. The \"Law of Supply\" states that, in general, a rise in price leads to an expansion in supply and a fall in price leads to a contraction in supply. Here as well, the determinants of supply, such as price of substitutes, cost of production, technology applied and various factors of inputs of production are all taken to be constant for a specific time period of evaluation of supply.Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above. At a price below equilibrium, there is a shortage of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This is posited to bid the price up. At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded. This pushes the price down. The model of supply and demand predicts that for given supply and demand curves, price and quantity will stabilize at the price that makes quantity supplied equal to quantity demanded. Similarly, demand-and-supply theory predicts a new price-quantity combination from a shift in demand (as to the figure), or in supply.For a given quantity of a consumer good, the point on the demand curve indicates the value, or marginal utility, to consumers for that unit. It measures what the consumer would be prepared to pay for that unit.[16] The corresponding point on the supply curve measures marginal cost, the increase in total cost to the supplier for the corresponding unit of the good. The price in equilibrium is determined by supply and demand. In a perfectly competitive market, supply and demand equate marginal cost and marginal utility at equilibrium.[17]On the supply side of the market, some factors of production are described as (relatively) variable in the short run, which affects the cost of changing output levels. Their usage rates can be changed easily, such as electrical power, raw-material inputs, and over-time and temp work. Other inputs are relatively fixed, such as plant and equipment and key personnel. In the long run, all inputs may be adjusted by management. These distinctions translate to differences in the elasticity (responsiveness) of the supply curve in the short and long runs and corresponding differences in the price-quantity change from a shift on the supply or demand side of the market.Marginalist theory, such as above, describes the consumers as attempting to reach most-preferred positions, subject to income and wealth constraints while producers attempt to maximize profits subject to their own constraints, including demand for goods produced, technology, and the price of inputs. For the consumer, that point comes where marginal utility of a good, net of price, reaches zero, leaving no net gain from further consumption increases. Analogously, the producer compares marginal revenue (identical to price for the perfect competitor) against the marginal cost of a good, with marginal profit the difference. At the point where marginal profit reaches zero, further increases in production of the good stop. For movement to market equilibrium and for changes in equilibrium, price and quantity also change \"at the margin\": more-or-less of something, rather than necessarily all-or-nothing.Other applications of demand and supply include the distribution of income among the factors of production, including labor and capital, through factor markets. In a competitive labor market for example the quantity of labor employed and the price of labor (the wage rate) depends on the demand for labor (from employers for production) and supply of labor (from potential workers). Labor economics examines the interaction of workers and employers through such markets to explain patterns and changes of wages and other labor income, labor mobility, and (un)employment, productivity through human capital, and related public-policy issues.[18]Demand-and-supply analysis is used to explain the behavior of perfectly competitive markets, but as a standard of comparison it can be extended to any type of market. It can also be generalized to explain variables across the economy, for example, total output (estimated as real GDP) and the general price level, as studied in macroeconomics.[19] Tracing the qualitative and quantitative effects of variables that change supply and demand, whether in the short or long run, is a standard exercise in applied economics. Economic theory may also specify conditions such that supply and demand through the market is an efficient mechanism for allocating resources.[20]","title":"Microeconomic models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"market systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_system"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"market socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_socialism"},{"link_name":"state socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_socialism"},{"link_name":"economic planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_planning"},{"link_name":"negative externalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_Externalities"},{"link_name":"building codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_codes"},{"link_name":"types of markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)#Types_of_markets"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Market structure refers to features of a market, including the number of firms in the market, the distribution of market shares between them, product uniformity across firms, how easy it is for firms to enter and exit the market, and forms of competition in the market.[21][22] A market structure can have several types of interacting market systems. \nDifferent forms of markets are a feature of capitalism and market socialism, with advocates of state socialism often criticizing markets and aiming to substitute or replace markets with varying degrees of government-directed economic planning.Competition acts as a regulatory mechanism for market systems, with government providing regulations where the market cannot be expected to regulate itself. Regulations help to mitigate negative externalities of goods and services when the private equilibrium of the market does not match the social equilibrium. One example of this is with regards to building codes, which if absent in a purely competition regulated market system, might result in several horrific injuries or deaths to be required before companies would begin improving structural safety, as consumers may at first not be as concerned or aware of safety issues to begin putting pressure on companies to provide them, and companies would be motivated not to provide proper safety features due to how it would cut into their profits.The concept of \"market type\" is different from the concept of \"market structure\". Nevertheless, there are a variety of types of markets.The different market structures produce cost curves[23] based on the type of structure present. The different curves are developed based on the costs of production, specifically the graph contains marginal cost, average total cost, average variable cost, average fixed cost, and marginal revenue, which is sometimes equal to the demand, average revenue, and price in a price-taking firm.","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"market power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_power"},{"link_name":"eBay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBay"}],"sub_title":"Perfect competition","text":"Perfect competition is a situation in which numerous small firms producing identical products compete against each other in a given industry. Perfect competition leads to firms producing the socially optimal output level at the minimum possible cost per unit. Firms in perfect competition are \"price takers\" (they do not have enough market power to profitably increase the price of their goods or services). A good example would be that of digital marketplaces, such as eBay, on which many different sellers sell similar products to many different buyers. Consumers in a perfect competitive market have perfect knowledge about the products that are being sold in this market.","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Imperfect competition","text":"Imperfect competition is a type of market structure showing some but not all features of competitive markets. In perfect competition, market power is not achievable due to a high level of producers causing high levels of competition. Therefore, prices are brought down to a marginal cost level. In a monopoly, market power is achieved by one firm leading to prices being higher than the marginal cost level. [24] \nBetween these two types of markets are firms that are neither perfectly competitive or monopolistic. Firms such as Pepsi and Coke and Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft dominate the cola and video game industry respectively. These firms are in imperfect competition [25]","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"product differentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_differentiation"}],"sub_title":"Monopolistic competition","text":"Monopolistic competition is a situation in which many firms with slightly different products compete. Production costs are above what may be achieved by perfectly competitive firms, but society benefits from the product differentiation. Examples of industries with market structures similar to monopolistic competition include restaurants, cereal, clothing, shoes, and service industries in large cities.","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"natural monopolies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_monopoly"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Monopoly","text":"A monopoly is a market structure in which a market or industry is dominated by a single supplier of a particular good or service. Because monopolies have no competition, they tend to sell goods and services at a higher price and produce below the socially optimal output level. However, not all monopolies are a bad thing, especially in industries where multiple firms would result in more costs than benefits (i.e. natural monopolies).[26][27]Natural monopoly: A monopoly in an industry where one producer can produce output at a lower cost than many small producers.","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"market structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_form"},{"link_name":"market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)"},{"link_name":"industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_(economics)"},{"link_name":"collusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collusion"},{"link_name":"cartels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartel"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Game theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_theory"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Oligopoly","text":"An oligopoly is a market structure in which a market or industry is dominated by a small number of firms (oligopolists). Oligopolies can create the incentive for firms to engage in collusion and form cartels that reduce competition leading to higher prices for consumers and less overall market output.[28] Alternatively, oligopolies can be fiercely competitive and engage in flamboyant advertising campaigns.[29]Duopoly: A special case of an oligopoly, with only two firms. Game theory can elucidate behavior in duopolies and oligopolies.[30]","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Monopsony","text":"A monopsony is a market where there is only one buyer and many sellers.","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Bilateral monopoly","text":"A bilateral monopoly is a market consisting of both a monopoly (a single seller) and a monopsony (a single buyer).","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Oligopsony","text":"An oligopsony is a market where there are a few buyers and many sellers.","title":"Market structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematical economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_economics"},{"link_name":"modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_model"},{"link_name":"agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_(economics)"},{"link_name":"auctions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auction"},{"link_name":"bargaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargaining"},{"link_name":"mergers & acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_Acquisitions"},{"link_name":"fair division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_division"},{"link_name":"duopolies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duopoly"},{"link_name":"social network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network"},{"link_name":"agent-based computational economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent-based_computational_economics"},{"link_name":"general equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"mechanism design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanism_design"},{"link_name":"voting systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_system"},{"link_name":"experimental economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_economics"},{"link_name":"behavioral economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_game_theory"},{"link_name":"industrial organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_organization"},{"link_name":"political economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_economy"}],"text":"Game theory is a major method used in mathematical economics and business for modeling competing behaviors of interacting agents. The term \"game\" here implies the study of any strategic interaction between people. Applications include a wide array of economic phenomena and approaches, such as auctions, bargaining, mergers & acquisitions pricing, fair division, duopolies, oligopolies, social network formation, agent-based computational economics, general equilibrium, mechanism design, and voting systems, and across such broad areas as experimental economics, behavioral economics, information economics, industrial organization, and political economy.","title":"Game theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varian_H.R._1987-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Varian_H.R._1987-9"}],"text":"Information economics is a branch of microeconomic theory that studies how information and information systems affect an economy and economic decisions. Information has special characteristics. It is easy to create but hard to trust. It is easy to spread but hard to control. It influences many decisions. These special characteristics (as compared with other types of goods) complicate many standard economic theories.[31] The economics of information has recently become of great interest to many - possibly due to the rise of information-based companies inside the technology industry.[9] From a game theory approach, the usual constraints that agents have complete information can be loosened to further examine the consequences of having incomplete information. This gives rise to many results which are applicable to real life situations. For example, if one does loosen this assumption, then it is possible to scrutinize the actions of agents in situations of uncertainty. It is also possible to more fully understand the impacts – both positive and negative – of agents seeking out or acquiring information.[9]","title":"Information economics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_States_Capitol_Building.jpg"},{"link_name":"United States Capitol Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Building"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"economic welfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_welfare"},{"link_name":"public economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_economics"},{"link_name":"Applied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics"},{"link_name":"Economic history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history"},{"link_name":"Education economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_economics"},{"link_name":"Financial economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_economics"},{"link_name":"Health economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_economics"},{"link_name":"Industrial organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_organization"},{"link_name":"Law and economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_and_economics"},{"link_name":"Political economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_economy"},{"link_name":"Public economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_economics"},{"link_name":"tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax"},{"link_name":"Urban economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_economics"},{"link_name":"Labor economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_economics"}],"text":"United States Capitol Building: meeting place of the United States Congress, where many tax laws are passed, which directly impact economic welfare. This is studied in the subject of public economics.Applied microeconomics includes a range of specialized areas of study, many of which draw on methods from other fields.Economic history examines the evolution of the economy and economic institutions, using methods and techniques from the fields of economics, history, geography, sociology, psychology, and political science.\nEducation economics examines the organization of education provision and its implication for efficiency and equity, including the effects of education on productivity.\nFinancial economics examines topics such as the structure of optimal portfolios, the rate of return to capital, econometric analysis of security returns, and corporate financial behavior.\nHealth economics examines the organization of health care systems, including the role of the health care workforce and health insurance programs.\nIndustrial organization examines topics such as the entry and exit of firms, innovation, and the role of trademarks.\nLaw and economics applies microeconomic principles to the selection and enforcement of competing legal regimes and their relative efficiencies.\nPolitical economy examines the role of political institutions in determining policy outcomes.\nPublic economics examines the design of government tax and expenditure policies and economic effects of these policies (e.g., social insurance programs).\nUrban economics, which examines the challenges faced by cities, such as sprawl, air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and poverty, draws on the fields of urban geography and sociology.\nLabor economics examines primarily labor markets, but comprises a large range of public policy issues such as immigration, minimum wages, or inequality.","title":"Applied"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Principles of Microeconomics – free fully comprehensive Principles of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics texts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.inflateyourmind.com"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-226-17256-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-17256-9"},{"link_name":"Frank, Robert H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Frank"},{"link_name":"Labour Values and the Theory of the Firm. Part I: The Competitive Firm. Paris: EURODOS; 2009.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ssrn.com/paper=1489383"},{"link_name":"Harberger, Arnold C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Harberger"},{"link_name":"\"Microeconomics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Microeconomics.html"},{"link_name":"David R. Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_R._Henderson"},{"link_name":"Concise Encyclopedia of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"Library of Economics and Liberty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Economics_and_Liberty"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-86597-665-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86597-665-8"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"237794267","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/237794267"},{"link_name":"Value and Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_and_Capital"},{"link_name":"Hirshleifer, Jack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Hirshleifer"},{"link_name":"Hirshleifer, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hirshleifer"},{"link_name":"Mulligan, Casey B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_B._Mulligan"},{"link_name":"Chicago Price Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//home.uchicago.edu/cbm4/cpt/index.html"},{"link_name":"Philip J. Reny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_J._Reny"},{"link_name":"Mas-Colell, Andreu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreu_Mas-Colell"},{"link_name":"Perloff, Jeffrey M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_M._Perloff"},{"link_name":"Varian, Hal R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Varian"},{"link_name":"The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/microeconomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/microeconomics"}],"text":"* Bade, Robin; Michael Parkin (2001). Foundations of Microeconomics (1st paperback ed.). Addison Wesley.\nBouman, John: Principles of Microeconomics – free fully comprehensive Principles of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics texts. Columbia, Maryland, 2011\nColander, David. Microeconomics. McGraw-Hill Paperback, 7th ed.: 2008.\nDunne, Timothy; J. Bradford Jensen; Mark J. Roberts (2009). Producer Dynamics: New Evidence from Micro Data. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-17256-9.\nEaton, B. Curtis; Eaton, Diane F.; and Douglas W. Allen. Microeconomics. Prentice Hall, 5th ed.: 2002.\nFrank, Robert H.; Microeconomics and Behavior. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 6th ed.: 2006.\nFriedman, Milton. Price Theory. Aldine Transaction: 1976\nHagendorf, Klaus: Labour Values and the Theory of the Firm. Part I: The Competitive Firm. Paris: EURODOS; 2009.\nHarberger, Arnold C. (2008). \"Microeconomics\". In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0-86597-665-8. OCLC 237794267.\nHicks, John R. Value and Capital. Clarendon Press. [1939] 1946, 2nd ed.\nHirshleifer, Jack., Glazer, Amihai, and Hirshleifer, David, Price theory and applications: Decisions, markets, and information. Cambridge University Press, 7th ed.: 2005.\nJaffe, Sonia; Minton, Robert; Mulligan, Casey B.; and Murphy, Kevin M.: Chicago Price Theory. Princeton University Press, 2019\nJehle, Geoffrey A.; and Philip J. Reny. Advanced Microeconomic Theory. Addison Wesley Paperback, 2nd ed.: 2000.\nKatz, Michael L.; and Harvey S. Rosen. Microeconomics. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 3rd ed.: 1997.\nKreps, David M. A Course in Microeconomic Theory. Princeton University Press: 1990\nLandsburg, Steven. Price Theory and Applications. South-Western College Pub, 5th ed.: 2001.\nMankiw, N. Gregory. Principles of Microeconomics. South-Western Pub, 2nd ed.: 2000.\nMas-Colell, Andreu; Whinston, Michael D.; and Jerry R. Green. Microeconomic Theory. Oxford University Press, US: 1995.\nMcGuigan, James R.; Moyer, R. Charles; and Frederick H. Harris. Managerial Economics: Applications, Strategy and Tactics. South-Western Educational Publishing, 9th ed.: 2001.\nNicholson, Walter. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. South-Western College Pub, 8th ed.: 2001.\nPerloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics. Pearson – Addison Wesley, 4th ed.: 2007.\nPerloff, Jeffrey M. Microeconomics: Theory and Applications with Calculus. Pearson – Addison Wesley, 1st ed.: 2007\nPindyck, Robert S.; and Daniel L. Rubinfeld. Microeconomics. Prentice Hall, 7th ed.: 2008.\nRuffin, Roy J.; and Paul R. Gregory. Principles of Microeconomics. Addison Wesley, 7th ed.: 2000.\nVarian, Hal R. (1987). \"microeconomics,\" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 461–463.\nVarian, Hal R. Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach. W. W. Norton & Company, 8th ed.: 2009.\nVarian, Hal R. Microeconomic Analysis. W.W. Norton & Company, 3rd ed.: 1992.\nThe economic times (2023). What is Microeconomics. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/microeconomics.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Microeconomics analyzes the market mechanisms that enable buyers and sellers to establish relative prices among goods and services. Shown is a marketplace in Delhi.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Delhi_main_bazaar.jpg/300px-Delhi_main_bazaar.jpg"},{"image_text":"The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). The graph depicts a right-shift in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new market-clearing equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/220px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase (that is, right-shift) in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg/220px-Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg.png"},{"image_text":"United States Capitol Building: meeting place of the United States Congress, where many tax laws are passed, which directly impact economic welfare. This is studied in the subject of public economics.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/United_States_Capitol_Building.jpg/220px-United_States_Capitol_Building.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg"},{"title":"Business and economics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Business_and_economics"},{"title":"Macroeconomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics"},{"title":"First-order approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_approach"},{"title":"Critique of political economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy"}] | [{"reference":"Marchant, Mary A.; Snell, William M. \"Macroeconomics and International Policy Terms\" (PDF). University of Kentucky. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2007-03-18. Retrieved 2007-05-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/aec/aec75/aec75.pdf","url_text":"\"Macroeconomics and International Policy Terms\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kentucky","url_text":"University of Kentucky"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070318072324/http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/aec/aec75/aec75.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Economics Glossary\". Monroe County Women's Disability Network. Archived from the original on 2008-02-04. Retrieved 2008-02-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mcwdn.org/ECONOMICS/EcoGlossary.html","url_text":"\"Economics Glossary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080204220231/http://www.mcwdn.org/ECONOMICS/EcoGlossary.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Social Studies Standards Glossary\". New Mexico Public Education Department. Archived from the original on 2007-08-08. Retrieved 2008-02-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070808200604/http://nmlites.org/standards/socialstudies/glossary.html","url_text":"\"Social Studies Standards Glossary\""},{"url":"http://nmlites.org/standards/socialstudies/glossary.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Salanié, Bernard (2000). Microeconomics of Market Failures (1st ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262528566.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Press","url_text":"MIT Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262528566","url_text":"9780262528566"}]},{"reference":"\"Glossary\". ECON100. Archived from the original on 2006-04-11. Retrieved 2008-02-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.econ100.com/eu5e/open/glossary.html","url_text":"\"Glossary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060411174547/http://www.econ100.com/eu5e/open/glossary.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kriesler, Peter (2016), Halevi, Joseph; Harcourt, G. C.; Kriesler, Peter; Nevile, J. W. (eds.), \"Partial Equilibrium Analysis\", Post-Keynesian Essays from Down Under Volume IV: Essays on Theory: Theory and Policy in an Historical Context, London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 33–37, doi:10.1057/978-1-137-47529-9_4, ISBN 978-1-137-47529-9, retrieved 2023-07-30","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-47529-9_4","url_text":"\"Partial Equilibrium Analysis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-137-47529-9_4","url_text":"10.1057/978-1-137-47529-9_4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-47529-9","url_text":"978-1-137-47529-9"}]},{"reference":"Perloff, Jeffrey M. (2018). Microeconomics (8th ed.). New York. ISBN 978-1292215693.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1292215693","url_text":"978-1292215693"}]},{"reference":"Varian, Hal R. (1987). \"Microeconomics\". The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1212-1. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_1212-1","url_text":"10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1212-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95121-5","url_text":"978-1-349-95121-5"}]},{"reference":"De Wolff, Pieter (April 1941). \"Income Elasticity of Demand, a Micro-Economic and a Macro-Economic Interpretation\". The Economic Journal. 51 (201): 140–145. doi:10.2307/2225666. JSTOR 2225666.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2225666","url_text":"10.2307/2225666"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2225666","url_text":"2225666"}]},{"reference":"\"Principles of Microeconomics (Curtis and Irvine)\". Social Sci LibreTexts. 5 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Economics/Principles_of_Microeconomics_(Curtis_and_Irvine)","url_text":"\"Principles of Microeconomics (Curtis and Irvine)\""}]},{"reference":"Pindyck, Robert S. (2018). Microeconomics (9th ed.). Harlow, UK. ISBN 978-1292213378.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1292213378","url_text":"978-1292213378"}]},{"reference":"Brody, A. (1987). \"Prices and quantities\". In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1057/9780230226203.3325. ISBN 978-0333786765.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001748","url_text":"\"Prices and quantities\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.3325","url_text":"10.1057/9780230226203.3325"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333786765","url_text":"978-0333786765"}]},{"reference":"Baumol, William J. (28 April 2016). \"Utility and Value\". Encyclopædia Britannica.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Baumol","url_text":"Baumol, William J."},{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/topic/utility-economics","url_text":"\"Utility and Value\""}]},{"reference":"Hicks, J.R. (2001) [1939]. Value and Capital: An Inquiry into Some Fundamental Principles of Economic Theory (2nd ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-828269-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hicks","url_text":"Hicks, J.R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_and_Capital","url_text":"Value and Capital: An Inquiry into Some Fundamental Principles of Economic Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-828269-3","url_text":"978-0-19-828269-3"}]},{"reference":"Freeman, Richard B. (1987). \"Labour economics\". In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1057/9780230226203.2907. ISBN 978-0333786765.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_B._Freeman","url_text":"Freeman, Richard B."},{"url":"http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde1987_X001250","url_text":"\"Labour economics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.2907","url_text":"10.1057/9780230226203.2907"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0333786765","url_text":"978-0333786765"}]},{"reference":"Taber, Christopher; Weinberg, Bruce A. (2008). \"Labour economics (new perspectives)\". In Durlauf, Steven N.; Blume, Lawrence E. (eds.). The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics (second ed.). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 787–791. doi:10.1057/9780230226203.0914. ISBN 978-0-333-78676-5.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_L000241","url_text":"\"Labour economics (new perspectives)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230226203.0914","url_text":"10.1057/9780230226203.0914"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-78676-5","url_text":"978-0-333-78676-5"}]},{"reference":"Hicks, John R. (1963) [1932]. The Theory of Wages (2nd ed.). Macmillan.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theory_of_Wages","url_text":"The Theory of Wages"}]},{"reference":"Blanchard, Olivier (2006). \"Chapter 7: Putting All Markets Together: The AS–AD Model\". Macroeconomics (4th ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-1318-6026-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard","url_text":"Blanchard, Olivier"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1318-6026-1","url_text":"978-0-1318-6026-1"}]},{"reference":"Jordan, J.S. (October 1982). \"The Competitive Allocation Process Is Informationally Efficient Uniquely\". Journal of Economic Theory. 28 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1016/0022-0531(82)90088-6.","urls":[{"url":"http://purl.umn.edu/54971","url_text":"\"The Competitive Allocation Process Is Informationally Efficient Uniquely\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Theory","url_text":"Journal of Economic Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-0531%2882%2990088-6","url_text":"10.1016/0022-0531(82)90088-6"}]},{"reference":"McEachern, William A. (2006). Economics: A Contemporary Introduction. Thomson South-Western. pp. 166. ISBN 978-0-324-28860-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/economicscontemp0000mcea/page/166","url_text":"Economics: A Contemporary Introduction"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/economicscontemp0000mcea/page/166","url_text":"166"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-324-28860-5","url_text":"978-0-324-28860-5"}]},{"reference":"Hashimzade, Nigar; Myles, Gareth; Black, John (2017). \"market structure\". A Dictionary of Economics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875943-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198759430.001.0001/acref-9780198759430-e-1937","url_text":"\"market structure\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875943-0","url_text":"978-0-19-875943-0"}]},{"reference":"Emerson, Patrick M. (2019-10-28), \"Module 8: Cost Curves\", Intermediate Microeconomics, Oregon State University, retrieved 2021-05-13","urls":[{"url":"https://open.oregonstate.education/intermediatemicroeconomics/chapter/module-8/","url_text":"\"Module 8: Cost Curves\""}]},{"reference":"Goolsbee, Austan (2019). Microeconomics (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Learning. ISBN 978-1319325435.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1319325435","url_text":"978-1319325435"}]},{"reference":"Goolsbee, Austan (2019). Microeconomics (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan Learning. ISBN 978-1319325435.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1319325435","url_text":"978-1319325435"}]},{"reference":"\"Monopoly - Economics Help\". Economics Help. Archived from the original on 2018-03-14. Retrieved 2018-03-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.economicshelp.org/microessays/markets/monopoly/","url_text":"\"Monopoly - Economics Help\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180314104615/https://www.economicshelp.org/microessays/markets/monopoly/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Krylovskiy, Nikolay (20 January 2020). \"Natural monopolies\". Economics Online. Retrieved 2020-09-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Business_economics/Natural_monopolies.html","url_text":"\"Natural monopolies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Competition Counts\". ftstatus=live. 11 June 2013. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204132757/http://www.ftc.gov/bc/edu/pubs/consumer/general/zgen01.shtm","url_text":"\"Competition Counts\""},{"url":"https://www.ftc.gov/bc/edu/pubs/consumer/general/zgen01.shtm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Erickson, Gary M. (2009). \"Gary M. Erickson (2009). \"An Oligopoly Model of Dynamic Advertising Competition\". European Journal of Operational Research 197 (2009): 374–388\". European Journal of Operational Research. 197 (1): 374–388. doi:10.1016/j.ejor.2008.06.023.","urls":[{"url":"https://econpapers.repec.org/article/eeeejores/v_3a197_3ay_3a2009_3ai_3a1_3ap_3a374-388.htm","url_text":"\"Gary M. Erickson (2009). \"An Oligopoly Model of Dynamic Advertising Competition\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician | Mathematician | ["1 History","2 Required education","3 Activities","3.1 Applied mathematics","3.2 Pure mathematics","3.3 Mathematics teaching","3.4 Consulting","4 Occupations","5 Prizes in mathematics","6 Mathematical autobiographies","7 See also","8 Notes","9 Bibliography","10 Further reading","11 External links"] | Person with an extensive knowledge of mathematics
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Mathematician" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)MathematicianEuclid (holding calipers), Greek mathematician, known as the "Father of Geometry"OccupationOccupation typeAcademicDescriptionCompetenciesMathematics, analytical skills and critical thinking skillsEducation requiredDoctoral degree, occasionally master's degreeFields ofemploymentuniversities, private corporations, financial industry, governmentRelated jobsstatistician, actuary
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A mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change.
History
For broader coverage of this topic, see History of mathematics.
One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus (c. 624 – c. 546 BC); he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales's theorem.
The number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582 – c. 507 BC) established the Pythagorean school, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was "All is number". It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term "mathematics", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.
The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria (c. AD 350 – 415). She succeeded her father as librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics. Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).
Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and modes of funding varied based primarily on scholars. It was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs, and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated, and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences. An example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham.
The Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).
As time passed, many mathematicians gravitated towards universities. An emphasis on free thinking and experimentation had begun in Britain's oldest universities beginning in the seventeenth century at Oxford with the scientists Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle, and at Cambridge where Isaac Newton was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics & Physics. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the "regurgitation of knowledge" to "encourag productive thinking." In 1810, Humboldt convinced the king of Prussia, Fredrick William III, to build a university in Berlin based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas; the goal was to demonstrate the process of the discovery of knowledge and to teach students to "take account of fundamental laws of science in all their thinking." Thus, seminars and laboratories started to evolve.
British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge emphasized the importance of research, arguably more authentically implementing Humboldt's idea of a university than even German universities, which were subject to state authority. Overall, science (including mathematics) became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content. According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge. The German university system fostered professional, bureaucratically regulated scientific research performed in well-equipped laboratories, instead of the kind of research done by private and individual scholars in Great Britain and France. In fact, Rüegg asserts that the German system is responsible for the development of the modern research university because it focused on the idea of "freedom of scientific research, teaching and study."
Required education
Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of mathematics; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation.
Activities
Emmy Noether, mathematical theorist and teacher
Applied mathematics
Main article: Applied mathematics
Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in real life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their specialized knowledge and professional methodology, approach many of the imposing problems presented in related scientific fields. With professional focus on a wide variety of problems, theoretical systems, and localized constructs, applied mathematicians work regularly in the study and formulation of mathematical models. Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.
The discipline of applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry; thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. The term "applied mathematics" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on problems, often concrete but sometimes abstract. As professionals focused on problem solving, applied mathematicians look into the formulation, study, and use of mathematical models in science, engineering, business, and other areas of mathematical practice.
Pure mathematics
Main article: Pure mathematics
Pure mathematics is mathematics that studies entirely abstract concepts. From the eighteenth century onwards, this was a recognized category of mathematical activity, sometimes characterized as speculative mathematics, and at variance with the trend towards meeting the needs of navigation, astronomy, physics, economics, engineering, and other applications.
Another insightful view put forth is that pure mathematics is not necessarily applied mathematics: it is possible to study abstract entities with respect to their intrinsic nature, and not be concerned with how they manifest in the real world. Even though the pure and applied viewpoints are distinct philosophical positions, in practice there is much overlap in the activity of pure and applied mathematicians.
To develop accurate models for describing the real world, many applied mathematicians draw on tools and techniques that are often considered to be "pure" mathematics. On the other hand, many pure mathematicians draw on natural and social phenomena as inspiration for their abstract research.
Mathematics teaching
Many professional mathematicians also engage in the teaching of mathematics. Duties may include:
teaching university mathematics courses;
supervising undergraduate and graduate research; and
serving on academic committees.
Consulting
Many careers in mathematics outside of universities involve consulting. For instance, actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis.
As another example, mathematical finance will derive and extend the mathematical or numerical models without necessarily establishing a link to financial theory, taking observed market prices as input. Mathematical consistency is required, not compatibility with economic theory. Thus, for example, while a financial economist might study the structural reasons why a company may have a certain share price, a financial mathematician may take the share price as a given, and attempt to use stochastic calculus to obtain the corresponding value of derivatives of the stock (see: Valuation of options; Financial modeling).
Occupations
In 1938 in the United States, mathematicians were desired as teachers, calculating machine operators, mechanical engineers, accounting auditor bookkeepers, and actuary statisticians.
According to the Dictionary of Occupational Titles occupations in mathematics include the following.
Mathematician
Operations-Research Analyst
Mathematical Statistician
Mathematical Technician
Actuary
Applied Statistician
Weight Analyst
Prizes in mathematics
There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics, though sometimes mathematicians have won the Nobel Prize in a different field, such as economics or physics. Prominent prizes in mathematics include the Abel Prize, the Chern Medal, the Fields Medal, the Gauss Prize, the Nemmers Prize, the Balzan Prize, the Crafoord Prize, the Shaw Prize, the Steele Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Schock Prize, and the Nevanlinna Prize.
The American Mathematical Society, Association for Women in Mathematics, and other mathematical societies offer several prizes aimed at increasing the representation of women and minorities in the future of mathematics.
Mathematical autobiographies
Several well known mathematicians have written autobiographies in part to explain to a general audience what it is about mathematics that has made them want to devote their lives to its study. These provide some of the best glimpses into what it means to be a mathematician. The following list contains some works that are not autobiographies, but rather essays on mathematics and mathematicians with strong autobiographical elements.
The Book of My Life – Girolamo Cardano
A Mathematician's Apology - G.H. Hardy
A Mathematician's Miscellany (republished as Littlewood's miscellany) - J. E. Littlewood
I Am a Mathematician - Norbert Wiener
I Want to be a Mathematician - Paul R. Halmos
Adventures of a Mathematician - Stanislaw Ulam
Enigmas of Chance - Mark Kac
Random Curves - Neal Koblitz
Love and Math - Edward Frenkel
Mathematics Without Apologies - Michael Harris
See also
Mathematics portal
Lists of mathematicians
List of films about mathematicians
Human computer – Person performing mathematical calculations, before electronic computers became availablePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Mathematical joke – Humor about mathematics or mathematicians
A Mathematician's Apology – 1940 essay by British mathematician G. H. Hardy
Men of Mathematics – Popular history book of mathematics by E.T. Bell
Mental calculator – Person exceptionally skilled at mathematical mental calculations
Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians
Notes
^ Boyer 1991, p. 43.
^ Boyer 1991, p. 49.
^ "Medieval Sourcebook: Socrates Scholasticus: The Murder of Hypatia (late 4th Cent.) from Ecclesiastical History, Bk VI: Chap. 15". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 2014-11-19.
^ Abattouy, Renn & Weinig 2001.
^ Röhrs, "The Classical Idea of the University", Tradition and Reform of the University under an International Perspective p.20
^ Rüegg 2004, pp. 5–6.
^ Rüegg 2004, p. 12.
^ Rüegg 2004, p. 13.
^ Rüegg 2004, p. 16.
^ Rüegg 2004, pp. 17–18.
^ Rüegg 2004, p. 31.
^ See for example titles of works by Thomas Simpson from the mid-18th century: Essays on Several Curious and Useful Subjects in Speculative and Mixed Mathematicks, Miscellaneous Tracts on Some Curious and Very Interesting Subjects in Mechanics, Physical Astronomy and Speculative Mathematics.Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Simpson, Thomas" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 135.
^ Andy Magid, Letter from the Editor, in Notices of the AMS, November 2005, American Mathematical Society, p.1173. Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
^ "020 OCCUPATIONS IN MATHEMATICS". Dictionary Of Occupational Titles. Archived from the original on 2012-11-02. Retrieved 2013-01-20.
^ Cardano, Girolamo (2002), The Book of My Life (De Vita Propria Liber), The New York Review of Books, ISBN 1-59017-016-4
^ Hardy 2012
^ Littlewood, J. E. (1990) , Béla Bollobás (ed.), Littlewood's miscellany, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-33702 X
^ Wiener, Norbert (1956), I Am a Mathematician / The Later Life of a Prodigy, The M.I.T. Press, ISBN 0-262-73007-3
^ Ulam, S. M. (1976), Adventures of a Mathematician, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-14391-7
^ Kac, Mark (1987), Enigmas of Chance / An Autobiography, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05986-7
^ Harris, Michael (2015), Mathematics without apologies / portrait of a problematic vocation, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-15423-7
Bibliography
Abattouy, Mohammed; Renn, Jürgen; Weinig, Paul (2001). "Transmission as Transformation: The Translation Movements in the Medieval East and West in a Comparative Perspective". Science in Context. 14 (1–2). Cambridge University Press: 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0269889701000011. S2CID 145190232.
Boyer (1991). A History of Mathematics.
Dunham, William (1994). The Mathematical Universe. John Wiley.
Halmos, Paul (1985). I Want to Be a Mathematician. Springer-Verlag.
Hardy, G.H. (2012) . A Mathematician's Apology (Reprinted with foreword ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-60463-6. OCLC 942496876.
Rüegg, Walter (2004). "Themes". In Rüegg, Walter (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36107-1.
Further reading
Krantz, Steven G. (2012), A Mathematician comes of age, The Mathematical Association of America, ISBN 978-0-88385-578-2
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Mathematicians.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mathematicians.
Occupational Outlook: Mathematicians. Information on the occupation of mathematician from the US Department of Labor.
Sloan Career Cornerstone Center: Careers in Mathematics. Although US-centric, a useful resource for anyone interested in a career as a mathematician. Learn what mathematicians do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and more.
The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive Archived 2019-11-14 at the Wayback Machine. A comprehensive list of detailed biographies.
The Mathematics Genealogy Project Archived 2009-02-19 at the Wayback Machine. Allows scholars to follow the succession of thesis advisors for most mathematicians, living or dead.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Unsolved Problems". MathWorld.
Middle School Mathematician Project Short biographies of select mathematicians assembled by middle school students.
Career Information for Students of Math and Aspiring Mathematicians from MathMajor
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2 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"mathematical problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_problem"},{"link_name":"numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantity"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_structure"},{"link_name":"space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space"},{"link_name":"models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"link_name":"change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics#Calculus_and_analysis"}],"text":"Person with an extensive knowledge of mathematicsA mathematician is someone who uses an extensive knowledge of mathematics in their work, typically to solve mathematical problems. Mathematicians are concerned with numbers, data, quantity, structure, space, models, and change.","title":"Mathematician"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Thales of Miletus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"Thales's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"Pythagoras of Samos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras_of_Samos"},{"link_name":"Pythagorean school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_school"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hypatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"al-Khawarizmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Khawarizmi"},{"link_name":"optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics"},{"link_name":"maths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"Ibn al-Haytham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Luca Pacioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Pacioli"},{"link_name":"accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting"},{"link_name":"Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia"},{"link_name":"Gerolamo Cardano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano"},{"link_name":"Robert Recorde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Recorde"},{"link_name":"François Viète","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Vi%C3%A8te"},{"link_name":"Robert Hooke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke"},{"link_name":"Robert Boyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Lucasian Professor of Mathematics & Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Professor_of_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"Fredrick William III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_III_of_Prussia"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Schleiermacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"autonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomy"},{"link_name":"Age of Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"seminars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminars"},{"link_name":"laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratories"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"University of Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"For broader coverage of this topic, see History of mathematics.One of the earliest known mathematicians was Thales of Miletus (c. 624 – c. 546 BC); he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed.[1] He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales's theorem.The number of known mathematicians grew when Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582 – c. 507 BC) established the Pythagorean school, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was \"All is number\".[2] It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term \"mathematics\", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins.The first woman mathematician recorded by history was Hypatia of Alexandria (c. AD 350 – 415). She succeeded her father as librarian at the Great Library and wrote many works on applied mathematics. Because of a political dispute, the Christian community in Alexandria punished her, presuming she was involved, by stripping her naked and scraping off her skin with clamshells (some say roofing tiles).[3]Science and mathematics in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages followed various models and modes of funding varied based primarily on scholars. It was extensive patronage and strong intellectual policies implemented by specific rulers that allowed scientific knowledge to develop in many areas. Funding for translation of scientific texts in other languages was ongoing throughout the reign of certain caliphs,[4] and it turned out that certain scholars became experts in the works they translated, and in turn received further support for continuing to develop certain sciences. As these sciences received wider attention from the elite, more scholars were invited and funded to study particular sciences. An example of a translator and mathematician who benefited from this type of support was al-Khawarizmi. A notable feature of many scholars working under Muslim rule in medieval times is that they were often polymaths. Examples include the work on optics, maths and astronomy of Ibn al-Haytham.The Renaissance brought an increased emphasis on mathematics and science to Europe. During this period of transition from a mainly feudal and ecclesiastical culture to a predominantly secular one, many notable mathematicians had other occupations: Luca Pacioli (founder of accounting); Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (notable engineer and bookkeeper); Gerolamo Cardano (earliest founder of probability and binomial expansion); Robert Recorde (physician) and François Viète (lawyer).As time passed, many mathematicians gravitated towards universities. An emphasis on free thinking and experimentation had begun in Britain's oldest universities beginning in the seventeenth century at Oxford with the scientists Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle, and at Cambridge where Isaac Newton was Lucasian Professor of Mathematics & Physics. Moving into the 19th century, the objective of universities all across Europe evolved from teaching the \"regurgitation of knowledge\" to \"encourag[ing] productive thinking.\"[5] In 1810, Humboldt convinced the king of Prussia, Fredrick William III, to build a university in Berlin based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas; the goal was to demonstrate the process of the discovery of knowledge and to teach students to \"take account of fundamental laws of science in all their thinking.\" Thus, seminars and laboratories started to evolve.[6]British universities of this period adopted some approaches familiar to the Italian and German universities, but as they already enjoyed substantial freedoms and autonomy the changes there had begun with the Age of Enlightenment, the same influences that inspired Humboldt. The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge emphasized the importance of research, arguably more authentically implementing Humboldt's idea of a university than even German universities, which were subject to state authority.[7] Overall, science (including mathematics) became the focus of universities in the 19th and 20th centuries. Students could conduct research in seminars or laboratories and began to produce doctoral theses with more scientific content.[8] According to Humboldt, the mission of the University of Berlin was to pursue scientific knowledge.[9] The German university system fostered professional, bureaucratically regulated scientific research performed in well-equipped laboratories, instead of the kind of research done by private and individual scholars in Great Britain and France.[10] In fact, Rüegg asserts that the German system is responsible for the development of the modern research university because it focused on the idea of \"freedom of scientific research, teaching and study.\"[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"undergraduate education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate_education"},{"link_name":"graduate level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate-level"},{"link_name":"qualifying exam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualifying_exam"},{"link_name":"doctoral dissertation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctoral_dissertation"}],"text":"Mathematicians usually cover a breadth of topics within mathematics in their undergraduate education, and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of mathematics; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation.","title":"Required education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Noether.jpg"},{"link_name":"Emmy Noether","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Noether"}],"text":"Emmy Noether, mathematical theorist and teacher","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"applied mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematician"},{"link_name":"professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional"},{"link_name":"mathematical models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_models"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"applied mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematics"},{"link_name":"mathematical science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_science"},{"link_name":"professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business"}],"sub_title":"Applied mathematics","text":"Mathematicians involved with solving problems with applications in real life are called applied mathematicians. Applied mathematicians are mathematical scientists who, with their specialized knowledge and professional methodology, approach many of the imposing problems presented in related scientific fields. With professional focus on a wide variety of problems, theoretical systems, and localized constructs, applied mathematicians work regularly in the study and formulation of mathematical models. Mathematicians and applied mathematicians are considered to be two of the STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers.[citation needed]The discipline of applied mathematics concerns itself with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry; thus, \"applied mathematics\" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. The term \"applied mathematics\" also describes the professional specialty in which mathematicians work on problems, often concrete but sometimes abstract. As professionals focused on problem solving, applied mathematicians look into the formulation, study, and use of mathematical models in science, engineering, business, and other areas of mathematical practice.","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"concepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"applied mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematics"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Magid-13"}],"sub_title":"Pure mathematics","text":"Pure mathematics is mathematics that studies entirely abstract concepts. From the eighteenth century onwards, this was a recognized category of mathematical activity, sometimes characterized as speculative mathematics,[12] and at variance with the trend towards meeting the needs of navigation, astronomy, physics, economics, engineering, and other applications.Another insightful view put forth is that pure mathematics is not necessarily applied mathematics: it is possible to study abstract entities with respect to their intrinsic nature, and not be concerned with how they manifest in the real world.[13] Even though the pure and applied viewpoints are distinct philosophical positions, in practice there is much overlap in the activity of pure and applied mathematicians.To develop accurate models for describing the real world, many applied mathematicians draw on tools and techniques that are often considered to be \"pure\" mathematics. On the other hand, many pure mathematicians draw on natural and social phenomena as inspiration for their abstract research.","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Mathematics teaching","text":"Many professional mathematicians also engage in the teaching of mathematics. Duties may include:teaching university mathematics courses;\nsupervising undergraduate and graduate research; and\nserving on academic committees.","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"link_name":"numerical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis"},{"link_name":"share price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_price"},{"link_name":"stochastic calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_calculus"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_(finance)"},{"link_name":"stock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock"},{"link_name":"Valuation of options","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valuation_of_options"},{"link_name":"Financial modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_modeling#Quantitative_finance"}],"sub_title":"Consulting","text":"Many careers in mathematics outside of universities involve consulting. For instance, actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis.As another example, mathematical finance will derive and extend the mathematical or numerical models without necessarily establishing a link to financial theory, taking observed market prices as input. Mathematical consistency is required, not compatibility with economic theory. Thus, for example, while a financial economist might study the structural reasons why a company may have a certain share price, a financial mathematician may take the share price as a given, and attempt to use stochastic calculus to obtain the corresponding value of derivatives of the stock (see: Valuation of options; Financial modeling).","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Occupations_related_to_mathematics,_WPA_poster,_ca._1938.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dictionary of Occupational Titles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Occupational_Titles"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Actuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary"}],"text":"In 1938 in the United States, mathematicians were desired as teachers, calculating machine operators, mechanical engineers, accounting auditor bookkeepers, and actuary statisticians.According to the Dictionary of Occupational Titles occupations in mathematics include the following.[14]Mathematician\nOperations-Research Analyst\nMathematical Statistician\nMathematical Technician\nActuary\nApplied Statistician\nWeight Analyst","title":"Occupations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nobel Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize"},{"link_name":"Abel Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel_Prize"},{"link_name":"Chern Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chern_Medal"},{"link_name":"Fields Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal"},{"link_name":"Gauss Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss_Prize"},{"link_name":"Nemmers Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Esser_Nemmers_Prize"},{"link_name":"Balzan Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balzan_Prize"},{"link_name":"Crafoord Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crafoord_Prize"},{"link_name":"Shaw Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaw_Prize"},{"link_name":"Steele Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steele_Prize"},{"link_name":"Wolf Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Prize"},{"link_name":"Schock Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schock_Prize"},{"link_name":"Nevanlinna Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevanlinna_Prize"},{"link_name":"American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"Association for Women in Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Women_in_Mathematics"}],"text":"There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics, though sometimes mathematicians have won the Nobel Prize in a different field, such as economics or physics. Prominent prizes in mathematics include the Abel Prize, the Chern Medal, the Fields Medal, the Gauss Prize, the Nemmers Prize, the Balzan Prize, the Crafoord Prize, the Shaw Prize, the Steele Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Schock Prize, and the Nevanlinna Prize.The American Mathematical Society, Association for Women in Mathematics, and other mathematical societies offer several prizes aimed at increasing the representation of women and minorities in the future of mathematics.","title":"Prizes in mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Girolamo Cardano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Cardano"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"A Mathematician's Apology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mathematician%27s_Apology"},{"link_name":"G.H. Hardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.H._Hardy"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"A Mathematician's Miscellany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mathematician%27s_Miscellany"},{"link_name":"J. E. Littlewood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._E._Littlewood"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Norbert Wiener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Paul R. Halmos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_R._Halmos"},{"link_name":"Stanislaw Ulam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislaw_Ulam"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Mark Kac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Kac"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Neal Koblitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal_Koblitz"},{"link_name":"Love and Math","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Frenkel#Love_and_Math"},{"link_name":"Edward Frenkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Frenkel"},{"link_name":"Michael Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Harris_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Several well known mathematicians have written autobiographies in part to explain to a general audience what it is about mathematics that has made them want to devote their lives to its study. These provide some of the best glimpses into what it means to be a mathematician. The following list contains some works that are not autobiographies, but rather essays on mathematics and mathematicians with strong autobiographical elements.The Book of My Life – Girolamo Cardano[15]\nA Mathematician's Apology - G.H. Hardy[16]\nA Mathematician's Miscellany (republished as Littlewood's miscellany) - J. E. Littlewood[17]\nI Am a Mathematician - Norbert Wiener[18]\nI Want to be a Mathematician - Paul R. Halmos\nAdventures of a Mathematician - Stanislaw Ulam[19]\nEnigmas of Chance - Mark Kac[20]\nRandom Curves - Neal Koblitz\nLove and Math - Edward Frenkel\nMathematics Without Apologies - Michael Harris[21]","title":"Mathematical autobiographies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Boyer 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBoyer1991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Boyer 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBoyer1991"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Medieval Sourcebook: Socrates Scholasticus: The Murder of Hypatia (late 4th Cent.) from Ecclesiastical History, Bk VI: Chap. 15\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hypatia.html"},{"link_name":"Internet History Sourcebooks Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140814182454/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hypatia.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Abattouy, Renn & Weinig 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAbattouyRennWeinig2001"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Rüegg 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFR%C3%BCegg2004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Rüegg 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFR%C3%BCegg2004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Rüegg 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFR%C3%BCegg2004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"Rüegg 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFR%C3%BCegg2004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Rüegg 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFR%C3%BCegg2004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"Rüegg 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFR%C3%BCegg2004"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Thomas Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Simpson"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"\"Simpson, Thomas\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Simpson,_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Magid_13-0"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ams.org/notices/200510/commentary.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160303182222/http://www.ams.org/notices/200510/commentary.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"\"020 OCCUPATIONS IN MATHEMATICS\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20121102115159/http://occupationalinfo.org/defset1_3829.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//occupationalinfo.org/defset1_3829.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Cardano, Girolamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Cardano"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-59017-016-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59017-016-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Hardy 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHardy2012"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Littlewood, J. E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._E._Littlewood"},{"link_name":"Littlewood's miscellany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/littlewoodsmisce0000litt"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-33702 X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33702_X"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-262-73007-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-73007-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Adventures of a Mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/adventuresofmath0000ulam"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-684-14391-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-14391-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-05986-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-05986-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-15423-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15423-7"}],"text":"^ Boyer 1991, p. 43.\n\n^ Boyer 1991, p. 49.\n\n^ \"Medieval Sourcebook: Socrates Scholasticus: The Murder of Hypatia (late 4th Cent.) from Ecclesiastical History, Bk VI: Chap. 15\". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 2014-11-19.\n\n^ Abattouy, Renn & Weinig 2001.[page needed]\n\n^ Röhrs, \"The Classical Idea of the University\", Tradition and Reform of the University under an International Perspective p.20\n\n^ Rüegg 2004, pp. 5–6.\n\n^ Rüegg 2004, p. 12.\n\n^ Rüegg 2004, p. 13.\n\n^ Rüegg 2004, p. 16.\n\n^ Rüegg 2004, pp. 17–18.\n\n^ Rüegg 2004, p. 31.\n\n^ See for example titles of works by Thomas Simpson from the mid-18th century: Essays on Several Curious and Useful Subjects in Speculative and Mixed Mathematicks, Miscellaneous Tracts on Some Curious and Very Interesting Subjects in Mechanics, Physical Astronomy and Speculative Mathematics.Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Simpson, Thomas\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 135.\n\n^ Andy Magid, Letter from the Editor, in Notices of the AMS, November 2005, American Mathematical Society, p.1173. [1] Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ \"020 OCCUPATIONS IN MATHEMATICS\". Dictionary Of Occupational Titles. Archived from the original on 2012-11-02. Retrieved 2013-01-20.\n\n^ Cardano, Girolamo (2002), The Book of My Life (De Vita Propria Liber), The New York Review of Books, ISBN 1-59017-016-4\n\n^ Hardy 2012\n\n^ Littlewood, J. E. (1990) [Originally A Mathematician's Miscellany published in 1953], Béla Bollobás (ed.), Littlewood's miscellany, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-33702 X\n\n^ Wiener, Norbert (1956), I Am a Mathematician / The Later Life of a Prodigy, The M.I.T. Press, ISBN 0-262-73007-3\n\n^ Ulam, S. M. (1976), Adventures of a Mathematician, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-14391-7\n\n^ Kac, Mark (1987), Enigmas of Chance / An Autobiography, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-05986-7\n\n^ Harris, Michael (2015), Mathematics without apologies / portrait of a problematic vocation, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-15423-7","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S0269889701000011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0269889701000011"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"145190232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145190232"},{"link_name":"Dunham, William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Dunham_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"Hardy, G.H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.H._Hardy"},{"link_name":"A Mathematician's Apology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mathematiciansap0000hard_u4z4/"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-107-60463-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60463-6"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"942496876","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/942496876"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-36107-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36107-1"}],"text":"Abattouy, Mohammed; Renn, Jürgen; Weinig, Paul (2001). \"Transmission as Transformation: The Translation Movements in the Medieval East and West in a Comparative Perspective\". Science in Context. 14 (1–2). Cambridge University Press: 1–12. doi:10.1017/S0269889701000011. S2CID 145190232.\nBoyer (1991). A History of Mathematics.\nDunham, William (1994). The Mathematical Universe. John Wiley.\nHalmos, Paul (1985). I Want to Be a Mathematician. Springer-Verlag.\nHardy, G.H. (2012) [1940]. A Mathematician's Apology (Reprinted with foreword ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-60463-6. OCLC 942496876.\nRüegg, Walter (2004). \"Themes\". In Rüegg, Walter (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36107-1.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Krantz, Steven G.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_G._Krantz"},{"link_name":"The Mathematical Association of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Association_of_America"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-88385-578-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-578-2"}],"text":"Krantz, Steven G. (2012), A Mathematician comes of age, The Mathematical Association of America, ISBN 978-0-88385-578-2","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Emmy Noether, mathematical theorist and teacher","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Noether.jpg/220px-Noether.jpg"},{"image_text":"In 1938 in the United States, mathematicians were desired as teachers, calculating machine operators, mechanical engineers, accounting auditor bookkeepers, and actuary statisticians.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Occupations_related_to_mathematics%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1938.jpg/220px-Occupations_related_to_mathematics%2C_WPA_poster%2C_ca._1938.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg"},{"title":"Mathematics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mathematics"},{"title":"Lists of mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematicians"},{"title":"List of films about mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_mathematicians"},{"title":"Human computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computer"},{"title":"Mathematical joke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_joke"},{"title":"A Mathematician's Apology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mathematician%27s_Apology"},{"title":"Men of Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_of_Mathematics"},{"title":"Mental calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_calculator"},{"title":"Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians"}] | [{"reference":"\"Medieval Sourcebook: Socrates Scholasticus: The Murder of Hypatia (late 4th Cent.) from Ecclesiastical History, Bk VI: Chap. 15\". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Archived from the original on 2014-08-14. Retrieved 2014-11-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hypatia.html","url_text":"\"Medieval Sourcebook: Socrates Scholasticus: The Murder of Hypatia (late 4th Cent.) from Ecclesiastical History, Bk VI: Chap. 15\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_History_Sourcebooks_Project","url_text":"Internet History Sourcebooks Project"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182454/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/hypatia.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Simpson, Thomas\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). 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Retrieved 2013-01-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121102115159/http://occupationalinfo.org/defset1_3829.html","url_text":"\"020 OCCUPATIONS IN MATHEMATICS\""},{"url":"http://occupationalinfo.org/defset1_3829.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cardano, Girolamo (2002), The Book of My Life (De Vita Propria Liber), The New York Review of Books, ISBN 1-59017-016-4","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girolamo_Cardano","url_text":"Cardano, Girolamo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59017-016-4","url_text":"1-59017-016-4"}]},{"reference":"Littlewood, J. E. (1990) [Originally A Mathematician's Miscellany published in 1953], Béla Bollobás (ed.), Littlewood's miscellany, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-33702 X","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._E._Littlewood","url_text":"Littlewood, J. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Prevost_Babbage | Henry Prevost Babbage | ["1 Military career","2 References"] | Soldier and computer pioneer
Henry Prevost BabbageBorn1824Died29 January 1918AllegianceEast India CompanyService/branchBengal ArmyRankMajor generalAlma materUniversity College SchoolUniversity College LondonOther workBabbage's Calculating Engines
Henry Prevost Babbage (1824–1918) was a soldier in the Bengal Army of the East India Company. After retiring with the rank of major general, he continued the work of his father, Charles Babbage, whom he had assisted as a student. He organised and edited his father's papers and prototypes and arranged for their publication and completion. These works included Babbage's Calculating Engines (1889) and a working Analytical Engine Mill – a simplified portion of the full Analytical Engine design.
Military career
He was brevetted as a colonel in the Bengal Staff Corps on 10 June 1874.
References
^ a b c "Babbage, Maj.-Gen. Henry Prevost", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 1 December 2007, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U192968
^ Simon Schaffer (2019), "Ideas Embodied in Metal", The Whipple Museum of the History of Science: Objects and Investigations, to Celebrate the 75th Anniversary of R. S. Whipple's Gift to the University of Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 130–153, ISBN 9781108498272
^ "Brevet" (PDF), The London Gazette, p. 4203, 28 August 1874
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This computing article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
This biographical article related to the military is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bengal Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Army"},{"link_name":"East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"major general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general"},{"link_name":"Charles Babbage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage"},{"link_name":"Analytical Engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_Engine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SS-2"}],"text":"Henry Prevost Babbage (1824–1918) was a soldier in the Bengal Army of the East India Company. After retiring with the rank of major general, he continued the work of his father, Charles Babbage, whom he had assisted as a student. He organised and edited his father's papers and prototypes and arranged for their publication and completion. These works included Babbage's Calculating Engines (1889) and a working Analytical Engine Mill – a simplified portion of the full Analytical Engine design.[2]","title":"Henry Prevost Babbage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"brevetted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brevetted"},{"link_name":"colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonel"},{"link_name":"Bengal Staff Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Staff_Corps"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LG1874-3"}],"text":"He was brevetted as a colonel in the Bengal Staff Corps on 10 June 1874.[3]","title":"Military career"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Babbage, Maj.-Gen. Henry Prevost\", Who Was Who, Oxford University Press, 1 December 2007, doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U192968","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Was_Who","url_text":"Who Was Who"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fww%2F9780199540884.013.U192968","url_text":"10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U192968"}]},{"reference":"Simon Schaffer (2019), \"Ideas Embodied in Metal\", The Whipple Museum of the History of Science: Objects and Investigations, to Celebrate the 75th Anniversary of R. S. Whipple's Gift to the University of Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp. 130–153, ISBN 9781108498272","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Schaffer","url_text":"Simon Schaffer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108498272","url_text":"9781108498272"}]},{"reference":"\"Brevet\" (PDF), The London Gazette, p. 4203, 28 August 1874","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/24126/page/4203/data.pdf","url_text":"\"Brevet\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fww%2F9780199540884.013.U192968","external_links_name":"10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U192968"},{"Link":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/24126/page/4203/data.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Brevet\""},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1453795/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/000000008211700X","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/28421090","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJmXFYTMtdWphBtkrWpgKd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/13053050","external_links_name":"Norway"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007353488505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82106061","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jo2013783214&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36517279","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:babbage.henry-p","external_links_name":"zbMATH"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Prevost_Babbage&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Prevost_Babbage&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced_gravity | Induced gravity | ["1 Overview","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"] | Induced gravity (or emergent gravity) is an idea in quantum gravity that spacetime curvature and its dynamics emerge as a mean field approximation of underlying microscopic degrees of freedom, similar to the fluid mechanics approximation of Bose–Einstein condensates. The concept was originally proposed by Andrei Sakharov in 1967.
Overview
Sakharov observed that many condensed matter systems give rise to emergent phenomena that are analogous to general relativity. For example, crystal defects can look like curvature and torsion in an Einstein–Cartan spacetime. This allows one to create a theory of gravity with torsion from a world crystal model of spacetime in which the lattice spacing is of the order of a Planck length. Sakharov's idea was to start with an arbitrary background pseudo-Riemannian manifold (in modern treatments, possibly with torsion) and introduce quantum fields (matter) on it but not introduce any gravitational dynamics explicitly. This gives rise to an effective action which to one-loop order contains the Einstein–Hilbert action with a cosmological constant. In other words, general relativity arises as an emergent property of matter fields and is not put in by hand. On the other hand, such models typically predict huge cosmological constants.
Some argue that the particular models proposed by Sakharov and others have been proven impossible by the Weinberg–Witten theorem. However, models with emergent gravity are possible as long as other things, such as spacetime dimensions, emerge together with gravity. Developments in AdS/CFT correspondence after 1997 suggest that the microphysical degrees of freedom in induced gravity might be radically different. The bulk spacetime arises as an emergent phenomenon of the quantum degrees of freedom that are entangled and live in the boundary of the spacetime. According to some prominent researchers in emergent gravity (such as Mark Van Raamsdonk) spacetime is built up of quantum entanglement. This implies that quantum entanglement is the fundamental property that gives rise to spacetime. In 1995, Jacobson showed that the Einstein field equations can be derived from the first law of thermodynamics applied at local Rindler horizons. Thanu Padmanabhan and Erik Verlinde explore links between gravity and entropy, Verlinde being known for an entropic gravity proposal. The Einstein equation for gravity can emerge from the entanglement first law. In the "quantum graphity" proposal of Konopka, Markopoulu-Kalamara, Severini and Smolin, the fundamental degrees of freedom exist on a dynamical graph that is initially complete, and an effective spatial lattice structure emerges in the low-temperature limit.
See also
Black hole thermodynamics
Entropic force
Entropic gravity
List of quantum gravity researchers
Superfluid vacuum theory
Einstein–Cartan theory
References
^ H. Kleinert (1987). "Gravity as Theory of Defects in a Crystal with Only Second-Gradient Elasticity". Annalen der Physik. 44 (2): 117. Bibcode:1987AnP...499..117K. doi:10.1002/andp.19874990206.
^ Van Raamsdonk, Mark (19 June 2010). "Building up spacetime with quantum entanglement". General Relativity and Gravitation. 42 (10): 2323–2329. arXiv:1005.3035. Bibcode:2010GReGr..42.2323V. doi:10.1007/s10714-010-1034-0.
^ Jacobson, Ted (1995-08-14). "Thermodynamics of Spacetime: The Einstein Equation of State". Physical Review Letters. 75 (7): 1260–1263. arXiv:gr-qc/9504004. Bibcode:1995PhRvL..75.1260J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1260. PMID 10060248. S2CID 13223728.
^ Padmanabhan, T. (2010-04-01). "Thermodynamical Aspects of Gravity: New insights". Reports on Progress in Physics. 73 (4): 046901. arXiv:0911.5004. Bibcode:2010RPPh...73d6901P. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/73/4/046901. ISSN 0034-4885. S2CID 209835245.
^ Verlinde, Erik (2011). "On the origin of gravity and the laws of Newton". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2011 (4): 29. arXiv:1001.0785. Bibcode:2011JHEP...04..029V. doi:10.1007/jhep04(2011)029. ISSN 1029-8479. S2CID 3597565.
^ Lee, Jae-Weon; Kim, Hyeong-Chan; Lee, Jungjai (2013). "Gravity from quantum information". Journal of the Korean Physical Society. 63 (5): 1094–1098. arXiv:1001.5445. Bibcode:2013JKPS...63.1094L. doi:10.3938/jkps.63.1094. ISSN 0374-4884. S2CID 118494859.
^ Swingle, Brian; Van Raamsdonk, Mark (2014). "Universality of Gravity from Entanglement". arXiv:1405.2933 .
^ Oh, Eunseok; Park, I. Y.; Sin, Sang-Jin (2018-07-13). "Complete Einstein equations from the generalized First Law of Entanglement". Physical Review D. 98 (2): 026020. arXiv:1709.05752. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..98b6020O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.026020. S2CID 119084958.
^ Konopka, Tomasz; Markopoulou, Fotini; Smolin, Lee (2006-11-17). "Quantum Graphity". arXiv:hep-th/0611197.
^ Konopka, Tomasz; Markopoulou, Fotini; Severini, Simone (2008-05-27). "Quantum graphity: A model of emergent locality". Physical Review D. 77 (10): 104029. arXiv:0801.0861. Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77j4029K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.104029. ISSN 1550-7998. S2CID 6959359.
External links
Carlos Barcelo, Stefano Liberati, Matt Visser, Living Rev.Rel. 8:12, 2005.
D. Berenstein, Emergent Gravity from CFT, online lecture.
C. J. Hogan Quantum Indeterminacy of Emergent Spacetime, preprint
A.D. Sakharov, Vacuum Quantum Fluctuations in Curved Space and the Theory of Gravitation, 1967.
Matt Visser, Sakharov's induced gravity: a modern perspective, 2002.
H. Kleinert, Multivalued Fields in Condensed Matter, Electrodynamics, and Gravitation, 2008.
M. Brouwer et al., First test of Verlinde's theory of Emergent Gravity using Weak Gravitational Lensing measurements, 2016.
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Gravitational wave
Graviton | [{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Induced gravity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"condensed matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter"},{"link_name":"general relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"},{"link_name":"crystal defects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographic_defect"},{"link_name":"curvature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature"},{"link_name":"torsion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_tensor"},{"link_name":"Einstein–Cartan spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Cartan_theory"},{"link_name":"world crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_crystal"},{"link_name":"Planck length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_length"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"pseudo-Riemannian manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold"},{"link_name":"effective action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_action"},{"link_name":"one-loop order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-loop_order"},{"link_name":"Einstein–Hilbert action","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Hilbert_action"},{"link_name":"cosmological constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant"},{"link_name":"cosmological constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_constant"},{"link_name":"Weinberg–Witten theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weinberg%E2%80%93Witten_theorem"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"Mark Van Raamsdonk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Van_Raamsdonk"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Jacobson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Jacobson"},{"link_name":"Einstein field equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations"},{"link_name":"Rindler horizons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rindler_coordinates#The_Rindler_horizon"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Thanu Padmanabhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanu_Padmanabhan"},{"link_name":"Erik Verlinde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Verlinde"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"entropic gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropic_gravity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Markopoulu-Kalamara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotini_Markopoulou-Kalamara"},{"link_name":"Severini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Severini"},{"link_name":"Smolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Smolin"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Sakharov observed that many condensed matter systems give rise to emergent phenomena that are analogous to general relativity. For example, crystal defects can look like curvature and torsion in an Einstein–Cartan spacetime. This allows one to create a theory of gravity with torsion from a world crystal model of spacetime in which the lattice spacing is of the order of a Planck length.[1] Sakharov's idea was to start with an arbitrary background pseudo-Riemannian manifold (in modern treatments, possibly with torsion) and introduce quantum fields (matter) on it but not introduce any gravitational dynamics explicitly. This gives rise to an effective action which to one-loop order contains the Einstein–Hilbert action with a cosmological constant. In other words, general relativity arises as an emergent property of matter fields and is not put in by hand. On the other hand, such models typically predict huge cosmological constants.Some argue that the particular models proposed by Sakharov and others have been proven impossible by the Weinberg–Witten theorem. However, models with emergent gravity are possible as long as other things, such as spacetime dimensions, emerge together with gravity. Developments in AdS/CFT correspondence after 1997 suggest that the microphysical degrees of freedom in induced gravity might be radically different. The bulk spacetime arises as an emergent phenomenon of the quantum degrees of freedom that are entangled and live in the boundary of the spacetime. According to some prominent researchers in emergent gravity (such as Mark Van Raamsdonk) spacetime is built up of quantum entanglement.[2] This implies that quantum entanglement is the fundamental property that gives rise to spacetime. In 1995, Jacobson showed that the Einstein field equations can be derived from the first law of thermodynamics applied at local Rindler horizons.[3] Thanu Padmanabhan and Erik Verlinde explore links between gravity and entropy, Verlinde being known for an entropic gravity proposal.[4][5] The Einstein equation for gravity can emerge from the entanglement first law.[6][7][8] In the \"quantum graphity\" proposal of Konopka, Markopoulu-Kalamara, Severini and Smolin, the fundamental degrees of freedom exist on a dynamical graph that is initially complete, and an effective spatial lattice structure emerges in the low-temperature limit.[9][10]","title":"Overview"}] | [] | [{"title":"Black hole thermodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics"},{"title":"Entropic force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropic_force"},{"title":"Entropic gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropic_gravity"},{"title":"List of quantum gravity researchers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum_gravity_researchers"},{"title":"Superfluid vacuum theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid_vacuum_theory"},{"title":"Einstein–Cartan theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Cartan_theory"}] | [{"reference":"H. 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Y.; Sin, Sang-Jin (2018-07-13). \"Complete Einstein equations from the generalized First Law of Entanglement\". Physical Review D. 98 (2): 026020. arXiv:1709.05752. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..98b6020O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.026020. S2CID 119084958.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1709.05752","url_text":"1709.05752"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PhRvD..98b6020O","url_text":"2018PhRvD..98b6020O"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.98.026020","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.98.026020"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119084958","url_text":"119084958"}]},{"reference":"Konopka, Tomasz; Markopoulou, Fotini; Smolin, Lee (2006-11-17). \"Quantum Graphity\". arXiv:hep-th/0611197.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotini_Markopoulou-Kalamara","url_text":"Markopoulou, Fotini"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Smolin","url_text":"Smolin, Lee"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0611197","url_text":"hep-th/0611197"}]},{"reference":"Konopka, Tomasz; Markopoulou, Fotini; Severini, Simone (2008-05-27). \"Quantum graphity: A model of emergent locality\". Physical Review D. 77 (10): 104029. arXiv:0801.0861. Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77j4029K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.104029. ISSN 1550-7998. S2CID 6959359.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotini_Markopoulou-Kalamara","url_text":"Markopoulou, Fotini"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simone_Severini","url_text":"Severini, Simone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_D","url_text":"Physical Review D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/0801.0861","url_text":"0801.0861"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhRvD..77j4029K","url_text":"2008PhRvD..77j4029K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.77.104029","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.77.104029"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1550-7998","url_text":"1550-7998"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6959359","url_text":"6959359"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987AnP...499..117K","external_links_name":"1987AnP...499..117K"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.19874990206","external_links_name":"10.1002/andp.19874990206"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1005.3035","external_links_name":"1005.3035"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010GReGr..42.2323V","external_links_name":"2010GReGr..42.2323V"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10714-010-1034-0","external_links_name":"10.1007/s10714-010-1034-0"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9504004","external_links_name":"gr-qc/9504004"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995PhRvL..75.1260J","external_links_name":"1995PhRvL..75.1260J"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.75.1260","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1260"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10060248","external_links_name":"10060248"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13223728","external_links_name":"13223728"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/0911.5004","external_links_name":"0911.5004"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010RPPh...73d6901P","external_links_name":"2010RPPh...73d6901P"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0034-4885%2F73%2F4%2F046901","external_links_name":"10.1088/0034-4885/73/4/046901"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0034-4885","external_links_name":"0034-4885"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209835245","external_links_name":"209835245"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.0785","external_links_name":"1001.0785"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011JHEP...04..029V","external_links_name":"2011JHEP...04..029V"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fjhep04%282011%29029","external_links_name":"10.1007/jhep04(2011)029"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1029-8479","external_links_name":"1029-8479"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3597565","external_links_name":"3597565"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1001.5445","external_links_name":"1001.5445"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013JKPS...63.1094L","external_links_name":"2013JKPS...63.1094L"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3938%2Fjkps.63.1094","external_links_name":"10.3938/jkps.63.1094"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0374-4884","external_links_name":"0374-4884"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118494859","external_links_name":"118494859"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1405.2933","external_links_name":"1405.2933"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/archive/hep-th","external_links_name":"hep-th"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1709.05752","external_links_name":"1709.05752"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PhRvD..98b6020O","external_links_name":"2018PhRvD..98b6020O"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.98.026020","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevD.98.026020"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119084958","external_links_name":"119084958"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0611197","external_links_name":"hep-th/0611197"},{"Link":"https://arxiv.org/abs/0801.0861","external_links_name":"0801.0861"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhRvD..77j4029K","external_links_name":"2008PhRvD..77j4029K"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.77.104029","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevD.77.104029"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1550-7998","external_links_name":"1550-7998"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6959359","external_links_name":"6959359"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060913131640/http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2005-12/","external_links_name":"Carlos Barcelo, Stefano Liberati, Matt Visser, Living Rev.Rel. 8:12, 2005."},{"Link":"http://online.itp.ucsb.edu/online/strings05/berenstein","external_links_name":"D. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_saving_lamp | Energy saving lamp | [] | This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Energy saving lamp" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Energy saving lamps are sources of artificial light that employ advanced technology to reduce the amount of electricity used to generate light, relative to traditional filament-burning light bulbs.
Examples of energy saving lamps include:
Fluorescent lamps; i.e. regular and compact
a Light-emitting diode bulb
a Light-emitting Electrochemical Cell
Magnetic induction lamps | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"artificial light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_light"},{"link_name":"technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology"},{"link_name":"electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity"},{"link_name":"light bulbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_bulb"},{"link_name":"Fluorescent lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamps"},{"link_name":"regular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp_formats"},{"link_name":"compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_fluorescent_lamp"},{"link_name":"Light-emitting diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"Light-emitting Electrochemical Cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_Electrochemical_Cell"},{"link_name":"Magnetic induction lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodeless_lamp#Magnetic_induction_lamps"}],"text":"Energy saving lamps are sources of artificial light that employ advanced technology to reduce the amount of electricity used to generate light, relative to traditional filament-burning light bulbs.Examples of energy saving lamps include:Fluorescent lamps; i.e. regular and compact\na Light-emitting diode bulb\na Light-emitting Electrochemical Cell\nMagnetic induction lamps","title":"Energy saving lamp"}] | [] | null | [] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Energy+saving+lamp%22","external_links_name":"\"Energy saving lamp\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Energy+saving+lamp%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Energy+saving+lamp%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Energy+saving+lamp%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Energy+saving+lamp%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Energy+saving+lamp%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty | Afsharid dynasty | ["1 List of Afsharid monarchs","2 Family tree","3 References","4 Sources"] | 1736–1796 Iranian dynasty of Turkoman origin
This article is about the Afsharid royal dynasty. For the royal state, see Afsharid Iran.
AfsharidSeal of Nader ShahAfsharid flag under Nader ShahParent familyAfshar tribeCountryAfsharid IranPlace of originGreater Khorasan, IranFounded1736FounderNader ShahFinal rulerShahrokh ShahFinal headNader Mirza AfsharTitlesShah of IranTraditionsShia Islam (Twelver)Deposition1796
The Afsharid dynasty (Persian: افشاریان) was an Iranian dynasty founded by Nader Shah (r. 1736–1747) of the Qirqlu clan of the Turkoman Afshar tribe, ruling over the Afsharid Empire.
List of Afsharid monarchs
See also: List of kings of Persia
No.
Shah
Portrait
Reigned from
Reigned until
Time in office
Seal
Coinage
1
Nader Shah
8 March 1736
20 June 1747
11 years, 104 days
2
Adel Shah
6 July 1747
1 October 1748
1 year, 87 days
—
3
Shahrokh Shah
—
1 October 1748
14 January 1750
1 year, 105 days
—
4
Ebrahim Afshar
—
8 December 1748
June-July 1749
205 days
—
5
Shahrokh Shah
—
20 March 1750
1796
45 years, 287 days
—
Family tree
Imam Qoli(d. 1704)
Ebrahim Khan(d. 1738)Nader Shah(r. 1736–1747)1
Adel Shah(r. 1747–1748)2Ebrahim Afshar(r. 1748–1749)4Reza Qoli Mirza(b. 1719 – d.1747)
Shahrokh Shah(r. 1748–1750)3(r. 1750–1796)5
Nader Mirza(d. 1803)
References
^ a b Tucker 2012.
^ Stöber 2010.
Sources
Amanat, Abbas (1997). Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896. I. B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1845118280.
Amanat, Abbas (2017). Iran: A Modern History. Yale University Press. pp. 1–992. ISBN 978-0300112542.
Axworthy, Michael (2006). The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1850437062.
Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G. R. G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521200954.
Bulookbashi, Ali A.; Negahban, Farzin (2008). "Afshār". In Madelung, Wilferd; Daftary, Farhad (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Brill Online. ISSN 1875-9831.
Oberling, P. (1984). "AFŠĀR". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume I/6: Afghanistan–Ahriman. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 582–586. ISBN 978-0-71009-095-9.
Stöber, Georg (2010). "Afshār". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
Tucker, Ernest (2012). "Afshārids". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.
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İslâm Ansiklopedisi | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Afsharid Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afsharid_Iran"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2012-1"},{"link_name":"Nader Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nader_Shah"},{"link_name":"Turkoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)"},{"link_name":"Afshar tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afshar_people"},{"link_name":"Afsharid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afsharid_Empire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2012-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESt%C3%B6ber2010-2"}],"text":"1736–1796 Iranian dynasty of Turkoman originThis article is about the Afsharid royal dynasty. For the royal state, see Afsharid Iran.The Afsharid dynasty (Persian: افشاریان) was an Iranian[1] dynasty founded by Nader Shah (r. 1736–1747) of the Qirqlu clan of the Turkoman Afshar tribe, ruling over the Afsharid Empire.[1][2]","title":"Afsharid dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of kings of Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia"}],"text":"See also: List of kings of Persia","title":"List of Afsharid monarchs"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Family tree"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1845118280","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845118280"},{"link_name":"Amanat, Abbas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Amanat"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0300112542","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300112542"},{"link_name":"Axworthy, Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Axworthy"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1850437062","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850437062"},{"link_name":"The Cambridge History of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0521200954","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521200954"},{"link_name":"\"Afshār\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/*-COM_0190"},{"link_name":"Madelung, Wilferd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung"},{"link_name":"Daftary, Farhad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhad_Daftary"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1875-9831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9831"},{"link_name":"\"AFŠĀR\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//iranicaonline.org/articles/afsar"},{"link_name":"Yarshater, Ehsan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-71009-095-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71009-095-9"},{"link_name":"\"Afshār\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afshar-COM_23658?s.num=15&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Azeri"},{"link_name":"Krämer, Gudrun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer"},{"link_name":"Rowson, Everett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_K._Rowson"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1873-9830","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830"},{"link_name":"\"Afshārids\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afsharids-COM_23659?s.num=4&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Afsharid+dynasty"},{"link_name":"Krämer, Gudrun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer"},{"link_name":"Rowson, 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(1370–1507)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timurid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu"},{"link_name":"Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu"},{"link_name":"Safavid Empire (1501–1736)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Iran"},{"link_name":"Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afsharid_Iran"},{"link_name":"Zand Dynasty (1751–1794)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zand_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Qajar Empire (1789–1925)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_Iran"},{"link_name":"Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus"},{"link_name":"Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution"},{"link_name":"1908 bombardment of the 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pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran"},{"link_name":"2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests"},{"link_name":"2019–2020 Iranian protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Iranian_protests"},{"link_name":"2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests"},{"link_name":"2021–2022 Iranian protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iranian_protests"},{"link_name":"Ancient Persians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_Persians"},{"link_name":"Greater Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Iran"},{"link_name":"Persianization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persianization"},{"link_name":"Persianate 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Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"History of democracy in classical Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran"},{"link_name":"Military history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Electric history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electricity_in_Iran"},{"link_name":"Years in Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_years_in_Iran"},{"link_name":"Geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Borders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borders_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Iran_by_province"},{"link_name":"largest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"twin towns and sister 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great powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers"},{"link_name":"Medieval great powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers"},{"link_name":"Modern great powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers"},{"link_name":"European colonialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_colonialism"},{"link_name":"African empires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_empires"},{"link_name":"American Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_imperialism"},{"link_name":"Soviet empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_empire"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q388739#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007291446105171"},{"link_name":"İslâm Ansiklopedisi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/avsarlilar"}],"text":"Amanat, Abbas (1997). Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896. I. B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1845118280.\nAmanat, Abbas (2017). Iran: A Modern History. Yale University Press. pp. 1–992. ISBN 978-0300112542.\nAxworthy, Michael (2006). The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1850437062.\nFisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G. R. G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521200954.\nBulookbashi, Ali A.; Negahban, Farzin (2008). \"Afshār\". In Madelung, Wilferd; Daftary, Farhad (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Brill Online. ISSN 1875-9831.\nOberling, P. (1984). \"AFŠĀR\". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume I/6: Afghanistan–Ahriman. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 582–586. ISBN 978-0-71009-095-9.\nStöber, Georg (2010). \"Afshār\". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.\nTucker, Ernest (2012). \"Afshārids\". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.vteIran topicsHistoryPrehistoryAncient3400–539 BC\nKura-Araxes culture (3400–2000 BC)\nProto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC)\nElamite dynasties (2700–540 BC)\nAkkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)\nLullubi (c.2300–675 BC)\nKassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC)\nKingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC)\nNeo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC)\nUrartu (860 BC–590 BC)\nMedian Empire (678–549 BC)\nScythian Kingdom (652–625 BC)\nNeo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC)\n550 BC–AD 224\nAchaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)\nAtropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226)\nKingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)\nKingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)\nSeleucid Empire (312–63 BC)\nFrataraka (c.295–220 BC)\nKingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)\nParthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224)\nKings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)\nAD 224–651\nSasanian Empire (AD 224–651)\nMedieval andearly modern632–1090\nRashidun Caliphate (632–661)\nUmayyad Caliphate (661–750)\nAbbasid Caliphate (750–1258)\nSamanid dynasty (819–999)\nTahirid dynasty (821–873)\nAlavid dynasty (864–928)\nSaffarid dynasty (861–1003)\nZiyarid dynasty (931–1090)\nBuyid dynasty (934–1062)\n977–1432\nGhaznavid Empire (977–1186)\nGhurid dynasty (1011–1215)\nSeljuk Empire (1037–1194)\nAnushtegin dynasty (1077–1231)\nEldiguzids (1135/36-1225)\nKart dynasty (1244–1381)\nIlkhanate (1256–1335)\nMuzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393)\nJalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432)\nChobanid dynasty (1338–1357)\n1370–1925\nTimurid Empire (1370–1507)\nQara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468)\nAq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)\nSafavid Empire (1501–1736)\nAfsharid Empire (1736–1796)\nZand Dynasty (1751–1794)\nQajar Empire (1789–1925)\nKhanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)\nPersian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)\n1908 bombardment of the Majlis\nKurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)\n1921 Persian coup d'état\nArab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)\nModern1925–1979\nPahlavi dynasty (1925–1979)\nShatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)\nIran crisis of 1946\nInsurgency in Balochistan (1948–)\n1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election\n1953 coup d'état\nIranian Revolution (1979)\nIslamic Republic1979–present\nHistory (1979–)\nInterim Government (1979)\nMarch 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum\n1979 Khuzestan insurgency\nIran hostage crisis (1979–1981)\nDecember 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum\nIranian Embassy siege (1980)\nNojeh coup plot (1980)\nIran–Iraq War (1980–88)\nInterim Government of Iran (1981)\n1987 Mecca incident\nIran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988)\nKDPI insurgency (1989–1996)\nPJAK conflict (2004–)\n2009 Iranian presidential election protests\nSyrian civil war (2011–)\nInternational military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)\nJoint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)\nUnited States withdrawal (2018)\n2017–2018 Iranian protests\n2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests\nCOVID-19 pandemic\n2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests\n2019–2020 Iranian protests\n2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests\n2021–2022 Iranian protests\nSee also\nAncient Persians\nGreater Iran\nPersianization\nPersianate society\nTurco-Persian\nIndo-Persian\nIranic peoples\nlanguages\nJiroft culture\nAryans\nAzerbaijanis\nPeoples of the Caucasus\nPersians\nMonarchs of Persia\nHeads of state of Iran\nHistory of democracy in classical Iran\nMilitary history\nElectric history\nYears in Iran\nGeography\nBorders\nCities\nlargest\ntwin towns and sister cities\nEarthquakes\nEnvironmental issues\nClimate change\nIranian Azerbaijan\nIranian Balochistan\nCaspian Hyrcanian mixed forests\nCaucasus\nIranian Kurdistan\nIranian plateau\nLake Urmia\nIslands\nMountains\nProvinces\nWildlife\nPoliticsGeneral\nCensorship\nConstitution (Persian Constitutional Revolution)\nCorruption\nElections (2009 presidential)\nForeign relations\nGovernment of the Islamic Republic of Iran\nHuman rights\nChildren's rights\nLGBT\nWomen's rights\nJudicial system\nMilitary (Army\nAir Force\nNavy)\nMinistry of Intelligence\nCyberwarfare\nNuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747)\nPolitical parties\nPrinciplists\nPropaganda\nReformists\nTerrorism (state-sponsorship allegations)\nWhite Revolution (1963)\nWomen's rights movement\nCouncils\nAssembly (or Council) of Experts\nExpediency Discernment Council\nGuardian Council\nIslamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)\nLocal councils\nSupreme National Security Council\nOfficials\nAmbassadors\nPresident\nProvincial governors\nSupreme Leader\nEconomyGeneral\nBonyad (charitable trust)\nBrain drain\nCompanies (Automotive industry)\nCorruption\nEconomic Cooperation Organization (ECO)\nEconomic history\nEconomic Reform Plan\nEnergy\nEnvironmental issues\nForeign direct investment\nIntellectual property\nInternational oil bourse\nInternational rankings\nIran and the World Trade Organization\nTaxation\nMain economic laws\nEconomy of the Middle East\nMilad Tower and complex\nMilitary equipment manufactured\nNuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747)\nPrivatization\nRial (currency)\nSpace Agency\nSetad\nSupreme Audit Court\nTehran Stock Exchange\nVenture capital (Technology start-ups)\nSectors\nAgriculture (fruit)\nBanking and insurance\nCentral Bank\nShetab Banking System\nConstruction\nDefense\nHealth care (Pharmaceuticals)\nIndustry\nMining\nPetroleum (Anglo-Persian Oil Company)\nTelecommunications and IT (TCI)\nTransport (airlines\nmetro\nrailways\nshipping)\nTourism\nState-ownedcompanies\nDefense Industries Organization (DIO)\nIndustrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)\nIran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)\nIran Electronics Industries (IEI)\nNational Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)\nNational Development Fund\nPlaces\nAsaluyeh industrial corridor\nChabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone\nKish Island Free Trade Zone\nResearch centers\nSocietyDemographicsLanguages\nPersian (Farsi)\nArmenian\nAzerbaijani\nKurdish\nHebrew\nGeorgian\nNeo-Aramaic\nIranian languages\nPeoples\nIranian citizens (abroad)\nEthnic minorities\nArmenians\nAssyrians\nAzerbaijanis\nCircassians\nGeorgians\nKurds\nJews\nTurkmen\nReligion\nIslam\nBaháʼí Faith (persecution)\nChristianity\nZoroastrians (persecution)\nFreedom of religion\nOther\nCorruption\nCrime\nEducation (higher\nIntellectual movements\nscientists and scholars\nuniversities)\nInternational rankings\nNationality\nWater supply and sanitation\nWomen\nCulture\nArchitecture (Achaemenid\narchitects)\nArt (modern / contemporary)\nAstronomy\nBlogs\nCalendars (Persian New Year (Nowruz))\nFashion\nChicago Persian antiquities dispute\nCinema\nCuisine (wine)\nFolklore\nIntellectual movements\nIranians\nIranian studies\nIslam (Islamization)\nLiterature\nMedia (news agencies (student)\nnewspapers)\nMythology\nNational Jewels\nNational symbols (Imperial Anthem)\nOpium consumption\nPersian gardens\nPersian name\nPhilosophy\nPublic holidays\nScouting\nSport (football)\nMusic\nFolk\nJazz\nPop\nRap and hip-hop\nRock\nTraditional\nEy Iran\nOther topics\nScience and technology\nAnti-Iranian sentiment\nTehrangeles\n\n Category\n PortalvteEmpiresAncient(Colonies)\nAkkadian\nNeo-Sumerian\nAssyrian\nMiddle Assyrian\nNeo-Assyrian\nBabylonian\nOld Babylonian\nKassite\nNeo-Babylonian\nChinese\nQin\nHan\nJin\nDʿmt\nEgyptian\nOld Kingdom\nMiddle Kingdom\nNew Kingdom\nGoguryeo\nHarsha\nHellenistic\nMacedonian\nSeleucid\nPtolemaic\nBactrian\nIndo-Greek\nHittite\nHunnic\nWhite\nXiongnu\nIranian\nMedian\nAchaemenid\nParthian\nSasanian\nKush\nKushan\nMagadha\nHaryanka\nShaishunaga\nNanda\nMaurya\nShunga\nGupta\nPhoenician\nCarthaginian\nRoman\nWestern\nEastern\nSatavahana\nXianbei\nRouran\nPost-classical\nAragonese\nAngevin\nAyyubid\nAztec\nBenin\nBornu\nBruneian\nBulgarian\nFirst\nSecond\nBurmese\nFirst\nCalakmul\nCaliphate\nRashidun\nUmayyad\nAbbasid\nFatimid\nChalukya\nWestern\nEastern\nChinese\nSui\nTang\nLiao\nSong\nJīn\nYuan\nChola\nEthiopian\nAksum\nZagwe\nSolomonic\nGenoese\nGeorgian\nHuetar\nInca\nKannauj\nPala\nGurjara-Pratihara\nRashtrakuta\nIranian\nTahirid\nSaffarid\nSamanid\nBuyid\nJapanese\nYamato\nKamakura\nMuromachi\nEdo\nKanem\nKhmer\nLatin\nMajapahit\nMali\nMongol\nYuan\nGolden Horde\nChagatai Khanate\nIlkhanate\nMoroccan\nIdrisid\nAlmoravid\nAlmohad\nNorth Sea\nOyo\nHellenic Roman\nByzantine\nNicaea\nThessalonica\nTrebizond\nEpirus\nMorea\nRomano-Germanic\nCarolingian\nHoly Roman\nSerbian\nSinghasari\nSonghai\nSrivijaya\nTibetan\nTikal\nTiwanaku\nToltec\nTurco-Persian\nGhaznavid\nGreat Seljuk\nKhwarezmian\nTimurid\nTurkic\nFirst\nWestern\nEastern\nSecond\nUighur\nKyrgyz\nVenetian\nVietnamese\nDinh\nEarly Le\nLy\nTran\nHo\nLater Tran\nLater Le\nVijayanagara\nWagadou\nWari\nModern\nAfghan\nAshanti\nAustrian\nAustro-Hungarian\nBrazilian\nBurmese\nSecond\nThird\nCentral African\nChinese\nMing\nQing\nChina\nManchukuo\nContemporary\nEthiopian\nHaitian\nFirst\nSecond\nFrench\nFirst\nSecond\nGerman\nGerman Empire\nNazi Germany\nIndian\nIndo-Persian\nMughal\nSikh\nIranian\nSafavid\nAfsharid\nZand\nQajar\nPahlavi\nJapanese\nKorean\nMaratha\nMexican\nFirst\nSecond\nMongol\nOirat\nKhoshut\nDzungar\nKalmyk\nBogd\nMoroccan\nSaadi\n'Alawi\nOttoman\nRussian\nTsarist\nImperial\nContemporary\nSokoto\nTongan\nVietnamese\nMac\nRevival Le\nTay son\nDainam\nVietnam\nColonial\nAmerican\nBelgian\nBritish\nEnglish\nScottish\nChinese\nDanish\nDutch\nFrench\nGerman\nItalian\nJapanese\nMongol\nOmani\nPolish–Lithuanian\nCouronian\nPortuguese\nRussian\nSpanish\nSwedish\n\nLists\nEmpires\nlargest\nAncient great powers\nMedieval great powers\nModern great powers\nEuropean colonialism\nAfrican empires\nMiscellaneous\n\"Empire\" as a description of foreign policy\nAmerican Empire\nSoviet empireAuthority control databases National\nIsrael\nOther\nİslâm Ansiklopedisi","title":"Sources"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Amanat, Abbas (1997). Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896. I. B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1845118280.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845118280","url_text":"978-1845118280"}]},{"reference":"Amanat, Abbas (2017). Iran: A Modern History. Yale University Press. pp. 1–992. ISBN 978-0300112542.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Amanat","url_text":"Amanat, Abbas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300112542","url_text":"978-0300112542"}]},{"reference":"Axworthy, Michael (2006). The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1850437062.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Axworthy","url_text":"Axworthy, Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850437062","url_text":"978-1850437062"}]},{"reference":"Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G. R. G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521200954.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia","url_text":"The Cambridge History of Iran"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521200954","url_text":"0521200954"}]},{"reference":"Bulookbashi, Ali A.; Negahban, Farzin (2008). \"Afshār\". In Madelung, Wilferd; Daftary, Farhad (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Brill Online. ISSN 1875-9831.","urls":[{"url":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/*-COM_0190","url_text":"\"Afshār\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung","url_text":"Madelung, Wilferd"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farhad_Daftary","url_text":"Daftary, Farhad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9831","url_text":"1875-9831"}]},{"reference":"Oberling, P. (1984). \"AFŠĀR\". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume I/6: Afghanistan–Ahriman. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 582–586. ISBN 978-0-71009-095-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://iranicaonline.org/articles/afsar","url_text":"\"AFŠĀR\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater","url_text":"Yarshater, Ehsan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71009-095-9","url_text":"978-0-71009-095-9"}]},{"reference":"Stöber, Georg (2010). \"Afshār\". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.","urls":[{"url":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afshar-COM_23658?s.num=15&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Azeri","url_text":"\"Afshār\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer","url_text":"Krämer, Gudrun"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_K._Rowson","url_text":"Rowson, Everett"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830","url_text":"1873-9830"}]},{"reference":"Tucker, Ernest (2012). \"Afshārids\". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830.","urls":[{"url":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afsharids-COM_23659?s.num=4&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Afsharid+dynasty","url_text":"\"Afshārids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudrun_Kr%C3%A4mer","url_text":"Krämer, Gudrun"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_K._Rowson","url_text":"Rowson, Everett"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830","url_text":"1873-9830"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=H20Xt157iYUC&q=agha+muhammad+khan+invade+georgia","external_links_name":"The Cambridge History of Iran"},{"Link":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-islamica/*-COM_0190","external_links_name":"\"Afshār\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1875-9831","external_links_name":"1875-9831"},{"Link":"https://iranicaonline.org/articles/afsar","external_links_name":"\"AFŠĀR\""},{"Link":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afshar-COM_23658?s.num=15&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Azeri","external_links_name":"\"Afshār\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830","external_links_name":"1873-9830"},{"Link":"https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/afsharids-COM_23659?s.num=4&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-3&s.q=Afsharid+dynasty","external_links_name":"\"Afshārids\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1873-9830","external_links_name":"1873-9830"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007291446105171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/avsarlilar","external_links_name":"İslâm Ansiklopedisi"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betacoronavirus | Betacoronavirus | ["1 Etymology","2 Structure","3 Genome","4 Recombination","5 Pathogenesis","6 Classification","6.1 Embecovirus (lineage A)","6.2 Sarbecovirus (lineage B)","6.3 Merbecovirus (lineage C)","6.4 Nobecovirus (lineage D)","6.5 Hibecovirus","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"] | Genus of viruses
This article is about the genus of coronavirus. Not to be confused with the Beta variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19.
Betacoronavirus
Murine coronavirus (MHV) virion electron micrograph, schematic structure, and genome
Virus classification
(unranked):
Virus
Realm:
Riboviria
Kingdom:
Orthornavirae
Phylum:
Pisuviricota
Class:
Pisoniviricetes
Order:
Nidovirales
Family:
Coronaviridae
Subfamily:
Orthocoronavirinae
Genus:
Betacoronavirus
Subgenera and species
See text
Betacoronavirus (β-CoVs or Beta-CoVs) is one of four genera (Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, and Delta-) of coronaviruses. Member viruses are enveloped, positive-strand RNA viruses that infect mammals, including humans. The natural reservoir for betacoronaviruses are bats and rodents. Rodents are the reservoir for the subgenus Embecovirus, while bats are the reservoir for the other subgenera.
The coronavirus genera are each composed of varying viral lineages with the betacoronavirus genus containing four such lineages: A, B, C, D. In older literature, this genus is also known as "group 2 coronaviruses". The genus is in the subfamily Orthocoronavirinae in the family Coronaviridae, of the order Nidovirales.
The betacoronaviruses of the greatest clinical importance concerning humans are OC43 and HKU1 (which can cause the common cold) of lineage A, SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 (the causes of SARS and COVID-19 respectively) of lineage B, and MERS-CoV (the cause of MERS) of lineage C. MERS-CoV is the first betacoronavirus belonging to lineage C that is known to infect humans.
Etymology
The name "betacoronavirus" is derived from Ancient Greek βῆτα (bē̂ta, "the second letter of the Greek alphabet"), and κορώνη (korṓnē, “garland, wreath”), meaning crown, which describes the appearance of the surface projections seen under electron microscopy that resemble a solar corona. This morphology is created by the viral spike (S) peplomers, which are proteins that populate the surface of the virus and determine host tropism. The order Nidovirales is named for the Latin nidus, which means 'nest'. It refers to this order's production of a 3′-coterminal nested set of subgenomic mRNAs during infection.
Structure
MERS-CoV: structure, attachment, entrance, and genomic composition
Several structures of the spike proteins have been resolved. The receptor binding domain in the alpha- and betacoronavirus spike protein is cataloged as InterPro: IPR018548. The spike protein, a type 1 fusion machine, assembles into a trimer (PDB: 3jcl, 6acg); its core structure resembles that of paramyxovirus F (fusion) proteins. The receptor usage is not very conserved; for example, among Sarbecovirus, only a sub-lineage containing SARS share the ACE2 receptor.
The viruses of subgenera Embecovirus differ from all others in the genus in that they have an additional shorter (8 nm) spike-like protein called hemagglutinin esterase (HE) (P15776). It is believed to have been acquired from influenza C virus.
Genome
Genomes of alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses
Coronaviruses have a large genome size that ranges from 26 to 32 kilobases. The overall structure of β-CoV genome is similar to that of other CoVs, with an ORF1ab replicase polyprotein (rep, pp1ab) preceding other elements. This polyprotein is cleaved into 16 nonstructural proteins (see UniProt annotation of SARS rep, P0C6X7).
As of May 2013, GenBank has 46 published complete genomes of the α- (group 1), β- (group 2), γ- (group 3), and δ- (group 4) CoVs.
Recombination
Genetic recombination can occur when two or more viral genomes are present in the same host cell. The dromedary camel Beta-CoV HKU23 exhibits genetic diversity in the African camel population. Contributing to this diversity are several recombination events that had taken place in the past between closely related betacoronaviruses of the subgenus Embecovirus. Also the betacoronavirus, Human SARS-CoV, appears to have had a complex history of recombination between ancestral coronaviruses that were hosted in several different animal groups.
Pathogenesis
Replication cycle of viruses of genus Betacoronavirus
Alpha- and betacoronaviruses mainly infect bats, but they also infect other species like humans, camels, and rodents. Betacoronaviruses that have caused epidemics in humans generally induce fever and respiratory symptoms. They include:
SARS-CoV, causing SARS.
MERS-CoV, causing MERS.
SARS-CoV-2, causing COVID-19.
Classification
Phylogenetic tree of the lineages of genus Betacoronavirus with detail for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV
Within the genus Betacoronavirus (Group 2 CoV), four subgenera or lineages (A, B, C, and D) have traditionally been recognized. The four lineages have also been named using Greek letters or numerically. A fifth subgenus, Hibecovirus, was added more recently. Member subgenera and species include:
Embecovirus (lineage A)
Main article: Embecovirus
Betacoronavirus 1
Bovine coronavirus
Human coronavirus OC43
China Rattus coronavirus HKU24
Human coronavirus HKU1
Murine coronavirus
Mouse hepatitis virus
Myodes coronavirus 2JL14
Sarbecovirus (lineage B)
Main article: Sarbecovirus
Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV or SARS-CoV)
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1)
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1 (Bat SL-CoV-WIV1)
Bat coronavirus RaTG13
Coronaviruses
Types
Alphacoronavirus
Betacoronavirus
Gammacoronavirus
Deltacoronavirus
Diseases
Common cold
SARS
MERS
COVID-19
Vaccines
COVID-19 vaccine
Epidemics and pandemics
SARS (2002–2004)
MERS (2012-present)
COVID-19 (2019-present)
See also
Coronaviridae
Novel coronavirus
History of coronavirus
vte
Merbecovirus (lineage C)
Main article: Merbecovirus
Hedgehog coronavirus 1
Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV)
Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5
Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4
Nobecovirus (lineage D)
Main article: Nobecovirus
Eidolon bat coronavirus C704
Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1
Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9
Hibecovirus
Main article: Hibecovirus
Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013
See also
Animal viruses
References
^ Wartecki, Adrian; Rzymski, Piotr (June 2020). "On the Coronaviruses and Their Associations with the Aquatic Environment and Wastewater". Water. 12 (6): 1598. doi:10.3390/w12061598.
^ "Phylogeny of SARS-like betacoronaviruses". nextstrain. Retrieved 18 January 2020.
^ ProMED. MERS-CoV–Eastern Mediterranean (06) (http://www.promedmail.org/)
^ Memish, Z. A.; Zumla, A. I.; Al-Hakeem, R. F.; Al-Rabeeah, A. A.; Stephens, G. M. (2013). "Family Cluster of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Infections". New England Journal of Medicine. 368 (26): 2487–94. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1303729. PMID 23718156.
^ a b c Woo, Patrick C. Y.; Huang, Yi; Lau, Susanna K. P.; Yuen, Kwok-Yung (2010-08-24). "Coronavirus Genomics and Bioinformatics Analysis". Viruses. 2 (8): 1804–20. doi:10.3390/v2081803. PMC 3185738. PMID 21994708.
^ Huang, C; Qi, J; Lu, G; Wang, Q; Yuan, Y; Wu, Y; Zhang, Y; Yan, J; Gao, GF (1 November 2016). "Putative Receptor Binding Domain of Bat-Derived Coronavirus HKU9 Spike Protein: Evolution of Betacoronavirus Receptor Binding Motifs". Biochemistry. 55 (43): 5977–88. doi:10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00790. PMC 7075523. PMID 27696819.
^ Walls, Alexandra C.; Tortorici, M. Alejandra; Bosch, Berend-Jan; Frenz, Brandon; Rottier, Peter J. M.; DiMaio, Frank; Rey, Félix A.; Veesler, David (8 February 2016). "Cryo-electron microscopy structure of a coronavirus spike glycoprotein trimer". Nature. 531 (7592): 114–117. Bibcode:2016Natur.531..114W. doi:10.1038/nature16988. PMC 5018210. PMID 26855426.
^ Bakkers, Mark J. G.; Lang, Yifei; Feitsma, Louris J.; Hulswit, Ruben J. G.; Poot, Stefanie A. H. de; Vliet, Arno L. W. van; Margine, Irina; Groot-Mijnes, Jolanda D. F. de; Kuppeveld, Frank J. M. van; Langereis, Martijn A.; Huizinga, Eric G. (2017-03-08). "Betacoronavirus Adaptation to Humans Involved Progressive Loss of Hemagglutinin-Esterase Lectin Activity". Cell Host & Microbe. 21 (3): 356–366. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2017.02.008. ISSN 1931-3128. PMC 7104930. PMID 28279346.
^ a b Cotten, Matthew; Lam, Tommy T.; Watson, Simon J.; Palser, Anne L.; Petrova, Velislava; Grant, Paul; Pybus, Oliver G.; Rambaut, Andrew; Guan, Yi; Pillay, Deenan; Kellam, Paul; Nastouli, Eleni (2013-05-19). "Full-Genome Deep Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analysis of Novel Human Betacoronavirus". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 19 (5): 736–42B. doi:10.3201/eid1905.130057. PMC 3647518. PMID 23693015.
^ a b Diversity of Dromedary Camel Coronavirus HKU23 in African Camels Revealed Multiple Recombination Events among Closely Related Betacoronaviruses of the Subgenus Embecovirus. So RTY, et al. J Virol. 2019. PMID 31534035
^ Stanhope MJ, Brown JR, Amrine-Madsen H. Evidence from the evolutionary analysis of nucleotide sequences for a recombinant history of SARS-CoV. Infect Genet Evol. 2004 Mar;4(1):15-9. PMID 15019585
^ Zhang XW, Yap YL, Danchin A. Testing the hypothesis of a recombinant origin of the SARS-associated coronavirus. Arch Virol. 2005 Jan;150(1):1-20. Epub 2004 Oct 11. PMID 15480857
^ Woo, P. C.; Wang, M.; Lau, S. K.; Xu, H.; Poon, R. W.; Guo, R.; Wong, B. H.; Gao, K.; Tsoi, H. W.; Huang, Y.; Li, K. S.; Lam, C. S.; Chan, K. H.; Zheng, B. J.; Yuen, K. Y. (2007). "Comparative analysis of twelve genomes of three novel group 2c and group 2d coronaviruses reveals unique group and subgroup features". Journal of Virology. 81 (4): 1574–85. doi:10.1128/JVI.02182-06. PMC 1797546. PMID 17121802.
^ Lau, S. K.; Woo, P. C.; Yip, C. C.; Fan, R. Y.; Huang, Y.; Wang, M.; Guo, R.; Lam, C. S.; Tsang, A. K.; Lai, K. K.; Chan, K. H.; Che, X. Y.; Zheng, B. J.; Yuen, K. Y. (2012). "Isolation and characterization of a novel Betacoronavirus subgroup A coronavirus, rabbit coronavirus HKU14, from domestic rabbits". Journal of Virology. 86 (10): 5481–96. doi:10.1128/JVI.06927-11. PMC 3347282. PMID 22398294.
^ Zhang, Wei; Zheng, Xiao-Shuang; Agwanda, Bernard; Ommeh, Sheila; Zhao, Kai; Lichoti, Jacqueline; Wang, Ning; Chen, Jing; Li, Bei; Yang, Xing-Lou; Mani, Shailendra; Ngeiywa, Kisa-Juma; Zhu, Yan; Hu, Ben; Onyuok, Samson Omondi; Yan, Bing; Anderson, Danielle E.; Wang, Lin-Fa; Zhou, Peng; Shi, Zheng-Li (24 October 2019). "Serological evidence of MERS-CoV and HKU8-related CoV co-infection in Kenyan camels". Emerging Microbes & Infections. 8 (1): 1528–1534. doi:10.1080/22221751.2019.1679610. PMC 6818114. PMID 31645223.
^ Wong, Antonio C.P.; Li, Xin; Lau, Susanna K.P.; Woo, Patrick C.Y. (2019). "Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses". Viruses. 11 (2): 174. doi:10.3390/v11020174. PMC 6409556. PMID 30791586.
^ "Virus Taxonomy: 2019 Release". talk.ictvonline.org. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
External links
Coronaviruses
Viralzone: Betacoronavirus
Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR): Coronaviridae
vteTaxonomy of the CoronaviridaeHigher taxonomy: Riboviria > Orthornavirae > Pisuviricota > Pisoniviricetes > Nidovirales > Cornidovirineae > CoronaviridaeOrthocoronavirinaeAlphacoronavirusColacovirus
Bat coronavirus CDPHE15
Decacovirus
Bat coronavirus HKU10
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum alphacoronavirus HuB-2013
Duvinacovirus
Human coronavirus 229E
Luchacovirus
Lucheng Rn rat coronavirus
Minacovirus
Mink coronavirus 1
Minunacovirus
Miniopterus bat coronavirus 1
Miniopterus bat coronavirus HKU8
Myotacovirus
Myotis ricketti alphacoronavirus Sax-2011
Nyctacovirus
Nyctalus velutinus alphacoronavirus SC-2013
Pipistrellus kuhlii coronavirus 3398
Pedacovirus
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus
Scotophilus bat coronavirus 512
Rhinacovirus
Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2
Setracovirus
Human coronavirus NL63
NL63-related bat coronavirus strain BtKYNL63-9b
Soracovirus
Sorex araneus coronavirus T14
Sunacovirus
Suncus murinus coronavirus X74
Tegacovirus
Alphacoronavirus 1
Feline coronavirus
Canine coronavirus
Canine coronavirus HuPn-2018
Transmissible gastroenteritis virus
BetacoronavirusEmbecovirus
Betacoronavirus 1
Bovine coronavirus
Human coronavirus OC43
China Rattus coronavirus HKU24
Human coronavirus HKU1
Murine coronavirus
Rat coronavirus
Myodes coronavirus 2JL14
Hibecovirus
Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013
Merbecovirus
Hedgehog coronavirus 1
Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus
London1_novel CoV/2012
MERS coronavirus EMC/2012
Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5
Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4
Nobecovirus
Eidolon bat coronavirus C704
Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1
Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9
Sarbecovirus
SARS-related coronavirus
SARS-CoV-1
SARS-CoV-2
Variants
BANAL-52
Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1
RacCS203
RaTG13
RmYN02
RpYN06
SHC014-CoV
GammacoronavirusBrangacovirus
Goose coronavirus CB17
Cegacovirus
Beluga whale coronavirus SW1
Igacovirus
Avian coronavirus
Avian coronavirus 9203
Duck coronavirus 2714
DeltacoronavirusAndecovirus
Wigeon coronavirus HKU20
Buldecovirus
Bulbul coronavirus HKU11
Common moorhen coronavirus HKU21
Coronavirus HKU15
Munia coronavirus HKU13
White-eye coronavirus HKU16
Herdecovirus
Night heron coronavirus HKU19
LetovirinaeAlphaletovirusMilecovirus
Microhyla letovirus 1
Source: ICTV –– Wikispecies
Taxon identifiersBetacoronavirus
Wikidata: Q16532287
Wikispecies: Betacoronavirus
BioLib: 1552400
BOLD: 980925
CoL: 39VD
EoL: 11621308
GBIF: 10312030
IRMNG: 1452713
NCBI: 694002
WoRMS: 600314 | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Beta variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Beta_variant"},{"link_name":"Alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphacoronavirus"},{"link_name":"Gamma-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammacoronavirus"},{"link_name":"Delta-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deltacoronavirus_(genus)"},{"link_name":"coronaviruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus"},{"link_name":"enveloped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_envelope"},{"link_name":"positive-strand RNA viruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-strand_RNA_virus"},{"link_name":"mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal"},{"link_name":"humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human"},{"link_name":"natural reservoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_reservoir"},{"link_name":"Embecovirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embecovirus"},{"link_name":"bats are the reservoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_virome"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Orthocoronavirinae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthocoronavirinae"},{"link_name":"Coronaviridae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronaviridae"},{"link_name":"Nidovirales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidovirales"},{"link_name":"OC43","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_coronavirus_OC43"},{"link_name":"HKU1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_coronavirus_HKU1"},{"link_name":"common cold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-1"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2"},{"link_name":"SARS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"MERS-CoV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS-CoV"},{"link_name":"MERS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"This article is about the genus of coronavirus. Not to be confused with the Beta variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus that causes COVID-19.Betacoronavirus (β-CoVs or Beta-CoVs) is one of four genera (Alpha-, Beta-, Gamma-, and Delta-) of coronaviruses. Member viruses are enveloped, positive-strand RNA viruses that infect mammals, including humans. The natural reservoir for betacoronaviruses are bats and rodents. Rodents are the reservoir for the subgenus Embecovirus, while bats are the reservoir for the other subgenera.[1]The coronavirus genera are each composed of varying viral lineages with the betacoronavirus genus containing four such lineages: A, B, C, D. In older literature, this genus is also known as \"group 2 coronaviruses\". The genus is in the subfamily Orthocoronavirinae in the family Coronaviridae, of the order Nidovirales.The betacoronaviruses of the greatest clinical importance concerning humans are OC43 and HKU1 (which can cause the common cold) of lineage A, SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 (the causes of SARS and COVID-19 respectively) of lineage B,[2] and MERS-CoV (the cause of MERS) of lineage C. MERS-CoV is the first betacoronavirus belonging to lineage C that is known to infect humans.[3][4]","title":"Betacoronavirus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"bē̂ta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta"},{"link_name":"letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)"},{"link_name":"Greek alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet"},{"link_name":"solar corona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_corona"},{"link_name":"morphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)"},{"link_name":"spike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_spike_protein"},{"link_name":"peplomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peplomer"},{"link_name":"host tropism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_tropism"},{"link_name":"Nidovirales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidovirales"},{"link_name":"nidus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_of_infection"},{"link_name":"subgenomic mRNAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subgenomic_mRNA"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woo10-5"}],"text":"The name \"betacoronavirus\" is derived from Ancient Greek βῆτα (bē̂ta, \"the second letter of the Greek alphabet\"), and κορώνη (korṓnē, “garland, wreath”), meaning crown, which describes the appearance of the surface projections seen under electron microscopy that resemble a solar corona. This morphology is created by the viral spike (S) peplomers, which are proteins that populate the surface of the virus and determine host tropism. The order Nidovirales is named for the Latin nidus, which means 'nest'. It refers to this order's production of a 3′-coterminal nested set of subgenomic mRNAs during infection.[5]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temi_a_1624482_f0001_oc.jpg"},{"link_name":"InterPro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InterPro"},{"link_name":"IPR018548","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/IPR018548"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"type 1 fusion machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_mechanism#Class_I_Fusogens"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"3jcl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/3jcl"},{"link_name":"6acg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/6acg"},{"link_name":"paramyxovirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramyxoviridae"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Sarbecovirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarbecovirus"},{"link_name":"ACE2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACE2"},{"link_name":"hemagglutinin esterase (HE)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemagglutinin_esterase"},{"link_name":"P15776","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P15776"},{"link_name":"influenza C virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_C_virus"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woo10-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"MERS-CoV: structure, attachment, entrance, and genomic compositionSeveral structures of the spike proteins have been resolved. The receptor binding domain in the alpha- and betacoronavirus spike protein is cataloged as InterPro: IPR018548.[6] The spike protein, a type 1 fusion machine, assembles into a trimer (PDB: 3jcl, 6acg); its core structure resembles that of paramyxovirus F (fusion) proteins.[7] The receptor usage is not very conserved; for example, among Sarbecovirus, only a sub-lineage containing SARS share the ACE2 receptor.The viruses of subgenera Embecovirus differ from all others in the genus in that they have an additional shorter (8 nm) spike-like protein called hemagglutinin esterase (HE) (P15776). It is believed to have been acquired from influenza C virus.[5][8]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Temi_a_1736644_f0001_oc_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"alphacoronaviruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphacoronavirus"},{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"ORF1ab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORF1ab"},{"link_name":"nonstructural proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonstructural_protein"},{"link_name":"P0C6X7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P0C6X7"},{"link_name":"GenBank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GenBank"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lin-9"}],"text":"Genomes of alphacoronaviruses and betacoronavirusesCoronaviruses have a large genome size that ranges from 26 to 32 kilobases. The overall structure of β-CoV genome is similar to that of other CoVs, with an ORF1ab replicase polyprotein (rep, pp1ab) preceding other elements. This polyprotein is cleaved into 16 nonstructural proteins (see UniProt annotation of SARS rep, P0C6X7).As of May 2013, GenBank has 46 published complete genomes of the α- (group 1), β- (group 2), γ- (group 3), and δ- (group 4) CoVs.[9]","title":"Genome"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genetic recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination"},{"link_name":"genomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"dromedary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromedary"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-So2019-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-So2019-10"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination"},{"link_name":"coronaviruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhang2005-12"}],"text":"Genetic recombination can occur when two or more viral genomes are present in the same host cell. The dromedary camel Beta-CoV HKU23 exhibits genetic diversity in the African camel population.[10] Contributing to this diversity are several recombination events that had taken place in the past between closely related betacoronaviruses of the subgenus Embecovirus.[10] Also the betacoronavirus, Human SARS-CoV, appears to have had a complex history of recombination between ancestral coronaviruses that were hosted in several different animal groups.[11][12]","title":"Recombination"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:252779_web_coronavirus_replcycle.jpg"},{"link_name":"humans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humans"},{"link_name":"camels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camels"},{"link_name":"rodents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodents"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b1-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b2-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV"},{"link_name":"SARS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS"},{"link_name":"MERS-CoV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS-CoV"},{"link_name":"MERS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARS-CoV-2"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"}],"text":"Replication cycle of viruses of genus BetacoronavirusAlpha- and betacoronaviruses mainly infect bats, but they also infect other species like humans, camels, and rodents.[13][14][15] Betacoronaviruses that have caused epidemics in humans generally induce fever and respiratory symptoms. They include:SARS-CoV, causing SARS.\nMERS-CoV, causing MERS.\nSARS-CoV-2, causing COVID-19.","title":"Pathogenesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Journal.pone.0194527.g009.png"},{"link_name":"Phylogenetic tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree"},{"link_name":"SARS-CoV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"MERS-CoV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MERS-CoV"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woo10-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lin-9"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wong2019-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Phylogenetic tree of the lineages of genus Betacoronavirus with detail for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoVWithin the genus Betacoronavirus (Group 2 CoV), four subgenera or lineages (A, B, C, and D) have traditionally been recognized.[5] The four lineages have also been named using Greek letters or numerically.[9] A fifth subgenus, Hibecovirus, was added more recently.[16] Member subgenera and species include:[17]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Betacoronavirus 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betacoronavirus_1"},{"link_name":"Bovine coronavirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"Human coronavirus OC43","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_coronavirus_OC43"},{"link_name":"China Rattus coronavirus HKU24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Rattus_coronavirus_HKU24"},{"link_name":"Human coronavirus HKU1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_coronavirus_HKU1"},{"link_name":"Murine coronavirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murine_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"Mouse hepatitis virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_hepatitis_virus"},{"link_name":"Myodes coronavirus 2JL14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myodes_coronavirus_2JL14"}],"sub_title":"Embecovirus (lineage A)","text":"Betacoronavirus 1Bovine coronavirus\nHuman coronavirus OC43China Rattus coronavirus HKU24\nHuman coronavirus HKU1\nMurine coronavirusMouse hepatitis virusMyodes coronavirus 2JL14","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV or SARS-CoV)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome%E2%80%93related_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2"},{"link_name":"Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1 (Bat SL-CoV-WIV1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_SARS-like_coronavirus_WIV1"},{"link_name":"Bat coronavirus RaTG13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RaTG13"}],"sub_title":"Sarbecovirus (lineage B)","text":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus (SARSr-CoV or SARS-CoV)Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1)\nSevere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)\nBat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1 (Bat SL-CoV-WIV1)\nBat coronavirus RaTG13","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hedgehog coronavirus 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgehog_coronavirus_1"},{"link_name":"Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome-related_coronavirus"},{"link_name":"Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipistrellus_bat_coronavirus_HKU5"},{"link_name":"Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tylonycteris_bat_coronavirus_HKU4"}],"sub_title":"Merbecovirus (lineage C)","text":"Hedgehog coronavirus 1\nMiddle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV)\nPipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5\nTylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eidolon bat coronavirus C704","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidolon_bat_coronavirus_C704"},{"link_name":"Rousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rousettus_bat_coronavirus_GCCDC1"},{"link_name":"Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rousettus_bat_coronavirus_HKU9"}],"sub_title":"Nobecovirus (lineage D)","text":"Eidolon bat coronavirus C704\nRousettus bat coronavirus GCCDC1\nRousettus bat coronavirus HKU9","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bat_Hp-betacoronavirus_Zhejiang2013"}],"sub_title":"Hibecovirus","text":"Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013","title":"Classification"}] | [{"image_text":"MERS-CoV: structure, attachment, entrance, and genomic composition","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Temi_a_1624482_f0001_oc.jpg/220px-Temi_a_1624482_f0001_oc.jpg"},{"image_text":"Genomes of alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Temi_a_1736644_f0001_oc_%281%29.jpg/220px-Temi_a_1736644_f0001_oc_%281%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Replication cycle of viruses of genus Betacoronavirus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/252779_web_coronavirus_replcycle.jpg/220px-252779_web_coronavirus_replcycle.jpg"},{"image_text":"Phylogenetic tree of the lineages of genus Betacoronavirus with detail for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Journal.pone.0194527.g009.png/220px-Journal.pone.0194527.g009.png"}] | [{"title":"Animal viruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_virology"}] | [{"reference":"Wartecki, Adrian; Rzymski, Piotr (June 2020). \"On the Coronaviruses and Their Associations with the Aquatic Environment and Wastewater\". 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C.; Yip, C. C.; Fan, R. Y.; Huang, Y.; Wang, M.; Guo, R.; Lam, C. S.; Tsang, A. K.; Lai, K. K.; Chan, K. H.; Che, X. Y.; Zheng, B. J.; Yuen, K. Y. (2012). \"Isolation and characterization of a novel Betacoronavirus subgroup A coronavirus, rabbit coronavirus HKU14, from domestic rabbits\". Journal of Virology. 86 (10): 5481–96. doi:10.1128/JVI.06927-11. PMC 3347282. 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Emerging Microbes & Infections. 8 (1): 1528–1534. doi:10.1080/22221751.2019.1679610. PMC 6818114. PMID 31645223.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6818114","url_text":"\"Serological evidence of MERS-CoV and HKU8-related CoV co-infection in Kenyan camels\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F22221751.2019.1679610","url_text":"10.1080/22221751.2019.1679610"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6818114","url_text":"6818114"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31645223","url_text":"31645223"}]},{"reference":"Wong, Antonio C.P.; Li, Xin; Lau, Susanna K.P.; Woo, Patrick C.Y. (2019). \"Global Epidemiology of Bat Coronaviruses\". Viruses. 11 (2): 174. doi:10.3390/v11020174. PMC 6409556. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic | Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic | ["1 COVID-19 pandemic","2 Media coverage in the United States","3 Level and nature of coverage","4 Misinformation","5 By country","5.1 Canada","5.2 China","5.3 Germany","5.4 Mexico","5.5 the Netherlands","5.6 Sweden","5.7 United Kingdom","5.8 United States","6 See also","7 References"] | Aspect of viral outbreak
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For broader coverage of the pandemic's impact on the journalism industry, see Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism.Part of a series on theCOVID-19 pandemicScientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom.
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COVID-19 portalvte
Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic has varied by country, time period and media outlet. News media has simultaneously kept viewers informed about current events related to the pandemic, and contributed to misinformation or fake news.
COVID-19 pandemic
COVID-19 is a disease caused by a virus called SARS-CoV-2. Most people who contract COVID experience mild symptoms whereas others become severely ill. Elderly people and those with certain underlying medical conditions are more likely to get severely ill. There are currently four vaccines available in the United States to help prevent COVID-19: Pfizer, Moderna, Novavax, and Johnson & Johnson. They are known to be safe, effective, and reduce the risk of severe illness. The virus spreads when an infected person breathes out droplets and very small particles that contain the virus.
Media coverage in the United States
Part of a series on theCOVID-19 pandemicScientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each "ball" is an atom.
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The COVID-19 pandemic has opened a new door for social media and mental health in ways that have never existed before. Mental health is at the forefront because it has been so severely impacted by the pandemic. People who were already suffering with mental health issues is being exacerbated by the isolation. Social media has not been covered as much even though it plays such an important role whether it comes from a positive or negative light. People were able to find online communities to help them during the isolation, but it also was negative because it made people feel more separated from everyone around them. It also does not help because everyone is so invested in their social media that they forget to communicate with the humans around them in person. The COVID-19 pandemic has also been associated with mental health challenges for those who are not infected with it, including the social and economic impacts of quarantine, physical distancing, stay-at-home orders, gathering bans, nonessential business closures, and additional measures introduced to reduce community transmission of the virus. Challenges for mental health associated with COVID-19 may arise via either indirect experiences with the virus (e.g., bereavement; social isolation and loneliness; uncertainty; socioeconomic distress) or from personal infection. A number of media outlets have specifically covered deaths of anti-vaccine advocates from COVID-19, leading to disputes over the propriety of such coverage.
Level and nature of coverage
The (COVID-19) pandemic has put a tremendous strain on many countries' citizens, resources, and economies around the world. This includes the social distancing measures, travel bans, self-quarantines, and business closures are changing the very fabric of societies worldwide. With people forced out of public spaces, much of the conversation about this pandemic and the after effects now occurs online and on social media platforms.
Within January 2020, the first full month in which the outbreak was known, Time recorded 41,000 English-language articles containing the term "coronavirus", of which 19,000 made it to headlines. This was compared with the Kivu Ebola epidemic, which had 1,800 articles and 700 headlines in August 2018. Paul Levinson, a researcher in communications and media studies, attributed this wide disparity to backlash from perceived overcoverage of the 2014 Ebola outbreak, coupled with concerns regarding Chinese censorship of the coverage.
Recode reported on 17 March that, out of 3,000 high-traffic news sites, around 1 percent of published articles are related to the disease, but those articles generate around 13 percent of all views, with subtopics such as social distancing, flattening the curve and self-quarantine being particularly popular. The total number of article views itself was some 30 percent higher in mid-March 2020 compared to in mid-March 2019.
An analysis of approximately 141,000 English language news headlines related to the Coronavirus from January 15, 2020, to June 3, 2020, uncovered that 52% of headlines evoked negative sentiments while only 30% evoked positive sentiments. The authors suggest that the headlines are contributing to fear and uncertainty which is having negative health and economic outcomes. Other studies in different contexts and focused in different media have found that news have not portrayed coping strategies and health behaviors as much as they could have. Other authors suggest that news coverage has resulted in the politicization of the pandemic, has been excessively concerned for the performance of political actors over the provision of scientific and self-efficacy information, and has been highly polarized.
A November 2020 paper from the National Bureau of Economic Research titled "Why Is All COVID-19 News Bad News?" found that 91% of stories by major American media outlets about COVID-19 have a negative tone compared to 54% for major media outlets outside the United States and 65% for scientific journals.
Issues with misinformation and fake news led to the development of CoVerifi, a platform that has the potential to help address the COVID-19 "infodemic".
It has been claimed that the extended and prolonged coverage of the pandemic may have contributed to a COVID-19 information fatigue, making it more difficult to communicate updated information. Media experts say the challenge for some news outlets is accurately conveying the nuance of pandemic science to the public. The public who are now being asked to resume mask wearing in some parts of the country and as the delta variant sends cases soaring among the unvaccinated.
Misinformation
Main article: Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic
In January 2020, the World Health Organization declared that an "infodemic" of false information was helping the virus propagate. Academics documented the spread of fake news and other disinformation and theorize it within particular national and transcultural contexts and trends. The number of outlets and entities, from traditional journalism to social media, covering the COVID-19 pandemic will surely prove to have been a source of misinformation and confusion related to virus spread information and national and state policies. Dr. Sylvie Briand, Director of Global Infectious Hazards Preparedness Department of the World Health Organization, mentioned that one of the major concerns related to communication challenges is the role of social media. Briand stated that the WHO is carefully monitoring the coronavirus infodemic on social media utilizing artificial intelligence. According to Pew Research Center the most popular sources of news for adults in the United States include news websites and social media. Also, Twitter is recorded as having the highest number of news focused users among other social media outlets Romanian scholar Sofia Bratu conducted a study which considered individuals' perception of the source of fake news by surveying nearly 5000 U.S. citizens and analyzing data from The Economist, Gallup, Pew Research Center, YouGov, among other reputable survey organizations. Scholars suggest that misinformation is to blame for escalated stress reactions, physical and mental health declines related to stress, and increased burden on healthcare facilities with patients who are not truly exhibiting symptoms or are exhibiting symptoms as an adverse reaction to false cures and treatments. However, Brafu does mention that televised interviews with COVID-19 survivors may in fact assist in alleviating stress, panic, and fear of death.
Others argue that newsrooms should play a role in filtering misinformation before 'giving it oxygen'. While not all fake news is putting the health and safety of the people at risk, information related to COVID-19 could. Niemen Reports suggests that newsrooms should be working collaboratively to deliver consistent messages related to false and inaccurate information by choosing headlines, wording, and images carefully.
An example of fake news related to the COVID-19 pandemic was that the virus could be spread via 5G. Another, that the virus was manually created in a lab by government leaders or that consuming chlorine dioxide would treat or prevent the virus. Other viral pieces of misinformation include that Vitamin C and garlic could cure the virus even though this claim was never substantiated by health professionals. Misinformation has also led to racial discrimination and displays of xenophobia toward Chinese individuals through the referral of the disease as the "Chinese virus pandemonium" or "Wuhan Virus" or "China Virus". As a result of this misinformation several fact checking websites have appeared which utilize information from the CDC and WHO to debunk common viral information.
By country
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (February 2022)
Canada
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in Canada
The first confirmed case of COVID-19, as reported by the Canadian Healthcare Network, was January 25, 2020 in a Toronto man who had recently traveled to Wuhan, China. The first case was announced on Toronto Public Health Officials' Twitter account.
China
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China
The Chinese government has received significant criticism for its censoring of the extent of the outbreak. Immediately following the initial quarantine of Wuhan and nearby cities, Chinese state media such as the People's Daily initially encouraged social media posts seeking help between citizens on platforms such as Weibo. Multiple journalists then published investigative pieces contradicting official statements and media, indicating that the number of cases in Wuhan is significantly larger than is reported.
Germany
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in Germany
The first cases of COVID-19 were identified in Germany in January 2020. Controversy erupted over a January 2021 article published by the German newspaper Handelsblatt. The article stated that the AstraZeneca vaccine was not effective for older adults, but many responded saying the newspaper provided incorrect data.
In March 2023, a radio report on "The failure of science journalism in the pandemic broadcast" (germ.: Das Versagen des Wissenschaftsjournalismus in der Pandemie) was broadcast by the German public radio station Deutschlandfunk Kultur.
Mexico
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico
Studies on the media framing of COVID-19 in Mexico claim newscasts and newspapers focused on the political side of the pandemic rather than on providing scientific and self-efficacy information. Television was the medium most used by Mexicans for getting information about COVID-19. Heavy social media users were more likely to believe in fake news, and to distrust media.
the Netherlands
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands
A study that focused on newspaper reporting about the situation in hospitals during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands found that there was no indication for the presence of misinformation in newspaper reporting, stating that newspapers can be a credible source of information. However, the authors did note that certain aspects received significantly more or less attention in newspaper articles compared to what hospitals themselves focused on. They attribute this to Gatekeeping (communication), whereby journalists deem some aspects are more relevant to the general public than others.
Sweden
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden
The first case of COVID-19 was identified in Sweden on February 4, 2020. The most media coverage of Sweden occurred in early March. Sweden received a great deal of media attention because it was considered to be using its own plan, the 'Swedish Model' of herd immunity. Research has looked at the nature of media coverage and how Swedish policy was covered by the news media. Rachel Irwin, a researcher from Sweden, found there were six main themes: "(1) Life is normal in Sweden, (2) Sweden has a herd immunity strategy, (3) Sweden is not following expert advice, (4) Sweden is not following WHO recommendations (5) the Swedish approach is failing and (6) Swedes trust the government." She comments that not all of the information was framed correctly. She wrote a letter to the British Medical Journal stating that media coverage has inaccurately portrayed the COVID-19 policies in Sweden and that it did not have a "herd immunity" plan. Another article suggests that as other countries came up with different policies the Swedish policy model went from "bold to pariah".
United Kingdom
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom
The first confirmed case in the UK, as reported by GOV.UK, was January 30, 2020. In reporting about the outbreak, British tabloid newspapers such as The Sun and the Daily Mail used language described as "fear-inducing". According to Edelman's Trust Barometer, journalists were the least-trusted source for information regarding the pandemic in the UK, with 43 percent out of the surveyed trusting them to report the truth, behind government officials (48%) and "most-affected countries" (46%). This was despite conventional media being the primary source of information regarding the pandemic in the UK.
A study conducted in May 2020 in association with the University of Oxford showed that the UK public is exhibiting declining trust in the government as a source of information. Only 48% rated the government relatively trustworthy, which is down from 67% six weeks earlier. Moreover, 38% of people are stating that they are concerned false or misleading COVID-19 information from the government, a figure which was only 27% six weeks earlier.
United States
Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in the United States
The first confirmed case in the United States, as reported by the CDC, was January 22, 2020. News coverage in the U.S. has been more negative than in other countries, but has also helped promote safety behaviors including social distancing. Local news has played an important role in keeping communities informed, including in rural areas.
Some journalists in the U.S. have been praised for their coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic including Ed Yong and Helen Branswell. Among media scholars, many elements of mainstream journalists' efforts to adapt to the pandemic and provide reliable information to their audience have been praised, but some have been criticized. Writing for The Atlantic, Ed Yong noted that, as the pandemic unfolded, "drawn to novelty, journalists gave oxygen to fringe anti-lockdown protests while most Americans quietly stayed home". He also faulted that they "wrote up every incremental scientific claim, even those that hadn't been verified or peer-reviewed."
President Donald Trump initially accused media outlets such as CNN of "doing everything they can to instill fear in people", a statement echoed by Acting White House Chief of Staff Mick Mulvaney. Where people get their news has played an important role in people's attitudes and behaviors related to COVID-19. An Axios survey, conducted from 5 March 2020 to 9 March, found that 62% of Republican supporters believed that the outbreak's coverage by media is exaggerated, compared to 31% of Democratic supporters and 35% of independents. A Pew Research survey conducted from 20 April to 26 April found that 69% of U.S. respondents believed that the news media have covered the outbreak "very well" or "somewhat well" and that the number of U.S. respondents who believed the media have exaggerated COVID-19 risks had somewhat decreased. The survey also found that 68% of Republican supporters believed that the news media exaggerated COVID-19 risks, compared to 48% of all U.S. adults and 30% of Democratic supporters. Overall, coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US was substantially more negative than in other parts of the world—regardless of whether the news outlet was considered right-leaning or left-leaning. In hindsight, a study by Ángel Torres and collaborators on misinformation during the pandemic suggests that further progress is needed regarding the transparency of the verification process of independent third-party fact checkers.
Opinion hosts and guests on Fox News, a conservative media outlet, initially downplayed the disease outbreak, with some guests accusing other media outlets of overplaying the disease for political reasons. Trump also used interviews with the network to promote his early efforts to downplay the virus. One Fox Business host, Trish Regan, claimed on her show Trish Regan Primetime that COVID-19 media coverage was deliberately created by the Democratic Party as a "mass hysteria to encourage a market sell-off", and was "yet another attempt to impeach the president". Her program would later be cancelled. Tucker Carlson initially took a much more serious position regarding the disease, criticizing other hosts which compared it with ordinary seasonal flu, and stating on 9 March that "people you trust — people you probably voted for — have spent weeks minimizing what is clearly a very serious problem." Later on, the network's pundits began to endorse claims that hydroxychloroquine was an effective treatment for COVID-19 symptoms, criticize the wearing of face masks to control spread, and provide positive coverage to anti-lockdown protests.
According to study published by Cambridge University Press in May 2020, right-wing media coverage of COVID-19 helped facilitate the spread of misinformation about the pandemic.
See also
COVID-19 pandemic on social media
Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism
Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic
References
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^ Irwin RE (2020-08-03). "Misleading media coverage of Sweden's response to covid-19". BMJ. 370: m3031. doi:10.1136/bmj.m3031. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 32747388.
^ Simons G (2020-11-12). "Swedish Government and Country Image during the International Media Coverage of the Coronavirus Pandemic Strategy: From Bold to Pariah". Journalism and Media. 1 (1): 41–58. doi:10.3390/journalmedia1010004. ISSN 2673-5172.
^ Wahl-Jorgensen K (14 February 2020). "Coronavirus: how media coverage of epidemics often stokes fear and panic". The Conversation. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
^ Tobitt C (20 March 2020). "Coronavirus: Public distrust journalists despite relying on news media for daily updates, survey shows". Press Gazette. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
^ Fletcher R, Kalogeropoulos A, Nielsen RK (2020-06-01). "Trust in UK Government and News Media COVID-19 Information Down, Concerns Over Misinformation from Government and Politicians Up". Rochester, NY. SSRN 3633002. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Calgary O. "United States COVID-19 Cases and Deaths by State over Time | Data | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention". data.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-10-23.
^ Goldstein S. "U.S. media is far more pessimistic in covering the coronavirus pandemic than anyone else". MarketWatch. Retrieved 2021-02-26.
^ Jiang X, Hwang J, Shah DV, Ghosh S, Brauer M (2021-01-13). "News Attention and Social-Distancing Behavior Amid COVID-19: How Media Trust and Social Norms Moderate a Mediated Relationship". Health Communication. 37 (6): 768–777. doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1868064. ISSN 1041-0236. PMC 9107940. PMID 33438450.
^ Kim E, Shepherd ME, Clinton JD (2020-09-08). "The effect of big-city news on rural America during the COVID-19 pandemic". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (36): 22009–22014. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11722009K. doi:10.1073/pnas.2009384117. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7486744. PMID 32820075.
^ Yong E. "How the Pandemic Defeated America". The Atlantic. No. September 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
^ Karni A (28 February 2020). "Trump Criticizes Media for Coverage of Coronavirus". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 March 2020.
^ "Cable TV and Coronavirus: How Americans perceive the outbreak and view media coverage differ by main news source". Pew Research Center's Journalism Project. 2020-04-01. Retrieved 2021-02-26.
^ "Republicans are twice as likely as Democrats to view coronavirus coverage as exaggerated". Axios. 10 March 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2020.
^ a b Jurkowitz M, Mitchell A (2020-05-06). "Fewer Americans now say media exaggerated COVID-19 risks, but big partisan gaps persist". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
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vteCOVID-19 pandemic
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2020
2021
2022
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EuropeUnited Kingdom
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January–June 2020
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government response
response
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impact
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By location
England
timeline
2020
January–June
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2021
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timeline
2020
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timeline
2020
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2020
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Belarus
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2020
2021
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Russia
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January–June 2020
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government responses
political impact
Turkey
timeline
Ukraine
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2020
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economic impact
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Italy
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Canada
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timeline
2020
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January–June
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2022
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Tasmania
Victoria
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New Zealand
timeline
2020
2021
2022
2023
economic impact
government response
Alert levels
Traffic light system
social impact
managed isolation
SouthAmerica
Argentina
statistics
human rights
Bolivia
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statistics
Easter Island
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timeline
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statistics
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Others
Antarctica
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Charles de Gaulle
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ImpactCulture and entertainmentArts andcultural heritage
References in popular culture
Cinema
films affected
Corona-chan
Disney
Fashion industry
Music industry
Performing arts
Television
U.S.
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programs affected
Video games
Education
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Homeschooling
By country
Ghana
Ireland
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exam grading controversy
United States
Sports
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By country
Ireland
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By sport
Association football
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Society and rightsSocial impact
Social media
Stigma
COVID-19 parties
Children
foster care in the U.S.
Pandemic baking
Labor
Healthcare workers
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Strikes
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Hong Kong
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Legal
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Crime
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Minority
Gender
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Xenophobia and racism
Religion
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By country
Canada
India
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COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment
Malaysia
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Russia
U.K.
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By industry
Aviation
Airlines
Cannabis industry
Food industry
meat industry in Canada
meat industry in the U.S.
restaurant industry in the U.S.
Hospitals
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Mink farming
Public transport
Retail
Tourism
Supply and trade
Shortages
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Energy
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Inflation
Information
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Media coverage
Wikipedia's response
Misinformation
Governments
China
United States
By country
Canada
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Plandemic
Politics
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Political impact
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Protests
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Argentina
Australia
Convoy to Canberra
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Brazil
2020 protests
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Bulgaria
Canada
convoy protest
Chile
China
Beijing Sitong Bridge protest
healthcare reform protests
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Yellow vests protests
labor protests
French West Indies social unrest
convoy protest
Germany
Idar-Oberstein shooting
Greece
Israel
protests against Benjamin Netanyahu
Italy
Mongolia
Netherlands
curfew riots
New Zealand
Wellington protest
Paraguay
Serbia
Tunisia
United Kingdom
United States
Open the States
International relations
Aid
Italy
Moldovan–Romanian collaboration
Nicaragua–Taiwan relations
Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan
Vaccine diplomacy
Language
Anthropause
Doomscrolling
Flattening the curve
Green recovery
Long COVID
Quarantini
Social distancing
Superspreader
Twindemic
Zero-COVID
Zoom
Zoom towns
Others
Animals
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Environment
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Pregnant women
Science and technology
Health issuesMedical topics
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Symptoms
Cancer
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Skin manifestations
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neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes
Pregnancy
Non-COVID-19–related health issues
Shortages
Raise the line
Rehabilitation
Unproven medical methods
Testing andepidemiology
Datasets
Death rates by country
Disease testing
Breathalyzer
Operation Moonshot
Test to Release
UK Rapid Test Consortium
AbC-19 rapid antibody test
investigations into the origins
lab leak theory
Rapid antigen test
Software
Surveillance
Undercounting COVID-19 deaths
Apps
Aarogya Setu
BlueTrace
careFIJI
Coronavirus Australia
Corona-Warn-App
COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application
COVID Alert (Canada)
COVID AlertSA (South Africa)
COVIDSafe
COVID Tracker Ireland
Covid Watch
Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing
Exposure Notification
Health Code
Healthy Together
Immuni
Koronavilkku
LeaveHomeSafe
MySejahtera
NHS COVID-19
NZ COVID Tracer
NZ Pass Verifier
PathCheck
PeduliLindungi
SafeEntry
SafePass
StaySafe.ph
SwissCovid
TCN Protocol
Test, Trace, Protect
Thai Chana
TousAntiCovid
TraceTogether
Valtrace
Zoe Health Study
Prevention
Air purifier (Corsi–Rosenthal Box)
Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine
COVID fatigue
Evacuations
Face masks
Anti-mask sentiment
United States
Flattening the curve
Great Barrington Declaration
International aid
Lockdowns
Public health mitigation
Safe Hands Challenge
Social distancing
Workplace hazard controls
Zero-COVID
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Authorizations
Clinical research
Deployment
Development
EU Certificate
Misinformation and hesitancy
Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates
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Operation Warp Speed (U.S.)
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AuthorizedDNA
ZyCoV-D
Inactivated
Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences
CoronaVac
Covaxin
COVIran Barekat
CoviVac (Russia)
FAKHRAVAC
Minhai
QazCovid-in
Sinopharm BIBP
Sinopharm WIBP
Turkovac
Valneva
mRNA
Moderna
Pfizer–BioNTech
Subunit
Abdala
Corbevax (Bio E COVID-19)
COVAX-19
EpiVacCorona
IndoVac
MVC
Noora
Novavax
Razi Cov Pars
Sinopharm CNBG
Soberana 02
Soberana Plus
ZF2001 (Zifivax)
Viral vector
Convidecia
Janssen
Oxford–AstraZeneca
Sputnik V
Sputnik Light
Virus-like particles
CoVLP
In trialsAttenuated
COVI-VAC (United States)
DNA
AG0302-COVID‑19
GX-19
Inovio
Inactivated
KD-414
NDV-HXP-S
RNA
ARCT-021
ARCT-154
Bangavax
CureVac (terminated)
HGC019
mRNA-1283
PTX-COVID19-B
Sanofi–Translate Bio (terminated)
Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine
Walvax
Subunit
202-CoV
AKS-452
EuCorVac-19
IVX-411
Nanocovax
ReCOV
Sanofi–GSK
S-268019
SCB-2019
SCTV01C
Skycovione
UB-612
V-01
V451 (terminated)
Vabiotech
West China Hospital
Zhongyianke Biotech–Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech
Viral vector
AdCLD-CoV19
BriLife
COH04S1
DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT
GRAd-COV2
ImmunityBio
iNCOVACC
INNA-051
NDV-HXP-S
Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine
Virus-like particles
ABNCoV2
LYB001
MigVax-101
VBI-2902
Deploymentby locationAfrica
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Cameroon
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eswatini
Ghana
Morocco
Nigeria
Senegal
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Asia
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Mainland China
India
Indonesia
Iran
Israel
Japan
Kazakhstan
Malaysia
Nepal
Philippines
Russia
Singapore
South Korea
Sri Lanka
Taiwan
Thailand
Turkey
United Arab Emirates
Vietnam
Europe
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Denmark
France
Germany
Greece
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OfficialsWHO
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By location
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Portals: COVID-19 Medicine VirusesMedia coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic at Wikipedia's sister projects:Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from WikiversityTravel guides from WikivoyageTaxa from WikispeciesData from Wikidata | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism"},{"link_name":"News media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_media"},{"link_name":"misinformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation"},{"link_name":"fake news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news"}],"text":"For broader coverage of the pandemic's impact on the journalism industry, see Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism.Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic has varied by country, time period and media outlet. News media has simultaneously kept viewers informed about current events related to the pandemic, and contributed to misinformation or fake news.","title":"Media coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-1"}],"text":"COVID-19 is a disease caused by a virus called SARS-CoV-2.[1] Most people who contract COVID experience mild symptoms whereas others become severely ill.[1] Elderly people and those with certain underlying medical conditions are more likely to get severely ill. There are currently four vaccines available in the United States to help prevent COVID-19: Pfizer, Moderna, Novavax, and Johnson & Johnson.[2] They are known to be safe, effective, and reduce the risk of severe illness. The virus spreads when an infected person breathes out droplets and very small particles that contain the virus.[1]","title":"COVID-19 pandemic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-3"},{"link_name":"deaths of anti-vaccine advocates from COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_of_anti-vaccine_advocates_from_COVID-19"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Hill-D-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fahri-0901-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-20210921-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Business_Insider_9-14-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Slate-D-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WaPo-10-7-21-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LA_Times_1-10-22-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The COVID-19 pandemic has opened a new door for social media and mental health in ways that have never existed before. Mental health is at the forefront because it has been so severely impacted by the pandemic. People who were already suffering with mental health issues is being exacerbated by the isolation. Social media has not been covered as much even though it plays such an important role whether it comes from a positive or negative light. People were able to find online communities to help them during the isolation, but it also was negative because it made people feel more separated from everyone around them. It also does not help because everyone is so invested in their social media that they forget to communicate with the humans around them in person. The COVID-19 pandemic has also been associated with mental health challenges for those who are not infected with it, including the social and economic impacts of quarantine, physical distancing, stay-at-home orders, gathering bans, nonessential business closures, and additional measures introduced to reduce community transmission of the virus.[3] Challenges for mental health associated with COVID-19 may arise via either indirect experiences with the virus (e.g., bereavement; social isolation and loneliness; uncertainty; socioeconomic distress) or from personal infection.[3] A number of media outlets have specifically covered deaths of anti-vaccine advocates from COVID-19,[4][5][6][7][8] leading to disputes over the propriety of such coverage.[9][10][11][12][13]","title":"Media coverage in the United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chen-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chen-14"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Kivu Ebola epidemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kivu_Ebola_epidemic"},{"link_name":"Paul Levinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Levinson"},{"link_name":"2014 Ebola outbreak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Recode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recode"},{"link_name":"social distancing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing"},{"link_name":"flattening the curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flattening_the_curve"},{"link_name":"self-quarantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-quarantine"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-19"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"National Bureau of Economic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research"},{"link_name":"scientific journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-25"}],"text":"The (COVID-19) pandemic has put a tremendous strain on many countries' citizens, resources, and economies around the world.[14] This includes the social distancing measures, travel bans, self-quarantines, and business closures are changing the very fabric of societies worldwide.[14] With people forced out of public spaces, much of the conversation about this pandemic and the after effects now occurs online and on social media platforms.[citation needed]Within January 2020, the first full month in which the outbreak was known, Time recorded 41,000 English-language articles containing the term \"coronavirus\", of which 19,000 made it to headlines. This was compared with the Kivu Ebola epidemic, which had 1,800 articles and 700 headlines in August 2018. Paul Levinson, a researcher in communications and media studies, attributed this wide disparity to backlash from perceived overcoverage of the 2014 Ebola outbreak, coupled with concerns regarding Chinese censorship of the coverage.[15]Recode reported on 17 March that, out of 3,000 high-traffic news sites, around 1 percent of published articles are related to the disease, but those articles generate around 13 percent of all views, with subtopics such as social distancing, flattening the curve and self-quarantine being particularly popular. The total number of article views itself was some 30 percent higher in mid-March 2020 compared to in mid-March 2019.[16]An analysis of approximately 141,000 English language news headlines related to the Coronavirus from January 15, 2020, to June 3, 2020, uncovered that 52% of headlines evoked negative sentiments while only 30% evoked positive sentiments.[17] The authors suggest that the headlines are contributing to fear and uncertainty which is having negative health and economic outcomes. Other studies in different contexts and focused in different media have found that news have not portrayed coping strategies and health behaviors as much as they could have.[18][19] Other authors suggest that news coverage has resulted in the politicization of the pandemic,[20] has been excessively concerned for the performance of political actors over the provision of scientific and self-efficacy information,[19] and has been highly polarized.[21]A November 2020 paper from the National Bureau of Economic Research titled \"Why Is All COVID-19 News Bad News?\" found that 91% of stories by major American media outlets about COVID-19 have a negative tone compared to 54% for major media outlets outside the United States and 65% for scientific journals.[22]Issues with misinformation and fake news led to the development of CoVerifi, a platform that has the potential to help address the COVID-19 \"infodemic\".[23]It has been claimed that the extended and prolonged coverage of the pandemic may have contributed to a COVID-19 information fatigue, making it more difficult to communicate updated information.[24] Media experts say the challenge for some news outlets is accurately conveying the nuance of pandemic science to the public.[25] The public who are now being asked to resume mask wearing in some parts of the country and as the delta variant sends cases soaring among the unvaccinated.[25]","title":"Level and nature of coverage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"infodemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infodemic"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-28"},{"link_name":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-31"},{"link_name":"YouGov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouGov"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-35"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"In January 2020, the World Health Organization declared that an \"infodemic\" of false information was helping the virus propagate. Academics documented the spread of fake news and other disinformation and theorize it within particular national and transcultural contexts and trends.[26][27] The number of outlets and entities, from traditional journalism to social media, covering the COVID-19 pandemic will surely prove to have been a source of misinformation and confusion related to virus spread information and national and state policies. Dr. Sylvie Briand, Director of Global Infectious Hazards Preparedness Department of the World Health Organization, mentioned that one of the major concerns related to communication challenges is the role of social media. Briand stated that the WHO is carefully monitoring the coronavirus infodemic on social media utilizing artificial intelligence.[28] According to Pew Research Center the most popular sources of news for adults in the United States include news websites and social media.[29] Also, Twitter is recorded as having the highest number of news focused users among other social media outlets[30] Romanian scholar Sofia Bratu[31] conducted a study which considered individuals' perception of the source of fake news by surveying nearly 5000 U.S. citizens and analyzing data from The Economist, Gallup, Pew Research Center, YouGov, among other reputable survey organizations. Scholars suggest that misinformation is to blame for escalated stress reactions, physical and mental health declines related to stress, and increased burden on healthcare facilities with patients who are not truly exhibiting symptoms or are exhibiting symptoms as an adverse reaction to false cures and treatments.[31][32] However, Brafu[31] does mention that televised interviews with COVID-19 survivors may in fact assist in alleviating stress, panic, and fear of death.Others argue that newsrooms should play a role in filtering misinformation before 'giving it oxygen'.[33] While not all fake news is putting the health and safety of the people at risk, information related to COVID-19 could. Niemen Reports suggests that newsrooms should be working collaboratively to deliver consistent messages related to false and inaccurate information by choosing headlines, wording, and images carefully.[citation needed]An example of fake news related to the COVID-19 pandemic was that the virus could be spread via 5G.[34] Another, that the virus was manually created in a lab by government leaders[35][36] or that consuming chlorine dioxide would treat or prevent the virus.[37] Other viral pieces of misinformation include that Vitamin C and garlic could cure the virus even though this claim was never substantiated by health professionals.[35] Misinformation has also led to racial discrimination and displays of xenophobia toward Chinese individuals through the referral of the disease as the \"Chinese virus pandemonium\"[38] or \"Wuhan Virus\" or \"China Virus\".[39] As a result of this misinformation several fact checking websites have appeared which utilize information from the CDC and WHO to debunk common viral information.[40][41][42]","title":"Misinformation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Canada","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in CanadaThe first confirmed case of COVID-19, as reported by the Canadian Healthcare Network, was January 25, 2020 in a Toronto man who had recently traveled to Wuhan, China.[43] The first case was announced on Toronto Public Health Officials' Twitter account.[44]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China"},{"link_name":"quarantine of Wuhan and nearby cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Hubei_lockdowns"},{"link_name":"People's Daily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Daily"},{"link_name":"Weibo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sina_Weibo"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in mainland ChinaThe Chinese government has received significant criticism for its censoring of the extent of the outbreak. Immediately following the initial quarantine of Wuhan and nearby cities, Chinese state media such as the People's Daily initially encouraged social media posts seeking help between citizens on platforms such as Weibo.[45] Multiple journalists then published investigative pieces contradicting official statements and media, indicating that the number of cases in Wuhan is significantly larger than is reported.[46]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Germany"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Deutschlandfunk Kultur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutschlandfunk_Kultur"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Germany","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in GermanyThe first cases of COVID-19 were identified in Germany in January 2020.[47] Controversy erupted over a January 2021 article published by the German newspaper Handelsblatt.[citation needed] The article stated that the AstraZeneca vaccine was not effective for older adults,[48] but many responded saying the newspaper provided incorrect data.[49]In March 2023, a radio report on \"The failure of science journalism in the pandemic broadcast\" (germ.: Das Versagen des Wissenschaftsjournalismus in der Pandemie) was broadcast by the German public radio station Deutschlandfunk Kultur.[50]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-19"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-51"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-51"}],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in MexicoStudies on the media framing of COVID-19 in Mexico claim newscasts and newspapers focused on the political side of the pandemic rather than on providing scientific and self-efficacy information.[19] Television was the medium most used by Mexicans for getting information about COVID-19.[51] Heavy social media users were more likely to believe in fake news, and to distrust media.[51]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Gatekeeping (communication)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatekeeping_(communication)"}],"sub_title":"the Netherlands","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in the NetherlandsA study that focused on newspaper reporting about the situation in hospitals during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands found that there was no indication for the presence of misinformation in newspaper reporting, stating that newspapers can be a credible source of information.[52] However, the authors did note that certain aspects received significantly more or less attention in newspaper articles compared to what hospitals themselves focused on. They attribute this to Gatekeeping (communication), whereby journalists deem some aspects are more relevant to the general public than others.","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Sweden"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Sweden","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in SwedenThe first case of COVID-19 was identified in Sweden on February 4, 2020.[53] The most media coverage of Sweden occurred in early March.[53] Sweden received a great deal of media attention because it was considered to be using its own plan, the 'Swedish Model' of herd immunity. Research has looked at the nature of media coverage and how Swedish policy was covered by the news media. Rachel Irwin, a researcher from Sweden, found there were six main themes: \"(1) Life is normal in Sweden, (2) Sweden has a herd immunity strategy, (3) Sweden is not following expert advice, (4) Sweden is not following WHO recommendations (5) the Swedish approach is failing and (6) Swedes trust the government.\"[54] She comments that not all of the information was framed correctly. She wrote a letter to the British Medical Journal stating that media coverage has inaccurately portrayed the COVID-19 policies in Sweden and that it did not have a \"herd immunity\" plan.[55] Another article suggests that as other countries came up with different policies the Swedish policy model went from \"bold to pariah\".[56]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"GOV.UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gov.uk"},{"link_name":"The Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Daily Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Mail"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Edelman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edelman_(firm)"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"University of Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"United Kingdom","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in the United KingdomThe first confirmed case in the UK, as reported by GOV.UK, was January 30, 2020. In reporting about the outbreak, British tabloid newspapers such as The Sun and the Daily Mail used language described as \"fear-inducing\".[57] According to Edelman's Trust Barometer, journalists were the least-trusted source for information regarding the pandemic in the UK, with 43 percent out of the surveyed trusting them to report the truth, behind government officials (48%) and \"most-affected countries\" (46%). This was despite conventional media being the primary source of information regarding the pandemic in the UK.[58]A study conducted in May 2020 in association with the University of Oxford showed that the UK public is exhibiting declining trust in the government as a source of information. Only 48% rated the government relatively trustworthy, which is down from 67% six weeks earlier. Moreover, 38% of people are stating that they are concerned false or misleading COVID-19 information from the government, a figure which was only 27% six weeks earlier.[59]","title":"By country"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"CDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Ed Yong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Yong"},{"link_name":"Helen Branswell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Branswell"},{"link_name":"Ed Yong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Yong"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yong_Atlantic_why_failed-64"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"CNN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN"},{"link_name":"Mick Mulvaney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Mulvaney"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Axios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axios_(website)"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-68"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Fox News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_News"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Fox Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Business"},{"link_name":"Trish Regan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trish_Regan"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"impeach the president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Tucker Carlson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucker_Carlson"},{"link_name":"seasonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flu_season"},{"link_name":"flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"hydroxychloroquine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxychloroquine"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:39-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"anti-lockdown protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protests_over_responses_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press_%26_Assessment"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"Further information: COVID-19 pandemic in the United StatesThe first confirmed case in the United States, as reported by the CDC, was January 22, 2020.[60] News coverage in the U.S. has been more negative than in other countries,[61] but has also helped promote safety behaviors including social distancing.[62] Local news has played an important role in keeping communities informed, including in rural areas.[63]Some journalists in the U.S. have been praised for their coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic including Ed Yong and Helen Branswell. Among media scholars, many elements of mainstream journalists' efforts to adapt to the pandemic and provide reliable information to their audience have been praised, but some have been criticized. Writing for The Atlantic, Ed Yong noted that, as the pandemic unfolded, \"drawn to novelty, journalists gave oxygen to fringe anti-lockdown protests while most Americans quietly stayed home\". He also faulted that they \"wrote up every incremental scientific claim, even those that hadn't been verified or peer-reviewed.\"[64]President Donald Trump initially accused media outlets such as CNN of \"doing everything they can to instill fear in people\", a statement echoed by Acting White House Chief of Staff Mick Mulvaney.[65] Where people get their news has played an important role in people's attitudes and behaviors related to COVID-19.[66] An Axios survey, conducted from 5 March 2020 to 9 March, found that 62% of Republican supporters believed that the outbreak's coverage by media is exaggerated, compared to 31% of Democratic supporters and 35% of independents.[67] A Pew Research survey conducted from 20 April to 26 April found that 69% of U.S. respondents believed that the news media have covered the outbreak \"very well\" or \"somewhat well\" and that the number of U.S. respondents who believed the media have exaggerated COVID-19 risks had somewhat decreased.[68] The survey also found that 68% of Republican supporters believed that the news media exaggerated COVID-19 risks, compared to 48% of all U.S. adults and 30% of Democratic supporters.[68] Overall, coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US was substantially more negative than in other parts of the world—regardless of whether the news outlet was considered right-leaning or left-leaning.[69][70][71][72][73] In hindsight, a study by Ángel Torres and collaborators on misinformation during the pandemic suggests that further progress is needed regarding the transparency of the verification process of independent third-party fact checkers.[74]Opinion hosts and guests on Fox News, a conservative media outlet, initially downplayed the disease outbreak, with some guests accusing other media outlets of overplaying the disease for political reasons.[75] Trump also used interviews with the network to promote his early efforts to downplay the virus.[76][77] One Fox Business host, Trish Regan, claimed on her show Trish Regan Primetime that COVID-19 media coverage was deliberately created by the Democratic Party as a \"mass hysteria to encourage a market sell-off\", and was \"yet another attempt to impeach the president\". Her program would later be cancelled.[78] Tucker Carlson initially took a much more serious position regarding the disease, criticizing other hosts which compared it with ordinary seasonal flu, and stating on 9 March that \"people you trust — people you probably voted for — have spent weeks minimizing what is clearly a very serious problem.\"[79][80][81] Later on, the network's pundits began to endorse claims that hydroxychloroquine was an effective treatment for COVID-19 symptoms,[82] criticize the wearing of face masks to control spread,[83][84][85] and provide positive coverage to anti-lockdown protests.[86][87]According to study published by Cambridge University Press in May 2020, right-wing media coverage of COVID-19 helped facilitate the spread of misinformation about the pandemic.[88]","title":"By country"}] | [{"image_text":"Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/110px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png"},{"image_text":"Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png/110px-Coronavirus._SARS-CoV-2.png"}] | [{"title":"COVID-19 pandemic on social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_on_social_media"},{"title":"Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_journalism"},{"title":"Misinformation related to the COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic"}] | [{"reference":"CDC (2020-02-11). \"COVID-19 and Your Health\". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 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Then they got sick\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210901120527/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/media/conservative-talk-radio-covid-deaths/2021/08/31/a912a89c-0a66-11ec-aea1-42a8138f132a_story.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gabbatt A (21 September 2021). \"Dangerous transmissions: anti-vax radio shows reach millions in US while stars die of Covid\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. 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U-turn\""},{"Link":"https://www.vox.com/2020/3/24/21192222/fox-news-coronavirus-coverage-dan-patrick-drugs","external_links_name":"\"Fox News's coronavirus coverage slid back off the rails spectacularly on Monday night\""},{"Link":"https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/prevention-cures/506456-tucker-carlson-wrongly-claims-coronavirus","external_links_name":"\"Tucker Carlson wrongly claims coronavirus prevention measures aren't backed by science\""},{"Link":"http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-sweden-idUSKBN15Y0QH","external_links_name":"\"Trump baffles Sweden with crime comment, says it was based on TV report\""},{"Link":"https://www.mediamatters.org/coronavirus-covid-19/how-fox-news-helped-turn-masks-another-culture-war-flashpoint","external_links_name":"\"How Fox News helped turn masks into another culture war 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratas_Island | Pratas Island | ["1 Pratas Islands","2 History","3 Geography","4 Politics and government","4.1 Military","4.2 Cross-strait relations","5 Pratas Island settlement","5.1 Landmarks","5.2 Public buildings","5.3 Energy","6 Transportation","7 Gallery","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 External links"] | Coordinates: 20°42′08″N 116°43′39″E / 20.70222°N 116.72750°E / 20.70222; 116.72750Island in the northern South China Sea
"Dongsha" redirects here. For other uses, see Dongsha (disambiguation).
Pratas IslandDisputed islandNative name: 東沙島Pratas Atoll from space, January 1986.Pratas IslandTaiping IslandKaohsiungclass=notpageimage| Location of Pratas Island, Taiping Island
Legend： Pratas Island Taiping Island KaohsiungOther namesTungsha IslandDongsha IslandGeographyLocationSouth China SeaCoordinates20°42′08″N 116°43′39″E / 20.70222°N 116.72750°E / 20.70222; 116.72750Total islands1: 13 Area174 ha (430 acres) (land), 64 ha (158.15 acres) (lagoon): 5 Length2.8 km (1.74 mi)Width0.865 km (0.5375 mi)Administration Republic of China (Taiwan)MunicipalityDistrictKaohsiungCijin: 23 (Qijin)Claimed by People's Republic of China: 10 ProvincePrefecture-level cityDistrictGuangdongShanwei (Swabue)Chengqu
Pratas Island,: 5 also known as the Tungsha Islands or the Dongsha Islands (Chinese: 東沙群島; pinyin: Dōngshā Qúndǎo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tang-soa Kûn-tó; lit. 'East Sand Islands'), is a coral island situated in the northern part of the South China Sea administered as part of Cijin District, Kaohsiung, Republic of China, a state commonly known as "Taiwan". It is located about 170 nautical miles (310 km; 200 mi) southeast of Hong Kong. It has an area of about 240 hectares (590 acres), including 64 hectares (160 acres) of lagoon, and is the largest of the South China Sea Islands. It is the location of the Dongsha Airport.
There are three undersea features in the waters associated with Pratas Island: Pratas Atoll, North Vereker Bank and South Vereker Bank.: 8, 9 The atoll is circular, and the crescent-shaped Pratas Island occupies its western part. Below the ocean's surface to the northwest (21°N 116°E / 21°N 116°E / 21; 116) of Pratas Island, North Vereker Bank rises to 11 metres (36 ft) below sea level and South Vereker Bank to 58 metres (190 ft) below sea level.: 6
There are numerous oil wells to the west of the banks. In 2007, the Dongsha Atoll National Park was established on the island. The People's Republic of China claims the island, atoll and banks as part of Guangdong Province.
Pratas Islands
Map of Pratas Island (NAVOCEANO, 1969)
Stele erected on Pratas Island by the ROC Ministry of the Interior (Translation: Barrier of the South China Sea)
USS Frank Knox aground on Pratas Reef 1965
South China Sea
The English name of the island derives from the Portuguese Ilhas das Pratas ("Silver Plate Islands"), which was given to the atoll in the 16th century owing to its round shape. Pratas Atoll is also called Pratas Reef.
Tungsha Island (Tung-sha Tao) (Chinese: 東沙島; pinyin: Dōngshā Dǎo; Wade–Giles: Tung1-sha1 Tao3; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tang-soa-tó) is the Wade–Giles-derived romanization of the Mandarin Chinese name for the island, and Dongsha Island (Dongsha Dao) is the pinyin-derived name. A smaller island with the same Chinese character name is located in the Taiwan-administered Dongyin Township in the Matsu Islands in the East China Sea.
The area including the island, atoll and banks is also called the Pratas Islands: 7 (Chinese: 東沙群島; pinyin: Dōngshā Qúndǎo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tang-soa Kûn-tó; lit. 'East Sand Islands': 17 ), the Tungsha Islands and the Dongsha Islands. Despite these names, Pratas Island is the only island;: 13 there is no group of islands.
History
The East Indiaman Earl Talbot was wrecked on Pratas Island on or about 22 October 1800 with the loss of all aboard. At the time the island was known to British sailors as "Perates". In 1851, the British screw sloop HMS Reynard wrecked on the south-east bend of Pratas Atoll while going to the aid of another wrecked vessel; the crew were all saved. Decades later, the boilers and parts of the machinery of the wreckage of HMS Reynard remained visible on the atoll.
In 1859–1861, there was a correspondence between the British Colonial Office and the Hong Kong colonial authorities about building a lighthouse on the main island on the atoll. Despite an offer by a British businessman in Xiamen (Amoy) to build it, it was decided that the cost was too great and the matter lapsed. It is clear from the correspondence that no one supposed the atoll to be a part of any known jurisdiction, so negotiations might have been required to ensure that any construction would be legal.
One consequence of that initiative was that, in 1858, the Royal Navy survey ship HMS Saracen completed the first detailed survey of the atoll, resulting in the Plan of the Pratas Reef and Island, J. Richards and others, April 1858, being published by the British Admiralty. On the resulting chart three positions are proposed for a lighthouse: on Pratas Island, on the north-east corner, or on the southern edge near where HMS Reynard had stranded. In the north-east corner of the lagoon the chart notes "Anchorage for junks", indicating regular use by fishing and other small vessels taking shelter. The chart's rubric noted that the available safe draft for vessels entering was only 15 feet (4.6 m), so it was restricted to relatively small vessels only.
In 1866, Cuthbert Collingwood (naturalist) visited Pratas Island and later published a description of it.
In 1908–1909, a Japanese businessman named Nishizawa Yoshizi (西澤吉次) established a guano collecting station. He destroyed the Dawang Joss House (大王庙), dug up graves and poured the bone ashes of Chinese fishermen into the sea, and renamed the atoll "Nishizawa Island". After a diplomatic confrontation, Chinese sovereignty was re-established, and Nishizawa withdrew, after being compensated by the Guangdong provincial government, and after paying compensation for the destruction of a Chinese fishermen's shrine.
In December 1930, the schooner Hedwig (Sweden) ran aground on a coral reef off Pratas Island and was wrecked.
On 22 May 1944, the Japanese gunboat Hashidate was torpedoed and sunk by the US submarine USS Picuda, in the South China Sea off Pratas Island at 21°08′N 117°20′E / 21.133°N 117.333°E / 21.133; 117.333 (Hashidate), while towing the disabled passenger-cargo ship Tsukuba Maru. Casualties are unknown but her commanding officer was killed.
Japanese naval personnel occupied Pratas Island during World War II. The Japanese Navy used the island as a weather station and listening post. On May 29, 1945, at 10:22 AM, a landing party consisting of Australian commandos and US naval personnel from the submarine USS Bluegill raised the US flag, declared the island a United States territory, and named it Bluegill Island. The landing party destroyed a radio tower, weather station, fuel and ammunition dumps, and several buildings. They encountered no resistance because the Japanese had left the island prior to the arrival of Bluegill.
Pratas Island was later restored to Guangdong Province of the Republic of China (ROC). On September 12, 1946, the navy of the Republic of China took over and garrisoned Pratas Island.: 10, 13, 15, 23
On 6 June 1949, the ROC established the Hainan Special Administrative District (海南特別行政區), which included Pratas Island.
In autumn 1954, the senior ROC politician Chiang Ching-kuo visited the island and made an inspection.
On 9 June 1960, during Typhoon Mary, the Hong Kong cargo ship Shun Lee was driven against Pratas Reef and wrecked. Her 55 crew took to the liferafts and were rescued by the USS Yorktown (CV-10).
While underway in the South China Sea on 18 July 1965, the USS Frank Knox ran aground on Pratas Reef, and was only freed on 24 August after a very difficult salvage effort.
On 13 April 1996, the jurisdiction of the Taiwan Kaohsiung District Court was extended to include Tungsha Island (Pratas Island).
In May 1999, Kaohsiung Mayor Frank Hsieh visited the island and hung an address plate on the island’s fishing service station. On 21 December 2000, ROC President Chen Shui-bian visited the island with Kaohsiung Mayor Frank Hsieh. On 28 July 2005, President Chen Shui-bian again visited the island and inaugurated the Fifth Maritime Patrol Squad of the Coast Guard Administration.
In January 2007, the ROC government designated the Pratas atoll as the Dongsha Atoll National Park, the first marine national park in Taiwan.
On 8 January 2013, an office of Chunghwa Post was established on Pratas Island.
In September 2020, the PRC conducted air drills over the waters between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island that intruded into the ROC air defense identification zone (ADIZ). The planes were issued radio warnings by the ROC military until they left.
On 15 October 2020, a regular civilian charter flight by Uni Air had to abandon its trip from the main island of Taiwan to Pratas Island when Hong Kong air traffic controllers told the captain of the aircraft that there were "dangerous activities" happening below 26,000 ft (7,900 m) and that the Uni Air aircraft could not enter the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR). The transcript of the conversation between the pilot and air traffic control was released by the ROC Civil Aeronautics Administration. The next day, the ROC Minister of National Defense Yen Teh-fa called on PRC not to "disrupt the order of international aviation". On 20 October, Deputy Chief of the ROC General Staff, Lieutenant-General Li Ting-sheng (李廷盛), visited Pratas Island. He made an inspection of the living facilities of the military personnel and gave them instructions. On 26 October, the same Uni Air aircraft made the round trip flight between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island.
On 27 October 2020, a Y8 PRC military aircraft entered ROC air defense identification zone (ADIZ) between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island for the twenty-first time that month. On 28 October, Zhu Fenglian of the Taiwan Affairs Office of the PRC was asked whether, in light of PLA military exercises in Fujian and Guangdong, there was or was not a plan to take Pratas Island from the ROC. Feng responded that she did not have to answer hypothetical questions. On 2 November, eight Chinese PLAAF aircraft breached the ROC ADIZ above an area of sea near Pratas Island. On 3 November, Y-8 plane entered the ADIZ of the ROC in the area between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island. On 4 November, the ROC Minister of National Defense, Yen Teh-fa, stated in a legislative hearing that since January 2020, 276 PRC military planes had entered the airspace between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island, activity that Yen associated with plans by the PRC for a creating its own ADIZ in the South China Sea. On 6 December, a PRC air force Y-8 plane entered the Taiwan ADIZ between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island, the fifth day in December that PRC military aircraft entered Taiwan's ADIZ.
Geography
Map showing the location of Pratas Island (within (VH)R7) in the South China Sea (DMA, 1984)
Map of Tung-sha Tao (Pratas Island) (NAVOCEANO, 1969)
Map including Pratas Reef, Pratas Island and surrounding region from the International Map of the World (AMS, 1965)
Map including Pratas Island (within VHR7) (NIMA, 2000)
Pratas Island is located 444 km (276 mi) from the rest of Kaoshiung, 850 kilometres (530 miles) southwest of Taipei, 320 kilometres (200 miles) southeast of Hong Kong and 260 km (160 mi) south of Shantou, Guangdong in the northern part of the South China Sea (20°43′N 116°42′E / 20.717°N 116.700°E / 20.717; 116.700). An international team of researchers conducted a comprehensive population genetic analysis of 11 marine species sampled from the island. They concluded that Dongsha Atoll is an important regional stepping-stone that promotes genetic connectivity among South China Sea reefs, as marine larvae can potentially reach a large number of reefs in the northern South China Sea. The protection of the island and surrounding reefs by the Taiwanese government as Dongsha Atoll National Park may therefore benefit the entire region.
Pratas Island is 2.8 km (1.7 mi) long and 0.865 km (0.537 mi) wide; it is the only feature of the group above sea level. The island is made up of coral atolls and reef flats. Brush, vines and bushes cover some of the island - the rest is white sand. Flora and fauna on and around Pratas Island include:
Silver silk tree
Strawberry tung tree
Coconut tree
Little terns
Turnstones
Gull-billed terns
Parrotfish
Starfish
Rock lobsters
In the Journal of Science (April 1867) there is a nine-page article entitled "The Natural History of Pratas Island in the China Sea" by Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, the naturalist on board HMS Serpent. It describes what was observed, especially bird life, during a visit of two days while the survey ship lay at anchor. Collingwood explored the island on 30 April 1866.
The Vereker Banks (21°N 116°E / 21°N 116°E / 21; 116) are 74 km (46 mi) northwest of Pratas Atoll. North and South Vereker Banks are under water. North Vereker Bank (北衛灘) rises to 11 metres (36 ft) below sea level with an average depth of 60 metres (200 ft) to 90 metres (300 ft) below sea level. A well head with a depth of 4.1 metres (13 ft) lies 30 metres (98 ft) off North Vereker Bank. Two to three miles of deep water separate North Vereker Bank and South Vereker Bank. South Vereker Bank (南衛灘) rises to 58 metres (190 ft) below sea level. A well head, in a depth of over 100 metres (330 ft), lies 28 mi (45 km) north of the Vereker Banks at 21°38′N 116°03′E / 21.633°N 116.050°E / 21.633; 116.050. The associated production platform and SPM make up Lu Feng Terminal; the terminal is enclosed by a restricted area. Exploration for oil is taking place in this area.: 6
There are also some seamount formations nearby which are not part of the three atolls:
Jianfeng Seamount (尖峰海山)
Maojia Seamount (芼架海山)
Beipo Seamount (北波海山)
Politics and government
The island is part of the Republic of China (Taiwan) with the postal code 817. Although there are no long-term inhabitants on the island, Pratas is administered by the Kaohsiung City Government under Cijin District (Qijin). The island has been uninhabited, yet nations (including China and Japan) have claimed them to be their overseas territory.
Military
As of November 2020, about five hundred Taiwanese marines were stationed on Pratas Island. The island has a network of underground bunkers. According to regulations updated on December 2, 2020, in the event that communication is cut off between mainland Taiwan and Pratas Island or Taiping Island (Itu Aba), the highest-ranking local officer can make the decision to fire back at assailants.
Cross-strait relations
The People's Republic of China claims the Pratas Islands (东沙群岛) as part of Chengqu, Shanwei (Swabue), Guangdong Province.: 10
According to an anonymous PLA source, plans created around 2010 by China for an air defence identification zone in the South China Sea include Pratas Island airspace. The PLA's actions near the southwest corner of the Taiwan ADIZ and Pratas Island in late 2020 led to speculation that the area might be declared part of an ADIZ by China.
In the later half of 2020, repeated reports of Chinese military exercises and fly overs near the island were interpreted as an apparent attempt to cut off the supply line between Pratas Island and mainland Taiwan.
Pratas Island settlement
As an island with no permanent inhabitants, it is visited largely by fishermen, military personnel and researchers. Amateur radio operators participating in the DXCC and Islands on the Air awards programs also visit occasionally.
Landmarks
An obelisk was erected after 1946.
In 1954 the ROC Government personnel stationed on Pratas erected a stone tablet on the southern side of the island, facing the ocean.
The Da Wang temple is dedicated to 'Kuang Kang' and 'The South China Sea Goddess' - Mazu. It is said that the statue of Guan Gong came to Pratas Island on a canoe in 1948. The soldiers on Pratas Island built a temple to worship her in 1975. Today, the canoe is still kept in the temple. The joss sticks and candles are donated by soldiers, as was the golden sign hung in front of the statue. There is an 'Ever Green' pavilion in front of the temple which was also built by the soldiers. It is the most verdant place on the island.
The Minister for Internal Affairs of the ROC erected the South China Sea Defense stone tablet to declare Republic of China sovereignty in 1989.
In July 1991 the Kaohsiung City Government erected the Pratas Island measuring memorial stone tablet as a symbol that Pratas Island falls within the jurisdiction of Kaohsiung City. Within Kaohsiung, the island belongs to Cijin District (Qijin).
The ROC Government established the Triangulation Benchmark as the triangulation point for Pratas Island in December 1991. There are words on each side of the base of the triangulation point stone tablet. They read 'The Pratas Triangulation Point' on the front, and 'Longitude: 116o 43" 42.5601'E, Latitude: 20o 42' 6.2415'N, Height: 2.4875 meters.' The words 'Defend the South China Sea', written by the commander, Lo Ben Li, were also engraved on the stone tablet. The National Tsing Hua University webpage about the island states: "In addition to making it more convenient to survey and draw navigational maps, and to construct and develop facilities on the island, the establishment of the triangulation point is also the basis of our sovereign rights."
Public buildings
Hospital, 2004
The library is located on one side of the main plaza, and is the center for soldiers to obtain spiritual nourishment. The library contains more than two thousand books.
The military post office is Office No. 67. The Ministry of Transportation and Communications issued the 'South China Sea Islands Map Stamps' in 1996, as a set of two stamps. The inscription 'South China Sea Defense' from the national stone tablet on Pratas Island was printed on the five-dollar stamp, and the 'Defend the South China Sea' inscription from the national stone tablet on Taiping Island was printed on the seventeen-dollar stamp. The background was the south China coastline, Taiwan and Hainan Island with the blue sky and sea. This was the first time that the ROC had issued stamps with the theme of the South China Sea.
In 1987 the military and civilian occupants built the 'Pratas Fishermen's Service Station'. The station was built in traditional Chinese courtyard house style, and provides convenient services for fishermen and boats in the South China Sea, insuring the fishermen's safety and upholding ROC sovereignty. The services provided include lodging, medical rescue, entertainment and supply. The station also provides lodging for the scientists who come to conduct research on the island.
In 2012 National Sun Yat-sen University's Dongsha Atoll Research Station (DARS) was established for biology, biogeochemistry, and oceanography research.
Energy
Diesel-fueled generators are used to power the island. In March 2016, a solar energy system built by the Coast Guard Administration went into operation. The system covers an area of 310.6 m2 and produces 53,200 kWh of electricity each year.
Transportation
The Dongsha Island Airport features a runway located on the north end of Pratas Island with a small airport terminal at the eastern end. The airport is used by the ROC military. A main shack and subordinate shack are located on the southeast end of the island. There are no refueling facilities.
Two piers on the southeast shore allow for small watercraft to land.
A circle with a radius of 10 nmi (19 km) centered on Pratas Island, referred to as VHR7, is a prohibited area for aeronautical purposes. The 'VH' in VHR7 denotes 'Hong Kong' and the 'R' denotes a 'Restricted Area'. Pratas Island and VHR7 are located within the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR).
Gallery
Pratas Island Lagoon
Airport
Pratas Island Beach
Southern edge of Pratas Atoll(Pratas Island can be seen in the distance)
See also
List of islands of Taiwan
List of Taiwanese superlatives
Politics of the Republic of China
South China Sea Islands
Notes
^ Until 1996, it remained under Hainan.
References
^ a b c d e f g h Lung Tsun-Ni 龍村倪 (1998). 東沙群島-東沙島紀事集錦 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: 臺灣綜合研究院. ISBN 957-98189-0-8. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009. p.13: "東沙島為東沙群島唯一島嶼" (Translation: Pratas Island is the only island in the Pratas Islands)
^ a b c d e f g Danny Lee (17 October 2020). "Hong Kong blocks Taiwan from reaching disputed Pratas Islands, saying airspace around disputed territory is closed 'until further notice'". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2020. The Pratas Islands, known as the Dongsha Islands in Chinese and located within Hong Kong airspace, comprise one island, two coral reefs and two banks.
^ a b c "Limits in the Seas - No. 127 Taiwan's Maritime Claims" (PDF). United States Department of State. November 15, 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2012. The Pratas Reef lies 230 miles to the southwest of the southern tip of Taiwan.26 It consists of an island in the mouth of a semicircular shoal open to the west. The segments D1-D4 close the mouth by connecting the headlands of the shoal with the island.
^ a b Dong Manh Nguyen (December 2005). "Settlement of disputes under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea The case of the South China Sea dispute" (PDF). p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2009.
^ a b 【海洋研究】東沙二十part1：擁有世界級珊瑚生態的神秘東沙島在哪裡？(我們的島 第933集 2017-12-04). Our Island (我們的島) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Public Television Service. 11 December 2017. Event occurs at 8:20. Retrieved 1 November 2020 – via YouTube. 東沙島則是唯一突出水面的島嶼
^ a b c Dieter Heinzig (1976). Disputed Islands in the South China Sea (PDF). Harrassowitz. pp. 14, 19, 32, 56. ISBN 3-447-01804-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2017. p.14: "Strictly speaking, only one of the four controversial archipelagos may truly be referred to as a group of islands: the Paracels. The Pratas consist of one island and two sands."
^ a b Pratas Islands Archived 2012-08-06 at the Wayback Machine, vm.nthu.edu.tw
^ a b 東沙環礁國家公園簡 . Marine National Park Headquarters (海洋國家公園管理處) (in Chinese (Taiwan) and English). Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. 東沙環礁位於南海北部海域，東北距高雄450公里，西北距香港320公里，西南距海南島榆林670公里，南距南沙太平島1,190公里，東南離馬尼拉780公里；行政區域隸屬高雄市旗津區。{...}Dongsha Atoll located in the northern South China Sea is 450 km southwest of Kaohsiung, 320 km southeast of Hong Kong, 670 km northeast of Hainan Island, 1,190 km north of Taiping Island, 780 km northwest of Manila. Administratively, it is under the Cijin District of Kaohsiung.
^ a b "Law on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone of 25 February 1992" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2004 – via United Nations. The PRC's territorial land includes the mainland and its offshore islands, Taiwan and the various affiliated islands including Diaoyu Island, Penghu Islands, Dongsha Islands, Xisha Islands, Nansha (Spratly) Islands and other islands that belong to the People's Republic of China
^ a b c d "Taiwan releases records to rebut HK's claim it abandoned its flight plan". Overseas Community Affairs Council. 17 October 2020. Archived from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2020. The Dongsha Islands, administered by Taiwan but also claimed by China, are located about 310 kilometers southeast of Hong Kong and are within its Flight Information Region (FIR).
^ a b c d e "SOUTH CHINA SEA: UP FOR GRABS" (PDF). Bureau of Intelligence and Research. 14 September 1971. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017. p.10: "Pratas Reef (Tung-sha Ch'un-tao){...}The PRC lays claim to the reef by virtue of its assertion that it is the only China."
^ a b 汕尾市. 广东省民政厅网站 (in Simplified Chinese). May 2005. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. 城区{...}（东沙群岛不是镇建制）
^ a b 广东省国土资源厅 (30 June 2018). 城区地图 (Map). Department of Natural Resources of Guangdong Province 广东省自然资源厅 (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 7 July 2020 – via Internet Archive. 东沙群岛{...}北卫滩{...}南卫滩{...}东沙岛{...}东沙礁
^ a b c South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand (PDF). Sailing Directions (Enroute) (17 ed.). Springfield, Virginia. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2020. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ a b Steven Stashwick (11 September 2020). "Chinese Jets Intrude Taiwan Air Defense Zone for Second Day". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 11 September 2020.
^ "China to conduct major military drill simulating seizure of Taiwan-held island". Japan Times. 14 May 2020. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
^ Pratas Island (Approved - N) at GEOnet Names Server, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
^ a b c "Statement on the South China Sea". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
^ a b c Richard Louis Edmonds (1992). Graham P. Chapman; Kathleen M. Baker (eds.). The Changing Geography of Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. The Changing Geography of Asia. Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 0-415-05707-8. Since 1949, Taiwan has remained under Nationalist (Kuomintang) control ... In addition, the Nationalists maintain garrisons and weather stations in the South China Sea on T'ai-p'ing Island in the Nansha or Spratly Islands and in the Tungsha or Pratas Islands (see Figure 6.1).
^ a b c d e "President Chen Visits Tungsha Islands". Office of the President Republic of China (Taiwan). 28 July 2005. Archived from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.
^ a b The Republic of China at a Glance (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. May 2016. pp. 4, 7, 8. ISBN 978-986-03-2703-8. Retrieved 7 July 2020. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help)
^ a b "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) reiterates that the Nansha Islands, the Shisha Islands, the Chungsha Islands and the Tungsha Islands, as well as their surrounding waters, sea beds and subsoil, are all an inherent part of the territory of the Republic of China (Taiwan)". 31 July 2017.
^ a b c d "History". Taiwan Kaohsiung District Court Republic of China. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
^ a b c d 東沙島地方志資源調查委託辦理計畫 成果報告 (PDF). Marine National Park Headquarters 海洋國家公園管理處 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). December 2008. p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020. 民國35年（1946年）{...}9月，海軍負責接收東沙島，並設立東沙管理處；東沙氣象台由海軍負責管理。{...}民國43年(1954年){...}秋季,國防部長蔣經國至島上視察.
^ a b Republic of China (2nd ed.). China Art Printing Works Yu Tai Industrial Corp., Ltd. 1985. p. 5 – via Internet Archive.
^ a b "Amid disputes, Taiwan highlighting South China Seas claims". AP News. March 23, 2016. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023."Taiwan also has complete control of the Pratas Islands, which it calls Dongsha, centered on an atoll in the northern section of the South China Sea about 340 kilometers (211 miles) southeast of Hong Kong. Taiwan has designated the area a marine national park, but still operates a small airport there, maintains a garrison and operates a fishing boat aid station. China also claims Pratas, but has made no moves to dislodge the Taiwanese presence."
^ Pratas Island Airfield, Federation of American Scientists, www.fas.org
^ Note that Woody Island in the Paracel Islands has a land area of 210 ha, which is greater than Pratas Island's 240-64=176 ha. Also, the PRC's land reclamation activities during 2014 & 2015 have created an "island" of ~230 ha at Fiery Cross Reef.
^ Chih-Wei Chang; Chao-Sheng Huang; Shao-I Wang. "Species composition and sizes of fish in the lagoon of Dongsha Island (Pratas Island), Dongsha Atoll of the South China Sea" (PDF). National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium. p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2020 – via Internet Archive.
^ 南海诸岛 (in Chinese (China)). 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所. 2007-03-26. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2011-10-13.
^ a b 夏征农; 陈至立, eds. (September 2009). 辞海：第六版彩图本 (in Chinese). 上海. Shanghai: 上海辞书出版社. Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House. p. 0487. ISBN 9787532628599.
^ a b Vereker Banks (Approved - N) at GEOnet Names Server, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency "Feature Class (Code): Undersea (U)"
^ Nautical Chart 93006, National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, via www.oceangrafix.com
^ Lima, Marcos Costa (2016-11-01). Perspectivas Asiáticas (in Brazilian Portuguese). Letra e Imagem Editora e Produções LTDA. ISBN 978-85-61012-75-5.
^ "General Catalogue of Mariners' Charts and Books". Government Printing Office. 1919. p. 108 – via Internet Archive. Off-Lying Banks and Islands.2784 Pratas Reef and Island
^ "The ROC Ministry of the Interior released the following press release Dec. 12:ROC Minister of the Interior Chen Wei-zen presides over a ceremony marking the opening of a wharf and lighthouse on Taiping Island, demonstrating the ROC's commitment to making Taiping Island a peaceful and low-carbon island, as well as an ecological reserve, in accordance with the spirit of the South China Sea Peace Initiative". Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2020. Tungsha Island
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^ Sovereignty over the Spratly Islands "Tungsha Island"
^ "Where is Dongsha island? How far is it from Taiwan?". 22 May 2010. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2020.
^ Dongsha Dao (Approved - N) at GEOnet Names Server, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency
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^ "HMS Reynard". William Loney website. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
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^ UK National Archives, CO 129/75, pp.309-316
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^ Hsu, Brian (22 December 2000). "President Chen visits Pratas Islands for first time". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
^ 東沙環礁國家公園. 臺灣國家公園 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). 內政部營建署. 2013-09-11. Archived from the original on 2018-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-15. 東沙國家公園成立於2007年1月，
^ 東、南沙郵政代辦所揭牌 宣示南海主權. Central News Agency (Taiwan) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Archived from the original on 2019-05-03. Retrieved 2019-08-14.
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^ 解放軍被指計劃拿下東沙島 國台辦：堅決維護國家主權和領土完整. HK01 (in Traditional Chinese). 28 October 2020. Archived from the original on 4 November 2020. Retrieved 3 November 2020.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pratas Island.
Look up Pratas or Dongsha in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Satellite image of the Pratas atoll, Google Maps
History, www.laserbase.com.tw
Pratas Island, vm.nthu.edu.tw
Ecological Resources, vm.nthu.edu.tw
Man-made sights, vm.nthu.edu.tw
東沙二十part1：擁有世界級珊瑚生態的神秘東沙島在哪裡？ (in Mandarin Chinese)
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¹ — Mountain indigenous district
vteSouth China SeaPratas Island
Pratas Island
North Vereker Bank
South Vereker Bank
Paracel IslandsAmphitrite Group
Rocky Island
Tree Island
West Sand
Woody Island
Qilian Yu
Crescent Group
Money Island
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DangerousGroundNW
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NNW
Irving Reef
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WNW
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NE
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Reed Tablemount
Third Thomas Shoal
SE
Commodore Reef
First Thomas Shoal
Mischief Reef
Sabina Shoal
Second Thomas Shoal
SW
Union Banks
Collins Reef
Hughes Reef
Johnson South Reef
Sin Cowe Island
Ardasier Reef
Cornwallis South Reef
Dallas Reef
Erica Reef
Investigator Shoal
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West
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Ladd Reef
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East
Royal Captain Shoal
Half Moon Shoal
South
Amboyna Cay
Louisa Reef
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History
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Southwest Cay incident (1975)
Johnson South Reef Skirmish (1988)
Scarborough Shoal standoff (2012)
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Transport
Ships
Coconut Princess
Airports
Pratas Is
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Woody Is
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Itu Aba
Spratly Is
Swallow Reef
Thitu Is
Oceans portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dongsha (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongsha_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INR-12"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scs&got-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thediplomat-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GNISpratasisland-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mofa2015-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edmonds-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-p%C3%AD%E2%81%BF-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-districtcourt-24"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"東沙群島","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E7%BE%A4%E5%B3%B6"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Pe̍h-ōe-jī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INR-12"},{"link_name":"coral island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_island"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lungtsunni-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oneisland-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USStateDept-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heinzig-6"},{"link_name":"Cijin District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cijin_District"},{"link_name":"Kaohsiung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaohsiung"},{"link_name":"Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marinegov-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hainan-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apnews2016-27"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthuPratasIs-7"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fas-28"},{"link_name":"lagoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagoon"},{"link_name":"South China Sea Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea_Islands"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Dongsha Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongsha_Airport"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lungtsunni-1"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cihai-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GNISverekerbanks-33"},{"link_name":"21°N 116°E / 21°N 116°E / 21; 116","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Pratas_Island¶ms=21_N_116_E_"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scs&got-15"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Dongsha Atoll National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongsha_Atoll_National_Park"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apnews2016-27"},{"link_name":"Guangdong Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"}],"text":"Island in the northern South China Sea\"Dongsha\" redirects here. For other uses, see Dongsha (disambiguation).Pratas Island,[11][14]: 5 [15][16][17] also known as the Tungsha Islands[18][19][20][21][22][23] or the Dongsha Islands (Chinese: 東沙群島; pinyin: Dōngshā Qúndǎo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tang-soa Kûn-tó; lit. 'East Sand Islands'[11]), is a coral island situated in the northern part of the South China Sea[1][2][3][6] administered as part of Cijin District, Kaohsiung, Republic of China, a state commonly known as \"Taiwan\".[24][25][26] It is located about 170 nautical miles (310 km; 200 mi) southeast of Hong Kong.[7][27] It has an area of about 240 hectares (590 acres), including 64 hectares (160 acres) of lagoon, and is the largest of the South China Sea Islands.[28] It is the location of the Dongsha Airport.There are three undersea features in the waters associated with Pratas Island: Pratas Atoll, North Vereker Bank and South Vereker Bank.[1]: 8, 9 [29][30][31] The atoll is circular, and the crescent-shaped Pratas Island occupies its western part. Below the ocean's surface[32] to the northwest (21°N 116°E / 21°N 116°E / 21; 116) of Pratas Island, North Vereker Bank rises to 11 metres (36 ft) below sea level and South Vereker Bank to 58 metres (190 ft) below sea level.[14]: 6There are numerous oil wells to the west of the banks.[33] In 2007, the Dongsha Atoll National Park was established on the island. The People's Republic of China claims the island,[26] atoll and banks as part of Guangdong Province.","title":"Pratas Island"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pratas_Atoll_nautical_chart_1946_extracted.jpg"},{"link_name":"NAVOCEANO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Oceanographic_Office"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ROC-MOI_monument_of_South_China_Sea_20100919.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stele"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USS_Frank_Knox_aground_on_Pratas_Reef_1965.jpg"},{"link_name":"USS Frank Knox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Frank_Knox"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karta_CN_SouthChinaSea.PNG"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-districtcourt-24"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-p%C3%AD%E2%81%BF-21"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hksar-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chinapost-39"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"東沙島","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E5%B3%B6"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Wade–Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles"},{"link_name":"Pe̍h-ōe-jī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB"},{"link_name":"Wade–Giles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles"},{"link_name":"romanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Mandarin Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Dongyin Township","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongyin,_Lienchiang"},{"link_name":"Matsu Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsu_Islands"},{"link_name":"East China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GNISdsd-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lungtsunni-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oneisland-2"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mofa2015-19"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-natparks-43"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edmonds-20"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"東沙群島","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E7%BE%A4%E5%B3%B6"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Pe̍h-ōe-jī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INR-12"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mofa2015-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edmonds-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-p%C3%AD%E2%81%BF-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-districtcourt-24"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oneisland-2"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-natparks-43"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lungtsunni-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oneisland-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USStateDept-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unitednations-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ourisland-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heinzig-6"}],"text":"Map of Pratas Island (NAVOCEANO, 1969)Stele erected on Pratas Island by the ROC Ministry of the Interior (Translation: Barrier of the South China Sea)USS Frank Knox aground on Pratas Reef 1965South China SeaThe English name of the island derives from the Portuguese Ilhas das Pratas (\"Silver Plate Islands\"), which was given to the atoll in the 16th century owing to its round shape.[citation needed][34] Pratas Atoll is also called Pratas Reef.[35]Tungsha Island[23][36][20][37][38] (Tung-sha Tao) (Chinese: 東沙島; pinyin: Dōngshā Dǎo; Wade–Giles: Tung1-sha1 Tao3; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tang-soa-tó) is the Wade–Giles-derived romanization of the Mandarin Chinese name for the island, and Dongsha Island[39] (Dongsha Dao) is the pinyin-derived name. A smaller island with the same Chinese character name is located in the Taiwan-administered Dongyin Township in the Matsu Islands in the East China Sea.[40][41]The area including the island, atoll and banks is also called the Pratas Islands[1]: 7 [2][18][42][19] (Chinese: 東沙群島; pinyin: Dōngshā Qúndǎo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tang-soa Kûn-tó; lit. 'East Sand Islands'[11]: 17 ), the Tungsha Islands[18][19][20][21][22][23] and the Dongsha Islands.[2][42] Despite these names, Pratas Island is the only island;[1]: 13 [2][3][4][5] there is no group of islands.[6]","title":"Pratas Islands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East Indiaman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Indiaman"},{"link_name":"Earl Talbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Talbot_(1797_EIC_ship)"},{"link_name":"screw sloop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_sloop"},{"link_name":"HMS Reynard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Reynard_(1848)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WL-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"British Colonial Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Colonial_Office"},{"link_name":"Xiamen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiamen"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Royal 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(naturalist)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert_Collingwood_(naturalist)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1866visit-48"},{"link_name":"guano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guano"},{"link_name":"Joss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joss_paper"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Hedwig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MV_Hedwig&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times041230a-52"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"gunboat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunboat"},{"link_name":"Hashidate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_gunboat_Hashidate"},{"link_name":"torpedoed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"USS Picuda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Picuda"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"21°08′N 117°20′E / 21.133°N 117.333°E / 21.133; 117.333 (Hashidate)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Pratas_Island¶ms=21_08_N_117_20_E_&title=%27%27Hashidate%27%27"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hashidate-54"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"USS Bluegill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bluegill"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Guangdong Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"Republic of 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Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon_Mary_(1960)"},{"link_name":"Shun Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS_Shun_Lee&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"USS Yorktown (CV-10)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Yorktown_(CV-10)"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times100660-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"USS Frank Knox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Frank_Knox_(DD-742)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Kaohsiung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaohsiung"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-districtcourt-24"},{"link_name":"Frank Hsieh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Hsieh"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hanpratas-63"},{"link_name":"Chen Shui-bian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Shui-bian"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-p%C3%AD%E2%81%BF-21"},{"link_name":"Coast Guard Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Guard_Administration_(Taiwan)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-p%C3%AD%E2%81%BF-21"},{"link_name":"Dongsha Atoll National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongsha_Atoll_National_Park"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Chunghwa Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chunghwa_Post"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"PRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"air defense identification zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_defense_identification_zone"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thediplomat-16"},{"link_name":"Uni Air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Air"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong air traffic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_(Area_Control_Centre)"},{"link_name":"Flight Information Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_Information_Region"},{"link_name":"Civil Aeronautics Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Aeronautics_Administration_(Taiwan)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oneisland-2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ocac-11"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mazza-67"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Yen Teh-fa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen_Teh-fa"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"李廷盛","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E5%BB%B7%E7%9B%9B"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Y8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaanxi_Y-8"},{"link_name":"air defense identification zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_defense_identification_zone"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Zhu Fenglian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhu_Fenglian"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Affairs Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Affairs_Office"},{"link_name":"PLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"Fujian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"PLAAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Yen Teh-fa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yen_Teh-fa"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mazza-67"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yentehfa-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"}],"text":"The East Indiaman Earl Talbot was wrecked on Pratas Island on or about 22 October 1800 with the loss of all aboard. At the time the island was known to British sailors as \"Perates\". In 1851, the British screw sloop HMS Reynard wrecked on the south-east bend of Pratas Atoll while going to the aid of another wrecked vessel; the crew were all saved.[43] Decades later, the boilers and parts of the machinery of the wreckage of HMS Reynard remained visible on the atoll.[44]In 1859–1861, there was a correspondence between the British Colonial Office and the Hong Kong colonial authorities about building a lighthouse on the main island on the atoll. Despite an offer by a British businessman in Xiamen (Amoy) to build it, it was decided that the cost was too great and the matter lapsed. It is clear from the correspondence that no one supposed the atoll to be a part of any known jurisdiction, so negotiations might have been required to ensure that any construction would be legal.[45]One consequence of that initiative was that, in 1858, the Royal Navy survey ship HMS Saracen completed the first detailed survey of the atoll, resulting in the Plan of the Pratas Reef and Island, J. Richards and others, April 1858, being published by the British Admiralty.[46] On the resulting chart three positions are proposed for a lighthouse: on Pratas Island, on the north-east corner, or on the southern edge near where HMS Reynard had stranded. In the north-east corner of the lagoon the chart notes \"Anchorage for junks\", indicating regular use by fishing and other small vessels taking shelter. The chart's rubric noted that the available safe draft for vessels entering was only 15 feet (4.6 m), so it was restricted to relatively small vessels only.In 1866, Cuthbert Collingwood (naturalist) visited Pratas Island and later published a description of it.[47]In 1908–1909, a Japanese businessman named Nishizawa Yoshizi (西澤吉次) established a guano collecting station. He destroyed the Dawang Joss House (大王庙), dug up graves and poured the bone ashes of Chinese fishermen into the sea, and renamed the atoll \"Nishizawa Island\".[48][49] After a diplomatic confrontation, Chinese sovereignty was re-established, and Nishizawa withdrew, after being compensated by the Guangdong provincial government, and after paying compensation for the destruction of a Chinese fishermen's shrine.[50]In December 1930, the schooner Hedwig (Sweden) ran aground on a coral reef off Pratas Island and was wrecked.[51][52]On 22 May 1944, the Japanese gunboat Hashidate was torpedoed and sunk by the US submarine USS Picuda, in the South China Sea off Pratas Island at 21°08′N 117°20′E / 21.133°N 117.333°E / 21.133; 117.333 (Hashidate), while towing the disabled passenger-cargo ship Tsukuba Maru. Casualties are unknown but her commanding officer was killed.[53]Japanese naval personnel occupied Pratas Island during World War II. The Japanese Navy used the island as a weather station and listening post. On May 29, 1945, at 10:22 AM, a landing party consisting of Australian commandos and US naval personnel from the submarine USS Bluegill raised the US flag, declared the island a United States territory, and named it Bluegill Island. The landing party destroyed a radio tower, weather station, fuel and ammunition dumps, and several buildings. They encountered no resistance because the Japanese had left the island prior to the arrival of Bluegill.[54][55][56]Pratas Island was later restored to Guangdong Province of the Republic of China (ROC).[57] On September 12, 1946, the navy of the Republic of China took over and garrisoned Pratas Island.[1]: 10, 13, 15, 23 [24]On 6 June 1949, the ROC established the Hainan Special Administrative District (海南特別行政區), which included Pratas Island.[24][25]In autumn 1954, the senior ROC politician Chiang Ching-kuo visited the island and made an inspection.[24]On 9 June 1960, during Typhoon Mary, the Hong Kong cargo ship Shun Lee was driven against Pratas Reef and wrecked. Her 55 crew took to the liferafts and were rescued by the USS Yorktown (CV-10).[58][59]While underway in the South China Sea on 18 July 1965, the USS Frank Knox ran aground on Pratas Reef, and was only freed on 24 August after a very difficult salvage effort.[60][61]On 13 April 1996, the jurisdiction of the Taiwan Kaohsiung District Court was extended to include Tungsha Island (Pratas Island).[23]In May 1999, Kaohsiung Mayor Frank Hsieh visited the island and hung an address plate on the island’s fishing service station.[62] On 21 December 2000, ROC President Chen Shui-bian visited the island with Kaohsiung Mayor Frank Hsieh.[63][20] On 28 July 2005, President Chen Shui-bian again visited the island and inaugurated the Fifth Maritime Patrol Squad of the Coast Guard Administration.[20]In January 2007, the ROC government designated the Pratas atoll as the Dongsha Atoll National Park, the first marine national park in Taiwan.[64]On 8 January 2013, an office of Chunghwa Post was established on Pratas Island.[65]In September 2020, the PRC conducted air drills over the waters between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island that intruded into the ROC air defense identification zone (ADIZ). The planes were issued radio warnings by the ROC military until they left.[15]On 15 October 2020, a regular civilian charter flight by Uni Air had to abandon its trip from the main island of Taiwan to Pratas Island when Hong Kong air traffic controllers told the captain of the aircraft that there were \"dangerous activities\" happening below 26,000 ft (7,900 m) and that the Uni Air aircraft could not enter the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR). The transcript of the conversation between the pilot and air traffic control was released by the ROC Civil Aeronautics Administration.[2][10][66][67][68][69] The next day, the ROC Minister of National Defense Yen Teh-fa called on PRC not to \"disrupt the order of international aviation\".[70][71] On 20 October, Deputy Chief of the ROC General Staff, Lieutenant-General Li Ting-sheng (李廷盛), visited Pratas Island. He made an inspection of the living facilities of the military personnel and gave them instructions.[72] On 26 October, the same Uni Air aircraft made the round trip flight between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island.[73][74]On 27 October 2020, a Y8 PRC military aircraft entered ROC air defense identification zone (ADIZ) between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island for the twenty-first time that month.[75] On 28 October, Zhu Fenglian of the Taiwan Affairs Office of the PRC was asked whether, in light of PLA military exercises in Fujian and Guangdong, there was or was not a plan to take Pratas Island from the ROC. Feng responded that she did not have to answer hypothetical questions.[76][77] On 2 November, eight Chinese PLAAF aircraft breached the ROC ADIZ above an area of sea near Pratas Island.[78] On 3 November, Y-8 plane entered the ADIZ of the ROC in the area between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island.[79] On 4 November, the ROC Minister of National Defense, Yen Teh-fa, stated in a legislative hearing that since January 2020, 276 PRC military planes had entered the airspace between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island, activity that Yen associated with plans by the PRC for a creating its own ADIZ in the South China Sea.[66][80] On 6 December, a PRC air force Y-8 plane entered the Taiwan ADIZ between the main island of Taiwan and Pratas Island, the fifth day in December that PRC military aircraft entered Taiwan's ADIZ.[81]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Operational_Navigation_Chart_J-12,_7th_edition.jpg"},{"link_name":"DMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Mapping_Agency"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pratas_Atoll_nautical_chart_1946.jpg"},{"link_name":"NAVOCEANO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Oceanographic_Office"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Txu-oclc-6654394-nf-50-7th-ed.jpg"},{"link_name":"International Map of the World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Map_of_the_World"},{"link_name":"AMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Map_Service"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_j-12a.jpg"},{"link_name":"NIMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Imagery_and_Mapping_Agency"},{"link_name":"Kaoshiung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaoshiung"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hanpratas-63"},{"link_name":"Taipei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nationalparkdistances-9"},{"link_name":"Shantou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shantou"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cihai-32"},{"link_name":"South China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"20°43′N 116°42′E / 20.717°N 116.700°E / 20.717; 116.700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Pratas_Island¶ms=20_43_N_116_42_E_"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Dongsha Atoll National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongsha_Atoll_National_Park"},{"link_name":"above sea level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_sea_level"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Silver silk tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silver_silk_tree&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Strawberry tung tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strawberry_tung_tree&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Coconut tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coconut_tree"},{"link_name":"Little terns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_tern"},{"link_name":"Turnstones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnstone"},{"link_name":"Gull-billed terns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gull-billed_tern"},{"link_name":"Parrotfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parrotfish"},{"link_name":"Starfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfish"},{"link_name":"Rock lobsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_lobster"},{"link_name":"Cuthbert Collingwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuthbert_Collingwood_(naturalist)"},{"link_name":"HMS Serpent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HMS_Serpent_(1860)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1866visit-48"},{"link_name":"21°N 116°E / 21°N 116°E / 21; 116","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Pratas_Island¶ms=21_N_116_E_"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GNISverekerbanks-33"},{"link_name":"北衛灘","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E8%A1%9B%E7%81%98"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-researchpromoted-85"},{"link_name":"南衛灘","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%97%E8%A1%9B%E7%81%98"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-researchpromoted-85"},{"link_name":"21°38′N 116°03′E / 21.633°N 116.050°E / 21.633; 116.050","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Pratas_Island¶ms=21_38_N_116_03_E_"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scs&got-15"},{"link_name":"seamount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamount"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Map showing the location of Pratas Island (within (VH)R7) in the South China Sea (DMA, 1984)Map of Tung-sha Tao (Pratas Island) (NAVOCEANO, 1969)Map including Pratas Reef, Pratas Island and surrounding region from the International Map of the World (AMS, 1965)Map including Pratas Island (within VHR7) (NIMA, 2000)Pratas Island is located 444 km (276 mi) from the rest of Kaoshiung,[62] 850 kilometres (530 miles) southwest of Taipei, 320 kilometres (200 miles) southeast of Hong Kong[8] and 260 km (160 mi) south of Shantou, Guangdong[31] in the northern part of the South China Sea (20°43′N 116°42′E / 20.717°N 116.700°E / 20.717; 116.700). An international team of researchers conducted a comprehensive population genetic analysis of 11 marine species sampled from the island. They concluded that Dongsha Atoll is an important regional stepping-stone that promotes genetic connectivity among South China Sea reefs, as marine larvae can potentially reach a large number of reefs in the northern South China Sea.[82] The protection of the island and surrounding reefs by the Taiwanese government as Dongsha Atoll National Park may therefore benefit the entire region.Pratas Island is 2.8 km (1.7 mi) long and 0.865 km (0.537 mi) wide; it is the only feature of the group above sea level. The island is made up of coral atolls and reef flats. Brush, vines and bushes cover some of the island - the rest is white sand. Flora and fauna on and around Pratas Island include:[citation needed]Silver silk tree\nStrawberry tung tree\nCoconut tree\nLittle terns\nTurnstones\nGull-billed terns\nParrotfish\nStarfish\nRock lobstersIn the Journal of Science (April 1867) there is a nine-page article entitled \"The Natural History of Pratas Island in the China Sea\" by Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, the naturalist on board HMS Serpent. It describes what was observed, especially bird life, during a visit of two days while the survey ship lay at anchor. Collingwood explored the island on 30 April 1866.[47]The Vereker Banks (21°N 116°E / 21°N 116°E / 21; 116) are 74 km (46 mi) northwest of Pratas Atoll.[83] North and South Vereker Banks are under water.[32] North Vereker Bank (北衛灘[84]) rises to 11 metres (36 ft) below sea level with an average depth of 60 metres (200 ft) to 90 metres (300 ft) below sea level. A well head with a depth of 4.1 metres (13 ft) lies 30 metres (98 ft) off North Vereker Bank. Two to three miles of deep water separate North Vereker Bank and South Vereker Bank. South Vereker Bank (南衛灘[84]) rises to 58 metres (190 ft) below sea level. A well head, in a depth of over 100 metres (330 ft), lies 28 mi (45 km) north of the Vereker Banks at 21°38′N 116°03′E / 21.633°N 116.050°E / 21.633; 116.050. The associated production platform and SPM make up Lu Feng Terminal; the terminal is enclosed by a restricted area. Exploration for oil is taking place in this area.[14]: 6There are also some seamount formations nearby which are not part of the three atolls:[citation needed]Jianfeng Seamount (尖峰海山)\nMaojia Seamount (芼架海山)\nBeipo Seamount (北波海山)","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republic of China (Taiwan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"postal code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_code"},{"link_name":"Kaohsiung City Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaohsiung_City_Government"},{"link_name":"Cijin District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cijin_District,_Kaohsiung"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"}],"text":"The island is part of the Republic of China (Taiwan) with the postal code 817. Although there are no long-term inhabitants on the island, Pratas is administered by the Kaohsiung City Government under Cijin District (Qijin). The island has been uninhabited, yet nations (including China and Japan) have claimed them to be their overseas territory.","title":"Politics and government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pratas_Island&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Taiping Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiping_Island"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"sub_title":"Military","text":"As of November 2020[update], about five hundred Taiwanese marines were stationed on Pratas Island. The island has a network of underground bunkers.[85] According to regulations updated on December 2, 2020, in the event that communication is cut off between mainland Taiwan and Pratas Island or Taiping Island (Itu Aba), the highest-ranking local officer can make the decision to fire back at assailants.[86]","title":"Politics and government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Chengqu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengqu,_Shanwei"},{"link_name":"Shanwei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanwei"},{"link_name":"Guangdong Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong_Province"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1992law-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ocac-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-INR-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sws-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chengqu-14"},{"link_name":"PLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"air defence identification zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_defence_identification_zone"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yentehfa-81"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"supply line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_line"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"sub_title":"Cross-strait relations","text":"The People's Republic of China claims the Pratas Islands (东沙群岛) as part of Chengqu, Shanwei (Swabue), Guangdong Province.[9][10][11]: 10 [12][13]According to an anonymous PLA source, plans created around 2010 by China for an air defence identification zone in the South China Sea include Pratas Island airspace.[87] The PLA's actions near the southwest corner of the Taiwan ADIZ and Pratas Island in late 2020 led to speculation that the area might be declared part of an ADIZ by China.[80][88][89]In the later half of 2020, repeated reports of Chinese military exercises and fly overs near the island were interpreted as an apparent attempt to cut off the supply line between Pratas Island and mainland Taiwan.[90]","title":"Politics and government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DXCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_operating_award"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BQ9P-92"}],"text":"As an island with no permanent inhabitants, it is visited largely by fishermen, military personnel and researchers. Amateur radio operators participating in the DXCC and Islands on the Air awards programs also visit occasionally.[91]","title":"Pratas Island settlement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"Mazu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazu_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"Guan Gong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan_Gong"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"Kaohsiung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaohsiung"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"Cijin District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cijin_District,_Kaohsiung"},{"link_name":"National Tsing Hua University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Tsing_Hua_University"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"}],"sub_title":"Landmarks","text":"An obelisk was erected after 1946.[citation needed]In 1954 the ROC Government personnel stationed on Pratas erected a stone tablet on the southern side of the island, facing the ocean.[92]The Da Wang temple is dedicated to 'Kuang Kang' and 'The South China Sea Goddess' - Mazu. It is said[by whom?] that the statue of Guan Gong came to Pratas Island on a canoe in 1948. The soldiers on Pratas Island built a temple to worship her in 1975. Today,[when?] the canoe is still kept in the temple. The joss sticks and candles are donated by soldiers, as was the golden sign hung in front of the statue. There is an 'Ever Green' pavilion in front of the temple which was also built by the soldiers. It is the most verdant place on the island.[92]The Minister for Internal Affairs of the ROC erected the South China Sea Defense stone tablet to declare Republic of China sovereignty in 1989.[92]In July 1991 the Kaohsiung City Government erected the Pratas Island measuring memorial stone tablet as a symbol that Pratas Island falls within the jurisdiction of Kaohsiung City.[92] Within Kaohsiung, the island belongs to Cijin District (Qijin).The ROC Government established the Triangulation Benchmark as the triangulation point for Pratas Island in December 1991. There are words on each side of the base of the triangulation point stone tablet. They read 'The Pratas Triangulation Point' on the front, and 'Longitude: 116o 43\" 42.5601'E, Latitude: 20o 42' 6.2415'N, Height: 2.4875 meters.' The words 'Defend the South China Sea', written by the commander, Lo Ben Li, were also engraved on the stone tablet. The National Tsing Hua University webpage about the island states: \"In addition to making it more convenient to survey and draw navigational maps, and to construct and develop facilities on the island, the establishment of the triangulation point is also the basis of our sovereign rights.\"[92]","title":"Pratas Island settlement"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E7%92%B0%E7%A4%81%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%85%AC%E5%9C%92_06.jpg"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"Taiping Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiping_Island"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nthu-93"},{"link_name":"National Sun Yat-sen University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Sun_Yat-sen_University"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"biogeochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemistry"},{"link_name":"oceanography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"sub_title":"Public buildings","text":"Hospital, 2004The library is located on one side of the main plaza, and is the center for soldiers to obtain spiritual nourishment. The library contains more than two thousand books.[92]The military post office is Office No. 67. The Ministry of Transportation and Communications issued the 'South China Sea Islands Map Stamps' in 1996, as a set of two stamps. The inscription 'South China Sea Defense' from the national stone tablet on Pratas Island was printed on the five-dollar stamp, and the 'Defend the South China Sea' inscription from the national stone tablet on Taiping Island was printed on the seventeen-dollar stamp. The background was the south China coastline, Taiwan and Hainan Island with the blue sky and sea. This was the first time that the ROC had issued stamps with the theme of the South China Sea.[92]In 1987 the military and civilian occupants built the 'Pratas Fishermen's Service Station'. The station was built in traditional Chinese courtyard house style, and provides convenient services for fishermen and boats in the South China Sea, insuring the fishermen's safety and upholding ROC sovereignty. The services provided include lodging, medical rescue, entertainment and supply. The station also provides lodging for the scientists who come to conduct research on the island.[92]In 2012 National Sun Yat-sen University's Dongsha Atoll Research Station (DARS) was established for biology, biogeochemistry, and oceanography research.[93]","title":"Pratas Island settlement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coast Guard Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_Guard_Administration_(Taiwan)"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"}],"sub_title":"Energy","text":"Diesel-fueled generators are used to power the island. In March 2016, a solar energy system built by the Coast Guard Administration went into operation. The system covers an area of 310.6 m2 and produces 53,200 kWh of electricity each year.[94]","title":"Pratas Island settlement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dongsha Island Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongsha_Island_Airport"},{"link_name":"ROC military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hksar-38"},{"link_name":"Flight Information Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_Information_Region"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oneisland-2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ocac-11"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"text":"The Dongsha Island Airport features a runway located on the north end of Pratas Island with a small airport terminal at the eastern end. The airport is used by the ROC military. A main shack and subordinate shack are located on the southeast end of the island. There are no refueling facilities.Two piers on the southeast shore allow for small watercraft to land.A circle with a radius of 10 nmi (19 km) centered on Pratas Island, referred to as VHR7, is a prohibited area for aeronautical purposes. The 'VH' in VHR7 denotes 'Hong Kong' and the 'R' denotes a 'Restricted Area'.[37] Pratas Island and VHR7 are located within the Hong Kong Flight Information Region (FIR).[2][10][95]","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%85%AB%E6%93%9A%E9%BB%9E%E6%BD%9F%E6%B9%96.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%A9%9F%E5%A0%B4%E6%BC%B2%E6%BD%AE.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E5%86%AC%E5%A4%A9_14.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:((WDPA-555512092))_Dongsha_Atoll_National_Park,_WEY,_10.jpg"}],"text":"Pratas Island Lagoon\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAirport\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPratas Island Beach\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSouthern edge of Pratas Atoll(Pratas Island can be seen in the distance)","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Hainan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan"}],"text":"^ Until 1996, it remained under Hainan.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Map of Pratas Island (NAVOCEANO, 1969)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Pratas_Atoll_nautical_chart_1946_extracted.jpg/220px-Pratas_Atoll_nautical_chart_1946_extracted.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stele erected on Pratas Island by the ROC Ministry of the Interior (Translation: Barrier of the South China Sea)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/ROC-MOI_monument_of_South_China_Sea_20100919.jpg/220px-ROC-MOI_monument_of_South_China_Sea_20100919.jpg"},{"image_text":"USS Frank Knox aground on Pratas Reef 1965","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/USS_Frank_Knox_aground_on_Pratas_Reef_1965.jpg/220px-USS_Frank_Knox_aground_on_Pratas_Reef_1965.jpg"},{"image_text":"South China Sea","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Karta_CN_SouthChinaSea.PNG/220px-Karta_CN_SouthChinaSea.PNG"},{"image_text":"Map showing the location of Pratas Island (within (VH)R7) in the South China Sea (DMA, 1984)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Operational_Navigation_Chart_J-12%2C_7th_edition.jpg/220px-Operational_Navigation_Chart_J-12%2C_7th_edition.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Tung-sha Tao (Pratas Island) (NAVOCEANO, 1969)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Pratas_Atoll_nautical_chart_1946.jpg/220px-Pratas_Atoll_nautical_chart_1946.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map including Pratas Reef, Pratas Island and surrounding region from the International Map of the World (AMS, 1965)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Txu-oclc-6654394-nf-50-7th-ed.jpg/220px-Txu-oclc-6654394-nf-50-7th-ed.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map including Pratas Island (within VHR7) (NIMA, 2000)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_j-12a.jpg/220px-Txu-pclmaps-oclc-22834566_j-12a.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hospital, 2004","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E7%92%B0%E7%A4%81%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%85%AC%E5%9C%92_06.jpg/220px-%E6%9D%B1%E6%B2%99%E7%92%B0%E7%A4%81%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%85%AC%E5%9C%92_06.jpg"}] | [{"title":"List of islands of Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Taiwan"},{"title":"List of Taiwanese superlatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_superlatives"},{"title":"Politics of the Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China"},{"title":"South China Sea Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Sea_Islands"}] | [{"reference":"Lung Tsun-Ni 龍村倪 (1998). 東沙群島-東沙島紀事集錦 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Taipei: 臺灣綜合研究院. ISBN 957-98189-0-8. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090130022327/http://vm.nthu.edu.tw/np/vc/theme/pratas/","url_text":"東沙群島-東沙島紀事集錦"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei","url_text":"Taipei"},{"url":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E7%B6%9C%E5%90%88%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E9%99%A2","url_text":"臺灣綜合研究院"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/957-98189-0-8","url_text":"957-98189-0-8"},{"url":"http://vm.nthu.edu.tw/np/vc/theme/pratas/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Danny Lee (17 October 2020). \"Hong Kong blocks Taiwan from reaching disputed Pratas Islands, saying airspace around disputed territory is closed 'until further notice'\". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2020. The Pratas Islands, known as the Dongsha Islands in Chinese and located within Hong Kong airspace, comprise one island, two coral reefs and two banks.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3105930/hong-kong-blocks-taiwan-reaching-disputed-pratas-islands","url_text":"\"Hong Kong blocks Taiwan from reaching disputed Pratas Islands, saying airspace around disputed territory is closed 'until further notice'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post","url_text":"South China Morning Post"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201028162536/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3105930/hong-kong-blocks-taiwan-reaching-disputed-pratas-islands","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Limits in the Seas - No. 127 Taiwan's Maritime Claims\" (PDF). United States Department of State. November 15, 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2012. The Pratas Reef lies 230 miles to the southwest of the southern tip of Taiwan.26 It consists of an island in the mouth of a semicircular shoal open to the west. The segments D1-D4 close the mouth by connecting the headlands of the shoal with the island.","urls":[{"url":"https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/57674.pdf","url_text":"\"Limits in the Seas - No. 127 Taiwan's Maritime Claims\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200715092100/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/57674.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dong Manh Nguyen (December 2005). \"Settlement of disputes under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea The case of the South China Sea dispute\" (PDF). p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.un.org/Depts/los/nippon/unnff_programme_home/fellows_pages/fellows_papers/nguyen_0506_vietnam.pdf","url_text":"\"Settlement of disputes under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea The case of the South China Sea dispute\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090710201905/https://www.un.org/Depts/los/nippon/unnff_programme_home/fellows_pages/fellows_papers/nguyen_0506_vietnam.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"【海洋研究】東沙二十part1：擁有世界級珊瑚生態的神秘東沙島在哪裡？(我們的島 第933集 2017-12-04). Our Island (我們的島) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). Public Television Service. 11 December 2017. Event occurs at 8:20. Retrieved 1 November 2020 – via YouTube. 東沙島則是唯一突出水面的島嶼","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G8n3oKY0Mhk","url_text":"【海洋研究】東沙二十part1：擁有世界級珊瑚生態的神秘東沙島在哪裡？(我們的島 第933集 2017-12-04)"},{"url":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%91%E5%80%91%E7%9A%84%E5%B3%B6","url_text":"我們的島"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Television_Service","url_text":"Public Television Service"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"Dieter Heinzig [in German] (1976). Disputed Islands in the South China Sea (PDF). Harrassowitz. pp. 14, 19, 32, 56. ISBN 3-447-01804-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieter_Heinzig","url_text":"Dieter Heinzig"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170122061020/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08C01297R000300180013-8.pdf","url_text":"Disputed Islands in the South China Sea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-447-01804-6","url_text":"3-447-01804-6"},{"url":"https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08C01297R000300180013-8.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"東沙環礁國家公園簡 [Dongsha Atoll National Park - Introduction]. Marine National Park Headquarters (海洋國家公園管理處) (in Chinese (Taiwan) and English). Archived from the original on 1 October 2020. 東沙環礁位於南海北部海域，東北距高雄450公里，西北距香港320公里，西南距海南島榆林670公里，南距南沙太平島1,190公里，東南離馬尼拉780公里；行政區域隸屬高雄市旗津區。{...}Dongsha Atoll located in the northern South China Sea is 450 km southwest of Kaohsiung, 320 km southeast of Hong Kong, 670 km northeast of [Yulin on] Hainan Island, 1,190 km north of Taiping Island, [and] 780 km northwest of Manila. Administratively, it is under the Cijin District of Kaohsiung.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marine.gov.tw/filesys/image/01_chinese/news/20160713/2016070505_nEO_IMG.jpg","url_text":"東沙環礁國家公園簡"},{"url":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E6%B4%8B%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%85%AC%E5%9C%92%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E8%99%95","url_text":"海洋國家公園管理處"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201001120600/https://www.marine.gov.tw/filesys/image/01_chinese/news/20160713/2016070505_nEO_IMG.jpg","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A6%86%E6%9E%97%E6%B8%AF","url_text":"Yulin"}]},{"reference":"\"Law on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone of 25 February 1992\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2004 – via United Nations. The PRC's territorial land includes the mainland and its offshore islands, Taiwan and the various affiliated islands including Diaoyu Island, Penghu Islands, Dongsha Islands, Xisha Islands, Nansha (Spratly) Islands and other islands that belong to the People's Republic of China","urls":[{"url":"https://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/CHN_1992_Law.pdf","url_text":"\"Law on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone of 25 February 1992\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040718131426/https://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/CHN_1992_Law.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations","url_text":"United Nations"}]},{"reference":"\"Taiwan releases records to rebut HK's claim it abandoned its flight plan\". Overseas Community Affairs Council. 17 October 2020. Archived from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2020. The Dongsha Islands, administered by Taiwan but also claimed by China, are located about 310 kilometers southeast of Hong Kong and are within its Flight Information Region (FIR).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ocac.gov.tw/OCAC/Eng/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=329&pid=19997186","url_text":"\"Taiwan releases records to rebut HK's claim it abandoned its flight plan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_Community_Affairs_Council","url_text":"Overseas Community Affairs Council"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201102185325/https://www.ocac.gov.tw/OCAC/Eng/Pages/Detail.aspx?nodeid=329&pid=19997186","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"SOUTH CHINA SEA: UP FOR GRABS\" (PDF). Bureau of Intelligence and Research. 14 September 1971. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170123072513/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08C01297R000300180018-3.pdf","url_text":"\"SOUTH CHINA SEA: UP FOR GRABS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Intelligence_and_Research","url_text":"Bureau of Intelligence and Research"},{"url":"https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP08C01297R000300180018-3.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"汕尾市. 广东省民政厅网站 (in Simplified Chinese). May 2005. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. 城区{...}（东沙群岛不是镇建制）","urls":[{"url":"http://smzt.gd.gov.cn/qhgk/gsqh/200505/sws/","url_text":"汕尾市"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201103005408/http://smzt.gd.gov.cn/qhgk/gsqh/200505/sws/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"广东省国土资源厅 (30 June 2018). 城区地图 (Map). Department of Natural Resources of Guangdong Province 广东省自然资源厅 (in Simplified Chinese). Archived from the original on 7 July 2020 – via Internet Archive. 东沙群岛{...}北卫滩{...}南卫滩{...}东沙岛{...}东沙礁","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200707201843/http://nr.gd.gov.cn/attachment/0/328/328278/2265301.jpg","url_text":"城区地图"},{"url":"http://nr.gd.gov.cn/attachment/0/328/328278/2265301.jpg","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand (PDF). Sailing Directions (Enroute) (17 ed.). Springfield, Virginia. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://msi.nga.mil/api/publications/download?key=16694491%2FSFH00000%2FPub161bk.pdf","url_text":"South China Sea and the Gulf of Thailand"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Virginia","url_text":"Springfield, Virginia"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201102135711/https://msi.nga.mil/api/publications/download?key=16694491%2FSFH00000%2FPub161bk.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Steven Stashwick (11 September 2020). \"Chinese Jets Intrude Taiwan Air Defense Zone for Second Day\". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 11 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/chinese-jets-intrude-taiwan-air-defense-zone-for-second-day/","url_text":"\"Chinese Jets Intrude Taiwan Air Defense Zone for Second Day\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Diplomat","url_text":"The Diplomat"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200911220848/https://thediplomat.com/2020/09/chinese-jets-intrude-taiwan-air-defense-zone-for-second-day/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"China to conduct major military drill simulating seizure of Taiwan-held island\". Japan Times. 14 May 2020. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 4 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/05/14/asia-pacific/china-military-drill-taiwan/#.XsPjtRNKjVo","url_text":"\"China to conduct major military drill simulating seizure of Taiwan-held island\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_Times","url_text":"Japan Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200514171019/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/05/14/asia-pacific/china-military-drill-taiwan/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Statement on the South China Sea\". Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 7 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/News_Content.aspx?n=0E7B91A8FBEC4A94&sms=220E98D761D34A9A&s=EDEBCA08C7F51C98","url_text":"\"Statement on the South China Sea\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Taiwan)","url_text":"Ministry of Foreign Affairs"}]},{"reference":"Richard Louis Edmonds (1992). Graham P. Chapman; Kathleen M. Baker (eds.). The Changing Geography of Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau. The Changing Geography of Asia. Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 0-415-05707-8. Since 1949, Taiwan has remained under Nationalist (Kuomintang) control ... In addition, the Nationalists maintain garrisons and weather stations in the South China Sea on T'ai-p'ing Island in the Nansha or Spratly Islands and in the Tungsha or Pratas Islands (see Figure 6.1).","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/changinggeograph0000unse/","url_text":"The Changing Geography of Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/changinggeograph0000unse/page/160/","url_text":"160"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05707-8","url_text":"0-415-05707-8"}]},{"reference":"\"President Chen Visits Tungsha Islands\". Office of the President Republic of China (Taiwan). 28 July 2005. Archived from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://english.president.gov.tw/NEWS/2009","url_text":"\"President Chen Visits Tungsha Islands\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200709003243/https://english.president.gov.tw/NEWS/2009","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"The Republic of China at a Glance (PDF). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. May 2016. pp. 4, 7, 8. ISBN 978-986-03-2703-8. Retrieved 7 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.roc-taiwan.org/public/WTO_localNews/6610373071.pdf","url_text":"The Republic of China at a Glance"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-986-03-2703-8","url_text":"978-986-03-2703-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) reiterates that the Nansha Islands, the Shisha Islands, the Chungsha Islands and the Tungsha Islands, as well as their surrounding waters, sea beds and subsoil, are all an inherent part of the territory of the Republic of China (Taiwan)\". 31 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.boca.gov.tw/cp-220-1975-e0296-2.html","url_text":"\"Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (Taiwan) reiterates that the Nansha Islands, the Shisha Islands, the Chungsha Islands and the Tungsha Islands, as well as their surrounding waters, sea beds and subsoil, are all an inherent part of the territory of the Republic of China (Taiwan)\""}]},{"reference":"\"History\". Taiwan Kaohsiung District Court Republic of China. Archived from the original on 15 October 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://ksd.judicial.gov.tw/english/index.html","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaohsiung","url_text":"Kaohsiung"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111015160854/https://ksd.judicial.gov.tw/english/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"東沙島地方志資源調查委託辦理計畫 成果報告 (PDF). Marine National Park Headquarters 海洋國家公園管理處 (in Chinese (Taiwan)). December 2008. p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020. 民國35年（1946年）{...}9月，海軍負責接收東沙島，並設立東沙管理處；東沙氣象台由海軍負責管理。{...}民國43年(1954年){...}秋季,國防部長蔣經國至島上視察.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marine.gov.tw/filesys/dlarea/47/file2.pdf","url_text":"東沙島地方志資源調查委託辦理計畫 成果報告"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200709010041/https://www.marine.gov.tw/filesys/dlarea/47/file2.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Republic of China (2nd ed.). China Art Printing Works Yu Tai Industrial Corp., Ltd. 1985. p. 5 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/republicofchina00bark/","url_text":"Republic of China"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/republicofchina00bark/page/n8/","url_text":"5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"Amid disputes, Taiwan highlighting South China Seas claims\". AP News. March 23, 2016. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230527091652/https://apnews.com/article/7d8dee14664d4dac9d1e3c465e204f94","url_text":"\"Amid disputes, Taiwan highlighting South China Seas claims\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_News","url_text":"AP News"},{"url":"https://apnews.com/article/7d8dee14664d4dac9d1e3c465e204f94","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chih-Wei Chang; Chao-Sheng Huang; Shao-I Wang. \"Species composition and sizes of fish in the lagoon of Dongsha Island (Pratas Island), Dongsha Atoll of the South China Sea\" (PDF). National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium. p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2020 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://ws.nmmba.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvT2xkRmlsZV9QdWJsaWNhdGlvbi9Qb3J0YWxzLzAvUHVibGljYXRpb24vTVAvMjAxMi0tUDI1LTMyLnBkZg%3D%3D&n=MjAxMi0tUDI1LTMyLnBkZg%3D%3D&icon=..pdf","url_text":"\"Species composition and sizes of fish in the lagoon of Dongsha Island (Pratas Island), Dongsha Atoll of the South China Sea\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Marine_Biology_and_Aquarium","url_text":"National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201101001822/https://ws.nmmba.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvT2xkRmlsZV9QdWJsaWNhdGlvbi9Qb3J0YWxzLzAvUHVibGljYXRpb24vTVAvMjAxMi0tUDI1LTMyLnBkZg%3D%3D&n=MjAxMi0tUDI1LTMyLnBkZg%3D%3D&icon=..pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"南海诸岛 (in Chinese (China)). 中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所. 2007-03-26. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2011-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.igsnrr.ac.cn/kxcb/dlyzykpyd/zgdl/zghayjh/200703/t20070326_2154925.html","url_text":"南海诸岛"},{"url":"https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E9%99%A2%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%8E%E8%B5%84%E6%BA%90%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%80","url_text":"中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714171755/http://www.igsnrr.ac.cn/kxcb/dlyzykpyd/zgdl/zghayjh/200703/t20070326_2154925.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"夏征农; 陈至立, eds. (September 2009). 辞海：第六版彩图本 [Cihai (Sixth Edition in Color)] (in Chinese). 上海. Shanghai: 上海辞书出版社. Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House. p. 0487. ISBN 9787532628599.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cihai","url_text":"Cihai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai","url_text":"Shanghai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Lexicographical_Publishing_House","url_text":"Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787532628599","url_text":"9787532628599"}]},{"reference":"Lima, Marcos Costa (2016-11-01). Perspectivas Asiáticas (in Brazilian Portuguese). Letra e Imagem Editora e Produções LTDA. ISBN 978-85-61012-75-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZVvJDgAAQBAJ&q=Ilhas+das+Pratas&pg=PT194","url_text":"Perspectivas Asiáticas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-85-61012-75-5","url_text":"978-85-61012-75-5"}]},{"reference":"\"General Catalogue of Mariners' Charts and Books\". Government Printing Office. 1919. p. 108 – via Internet Archive. Off-Lying Banks and Islands.2784 Pratas Reef and Island","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/generalcatalogu03unkngoog/","url_text":"\"General Catalogue of Mariners' Charts and Books\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Printing_Office","url_text":"Government Printing Office"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/generalcatalogu03unkngoog/page/n112/","url_text":"108"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"\"The ROC Ministry of the Interior released the following press release Dec. 12:ROC Minister of the Interior Chen Wei-zen presides over a ceremony marking the opening of a wharf and lighthouse on Taiping Island, demonstrating the ROC's commitment to making Taiping Island a peaceful and low-carbon island, as well as an ecological reserve, in accordance with the spirit of the South China Sea Peace Initiative\". Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2020. Tungsha Island","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/News_Content.aspx?n=8157691CA2AA32F8&sms=4F8ED5441E33EA7B&s=53076F54FAB51AAC","url_text":"\"The ROC Ministry of the Interior released the following press release Dec. 12:ROC Minister of the Interior Chen Wei-zen presides over a ceremony marking the opening of a wharf and lighthouse on Taiping Island, demonstrating the ROC's commitment to making Taiping Island a peaceful and low-carbon island, as well as an ecological reserve, in accordance with the spirit of the South China Sea Peace Initiative\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170620164825/https://www.mofa.gov.tw/en/News_Content.aspx?n=8157691CA2AA32F8&sms=4F8ED5441E33EA7B&s=53076F54FAB51AAC","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ENR 5 NAVIGATIONAL WARNINGS\". Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2020 – via Google Cache, Wayback Machine. VHR7 TUNGSHA (PRATAS) ISLAND Circle of 10 NM (18.5 km) radius centred at 2042N 11643E","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201102202836/https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Avqj8UG5ZhHIJ%3Ahttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.ais.gov.hk%2Feaip_20200618%2F2020-08-13-000000%2Fhtml%2FeAIP%2FVH-ENR-5.1-en-US.html","url_text":"\"ENR 5 NAVIGATIONAL WARNINGS\""},{"url":"https://www.ais.gov.hk/eaip_20200618/2020-08-13-000000/html/eAIP/VH-ENR-5.1-en-US.html","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cache","url_text":"Google Cache"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine","url_text":"Wayback Machine"}]},{"reference":"\"Where is Dongsha island? How far is it from Taiwan?\". 22 May 2010. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marine.gov.tw/services/faqs/96-About%20Dongsha%20Island/181-Where%20is%20Dongsha%20island?%20How%20far%20is%20it%20from%20Taiwan?","url_text":"\"Where is Dongsha island? How far is it from Taiwan?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200607054609/https://www.marine.gov.tw/services/faqs/96-About%20Dongsha%20Island/181-Where%20is%20Dongsha%20island?%20How%20far%20is%20it%20from%20Taiwan?","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"擬定連江縣風景特定區計畫說明書 (PDF) (in Chinese (Taiwan)). June 2002. pp. 15, 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 January 2020. 東引地區 (北固礁、東沙島、雙子礁){...}東引鄉 北固礁 0.2701 0.11 東沙島 5.0434 1.96","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200108035349/http://web.matsu.gov.tw/Resource/pdf/92c882a0-f657-48a9-bd36-392e9663d914.pdf","url_text":"擬定連江縣風景特定區計畫說明書"},{"url":"http://web.matsu.gov.tw/Resource/pdf/92c882a0-f657-48a9-bd36-392e9663d914.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Dongsha\". National Parks of Taiwan. Retrieved 29 August 2020. This cross-domain cooperation effectively implemented the rat extermination program, and 721 mice were caught on the Dongsha Islands (Pratas Islands) in just one month.","urls":[{"url":"https://np.cpami.gov.tw/news/274-english/news/dongsha.html","url_text":"\"Dongsha\""}]},{"reference":"\"HMS Reynard\". William Loney website. Retrieved 8 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pdavis.nl/ShowShip.php?id=175","url_text":"\"HMS Reynard\""}]},{"reference":"William Blakeney (1902). On the Coasts of Cathay and Cipango. p. 66 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.84681/","url_text":"On the Coasts of Cathay and Cipango"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dli.granth.84681/page/66/","url_text":"66"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"Cuthbert Collingwood (1868). 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The islands are administered by Kaohsiung's Cijin District, and Coast Guard personnel are stationed there.{...}Former Kaohsiung Mayor Frank Hsieh (謝長廷) made a visit to the Dongsha Islands in May of 1999 for the same purpose, when he hung an address plate on the island's fishing service station. Chen Chu (陳菊), his successor, never visited the islands during her 12-year stint.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3935840","url_text":"\"Kaohsiung mayor may visit Dongsha Islands to assert Taiwan's sovereignty\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_News","url_text":"Taiwan News"}]},{"reference":"Hsu, Brian (22 December 2000). \"President Chen visits Pratas Islands for first time\". Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. 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Retrieved 3 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gideon_Rachman","url_text":"Gideon Rachman"},{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/d2729b06-a30d-4099-8e01-a9ac2a34af5e","url_text":"\"A distracted US is dangerous for Taiwan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times","url_text":"Financial Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201019222344/https://www.ft.com/content/d2729b06-a30d-4099-8e01-a9ac2a34af5e","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Danny Lee (16 October 2020). \"Taiwan's defence chief rejects Hong Kong's explanation for turning back government flight to Pratas Islands\". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 16 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/transport/article/3105815/hong-kong-rejects-suggestion-it-deliberately-stopped","url_text":"\"Taiwan's defence chief rejects Hong Kong's explanation for turning back government flight to Pratas Islands\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_China_Morning_Post","url_text":"South China Morning Post"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201016075747/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/transport/article/3105815/hong-kong-rejects-suggestion-it-deliberately-stopped","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Beijing must respect air travel: minister\". Taipei Times. 17 October 2020. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 3 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2020/10/17/2003745301","url_text":"\"Beijing must respect air travel: minister\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Times","url_text":"Taipei Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201017223823/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2020/10/17/2003745301","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Taiwan's deputy military chief visits Dongsha Islands following plane row\". Focus Taiwan. 20 October 2020. Archived from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 3 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://focustaiwan.tw/cross-strait/202010200029","url_text":"\"Taiwan's deputy military chief visits Dongsha Islands following plane row\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_Taiwan","url_text":"Focus Taiwan"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201022202451/https://focustaiwan.tw/cross-strait/202010200029","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Taiwanese plane lands on Pratas after HK dispute\". Taipei Times. 27 October 2020. Archived from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 2 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2020/10/27/2003745883","url_text":"\"Taiwanese plane lands on Pratas after HK dispute\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_Times","url_text":"Taipei Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201102194249/https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2020/10/27/2003745883","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lawrence Chung. \"Taiwanese plane lands in disputed Pratas Islands as scheduled after earlier turnback\". South China Morning Post. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freespace_2 | FreeSpace 2 | ["1 Gameplay","2 Plot and setting","2.1 Characters","2.2 Story","3 Development","4 Reception","4.1 Reviews and awards","4.2 Sales","5 Source code project","6 References","7 External links"] | Space Combat Simulator
1999 video gameFreeSpace 2Developer(s)VolitionPublisher(s)Interplay EntertainmentDesigner(s)Dave BaranecJason ScottAdam PletcherProgrammer(s)Dave BaranecArtist(s)Jasen WhitesideWriter(s)Jason ScottMike BreaultComposer(s)Dan Wentz Scott LeePlatform(s)Microsoft WindowsReleaseNA: September 30, 1999EU: October 8, 1999AU: October 21, 1999Genre(s)Space combat simulatorMode(s)Single-player, multiplayer
FreeSpace 2 is a 1999 space combat simulation computer game developed by Volition as the sequel to Descent: FreeSpace – The Great War. It was completed ahead of schedule in less than a year, and released to very positive reviews, but the game became a commercial failure, and was described by certain critics as one of 1999's most unfairly overlooked titles.
The game continues on the story from Descent: FreeSpace, once again thrusting the player into the role of a pilot fighting against the mysterious aliens, the Shivans. While defending the human race and its alien Vasudan allies, the player also gets involved in putting down a rebellion. The game features large numbers of fighters alongside gigantic capital ships in a battlefield fraught with beams, shells and missiles in detailed star systems and nebulae. Free multiplayer games were available via Parallax Online which also ranked players by their statistics. A persistent galaxy was also available as SquadWar for players to fight with each other over territories.
In 2002, Volition released the source code for the game engine under a non-commercial license. This code became the core of the FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project, which continuously improves it and enables new features. In cooperation with the FreeSpace Upgrade Project the game's graphics are kept up to date. The improved game engine is also used by various mod projects, for example The Babylon Project and Diaspora which are based on the science fiction series Babylon 5 and Battlestar Galactica respectively.
Gameplay
A corvette and a destroyer attacking each other with beam cannonsFreeSpace 2's gameplay involves the player piloting a starfighter using mounted weapons to destroy enemy starfighters, performing reconnaissance behind enemy lines, or escorting other starships. Its flight model is based on a looser interpretation of space physics instead of realistic Newtonian physics. Hence, the ships are weightless and feel more responsive, though they require constant application of engine power to move. The result is that the game plays more like a "WWII dogfight simulator" unaffected by gravity. Although joysticks are the recommended controller for this game, the mouse is a viable alternative. Single player mode is executed in the form of a campaign, which follows a story as a linear sequence of missions are executed.
The pre-mission briefing stage is where the player gets information on the background and objectives, and selects the ship and weapons. The choices of ships and weapons increase as the player proceeds further along the campaign. Certain missions, however, will dictate certain ships and weapons to be used. Weapons can be classified into primary weapons and secondary weapons. Primary weapons are kinetic and energy weapons, while missiles and torpedoes are classified as secondary weapons. Each weapon has its own specifications such as its rate of fire. They also inflict different damages on hulls (body of the ships) or shields (the protective energy fields surrounding the ships), or possess special effects such as shutting down specific electronic systems or propulsion.
The player flies around in a fighter with a first-person, in-cockpit view with a fully customizable fixed head-up display (HUD) as the visual interface. The HUD displays video communications and relevant data on the ship's status and performance, weapons, objectives, and targets. It can also warn players if missiles are locking onto them and from which direction, thus becoming an aid for launching countermeasures or taking evasive maneuvers. Players have to maneuver into position and shoot through both shields and hull to destroy enemy ships. While hull damage is unrecoverable, shields recharge over time. With the game supporting force feedback technology, joystick players will find their controllers vibrating or putting up resistance when they engage the afterburners or collide with objects. Similarly, certain events, such as engaging afterburners and firing powerful weapons, will shake the screen as a form of visual feedback.
FreeSpace 2 has many helpful features available. The player can target enemies attacking a protected objective or match speeds with them. Power can be shunted between shields, engines, and weapons, thereby allowing faster recharge of shields, afterburners, and weapons at the expense of other subsystems. These features can be ignored without any detrimental effects on gameplay. The mission parameters are not rigidly fixed, as there is an allowance for the failures of some primary objectives. When the mission is concluded, a post-mission briefing will be conducted to discuss the mission, and the performance of the player, before the next mission can be taken on.
FreeSpace 2 allows multiplayer games to be played across a local area network (LAN) or over the Internet via the free services provided by Parallax Online (PXO). The player can communicate with the other network players vocally through FreeSpace 2's own voice chat capability. LAN play allows the players to play the standard player versus player modes such as deathmatch, or cooperate to complete multiplayer missions. They can even join in games which are already underway. The same can be done over PXO but with the added incentive of having the players' statistics of kills and deaths being tracked on a ladder (ranking) system. Players can also form up or join squadrons in SquadWar, an online persistent galaxy hosted by Volition on PXO, where squadrons fight each other for territories.
Plot and setting
FreeSpace 2 takes place entirely in outer space. The playing area is vast when compared to the small starfighters piloted by the player and the effective range they have. This space is populated with interstellar bodies such as stars, planets, asteroids, etc. The implementation of nebulae as an interactive environment is one of the most distinctive and crowning aspects of FreeSpace 2. Flying through a nebula involves impaired vision, and occasional disruptions to flight electronics. Nebulae have become known as an eerie and suspenseful arena of play.
Journeys between star systems are achieved by "jumping" through jump nodes and traveling through subspace, while shorter intra-system distances are done by "hopping" into subspace at any time. All ships in a mission either "jump" or "hop" to make their entries and exits. The game's starship designs are clearly distinguishable between the three races. Terran starships tend to be plain and practical, the Vasudans' starships are artistic with sleek lines and curves, and the enemies' ships—the Shivans—are sharp, pointy and asymmetrical in insidious black and red colors. FreeSpace 2 also features humongous capital ships, hundreds of times larger than the fighters, and armed to the teeth with beam weapons and flak guns. These ships are commonly scripted to seek each other out and engage in massive duels.
FreeSpace 2's story is brought out via narrative pre-rendered cutscenes, the pre- and post-mission briefings, as well as in-game chatter between non-player characters, and scripted mission events. The structure for the story is linear without any branching paths for alternate storylines, though there are optional covert missions which can further flesh out the story. The story can only be continued by clearing missions and progressing through the campaign. However, players are given the option to skip a mission if they have failed it five times in a row. This gives those who are interested in the story, but less skilled, the chance to continue on with the story without frustration.
Characters
The player takes the role of a pilot in the ranks of the Galactic Terran–Vasudan Alliance (GTVA). While the appearance and name of the pilot can be customized by the player, the player never gets to personally interact with other characters in the game. The pilot is also never shown in the game's cinematics or any other media.
Just like the player's pilot, most of the other characters are low-key. The non-player character Admiral Aken Bosch, however, plays a crucial part in moving the story. As a prominent antagonist from the start, he sparks off a rebellion which escalates the scale of action, and brings in the other antagonist force, the Shivans, into the story. The storytelling took on a character-driven approach with expositions taking the form of cutscenes in which Bosch gives out monologues, revealing the purpose and driving forces behind his actions. A few established voice actors were brought in to give a polished touch to the voices in the game. Academy Award nominee Robert Loggia voiced the player's commanding officer, Admiral Petrarch, and Admiral Bosch was voiced by Ronny Cox. Kurtwood Smith and Stephen Baldwin participated in bit roles as well.
Story
The game begins 32 years after the events in Descent: FreeSpace. Following the end of the Great War, both the GTA and PVE cemented their alliance by combining together to form the Galactic Terran–Vasudan Alliance (GTVA)—a single entity formed to cement the alliance between the Terran and Vasudan races after the destruction of Vasuda Prime by the Lucifer and the subsequent collapse of all subspace nodes to the Sol system as a result of the superdestroyer's destruction inside the Sol–Delta Serpentis jump node. Despite this alliance, opposition still exists to this union in the form of a faction of Terrans led by Great War veteran, Admiral Aken Bosch, who leads the rebel group under the banner of the Neo-Terran Front (NTF). The NTF's rebellion led to the faction gaining control over the Sirius, Polaris and Regulus star systems, while engaging the GTVA for 18 months, before launching attacks on the Vasudan systems of Deneb and Alpha Centauri.
Seeking to stop the NTF from securing Deneb, the GTVA launch a campaign in the star system, though they are shocked to find Bosch within. An effort to stop him fails badly, and so the GTVA focus on securing the star system, with great success. Just as further engagements against the NTF are about to commence, an incident in the Gamma Draconis system leads to the 3rd Fleet of the GTVA being reassigned to the star system, where they learn that the Shivans have returned, along with the discovery of an artificial jump gate that leads to Shivan space. After securing the device and passing through it, the GTVA discover a nebula along with more Shivans, and a cruiser of the NTF, the Trinity. Despite efforts to secure and recover the cruiser, the Trinity is destroyed, and the GTVA fleet focus on dealing with the Shivans, before returning to Gamma Draconis for reassignment.
The NTF rebellion soon becomes the focus of attention once again after attacks intensify, eventually leading the GTVA to quell an attack on a space station with their latest ship, the enormous capital ship GTVA Colossus. Dwarfing all other capital ships, this juggernaut-class ship's power proves more than a match to many NTF ships, defeating a major officer in the rebellion. Seeking to capitalize on this, the GTVI (Galactic Terran–Vasudan Intelligence) organise an operation with their SOC (Special Operation Command) to investigate and uncover information on Bosch's ETAK project, which is nearly wrecked when a Vasudan admiral attempts to hit Bosch's flagship, the Iceni.
Following the latest campaign against the NTF, GTVA forces re-engage Shivan forces in the nebula, while testing out new weapon and technology prototypes such as an AWACS cruiser that enables better vision in the nebula, a TAG missile that enables friendly capital ships to instantly lock on to the "tagged" enemy ship, and the Pegasus-class stealth fighter. With the aid of these new technologies, the Alliance destroys a Shivan Ravana-class destroyer. The 3rd Fleet soon return to GTVA space, where Bosch launches an assault to get the NTF to the Jump Gate. While the NTF loses many ships, the Iceni escapes with Bosch on board, thanks to sabotage preventing the GTVA Colossus from firing on it. While pursuing Bosch into the nebula, the GTVA attack Shivan nebular gas mining operations, only for the Shivans to retaliate with a juggernaut-class warship of their own, dubbed the Sathanas. The Sathanas enters Terran–Vasudan space, despite an effort to destroy the jump gate linking the nebula to Gamma Draconis; the node between the two system had stabilised at some point. With the Shivans encroaching on GTVA space, the Sathanas is engaged by the Colossus as it enters the densely populated Capella system and, thanks to the player's efforts in disabling its beam turrets, is destroyed in the engagement.
The Alliance Fleet soon resumes its efforts to track down Bosch, and discover that Bosch had built a device that enables him to communicate with the Shivans, which was the purpose of ETAK; the Alliance realise the jump gate was activated by Bosch, who had been stealing artefacts from archaeological sites looking into the Ancients, and had been hoping to meet and contact the Shivans. The Shivans respond to his transmission, and in turn board his command frigate, the Iceni, capturing him and fifteen other crewmen before attempting to destroy the Iceni. The GTVA manage to save the surviving crew of the Iceni and the ETAK device, but as they try to intercept the Shivan transport carrying Bosch, they discover a second jump gate in the nebula. The Alliance destroyer, the GVD Psamtik, attempts to secure the jump gate, but is destroyed by another Sathanas juggernaut shortly afterwards, forcing the GTVA to pull out. During this time, the GTVI and SOC launch a secret operation within the nebula, at great risk, to recover an operative and check the other side of the gate, discovering the threat posed to the GTVA by the Shivans is much greater than they had thought.
The Alliance devises a plan to halt the Shivan invasion while evacuating civilians and others from the Capella star system, by collapsing the two jump nodes from Capella to the rest of GTVA space. The Alliance plans to recreate the same conditions that collapsed the Sol jump nodes—namely a sufficiently powerful meson explosion, using a number of Great War-era destroyers, including the Bastion, which the GTVA send out to collapse the Capella–Epsilon Pegasi node by detonating its payload while it is within the node.
The plan works but it is pyrrhic victory, as the GTVA loses the Colossus, their only match for Shivan juggernauts, in a diversionary engagement at the other end of the Capella system. With not much left to do but escort the remaining evacuation convoys to the Capella–Vega jump node while a second payload is sent to the jump node, the GTVA soon begins to detect activity from the system's star, which is being bombarded with an intense subspace field by numerous Sathanas-class ships. This causes the star to go supernova, destroying the fighting GTVA and Shivans in system. The player can choose to flee the scene when the warning is given or stay and die defending the remaining ships, which affects the ending slightly. In the ending cutscene the player's commanding officer, Admiral Petrarch, delivers a speech about everything the Alliance has lost, speculating on the nature of the Shivans and why they destroyed the Capella star, and if the player decides to stay, a small tribute is paid to the player's heroic actions as Petrarch informs his wingmen of his sacrifice. The Admiral concludes by saying that the Alliance now has the means to recreate the Ancient subspace gate, implying that there's a chance the node to Earth can be restored and that this conflict didn't bring only sorrow, before signing off.
Development
The news of FreeSpace 2 being in development was confirmed in a chat on November 6, 1998. FreeSpace 2 was developed in less than one year. The Volition team revealed they had written up a story and will be targeting high-end hardware with dogfights for a greater number of ships and even larger and more deadly capital ships. The team set themselves the goals of setting new standards for both single-player and multiplayer space combat simulations, and started to modify the FreeSpace game engine for FreeSpace 2. This team was the same team which had worked on Descent: FreeSpace, plus several new members. In order to flesh out the story, Volition hired Jason Scott as a full-time writer before work even started. The linear mission structure was adopted as it was decided it would help the immersion factor of the story greatly. As the relations between the Terrans and Vasudans dominated the first game, it was decided to scale the focus down to a personal level with Admiral Bosch and his decisions to rebel. Scott's close work with the designers, and co-ordination of the voice recording process helped to tightly integrate the story into the missions, giving a more sophisticated feel to the story.
Due to time constraints, a lot of the initial ideas were dropped from the final version of the game, such as atmospheric battles, and new weapons types like a "subspace missile artillery strike". The team made major improvements to the same FreeSpace engine from the first game. By revamping the core of the graphical engine, and adding 32-bit support, they sped up the interface screens and graphic processing. Hardware acceleration for the graphics was also decided to be a requirement to target the high-end machines of 1999. This allowed for a greater number of ships visibly active on the battlefield, satisfying the team's penchant of having great numbers of fighters and capitals ships duking it out in a big battlefield, instead of "multiple small-ass" battles. The shifting of their target focus to higher end machines also fulfilled their top priority of having capital ships many times larger than fighter crafts. The team also followed real world concepts for some of their designs. The Pegasus stealth fighter was modeled on the stealth technology of the 1990s for people to relate to it easily. The game was restrained from becoming too realistic by the team's recognition that most gamers only want believable worlds to have a blast flying around in and blowing things up.
Compared to the graphical changes, the artificial intelligence (AI) of the computer-controlled characters was only slightly changed. The justification given was that the team felt the AI worked very well for the first game. All they had to do was to tweak it a little and fix some bugs. There was, however, a lot of work done in improving the multiplayer portion of the game. For FreeSpace 2, the player's personal computer was assigned a greater role in predicting the possible consequences for other players' actions. This reduced the amount of data needed to be transferred between the computers, which would result in a smoother playing experience. Beta testers were recruited to stress test and troubleshoot the multiplayer mode as well. SquadWar was implemented as an attempt to establish a sense of continuity among the players in the form of a persistent online territorial fight, along with pilot statistics and ladder rankings. Volition hoped this concept would help to establish a strong, online community and build up the game's lifespan. The process of fixing the bugs detected was even publicly published on the game's official website as the "Bug Fix of the Day" feature.
FreeSpace 2 was released on September 30, 1999, one month ahead of schedule, although the team had to quickly come up with and release a patch (version 1.01) for a software bug which prevented recognition of a CD during the installation process. Three months later, they released the next and final patch (version 1.20) to fix several other bugs. The release of FreeSpace 2 was considerably muted compared to its predecessor Descent: FreeSpace. Its publisher, Interplay, did not organize contests for it, nor did they generate pre-release hype up with the same drive as before. They also posted the incorrect system requirements for the game on their site. FreeSpace 2 was also placed on less-visible shelves than Descent 3. When GameSpot awarded FreeSpace 2 the "Sci-Fi Simulation of the Year" award, Interplay pushed out the "Sci-Fi Sim of the Year Edition" to capitalize on it.
Despite Volition's interest and desire to develop add-ons and expansions for FreeSpace 2, Interplay told them to stop. Volition was then acquired by THQ in 2000. As Interplay owns the rights to the FreeSpace series (as well as the Descent series) and Volition's owners, THQ, is only interested in pursuing development on what they own, Volition was unable to continue developing the FreeSpace franchise. Faced with source code which became practically useless to them, Volition released the source code for only game engines to the public under a noncommercial license on April 25, 2002. Mike Kulas, the President of Volition, said this was to give those outside the game industry a chance to look at the code of a commercial software product, a desire he and Matt Toschlog had when they were not yet in the industry. In the years since, no sequels to FreeSpace 2 have been made and Interplay has only published a limited re-release of it on February 2, 2004, to commemorate the company's 20th anniversary. Interplay, by that time, was in financial trouble, failing to pay rent and wages to its workers. Seeking investors to inject it with funds, Interplay changed business strategies: instead of developing and publishing single-player games, it sold licenses to those games and looked towards developing massive multi-player online games. Derek Smart, creator of Battlecruiser 3000AD, had casually mentioned his interest in the Freespace license, but nothing significant came out of this. In 2013, Interplay acquired the remaining rights to the FreeSpace franchise for $7,500 after THQ went to bankruptcy court.
Reception
Reviews and awards
ReceptionAggregate scoresAggregatorScoreGameRankings92.0%Metacritic91 / 100Review scoresPublicationScoreComputer and Video Games8.5 / 10Eurogamer7 / 10GameProGameSpot9.4 / 10GameSpy92 / 100IGN8.9 / 10Next GenerationPC Gamer (US)93%The Electric Playground8.5 / 10FiringSquad90%AwardsPublicationAwardPC PlayerBest Space Combat Game of 1999Intelligamer1999 Sim Game of the YearCGW2000 Premier Award WinnerGameSpotSci-Fi Simulation of the YearGamePowerBest Sim of '99GameSpySim Game of the YearFiringSquadBest Action Game of 1999Computer GamesSci-Fi Simulation of the YearPC PlayerAll Time Top 100 GamesGameSpotGreatest Games of All Time
The game's backdrops have received high praise from reviewersFreeSpace 2 has garnered high praise from most established reviewers. FreeSpace 2 received numerous "Game of the Year" awards for 1999, and was nominated for "Computer Simulation Game of the Year" during the 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. Every review praised FreeSpace 2's graphics. From the ships to the backgrounds, the reviewers were pleased with the details Volition had paid attention to, such as the thematic differences in the ship designs between the races, the textures and clarity of the backdrops, and even the realism of the explosions, though FiringSquad pointed out explosions from torpedo strikes were lower in quality. The nebulae feature was also praised for its rendered atmosphere, which reviewers described as tense and paranoia-inducing as they keep expecting enemy ships to appear out of the gases in a deadly ambush. Even though a couple of reviewers wrote that the nebulae made them dizzy, they still liked the feature. Combatsim even claimed FreeSpace 2 was unrivaled among its space combat peers in the graphics department. The graphical standards were such that when XGP reviewed the Anniversary Edition in 2004, Wehbi found the graphics to stand up quite well to the recent games then.
GameSpot felt FreeSpace's story was "both deeper and darker" than either the Wing Commander and X-Wing series, establishing invincible foes who never lost their stature despite the player learning of plausible ways to defeat them. Game Revolution felt the story was "first rate" for being able to "build several different conflicts into an unforgettable climax", nicely presented by the emphasis of story telling by means of in-game events. While Eurogamer supported the story as intriguing, it also marked down its rating of the game for the way the story was told. The reviewer felt the "just a cog in the machine" story-telling approach left him apathetic towards the non-player characters and missions in the game. FiringSquad, however, said it created a "very believable military atmosphere", which helped to show how things revolve around big events, instead of just around a single person. Combatsim.com offered another angle; Reynolds said the gameplay elements of FreeSpace 2 are "light years beyond the competition" and more than offsets the loss of being personally immersed in the game's universe.
FreeSpace 2's key attraction is its dogfights. CNN.com said the close-ranged dogfights make for engrossing, and exciting skirmishes. FiringSquad described it as a "total thrill" to be among 20 fighters flying in between opposing capital ships with beams, missiles, and flak all around and warnings going off, as they try to seek out and destroy their opposite numbers, a view which GameSpot agreed with. The game's AI was judged adequate to provide for such fights, being cunning enough to trick others to crash into the walls of narrow openings, and good enough to detect and warn their wingmen of enemies coming up directly behind them. There are those who expressed minor disappointments with the AI tending to collide too often with other objects. While the dynamic mission objectives were celebrated for coming up with twists and turns to spice up the story, there were a few who found these "in-game red herrings" overused instead.
Sharky Extreme praised FreeSpace 2 for having the enormous capital ships, as this burst the "trapped in a bubble" trend in Wing Commander- and X-Wing- type games. Instead of the action simply coming to the player, it flows all around, and the player is the one who has to go and seek it. The scenes of these giant ships duking it out, with many gnat-like fighters swarming around in their little dances of death, have led reviewers to feel a sense of epicness, comparable to reliving battles in science fiction series like Babylon 5 and Star Wars. Similarly, PC Gamer praised the scaling of ships and battles and said that they " as close to creating the feeling of a World War II naval battle in space as any game has ever come. That's what fighter combat, in space or on Earth, should be all about".
Opinions were generally favorable towards FreeSpace 2's multiplayer implementation. SquadWar received favorable responses from the reviewers who were impressed by its persistent nature and statistics tracking. While the required registration with PXO was considered a troublesome process by a few, the gameplay itself was a smooth experience with no lag at all. Other reviewers' experiences with lag were different. Reynolds of Combatsim.com said Internet gaming was laggy with ships jumping places, but LAN gaming was smooth sailing. GameSpy's reviewer said lag became more apparent on a dial-up connection during a multiplayer mission with four or more players. FiringSquad's reviewer's experience was similar but he said the lag was not enough to hinder his enjoyment of the multiplayer action.
Blake Fischer reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and said that "no self-respecting space-combat junkie should live without it".
GameSpot, in electing FreeSpace 2 as one of the "Greatest Games of All Time", pointed out that while most of the game's features could be found in its predecessor or peers, its "sheer quality of presentation and gameplay" was the key reason for their choice. Computer and Video Games has acknowledged it as offering the best dogfighting among the space combat classics. Ars Technica also posed FreeSpace 2 as the last significant stage in evolution of the space combat genre as of 2005.
Fans of the FreeSpace series have created modifications (mods) of FreeSpace 2. The first mods were just custom campaigns, with series of missions created through FRED2, the mission editor freely packaged with FreeSpace 2. One such mod which gained notability was Inferno, which sets its story decades after the conclusion of FreeSpace 2. Released in July 2003, the mod was hosted on established sites, such as GameSpot and CNET, as part of their FreeSpace 2 contents.
Sales
Despite glowing reviews, FreeSpace 2 was a commercial disappointment. In the United States, it totaled sales of 26,983 copies by the end of 1999, according to PC Data. Writing for Daily Radar, Andrew S. Bub remarked that the game "horrifically" underperformed and was one of the most unfairly overlooked titles of the year. FreeSpace 2 was a runner-up for GameSpot's 1999 "Best Game No One Played" award, which ultimately went to Disciples: Sacred Lands.
FreeSpace 2's sales were acknowledged as disappointing, and described as awful by Kulas. He, however, stated that as the team had stayed within budget by sticking to schedule, Volition should at least be breaking even with the estimated final sales of the game. In NowGamer's interview with Jim Boone, a producer at Volition, he said that this could have been due to joysticks' being sold poorly because they were "going out of fashion" and more modern first-person shooters, such as Quake, were "very much about the mouse and keyboard". He went further on to state: "Before that, when we did Descent for example, it was perfectly common for people to have joysticks – we sold a lot of copies of Descent. It was around that time the more modern FPS with mouse and keyboard came out, as opposed to just keyboard like Wolfenstein or something".
Source code project
Main article: FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project
With the release of the game engine's source code, the possibilities of changing the game greatly opened up, and the fan community made use of the code to update the game using recent technology. Led by Edward Gardner and Ian Warfield, the FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project was formed to standardize changes and maintain a core engine for others to take advantage of. Using the new fan-updated engine, projects such as Beyond the Red Line, based on the new Battlestar Galactica, and The Babylon Project, based on Babylon 5, have become possible. PXO, the free Internet gaming service handling SquadWar, was initially acquired by THQ in their 2002 acquisition of Outrage Entertainment (renamed as Outrage Games). The service was continued until July 2003, when Outrage Games was dissolved and PXO terminated. The components of its website were, however, later handed over to the FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project to help them create a similar service in tracking statistics and rankings.
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External links
Interplay Entertainment Corp. FreeSpace 2 website archived by Internet Archive
Volition FreeSpace 2 website archived by Internet Archive
Volition FreeSpace 2 website Archived 2014-03-24 at the Wayback Machine
FreeSpace 2 at MobyGames
FreeSpace 2 at IMDb
vteDescent and FreeSpace seriesDescent series
Descent (1995)
Descent II
Descent 3
FreeSpace series
Descent: FreeSpace – The Great War
FreeSpace 2
Source Code Project
Beyond the Red Line
Companies
Interplay
Volition
Outrage Games
Hyperion
Loki
Related
Descent to Undermountain
Category:Descent / FreeSpace
vteVolition (list of games)FreeSpace series
Descent: FreeSpace – The Great War
FreeSpace 2
Summoner series
Summoner
Summoner 2
Red Faction series
Red Faction
Red Faction II
Red Faction: Guerrilla
Red Faction: Battlegrounds
Red Faction: Armageddon
Saints Row series
Saints Row (2006)
Saints Row 2
Saints Row: The Third
Saints Row IV
Saints Row (2022)
Other games
The Punisher
Insane
Agents of Mayhem
Related companies
Deep Silver
THQ
Outrage
Parallax | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"space combat simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_combat_simulator"},{"link_name":"computer game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer_game"},{"link_name":"Volition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volition_(company)"},{"link_name":"Descent: FreeSpace – The Great War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent:_FreeSpace_%E2%80%93_The_Great_War"},{"link_name":"star systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_system"},{"link_name":"nebulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula"},{"link_name":"persistent galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_world"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"game engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_engine"},{"link_name":"FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeSpace_2_Source_Code_Project"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"mod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod_(computer_gaming)"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Babylon 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_5"},{"link_name":"Battlestar Galactica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlestar_Galactica_(re-imagining)"}],"text":"Space Combat Simulator1999 video gameFreeSpace 2 is a 1999 space combat simulation computer game developed by Volition as the sequel to Descent: FreeSpace – The Great War. It was completed ahead of schedule in less than a year, and released to very positive reviews, but the game became a commercial failure, and was described by certain critics as one of 1999's most unfairly overlooked titles.The game continues on the story from Descent: FreeSpace, once again thrusting the player into the role of a pilot fighting against the mysterious aliens, the Shivans. While defending the human race and its alien Vasudan allies, the player also gets involved in putting down a rebellion. The game features large numbers of fighters alongside gigantic capital ships in a battlefield fraught with beams, shells and missiles in detailed star systems and nebulae. Free multiplayer games were available via Parallax Online which also ranked players by their statistics. A persistent galaxy was also available as SquadWar for players to fight with each other over territories.In 2002, Volition released the source code for the game engine under a non-commercial license. This code became the core of the FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project, which continuously improves it and enables new features. In cooperation with the FreeSpace Upgrade Project the game's graphics are kept up to date.[4] The improved game engine is also used by various mod projects, for example The Babylon Project and Diaspora which are based on the science fiction series Babylon 5 and Battlestar Galactica respectively.","title":"FreeSpace 2"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FreeSpace_2_Beam-Combat-Anim.gif"},{"link_name":"reconnaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconnaissance"},{"link_name":"escorting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escort_fighter"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-actwin-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allgame-6"},{"link_name":"Newtonian physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holtint-7"},{"link_name":"weightless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weightlessness"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"WWII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"dogfight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogfight"},{"link_name":"simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation"},{"link_name":"gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cvgrev-9"},{"link_name":"joysticks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_controller"},{"link_name":"mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-paradox-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-paradox-11"},{"link_name":"kinetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_driver"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raygun"},{"link_name":"missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missile"},{"link_name":"torpedoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo"},{"link_name":"first-person","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-person_shooter"},{"link_name":"head-up display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-up_display"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-xgp-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespy-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simple-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcgray-15"},{"link_name":"force feedback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_technology#Force_feedback"},{"link_name":"afterburners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterburner"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dessrev-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simple-14"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsrev-18"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simple-14"},{"link_name":"local area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electric-19"},{"link_name":"voice chat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_chat"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce-20"},{"link_name":"player versus player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_versus_player"},{"link_name":"deathmatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathmatch_(gaming)"},{"link_name":"cooperate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_video_game"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-speedy-21"},{"link_name":"ladder (ranking)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_ladder"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dessrev-16"},{"link_name":"squadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squadron_(aviation)"},{"link_name":"persistent galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_world"}],"text":"A corvette and a destroyer attacking each other with beam cannonsFreeSpace 2's gameplay involves the player piloting a starfighter using mounted weapons to destroy enemy starfighters, performing reconnaissance behind enemy lines, or escorting other starships.[5][6] Its flight model is based on a looser interpretation of space physics instead of realistic Newtonian physics.[7] Hence, the ships are weightless and feel more responsive, though they require constant application of engine power to move.[8] The result is that the game plays more like a \"WWII dogfight simulator\" unaffected by gravity.[9] Although joysticks are the recommended controller for this game, the mouse is a viable alternative.[10] Single player mode is executed in the form of a campaign, which follows a story as a linear sequence of missions are executed.The pre-mission briefing stage is where the player gets information on the background and objectives, and selects the ship and weapons.[11] The choices of ships and weapons increase as the player proceeds further along the campaign. Certain missions, however, will dictate certain ships and weapons to be used. Weapons can be classified into primary weapons and secondary weapons.[11] Primary weapons are kinetic and energy weapons, while missiles and torpedoes are classified as secondary weapons. Each weapon has its own specifications such as its rate of fire. They also inflict different damages on hulls (body of the ships) or shields (the protective energy fields surrounding the ships), or possess special effects such as shutting down specific electronic systems or propulsion.The player flies around in a fighter with a first-person, in-cockpit view with a fully customizable fixed head-up display (HUD) as the visual interface.[12][13] The HUD displays video communications and relevant data on the ship's status and performance, weapons, objectives, and targets. It can also warn players if missiles are locking onto them and from which direction, thus becoming an aid for launching countermeasures or taking evasive maneuvers.[14] Players have to maneuver into position and shoot through both shields and hull to destroy enemy ships.[15] While hull damage is unrecoverable, shields recharge over time. With the game supporting force feedback technology, joystick players will find their controllers vibrating or putting up resistance when they engage the afterburners or collide with objects.[16] Similarly, certain events, such as engaging afterburners and firing powerful weapons, will shake the screen as a form of visual feedback.[14]FreeSpace 2 has many helpful features available. The player can target enemies attacking a protected objective or match speeds with them. Power can be shunted between shields, engines, and weapons, thereby allowing faster recharge of shields, afterburners, and weapons at the expense of other subsystems. These features can be ignored without any detrimental effects on gameplay.[17][18] The mission parameters are not rigidly fixed, as there is an allowance for the failures of some primary objectives.[14] When the mission is concluded, a post-mission briefing will be conducted to discuss the mission, and the performance of the player, before the next mission can be taken on.FreeSpace 2 allows multiplayer games to be played across a local area network (LAN) or over the Internet via the free services provided by Parallax Online (PXO).[19] The player can communicate with the other network players vocally through FreeSpace 2's own voice chat capability.[20] LAN play allows the players to play the standard player versus player modes such as deathmatch, or cooperate to complete multiplayer missions. They can even join in games which are already underway.[21] The same can be done over PXO but with the added incentive of having the players' statistics of kills and deaths being tracked on a ladder (ranking) system.[16] Players can also form up or join squadrons in SquadWar, an online persistent galaxy hosted by Volition on PXO, where squadrons fight each other for territories.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"outer space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_space"},{"link_name":"stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet"},{"link_name":"asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsrev-18"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharky-23"},{"link_name":"nebulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-greatest-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-revo-25"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allgame-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cvgrev-9"},{"link_name":"star systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_system"},{"link_name":"jump nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wormhole"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsrev-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcgray-15"},{"link_name":"flak guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare"},{"link_name":"pre-rendered cutscenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutscene#Pre-rendered_cutscenes"},{"link_name":"non-player characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-player_character"},{"link_name":"scripted mission events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripted_sequence"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dessrev-16"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-revo-25"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simple-14"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-17"}],"text":"FreeSpace 2 takes place entirely in outer space. The playing area is vast when compared to the small starfighters piloted by the player and the effective range they have. This space is populated with interstellar bodies such as stars, planets, asteroids, etc.[18][22][23] The implementation of nebulae as an interactive environment is one of the most distinctive and crowning aspects of FreeSpace 2.[24][25] Flying through a nebula involves impaired vision, and occasional disruptions to flight electronics. Nebulae have become known as an eerie and suspenseful arena of play.[6][9]Journeys between star systems are achieved by \"jumping\" through jump nodes and traveling through subspace, while shorter intra-system distances are done by \"hopping\" into subspace at any time.[26] All ships in a mission either \"jump\" or \"hop\" to make their entries and exits. The game's starship designs are clearly distinguishable between the three races.[18] Terran starships tend to be plain and practical, the Vasudans' starships are artistic with sleek lines and curves, and the enemies' ships—the Shivans—are sharp, pointy and asymmetrical in insidious black and red colors.[15] FreeSpace 2 also features humongous capital ships, hundreds of times larger than the fighters, and armed to the teeth with beam weapons and flak guns. These ships are commonly scripted to seek each other out and engage in massive duels.FreeSpace 2's story is brought out via narrative pre-rendered cutscenes, the pre- and post-mission briefings, as well as in-game chatter between non-player characters, and scripted mission events.[16][25] The structure for the story is linear without any branching paths for alternate storylines, though there are optional covert missions which can further flesh out the story.[14] The story can only be continued by clearing missions and progressing through the campaign. However, players are given the option to skip a mission if they have failed it five times in a row.[17] This gives those who are interested in the story, but less skilled, the chance to continue on with the story without frustration.","title":"Plot and setting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-player character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-player_character"},{"link_name":"Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral"},{"link_name":"expositions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposition_(literary_technique)"},{"link_name":"monologues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monologue"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-revo-25"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"Robert Loggia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Loggia"},{"link_name":"Ronny Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronny_Cox"},{"link_name":"Kurtwood Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurtwood_Smith"},{"link_name":"Stephen Baldwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Baldwin"}],"sub_title":"Characters","text":"The player takes the role of a pilot in the ranks of the Galactic Terran–Vasudan Alliance (GTVA). While the appearance and name of the pilot can be customized by the player, the player never gets to personally interact with other characters in the game. The pilot is also never shown in the game's cinematics or any other media.Just like the player's pilot, most of the other characters are low-key. The non-player character Admiral Aken Bosch, however, plays a crucial part in moving the story. As a prominent antagonist from the start, he sparks off a rebellion which escalates the scale of action, and brings in the other antagonist force, the Shivans, into the story. The storytelling took on a character-driven approach with expositions taking the form of cutscenes in which Bosch gives out monologues, revealing the purpose and driving forces behind his actions. A few established voice actors were brought in to give a polished touch to the voices in the game.[25] Academy Award nominee Robert Loggia voiced the player's commanding officer, Admiral Petrarch, and Admiral Bosch was voiced by Ronny Cox. Kurtwood Smith and Stephen Baldwin participated in bit roles as well.","title":"Plot and setting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-17"},{"link_name":"Sirius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius"},{"link_name":"Polaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris"},{"link_name":"Regulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulus"},{"link_name":"Gamma Draconis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_Draconis"},{"link_name":"juggernaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juggernaut"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"pyrrhic victory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhic_victory"},{"link_name":"supernova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Story","text":"The game begins 32 years after the events in Descent: FreeSpace. Following the end of the Great War, both the GTA and PVE cemented their alliance by combining together to form the Galactic Terran–Vasudan Alliance (GTVA)—a single entity formed to cement the alliance between the Terran and Vasudan races after the destruction of Vasuda Prime by the Lucifer and the subsequent collapse of all subspace nodes to the Sol system as a result of the superdestroyer's destruction inside the Sol–Delta Serpentis jump node.[17] Despite this alliance, opposition still exists to this union in the form of a faction of Terrans led by Great War veteran, Admiral Aken Bosch, who leads the rebel group under the banner of the Neo-Terran Front (NTF). The NTF's rebellion led to the faction gaining control over the Sirius, Polaris and Regulus star systems, while engaging the GTVA for 18 months, before launching attacks on the Vasudan systems of Deneb and Alpha Centauri.Seeking to stop the NTF from securing Deneb, the GTVA launch a campaign in the star system, though they are shocked to find Bosch within. An effort to stop him fails badly, and so the GTVA focus on securing the star system, with great success. Just as further engagements against the NTF are about to commence, an incident in the Gamma Draconis system leads to the 3rd Fleet of the GTVA being reassigned to the star system, where they learn that the Shivans have returned, along with the discovery of an artificial jump gate that leads to Shivan space. After securing the device and passing through it, the GTVA discover a nebula along with more Shivans, and a cruiser of the NTF, the Trinity. Despite efforts to secure and recover the cruiser, the Trinity is destroyed, and the GTVA fleet focus on dealing with the Shivans, before returning to Gamma Draconis for reassignment.The NTF rebellion soon becomes the focus of attention once again after attacks intensify, eventually leading the GTVA to quell an attack on a space station with their latest ship, the enormous capital ship GTVA Colossus. Dwarfing all other capital ships, this juggernaut-class ship's power proves more than a match to many NTF ships, defeating a major officer in the rebellion. Seeking to capitalize on this, the GTVI (Galactic Terran–Vasudan Intelligence) organise an operation with their SOC (Special Operation Command) to investigate and uncover information on Bosch's ETAK project, which is nearly wrecked when a Vasudan admiral attempts to hit Bosch's flagship, the Iceni.Following the latest campaign against the NTF, GTVA forces re-engage Shivan forces in the nebula, while testing out new weapon and technology prototypes such as an AWACS cruiser that enables better vision in the nebula, a TAG missile that enables friendly capital ships to instantly lock on to the \"tagged\" enemy ship, and the Pegasus-class stealth fighter. With the aid of these new technologies, the Alliance destroys a Shivan Ravana-class destroyer. The 3rd Fleet soon return to GTVA space, where Bosch launches an assault to get the NTF to the Jump Gate. While the NTF loses many ships, the Iceni escapes with Bosch on board, thanks to sabotage preventing the GTVA Colossus from firing on it. While pursuing Bosch into the nebula, the GTVA attack Shivan nebular gas mining operations, only for the Shivans to retaliate with a juggernaut-class warship of their own, dubbed the Sathanas. The Sathanas enters Terran–Vasudan space, despite an effort to destroy the jump gate linking the nebula to Gamma Draconis; the node between the two system had stabilised at some point. With the Shivans encroaching on GTVA space, the Sathanas is engaged by the Colossus as it enters the densely populated Capella system and, thanks to the player's efforts in disabling its beam turrets, is destroyed in the engagement.[27]The Alliance Fleet soon resumes its efforts to track down Bosch, and discover that Bosch had built a device that enables him to communicate with the Shivans, which was the purpose of ETAK; the Alliance realise the jump gate was activated by Bosch, who had been stealing artefacts from archaeological sites looking into the Ancients, and had been hoping to meet and contact the Shivans. The Shivans respond to his transmission, and in turn board his command frigate, the Iceni, capturing him and fifteen other crewmen before attempting to destroy the Iceni. The GTVA manage to save the surviving crew of the Iceni and the ETAK device, but as they try to intercept the Shivan transport carrying Bosch, they discover a second jump gate in the nebula. The Alliance destroyer, the GVD Psamtik, attempts to secure the jump gate, but is destroyed by another Sathanas juggernaut shortly afterwards, forcing the GTVA to pull out. During this time, the GTVI and SOC launch a secret operation within the nebula, at great risk, to recover an operative and check the other side of the gate, discovering the threat posed to the GTVA by the Shivans is much greater than they had thought.[28]The Alliance devises a plan to halt the Shivan invasion while evacuating civilians and others from the Capella star system, by collapsing the two jump nodes from Capella to the rest of GTVA space. The Alliance plans to recreate the same conditions that collapsed the Sol jump nodes—namely a sufficiently powerful meson explosion, using a number of Great War-era destroyers, including the Bastion, which the GTVA send out to collapse the Capella–Epsilon Pegasi node by detonating its payload while it is within the node.[29]The plan works but it is pyrrhic victory, as the GTVA loses the Colossus, their only match for Shivan juggernauts, in a diversionary engagement at the other end of the Capella system. With not much left to do but escort the remaining evacuation convoys to the Capella–Vega jump node while a second payload is sent to the jump node, the GTVA soon begins to detect activity from the system's star, which is being bombarded with an intense subspace field by numerous Sathanas-class ships. This causes the star to go supernova, destroying the fighting GTVA and Shivans in system. The player can choose to flee the scene when the warning is given or stay and die defending the remaining ships, which affects the ending slightly.[30] In the ending cutscene the player's commanding officer, Admiral Petrarch, delivers a speech about everything the Alliance has lost, speculating on the nature of the Shivans and why they destroyed the Capella star, and if the player decides to stay, a small tribute is paid to the player's heroic actions as Petrarch informs his wingmen of his sacrifice. The Admiral concludes by saying that the Alliance now has the means to recreate the Ancient subspace gate, implying that there's a chance the node to Earth can be restored and that this conflict didn't bring only sorrow, before signing off.","title":"Plot and setting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-volchat-31"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-announce-20"},{"link_name":"game engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_engine"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bucekint-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scottint-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-paradox-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-paradox-11"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-volchat-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-volchat-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bucekint-32"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-holtint-7"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"bugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bucekint-32"},{"link_name":"Beta testers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle#Beta"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"ladder rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_ladder"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pubsup-41"},{"link_name":"Interplay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interplay_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"hype up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_circus"},{"link_name":"system requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_requirements"},{"link_name":"Descent 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent_3"},{"link_name":"GameSpot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pubsup-41"},{"link_name":"THQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THQ"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"game engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_engine"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"re-release","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reissue"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-xgp-12"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Derek Smart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Smart"},{"link_name":"creator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_developer"},{"link_name":"Battlecruiser 3000AD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlecruiser_3000AD"},{"link_name":"Freespace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freespace"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"FreeSpace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeSpace"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"The news of FreeSpace 2 being in development was confirmed in a chat on November 6, 1998. FreeSpace 2 was developed in less than one year. The Volition team revealed they had written up a story and will be targeting high-end hardware with dogfights for a greater number of ships and even larger and more deadly capital ships.[31] The team set themselves the goals of setting new standards for both single-player and multiplayer space combat simulations,[20] and started to modify the FreeSpace game engine for FreeSpace 2.[32] This team was the same team which had worked on Descent: FreeSpace, plus several new members. In order to flesh out the story, Volition hired Jason Scott as a full-time writer before work even started.[33][34] The linear mission structure was adopted as it was decided it would help the immersion factor of the story greatly.[11] As the relations between the Terrans and Vasudans dominated the first game, it was decided to scale the focus down to a personal level with Admiral Bosch and his decisions to rebel. Scott's close work with the designers, and co-ordination of the voice recording process helped to tightly integrate the story into the missions, giving a more sophisticated feel to the story.Due to time constraints, a lot of the initial ideas were dropped from the final version of the game, such as atmospheric battles, and new weapons types like a \"subspace missile artillery strike\". The team made major improvements to the same FreeSpace engine from the first game.[11] By revamping the core of the graphical engine, and adding 32-bit support, they sped up the interface screens and graphic processing.[35] Hardware acceleration for the graphics was also decided to be a requirement to target the high-end machines of 1999.[31] This allowed for a greater number of ships visibly active on the battlefield, satisfying the team's penchant of having great numbers of fighters and capitals ships duking it out in a big battlefield, instead of \"multiple small-ass\" battles.[31] The shifting of their target focus to higher end machines also fulfilled their top priority of having capital ships many times larger than fighter crafts.[32] The team also followed real world concepts for some of their designs. The Pegasus stealth fighter was modeled on the stealth technology of the 1990s for people to relate to it easily. The game was restrained from becoming too realistic by the team's recognition that most gamers only want believable worlds to have a blast flying around in and blowing things up.[7]Compared to the graphical changes, the artificial intelligence (AI) of the computer-controlled characters was only slightly changed. The justification given was that the team felt the AI worked very well for the first game. All they had to do was to tweak it a little and fix some bugs.[32] There was, however, a lot of work done in improving the multiplayer portion of the game. For FreeSpace 2, the player's personal computer was assigned a greater role in predicting the possible consequences for other players' actions. This reduced the amount of data needed to be transferred between the computers, which would result in a smoother playing experience. Beta testers were recruited to stress test and troubleshoot the multiplayer mode as well.[36] SquadWar was implemented as an attempt to establish a sense of continuity among the players in the form of a persistent online territorial fight, along with pilot statistics and ladder rankings. Volition hoped this concept would help to establish a strong, online community and build up the game's lifespan.[37] The process of fixing the bugs detected was even publicly published on the game's official website as the \"Bug Fix of the Day\" feature.FreeSpace 2 was released on September 30, 1999, one month ahead of schedule,[38] although the team had to quickly come up with and release a patch (version 1.01) for a software bug which prevented recognition of a CD during the installation process.[39] Three months later, they released the next and final patch (version 1.20) to fix several other bugs.[40] The release of FreeSpace 2 was considerably muted compared to its predecessor Descent: FreeSpace.[41] Its publisher, Interplay, did not organize contests for it, nor did they generate pre-release hype up with the same drive as before. They also posted the incorrect system requirements for the game on their site. FreeSpace 2 was also placed on less-visible shelves than Descent 3. When GameSpot awarded FreeSpace 2 the \"Sci-Fi Simulation of the Year\" award, Interplay pushed out the \"Sci-Fi Sim of the Year Edition\" to capitalize on it.Despite Volition's interest and desire to develop add-ons and expansions for FreeSpace 2, Interplay told them to stop.[41] Volition was then acquired by THQ in 2000. As Interplay owns the rights to the FreeSpace series (as well as the Descent series) and Volition's owners, THQ, is only interested in pursuing development on what they own, Volition was unable to continue developing the FreeSpace franchise.[42] Faced with source code which became practically useless to them, Volition released the source code for only game engines to the public under a noncommercial license on April 25, 2002.[43][44] Mike Kulas, the President of Volition, said this was to give those outside the game industry a chance to look at the code of a commercial software product, a desire he and Matt Toschlog had when they were not yet in the industry. In the years since, no sequels to FreeSpace 2 have been made and Interplay has only published a limited re-release of it on February 2, 2004, to commemorate the company's 20th anniversary.[12] Interplay, by that time, was in financial trouble, failing to pay rent and wages to its workers. Seeking investors to inject it with funds, Interplay changed business strategies: instead of developing and publishing single-player games, it sold licenses to those games and looked towards developing massive multi-player online games.[45][46][47] Derek Smart, creator of Battlecruiser 3000AD, had casually mentioned his interest in the Freespace license, but nothing significant came out of this.[48][49] In 2013, Interplay acquired the remaining rights to the FreeSpace franchise for $7,500 after THQ went to bankruptcy court.[50]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GameRankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameRankings"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Computer and Video 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Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_Commander_(franchise)"},{"link_name":"X-Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_X-Wing_computer_game_series"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-revo-25"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-combat-67"},{"link_name":"dogfights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogfight"},{"link_name":"CNN.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN.com"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-greatest-24"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electric-19"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharky-23"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dessrev-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcgray-15"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-17"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-revo-25"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-combat-67"},{"link_name":"red herrings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_herring_(plot_device)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allgame-6"},{"link_name":"Wing Commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_Commander_(franchise)"},{"link_name":"X-Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars:_X-Wing_computer_game_series"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharky-23"},{"link_name":"gnat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnat"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cvgrev-9"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dessrev-16"},{"link_name":"Babylon 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_5"},{"link_name":"Star Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allgame-6"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-combat-67"},{"link_name":"PC Gamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Gamer"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcgamer-52"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcgray-15"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsrev-18"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-simple-14"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dessrev-16"},{"link_name":"lag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lag_(video_games)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-electric-19"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharky-23"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-combat-67"},{"link_name":"dial-up connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial-up_access"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespy-13"},{"link_name":"Next Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG-54"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-greatest-24"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Ars Technica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technica"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FreeSpace_2&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"modifications (mods)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod_(computer_gaming)"},{"link_name":"CNET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"sub_title":"Reviews and awards","text":"ReceptionAggregate scoresAggregatorScoreGameRankings92.0%[56]Metacritic91 / 100[55]Review scoresPublicationScoreComputer and Video Games8.5 / 10[9]Eurogamer7 / 10[53]GamePro[51]GameSpot9.4 / 10[16]GameSpy92 / 100[13]IGN8.9 / 10[17]Next Generation[54]PC Gamer (US)93%[52]The Electric Playground8.5 / 10[19]FiringSquad90%[18]AwardsPublicationAwardPC PlayerBest Space Combat Game of 1999[57]Intelligamer1999 Sim Game of the Year[58]CGW2000 Premier Award Winner[59]GameSpotSci-Fi Simulation of the Year[60]GamePowerBest Sim of '99[61]GameSpySim Game of the Year[62]FiringSquadBest Action Game of 1999[63]Computer GamesSci-Fi Simulation of the Year[64]PC PlayerAll Time Top 100 Games[65]GameSpotGreatest Games of All Time[24]The game's backdrops have received high praise from reviewersFreeSpace 2 has garnered high praise from most established reviewers. FreeSpace 2 received numerous \"Game of the Year\" awards for 1999, and was nominated for \"Computer Simulation Game of the Year\" during the 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards.[66] Every review praised FreeSpace 2's graphics. From the ships to the backgrounds, the reviewers were pleased with the details Volition had paid attention to, such as the thematic differences in the ship designs between the races, the textures and clarity of the backdrops, and even the realism of the explosions, though FiringSquad pointed out explosions from torpedo strikes were lower in quality. The nebulae feature was also praised for its rendered atmosphere, which reviewers described as tense and paranoia-inducing as they keep expecting enemy ships to appear out of the gases in a deadly ambush.[13][18] Even though a couple of reviewers wrote that the nebulae made them dizzy, they still liked the feature.[5][21] Combatsim even claimed FreeSpace 2 was unrivaled among its space combat peers in the graphics department.[67] The graphical standards were such that when XGP reviewed the Anniversary Edition in 2004, Wehbi found the graphics to stand up quite well to the recent games then.[12]GameSpot felt FreeSpace's story was \"both deeper and darker\" than either the Wing Commander and X-Wing series, establishing invincible foes who never lost their stature despite the player learning of plausible ways to defeat them. Game Revolution felt the story was \"first rate\" for being able to \"build several different conflicts into an unforgettable climax\", nicely presented by the emphasis of story telling by means of in-game events.[25] While Eurogamer supported the story as intriguing, it also marked down its rating of the game for the way the story was told. The reviewer felt the \"just a cog in the machine\" story-telling approach left him apathetic towards the non-player characters and missions in the game. FiringSquad, however, said it created a \"very believable military atmosphere\", which helped to show how things revolve around big events, instead of just around a single person. Combatsim.com offered another angle; Reynolds said the gameplay elements of FreeSpace 2 are \"light years beyond the competition\" and more than offsets the loss of being personally immersed in the game's universe.[67]FreeSpace 2's key attraction is its dogfights. CNN.com said the close-ranged dogfights make for engrossing, and exciting skirmishes.[68] FiringSquad described it as a \"total thrill\" to be among 20 fighters flying in between opposing capital ships with beams, missiles, and flak all around and warnings going off, as they try to seek out and destroy their opposite numbers, a view which GameSpot agreed with.[24] The game's AI was judged adequate to provide for such fights, being cunning enough to trick others to crash into the walls of narrow openings, and good enough to detect and warn their wingmen of enemies coming up directly behind them.[19][23] There are those who expressed minor disappointments with the AI tending to collide too often with other objects.[16] While the dynamic mission objectives were celebrated for coming up with twists and turns to spice up the story,[15][17][25][67] there were a few who found these \"in-game red herrings\" overused instead.[6]\nSharky Extreme praised FreeSpace 2 for having the enormous capital ships, as this burst the \"trapped in a bubble\" trend in Wing Commander- and X-Wing- type games.[23] Instead of the action simply coming to the player, it flows all around, and the player is the one who has to go and seek it. The scenes of these giant ships duking it out, with many gnat-like fighters swarming around in their little dances of death, have led reviewers to feel a sense of epicness,[9][16] comparable to reliving battles in science fiction series like Babylon 5 and Star Wars.[6][67] Similarly, PC Gamer praised the scaling of ships and battles and said that they \"[came] as close to creating the feeling of a World War II naval battle in space as any game has ever come. That's what fighter combat, in space or on Earth, should be all about\".[52]Opinions were generally favorable towards FreeSpace 2's multiplayer implementation.[15][18] SquadWar received favorable responses from the reviewers who were impressed by its persistent nature and statistics tracking.[14][16] While the required registration with PXO was considered a troublesome process by a few, the gameplay itself was a smooth experience with no lag at all.[19][23] Other reviewers' experiences with lag were different. Reynolds of Combatsim.com said Internet gaming was laggy with ships jumping places, but LAN gaming was smooth sailing.[67] GameSpy's reviewer said lag became more apparent on a dial-up connection during a multiplayer mission with four or more players. FiringSquad's reviewer's experience was similar but he said the lag was not enough to hinder his enjoyment of the multiplayer action.[13]Blake Fischer reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and said that \"no self-respecting space-combat junkie should live without it\".[54]GameSpot, in electing FreeSpace 2 as one of the \"Greatest Games of All Time\", pointed out that while most of the game's features could be found in its predecessor or peers, its \"sheer quality of presentation and gameplay\" was the key reason for their choice.[24] Computer and Video Games has acknowledged it as offering the best dogfighting among the space combat classics.[69] Ars Technica also posed FreeSpace 2 as the last significant stage in evolution of the space combat genre as of 2005[update].[70]Fans of the FreeSpace series have created modifications (mods) of FreeSpace 2. The first mods were just custom campaigns, with series of missions created through FRED2, the mission editor freely packaged with FreeSpace 2. One such mod which gained notability was Inferno, which sets its story decades after the conclusion of FreeSpace 2. Released in July 2003, the mod was hosted on established sites, such as GameSpot and CNET, as part of their FreeSpace 2 contents.[71]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailyradar-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"PC Data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Data"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcgsales3-74"},{"link_name":"Daily Radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Radar"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dailyradar-72"},{"link_name":"GameSpot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot"},{"link_name":"Disciples: Sacred Lands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disciples:_Sacred_Lands"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot1999-75"},{"link_name":"stayed within budget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_overrun"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"NowGamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NowGamer"},{"link_name":"Quake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake_(series)"},{"link_name":"Descent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descent_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Wolfenstein [3D]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfenstein_3D"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Sales","text":"Despite glowing reviews, FreeSpace 2 was a commercial disappointment.[72][73] In the United States, it totaled sales of 26,983 copies by the end of 1999, according to PC Data.[74] Writing for Daily Radar, Andrew S. Bub remarked that the game \"horrifically\" underperformed and was one of the most unfairly overlooked titles of the year.[72] FreeSpace 2 was a runner-up for GameSpot's 1999 \"Best Game No One Played\" award, which ultimately went to Disciples: Sacred Lands.[75]FreeSpace 2's sales were acknowledged as disappointing, and described as awful by Kulas. He, however, stated that as the team had stayed within budget by sticking to schedule, Volition should at least be breaking even with the estimated final sales of the game.[76] In NowGamer's interview with Jim Boone, a producer at Volition, he said that this could have been due to joysticks' being sold poorly because they were \"going out of fashion\" and more modern first-person shooters, such as Quake, were \"very much about the mouse and [the] keyboard\". He went further on to state: \"Before that, when we did Descent for example, it was perfectly common for people to have joysticks – we sold a lot of copies of Descent. It was around that time [when] the more modern FPS with mouse and keyboard came out, as opposed to just keyboard like Wolfenstein [3D] or something\".[77]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeSpace_2_Source_Code_Project"},{"link_name":"Beyond the Red Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_the_Red_Line"},{"link_name":"Battlestar Galactica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battlestar_Galactica_(re-imagining)"},{"link_name":"Babylon 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon_5"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"text":"With the release of the game engine's source code, the possibilities of changing the game greatly opened up, and the fan community made use of the code to update the game using recent technology. Led by Edward Gardner and Ian Warfield, the FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project was formed to standardize changes and maintain a core engine for others to take advantage of. Using the new fan-updated engine, projects such as Beyond the Red Line, based on the new Battlestar Galactica, and The Babylon Project, based on Babylon 5, have become possible.[78] PXO, the free Internet gaming service handling SquadWar, was initially acquired by THQ in their 2002 acquisition of Outrage Entertainment (renamed as Outrage Games).[79] The service was continued until July 2003, when Outrage Games was dissolved and PXO terminated. The components of its website were, however, later handed over to the FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project to help them create a similar service in tracking statistics and rankings.[80]","title":"Source code project"}] | [{"image_text":"A corvette and a destroyer attacking each other with beam cannons","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/53/FreeSpace_2_Beam-Combat-Anim.gif/220px-FreeSpace_2_Beam-Combat-Anim.gif"},{"image_text":"The game's backdrops have received high praise from reviewers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0f/FreeSpace_2_Backdrop-Ani.gif/220px-FreeSpace_2_Backdrop-Ani.gif"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"The Games of 1999 ~ Europe\". Archived from the original on February 10, 2001. Retrieved October 4, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010210220535/http://www.gonegold.com/golden/eurogold99.shtml","url_text":"\"The Games of 1999 ~ Europe\""},{"url":"http://www.gonegold.com/golden/eurogold99.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"FreeSpace 2 Ships to Retail\" (Press release). Interplay Entertainment. October 1, 1999. Archived from the original on October 18, 2000. Retrieved January 4, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20001018224108/http://www.interplay.com/press/freespace2ship.html","url_text":"\"FreeSpace 2 Ships to Retail\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interplay_Entertainment","url_text":"Interplay Entertainment"},{"url":"http://www.interplay.com/press/freespace2ship.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archives October 1999: 21/10/99\". Games Market. October 21, 1999. Archived from the original on May 21, 2002. Retrieved April 16, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20020521042027/http://www.gamesmarket.com.au/infoarchives.cfm?cfid=1154619&cftoken=34274035&contentarchives=4&refid=","url_text":"\"Archives October 1999: 21/10/99\""},{"url":"http://www.gamesmarket.com.au/infoarchives.cfm?cfid=1154619&cftoken=34274035&contentarchives=4&refid=","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Getting started\". FreeSpace Wiki. Retrieved 2012-03-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hard-light.net/wiki/index.php/Getting_started","url_text":"\"Getting started\""}]},{"reference":"Byron Hinson (n.d.). \"Freespace 2 - Review\". ActiveWindows. Retrieved 2007-10-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.activewin.com/reviews/software/games/f/freespace2.shtml","url_text":"\"Freespace 2 - Review\""}]},{"reference":"Alec Norands (n.d.). \"FreeSpace 2: Sci-Fi Sim of the Year Edition\". Allgame. Retrieved 2007-10-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allgame.com/cg/agg.dll?p=agg&sql=1:23917~T1","url_text":"\"FreeSpace 2: Sci-Fi Sim of the Year Edition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allgame","url_text":"Allgame"}]},{"reference":"Volition Watch staff (September 1999). \"Interview with Philip Holt\". Volition Watch. Retrieved 2007-10-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.volitionwatch.com/interviews/ph_interview.php","url_text":"\"Interview with Philip Holt\""}]},{"reference":"Kevin Rice (2001-12-11). \"Reviews: Clusterball\". GameSpy. Archived from the original on 2007-10-12. Retrieved 2007-11-09. The game would greatly benefit from a more space-sim feel like that in Freespace or Starlancer, where ships are far more responsive and essentially weightless.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071012223133/http://archive.gamespy.com/reviews/december01/clusterball/","url_text":"\"Reviews: Clusterball\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpy","url_text":"GameSpy"},{"url":"http://archive.gamespy.com/reviews/december01/clusterball/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Richie Shoemaker (2001-08-13). \"Freespace 2\". Computer and Video Games. Archived from the original on February 7, 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070207055032/http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id=3011","url_text":"\"Freespace 2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games","url_text":"Computer and Video Games"},{"url":"http://www.computerandvideogames.com/article.php?id=3011","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jakub Wojnarowicz (1999-09-05). \"Freespace 2 Demo Review\". FiringSquad. Retrieved 2007-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.firingsquad.com/games/freespace2preview/page6.asp","url_text":"\"Freespace 2 Demo Review\""}]},{"reference":"PC Paradox staff (1999-07-16). \"Freespace 2 Interview\". PC Paradox. Archived from the original on 2000-05-30. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons | List of baryons | ["1 Baryon properties","1.1 JP = 1/2+ baryons","1.2 JP = 3/2+ baryons","1.3 Baryon resonance particles","2 See also","3 References","3.1 Bibliography","4 Further reading","5 External links"] | A proton, the only baryon stable in isolation, has two up quarks and one down quark, confined via the exchange of gluons.
Baryons are composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to mesons, which are composite particles made of one quark and one antiquark. Baryons and mesons are both hadrons, which are particles composed solely of quarks or both quarks and antiquarks. The term baryon is derived from the Greek "βαρύς" (barys), meaning "heavy", because, at the time of their naming, it was believed that baryons were characterized by having greater masses than other particles that were classed as matter.
Until a few years ago, it was believed that some experiments showed the existence of pentaquarks – baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark. Prior to 2006 the particle physics community as a whole did not view the existence of pentaquarks as likely. On 13 July 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN reported results consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom lambda baryons (Λ0b).
Since baryons are composed of quarks, they participate in the strong interaction. Leptons, on the other hand, are not composed of quarks and as such do not participate in the strong interaction. The best known baryons are protons and neutrons, which make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons, the other major component of atoms, are leptons. Each baryon has a corresponding antiparticle, known as an antibaryon, in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks. For example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark.
Baryon properties
These lists detail all known and predicted baryons in total angular momentum J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations with positive parity.
Baryons composed of one type of quark (uuu, ddd, ...) can exist in J = 3/2 configuration, but J = 1/2 is forbidden by the Pauli exclusion principle.
Baryons composed of two types of quarks (uud, uus, ...) can exist in both J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations.
Baryons composed of three types of quarks (uds, udc, ...) can exist in both J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations. Two J = 1/2 configurations are possible for these baryons.
The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (isospin), J (total angular momentum), P (parity), u (up quark), d (down quark), s (strange quark), c (charm quark), b (bottom quark), Q (charge), B (baryon number), S (strangeness), C (charm), B′ (bottomness), as well as a wide array of subatomic particles (hover for name). (See Baryon for a detailed explanation of these symbols.)
Antibaryons are not listed in the tables; however, they simply would have all quarks changed to antiquarks, and Q, B, S, C, B′, would be of opposite signs. Particles with † next to their names have been predicted by the Standard Model but not yet observed. Values in parentheses have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.
JP = 1/2+ baryons
JP = 1/2+ baryons
Particle name
Symbol
Quark content
Rest mass (MeV/c2)
I
JP
Q (e)
S
C
B′
Mean lifetime (s)
Commonlydecays to
proton
p, p+, N+
uud
938.2720813(58)
1/2
1/2+
+1
0
0
0
stable
unobserved
neutron
n, n0, N0
udd
939.5654133(58)
1/2
1/2+
0
0
0
0
(8.794±0.006)×10+2
p+ + e− + νe
lambda
Λ0
uds
1115.683±0.006
0
1/2+
0
−1
0
0
(2.632±0.020)×10−10
p+ + π− or n0 + π0
charmed lambda
Λ+c
udc
2286.46±0.14
0
1/2+
+1
0
+1
0
(2.024±0.031)×10−13
see Λ+c decay modes
bottom lambda
Λ0b
udb
5619.6±0.17
(0)
(1/2+)
0
0
0
−1
(1.471±0.009)×10−12
see Λ0b decay modes
sigma
Σ+
uus
1189.37±0.07
1
1/2+
+1
−1
0
0
(8.018±0.026)×10−11
p+ + π0 or n0 + π+
sigma
Σ0
uds
1192.642±0.024
1
1/2+
0
−1
0
0
(7.4±0.7)×10−20
Λ0 + γ
sigma
Σ−
dds
1197.449±0.030
1
1/2+
−1
−1
0
0
(1.479±0.011)×10−10
n0 + π−
charmed sigma
Σ++c(2455)
uuc
2453.97±0.14
1
1/2+
+2
0
+1
0
3.48+0.37−0.16×10−22
Λ+c + π+
charmed sigma
Σ+c(2455)
udc
2452.9±0.4
1
1/2+
+1
0
+1
0
>1.43×10−22
Λ+c + π0
charmed sigma
Σ0c(2455)
ddc
2453.75±0.14
1
1/2+
0
0
+1
0
3.60+0.42−0.20×10−22
Λ+c + π−
bottom sigma
Σ+b
uub
5810.56±0.25
(1)
(1/2+)
+1
0
0
−1
(1.32±0.13)×10−22
Λ0b + π+
bottom sigma†
Σ0b
udb
unknown
(1)
(1/2+)
0
0
0
−1
unknown
unknown
bottom sigma
Σ−b
ddb
5815.64±0.27
(1)
(1/2+)
−1
0
0
−1
(1.24±0.12)×10−22
Λ0b + π−
xi
Ξ0
uss
1314.86±0.20
1/2
1/2(+)
0
−2
0
0
(2.90±0.09)×10−10
Λ0 + π0
xi
Ξ−
dss
1321.71±0.07
1/2
1/2(+)
−1
−2
0
0
(1.639±0.015)×10−10
Λ0 + π−
charmed xi
Ξ+c
usc
2467.94+0.17−0.20
(1/2)
(1/2+)
+1
−1
+1
0
(4.56±0.05)×10−13
see Ξ+c decay modes
charmed xi
Ξ0c
dsc
2470.90+0.22−0.29
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
−1
+1
0
(1.53±0.06)×10−13
see Ξ0c decay modes
charmed xi prime
Ξ′+c
usc
2578.4±0.5
(1/2)
(1/2+)
+1
−1
+1
0
unknown
Ξ+c + γ (seen)
charmed xi prime
Ξ′0c
dsc
2579.2±0.5
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
−1
+1
0
unknown
Ξ0c + γ (seen)
double charmed xi
Ξ++cc
ucc
3621.2±0.7
(1/2)
(1/2+)
+2
0
+2
0
unknown
see Ξ++cc decay modes
double charmed xi
Ξ+cc
dcc
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
+1
0
+2
0
unknown
unknown
bottom xi or cascade B
Ξ0b
usb
5791.9±0.5
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
−1
0
−1
(1.480±0.030)×10−12
see Ξ0b decay modes
bottom xior cascade B
Ξ−b
dsb
5797.0±0.6
(1/2)
(1/2+)
−1
−1
0
−1
(1.572±0.040)×10−12
see Ξ−b decay modes
bottom xi prime†
Ξ′0b
usb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
−1
0
−1
unknown
unknown
bottom xi prime†
Ξ′−b
dsb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
−1
−1
0
−1
unknown
unknown
double bottom xi†
Ξ0bb
ubb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
0
0
−2
unknown
unknown
double bottom xi†
Ξ−bb
dbb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
−1
0
0
−2
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom xi†
Ξ+cb
ucb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
+1
0
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom xi†
Ξ0cb
dcb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
0
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom xi prime†
Ξ′+cb
ucb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
+1
0
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom xi prime†
Ξ′0cb
dcb
unknown
(1/2)
(1/2+)
0
0
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed omega
Ω0c
ssc
2695.2±1.7
(0)
(1/2+)
0
−2
+1
0
(2.68±0.24 ± 0.10)×10−13
see Ω0c decay modes
bottom omega
Ω−b
ssb
6046.1±1.7
(0)
(1/2+)
−1
−2
0
−1
1.64+0.18−0.17×10−12
Ω− + J/ψ (seen)
double charmed omega†
Ω+cc
scc
unknown
(0)
(1/2+)
+1
−1
+2
0
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom omega†
Ω0cb
scb
unknown
(0)
(1/2+)
0
−1
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom omega prime†
Ω′0cb
scb
unknown
(0)
(1/2+)
0
−1
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
double bottom omega†
Ω−bb
sbb
unknown
(0)
(1/2+)
−1
−1
0
−2
unknown
unknown
double charmed bottom omega†
Ω+ccb
ccb
unknown
(0)
(1/2+)
+1
0
+2
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed double bottom omega†
Ω0cbb
cbb
unknown
(0)
(1/2+)
0
0
+1
−2
unknown
unknown
†^ Particle has not yet been observed.
^ The masses of the proton and neutron are known with much better precision in daltons (Da) than in MeV/c2. In atomic mass units, the mass of the proton is 1.0072764665789(83) Da whereas that of the neutron is 1.00866491606(40) Da.
^ At least 1035 years. See proton decay.
^ For free neutrons; in most common nuclei, neutrons are stable.
^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.
^ There is a controversial discovery claim, disfavored by other experimental data.
JP = 3/2+ baryons
JP = 3/2+ baryons
Particle name
Symbol
Quarkcontent
Rest mass (MeV/c2)
I
JP
Q (e)
S
C
B′
Mean lifetime (s)
Commonlydecays to
delta
Δ++(1232)
uuu
1232±2
3/2
3/2+
+2
0
0
0
(5.63±0.14)×10−24
p+ + π+
delta
Δ+(1232)
uud
1232±2
3/2
3/2+
+1
0
0
0
(5.63±0.14)×10−24
π+ + n0 or π0 + p+
delta
Δ0(1232)
udd
1232±2
3/2
3/2+
0
0
0
0
(5.63±0.14)×10−24
π0 + n0 or π− + p+
delta
Δ−(1232)
ddd
1232±2
3/2
3/2+
−1
0
0
0
(5.63±0.14)×10−24
π− + n0
sigma
Σ∗+(1385)
uus
1382.80±0.35
1
3/2+
+1
−1
0
0
(1.828±0.036)×10−23
Λ0 + π+ or Σ+ + π0 or Σ0 + π+
sigma
Σ∗0(1385)
uds
1383.7±1.0
1
3/2+
0
−1
0
0
(1.83±0.26)×10−23
Λ0 + π0 or Σ+ + π− or Σ0 + π0
sigma
Σ∗−(1385)
dds
1387.2±0.5
1
3/2+
−1
−1
0
0
(1.671±0.089)×10−23
Λ0 + π− or Σ0 + π− or Σ− + π0
charmed sigma
Σ∗++c(2520)
uuc
2518.41+0.21−0.19
1
(3/2+)
+2
0
+1
0
4.45+0.12−0.09×10−23
Λ+c + π+
charmed sigma
Σ∗+c(2520)
udc
2517.5±2.3
1
(3/2+)
+1
0
+1
0
>3.87×10−23
Λ+c + π0
charmed sigma
Σ∗0c(2520)
ddc
2518.48±0.20
1
(3/2+)
0
0
+1
0
4.30+0.15−0.11×10−23
Λ+c + π−
bottom sigma
Σ∗+b
uub
5830.32±0.27
(1)
(3/2+)
+1
0
0
−1
(7.0±0.4)×10−23
Λ0b + π+
bottom sigma
Σ∗0b
udb
unknown
(1)
(3/2+)
0
0
0
−1
unknown
unknown
bottom sigma
Σ∗−b
ddb
5834.74±0.30
(1)
(3/2+)
−1
0
0
−1
(6.3±0.5)×10−23
Λ0b + π−
xi
Ξ∗0(1530)
uss
1531.80±0.32
1/2
3/2+
0
−2
0
0
(7.23±0.40)×10−23
Ξ0 + π0 or Ξ− + π+
xi
Ξ∗−(1530)
dss
1535.0±0.6
1/2
3/2+
−1
−2
0
0
6.6+1.3−1.1×10−23
Ξ0 + π− or Ξ− + π0
charmed xi
Ξ∗+c(2645)
usc
2645.56+0.24−0.30
(1/2)
(3/2+)
+1
−1
+1
0
(3.08±0.28)×10−22
Ξ+c + π0 (seen)
charmed xi
Ξ∗0c(2645)
dsc
2646.38+0.20−0.23
(1/2)
(3/2+)
0
−1
+1
0
(2.80±0.22 ± 0.16)×10−22
Ξ+c + π− (seen)
double charmed xi†
Ξ∗++cc
ucc
unknown
(1/2)
(3/2+)
+2
0
+2
0
unknown
unknown
double charmed xi†
Ξ∗+cc
dcc
unknown
(1/2)
(3/2+)
+1
0
+2
0
unknown
unknown
bottom xi
Ξ∗0b
usb
5952.3±0.6
(1/2)
(3/2+)
0
−1
0
−1
(7.31±1.34 ± 0.66)×10−22
Ξ−b + π+ (seen)
bottom xi
Ξ∗−b
dsb
5955.33±0.12 ± 0.05
(1/2)
(3/2+)
−1
−1
0
−1
(3.99±0.78 ± 0.24)×10−22
see Ξ∗−b decay modes
double bottom xi†
Ξ∗0bb
ubb
unknown
(1/2)
(3/2+)
0
0
0
−2
unknown
unknown
double bottom xi†
Ξ∗−bb
dbb
unknown
(1/2)
(3/2+)
−1
0
0
−2
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom xi†
Ξ∗+cb
ucb
unknown
(1/2)
(3/2+)
+1
0
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom xi†
Ξ∗0cb
dcb
unknown
(1/2)
(3/2+)
0
0
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
omega
Ω−
sss
1672.45±0.29
0
3/2+
−1
−3
0
0
(8.21±0.11)×10−11
Λ0 + K− or Ξ0 + π− or Ξ− + π0
charmed omega
Ω∗0c(2770)
ssc
2765.9±2.0
0
(3/2+)
0
−2
+1
0
unknown
Ω0c + γ
bottom omega†
Ω∗−b
ssb
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
−1
−2
0
−1
unknown
unknown
double charmed omega†
Ω∗+cc
scc
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
+1
−1
+2
0
unknown
unknown
charmed bottom omega†
Ω∗0cb
scb
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
0
−1
+1
−1
unknown
unknown
double bottom omega†
Ω∗−bb
sbb
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
−1
−1
0
−2
unknown
unknown
triple charmed omega†
Ω++ccc
ccc
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
+2
0
+3
0
unknown
unknown
double charmed bottom omega†
Ω∗+ccb
ccb
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
+1
0
+2
−1
unknown
unknown
charmed double bottom omega†
Ω∗0cbb
cbb
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
0
0
+1
−2
unknown
unknown
triple bottom omega†
Ω−bbb
bbb
unknown
(0)
(3/2+)
−1
0
0
−3
unknown
unknown
†^ Particle has not yet been observed.
^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.
Baryon resonance particles
This table gives the name, quantum numbers (where known), and experimental status of baryons resonances confirmed by the PDG. Baryon resonance particles are excited baryon states with short half lives and higher masses. Despite significant research, the fundamental degrees of freedom behind baryon excitation spectra are still poorly understood. The spin-parity JP (when known) is given with each particle. For the strongly decaying particles, the JP values are considered to be part of the names, as is the mass for all resonances.
Baryon resonance particles
Nucleons
Δ particles
Λ particles
Σ particles
Ξ and Ω particles
Charmed particles
Bottom particles
p
1⁄2+
****
Δ(1232)
3⁄2+
****
Λ
1⁄2+
****
Σ+
1⁄2+
****
Ξ0
1⁄2+
****
Λ+c
1⁄2+
****
Λ0b
1⁄2+
***
n
1⁄2+
****
Δ(1600)
3⁄2+
****
Λ(1405)
1⁄2−
****
Σ0
1⁄2+
****
Ξ−
1⁄2+
****
Λc(2595)+
1⁄2−
***
Λb(5912)0
1⁄2−
***
N(1440)
1⁄2+
****
Δ(1620)
1⁄2−
****
Λ(1520)
3⁄2−
****
Σ−
1⁄2+
****
Ξ(1530)
3⁄2+
****
Λc(2625)+
3⁄2−
***
Λb(5920)0
3⁄2−
***
N(1520)
3⁄2−
****
Δ(1700)
3⁄2−
****
Λ(1600)
1⁄2+
***
Σ(1385)
3⁄2+
****
Ξ(1620)
*
Λc(2765)+
*
Σb
1⁄2+
***
N(1535)
1⁄2−
****
Δ(1750)
1⁄2+
*
Λ(1670)
1⁄2−
****
Σ(1480)
*
Ξ(1690)
***
Λc(2880)+
5⁄2+
***
Σ*b
3⁄2+
***
N(1650)
1⁄2−
****
Δ(1900)
1⁄2−
***
Λ(1690)
3⁄2−
****
Σ(1560)
**
Ξ(1820)
3⁄2−
***
Λc(2940)+
3⁄2−
***
Ξ0b, Ξ−b
1⁄2+
***
N(1675)
5⁄2−
****
Δ(1905)
5⁄2+
****
Λ(1710)
1⁄2+
*
Σ(1580)
3⁄2−
*
Ξ(1950)
***
Ξ'b(5935)−
1⁄2+
***
N(1680)
5⁄2+
****
Δ(1910)
1⁄2+
****
Λ(1800)
1⁄2−
***
Σ(1620)
1⁄2−
*
Ξ(2030)
≥ 5/2?
***
Σc(2455)
1⁄2+
****
Ξb(5945)0
3⁄2+
***
N(1700)
3⁄2−
***
Δ(1920)
3⁄2+
***
Λ(1810)
1⁄2+
***
Σ(1660)
1⁄2+
***
Ξ(2120)
*
Σc(2520)
3⁄2+
***
Ξb(5955)−
3⁄2+
***
N(1710)
1⁄2+
****
Δ(1930)
5⁄2−
***
Λ(1820)
5⁄2+
****
Σ(1670)
3⁄2−
****
Ξ(2250)
**
Σc(2800)
***
Ω−b
1⁄2+
***
N(1720)
3⁄2+
****
Δ(1940)
3⁄2−
**
Λ(1830)
5⁄2−
****
Σ(1690)
**
Ξ(2370)
**
Pc(4380)+
*
N(1860)
5⁄2+
**
Δ(1950)
7⁄2+
****
Λ(1890)
3⁄2+
****
Σ(1730)
3⁄2+
*
Ξ(2500)
*
Ξ+c
1⁄2+
***
Pc(4450)+
*
N(1875)
3⁄2−
***
Δ(2000)
5⁄2+
**
Λ(2000)
*
Σ(1750)
1⁄2−
***
Ξ0c
1⁄2+
***
N(1880)
1⁄2+
***
Δ(2150)
1⁄2−
*
Λ(2020)
7⁄2+
*
Σ(1770)
1⁄2+
*
Ω−
3⁄2+
****
Ξ′+c
1⁄2+
***
N(1895)
1⁄2−
****
Δ(2200)
7⁄2−
***
Λ(2050)
3⁄2−
*
Σ(1775)
5⁄2−
****
Ω(2250)−
***
Ξ′0c
1⁄2+
***
N(1900)
3⁄2+
****
Δ(2300)
9⁄2+
**
Λ(2100)
7⁄2−
****
Σ(1840)
3⁄2+
*
Ω(2380)−
**
Ξc(2645)
3⁄2+
***
N(1990)
7⁄2+
**
Δ(2350)
5⁄2−
*
Λ(2110)
5⁄2+
***
Σ(1880)
1⁄2+
**
Ω(2470)−
**
Ξc(2790)
1⁄2−
***
N(2000)
5⁄2+
**
Δ(2390)
7⁄2+
*
Λ(2325)
3⁄2−
*
Σ(1900)
1⁄2−
*
Ξc(2815)
3⁄2−
***
N(2040)
3⁄2+
*
Δ(2400)
9⁄2−
**
Λ(2350)
9⁄2+
***
Σ(1915)
5⁄2+
****
Ξc(2930)
*
N(2060)
5⁄2−
***
Δ(2420)
11⁄2+
****
Λ(2585)
**
Σ(1940)
3⁄2+
*
Ξc(2980)
***
N(2100)
1⁄2+
***
Δ(2750)
13⁄2−
**
Σ(1940)
3⁄2−
***
Ξc(3055)
***
N(2120)
3⁄2−
***
Δ(2950)
15⁄2+
**
Σ(2000)
1⁄2−
*
Ξc(3080)
***
N(2190)
7⁄2−
****
Σ(2030)
7⁄2+
****
Ξc(3123)
*
N(2220)
9⁄2+
****
Σ(2070)
5⁄2+
*
N(2250)
9⁄2−
****
Σ(2080)
3⁄2+
**
Ω0c
1⁄2+
***
N(2300)
1⁄2+
**
Σ(2100)
7⁄2−
*
Ωc(2770)0
3⁄2+
***
N(2570)
5⁄2−
**
Σ(2250)
***
Ωc(3000)0
***
N(2600)
11⁄2−
***
Σ(2455)
**
Ωc(3050)0
***
N(2700)
13⁄2+
**
Σ(2620)
**
Ωc(3065)0
***
Σ(3000)
*
Ωc(3090)0
***
Ωc(3120)0
***
Ξ+cc
*
Ξ++cc
***
****
Existence is certain, and properties are at least fairly well explored.
***
Existence ranges from fairly certain to certain, but further confirmation is desirable, and/or quantum numbers, branching fractions, etc. are not well determined.
**
Evidence of existence is only fair.
*
Evidence of existence is poor.
See also
Eightfold way (physics)
List of mesons
List of particles
Roper resonance
Timeline of particle discoveries
References
^ H. Muir (2003)
^ K. Carter (2003)
^ W.-M. Yao et al. (2006): Particle listings – Positive Theta
^ R. Aaij et al. (2015)
^ Griffiths, David J. (2008), Introduction to Elementary Particles (2nd revised ed.), WILEY-VCH, pp. 181–188, ISBN 978-3-527-40601-2
^ P.A Zyla et al. (2020): Particle summary tables – Baryons
^ J.G. Körner et al. (1994)
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – p+
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – n0
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Λ
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Λc
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Λb
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σ+
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σ0
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σ−
^ a b c P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σc(2455)
^ a b P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σb
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ0
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ−
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ+c
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ0c
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ′+c
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ′0c
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ++cc
^ a b P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξb
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ω0c
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ω−b
^ "2022 CODATA Value: proton mass in u". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
^ "2022 CODATA Value: neutron mass in u". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.
^ J. Beringer et al. (2012): Particle listings – Ξ+cc
^ a b c d P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Δ(1232)
^ a b c P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σ(1385)
^ a b c P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σc(2520)
^ a b P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Σ∗b
^ a b P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ(1530)
^ a b P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξc(2645)
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ0b(5945)
^ P.A. Zyla et al. (2020): Particle listings – Ξ0b(5955)
^ J. Beringer et al. (2012): Particle listings – Ω−
^ J. Beringer et al. (2012): Particle listings – Ω0c(2770)
^ C. Patrignani et al. (Particle Data Group) (2018). "Baryon Summary Table" (PDF). Chin. Phys. C. 40: 100001. Retrieved 27 September 2018.
^ Crede, Volker; Roberts, Winston (2013). "Progress Toward Understanding Baryon Resonances". Rep. Prog. Phys. 76 (7): 076301. arXiv:1302.7299. Bibcode:2013RPPh...76g6301C. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/76/7/076301. PMID 23787948. S2CID 24922824.
Bibliography
R. Aaij et al. (LHCb collaboration) (2015). "Observation of J/ψp resonances consistent with pentaquark states in Λ0b→J/ψK−p decays". Physical Review Letters. 115 (7): 072001. arXiv:1507.03414. Bibcode:2015PhRvL.115g2001A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.072001. PMID 26317714. S2CID 119204136.
J. Beringer et al. (Particle Data Group) (2012). "Review of Particle Physics". Physical Review D. 86 (1): 010001. Bibcode:2012PhRvD..86a0001B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.86.010001. hdl:10481/34377.
K. Nakamura et al. (Particle Data Group) (2010). "Review of Particle Physics". Journal of Physics G. 37 (7A): 075021. Bibcode:2010JPhG...37g5021N. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/37/7A/075021. hdl:10481/34593.
C. Amsler et al. (Particle Data Group) (2008). "Review of Particle Physics" (PDF). Physics Letters B. 667 (1): 1–1340. Bibcode:2008PhLB..667....1A. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018. hdl:1854/LU-685594. S2CID 227119789.
V.M. Abazov et al. (DØ Collaboration) (2008). "Observation of the doubly strange b baryon Ω−b" (PDF). Fermilab-Pub-08/335-E.
K. Carter (2006). "The rise and fall of the pentaquark". Symmetry Magazine. Fermilab/SLAC. Archived from the original on 2007-07-08. Retrieved 2008-05-27.
W.-M. Yao et al. (Particle Data Group) (2006). "Review of Particle Physics". Journal of Physics G. 33 (1): 1–1232. arXiv:astro-ph/0601168. Bibcode:2006JPhG...33....1Y. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001.
H. Muir (2003). "Pentaquark discovery confounds sceptics". New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-05-27.
J.G. Körner; M. Krämer & D. Pirjol (1994). "Heavy Baryons". Progress in Particle and Nuclear Physics. 33: 787–868. arXiv:hep-ph/9406359. Bibcode:1994PrPNP..33..787K. doi:10.1016/0146-6410(94)90053-1. S2CID 118931787.
Further reading
H. Garcilazo; J. Vijande & A. Valcarce (2007). "Faddeev study of heavy-baryon spectroscopy". Journal of Physics G. 34 (5): 961–976. arXiv:hep-ph/0703257. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/5/014. S2CID 15445714.
S. Robbins (2006). "Physics Particle Overview – Baryons". Journey Through the Galaxy. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. Retrieved 2008-04-20.
D.M. Manley (2005). "Status of baryon spectroscopy". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 5 (1): 230–237. Bibcode:2005JPhCS...9..230M. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/9/1/043.
S.S.M. Wong (1998). Introductory Nuclear Physics (2nd ed.). New York (NY): John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-23973-4.
R. Shankar (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). New York (NY): Plenum Press. ISBN 978-0-306-44790-7.
E. Wigner (1937). "On the Consequences of the Symmetry of the Nuclear Hamiltonian on the Spectroscopy of Nuclei". Physical Review. 51 (2): 106–119. Bibcode:1937PhRv...51..106W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.51.106.
M. Gell-Mann (1964). "A Schematic of Baryons and Mesons". Physics Letters. 8 (3): 214–215. Bibcode:1964PhL.....8..214G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3.
W. Heisenberg (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne I". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 77 (1–2): 1–11. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...77....1H. doi:10.1007/BF01342433. S2CID 186218053.
W. Heisenberg (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne II". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 78 (3–4): 156–164. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...78..156H. doi:10.1007/BF01337585. S2CID 186221789.
W. Heisenberg (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne III". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 80 (9–10): 587–596. Bibcode:1933ZPhy...80..587H. doi:10.1007/BF01335696. S2CID 126422047.
External links
Particle Data Group – The Review of Particle Physics (2018)
Georgia State University – HyperPhysics
Baryons made thinkable, an interactive visualisation allowing physical properties to be compared
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Physics portal | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quark_structure_proton.svg"},{"link_name":"proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"},{"link_name":"quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark"},{"link_name":"gluons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluon"},{"link_name":"Baryons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"},{"link_name":"composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles#Composite_particles"},{"link_name":"particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle"},{"link_name":"quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark"},{"link_name":"mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meson"},{"link_name":"hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"pentaquarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentaquark"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PDGPentaquarks2006-3"},{"link_name":"LHCb collaboration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHCb"},{"link_name":"CERN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN"},{"link_name":"bottom lambda baryons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_lambda_baryon"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LHCb2015-4"},{"link_name":"strong interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction"},{"link_name":"Leptons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepton"},{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"antiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"link_name":"antiproton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiproton"}],"text":"A proton, the only baryon stable in isolation, has two up quarks and one down quark, confined via the exchange of gluons.Baryons are composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to mesons, which are composite particles made of one quark and one antiquark. Baryons and mesons are both hadrons, which are particles composed solely of quarks or both quarks and antiquarks. The term baryon is derived from the Greek \"βαρύς\" (barys), meaning \"heavy\", because, at the time of their naming, it was believed that baryons were characterized by having greater masses than other particles that were classed as matter.Until a few years ago, it was believed that some experiments showed the existence of pentaquarks – baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark.[1][2] Prior to 2006 the particle physics community as a whole did not view the existence of pentaquarks as likely.[3] On 13 July 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN reported results consistent with pentaquark states in the decay of bottom lambda baryons (Λ0b).[4]Since baryons are composed of quarks, they participate in the strong interaction. Leptons, on the other hand, are not composed of quarks and as such do not participate in the strong interaction. The best known baryons are protons and neutrons, which make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons, the other major component of atoms, are leptons. Each baryon has a corresponding antiparticle, known as an antibaryon, in which quarks are replaced by their corresponding antiquarks. For example, a proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, while its corresponding antiparticle, the antiproton, is made of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark.","title":"List of baryons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffiths2008-5"},{"link_name":"Pauli exclusion principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle"},{"link_name":"isospin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isospin"},{"link_name":"total angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"parity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"up quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_quark"},{"link_name":"down quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark"},{"link_name":"strange quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_quark"},{"link_name":"charm quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm_quark"},{"link_name":"bottom quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_quark"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_(physics)"},{"link_name":"baryon number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon_number"},{"link_name":"strangeness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangeness"},{"link_name":"charm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm_(quantum_number)"},{"link_name":"bottomness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottomness"},{"link_name":"Baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"},{"link_name":"Standard Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model"},{"link_name":"quark model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_model"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"These lists detail all known and predicted baryons in total angular momentum J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations with positive parity.[5]Baryons composed of one type of quark (uuu, ddd, ...) can exist in J = 3/2 configuration, but J = 1/2 is forbidden by the Pauli exclusion principle.\nBaryons composed of two types of quarks (uud, uus, ...) can exist in both J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations.\nBaryons composed of three types of quarks (uds, udc, ...) can exist in both J = 1/2 and J = 3/2 configurations. Two J = 1/2 configurations are possible for these baryons.The symbols encountered in these lists are: I (isospin), J (total angular momentum), P (parity), u (up quark), d (down quark), s (strange quark), c (charm quark), b (bottom quark), Q (charge), B (baryon number), S (strangeness), C (charm), B′ (bottomness), as well as a wide array of subatomic particles (hover for name). (See Baryon for a detailed explanation of these symbols.)Antibaryons are not listed in the tables; however, they simply would have all quarks changed to antiquarks, and Q, B, S, C, B′, would be of opposite signs. Particles with † next to their names have been predicted by the Standard Model but not yet observed. Values in parentheses have not been firmly established by experiments, but are predicted by the quark model and are consistent with the measurements.[6][7]","title":"Baryon properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Undiscovered"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_massofnucleons"},{"link_name":"proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"daltons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"MeV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_volt"},{"link_name":"c2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-mpDa-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-mnDa-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_protonlifetime"},{"link_name":"proton decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_neutronlifetime"},{"link_name":"free neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_neutron"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Lifetime"},{"link_name":"resonance width","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_width"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_charmedXi0data"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PDGDoubleCharmedXi+-30"}],"sub_title":"JP = 1/2+ baryons","text":"†^ Particle has not yet been observed.[a] ^ The masses of the proton and neutron are known with much better precision in daltons (Da) than in MeV/c2. In atomic mass units, the mass of the proton is 1.0072764665789(83) Da[28] whereas that of the neutron is 1.00866491606(40) Da.[29][b] ^ At least 1035 years. See proton decay.[c] ^ For free neutrons; in most common nuclei, neutrons are stable.[d] ^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.[e] ^ There is a controversial discovery claim, disfavored by other experimental data.[30]","title":"Baryon properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Undiscovered2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_Lifetime2"},{"link_name":"resonance width","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_width"}],"sub_title":"JP = 3/2+ baryons","text":"†^ Particle has not yet been observed.[h] ^ PDG reports the resonance width (Γ). Here the conversion τ = ħ/Γ is given instead.","title":"Baryon properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PDG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_Data_Group"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_(particle_physics)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Baryon resonance particles","text":"This table gives the name, quantum numbers (where known), and experimental status of baryons resonances confirmed by the PDG.[41] Baryon resonance particles are excited baryon states with short half lives and higher masses. Despite significant research, the fundamental degrees of freedom behind baryon excitation spectra are still poorly understood.[42] The spin-parity JP (when known) is given with each particle. For the strongly decaying particles, the JP values are considered to be part of the names, as is the mass for all resonances.","title":"Baryon properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Journal of Physics G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Physics_G"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"hep-ph/0703257","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0703257"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1088/0954-3899/34/5/014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1088%2F0954-3899%2F34%2F5%2F014"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"15445714","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15445714"},{"link_name":"\"Physics Particle Overview – Baryons\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080228011850/http://filer.case.edu/sjr16/advanced/extras_particlephys.html"},{"link_name":"Journey Through the Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Journey_Through_the_Galaxy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//filer.case.edu/sjr16/advanced/extras_particlephys.html"},{"link_name":"\"Status of baryon spectroscopy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F9%2F1%2F043"},{"link_name":"Journal of Physics: Conference 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Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plenum_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-306-44790-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-44790-7"},{"link_name":"Physical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1937PhRv...51..106W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1937PhRv...51..106W"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1103/PhysRev.51.106","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.51.106"},{"link_name":"Physics Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Letters"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1964PhL.....8..214G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhL.....8..214G"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-9163%2864%2992001-3"},{"link_name":"Zeitschrift für 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Physik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1933ZPhy...80..587H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933ZPhy...80..587H"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF01335696","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01335696"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"126422047","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:126422047"}],"text":"H. Garcilazo; J. Vijande & A. Valcarce (2007). \"Faddeev study of heavy-baryon spectroscopy\". Journal of Physics G. 34 (5): 961–976. arXiv:hep-ph/0703257. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/5/014. S2CID 15445714.\nS. Robbins (2006). \"Physics Particle Overview – Baryons\". Journey Through the Galaxy. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. Retrieved 2008-04-20.\nD.M. Manley (2005). \"Status of baryon spectroscopy\". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 5 (1): 230–237. Bibcode:2005JPhCS...9..230M. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/9/1/043.\nS.S.M. Wong (1998). Introductory Nuclear Physics (2nd ed.). New York (NY): John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-23973-4.\nR. Shankar (1994). Principles of Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). New York (NY): Plenum Press. ISBN 978-0-306-44790-7.\nE. Wigner (1937). \"On the Consequences of the Symmetry of the Nuclear Hamiltonian on the Spectroscopy of Nuclei\". Physical Review. 51 (2): 106–119. Bibcode:1937PhRv...51..106W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.51.106.\nM. Gell-Mann (1964). \"A Schematic of Baryons and Mesons\". Physics Letters. 8 (3): 214–215. Bibcode:1964PhL.....8..214G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3.\nW. Heisenberg (1932). \"Über den Bau der Atomkerne I\". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 77 (1–2): 1–11. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...77....1H. doi:10.1007/BF01342433. S2CID 186218053.\nW. Heisenberg (1932). \"Über den Bau der Atomkerne II\". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 78 (3–4): 156–164. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...78..156H. doi:10.1007/BF01337585. S2CID 186221789.\nW. Heisenberg (1932). \"Über den Bau der Atomkerne III\". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 80 (9–10): 587–596. Bibcode:1933ZPhy...80..587H. doi:10.1007/BF01335696. S2CID 126422047.","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"A proton, the only baryon stable in isolation, has two up quarks and one down quark, confined via the exchange of gluons.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Quark_structure_proton.svg/220px-Quark_structure_proton.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Eightfold way (physics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)"},{"title":"List of mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons"},{"title":"List of particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles"},{"title":"Roper resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roper_resonance"},{"title":"Timeline of particle discoveries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries"}] | [{"reference":"Griffiths, David J. 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Journal of Physics G. 34 (5): 961–976. arXiv:hep-ph/0703257. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/5/014. S2CID 15445714.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Physics_G","url_text":"Journal of Physics G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0703257","url_text":"hep-ph/0703257"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0954-3899%2F34%2F5%2F014","url_text":"10.1088/0954-3899/34/5/014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15445714","url_text":"15445714"}]},{"reference":"S. Robbins (2006). \"Physics Particle Overview – Baryons\". Journey Through the Galaxy. Archived from the original on 2008-02-28. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_frame | Open frame | ["1 References"] | Ten-pin bowling term
This article is about a situation that can occur in the sport of bowling. For the type of bicycle frame, see open frame (bicycle).
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For the TmaxSoft solution, see OpenFrame. For the open-source toolkit, see openFrameworks.
An open frame in ten-pin bowling refers to a frame in which the player makes neither a strike nor a spare. Bowling an open frame in a professional game is typically devastating enough to one's score to cause a loss. In bowling video games, open frames typically affects the player's in-game reputation, level, or experience points negatively, especially when a player's level is high enough; in some games, it may even cause the player's ranking or level to drop.
References
^ "Bowling Lingo | PBA". www.pba.com. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
vteTen-pin bowlingEquipment
Ball
Pin
Pinsetter
Scorer
Alley
Organizations
BTBA
ETBF
International Bowling Federation
JBC
JPBA
PBA
PWBA
USBC
WTBA
Tournaments
WTBA World Tenpin Bowling Championships
World Bowling Singles Championships
World Games
Asian Games
Pan American Games
QubicaAMF Bowling World Cup
European Bowling Tour
European Bowling Tour Masters
NCAA Bowling Championship
PBA Tour
PBA Tournament of Champions
PBA World Championship
U.S. Open
U.S. Women's Open
USBC Masters
USBC Queens
Weber Cup
Mediterranean Challenge Cup
World Ranking Masters
World Tenpin Masters
Terms
900 series
Dutch 200
Form
Glossary of bowling
Hook
League
Open frame
Perfect game
Spare
Split
Strike
Trick bowling
This sports-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"open frame (bicycle)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step-through_frame"},{"link_name":"OpenFrame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenFrame"},{"link_name":"openFrameworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenFrameworks"},{"link_name":"ten-pin bowling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-pin_bowling"},{"link_name":"strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_(bowling)"},{"link_name":"spare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spare_(bowling)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_video_game"},{"link_name":"experience points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experience_point"}],"text":"This article is about a situation that can occur in the sport of bowling. For the type of bicycle frame, see open frame (bicycle).For the TmaxSoft solution, see OpenFrame. For the open-source toolkit, see openFrameworks.An open frame in ten-pin bowling refers to a frame in which the player makes neither a strike nor a spare.[1] Bowling an open frame in a professional game is typically devastating enough to one's score to cause a loss.[citation needed] In bowling video games, open frames typically affects the player's in-game reputation, level, or experience points negatively, especially when a player's level is high enough; in some games, it may even cause the player's ranking or level to drop.","title":"Open frame"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Bowling Lingo | PBA\". www.pba.com. Retrieved 2024-03-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pba.com/about/bowling-lingo","url_text":"\"Bowling Lingo | PBA\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Open+frame%22","external_links_name":"\"Open frame\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Open+frame%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Open+frame%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Open+frame%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Open+frame%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Open+frame%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Open+frame%22","external_links_name":"\"Open frame\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Open+frame%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Open+frame%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Open+frame%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Open+frame%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Open+frame%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.pba.com/about/bowling-lingo","external_links_name":"\"Bowling Lingo | PBA\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_frame&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_European_Sky_ATM_Research | Single European Sky ATM Research | ["1 Project","2 History","3 Dates","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography","7 External links"] | This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
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Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) is a collaborative project to completely overhaul European airspace and its air traffic management (ATM). The actual program is managed by the SESAR Joint Undertaking as a public–private partnership (PPP).
Project
The SESAR project is composed of three phases:
a Definition phase (2004–2008) to deliver an ATM master plan defining the content, development, and deployment plans of the next generation of ATM systems. This definition phase is led by Eurocontrol, and co-funded by the European Commission under the Trans-European Transport Networks program and executed by a large consortium of all air transport stakeholders.
a Development phase (2008–2013), to produce the required new generation of technological systems and components as defined in the definition phase. This phase (budget: 2.1 billion euro) is managed by the SESAR Joint Undertaking.
a Deployment phase (2014–2020), for large-scale production and implementation of the new air traffic management infrastructure, composed of fully harmonized and interoperable components which guarantee high-performance air transport activities in Europe.
SESAR's target concept relies on several new key features:
the network operation plan, a dynamic rolling plan for continuous operations that ensures a common view of the network situation;
full integration of airport operations as part of ATM and the planning process;
trajectory management, reducing the constraints of airspace organisation to a minimum;
new aircraft separation modes, allowing increased safety, capacity and efficiency;
system-wide information management (SWIM), securely connecting all the ATM stakeholders which will share the same data;
humans as the central decision-makers: controllers and pilots will be assisted by new automated functions to ease their workload and handle complex decision-making processes.
The SESAR project has a parallel in the NextGen project within the United States.
History
In the 20th century, unlike United States, Europe did not have a single civilian airspace – i.e., one in which air navigation is managed at the European level. Furthermore, European airspace is among the busiest in the world with over 33,000 flights daily and airport density in Europe is very high. This makes air traffic control more complex.
The EU Single European Sky (SES) legislature was drawn to overcome the air control management's fragmentation and flight capacity limitation by structuring airspace and air navigation services at a pan-European level.
To develop the needed technological capacity, the SESAR program was initiated in 2004 as a continuation of a smaller effort by the Eurocontrol SESAME project.
In June 2010, European and American authorities reached a preliminary agreement on interoperability between their future air traffic management systems, SESAR and NextGen.
SESAR Deployment Phase was launched on December 5, 2014. This is seen as a key milestone of the SESAR project: a partnership agreement was signed by EU's Transport Commissioner Violeta Bulc and the SESAR Deployment Alliance consortium.
Dates
November 2000: establishment of the SES regulation.
2004: SESAR definition phase started.
June 2008: SES-II regulation adopted.
8 December 2008: inauguration of the SESAR Joint Undertaking.
3 June 2009: official start of the SESAR development programme.
12 June 2009: SESAR Joint Undertaking signs agreement with 16 partners totalling €1.9 billion for the creation of the Europe's future ATM system.
19 July 2010: SESAR Joint Undertaking opens to Associate partners.
8 March 2011: The first SESAR Release during the SESAR Forum at ATC Global in Amsterdam.
October 2012: European ATM Master Plan – Edition 2 was issued as pdf
See also
Single European Sky
References
^ "Welcome to the SESAR project". europa.eu. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
^ SESAR Joint Undertaking.
^ "Europe, and USA take a step towards ATM interoperability". flightglobal. 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
^ "5/12/2014 – Transport". Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
^ Eurocontrol / Sesar. "SESAR | European ATM Master Plan | Documents". Atmmasterplan.eu. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
^ https://www.atmmasterplan.eu/download/29
Postorino, MN (2010), "Development of regional airports: theoretical analyses and case studies", books.google.co.uk, ISBN 978-1-84564-143-6, retrieved 14 August 2011
"Paris 2011: Traffic rebound drives SES as nations drag their feet". ainonline.com. 21 June 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
"SESAR program is right on track". militaryaerospace.com. 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
Bibliography
Single European Sky (SES)
The European ATM Master plan
SESAR Joint Undertaking Top Management speaking at the Forum on Integration & Harmonization of NextGen and SESAR in Montreal
External links
SESAR Joint Undertaking website
Authority control databases
VIAF | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"air traffic management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_management"},{"link_name":"SESAR Joint Undertaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SESAR_Joint_Undertaking"},{"link_name":"public–private partnership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%E2%80%93private_partnership"}],"text":"Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) is a collaborative project to completely overhaul European airspace and its air traffic management (ATM). The actual program is managed by the SESAR Joint Undertaking as a public–private partnership (PPP).","title":"Single European Sky ATM Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Eurocontrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurocontrol"},{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"},{"link_name":"Trans-European Transport Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-European_Transport_Networks"},{"link_name":"SESAR Joint Undertaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SESAR_Joint_Undertaking"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"SWIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Wide_Information_Management"},{"link_name":"NextGen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_Air_Transportation_System"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The SESAR project is composed of three phases:[1]a Definition phase (2004–2008) to deliver an ATM master plan defining the content, development, and deployment plans of the next generation of ATM systems. This definition phase is led by Eurocontrol, and co-funded by the European Commission under the Trans-European Transport Networks program and executed by a large consortium of all air transport stakeholders.\na Development phase (2008–2013), to produce the required new generation of technological systems and components as defined in the definition phase. This phase (budget: 2.1 billion euro) is managed by the SESAR Joint Undertaking.[2]\na Deployment phase (2014–2020), for large-scale production and implementation of the new air traffic management infrastructure, composed of fully harmonized and interoperable components which guarantee high-performance air transport activities in Europe.SESAR's target concept relies on several new key features:[citation needed]the network operation plan, a dynamic rolling plan for continuous operations that ensures a common view of the network situation;\nfull integration of airport operations as part of ATM and the planning process;\ntrajectory management, reducing the constraints of airspace organisation to a minimum;\nnew aircraft separation modes, allowing increased safety, capacity and efficiency;\nsystem-wide information management (SWIM), securely connecting all the ATM stakeholders which will share the same data;\nhumans as the central decision-makers: controllers and pilots will be assisted by new automated functions to ease their workload and handle complex decision-making processes.The SESAR project has a parallel in the NextGen project within the United States.[citation needed]","title":"Project"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"air traffic control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"In the 20th century, unlike United States, Europe did not have a single civilian airspace – i.e., one in which air navigation is managed at the European level. Furthermore, European airspace is among the busiest in the world with over 33,000 flights daily and airport density in Europe is very high. This makes air traffic control more complex.\nThe EU Single European Sky (SES) legislature was drawn to overcome the air control management's fragmentation and flight capacity limitation by structuring airspace and air navigation services at a pan-European level.\nTo develop the needed technological capacity, the SESAR program was initiated in 2004 as a continuation of a smaller effort by the Eurocontrol SESAME project.\nIn June 2010, European and American authorities reached a preliminary agreement on interoperability between their future air traffic management systems, SESAR and NextGen.[3]SESAR Deployment Phase was launched on December 5, 2014. This is seen as a key milestone of the SESAR project: a partnership agreement was signed[4] by EU's Transport Commissioner Violeta Bulc and the SESAR Deployment Alliance consortium.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"November 2000: establishment of the SES regulation.\n2004: SESAR definition phase started.\nJune 2008: SES-II regulation adopted.\n8 December 2008: inauguration of the SESAR Joint Undertaking.\n3 June 2009: official start of the SESAR development programme.\n12 June 2009: SESAR Joint Undertaking signs agreement with 16 partners totalling €1.9 billion for the creation of the Europe's future ATM system.\n19 July 2010: SESAR Joint Undertaking opens to Associate partners.\n8 March 2011: The first SESAR Release during the SESAR Forum at ATC Global in Amsterdam.\nOctober 2012: European ATM Master Plan – Edition 2 was issued[5] as pdf[6]","title":"Dates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Single European Sky (SES)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110519234028/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air_portal/traffic_management/ses/doc/history/hlgreport_en.pdf"},{"link_name":"The European ATM Master plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120917110828/https://www.atmmasterplan.eu/http://prisme-oas.atmmasterplan.eu/atmmasterplan/faces/index.jspx"},{"link_name":"SESAR Joint Undertaking Top Management speaking at the Forum on Integration & Harmonization of NextGen and SESAR in Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sesarju.eu/gallery/content/public/doc/080910SESARNEXTGENJointPRForumFinal.pdf"}],"text":"Single European Sky (SES)\nThe European ATM Master plan\nSESAR Joint Undertaking Top Management speaking at the Forum on Integration & Harmonization of NextGen and SESAR in Montreal","title":"Bibliography"}] | [] | [{"title":"Single European Sky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_European_Sky"}] | [{"reference":"\"Welcome to the SESAR project\". europa.eu. Retrieved 20 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air/sesar/sesar_en.htm","url_text":"\"Welcome to the SESAR project\""}]},{"reference":"\"Europe, and USA take a step towards ATM interoperability\". flightglobal. 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/06/24/343582/europe-and-usa-take-step-towards-atm-interoperability.html","url_text":"\"Europe, and USA take a step towards ATM interoperability\""}]},{"reference":"\"5/12/2014 – Transport\". Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 20 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/news/2014-12-05-funding_en.htm","url_text":"\"5/12/2014 – Transport\""}]},{"reference":"Eurocontrol / Sesar. \"SESAR | European ATM Master Plan | Documents\". Atmmasterplan.eu. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_demilitarization_(2018%E2%80%93present) | Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019) | ["1 Background","2 The bombardments","3 Terms","4 Incidents after the deal","4.1 Failure of the deal","4.2 Renewed fighting","4.3 Attempted revival of the deal","5 Conflict parties","5.1 HTS and allies","5.2 NFL coalition","6 Reactions","6.1 Supranational","6.2 National","6.3 Domestic","6.4 Other","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading"] | Coordinates: 34°33′36″N 38°16′02″E / 34.5600°N 38.2672°E / 34.5600; 38.2672Multinational military agreement
Idlib demilitarization(2018–2019)Part of the Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate and the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil WarThe situation in the province of Idlib as of 17 September 2018. Locations of Turkish outposts are pictured.
Syrian Army control
Tahrir al-Sham and allies control
National Front for Liberation and allies control
Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army controlDate17 September 2018 – 30 April 2019(7 months, 1 week and 6 days)31 August – 19 December 2019(3 months, 2 weeks and 5 days)LocationNorthwestern Syria
Northeastern Latakia Governorate
Northwestern Hama Governorate
Southern Idlib Governorate
Western Aleppo GovernorateResult
FailedBelligerents
Syria
Syrian Armed Forces
Russia Iran Liwa al-Quds Hezbollah Arab Nationalist Guard SSNP Ba'ath Brigades
National Front for Liberation
Turkey
Syrian National Army
Jaysh al-Izza
Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS)
Turkistan Islamic Party
Ajnad al-Kavkaz
Rouse the Believers Operations Room
Abu Amara Special Task Company
Katibat al-Ghuraba al-Turkistan
Junud al-Sham
Katiba Abd ar-Rahman
Caucasus Emirate
Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham
Malhama Tactical
Katibat Jabal al-IslamCommanders and leaders
Vladimir Putin (President of Russia) Gen. Mohammad Khaddour Maj. Gen. Suheil al-Hassan
Recep Erdogan (President of Turkey) Mohammad Safwan al Saleh †
Col. Mustafa Bakr
Abu Mohammad al-Julani (Emir of Tahrir al-Sham) Abu Maria al-Qahtani Abu al-Fath al-Ferghali Abu Yaqdhan al-Masri Zaid al-AttarUnits involved
Syrian Army
3rd Armoured Division
Qalamoun Shield Forces
Republican Guard
124th Brigade
4th Armoured Division
18th Armoured Division
131st Armored Brigade
Tiger Forces
Air Force Intelligence Directorate National Defence Forces Syrian Arab Air Force SSNP
Eagles of the Whirlwind
Russian Armed Forces and affiliated paramilitaries
Aerospace Forces
Wagner Group
IRGC
Quds Force
National Front for Liberation
Syrian Liberation Front
Ahrar al-Sham
Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement
Sheikh Fadel al-Akel
Katibat al-Bayia Lillah
Katibat Usud al-Tawheed
Liwa al-Adiyat
Martyr Abu Omar Battalion
Jaysh al-Ahrar
Suqour al-Sham Brigades
Sham Legion
Free Idlib Army
Army of Victory
Elite Army
1st Coastal Division
23rd Division
Islamic Freedom Brigade
2nd Coastal Division
1st Infantry Division
Tahrir al-Sham
Jaish al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar
Imam Bukhari Jamaat
Jaysh al-Usra
Movement of Mujahideen of the Sunnis of Iran
Army of Umar Ibn Khattab
Army of Abu Bakr as-Sadiq
Army of Uthman ibn Affan
Rouse the Believers Operations Room
Alliance to Support Islam
Guardians of Religion Organization
Ansar al-Tawhid
Ansar al-Din Front - Harakat Fajr ash-Sham al-Islamiya
Ansar al-IslamCasualties and losses
238 killed (as of 29 April 2019) 2 killed
155 rebels killed (gov.-rebel conflict; as of 29 April 2019)130 rebels killed (HTS-NLF conflict) 1 killed
372 civilians killed (as of 29 April 2019)80,000 people displaced
a Buffer zone never fully implemented, interrupted by intermittent shelling and ground offensives. Zone considered to be inactive by Turkey, which Russia says did not abide by the agreement, while Russia considers Turkey to have failed to separate moderate rebels from hardline jihadists.vteSyrian civil war
Timeline
January–April 2011
May–August 2011
September–December 2011
January–April 2012
May–August 2012
September–December 2012
January–April 2013
May–December 2013
January–July 2014
August–December 2014
January–July 2015
August–December 2015
January–April 2016
May–August 2016
September–December 2016
January–April 2017
May–August 2017
September–December 2017
January–April 2018
May–August 2018
September–December 2018
January–April 2019
May–August 2019
September–December 2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
Background and causes
Casualties
Cities
map
Terrorism
Massacres
vteCivil uprising in Syria (March–August 2011)
Daraa
Baniyas
Homs (May–August 2011)
Talkalakh
Rastan and Talbiseh
1st Jisr ash-Shughur
1st Jabal al-Zawiya
Hama
Latakia
vteStart of insurgency (Sept. 2011 – April 2012)
Homs (2011–14)
Homs offensive
1st Idlib Gov.
Syrian–Turkish border
Jabal al-Zawiya
1st Idlib City
Saraqeb
1st Rastan
Hama Gov.
Shayrat & Tiyas ambush
Daraa Gov.
1st Rif Dimashq
1st Zabadani
Douma
Deir ez-Zor (2011–2014)
Hatla
Aleppo Gov.
Azaz
2nd Rastan
1st al-Qusayr
2nd Idlib Gov.
Taftanaz
vteUN ceasefire; Rebel advances (May 2012 – Dec. 2013)
3rd Rastan
Houla
Northern Homs
Al-Haffah
Al-Qubeir
Al-Tremseh
3rd Idlib Gov.
1st Damascus
Bombing
Aleppo
Anadan
Menagh Air Base
Base 46
Khan al-Assal
1st Aleppo offensive
2nd Aleppo offensive
Syrian Kurdistan and Kurdish–Islamist conflict
Hasaka campaign
Ras al-Ayn
al-Yaarubiyah
Tell Hamis and Tell Brak
Tell Abyad
Nubl & Al-Zahraa
2nd Rif Dimashq (1st Darayya)
Abu al-Duhur Airbase
Quneitra Gov.
3rd Rif Dimashq
1st Yarmouk camp
2nd Darayya
Darayya & Muadamiyat
Aqrab
1st Hama offensive
Halfaya
1st Safira
Shadadeh
2nd Damascus
1st Raqqa campaign (1st Raqqa)
1st Daraa offensive
4th Rif Dimashq
Jdaidet al-Fadl
Tadamon
Ghouta
Al-Qusayr offensive
2nd al-Qusayr
Eastern Ghouta
2nd Hama offensive
Bayda and Baniyas
1st Latakia offensive
Ma'loula
Sadad
5th Rif Dimashq
1st Qalamoun
Adra
vteRise of the Islamic State (Jan. – Sept. 2014)
Inter-rebel conflict
Northern Aleppo
Markada
1st Deir ez-Zor offensive
al-Otaiba ambush
Maan
Hosn
Morek
2nd Daraa offensive
2nd Latakia offensive
4th Idlib Gov.
Al-Malihah
2nd Wadi Deif
2nd Qalamoun
Arsal
Deir ez-Zor (2014–2017)
1st Shaer gas field
1st Eastern Syria
Tabqa Airbase
3rd Hama offensive
6th Rif Dimashq
1st Quneitra
Kobanî
vteU.S.-led intervention, Rebel & ISIL advances (Sept. 2014 – Sept. 2015)
U.S.-led intervention
Homs school bombing
3rd Daraa offensive
2nd Safira
2014 Idlib city raid
Nusra–FSA conflict
2nd Shaer gas field
1st Al-Shaykh Maskin
2nd Deir ez-Zor offensive
3rd Aleppo offensive
An-26 crash
4th Daraa offensive
Southern Syria
Eastern al-Hasakah offensive
1st Sarrin
Hama/Homs offensive
Bosra
5th Idlib Gov
2nd Idlib city
Al-Fu'ah-Kafriya
Nasib
2nd Yarmouk camp
1st Northwestern Syria
3rd Qalamoun
1st Palmyra
Western al-Hasakah offensive
1st Al-Hasakah city
Tell Abyad
Daraa/As-Suwayda
2nd Quneitra
2nd Sarrin
5th Daraa
2nd Al-Hasakah city
2nd Kobanî
4th Aleppo offensive
2nd Zabadani
2nd Palmyra
Al-Ghab
1st al-Qaryatayn
Douma market
7th Rif Dimashq
Kuweires offensive
vteRussian intervention (Sept. 2015 – March 2016)
Russian intervention
3rd Quneitra
2nd Northwestern Syria
3rd Latakia offensive
Su-24 shootdown
5th Aleppo offensive
al-Hawl
Homs offensive
6th Aleppo offensive
4th Hama offensive
Tell Tamer
Tishrin Dam
2nd Al-Shaykh Maskin
al-Qamishli bombings
Orontes River
3rd Deir ez-Zor offensive
1st Sayyidah Zaynab
7th Aleppo offensive
1st Ithriyah-Raqqa
Al-Shaddadi
Homs bombings
2nd Sayyidah Zaynab
Khanasir
2nd Tel Abyad
Al-Tanf
2nd Al-Qaryatayn
3rd Palmyra
2nd Maarat al-Nu'man
vteAleppo escalation and Euphrates Shield (March 2016 – February 2017)
8th Aleppo offensive
6th Daraa
9th–11th Aleppo offensives
Al-Dumayr
1st East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict
1st Qamishli
Aleppo bombings
8th Rif Dimashq
3rd Shaer gas field
Northern Raqqa
Jableh & Tartus
Manbij
Tokhar
2nd Ithriyah-Raqqa
9th Rif Dimashq
12th–14th Aleppo offensives
12th
13th
14th
4th Latakia offensive
1st Abu Kamal
3rd Qamishli
Atmeh
al-Rai
3rd Al-Hasakah City
Operation Euphrates Shield
Northern al-Bab
Dabiq
al-Bab
5th Hama offensive
1st Western al-Bab
1st Eastern Qalamoun
September bombings
4th Quneitra
Deir ez-Zor airstrike
Aleppo aid convoy attack
15th Aleppo offensive
Khan al-Shih
1st Idlib inter-rebel conflict
2nd Western al-Bab
16th Aleppo offensive
2nd Raqqa campaign
17th Aleppo offensive
4th Palmyra
Wadi Barada
1st Syrian Desert
Azaz bombings
5th Palmyra
4th Deir ez-Zor offensive
18th Aleppo offensive
2nd Idlib inter-rebel conflict
7th Daraa
Qaboun
8th Daraa
vteCollapse of the Islamic State in Syria (Feb. – Nov. 2017)
Eastern Homs offensive
al-Jina mosque
6th Hama offensive
Tabqa
Khan Shaykhun
US Shayrat strike
Aleppo bus bombing
April 2017 Turkish airstrikes
2nd East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict
2nd Syrian Desert
Maskanah
East Hama
2nd Raqqa
9th Daraa
Southern Raqqa
Iranian Deir ez-Zor strike
Ja'din
Jobar
5th Quneitra
Central Syria
3rd Idlib inter-rebel conflict
4th Qalamoun
Deir ez-Zor (2017–2019)
2nd Eastern Syria
Deir ez-Zor city
Euphrates Crossing
Mayadin
2nd Abu Kamal
7th Hama offensive
vteRebels in retreat and Operation Olive Branch(Nov. 2017 – Sep. 2018)
3rd Northwestern Syria
Eastern Syria insurgency
Atarib
Harasta
Beit Jinn
3rd Syrian Desert
5th Deir ez-Zor offensive
1st Southern Damascus
Olive Branch
Afrin
SDF insurgency
Khasham
Feb 2018 Israel–Syria incident
10th Rif Dimashq (Douma)
4th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
2nd Southern Damascus
U.S.-led missile strikes
Northern Homs
2nd Eastern Qalamoun
3rd Southern Damascus
Deir ez-Zor SAA-SDF clashes
House of Cards
1st As-Suwayda
2nd Southern Syria
2nd As-Suwayda
3rd As-Suwayda
2nd Qamishli
vteIdlib demilitarization(Sep. 2018 – April 2019)
Idlib demilitarization
5th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
Sep. 2018 missile strikes
Iranian Eastern Euphrates strike
Northern border clashes
Daraa insurgency
Manbij bombing
Baghuz Fawqani
U.S. airstrike
vteFirst Idlib offensive, Operation Peace Spring, & Second Idlib offensive (April 2019 – March 2020)
4th Northwestern
Tell Rifaat
Raqqa & Azaz
Hass
2nd Israeli missile strikes
Peace Spring (2nd Ras al-Ayn)
Kayla Mueller
Northern bombings
3rd Israeli missile strikes
Qah
5th Northwestern
Balyun
Spring Shield
2nd U.S. missile strikes
10th Daraa
vteIdlib ceasefire (March 2020 – present)
6th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
Ayn Issa
Qamishli & Al-Hasakah
4th Israeli missile strikes
3rd Qamishli
11th Daraa
7th Idlib inter-rebel conflict
3rd Al-Hasakah city
1st Aleppo inter-rebel conflict
Jabal al-Bishrī
2nd Aleppo inter-rebel conflict
Claw-Sword
Northwestern clashes
3rd U.S. missile strikes
2nd Northern clashes
Deir ez-Zor (2023)
3rd Northern clashes
Homs drone strike
Israel–Hezbollah conflict (Iranian consulate airstrike)
February 2024 airstrikes
vteSyrian War spillover and international incidents
Lebanon spillover
Lebanese–Syrian border
Sidon
Iranian embassy bombing
North Lebanon clashes
Syrian–Turkish border incidents
Turkish F4 shootdown
Reyhanlı bombings
Turkish occupation of northern Syria
Kurdish riots
Jordanian–Syrian border incidents
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The Idlib demilitarization was an agreement between Turkey and Russia to create a demilitarized zone (DMZ) in Syria's rebel-held Idlib Governorate, to be patrolled by military forces from Russia and Turkey. On 17 September 2018, the Russian president Vladimir Putin and Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, reached an agreement to create a buffer zone in Idlib.
Background
In the start of 2018, after ISIL defeat in eastern Syria, the Syrian government and its allies intensified their assault on rebels in the southwest. After the Beit Jinn offensive in January, the Eastern Qalamoun offensive (April 2018), rebel fighters who refused to "reconcile" with the government were evacuated to Idlib – reportedly about 1,500 from Qalamoun and 300 from Beit Jinn to Idlib and Daraa in December and more in March. At the same time, rebel and HTS fighters surrendered in the long Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign, and the rebels, numbering about 20,000, were transported to Idlib, Afrin and Al-Bab area. In late July 2018, Syrian government forces and their allies captured the Southern Front, during the 2018 Southern Syria offensive. Rebel fighters who refused to reconcile were again transported to Idlib.
After that, the Syrian government started gathering troops outside of Idlib, and began shelling rebel-held territories at the start of August. Rebels started building defenses and trenches for an upcoming offensive.
The bombardments
On 4 September 2018, at least ten Russian Sukhoi aircraft launched dozens of air strikes over the southern and western part of the Idlib Governorate, which led to the largest bombing campaign in the province. Russian air strikes specifically targeted the Jisr al-Shughur District, including Al-Shughour, Mahambel, Basnkoul, Zaizooun, Ziyarah, Jadariiah, Kafrdeen, Al-Sahn, Saraseef and a dozen others. The Russian air force on the first day recorded more than 50-70 attacks. According to pro-government sources, at least 11 civilians were killed, and 24 wounded during the strikes. The following day, one of the top Syrian Arab Army (SAA) commanders arrived in northern Syria in the upcoming offensive in Idlib, Hama and Latakia: according to the official media wing of the Tigers, their commander, Major-General Suheil al-Hassan, went to Aleppo area to visit the areas retaken by the government. The Syrian and Russian air forces resumed their airstrikes over the southwestern countryside of the Idlib Governorate today. Using their Sukhoi jets, the Syrian and Russian air forces heavily bombarded the Jisr Al-Shughour District for the second straight day. As the bombardments continued, and the fears for an upcoming offensive appeared to become a reality, the United Nations issued a warning that the offensive will result in a bloodbath and a massacre, as about 100,000 rebels and 3,000,000 civilians were holed up in the area. Turkey started sending more troops and boosting defenses in the frontlines, and warned the government and Russia of a humanitarian disaster if their forces started the offensive, saying it would create a new wave of refugees. On 13 September, it was announced Russian President Vladimir Putin would meet Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan in Iran, to discuss ways forward.
Terms
The demilitarization deal was struck on 16 September and was announced as binding on both parties. The terms were as follows:
A demilitarized zone (DMZ) would be set up entirely within rebel-held territory. It would be 15 to 25 km deep (9–15 miles) and come into effect by 15 October. All acts of aggression would be prohibited within the zone.
The Syrian Government would refrain from attacks on the rebel-held Idlib Governorate.
Groups deemed "radical", such as the Al-Qaeda-linked Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), would have to leave the demilitarized zone entirely.
Groups deemed "moderate", such as the Turkish-backed National Front for Liberation, would be allowed to remain within the demilitarized zone, but would have to withdraw all heavy and medium weapons from it, including all tanks, MLRS, artillery and mortars.
The HTS-run Syrian Salvation Government would be dissolved.
The rebel groups would open and ensure unrestricted civilian access through the M4 and M5 highways.
Turkey would use its network of observation posts in Idlib to secure the rebel-held DMZ, while Russia and Iran would likewise set up and use their own military observation posts to secure the government-controlled territories, which border the zone.
Turkey and Russia would coordinate joint patrols along the DMZ, in order to ensure compliance.
Russia and Turkey would reiterate their "determination to combat terrorism in Syria in all forms and manifestations".
The pro-government Al-Watan newspaper further reported that the agreement would reportedly end in the return of government institutions to Idlib, after rebel groups withdraw from residential areas.
The Turkistan Islamic Party, Guardians of Religion Organization, Ansar al-Tawhid, Ansar al-Din Front, and Ansar al-Islam rejected the deal, putting the agreement in jeopardy, while Tahrir al-Sham issued an ambiguous statement on the deal.
The Syrian Government accepted and "welcomed" the deal.
Incidents after the deal
On 19 September, the Syrian military attacked positions held by HTS and its allies, in the Hama-Latakia-Idlib axis, stating that it has still not withdrawn its troops from the area.
On 20 September, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham reportedly executed an individual who was reportedly supportive of reconciliation with the Syrian Government.
Turkish officials and officials from Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) since the inception of the deal have been discussing a course of action to be taken in Idlib in line with the deal's guidelines. Reportedly the most urgent topic of the discussions is the uncertain fate of foreign fighters within HTS, with HTS proposing that the group dissolves and become part of an umbrella of other groups, while foreign fighters along with the group's leader Abu Mohammad al-Julani be allowed safety, discussions have been inconclusive in this regard but satisfactory in other aspects with many elements of HTS welcoming much of the Sochi agreement.
While pro-government forces reportedly attacked opposition forces positioned in Turkmen Mountain in the Latakia Governorate which is reportedly a part of the agreed demilitarized zone, which caused several fires in the area, the government also targeted other areas of the Latakia Mountains including Jabal Al-Akrad and Kabani. Government targeting also hit areas in the Idlib Governorate including the Qoqfeen area in the western countryside of the province. The areas in the Hama Governorate were also reportedly hit including the town of al-Sermaniyyeh in the al-Ghab plain, opposition factions responded by shelling government-held areas in the northern countryside of the Hama governorate in the towns of Joureen and Foro. Later at night on the same day multiple rebels including the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement reportedly shelled Pro-Government positions in the western parts of Aleppo targeting the Mokambo and Al-Andalus districts of the city. In response to the attack the Syrian military fired missiles into the Rashideen 4 area held by the Syrian opposition.
On 1 October, machine gun fire was reportedly emanating from pro-government forces in the rebel-held Lirmoun area of the northwestern outskirts of Aleppo, along with continued shelling on behalf of pro-government forces after shelling from the previous night.
On 2 October, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and Turkish officials reportedly reached an agreement where agrees to withdraw fighters and heavy weapons from the established demilitarized zone, as well as a dissolution of the Syrian Salvation Government and its administration became integrated with the Syrian Interim Government and that HTS restructures so it will no longer be designated a terrorist organization by Turkey, and Turkey in turn agrees not to take action against the group and its members and leadership will be given safety.
On 26 October, pro-government shelling in the Idlib Governorate killed seven, reportedly being the largest loss of life since August 2018.
On 16 February, SOHR reported that at least 18 people were killed and many more injured after sporadic Syrian government shelling on Maarrat al-Nu'man, Khan Shaykhun, Hama and surrounding settlements in the rebel-held Idlib region within the past two days. Rebels responded with machine gun and rocket fire towards SAA positions.
Failure of the deal
The deal's terms were never implemented fully. Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) never left the demilitarized zone and, to the contrary, launched a full-scale offensive against the other rebel groups remaining within the rebel-held Idlib Governorate. After 10 days of fighting, the National Front for Liberation (at that point the second largest and most powerful rebel group in Idlib, after HTS) signed a peace deal with the group, which allowed HTS to take over almost the entirety of the Idlib governorate, leaving only small and minor pockets under the control of the other rebel groups. The HTS-run Syrian Salvation Government was not dissolved but instead expanded its control to all of the areas recently captured by HTS, including those within the demilitarized zone. The presence of HTS forces along the demarcation line led to frequent exchanges of artillery shelling with government forces, which significantly undermined any chances for a true cesassion of violence. The M4 and M5 highways were never reopened by rebel forces and even the groups deemed 'moderate' by the deal never withdrew all heavy and medium weapons from the demilitarized zone. The provision for joint Turkish-Russian patrols within the DMZ was also not enforced, as the rebel groups categorically refused the entry of any Russian soldiers or military police to their controlled areas, allowing only Turkish forces to do so. The rebel's refusal reportedly came after Turkey reportedly 'promised' them that it would not allow any Russian presence within the DMZ. The deadline for the fulfilment of the deal's conditions was extended multiple times to allow Turkey more time to convince the rebel groups to adhere to the terms, but all such attempts were unsuccessful.
Renewed fighting
Main article: Northwestern Syria offensive (April–August 2019)
On 6 May, after six continuous days of intensive airstrikes on the region by the SyAAF and RuAF, the Syrian Arab Army launched a ground offensive against HTS and NFL-held areas in northern Hama and southern Idlib. The Syrian Government stated that the assault was provoked by increased rebel attacks on government-held areas originating from within the demilitarized zone. The Russian government stated that the deal was not implemented by the rebel groups, hence justifying military action against them. The Idlib-based rebel groups stated that the goal of the offensive would be to capture the M4 and M5 highways in the Idlib Governorate.
Attempted revival of the deal
On 1 August 2019, following several months of intense fighting between government and rebel forces, the Syrian Government announced a unilateral truce, conditional on rebels' fulfilment of the original 2018 demilitarisation terms. Most rebel groups reportedly accepted the offer. Shortly after the truce went into effect, however, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham declared that they would categorically refuse to leave any region under their control at that time, which was a core demand of both the original agreement and the conditional ceasefire. A day later, the government announced the end of the ceasefire and a resumption of military operations, citing the refusal of rebel groups to withdraw from the zone as the reason for the truce's failure. A considerable portion of the DMZ's territory was subsequently captured by the Syrian Army and its allies during the final stages of the offensive. Another ceasefire was announced in late August, which confirmed the government gains. Some rebel groups on the other hand, expressed their refusal to adhere to the deal and withdraw from the remaining 'demilitarized' areas, hence signaling that the agreement would not be revived.
The subsequent 2019-2020 Northwestern Syria offensive saw large parts of the originally designated zone being captured by the Syrian Army. In mid February 2020 the Syrian Army regained control of the M5 Motorway.
On 5 March 2020, Russia and Turkey came to a new cease-fire agreement, which included joint Russian and Turkish patrols of a 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) wide corridor alongside the M4 Motorway that runs through Idlib to Latakia.
Conflict parties
A number of pro-rebel and pro-Turkey demonstrations were held in rebel-controlled towns in the Idlib, Hama, and Aleppo governorates during the attempted implementation of the ceasefire, including the ones shown here on 22 September 2018.
A number of different, rivalrous rebel and jihadist factions control territory in Idlib Governorate, with fighters numbering up to 70,000. They are loosely organised into two rival coalitions, who had fought against each other in the January–March and July 2017.
HTS and allies
Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS): one of the most powerful militant groups in Syria. It controls up to two-thirds of Idlib Governorate, including Idlib City and the Bab al-Hawa border crossing with Turkey. It was previously affiliated with Al-Qaeda, and is often said (including by the US State Department) to remain an al-Qaeda affiliate, despite the group's statement that since 2016 it does not belong to any "external entity". The group's leader, Abu Mohammad al-Julani, stated after the rebel defeats in the south that the same thing will not happen in Idlib, implying that his coalition will fight if the regime raided Idlib. The UN estimates it and its allies to have 10,000 fighters, with a high number of foreigners. Other estimates put it at 8,000, about 10,000, to 12–14,000 fighters or even 30,000.
Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria: an ethnic Uyghur jihadist group that came to Idlib from China during the revolution, and is close to HTS. They reportedly rejected the agreement. According to the Syrian government, the group has as many as 10,000 armed fighters, although Western analysts say the number is considerably lower, and the German government estimates 1,500. According to some commentators, many of its leaders are "double-agents", meaning that although the group as a whole is not a part of Al-Qaeda, its leaders are high ranking al-Qaeda members.
Alliance to Support Islam: the group is another branch of Al-Qaeda in Syria, formed by Huras al-Din (whose fighting force is estimated by the German government at 1,000), and Ansar al-Tawhid, strong loyalists to Ayman al-Zawahiri, who rejected Joulani as their leader and the HTS project. It is led by Abu Humam al-Shami. It is thought that the group has about 2,000-3,000 active fighters.
Katibat Jabal al-Islam: a Turkmen group, allied to HTS.
Ajnad al-Kavkaz: a group made up from people from the Caucasus countries, that it came to Syria to fight the Russian government and the Assad regime, closely allied with HTS and other rebel groups. It has about 200 fighters.
Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham: another Al-Qaeda branch is Syria, thought to be led by Abu Julaib, a veteran Qaeda commander. VOA news states that the group may even be led by Hamza bin Laden. Not many things are heard about the group, and it may have merged with Hurras al-Din.
Junud al-Sham: a very small group, made primarily of Chechens.
NFL coalition
The National Front for Liberation (NFL): not a single group, but a coalition, formed in 2018, mainly from two big groups. The first identifies as part of the more moderate Free Syrian Army; the second, which joined in August, is another, more radical, coalition, the Syrian Liberation Front (made up primarily of Ahrar al-Sham and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement). The coalition controls territory in rural southern Idlib, rural western Aleppo and some settlements around Idlib City, according to the Turkish government linked Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies, and is thought to boast 30,000 to 55–60,000 rebels, or even up to 70,000. The coalition is heavily supported by Turkey. The groups that made the coalition are:
Free Idlib Army: an FSA group, it commands about 6,000 fighters.
1st Coastal Division: an FSA group. Close allies of the group, who are also part of FSA, 2nd Army, 2nd Coastal Division, 1st Infantry Division, and Islamic Freedom Brigade, also joined the coalition.
23rd Division: another smaller FSA group, who joined the coalition.
Elite Army: another FSA group, whom a part of it, is also part of Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army.
Jaysh al-Nasr: another FSA group. It has about 5,000 fighters in its ranks.
Syrian Liberation Front: one of the biggest forces in Idlib, it has about 25,000-27,000 fighters. It is essentially an alliance of Ahrar al-Sham and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement, two hardline Sunni Islamist groups and the two largest rebel groups in northwestern Syria behind their main rival, Tahrir al-Sham.
Sham Legion: an alliance of rebel Islamist groups, it is also an ally of HTS. The group has about 8,500-10,000 fighters. It has rejected the deal.
Reactions
Supranational
United Nations − the United Nations praised the deal, hoping that it will be the start of a political solution in Syria.
National
Iran − Iran's foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif in response to the deal tweeted, "Diplomacy Works", while adding that visits to Turkey and Russia in recent weeks pursued the deal to avert an offensive or campaign in Idlib "with a firm commitment to fight extremist terror." Bahram Ghasemi Iran's Foreign Ministry spokesmen said in regards to the agreement, "it is an important and essential step for removing the remaining terrorists in Syria."
Turkey − Turkish foreign minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu in response to strong opposition to aspects of the agreement by groups such as Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, that Turkish and Russian drones would patrol the demilitarized zone, while also saying, "The moderate opposition will stay in its place, a thing of much importance. A ceasefire will be conducted, the area will not be attacked, and accordingly there would not be provocations against other areas."
United States − President Donald Trump wrote on Twitter warning that a large humanitarian crisis could happen in a post saying, "President Bashar al-Assad of Syria must not recklessly attack Idlib Province. The Russians and Iranians would be making a grave humanitarian mistake to take part in this potential human tragedy. Hundreds of thousands of people could be killed. Don’t let that happen!" He also said in another occasion it would make the United States "Very, very, Angry". On 26 September, President Donald Trump said to the United Nations Security Council "the Syrian regime's butchery is enabled by Russia and Iran" and he added "I want to thank Iran, Russia and Syria for --at my very strong urgent and request-- substantially slowing down their attack on Idlib province and three million people who live there in order to get 35,000 targeted terrorists. Get the terrorists but I hope the restraint continues. The world is watching," while also thanking Turkey by saying, "Thank you also to Turkey for helping to negotiate restraint. Anything the U.S.A. can do to help resolve this problem in order to save perhaps even hundreds of thousands of lives, maybe more, we are willing and able. We are available to help."
Domestic
Democratic Federation of Northern Syria − Former president of DFNS Salih Muslim said that Turkey and Russia are plotting to send a Jihadist army from Idlib to Afrin for future attacks against Kurds in Syria.
Syrian Arab Republic − The Syrian government welcomed the agreement; however, officials still vowed to the press to retake "every inch of Syria". The Syrian ambassador to Lebanon also said this would be a test of Turkey's ability to keep its promises.
Syrian Opposition − Mustafa Sejari, a Free Syrian Army official told journalists, "The Idlib deal preserves lives of civilians and their direct targeting by the regime. It buries Assad’s dreams of imposing his full control over Syria." He added, "This area will remain in the hands of the Free Syrian Army and will force the regime and its supporters to start a serious political process that leads to a real transition that ends Assad’s rule." Mahmoud Abbi the spokesman for the Turkish funded Free Idlib Police told the Guardian "Civilians in Idlib think this is a good deal, they feel hopeful and happy concerning it, We are grateful for Turkey’s efforts to prevent the Russian and Assad attack on Idlib. However ... we do not trust Russia about the deal. But for now it is better than displacement or bombing. The deal is for Turkey’s security but it is also face-saving for Putin and by association Assad, Iran refused to participate in this attack because of its own bad military and economic situation. The Assad regime is weak and has no ability to attack without the help of Iranian militias."
Hayat Tahrir al-Sham − rejected the conditions of the deal on 19 September. Several high ranking leaders, including scholars in Tahrir al-Sham, expressed their dissatisfaction with the terms through outlets such as Telegram channels. Abu al-Fath al-Ferghali, a scholar in Tahrir al-Sham on Telegram, wrote on 19 September, "that who demands surrendering his weapon, whom ever he is, is undoubtedly an enemy, for giving up on this weapon is treason to religion, upholding the word of Allah and the blood of martyrs which has been scarified to get it." While adding, "There is no worry about surrendering what is more important than arms, which is the areas liberated by the blood of the honest people. The matter of concern is that the human and jinn would act as to disperse the lines of Mujahideen, inspiring doubt among them and justifying submission." Zaid al-Attar another HTS official posted on Telegram, "Our weaponry is our pride and honor, as well as the safety valve to this blessed jihad; it is rather the only guarantee to the realization of the revolution’s aims of attaining dignity and freedom, for our enemy knows no other language but force." No official stance was held by HTS until 14 October when Hayat Tahrir al-Sham published an official statement on the agreement entitled "The Revolution will not die", the statement detailed the group's stance as after a period of consultation it accepts the deal but the group will not abandon Jihad nor will they hand over weapons and it thanked individuals who had supported the group financially.
Jaysh al-Izza − on 20 September, Jamil al-Salih, the leader of the group, posted on Twitter though initially opposing the agreement, "All the thanks to our Turkish brothers who prevented warplanes and bombers from targeting our civilian people and all the shame and disgrace to those who left the Syrian people in the middle of the road and disappointed women and children," The group is also considered a key ally to Hayat Tahrir al-Sham as well as a major Free Syrian Army faction. Later, on 29 October, the group went back to rejecting the deal, after it was announced that the zone will only include the areas of opposition control, and published a statement demanding an equally divided zone. The group also rejected the presence of Russian forces in rebel-held areas, and opposed the opening of highways until the Syrian government releases detainees.
Ansar al-Din Front – On 23 September, the group published a statement condemning the Sochi Agreement, stating it was an extension of the "disastrous" Astana Agreement, as well as saying the agreement was a destruction of the Revolution.
Guardians of Religion Organization – On 22 September, a statement was published by the group titled "About the Recent Sochi Agreement (Dayton #2): We Did Not Strive To Remove The Tyrant To Replace With Another Tyrant". The statement said the most evil of forces have gathered together to destroy the Jihad in Syria, which is in a fragile state as it is and the agreement is part of the plot to destroy the goals of Jihad in Syria. The statement also said that these forces won their roles and share their influence and control.
Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria, Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham, and Ajnad al-Kavkaz have also all rejected the deal.
Other
Hezbollah − Hassan Nasrallah, the general-secretary of Hezbollah, said in a televised speech on the occasion of Ashura, "We can assume, following this deal, that Syria is going to a calm phase but we will be staying in the country based on an agreement with the Syrian government."
See also
Asia portal
Operation Euphrates Shield
Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate
Operation Olive Branch
Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone, another Syrian buffer zone arranged by Turkey and Russia
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Further reading
"Syria's Last Bastion of Freedom". The New Yorker. 10 December 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2019.
vteSyrian civil warOverviewsMain overviews
Syria
Rojava
Syrian civil war
Timeline
Background and causes
Syrian peace process
Syrian government reactions
Belligerents
Inter-rebel conflict
Spillover
Cities and towns
Sectarianism and minorities
Syrian Desert campaign (December 2017–present)
Effects and ongoing concerns
Casualties of the Syrian civil war
Refugees of the Syrian civil war
Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war
Human rights violations during the Syrian civil war
Phases and processes
Syrian revolution
Early insurgency phase
2012–2013 escalation
Ceasefires
Syrian peace process
World reaction
International reactions to the Syrian civil war
Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war
Specific groups and countries
Russian involvement
Russian intervention
Turkish involvement
Turkish occupation of northern Syria
Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone
Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria
American intervention in the Syrian civil war
2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria
Kurdish Area in Syria
Syrian Democratic Forces
Rojava conflict
U.S. task force
Agreements and dialogues
Russian-Turkish agreement on Syria
Relations between Syrian government and Kurdish groups in Syria
TimelineBackground
1963 coup
1966 coup
Corrective Movement
Islamist uprising
Latakia protests
Damascus Spring
Qamishli riots
Syrian occupation of Lebanon
Damascus Declaration
Human rights in Syria
2010s in Syria political history
2011Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec
Syrian Revolution
Death of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb
Siege of Daraa
Siege of Baniyas
May Talkalakh siege
Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh
June Jisr ash-Shughur operation
Siege of Hama
Siege of Homs
Jabal al-Zawiya operation
Siege of Latakia
Deir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)
Rif Dimashq clashes (Nov 2011-Mar 2012)
Battle of Zabadani
Battle of Douma
Daraa Governorate clashes
Battle of Rastan
Shayrat and Tiyas airbase ambush
Idlib Governorate clashes
December Jabal al-Zawiya massacres
2012Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec
January al-Midan bombing
Battle of Rastan
First Battle of Idlib
Battle of al-Qusayr
Idlib Governorate operation (Apr)
Battle of Taftanaz
May Battle of Rastan
Houla massacre
Battle of al-Haffah
Al-Qubeir massacre
Battle of Tremseh
Battle of Damascus
18 July 2012 Damascus bombing
Battle of Aleppo
Battle of Anadan
Siege of Base 46
Al-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2013)
Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug-Oct)
Darayya massacre
Battle of Khirbet Al-Joz
Battle of Maarrat al-Numan
First siege of Wadi Deif
Battle of Harem
Rif Dimashq offensive (Nov 2012–Feb 2013)
Battle of Darayya
Aqrab massacre
Hama offensive
Halfaya massacre
Battle of Darayya
Quneitra Governorate clashes
Talbiseh bakery massacre
2013Jan–AprMay–Dec
Battle of Safira
Battle of Shadadeh
Damascus offensive
Raqqa campaign (2012–2013)
Battle of Raqqa (Mar)
Daraa offensive
Rif Dimashq offensive (Mar–Aug)
Battle of Jdaidet al-Fadl
Ghouta chemical attack
Al-Qusayr offensive
Battle of al-Qusayr
Bayda and Baniyas massacres
Hama offensive
Hatla massacre
Khan al-Assal chemical attack
Khan al-Assal massacre
Adra massacre
Battle of Ras al-Ayn
Battle of Tell Abyad
Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep–Nov)
Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)
Battle of al-Yaarubiyah
Battle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (Dec–Jan)
2014Jan–JulAug–Dec
First Inter-rebel conflict
Battle of Markada
Deir ez-Zor offensive
Battle of Morek
Daraa offensive (Feb–May)
Maan massacre
Al-Otaiba ambush
Idlib offensive
Battle of Hosn
Latakia Offensive
Battle of Al-Malihah
Kafr Zita chemical attack
Second siege of Wadi Deif
Qalamoun offensive (Jun–Aug)
Battle of Arsal
First Battle of the Shaer gas field
Eastern Syria offensive
Battle of Tabqa Airbase
Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb–Jul)
Hama Offensive
Quneitra offensive
Rif Dimashq offensive (Aug–Nov)
Siege of Kobanî
Homs school bombing
Daraa offensive (Oct)
Al-Safira offensive
Idlib Raid
Second Inter-Rebel Conflict
Second Battle of the Shaer gas field
Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin
Deir ez-Zor offensive (Dec)
2015Jan–JulAug–Dec
Air Force An-26 crash
Daraa Offensive (Jan)
Southern Syria Offensive
Eastern al-Hasakah offensive
Battle of Sarrin (Mar–Apr)
Battle of Sarrin (Jun–Jul)
Battle of Bosra
Idlib Offensive
Second Battle of Idlib
Battle of Nasib Border Crossing
Battle of Yarmouk Camp
Western al-Hasakah offensive
Palmyra offensive (May)
Qamishli bombings
Tell Abyad offensive
Kobanî massacre
Quneitra offensive (Jun)
Palmyra offensive (Jul–Aug)
Rif Dimashq offensive (Sep)
Northwestern Syria offensive (Oct–Nov)
Aleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)
Al-Hawl offensive
Homs offensive (Nov-Dec)
East Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)
2015–2016 Latakia offensive
Tishrin Dam offensive
Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown
2016Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec
Second Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin
Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan)
January Sayyidah Zaynab bombings
Northern Aleppo offensive (Feb)
Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Feb–Mar)
Al-Shaddadi offensive
February Homs bombings
February Sayyidah Zaynab bombings
Khanasir offensive
Battle of Tel Abyad
Battle of Maarrat al-Numan
Battle of Qamishli (Apr)
Northern Aleppo offensive (Mar–Jun)
Palmyra offensive (Mar)
East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)
Rif Dimashq offensive (Apr–May)
Northern Raqqa offensive (May)
May Jableh & Tartous bombings
Ithriyah-Raqqa offensive (Jun)
Rif Dimashq offensive (Jun–Oct)
Manbij offensive
Tokhar massacre
Southern Aleppo campaign
Battle of al-Rai (Aug)
Operation Euphrates Shield
Aleppo summer campaign
Western al-Bab offensive (Sep)
5 September bombings
September Deir ez-Zor air raid
September Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack
Aleppo offensive (Sep–Oct)
Dabiq offensive
Western al-Bab offensive (Oct–Nov)
Khan al-Shih offensive (Oct–Nov)
Raqqa campaign
Battle of al-Bab
Aleppo offensive (Nov-Dec)
Palmyra offensive (Dec)
2017Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec
Wadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)
January Azaz bombing
Desert campaign (Dec 16–Apr 17)
Idlib clashes (Jan–Mar)
Deir ez-Zor offensive (Jan–Feb)
Daraa offensive (Feb–Jun)
Southwestern Daraa offensive (Feb)
Qaboun offensive
Palmyra offensive
East Aleppo offensive (Jan–Apr)
March Damascus bombings
Al-Jinah airstrike
Hama offensive (Mar–Apr)
Battle of Tabqa
Khan Shaykhun chemical attack
Shayrat missile strike
Aleppo bombing
April Turkish airstrikes
East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)
Desert campaign (May–Jul)
Maskanah Plains offensive
East Hama offensive
Battle of Raqqa
Daraa offensive (Jun)
Southern Raqqa offensive (Jun)
Jobar offensive (Jun–Aug)
Quneitra offensive (Jun)
Idlib clashes (Jul)
Central campaign
Qalamoun (Jul–Aug)
Deir ez-Zor offensive (Sep 17–Mar 18)
Hama offensive (Sep)
Northwestern campaign (Oct 17–Feb 18)
Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate
Battle of Harasta
Eastern campaign (Sep–Dec)
Euphrates Crossing offensive
Mayadin offensive
Battle of Deir ez-Zor (Sep–Nov)
Abu Kamal offensive
Beit Jinn offensive
2018Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec
Operation Olive Branch
Battle of Khasham
Rif Dimashq offensive (Feb–Apr)
Southern Damascus offensive (Jan–Feb)
Syrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict
Southern Damascus offensive (Mar)
Douma chemical attack
Missile strikes (Apr)
Northern Homs offensive (Apr–May)
Eastern Qalamoun offensive (Apr)
Southern Damascus offensive (Apr–May)
Deir ez-Zor clashes (Apr)
Deir ez-Zor offensive (May–Jun)
As-Suwayda offensive (Jun)
Southern offensive
As-Suwayda attacks
As-Suwayda (Aug-Nov)
Qamishli clashes (Sep)
Missile strikes (Sep)
Northern border clashes
2019Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec
Idlib inter-rebel conflict
Manbij bombing
Battle of Baghuz Fawqani
ISIL insurgency in Deir-ez-Zor
Dêrik prison escape attempt
Tell Rifaat clashes
Northwestern offensive (Apr–Aug)
June bombings
Hass refugee camp bombing
Missile strikes (Aug)
Turkish offensive into northeast
Barisha raid
November bombings
Israeli missile strikes (Nov)
Qah missile strike
Northwestern offensive (Dec 19–Mar 20)
US airstrikes
2020Jan–Dec
COVID-19 pandemic
Afrin bombing
Idlib Governorate clashes
Kafr-Takharim airstrike
Ayn Issa clashes
Deir ez-Zor ambush
2021Jan–Dec
Siege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah
Missile strikes (Jan)
US airstrike (Feb)
Battle of Qamishli (Apr)
US airstrike (Jun)
Daraa clashes
Tahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict
2022Jan–Dec
Battle of al-Hasakah
Ahrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes
Jabal al-Bishrī clashes
Jarqli airstrikes
Northern Aleppo clashes (Oct)
Operation Claw-Sword
Northwest clashes (Dec)
2023Jan-Dec
Al-Sukhnah attack
Damascus airstrike
Hama attack
Northern border clashes
SpilloverIsrael and Golan Heights:
March 2017 incident
February 2018 incident
May 2018 Israel–Iran incidents
Iraq:
Akashat ambush
Operation al-Shabah
April 2014 Iraqi border airstrike
Jordanian border incidents
April 2014 Jordanian border airstrike
Lebanon:
Lebanese border clashes
Battle of Sidon
Iranian embassy bombing in Beirut
North Lebanon clashes
Qalamoun (Jul–Aug 2017)
Turkey:
December 2011 Turkish border clash
2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown
2012 Turkish border clashes
2013 Reyhanlı car bombings
January 2014 Turkish attack in Syria
Assassination of Andrei Karlov
Russian Air Force Al-Bab incident
2020 Balyun airstrikes
Operation Spring Shield
Elsewhere:
Deir ez-Zor missile strike (Iran)
BelligerentsSyriaPolitics of Syria
Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region
Syrian Social Nationalist Party
Arab Socialist Movement
Syrian Communist Party
Military and militias
Syrian Armed Forces
Syrian Resistance
PFLP-GC
al-Quds Brigade
Palestine Liberation Army
Foreign support
Hezbollah involvement
Iranian involvement
Liwa Fatemiyoun
Russian involvement
medical facility targeting
military intervention
Wagner Group
Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition
Popular Mobilization Forces
OppositionInterim government
National Coalition
Local Coordination Committees
Syrian National Council
Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution
National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change
Syrian Revolution General Commission
Syrian Support Group
Adopt a Revolution
Syrian Patriotic Group
Opposition militias
Syrian National Army
Free Syrian Army
National Front for Liberation
Army of Glory
Authenticity and Development Front
Army of Free Tribes
Revolutionary Commando Army
Muslim Brotherhood in Syria
Grey Wolves
Foreign support
American-led intervention
Jordanian intervention
Qatar
Saudi Arabia
Turkey
Autonomous Administrationof North and East SyriaDFNS Government
Democratic Union Party
Kurdish National Council
Smaller political parties
SDF militias
People's Protection Units
Women's Protection Units
Anti-Terror Units
Al-Sanadid Forces
Army of Revolutionaries
SDF military councils
Syriac Military Council
Liwa Thuwar al-Raqqa
Northern Democratic Brigade
Support
Patriotic Union of Kurdistan
Kurdistan Workers' Party
International Freedom Battalion
Sinjar Resistance Units
Êzîdxan Women's Units
IslamistsIslamic State
Military activity of ISIL
Dokumacılar
Khalid ibn al-Walid Army
Liwa al-Aqsa
Group of the One and Only
Liwa Dawud
al-Qaeda and allies
Tahrir al-Sham
Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria
Caucasus Emirate
Ajnad al-Kavkaz
Junud al-Makhdi
Malhama Tactical
Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan
People
Ammar Abdulhamid
Ali al-Abdallah
Adnan al-Aroor
al-Assad family
Bashar
Maher
Rifaat
Rami Makhlouf
Hafez Makhlouf
Riad al-Asaad
Anwar al-Bunni
Fahd Jassem al-Freij
Suheil al-Hassan
Haitham al-Maleh
Moaz al-Khatib
Kamal al-Labwani
Hamza al-Khateeb
Tal al-Mallohi
Fida al-Sayed
Riad al-Turk
Khaled Khoja
Ammar al-Qurabi
Suheir Atassi
Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni
Aref Dalila
Farid Ghadry
Burhan Ghalioun
Razan Ghazzawi
Ghassan Hitto
Salim Idris
Randa Kassis
Abdul Halim Khaddam
Michel Kilo
Bassma Kodmani
Ali Habib Mahmud
Ali Mahmoud Othman
Ibrahim Qashoush
Dawoud Rajiha
Yassin al-Haj Saleh
Bouthaina Shaaban
Abdulbaset Sieda
Riad Seif
Fadwa Souleimane
Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid
Yaser Tabbara
Razan Zaitouneh
Rami Jarrah
Abdurrahman Mustafa
Fadlallah al-Haji
RelatedElections
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Category
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missile strike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Laylat_al-Qadr"},{"link_name":"Iran–Israel conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Israel_conflict_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"2012 Hezbollah involvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Foreign rebel fighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_fighters_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Turkish involvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Turkey–Islamic State conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey%E2%80%93Islamic_State_conflict"},{"link_name":"Tomb of Suleyman Shah relocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_of_Suleyman_Shah#Events_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Euphrates Shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield"},{"link_name":"2017 airstrikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2017_Turkish_airstrikes_in_Syria_and_Iraq"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Afrin operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch"},{"link_name":"2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria"},{"link_name":"Israel's role","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel%27s_role_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"U.S.-led Intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American-led_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_American-led_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"List of attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_attacks_on_Syria_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"2014 rescue operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_American_rescue_mission_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"May 2015 raid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2015_U.S._special_forces_raid_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"2017 missile strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Shayrat_missile_strike"},{"link_name":"Qatari involvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatari_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Jordanian intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Operation Martyr Muath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Martyr_Muath"},{"link_name":"Lebanon's role","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon%27s_role_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Saudi involvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"April 2018 missile strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria"},{"link_name":"Dutch involvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"German intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State"},{"link_name":"French intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op%C3%A9ration_Chammal"},{"link_name":"Australian intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Okra"},{"link_name":"UK intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Shader"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"demilitarized zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demilitarized_zone"},{"link_name":"rebel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"Recep Tayyip Erdoğan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdo%C4%9Fan"},{"link_name":"buffer zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_zone"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Multinational military agreementIdlib demilitarization(2018–2019)Part of the Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate and the Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil WarThe situation in the province of Idlib as of 17 September 2018. Locations of Turkish outposts are pictured.\n Syrian Army control\n Tahrir al-Sham and allies control\n National Front for Liberation and allies control\n Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army controlDate17 September 2018 – 30 April 2019(7 months, 1 week and 6 days)31 August – 19 December 2019(3 months, 2 weeks and 5 days)LocationNorthwestern Syria\nNortheastern Latakia Governorate\nNorthwestern Hama Governorate\nSouthern Idlib Governorate\nWestern Aleppo GovernorateResult\nFailed[6][a]Belligerents\n Syria\n\n Syrian Armed Forces\n Russia Iran Liwa al-Quds Hezbollah Arab Nationalist Guard SSNP Ba'ath Brigades\n National Front for Liberation\n Turkey[1][2][3]\n Syrian National Army\n\n\n Jaysh al-Izza[4]\n\n\n Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS)\n Turkistan Islamic Party\n Ajnad al-Kavkaz\n Rouse the Believers Operations Room[5]\n Abu Amara Special Task Company[citation needed]\n Katibat al-Ghuraba al-Turkistan\n Junud al-Sham\n Katiba Abd ar-Rahman\n Caucasus Emirate\n Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham\n Malhama Tactical[citation needed]\n\n Katibat Jabal al-IslamCommanders and leaders\n Vladimir Putin (President of Russia) Gen. Mohammad Khaddour Maj. Gen. Suheil al-Hassan\n Recep Erdogan (President of Turkey) Mohammad Safwan al Saleh †[7]\n\n\n Col. Mustafa Bakr[citation needed]\n\n\n Abu Mohammad al-Julani (Emir of Tahrir al-Sham) Abu Maria al-Qahtani Abu al-Fath al-Ferghali Abu Yaqdhan al-Masri Zaid al-AttarUnits involved\n Syrian Army\n\n3rd Armoured Division\n Qalamoun Shield Forces\n Republican Guard\n124th Brigade\n 4th Armoured Division\n18th Armoured Division\n131st Armored Brigade\n Tiger Forces\n Air Force Intelligence Directorate National Defence Forces Syrian Arab Air Force SSNP\n\nEagles of the Whirlwind\n Russian Armed Forces and affiliated paramilitaries\n\n Aerospace Forces\nWagner Group\n IRGC\n\nQuds Force\n National Front for Liberation\n\nSyrian Liberation Front\n Ahrar al-Sham\nNour al-Din al-Zenki Movement\nSheikh Fadel al-Akel\nKatibat al-Bayia Lillah\nKatibat Usud al-Tawheed\nLiwa al-Adiyat\nMartyr Abu Omar Battalion\nJaysh al-Ahrar\nSuqour al-Sham Brigades\n Sham Legion\n Free Idlib Army\n Army of Victory\nElite Army\n 1st Coastal Division\n23rd Division\n Islamic Freedom Brigade\n 2nd Coastal Division\n1st Infantry Division\n\n Tahrir al-Sham\n\n Jaish al-Muhajireen wal-Ansar\n Imam Bukhari Jamaat\nJaysh al-Usra\nMovement of Mujahideen of the Sunnis of Iran\nArmy of Umar Ibn Khattab\nArmy of Abu Bakr as-Sadiq\nArmy of Uthman ibn Affan[8]\n Rouse the Believers Operations Room[5]\n\nAlliance to Support Islam\nGuardians of Religion Organization\n Ansar al-Tawhid\n Ansar al-Din Front - Harakat Fajr ash-Sham al-Islamiya\n Ansar al-IslamCasualties and losses\n 238 killed (as of 29 April 2019)[9] 2 killed[10]\n155 rebels killed (gov.-rebel conflict; as of 29 April 2019)[9]130 rebels killed (HTS-NLF conflict)[11] 1 killed[12]\n372 civilians killed (as of 29 April 2019)[9][11]80,000 people displaced[9][11]\na Buffer zone never fully implemented, interrupted by intermittent shelling and ground offensives.[13][14] Zone considered to be inactive by Turkey, which Russia says did not abide by the agreement,[15] while Russia considers Turkey to have failed to separate moderate rebels from hardline jihadists.[16]vteSyrian civil war\nTimeline\nJanuary–April 2011\nMay–August 2011\nSeptember–December 2011\nJanuary–April 2012\nMay–August 2012\nSeptember–December 2012\nJanuary–April 2013\nMay–December 2013\nJanuary–July 2014\nAugust–December 2014\nJanuary–July 2015\nAugust–December 2015\nJanuary–April 2016\nMay–August 2016\nSeptember–December 2016\nJanuary–April 2017\nMay–August 2017\nSeptember–December 2017\nJanuary–April 2018\nMay–August 2018\nSeptember–December 2018\nJanuary–April 2019\nMay–August 2019\nSeptember–December 2019\n2020\n2021\n2022\n2023\n2024\n\nBackground and causes\nCasualties\nCities\nmap\nTerrorism\nMassacres\nvteCivil uprising in Syria (March–August 2011)\nDaraa\nBaniyas\nHoms (May–August 2011)\nTalkalakh\nRastan and Talbiseh\n1st Jisr ash-Shughur\n1st Jabal al-Zawiya\nHama\nLatakia\nvteStart of insurgency (Sept. 2011 – April 2012)\nHoms (2011–14)\nHoms offensive\n1st Idlib Gov.\nSyrian–Turkish border\nJabal al-Zawiya\n1st Idlib City\nSaraqeb\n1st Rastan\nHama Gov.\nShayrat & Tiyas ambush\nDaraa Gov.\n1st Rif Dimashq\n1st Zabadani\nDouma\nDeir ez-Zor (2011–2014)\nHatla\nAleppo Gov.\nAzaz\n2nd Rastan\n1st al-Qusayr\n2nd Idlib Gov.\nTaftanaz\nvteUN ceasefire; Rebel advances (May 2012 – Dec. 2013)\n3rd Rastan\nHoula\nNorthern Homs\nAl-Haffah\nAl-Qubeir\nAl-Tremseh\n3rd Idlib Gov.\n1st Damascus\nBombing\nAleppo\nAnadan\nMenagh Air Base\nBase 46\nKhan al-Assal\n1st Aleppo offensive\n2nd Aleppo offensive\nSyrian Kurdistan and Kurdish–Islamist conflict\nHasaka campaign\nRas al-Ayn\nal-Yaarubiyah\nTell Hamis and Tell Brak\nTell Abyad\nNubl & Al-Zahraa\n2nd Rif Dimashq (1st Darayya)\nAbu al-Duhur Airbase\nQuneitra Gov.\n3rd Rif Dimashq\n1st Yarmouk camp\n2nd Darayya\nDarayya & Muadamiyat\nAqrab\n1st Hama offensive\nHalfaya\n1st Safira\nShadadeh\n2nd Damascus\n1st Raqqa campaign (1st Raqqa)\n1st Daraa offensive\n4th Rif Dimashq\nJdaidet al-Fadl\nTadamon\nGhouta\nAl-Qusayr offensive\n2nd al-Qusayr\nEastern Ghouta\n2nd Hama offensive\nBayda and Baniyas\n1st Latakia offensive\nMa'loula\nSadad\n5th Rif Dimashq\n1st Qalamoun\nAdra\nvteRise of the Islamic State (Jan. – Sept. 2014)\nInter-rebel conflict\nNorthern Aleppo\nMarkada\n1st Deir ez-Zor offensive\nal-Otaiba ambush\nMaan\nHosn\nMorek\n2nd Daraa offensive\n2nd Latakia offensive\n4th Idlib Gov.\nAl-Malihah\n2nd Wadi Deif\n2nd Qalamoun\nArsal\nDeir ez-Zor (2014–2017)\n1st Shaer gas field\n1st Eastern Syria\nTabqa Airbase\n3rd Hama offensive\n6th Rif Dimashq\n1st Quneitra\nKobanî\nvteU.S.-led intervention, Rebel & ISIL advances (Sept. 2014 – Sept. 2015)\nU.S.-led intervention\nHoms school bombing\n3rd Daraa offensive\n2nd Safira\n2014 Idlib city raid\nNusra–FSA conflict\n2nd Shaer gas field\n1st Al-Shaykh Maskin\n2nd Deir ez-Zor offensive\n3rd Aleppo offensive\nAn-26 crash\n4th Daraa offensive\nSouthern Syria\nEastern al-Hasakah offensive\n1st Sarrin\nHama/Homs offensive\nBosra\n5th Idlib Gov\n2nd Idlib city\nAl-Fu'ah-Kafriya\nNasib\n2nd Yarmouk camp\n1st Northwestern Syria\n3rd Qalamoun\n1st Palmyra\nWestern al-Hasakah offensive\n1st Al-Hasakah city\nTell Abyad\nDaraa/As-Suwayda\n2nd Quneitra\n2nd Sarrin\n5th Daraa\n2nd Al-Hasakah city\n2nd Kobanî\n4th Aleppo offensive\n2nd Zabadani\n2nd Palmyra\nAl-Ghab\n1st al-Qaryatayn\nDouma market\n7th Rif Dimashq\nKuweires offensive\nvteRussian intervention (Sept. 2015 – March 2016)\nRussian intervention\n3rd Quneitra\n2nd Northwestern Syria\n3rd Latakia offensive\nSu-24 shootdown\n5th Aleppo offensive\nal-Hawl\nHoms offensive\n6th Aleppo offensive\n4th Hama offensive\nTell Tamer\nTishrin Dam\n2nd Al-Shaykh Maskin\nal-Qamishli bombings\nOrontes River\n3rd Deir ez-Zor offensive\n1st Sayyidah Zaynab\n7th Aleppo offensive\n1st Ithriyah-Raqqa\nAl-Shaddadi\nHoms bombings\n2nd Sayyidah Zaynab\nKhanasir\n2nd Tel Abyad\nAl-Tanf\n2nd Al-Qaryatayn\n3rd Palmyra\n2nd Maarat al-Nu'man\nvteAleppo escalation and Euphrates Shield (March 2016 – February 2017)\n8th Aleppo offensive\n6th Daraa\n9th–11th Aleppo offensives\nAl-Dumayr\n1st East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict\n1st Qamishli\nAleppo bombings\n8th Rif Dimashq\n3rd Shaer gas field\nNorthern Raqqa\nJableh & Tartus\nManbij\nTokhar\n2nd Ithriyah-Raqqa\n9th Rif Dimashq\n12th–14th Aleppo offensives\n12th\n13th\n14th\n4th Latakia offensive\n1st Abu Kamal\n3rd Qamishli\nAtmeh\nal-Rai\n3rd Al-Hasakah City\nOperation Euphrates Shield\nNorthern al-Bab\nDabiq\nal-Bab\n5th Hama offensive\n1st Western al-Bab\n1st Eastern Qalamoun\nSeptember bombings\n4th Quneitra\nDeir ez-Zor airstrike\nAleppo aid convoy attack\n15th Aleppo offensive\nKhan al-Shih\n1st Idlib inter-rebel conflict\n2nd Western al-Bab\n16th Aleppo offensive\n2nd Raqqa campaign\n17th Aleppo offensive\n4th Palmyra\nWadi Barada\n1st Syrian Desert\nAzaz bombings\n5th Palmyra\n4th Deir ez-Zor offensive\n18th Aleppo offensive\n2nd Idlib inter-rebel conflict\n7th Daraa\nQaboun\n8th Daraa\nvteCollapse of the Islamic State in Syria (Feb. – Nov. 2017)\nEastern Homs offensive\nal-Jina mosque\n6th Hama offensive\nTabqa\nKhan Shaykhun\nUS Shayrat strike\nAleppo bus bombing\nApril 2017 Turkish airstrikes\n2nd East Ghouta inter-rebel conflict\n2nd Syrian Desert\nMaskanah\nEast Hama\n2nd Raqqa\n9th Daraa\nSouthern Raqqa\nIranian Deir ez-Zor strike\nJa'din\nJobar\n5th Quneitra\nCentral Syria\n3rd Idlib inter-rebel conflict\n4th Qalamoun\nDeir ez-Zor (2017–2019)\n2nd Eastern Syria\nDeir ez-Zor city\nEuphrates Crossing\nMayadin\n2nd Abu Kamal\n7th Hama offensive\nvteRebels in retreat and Operation Olive Branch(Nov. 2017 – Sep. 2018)\n3rd Northwestern Syria\nEastern Syria insurgency\nAtarib\nHarasta\nBeit Jinn\n3rd Syrian Desert\n5th Deir ez-Zor offensive\n1st Southern Damascus\nOlive Branch\nAfrin\nSDF insurgency\nKhasham\nFeb 2018 Israel–Syria incident\n10th Rif Dimashq (Douma)\n4th Idlib inter-rebel conflict\n2nd Southern Damascus\nU.S.-led missile strikes\nNorthern Homs\n2nd Eastern Qalamoun\n3rd Southern Damascus\nDeir ez-Zor SAA-SDF clashes\nHouse of Cards\n1st As-Suwayda\n2nd Southern Syria\n2nd As-Suwayda\n3rd As-Suwayda\n2nd Qamishli\nvteIdlib demilitarization(Sep. 2018 – April 2019)\nIdlib demilitarization\n5th Idlib inter-rebel conflict\nSep. 2018 missile strikes\nIranian Eastern Euphrates strike\nNorthern border clashes\nDaraa insurgency\nManbij bombing\nBaghuz Fawqani\nU.S. airstrike\nvteFirst Idlib offensive, Operation Peace Spring, & Second Idlib offensive (April 2019 – March 2020)\n4th Northwestern\nTell Rifaat\nRaqqa & Azaz\nHass\n2nd Israeli missile strikes\nPeace Spring (2nd Ras al-Ayn)\nKayla Mueller\nNorthern bombings\n3rd Israeli missile strikes\nQah\n5th Northwestern\nBalyun\nSpring Shield\n2nd U.S. missile strikes\n10th Daraa\nvteIdlib ceasefire (March 2020 – present)\n6th Idlib inter-rebel conflict\nAyn Issa\nQamishli & Al-Hasakah\n4th Israeli missile strikes\n3rd Qamishli\n11th Daraa\n7th Idlib inter-rebel conflict\n3rd Al-Hasakah city\n1st Aleppo inter-rebel conflict\nJabal al-Bishrī\n2nd Aleppo inter-rebel conflict\nClaw-Sword\nNorthwestern clashes\n3rd U.S. missile strikes\n2nd Northern clashes\nDeir ez-Zor (2023)\n3rd Northern clashes\nHoms drone strike\nIsrael–Hezbollah conflict (Iranian consulate airstrike)\nFebruary 2024 airstrikes\nvteSyrian War spillover and international incidents\nLebanon spillover\nLebanese–Syrian border\nSidon\nIranian embassy bombing\nNorth Lebanon clashes\n\nSyrian–Turkish border incidents\nTurkish F4 shootdown\nReyhanlı bombings\nTurkish occupation of northern Syria\nKurdish riots\n\nJordanian–Syrian border incidents\n\nIsraeli–Syrian ceasefire line\nFebruary 2018 incident\nMay 2018 incident\n\nIraqi–Syrian border incidents\nAkashat\nal-Shabah\nWestern Nineveh\nWestern Iraq\n\nSpillover in Iran\n2017 Tehran attacks\n2017 Deir ez-Zor missile strike\n2024 Iranian airstrikes in Syria\n\nSpillover in Turkey\nRussian Su-24 shootdown\nAndrei Karlov\nBalyun airstrikes\nKafr Takharim airstrikes\n\nIran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict\n\n\nSpillover in Europe\nvteForeign involvement in the Syrian civil warForeign intervention on behalf of Syrian Arab Republic\nRussian involvement\n2015 military intervention\nIranian intervention\n2017 missile strike\nIran–Israel conflict\n2012 Hezbollah involvement\nForeign intervention in behalf of Syrian rebels\n\nForeign rebel fighters\nTurkish involvement\nTurkey–Islamic State conflict\nTomb of Suleyman Shah relocation\nEuphrates Shield\n2017 airstrikes\nIdlib Governorate operation\nAfrin operation\n2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria\nIsrael's role\nU.S.-led intervention against ISIL\n\nU.S.-led Intervention\nTimeline\nList of attacks\n2014 rescue operation\nMay 2015 raid\n2017 missile strikes\nQatari involvement\nJordanian intervention\nOperation Martyr Muath\nLebanon's role\nSaudi involvement\nApril 2018 missile strikes\nDutch involvement\nGerman intervention\nFrench intervention\nAustralian intervention\nUK interventionThe Idlib demilitarization was an agreement between Turkey and Russia to create a demilitarized zone (DMZ) in Syria's rebel-held Idlib Governorate, to be patrolled by military forces from Russia and Turkey. On 17 September 2018, the Russian president Vladimir Putin and Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, reached an agreement to create a buffer zone in Idlib.[17]","title":"Idlib demilitarization (2018–2019)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISIL defeat in eastern Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Syria_campaign_(September%E2%80%93December_2017)"},{"link_name":"intensified their assault on rebels in the southwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_(February%E2%80%93April_2018)"},{"link_name":"Beit Jinn offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_Jinn_offensive"},{"link_name":"Eastern Qalamoun offensive (April 2018)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Qalamoun_offensive_(April_2018)"},{"link_name":"Qalamoun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An-Nabek_District"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Beit Jinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_Jinn"},{"link_name":"Daraa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"surrendered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_offensive_(February%E2%80%93April_2018)"},{"link_name":"Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rif_Dimashq_Governorate_campaign"},{"link_name":"Afrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrin,_Syria"},{"link_name":"Al-Bab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Bab_District"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"2018 Southern Syria offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Southern_Syria_offensive"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"In the start of 2018, after ISIL defeat in eastern Syria, the Syrian government and its allies intensified their assault on rebels in the southwest. After the Beit Jinn offensive in January, the Eastern Qalamoun offensive (April 2018), rebel fighters who refused to \"reconcile\" with the government were evacuated to Idlib – reportedly about 1,500 from Qalamoun[18] and 300 from Beit Jinn to Idlib and Daraa in December[19] and more in March.[20] At the same time, rebel and HTS fighters surrendered in the long Rif Dimashq Governorate campaign, and the rebels, numbering about 20,000, were transported to Idlib, Afrin and Al-Bab area.[21][22][23] In late July 2018, Syrian government forces and their allies captured the Southern Front, during the 2018 Southern Syria offensive. Rebel fighters who refused to reconcile were again transported to Idlib.[24][25]After that, the Syrian government started gathering troops outside of Idlib, and began shelling rebel-held territories at the start of August. Rebels started building defenses and trenches for an upcoming offensive.[26][27][28][29]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sukhoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhoi"},{"link_name":"Jisr al-Shughur District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jisr_al-Shughur_District"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Hama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama"},{"link_name":"Latakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latakia"},{"link_name":"Suheil al-Hassan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suheil_al-Hassan"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"Recep Tayyip Erdogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recep_Tayyip_Erdogan"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"On 4 September 2018, at least ten Russian Sukhoi aircraft launched dozens of air strikes over the southern and western part of the Idlib Governorate, which led to the largest bombing campaign in the province. Russian air strikes specifically targeted the Jisr al-Shughur District, including Al-Shughour, Mahambel, Basnkoul, Zaizooun, Ziyarah, Jadariiah, Kafrdeen, Al-Sahn, Saraseef and a dozen others. The Russian air force on the first day recorded more than 50-70 attacks. According to pro-government sources, at least 11 civilians were killed, and 24 wounded during the strikes.[30][31][32] The following day, one of the top Syrian Arab Army (SAA) commanders arrived in northern Syria in the upcoming offensive in Idlib, Hama and Latakia: according to the official media wing of the Tigers, their commander, Major-General Suheil al-Hassan, went to Aleppo area to visit the areas retaken by the government.[33] The Syrian and Russian air forces resumed their airstrikes over the southwestern countryside of the Idlib Governorate today. Using their Sukhoi jets, the Syrian and Russian air forces heavily bombarded the Jisr Al-Shughour District for the second straight day.[34] As the bombardments continued, and the fears for an upcoming offensive appeared to become a reality, the United Nations issued a warning that the offensive will result in a bloodbath and a massacre, as about 100,000 rebels and 3,000,000 civilians were holed up in the area. Turkey started sending more troops and boosting defenses in the frontlines, and warned the government and Russia of a humanitarian disaster if their forces started the offensive, saying it would create a new wave of refugees. On 13 September, it was announced Russian President Vladimir Putin would meet Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan in Iran, to discuss ways forward.[35][36][37]","title":"The bombardments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aljazeera.com-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Syrian Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Government"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Al-Qaeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda"},{"link_name":"Hayat Tahrir al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"National Front for Liberation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation"},{"link_name":"MLRS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_rocket_launcher"},{"link_name":"Syrian Salvation Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government"},{"link_name":"M4 and M5 highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Syria#Motorways"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"observation posts in Idlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Al-Watan newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Watan_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press1-47"},{"link_name":"Turkistan Islamic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkistan_Islamic_Party_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Guardians of Religion Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardians_of_Religion_Organization"},{"link_name":"Ansar al-Tawhid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Tawhid_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"Ansar al-Din Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harakat_Fajr_ash-Sham_al-Islamiya"},{"link_name":"Ansar al-Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Islam_in_Kurdistan"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reject-5"},{"link_name":"Tahrir al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lwj-49"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press1-47"}],"text":"The demilitarization deal was struck on 16 September and was announced as binding on both parties. The terms were as follows:[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46]A demilitarized zone (DMZ) would be set up entirely within rebel-held territory. It would be 15 to 25 km deep (9–15 miles) and come into effect by 15 October. All acts of aggression would be prohibited within the zone.\nThe Syrian Government would refrain from attacks on the rebel-held Idlib Governorate.\nGroups deemed \"radical\", such as the Al-Qaeda-linked Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), would have to leave the demilitarized zone entirely.\nGroups deemed \"moderate\", such as the Turkish-backed National Front for Liberation, would be allowed to remain within the demilitarized zone, but would have to withdraw all heavy and medium weapons from it, including all tanks, MLRS, artillery and mortars.\nThe HTS-run Syrian Salvation Government would be dissolved.\nThe rebel groups would open and ensure unrestricted civilian access through the M4 and M5 highways.\nTurkey would use its network of observation posts in Idlib to secure the rebel-held DMZ, while Russia and Iran would likewise set up and use their own military observation posts to secure the government-controlled territories, which border the zone.\nTurkey and Russia would coordinate joint patrols along the DMZ, in order to ensure compliance.\nRussia and Turkey would reiterate their \"determination to combat terrorism in Syria in all forms and manifestations\".The pro-government Al-Watan newspaper further reported that the agreement would reportedly end in the return of government institutions to Idlib, after rebel groups withdraw from residential areas.[47]The Turkistan Islamic Party, Guardians of Religion Organization, Ansar al-Tawhid, Ansar al-Din Front, and Ansar al-Islam rejected the deal, putting the agreement in jeopardy,[48][5] while Tahrir al-Sham issued an ambiguous statement on the deal.[49]The Syrian Government accepted and \"welcomed\" the deal.[47]","title":"Terms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"Abu Mohammad al-Julani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Mohammad_al-Julani"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aj-53"},{"link_name":"Turkmen Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmen_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Latakia Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latakia_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Hama Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama_Governorate"},{"link_name":"al-Ghab plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ghab_plain"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nour_al-Din_al-Zenki_Movement"},{"link_name":"Aleppo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Syrian Salvation Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government"},{"link_name":"Syrian Interim Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Interim_Government"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"SOHR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOHR"},{"link_name":"Maarrat al-Nu'man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maarrat_al-Nu%27man"},{"link_name":"Khan Shaykhun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khan_Shaykhun"},{"link_name":"Hama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"text":"On 19 September, the Syrian military attacked positions held by HTS and its allies, in the Hama-Latakia-Idlib axis, stating that it has still not withdrawn its troops from the area.[50][51]On 20 September, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham reportedly executed an individual who was reportedly supportive of reconciliation with the Syrian Government.[52][better source needed]Turkish officials and officials from Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) since the inception of the deal have been discussing a course of action to be taken in Idlib in line with the deal's guidelines. Reportedly the most urgent topic of the discussions is the uncertain fate of foreign fighters within HTS, with HTS proposing that the group dissolves and become part of an umbrella of other groups, while foreign fighters along with the group's leader Abu Mohammad al-Julani be allowed safety, discussions have been inconclusive in this regard but satisfactory in other aspects with many elements of HTS welcoming much of the Sochi agreement.[53]While pro-government forces reportedly attacked opposition forces positioned in Turkmen Mountain in the Latakia Governorate which is reportedly a part of the agreed demilitarized zone, which caused several fires in the area, the government also targeted other areas of the Latakia Mountains including Jabal Al-Akrad and Kabani. Government targeting also hit areas in the Idlib Governorate including the Qoqfeen area in the western countryside of the province. The areas in the Hama Governorate were also reportedly hit including the town of al-Sermaniyyeh in the al-Ghab plain, opposition factions responded by shelling government-held areas in the northern countryside of the Hama governorate in the towns of Joureen and Foro.[54] Later at night on the same day multiple rebels including the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement reportedly shelled Pro-Government positions in the western parts of Aleppo targeting the Mokambo and Al-Andalus districts of the city. In response to the attack the Syrian military fired missiles into the Rashideen 4 area held by the Syrian opposition.[55]On 1 October, machine gun fire was reportedly emanating from pro-government forces in the rebel-held Lirmoun area of the northwestern outskirts of Aleppo, along with continued shelling on behalf of pro-government forces after shelling from the previous night.[56]On 2 October, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) and Turkish officials reportedly reached an agreement where agrees to withdraw fighters and heavy weapons from the established demilitarized zone, as well as a dissolution of the Syrian Salvation Government and its administration became integrated with the Syrian Interim Government and that HTS restructures so it will no longer be designated a terrorist organization by Turkey, and Turkey in turn agrees not to take action against the group and its members and leadership will be given safety.[57][better source needed]On 26 October, pro-government shelling in the Idlib Governorate killed seven, reportedly being the largest loss of life since August 2018.[58]On 16 February, SOHR reported that at least 18 people were killed and many more injured after sporadic Syrian government shelling on Maarrat al-Nu'man, Khan Shaykhun, Hama and surrounding settlements in the rebel-held Idlib region within the past two days. Rebels responded with machine gun and rocket fire towards SAA positions.[59]","title":"Incidents after the deal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"full-scale offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation%E2%80%93Tahrir_al-Sham_conflict"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Syrian Salvation Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Salvation_Government"},{"link_name":"M5 highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M5_Motorway_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"military police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_police"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Failure of the deal","text":"The deal's terms were never implemented fully. Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) never left the demilitarized zone and, to the contrary, launched a full-scale offensive against the other rebel groups remaining within the rebel-held Idlib Governorate. After 10 days of fighting, the National Front for Liberation (at that point the second largest and most powerful rebel group in Idlib, after HTS) signed a peace deal with the group, which allowed HTS to take over almost the entirety of the Idlib governorate, leaving only small and minor pockets under the control of the other rebel groups. The HTS-run Syrian Salvation Government was not dissolved but instead expanded its control to all of the areas recently captured by HTS, including those within the demilitarized zone. The presence of HTS forces along the demarcation line led to frequent exchanges of artillery shelling with government forces, which significantly undermined any chances for a true cesassion of violence. The M4 and M5 highways were never reopened by rebel forces and even the groups deemed 'moderate' by the deal never withdrew all heavy and medium weapons from the demilitarized zone. The provision for joint Turkish-Russian patrols within the DMZ was also not enforced, as the rebel groups categorically refused the entry of any Russian soldiers or military police to their controlled areas, allowing only Turkish forces to do so. The rebel's refusal reportedly came after Turkey reportedly 'promised' them that it would not allow any Russian presence within the DMZ.[60][61][62][63] The deadline for the fulfilment of the deal's conditions was extended multiple times to allow Turkey more time to convince the rebel groups to adhere to the terms, but all such attempts were unsuccessful.[64][65][66]","title":"Incidents after the deal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SyAAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SyAAF"},{"link_name":"RuAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Syrian Arab Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Arab_Army"},{"link_name":"HTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"NFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation"},{"link_name":"Hama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama"},{"link_name":"Idlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib"},{"link_name":"Syrian Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Government"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Renewed fighting","text":"On 6 May, after six continuous days of intensive airstrikes on the region by the SyAAF and RuAF, the Syrian Arab Army launched a ground offensive against HTS and NFL-held areas in northern Hama and southern Idlib. The Syrian Government stated that the assault was provoked by increased rebel attacks on government-held areas originating from within the demilitarized zone. The Russian government stated that the deal was not implemented by the rebel groups, hence justifying military action against them.[67] The Idlib-based rebel groups stated that the goal of the offensive would be to capture the M4 and M5 highways in the Idlib Governorate.[68][69][70]","title":"Incidents after the deal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Hayat Tahrir al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Syrian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Army"},{"link_name":"final stages of the offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_(April%E2%80%93August_2019)#Army_captures_rebel_pocket,_surrounds_Turkish_observation_post"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"subsequent 2019-2020 Northwestern Syria offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Syria_offensive_(December_2019%E2%80%93March_2020)"},{"link_name":"Syrian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Army"},{"link_name":"M5 Motorway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M5_Motorway_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ap-20200214-80"},{"link_name":"M4 Motorway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M4_Motorway_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"Latakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latakia"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-20200305-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mee-20200305-82"}],"sub_title":"Attempted revival of the deal","text":"On 1 August 2019, following several months of intense fighting between government and rebel forces, the Syrian Government announced a unilateral truce, conditional on rebels' fulfilment of the original 2018 demilitarisation terms.[71][72] Most rebel groups reportedly accepted the offer.[73][74] Shortly after the truce went into effect, however, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham declared that they would categorically refuse to leave any region under their control at that time, which was a core demand of both the original agreement and the conditional ceasefire.[75][76] A day later, the government announced the end of the ceasefire and a resumption of military operations, citing the refusal of rebel groups to withdraw from the zone as the reason for the truce's failure.[77][78] A considerable portion of the DMZ's territory was subsequently captured by the Syrian Army and its allies during the final stages of the offensive. Another ceasefire was announced in late August, which confirmed the government gains. Some rebel groups on the other hand, expressed their refusal to adhere to the deal and withdraw from the remaining 'demilitarized' areas, hence signaling that the agreement would not be revived.[79]The subsequent 2019-2020 Northwestern Syria offensive saw large parts of the originally designated zone being captured by the Syrian Army. In mid February 2020 the Syrian Army regained control of the M5 Motorway.[80]On 5 March 2020, Russia and Turkey came to a new cease-fire agreement, which included joint Russian and Turkish patrols of a 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) wide corridor alongside the M4 Motorway that runs through Idlib to Latakia.[81][82]","title":"Incidents after the deal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_why-84"},{"link_name":"January–March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_(January%E2%80%93March_2017)"},{"link_name":"July 2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate_clashes_(July_2017)"}],"text":"A number of pro-rebel and pro-Turkey demonstrations were held in rebel-controlled towns in the Idlib, Hama, and Aleppo governorates during the attempted implementation of the ceasefire, including the ones shown here on 22 September 2018.[83]A number of different, rivalrous rebel and jihadist factions control territory in Idlib Governorate, with fighters numbering up to 70,000.[84] They are loosely organised into two rival coalitions, who had fought against each other in the January–March and July 2017.","title":"Conflict parties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay%27at_Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib_Governorate"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-National_HTS-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-86"},{"link_name":"Idlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idlib"},{"link_name":"Bab al-Hawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bab_al-Hawa"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_why-84"},{"link_name":"Al-Qaeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Abu Mohammad al-Julani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Mohammad_al-Julani"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_why-84"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nachrichten_2018-88"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-86"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_who-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ORSAM-90"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-National_HTS-85"},{"link_name":"Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkistan_Islamic_Party_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Uyghur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uyghurs"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC_who-89"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nachrichten_2018-88"},{"link_name":"Al-Qaeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Huras al-Din","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardians_of_Religion_Organization"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nachrichten_2018-88"},{"link_name":"Ansar al-Tawhid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Tawhid_(Syria)"},{"link_name":"Ayman al-Zawahiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayman_al-Zawahiri"},{"link_name":"Abu Humam al-Shami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Humam_al-Shami"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Ajnad al-Kavkaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajnad_al-Kavkaz"},{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jama%27at_Ansar_al-Furqan_in_Bilad_al_Sham"},{"link_name":"Hamza bin Laden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamza_bin_Laden"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Junud al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junud_al-Sham"}],"sub_title":"HTS and allies","text":"Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS): one of the most powerful militant groups in Syria. It controls up to two-thirds of Idlib Governorate,[85][86] including Idlib City and the Bab al-Hawa border crossing with Turkey.[84] It was previously affiliated with Al-Qaeda, and is often said (including by the US State Department[87]) to remain an al-Qaeda affiliate, despite the group's statement that since 2016 it does not belong to any \"external entity\".[citation needed] The group's leader, Abu Mohammad al-Julani, stated after the rebel defeats in the south that the same thing will not happen in Idlib, implying that his coalition will fight if the regime raided Idlib. The UN estimates it and its allies to have 10,000 fighters, with a high number of foreigners.[84] Other estimates put it at 8,000,[88] about 10,000,[86] to 12–14,000 fighters[89][90] or even 30,000.[85]\nTurkistan Islamic Party in Syria: an ethnic Uyghur jihadist group that came to Idlib from China during the revolution, and is close to HTS. They reportedly rejected the agreement. According to the Syrian government, the group has as many as 10,000 armed fighters, although Western analysts say the number is considerably lower,[89] and the German government estimates 1,500.[88] According to some commentators, many of its leaders are \"double-agents\", meaning that although the group as a whole is not a part of Al-Qaeda, its leaders are high ranking al-Qaeda members.[91]\nAlliance to Support Islam: the group is another branch of Al-Qaeda in Syria, formed by Huras al-Din (whose fighting force is estimated by the German government at 1,000[88]), and Ansar al-Tawhid, strong loyalists to Ayman al-Zawahiri, who rejected Joulani as their leader and the HTS project. It is led by Abu Humam al-Shami.[92] It is thought that the group has about 2,000-3,000 active fighters.[failed verification][93][better source needed]\nKatibat Jabal al-Islam: a Turkmen group, allied to HTS.[94]\nAjnad al-Kavkaz: a group made up from people from the Caucasus countries, that it came to Syria to fight the Russian government and the Assad regime, closely allied with HTS and other rebel groups. It has about 200 fighters.[95]\nJama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham: another Al-Qaeda branch is Syria, thought to be led by Abu Julaib, a veteran Qaeda commander. VOA news states that the group may even be led by Hamza bin Laden. Not many things are heard about the group, and it may have merged with Hurras al-Din.[96]\nJunud al-Sham: a very small group, made primarily of Chechens.","title":"Conflict parties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Front for Liberation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Front_for_Liberation"},{"link_name":"Free Syrian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army"},{"link_name":"Syrian Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Liberation_Front"},{"link_name":"Ahrar al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahrar_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nour_al-Din_al-Zenki_Movement"},{"link_name":"Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Middle_Eastern_Strategic_Studies"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nachrichten_2018-88"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ORSAM-90"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Free Idlib Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Idlib_Army"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"1st Coastal Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_Coastal_Division"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nedaa-sy.com-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"23rd Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd_Division_(Syrian_rebel_group)"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nedaa-sy.com-100"},{"link_name":"Elite Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elite_Army_(Syrian_rebel_group)"},{"link_name":"Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish-backed_Free_Syrian_Army"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nedaa-sy.com-100"},{"link_name":"Jaysh al-Nasr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Nasr"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nedaa-sy.com-100"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Syrian Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Liberation_Front"},{"link_name":"Ahrar al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahrar_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nour_al-Din_al-Zenki_Movement"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"Sham Legion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_Legion"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto2-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nedaa-sy.com-100"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wp-111"}],"sub_title":"NFL coalition","text":"The National Front for Liberation (NFL): not a single group, but a coalition, formed in 2018, mainly from two big groups. The first identifies as part of the more moderate Free Syrian Army; the second, which joined in August, is another, more radical, coalition, the Syrian Liberation Front (made up primarily of Ahrar al-Sham and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement). The coalition controls territory in rural southern Idlib, rural western Aleppo and some settlements around Idlib City, according to the Turkish government linked Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies, and is thought to boast 30,000 to 55–60,000 rebels,[88][90] or even up to 70,000.[citation needed] The coalition is heavily supported by Turkey.[97][98] The groups that made the coalition are:Free Idlib Army: an FSA group, it commands about 6,000 fighters.[99]\n1st Coastal Division: an FSA group. Close allies of the group, who are also part of FSA, 2nd Army, 2nd Coastal Division, 1st Infantry Division, and Islamic Freedom Brigade, also joined the coalition.[100][101]\n23rd Division: another smaller FSA group, who joined the coalition.[100]\nElite Army: another FSA group, whom a part of it, is also part of Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army.[100]\nJaysh al-Nasr: another FSA group. It has about 5,000 fighters in its ranks.[100][102]\nSyrian Liberation Front: one of the biggest forces in Idlib, it has about 25,000-27,000 fighters. It is essentially an alliance of Ahrar al-Sham and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement, two hardline Sunni Islamist groups and the two largest rebel groups in northwestern Syria behind their main rival, Tahrir al-Sham.[103][104][105][106]\nSham Legion: an alliance of rebel Islamist groups, it is also an ally of HTS. The group has about 8,500-10,000 fighters.[107][108][109][110][100] It has rejected the deal.[111]","title":"Conflict parties"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"}],"sub_title":"Supranational","text":"United Nations − the United Nations praised the deal, hoping that it will be the start of a political solution in Syria.[112]","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Javad Zarif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Javad_Zarif"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevl%C3%BCt_%C3%87avu%C5%9Fo%C4%9Flu"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Donald Trump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Trump"},{"link_name":"Twitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"United Nations Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"}],"sub_title":"National","text":"Iran − Iran's foreign minister Mohammad Javad Zarif in response to the deal tweeted, \"Diplomacy Works\", while adding that visits to Turkey and Russia in recent weeks pursued the deal to avert an offensive or campaign in Idlib \"with a firm commitment to fight extremist terror.\" Bahram Ghasemi Iran's Foreign Ministry spokesmen said in regards to the agreement, \"it is an important and essential step for removing the remaining terrorists in Syria.\"[113]\n Turkey − Turkish foreign minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu in response to strong opposition to aspects of the agreement by groups such as Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, that Turkish and Russian drones would patrol the demilitarized zone, while also saying, \"The moderate opposition will stay in its place, a thing of much importance. A ceasefire will be conducted, the area will not be attacked, and accordingly there would not be provocations against other areas.\"\n United States − President Donald Trump wrote on Twitter warning that a large humanitarian crisis could happen in a post saying, \"President Bashar al-Assad of Syria must not recklessly attack Idlib Province. The Russians and Iranians would be making a grave humanitarian mistake to take part in this potential human tragedy. Hundreds of thousands of people could be killed. Don’t let that happen!\" He also said in another occasion it would make the United States \"Very, very, Angry\".[114] On 26 September, President Donald Trump said to the United Nations Security Council \"the Syrian regime's butchery is enabled by Russia and Iran\" and he added \"I want to thank Iran, Russia and Syria for --at my very strong urgent and request-- substantially slowing down their attack on Idlib province and three million people who live there in order to get 35,000 targeted terrorists. Get the terrorists but I hope the restraint continues. The world is watching,\" while also thanking Turkey by saying, \"Thank you also to Turkey for helping to negotiate restraint. Anything the U.S.A. can do to help resolve this problem in order to save perhaps even hundreds of thousands of lives, maybe more, we are willing and able. We are available to help.\"[115]","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria"},{"link_name":"Democratic Federation of Northern Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Federation_of_Northern_Syria"},{"link_name":"Salih Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salih_Muslim"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Syrian Arab Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Syrian Opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_opposition"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"the Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Iranian militias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_involvement_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-41"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wp-111"},{"link_name":"Hayat Tahrir al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayat_Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"jinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinn"},{"link_name":"Mujahideen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mujahideen"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Enab-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"Jaysh al-Izza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysh_al-Izza"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yahoo.com-4"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"Ansar al-Din Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Din_Front"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jihadology1-123"},{"link_name":"Guardians of Religion Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardians_of_Religion_Organization"},{"link_name":"Dayton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Accords"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jihadology2-124"},{"link_name":"Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkistan_Islamic_Party_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jama%27at_Ansar_al-Furqan_in_Bilad_al_Sham"},{"link_name":"Ajnad al-Kavkaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajnad_al-Kavkaz"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"}],"sub_title":"Domestic","text":"Democratic Federation of Northern Syria − Former president of DFNS Salih Muslim said that Turkey and Russia are plotting to send a Jihadist army from Idlib to Afrin for future attacks against Kurds in Syria.[116]\n Syrian Arab Republic − The Syrian government welcomed the agreement; however, officials still vowed to the press to retake \"every inch of Syria\". The Syrian ambassador to Lebanon also said this would be a test of Turkey's ability to keep its promises.\n Syrian Opposition − Mustafa Sejari, a Free Syrian Army official told journalists, \"The Idlib deal preserves lives of civilians and their direct targeting by the regime. It buries Assad’s dreams of imposing his full control over Syria.\" He added, \"This area will remain in the hands of the Free Syrian Army and will force the regime and its supporters to start a serious political process that leads to a real transition that ends Assad’s rule.\"[117] Mahmoud Abbi the spokesman for the Turkish funded Free Idlib Police told the Guardian \"Civilians in Idlib think this is a good deal, they feel hopeful and happy concerning it, We are grateful for Turkey’s efforts to prevent the Russian and Assad attack on Idlib. However ... we do not trust Russia about the deal. But for now it is better than displacement or bombing. The deal is for Turkey’s security but it is also face-saving for Putin and by association Assad, Iran refused to participate in this attack because of its own bad military and economic situation. The Assad regime is weak and has no ability to attack without the help of Iranian militias.\"[41][111]\n Hayat Tahrir al-Sham − rejected the conditions of the deal on 19 September. Several high ranking leaders, including scholars in Tahrir al-Sham, expressed their dissatisfaction with the terms through outlets such as Telegram channels. Abu al-Fath al-Ferghali, a scholar in Tahrir al-Sham on Telegram, wrote on 19 September, \"that who demands surrendering his weapon, whom ever he is, is undoubtedly an enemy, for giving up on this weapon is treason to religion, upholding the word of Allah and the blood of martyrs which has been scarified to get it.\" While adding, \"There is no worry about surrendering what is more important than arms, which is the areas liberated by the blood of the honest people. [. . .] The matter of concern is that the human and jinn would act as to disperse the lines of Mujahideen, inspiring doubt among them and justifying submission.\" Zaid al-Attar another HTS official posted on Telegram, \"Our weaponry is our pride and honor, as well as the safety valve to this blessed jihad; it is rather the only guarantee to the realization of the revolution’s aims of attaining dignity and freedom, for our enemy knows no other language but force.\"[118] No official stance was held by HTS until 14 October when Hayat Tahrir al-Sham published an official statement on the agreement entitled \"The Revolution will not die\", the statement detailed the group's stance as after a period of consultation it accepts the deal but the group will not abandon Jihad nor will they hand over weapons and it thanked individuals who had supported the group financially.[119]\n Jaysh al-Izza − on 20 September, Jamil al-Salih, the leader of the group, posted on Twitter though initially opposing the agreement, \"All the thanks to our Turkish brothers who prevented warplanes and bombers from targeting our civilian people and all the shame and disgrace to those who left the Syrian people in the middle of the road and disappointed women and children,\" The group is also considered a key ally to Hayat Tahrir al-Sham as well as a major Free Syrian Army faction.[120] Later, on 29 October, the group went back to rejecting the deal, after it was announced that the zone will only include the areas of opposition control, and published a statement demanding an equally divided zone. The group also rejected the presence of Russian forces in rebel-held areas, and opposed the opening of highways until the Syrian government releases detainees.[4][121][122]\n Ansar al-Din Front – On 23 September, the group published a statement condemning the Sochi Agreement, stating it was an extension of the \"disastrous\" Astana Agreement, as well as saying the agreement was a destruction of the Revolution.[123]\nGuardians of Religion Organization – On 22 September, a statement was published by the group titled \"About the Recent Sochi Agreement (Dayton #2): We Did Not Strive To Remove The Tyrant To Replace With Another Tyrant\". The statement said the most evil of forces have gathered together to destroy the Jihad in Syria, which is in a fragile state as it is and the agreement is part of the plot to destroy the goals of Jihad in Syria. The statement also said that these forces won their roles and share their influence and control.[124]\nTurkistan Islamic Party in Syria, Jama'at Ansar al-Furqan in Bilad al Sham, and Ajnad al-Kavkaz have also all rejected the deal.[125][better source needed]","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hezbollah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezbollah"},{"link_name":"Hassan Nasrallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_Nasrallah"},{"link_name":"Ashura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashura"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"Hezbollah − Hassan Nasrallah, the general-secretary of Hezbollah, said in a televised speech on the occasion of Ashura, \"We can assume, following this deal, that Syria is going to a calm phase but we will be staying in the country based on an agreement with the Syrian government.\"[126]","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Syria's Last Bastion of Freedom\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/12/10/syrias-last-bastion-of-freedom"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Syrian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Syrian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Syrian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Syrian civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"Rojava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rojava"},{"link_name":"Syrian civil war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Background and causes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_and_causes_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Syrian peace 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Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Az%C3%AEdxan_Women%27s_Units"},{"link_name":"Islamists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamism"},{"link_name":"Islamic State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_State"},{"link_name":"Military activity of ISIL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_activity_of_the_Islamic_State"},{"link_name":"Dokumacılar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dokumac%C4%B1lar"},{"link_name":"Khalid ibn al-Walid Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_al-Walid_Army"},{"link_name":"Liwa al-Aqsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jund_al-Aqsa"},{"link_name":"Group of the One and Only","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_of_the_One_and_Only"},{"link_name":"Liwa Dawud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwa_Dawud"},{"link_name":"al-Qaeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda"},{"link_name":"Tahrir al-Sham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahrir_al-Sham"},{"link_name":"Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkistan_Islamic_Party_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Caucasus Emirate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Emirate"},{"link_name":"Ajnad al-Kavkaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajnad_al-Kavkaz"},{"link_name":"Junud al-Makhdi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junud_al-Makhdi"},{"link_name":"Malhama Tactical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malhama_Tactical"},{"link_name":"Ansar al-Islam in Kurdistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansar_al-Islam_in_Kurdistan"},{"link_name":"Ammar Abdulhamid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammar_Abdulhamid"},{"link_name":"Ali al-Abdallah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_al-Abdallah"},{"link_name":"Adnan al-Aroor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adnan_al-Aroor"},{"link_name":"al-Assad family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Assad_family"},{"link_name":"Bashar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad"},{"link_name":"Maher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maher_al-Assad"},{"link_name":"Rifaat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad"},{"link_name":"Rami Makhlouf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Makhlouf"},{"link_name":"Hafez Makhlouf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafez_Makhlouf"},{"link_name":"Riad al-Asaad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riad_al-Asaad"},{"link_name":"Anwar al-Bunni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anwar_al-Bunni"},{"link_name":"Fahd Jassem al-Freij","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahd_Jassem_al-Freij"},{"link_name":"Suheil al-Hassan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suheil_al-Hassan"},{"link_name":"Haitham al-Maleh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitham_al-Maleh"},{"link_name":"Moaz al-Khatib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moaz_al-Khatib"},{"link_name":"Kamal al-Labwani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal_al-Labwani"},{"link_name":"Hamza al-Khateeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Hamza_Ali_Al-Khateeb"},{"link_name":"Tal al-Mallohi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tal_al-Mallohi"},{"link_name":"Fida al-Sayed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fida_al-Sayed"},{"link_name":"Riad al-Turk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riad_al-Turk"},{"link_name":"Khaled Khoja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khaled_Khoja"},{"link_name":"Ammar al-Qurabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammar_al-Qurabi"},{"link_name":"Suheir Atassi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suheir_Atassi"},{"link_name":"Ali Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Sadreddine_Al-Bayanouni"},{"link_name":"Aref Dalila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aref_Dalila"},{"link_name":"Farid Ghadry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farid_Ghadry"},{"link_name":"Burhan Ghalioun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burhan_Ghalioun"},{"link_name":"Razan Ghazzawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razan_Ghazzawi"},{"link_name":"Ghassan Hitto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghassan_Hitto"},{"link_name":"Salim Idris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salim_Idris"},{"link_name":"Randa Kassis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randa_Kassis"},{"link_name":"Abdul Halim Khaddam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam"},{"link_name":"Michel Kilo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Kilo"},{"link_name":"Bassma Kodmani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassma_Kodmani"},{"link_name":"Ali Habib Mahmud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Habib_Mahmud"},{"link_name":"Ali Mahmoud Othman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Mahmoud_Othman"},{"link_name":"Ibrahim Qashoush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Qashoush"},{"link_name":"Dawoud Rajiha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawoud_Rajiha"},{"link_name":"Yassin al-Haj Saleh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yassin_al-Haj_Saleh"},{"link_name":"Bouthaina Shaaban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouthaina_Shaaban"},{"link_name":"Abdulbaset Sieda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdulbaset_Sieda"},{"link_name":"Riad Seif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riad_Seif"},{"link_name":"Fadwa Souleimane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadwa_Souleimane"},{"link_name":"Mohamad Anas Haitham Soueid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamad_Anas_Haitham_Soueid"},{"link_name":"Yaser Tabbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaser_Tabbara"},{"link_name":"Razan Zaitouneh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razan_Zaitouneh"},{"link_name":"Rami Jarrah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rami_Jarrah"},{"link_name":"Abdurrahman Mustafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Mustafa"},{"link_name":"Fadlallah al-Haji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadlallah_al-Haji"},{"link_name":"2011 local elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Syrian_local_elections"},{"link_name":"2012 parliamentary election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Syrian_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"2014 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Syrian_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"2015 Northern local elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Rojava_local_elections"},{"link_name":"2016 parliamentary election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Syrian_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"2017 Northern local elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Rojava_local_elections"},{"link_name":"2017 Northern regional elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Rojava_regional_elections"},{"link_name":"2018 local elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Syrian_local_elections"},{"link_name":"2020 parliamentary election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Syrian_parliamentary_election"},{"link_name":"2021 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Syrian_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Casualties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Cities and towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_and_towns_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Chemical weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Use_of_chemical_weapons_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Damaged heritage sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heritage_sites_damaged_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Foreign involvement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Human rights violations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Humanitarian aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"International demonstrations and protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_demonstrations_and_protests_relating_to_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"International reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Massacres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_massacres_during_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Sectarianism and minorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism_and_minorities_in_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Status of the Golan Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights"},{"link_name":"Spillover in Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Syrian government reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_government_reactions_to_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Peace process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_peace_process"},{"link_name":"Arab League monitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Friends of Syria Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_of_Syria_Group"},{"link_name":"Kofi Annan peace plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan_Syrian_peace_plan"},{"link_name":"UN supervision mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Supervision_Mission_in_Syria"},{"link_name":"Lakhdar Brahimi peace plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakhdar_Brahimi_Syrian_peace_plan"},{"link_name":"U.S.–Russia peace proposals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93Russia_peace_proposals_on_Syria"},{"link_name":"39th G8 summit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/39th_G8_summit"},{"link_name":"UN Security Council Resolution 2118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_2118"},{"link_name":"Geneva II conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_II_Conference_on_Syria"},{"link_name":"2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Zabadani_cease-fire_agreement"},{"link_name":"Vienna talks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_peace_talks_for_Syria"},{"link_name":"2016 Geneva talks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_peace_talks_on_Syria_(2016)"},{"link_name":"Idlib demilitarization (2018–present)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"First Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone"},{"link_name":"Second Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone"},{"link_name":"Syrian Constitutional Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Constitutional_Committee"},{"link_name":"Universal jurisdiction trials in Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerstrafgesetzbuch#Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"Exclusive mandate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_mandate"},{"link_name":"Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference"},{"link_name":"International recognition of the Syrian National Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_recognition_of_the_Syrian_National_Council"},{"link_name":"Syria Files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_Files"},{"link_name":"Syrian detainee report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Syrian_detainee_report"},{"link_name":"Syrian media coverage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_coverage_of_the_Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"2015 European migrant crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_European_migrant_crisis"},{"link_name":"Syrian civil war in popular culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_in_popular_culture"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Syrian_civil_war"},{"link_name":"34°33′36″N 38°16′02″E / 34.5600°N 38.2672°E / 34.5600; 38.2672","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Idlib_demilitarization_(2018%E2%80%932019)¶ms=34.5600_N_38.2672_E_source:wikidata"}],"text":"\"Syria's Last Bastion of Freedom\". The New Yorker. 10 December 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2019.vteSyrian civil warOverviewsMain overviews\nSyria\nRojava\nSyrian civil war\nTimeline \nBackground and causes\nSyrian peace process\nSyrian government reactions\nBelligerents \nInter-rebel conflict\nSpillover\nCities and towns \nSectarianism and minorities\nSyrian Desert campaign (December 2017–present)\nEffects and ongoing concerns\nCasualties of the Syrian civil war\nRefugees of the Syrian civil war\nHumanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war\nHuman rights violations during the Syrian civil war\nPhases and processes\nSyrian revolution\nEarly insurgency phase\n2012–2013 escalation\nCeasefires\nSyrian peace process\nWorld reaction\nInternational reactions to the Syrian civil war\nForeign involvement in the Syrian civil war\nSpecific groups and countries\nRussian involvement\nRussian intervention\nTurkish involvement\nTurkish occupation of northern Syria\nSecond Northern Syria Buffer Zone\nRussian-Turkish agreement on Syria\nAmerican intervention in the Syrian civil war\n2023 attacks on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria\nKurdish Area in Syria\nSyrian Democratic Forces\nRojava conflict\nU.S. task force\nAgreements and dialogues\nRussian-Turkish agreement on Syria\nRelations between Syrian government and Kurdish groups in Syria\nTimelineBackground\n1963 coup\n1966 coup\nCorrective Movement\nIslamist uprising\nLatakia protests\nDamascus Spring\nQamishli riots\nSyrian occupation of Lebanon\nDamascus Declaration\nHuman rights in Syria\n2010s in Syria political history\n2011Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec\nSyrian Revolution\nDeath of Hamza Ali Al-Khateeb\nSiege of Daraa\nSiege of Baniyas\nMay Talkalakh siege\nSiege of Rastan and Talbiseh\nJune Jisr ash-Shughur operation\nSiege of Hama\nSiege of Homs\nJabal al-Zawiya operation\nSiege of Latakia\nDeir ez-Zor clashes (2011–2014)\nRif Dimashq clashes (Nov 2011-Mar 2012)\nBattle of Zabadani\nBattle of Douma\nDaraa Governorate clashes\nBattle of Rastan\nShayrat and Tiyas airbase ambush\nIdlib Governorate clashes\nDecember Jabal al-Zawiya massacres\n2012Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec\nJanuary al-Midan bombing\nBattle of Rastan\nFirst Battle of Idlib\nBattle of al-Qusayr\nIdlib Governorate operation (Apr)\nBattle of Taftanaz\nMay Battle of Rastan\nHoula massacre\nBattle of al-Haffah\nAl-Qubeir massacre\nBattle of Tremseh\nBattle of Damascus\n18 July 2012 Damascus bombing\nBattle of Aleppo\nBattle of Anadan\nSiege of Base 46\nAl-Hasakah Governorate campaign (2012–2013)\nRif Dimashq offensive (Aug-Oct)\nDarayya massacre\nBattle of Khirbet Al-Joz\nBattle of Maarrat al-Numan\nFirst siege of Wadi Deif\nBattle of Harem\nRif Dimashq offensive (Nov 2012–Feb 2013)\nBattle of Darayya\nAqrab massacre\nHama offensive\nHalfaya massacre\nBattle of Darayya\nQuneitra Governorate clashes\nTalbiseh bakery massacre\n2013Jan–AprMay–Dec\nBattle of Safira\nBattle of Shadadeh\nDamascus offensive\nRaqqa campaign (2012–2013)\nBattle of Raqqa (Mar)\nDaraa offensive\nRif Dimashq offensive (Mar–Aug)\nBattle of Jdaidet al-Fadl\nGhouta chemical attack\nAl-Qusayr offensive\nBattle of al-Qusayr\nBayda and Baniyas massacres\nHama offensive\nHatla massacre\nKhan al-Assal chemical attack\nKhan al-Assal massacre\nAdra massacre\nBattle of Ras al-Ayn\nBattle of Tell Abyad\nRif Dimashq offensive (Sep–Nov)\nAleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)\nBattle of al-Yaarubiyah\nBattle of Tell Hamis and Tell Brak (Dec–Jan)\n2014Jan–JulAug–Dec\nFirst Inter-rebel conflict\nBattle of Markada\nDeir ez-Zor offensive\nBattle of Morek\nDaraa offensive (Feb–May)\nMaan massacre\nAl-Otaiba ambush\nIdlib offensive\nBattle of Hosn\nLatakia Offensive\nBattle of Al-Malihah\nKafr Zita chemical attack\nSecond siege of Wadi Deif\nQalamoun offensive (Jun–Aug)\nBattle of Arsal\nFirst Battle of the Shaer gas field\nEastern Syria offensive\nBattle of Tabqa Airbase\nNorthern Aleppo offensive (Feb–Jul)\nHama Offensive\nQuneitra offensive\nRif Dimashq offensive (Aug–Nov)\nSiege of Kobanî\nHoms school bombing\nDaraa offensive (Oct)\nAl-Safira offensive\nIdlib Raid\nSecond Inter-Rebel Conflict\nSecond Battle of the Shaer gas field\nBattle of Al-Shaykh Maskin\nDeir ez-Zor offensive (Dec)\n2015Jan–JulAug–Dec\nAir Force An-26 crash\nDaraa Offensive (Jan)\nSouthern Syria Offensive\nEastern al-Hasakah offensive\nBattle of Sarrin (Mar–Apr)\nBattle of Sarrin (Jun–Jul)\nBattle of Bosra\nIdlib Offensive\nSecond Battle of Idlib\nBattle of Nasib Border Crossing\nBattle of Yarmouk Camp\nWestern al-Hasakah offensive\nPalmyra offensive (May)\nQamishli bombings\nTell Abyad offensive\nKobanî massacre\nQuneitra offensive (Jun)\nPalmyra offensive (Jul–Aug)\nRif Dimashq offensive (Sep)\nNorthwestern Syria offensive (Oct–Nov)\nAleppo offensive (Oct–Dec)\nAl-Hawl offensive\nHoms offensive (Nov-Dec)\nEast Aleppo offensive (2015–2016)\n2015–2016 Latakia offensive\nTishrin Dam offensive\nRussian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown\n2016Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec\nSecond Battle of Al-Shaykh Maskin\nDeir ez-Zor offensive (Jan)\nJanuary Sayyidah Zaynab bombings\nNorthern Aleppo offensive (Feb)\nIthriyah-Raqqa offensive (Feb–Mar)\nAl-Shaddadi offensive\nFebruary Homs bombings\nFebruary Sayyidah Zaynab bombings\nKhanasir offensive\nBattle of Tel Abyad\nBattle of Maarrat al-Numan\nBattle of Qamishli (Apr)\nNorthern Aleppo offensive (Mar–Jun)\nPalmyra offensive (Mar)\nEast Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)\nRif Dimashq offensive (Apr–May)\nNorthern Raqqa offensive (May)\nMay Jableh & Tartous bombings\nIthriyah-Raqqa offensive (Jun)\nRif Dimashq offensive (Jun–Oct)\nManbij offensive\nTokhar massacre\nSouthern Aleppo campaign\nBattle of al-Rai (Aug)\nOperation Euphrates Shield\nAleppo summer campaign\nWestern al-Bab offensive (Sep)\n5 September bombings\nSeptember Deir ez-Zor air raid\nSeptember Urum al-Kubra aid convoy attack\nAleppo offensive (Sep–Oct)\nDabiq offensive\nWestern al-Bab offensive (Oct–Nov)\nKhan al-Shih offensive (Oct–Nov)\nRaqqa campaign\nBattle of al-Bab\nAleppo offensive (Nov-Dec)\nPalmyra offensive (Dec)\n2017Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec\nWadi Barada offensive (2016–2017)\nJanuary Azaz bombing\nDesert campaign (Dec 16–Apr 17)\nIdlib clashes (Jan–Mar)\nDeir ez-Zor offensive (Jan–Feb)\nDaraa offensive (Feb–Jun)\nSouthwestern Daraa offensive (Feb)\nQaboun offensive\nPalmyra offensive\nEast Aleppo offensive (Jan–Apr)\nMarch Damascus bombings\nAl-Jinah airstrike\nHama offensive (Mar–Apr)\nBattle of Tabqa\nKhan Shaykhun chemical attack\nShayrat missile strike\nAleppo bombing\nApril Turkish airstrikes\nEast Ghouta inter-rebel conflict (Apr–May)\nDesert campaign (May–Jul)\nMaskanah Plains offensive\nEast Hama offensive\nBattle of Raqqa\nDaraa offensive (Jun)\nSouthern Raqqa offensive (Jun)\nJobar offensive (Jun–Aug)\nQuneitra offensive (Jun)\nIdlib clashes (Jul)\nCentral campaign\nQalamoun (Jul–Aug)\nDeir ez-Zor offensive (Sep 17–Mar 18)\nHama offensive (Sep)\nNorthwestern campaign (Oct 17–Feb 18)\nTurkish military operation in Idlib Governorate\nBattle of Harasta\nEastern campaign (Sep–Dec)\nEuphrates Crossing offensive\nMayadin offensive\nBattle of Deir ez-Zor (Sep–Nov)\nAbu Kamal offensive\nBeit Jinn offensive\n2018Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec\nOperation Olive Branch\nBattle of Khasham\nRif Dimashq offensive (Feb–Apr)\nSouthern Damascus offensive (Jan–Feb)\nSyrian Liberation Front–Tahrir al-Sham conflict\nSouthern Damascus offensive (Mar)\nDouma chemical attack\nMissile strikes (Apr)\nNorthern Homs offensive (Apr–May)\nEastern Qalamoun offensive (Apr)\nSouthern Damascus offensive (Apr–May)\nDeir ez-Zor clashes (Apr)\nDeir ez-Zor offensive (May–Jun)\nAs-Suwayda offensive (Jun)\nSouthern offensive\nAs-Suwayda attacks\nAs-Suwayda (Aug-Nov)\nQamishli clashes (Sep)\nMissile strikes (Sep)\nNorthern border clashes\n2019Jan–AprMay–AugSep–Dec\nIdlib inter-rebel conflict\nManbij bombing\nBattle of Baghuz Fawqani\nISIL insurgency in Deir-ez-Zor\nDêrik prison escape attempt\nTell Rifaat clashes\nNorthwestern offensive (Apr–Aug)\nJune bombings\nHass refugee camp bombing\nMissile strikes (Aug)\nTurkish offensive into northeast\nBarisha raid\nNovember bombings\nIsraeli missile strikes (Nov)\nQah missile strike\nNorthwestern offensive (Dec 19–Mar 20)\nUS airstrikes\n2020Jan–Dec\nCOVID-19 pandemic\nAfrin bombing\nIdlib Governorate clashes\nKafr-Takharim airstrike\nAyn Issa clashes\nDeir ez-Zor ambush\n2021Jan–Dec\nSiege of Qamishli and Al-Hasakah\nMissile strikes (Jan)\nUS airstrike (Feb)\nBattle of Qamishli (Apr)\nUS airstrike (Jun)\nDaraa clashes\nTahrir al-Sham–Junud al-Sham conflict\n2022Jan–Dec\nBattle of al-Hasakah\nAhrar al-Sham–Levant Front clashes\nJabal al-Bishrī clashes\nJarqli airstrikes\nNorthern Aleppo clashes (Oct)\nOperation Claw-Sword\nNorthwest clashes (Dec)\n2023Jan-Dec\nAl-Sukhnah attack\nDamascus airstrike\nHama attack\nNorthern border clashes\nSpilloverIsrael and Golan Heights:\nMarch 2017 incident\nFebruary 2018 incident\nMay 2018 Israel–Iran incidents\nIraq:\nAkashat ambush\nOperation al-Shabah\nApril 2014 Iraqi border airstrike\nJordanian border incidents\nApril 2014 Jordanian border airstrike\nLebanon:\nLebanese border clashes\nBattle of Sidon\nIranian embassy bombing in Beirut\nNorth Lebanon clashes\nQalamoun (Jul–Aug 2017)\nTurkey:\nDecember 2011 Turkish border clash\n2012 Turkish F-4 Phantom shootdown\n2012 Turkish border clashes\n2013 Reyhanlı car bombings\nJanuary 2014 Turkish attack in Syria\nAssassination of Andrei Karlov\nRussian Air Force Al-Bab incident\n2020 Balyun airstrikes\nOperation Spring Shield\nElsewhere:\nDeir ez-Zor missile strike (Iran)\nBelligerentsSyriaPolitics of Syria\nArab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region\nSyrian Social Nationalist Party\nArab Socialist Movement\nSyrian Communist Party\nMilitary and militias\nSyrian Armed Forces\nSyrian Resistance\nPFLP-GC\nal-Quds Brigade\nPalestine Liberation Army\nForeign support\nHezbollah involvement\nIranian involvement\nLiwa Fatemiyoun\nRussian involvement\nmedical facility targeting\nmilitary intervention\nWagner Group\nRussia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition\nPopular Mobilization Forces\nOppositionInterim government\nNational Coalition\nLocal Coordination Committees\nSyrian National Council\nSupreme Council of the Syrian Revolution\nNational Coordination Committee for Democratic Change\nSyrian Revolution General Commission\nSyrian Support Group\nAdopt a Revolution\nSyrian Patriotic Group\nOpposition militias\nSyrian National Army\nFree Syrian Army\nNational Front for Liberation\nArmy of Glory\nAuthenticity and Development Front\nArmy of Free Tribes\nRevolutionary Commando Army\nMuslim Brotherhood in Syria\nGrey Wolves\nForeign support\nAmerican-led intervention\nJordanian intervention\nQatar\nSaudi Arabia\nTurkey\nAutonomous Administrationof North and East SyriaDFNS Government\nDemocratic Union Party\nKurdish National Council\nSmaller political parties\nSDF militias\nPeople's Protection Units\nWomen's Protection Units\nAnti-Terror Units\nAl-Sanadid Forces\nArmy of Revolutionaries\nSDF military councils\nSyriac Military Council\nLiwa Thuwar al-Raqqa\nNorthern Democratic Brigade\nSupport\nPatriotic Union of Kurdistan\nKurdistan Workers' Party\nInternational Freedom Battalion\nSinjar Resistance Units\nÊzîdxan Women's Units\nIslamistsIslamic State\nMilitary activity of ISIL\nDokumacılar\nKhalid ibn al-Walid Army\nLiwa al-Aqsa\nGroup of the One and Only\nLiwa Dawud\nal-Qaeda and allies\nTahrir al-Sham\nTurkistan Islamic Party in Syria\nCaucasus Emirate\nAjnad al-Kavkaz\nJunud al-Makhdi\nMalhama Tactical\nAnsar al-Islam in Kurdistan\nPeople\nAmmar Abdulhamid\nAli al-Abdallah\nAdnan al-Aroor\nal-Assad family\nBashar\nMaher\nRifaat\nRami Makhlouf\nHafez Makhlouf\nRiad al-Asaad\nAnwar al-Bunni\nFahd Jassem al-Freij\nSuheil al-Hassan\nHaitham al-Maleh\nMoaz al-Khatib\nKamal al-Labwani\nHamza al-Khateeb\nTal al-Mallohi\nFida al-Sayed\nRiad al-Turk\nKhaled Khoja\nAmmar al-Qurabi\nSuheir Atassi\nAli Sadreddine Al-Bayanouni\nAref Dalila\nFarid Ghadry\nBurhan Ghalioun\nRazan Ghazzawi\nGhassan Hitto\nSalim Idris\nRanda Kassis\nAbdul Halim Khaddam\nMichel Kilo\nBassma Kodmani\nAli Habib Mahmud\nAli Mahmoud Othman\nIbrahim Qashoush\nDawoud Rajiha\nYassin al-Haj Saleh\nBouthaina Shaaban\nAbdulbaset Sieda\nRiad Seif\nFadwa Souleimane\nMohamad Anas Haitham Soueid\nYaser Tabbara\nRazan Zaitouneh\nRami Jarrah\nAbdurrahman Mustafa\nFadlallah al-Haji\nRelatedElections\n2011 local elections\n2012 parliamentary election\n2014 presidential election\n2015 Northern local elections\n2016 parliamentary election\n2017 Northern local elections\n2017 Northern regional elections\n2018 local elections\n2020 parliamentary election\n2021 presidential election\nIssues\nCasualties\nCities and towns\nChemical weapons\nDamaged heritage sites\nForeign involvement\nHuman rights violations\nHumanitarian aid\nInternational demonstrations and protests\nInternational reactions\nMassacres\nRefugees\nSectarianism and minorities\nStatus of the Golan Heights\nSpillover in Lebanon\nSyrian government reactions\nPeace process\nArab League monitors\nFriends of Syria Group\nKofi Annan peace plan\nUN supervision mission\nLakhdar Brahimi peace plan\nU.S.–Russia peace proposals\n39th G8 summit\nUN Security Council Resolution 2118\nGeneva II conference\n2015 Zabadani cease-fire agreement\nVienna talks\n2016 Geneva talks\nIdlib demilitarization (2018–present)\nFirst Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal\nSecond Northern Syria Demilitarization Deal\nSyrian Constitutional Committee\nWar crimes trials\nUniversal jurisdiction trials in Germany\nRelated topics\nExclusive mandate\nFourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference\nInternational recognition of the Syrian National Council\nSyria Files\nSyrian detainee report\nSyrian media coverage\n2015 European migrant crisis\nSyrian civil war in popular culture\n\n Category34°33′36″N 38°16′02″E / 34.5600°N 38.2672°E / 34.5600; 38.2672","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"A number of pro-rebel and pro-Turkey demonstrations were held in rebel-controlled towns in the Idlib, Hama, and Aleppo governorates during the attempted implementation of the ceasefire, including the ones shown here on 22 September 2018.[83]"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg"},{"title":"Asia portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Asia"},{"title":"Operation Euphrates Shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Euphrates_Shield"},{"title":"Turkish military operation in Idlib Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_military_operation_in_Idlib_Governorate"},{"title":"Operation Olive Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Olive_Branch"},{"title":"Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Northern_Syria_Buffer_Zone"}] | [{"reference":"\"Turkey designates Syria's Tahrir al-Sham as terrorist group\". Reuters. 31 August 2018. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2020 – via www.reuters.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-idUSKCN1LG1XM","url_text":"\"Turkey designates Syria's Tahrir al-Sham as terrorist group\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190530012016/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkey-idUSKCN1LG1XM","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Turkey Offers Joint Action Against 'Terrorists' in Syria's Idlib\". Bloomberg News. 20 September 2018. Archived from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-09-20/putin-is-playing-nice-with-israel-and-turkey-on-syria","url_text":"\"Turkey Offers Joint Action Against 'Terrorists' in Syria's Idlib\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_News","url_text":"Bloomberg News"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180921113134/https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-09-20/putin-is-playing-nice-with-israel-and-turkey-on-syria","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Syria's Idlib spared attack, Turkey to send in more troops\". Reuters. 19 September 2018. Archived from the original on 25 August 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2020 – via www.reuters.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-rebels-idUSKCN1LY0T9","url_text":"\"Syria's Idlib spared attack, Turkey to send in more troops\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190825182438/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-rebels-idUSKCN1LY0T9","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Syria rebel faction rejects Idlib deal\". AFP. Archived from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 29 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.yahoo.com/news/syria-rebel-faction-rejects-idlib-deal-170221008.html","url_text":"\"Syria rebel faction rejects Idlib deal\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180929202801/https://www.yahoo.com/news/syria-rebel-faction-rejects-idlib-deal-170221008.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Four \"jihadist\" groups reject the Idlib agreement and try to block it\". Enab Baladi. 15 October 2018. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.enabbaladi.net/archives/257673","url_text":"\"Four \"jihadist\" groups reject the Idlib agreement and try to block it\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enab_Baladi","url_text":"Enab Baladi"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181024035230/https://www.enabbaladi.net/archives/257673","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"sabah, daily (2 February 2020). \"Russia, Assad regime kill 11 civilians in Turkey-backed NW Syria\". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 11 September 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2020/02/02/russia-assad-regime-hit-turkey-backed-areas-in-syria","url_text":"\"Russia, Assad regime kill 11 civilians in Turkey-backed NW Syria\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200911014249/https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2020/02/02/russia-assad-regime-hit-turkey-backed-areas-in-syria","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"One of FSA Jaysh al Izza field commanders Mohammad Safwan al Saleh was killed in Northern Hama – Map of Syrian Civil War – Syria news and incidents today – syria.liveuamap.com\". Map of Syrian Civil War – Syria news and incidents today – syria.liveuamap.com. Archived from the original on 12 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://syria.liveuamap.com/en/2018/6-september-one-of-fsa-jaysh-al-izza-field-commanders-mohammad","url_text":"\"One of FSA Jaysh al Izza field commanders Mohammad Safwan al Saleh was killed in Northern Hama – Map of Syrian Civil War – Syria news and incidents today – syria.liveuamap.com\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180912131010/https://syria.liveuamap.com/en/2018/6-september-one-of-fsa-jaysh-al-izza-field-commanders-mohammad","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"After forming 3 armies and in conjunction with selling its real estate, Hayyaat Tahrir al-Sham declares its position on the disarmament agreement in the coming time • The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights\". 30 September 2018. Archived from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=103619","url_text":"\"After forming 3 armies and in conjunction with selling its real estate, Hayyaat Tahrir al-Sham declares its position on the disarmament agreement in the coming time • The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180930232344/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=103619","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Regime's warplanes participate with the Russian warplanes in the escalation of shelling within the dilapidated truce areas as the ground targeting continues within the demilitarized area\". 29 April 2019. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=126096","url_text":"\"Regime's warplanes participate with the Russian warplanes in the escalation of shelling within the dilapidated truce areas as the ground targeting continues within the demilitarized area\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230111170328/https://www.syriahr.com/en/126096/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Russian soldier killed in attack by Turkish-backed rebels\". 8 February 2019. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200806231627/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/russian-soldier-killed-in-attack-by-turkish-backed-rebels/","url_text":"\"Russian soldier killed in attack by Turkish-backed rebels\""},{"url":"https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/russian-soldier-killed-in-attack-by-turkish-backed-rebels/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Turkish soldier killed in northern Latakia after unknown group opens fire near border crossing\". 7 April 2019. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190423143841/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/turkish-soldier-killed-in-northern-latakia-after-unknown-group-opens-fire-near-border-crossing/","url_text":"\"Turkish soldier killed in northern Latakia after unknown group opens fire near border crossing\""},{"url":"https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/turkish-soldier-killed-in-northern-latakia-after-unknown-group-opens-fire-near-border-crossing/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"'Doors open' for Syrians fleeing regime-rebel conflict in northwest: SDF commander\". Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 3 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/271220192","url_text":"\"'Doors open' for Syrians fleeing regime-rebel conflict in northwest: SDF commander\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191231024859/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/271220192","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Russia, Iran, Turkey say Syrian constitution committee ready\". AP NEWS. 16 September 2019. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://apnews.com/359b711434034ac29bf8cbe18698b5cb","url_text":"\"Russia, Iran, Turkey say Syrian constitution committee ready\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200129221821/https://apnews.com/359b711434034ac29bf8cbe18698b5cb","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Turkey's Erdogan says Russia not abiding by Syria agreements: NTV\". Reuters. 29 January 2020. Archived from the original on 11 September 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020 – via www.reuters.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-erdogan-idUSKBN1ZS17B","url_text":"\"Turkey's Erdogan says Russia not abiding by Syria agreements: NTV\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200911011606/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-erdogan-idUSKBN1ZS17B","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Intel: Will Russia, Turkey de-escalate tensions over Syria's Idlib?\". 31 January 2020. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/01/russia-turkey-idlib-syria.html","url_text":"\"Intel: Will Russia, Turkey de-escalate tensions over Syria's Idlib?\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200203001301/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2020/01/russia-turkey-idlib-syria.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Karadeniz, Tulay; Al-Khaleidi, Suleiman (18 September 2018). \"Syria's Idlib spared attack, Turkey to send in more troops\". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018. 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and try to block it\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181024035230/https://www.enabbaladi.net/archives/257673","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2020/02/02/russia-assad-regime-hit-turkey-backed-areas-in-syria","external_links_name":"\"Russia, Assad regime kill 11 civilians in Turkey-backed NW Syria\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200911014249/https://www.dailysabah.com/syrian-crisis/2020/02/02/russia-assad-regime-hit-turkey-backed-areas-in-syria","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://syria.liveuamap.com/en/2018/6-september-one-of-fsa-jaysh-al-izza-field-commanders-mohammad","external_links_name":"\"One of FSA Jaysh al Izza field commanders Mohammad Safwan al Saleh was killed in Northern Hama – Map of Syrian Civil War – Syria news and incidents today – 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area"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230111170256/https://www.syriahr.com/en/104054/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=108345","external_links_name":"Fighting between Ahrar Al-Sham and Tahrir Al-Sham ends after bloody rounds and fears and tension prevail the atmosphere of the pacification reached by mediators"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230111170256/https://www.syriahr.com/en/108345/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=111597","external_links_name":"The first round of negotiations between Tahrir Al-Sham and the factions of Al-Atarib fails and the attack continues on the largest city in the west of Aleppo with the purpose of taking the control of 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_notation | Engineering notation | ["1 History","2 Overview","3 Binary engineering notation","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"] | A version of scientific notation in which the exponent of ten reflects powers of a thousand
Engineering notation or engineering form (also technical notation) is a version of scientific notation in which the exponent of ten is always selected to be divisible by three to match the common metric prefixes, i.e. scientific notation that aligns with powers of a thousand, for example, 531×103 instead of 5.31×105 (but on calculator displays written without the ×10 to save space). As an alternative to writing powers of 10, SI prefixes can be used, which also usually provide steps of a factor of a thousand.
On most calculators, engineering notation is called "ENG" mode as scientific notation is denoted SCI.
History
An early implementation of engineering notation in the form of range selection and number display with SI prefixes was introduced in the computerized HP 5360A frequency counter by Hewlett-Packard in 1969.
Based on an idea by Peter D. Dickinson the first calculator to support engineering notation displaying the power-of-ten exponent values was the HP-25 in 1975. It was implemented as a dedicated display mode in addition to scientific notation.
In 1975, Commodore introduced a number of scientific calculators (like the SR4148/SR4148R and SR4190R) providing a variable scientific notation, where pressing the EE↓ and EE↑ keys shifted the exponent and decimal point by ±1 in scientific notation. Between 1976 and 1980 the same exponent shift facility was also available on some Texas Instruments calculators of the pre-LCD era such as early SR-40, TI-30 and TI-45 model variants utilizing (INV)EE↓ instead. This can be seen as a precursor to a feature implemented on many Casio calculators since 1978/1979 (e.g. in the FX-501P/FX-502P), where number display in engineering notation is available on demand by the single press of a (INV)ENG button (instead of having to activate a dedicated display mode as on most other calculators), and subsequent button presses would shift the exponent and decimal point of the number displayed by ±3 in order to easily let results match a desired prefix. Some graphical calculators (for example the fx-9860G) in the 2000s also support the display of some SI prefixes (f, p, n, μ, m, k, M, G, T, P, E) as suffixes in engineering mode.
Overview
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Compared to normalized scientific notation, one disadvantage of using SI prefixes and engineering notation is that significant figures are not always readily apparent when the smallest significant digit or digits are 0. For example, 500 μm and 500×10−6 m cannot express the uncertainty distinctions between 5×10−4 m, 5.0×10−4 m, and 5.00×10−4 m. This can be solved by changing the range of the coefficient in front of the power from the common 1–1000 to 0.001–1.0. In some cases this may be suitable; in others it may be impractical. In the previous example, 0.5 mm, 0.50 mm, or 0.500 mm would have been used to show uncertainty and significant figures. It is also common to state the precision explicitly, such as "47 kΩ±5%"
Another example: when the speed of light (exactly 299792458 m/s by the definition of the meter) is expressed as 3.00×108 m/s or 3.00×105 km/s then it is clear that it is between 299500 km/s and 300500 km/s, but when using 300×106 m/s, or 300×103 km/s, 300000 km/s, or the unusual but short 300 Mm/s, this is not clear. A possibility is using 0.300×109 m/s or 0.300 Gm/s.
On the other hand, engineering notation allows the numbers to explicitly match their corresponding SI prefixes, which facilitates reading and oral communication. For example, 12.5×10−9 m can be read as "twelve-point-five nanometers" (10−9 being nano) and written as 12.5 nm, while its scientific notation equivalent 1.25×10−8 m would likely be read out as "one-point-two-five times ten-to-the-negative-eight meters".
Engineering notation, like scientific notation generally, can use the E notation, such that 3.0×10−9 can be written as 3.0E−9 or 3.0e−9. The E (or e) should not be confused with the Euler's number e or the symbol for the exa-prefix.
SI prefixes
Prefix
Representations
Name
Symbol
Base 1000
Base 10
Value
quetta
Q
100010
1030
1000000000000000000000000000000
ronna
R
10009
1027
1000000000000000000000000000
yotta
Y
10008
1024
1000000000000000000000000
zetta
Z
10007
1021
1000000000000000000000
exa
E
10006
1018
1000000000000000000
peta
P
10005
1015
1000000000000000
tera
T
10004
1012
1000000000000
giga
G
10003
109
1000000000
mega
M
10002
106
1000000
kilo
k
10001
103
1000
10000
100
1
milli
m
1000−1
10−3
0.001
micro
μ
1000−2
10−6
0.000001
nano
n
1000−3
10−9
0.000000001
pico
p
1000−4
10−12
0.000000000001
femto
f
1000−5
10−15
0.000000000000001
atto
a
1000−6
10−18
0.000000000000000001
zepto
z
1000−7
10−21
0.000000000000000000001
yocto
y
1000−8
10−24
0.000000000000000000000001
ronto
r
1000−9
10−27
0.000000000000000000000000001
quecto
q
1000−10
10−30
0.000000000000000000000000000001
Binary engineering notation
Just like decimal engineering notation can be viewed as a base-1000 scientific notation (103 = 1000), binary engineering notation relates to a base-1024 scientific notation (210 = 1024), where the exponent of two must be divisible by ten. This is closely related to the base-2 floating-point representation (B notation) commonly used in computer arithmetic, and the usage of IEC binary prefixes, e.g. 1B10 for 1 × 210, 1B20 for 1 × 220, 1B30 for 1 × 230, 1B40 for 1 × 240 etc.
IEC prefixes
Prefix
Representations
Name
Symbol
Base 1024
Base 2
Value
quebi
Qi
102410
2100
1267650600228229401496703205376
robi
Ri
10249
290
1237940039285380274899124224
yobi
Yi
10248
280
1208925819614629174706176
zebi
Zi
10247
270
1180591620717411303424
exbi
Ei
10246
260
1152921504606846976
pebi
Pi
10245
250
1125899906842624
tebi
Ti
10244
240
1099511627776
gibi
Gi
10243
230
1073741824
mebi
Mi
10242
220
1048576
kibi
Ki
10241
210
1024
10240
20
1
See also
Significant figures
Scientific notation
Binary prefix
International System of Units (SI)
RKM code
Notes
^ Except in the case of square and cubic units: in this case the SI prefixes provide only steps of a factor of one million or one billion respectively.
^ a b One exponent shift action would decrease the exponent by the same amount as the decimal point would be moved to the right, so that the value of the displayed number does not change. Preceding the keypress with INV would inverse the action in the other direction.
^ a b c d Natural binary counterparts to the ronna- and quetta- decimal prefixes introduced in 2022 were suggested in a consultation paper of the International Committee for Weights and Measures' Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) as robi- (Ri, 10249) and quebi- (Qi, 102410). As of 2022, these binary prefixes have not been adopted by the IEC and ISO.
References
^ a b c Gordon, Gary B.; Reeser, Gilbert A. (May 1969). "Introducing the Computing Counter - Here is the most significant advance in electronic counters in recent years" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 20 (9). Hewlett-Packard Company: 2–16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-04. Retrieved 2017-06-04. Measurements are displayed around a stationary decimal point and the display tubes are grouped in threes to make the display more readable. The numerical display is accompanied by appropriate measurement units (hertz, second, etc.) and a prefix multiplier which is computed by the counter (e.g., k for kilo, M for mega, etc.). There are 12 digital display tubes, to permit shifting the displayed value (11 digits maximum) around the fixed decimal point. Insignificant digits and leading zeros are automatically blanked so only significant digits are displayed, or any number of digits from 3 to 11 can be selected manually. Internally, however, the computer always carries 11 digits. (NB. Introduces the HP 5360A Computing Counter.)
^ US 3987290, Dickinson, Peter D., "Calculator Apparatus for Displaying Data in Engineering Notation", published 1976-10-19, assigned to Hewlett-Packard Company . " A computing counter has been developed that displays data in engineering notation with the exponent expressed in alphabetic form rather than in numeric form, such as f in place of −15, p in place of −12, n in place of −9, μ in place of −6, m in place of −3, k in place of +3, M in place of +6, G in place of +9, and T in place of +12. This device, however, is limited to displaying only those numeric quantities for which there exists a commonly accepted alphabetic exponent notation. This device is also limited in the range of data that it can display because the size of the exponent display area is limited, and would be unduly large if required to contain all of the alphabetic characters necessary to represent every exponent that is a multiple of three, for example, in the range −99 to +99. " (US 05/578,775)
^ Neff, Randall B.; Tillman, Lynn (November 1975). "Three New Pocket Calculators: Smaller, less Costly, More Powerful" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 27 (3). Hewlett-Packard Company: 1–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-10. Retrieved 2017-06-10.
^ http://www.wass.net/manuals/Commodore%20SR4148R.pdf
^ commodore - Multi-Function Preprogrammed Rechargeable Scientific Notation Calculator - Model SR4190R - Owner's Manual (PDF). Commodore. 1975. pp. 10–11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-24. Retrieved 2017-06-24. Variable scientific notation: Commodore scientific calculators offer the possibility of changing the exponent at will, therefore allowing the full choice of the unit in which the display may be read. The EE↑ and EE↓ will algebraically increment or decrement the value of the exponent by one for each depression, moving accordingly the decimal point of the mantissa.
^ "Datamath".
^ http://www.datamath.net/Manuals/SR-40_US.pdf
^ "Datamath".
^ http://www.datamath.net/Manuals/TI-30_1976_US.pdf
^ "Datamath".
^ http://www.datamath.net/Manuals/TI-30_BR.pdf
^ "Datamath".
^ "Datamath".
^ "Datamath".
^ "Datamath".
^ "Datamath".
^ http://www.datamath.net/Manuals/TI-45_EU.pdf
^ "CODATA Value: Speed of light in vacuum c, c0". CODATA 2014: The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: Fundamental Physical Constants. NIST. 2017-05-24. Archived from the original on 2017-06-25. Retrieved 2017-05-25.
^ Martin, Bruce Alan (October 1968). "Letters to the editor: On binary notation". Communications of the ACM. 11 (10). Associated Universities Inc.: 658. doi:10.1145/364096.364107. S2CID 28248410.
External links
Engineering Prefix User Defined Function for Excel
Perl CPAN module for converting number to engineering notation
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Dickinson[2][1] the first calculator to support engineering notation displaying the power-of-ten exponent values was the HP-25 in 1975.[3] It was implemented as a dedicated display mode in addition to scientific notation.In 1975, Commodore introduced a number of scientific calculators (like the SR4148/SR4148R[4] and SR4190R[5]) providing a variable scientific notation, where pressing the EE↓ and EE↑ keys shifted the exponent and decimal point by ±1[nb 2] in scientific notation. Between 1976 and 1980 the same exponent shift facility was also available on some Texas Instruments calculators of the pre-LCD era such as early SR-40,[6][7] TI-30[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] and TI-45[16][17] model variants utilizing (INV)EE↓ instead. This can be seen as a precursor to a feature implemented on many Casio calculators since 1978/1979 (e.g. in the FX-501P/FX-502P), where number display in engineering notation is available on demand by the single press of a (INV)ENG button (instead of having to activate a dedicated display mode as on most other calculators), and subsequent button presses would shift the exponent and decimal point of the number displayed by ±3[nb 2] in order to easily let results match a desired prefix. Some graphical calculators (for example the fx-9860G) in the 2000s also support the display of some SI prefixes (f, p, n, μ, m, k, M, G, T, P, E) as suffixes in engineering mode.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"significant figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figure"},{"link_name":"uncertainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CUU_2014_c-20"},{"link_name":"E notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_notation"},{"link_name":"Euler's number e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(mathematical_constant)"},{"link_name":"exa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exa-"},{"link_name":"SI prefixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_prefix"},{"link_name":"quetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quetta-"},{"link_name":"1030","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1030"},{"link_name":"ronna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronna-"},{"link_name":"1027","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1027"},{"link_name":"yotta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yotta-"},{"link_name":"1024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1024"},{"link_name":"zetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zetta-"},{"link_name":"1021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1021"},{"link_name":"exa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exa-"},{"link_name":"1018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1018"},{"link_name":"peta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peta-"},{"link_name":"1015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1015"},{"link_name":"tera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tera-"},{"link_name":"1012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#1012"},{"link_name":"giga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giga-"},{"link_name":"109","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000000000_(number)"},{"link_name":"mega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega-"},{"link_name":"106","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000000_(number)"},{"link_name":"kilo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilo-"},{"link_name":"103","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_(number)"},{"link_name":"100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_(number)"},{"link_name":"milli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milli-"},{"link_name":"10−3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.923"},{"link_name":"micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-"},{"link_name":"10−6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.926"},{"link_name":"nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nano-"},{"link_name":"10−9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.929"},{"link_name":"pico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pico-"},{"link_name":"10−12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.9212"},{"link_name":"femto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femto-"},{"link_name":"10−15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.9215"},{"link_name":"atto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atto-"},{"link_name":"10−18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.9218"},{"link_name":"zepto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zepto-"},{"link_name":"10−21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.9221"},{"link_name":"yocto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yocto-"},{"link_name":"10−24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.9224"},{"link_name":"ronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronto-"},{"link_name":"10−27","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10.E2.88.9227"},{"link_name":"quecto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quecto-"},{"link_name":"10−30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)#10%E2%88%9230"}],"text":"Compared to normalized scientific notation, one disadvantage of using SI prefixes and engineering notation is that significant figures are not always readily apparent when the smallest significant digit or digits are 0. For example, 500 μm and 500×10−6 m cannot express the uncertainty distinctions between 5×10−4 m, 5.0×10−4 m, and 5.00×10−4 m. This can be solved by changing the range of the coefficient in front of the power from the common 1–1000 to 0.001–1.0. In some cases this may be suitable; in others it may be impractical. In the previous example, 0.5 mm, 0.50 mm, or 0.500 mm would have been used to show uncertainty and significant figures. It is also common to state the precision explicitly, such as \"47 kΩ±5%\"Another example: when the speed of light (exactly 299792458 m/s[18] by the definition of the meter) is expressed as 3.00×108 m/s or 3.00×105 km/s then it is clear that it is between 299500 km/s and 300500 km/s, but when using 300×106 m/s, or 300×103 km/s, 300000 km/s, or the unusual but short 300 Mm/s, this is not clear. A possibility is using 0.300×109 m/s or 0.300 Gm/s.On the other hand, engineering notation allows the numbers to explicitly match their corresponding SI prefixes, which facilitates reading and oral communication. For example, 12.5×10−9 m can be read as \"twelve-point-five nanometers\" (10−9 being nano) and written as 12.5 nm, while its scientific notation equivalent 1.25×10−8 m would likely be read out as \"one-point-two-five times ten-to-the-negative-eight meters\".Engineering notation, like scientific notation generally, can use the E notation, such that 3.0×10−9 can be written as 3.0E−9 or 3.0e−9. The E (or e) should not be confused with the Euler's number e or the symbol for the exa-prefix.SI prefixes\n\n\nPrefix\n\nRepresentations\n\n\nName\n\nSymbol\n\nBase 1000\n\nBase 10\n\nValue\n\n\nquetta\n\nQ\n\n100010\n\n 1030\n\n1000000000000000000000000000000\n\n\nronna\n\nR\n\n10009\n\n 1027\n\n1000000000000000000000000000\n\n\nyotta\n\nY\n\n10008\n\n 1024\n\n1000000000000000000000000\n\n\nzetta\n\nZ\n\n10007\n\n 1021\n\n1000000000000000000000\n\n\nexa\n\nE\n\n10006\n\n 1018\n\n1000000000000000000\n\n\npeta\n\nP\n\n10005\n\n 1015\n\n1000000000000000\n\n\ntera\n\nT\n\n10004\n\n 1012\n\n1000000000000\n\n\ngiga\n\nG\n\n10003\n\n 109\n\n1000000000\n\n\nmega\n\nM\n\n10002\n\n 106\n\n1000000\n\n\nkilo\n\nk\n\n10001\n\n 103\n\n1000\n\n\n\n\n10000\n\n 100\n\n1\n\n\nmilli\n\nm\n\n1000−1\n\n 10−3\n\n0.001\n\n\nmicro\n\nμ\n\n1000−2\n\n 10−6\n\n0.000001\n\n\nnano\n\nn\n\n1000−3\n\n 10−9\n\n0.000000001\n\n\npico\n\np\n\n1000−4\n\n 10−12\n\n0.000000000001\n\n\nfemto\n\nf\n\n1000−5\n\n 10−15\n\n0.000000000000001\n\n\natto\n\na\n\n1000−6\n\n 10−18\n\n0.000000000000000001\n\n\nzepto\n\nz\n\n1000−7\n\n 10−21\n\n0.000000000000000000001\n\n\nyocto\n\ny\n\n1000−8\n\n 10−24 \n\n0.000000000000000000000001\n\n\nronto\n\nr\n\n1000−9\n\n 10−27 \n\n0.000000000000000000000000001\n\n\nquecto\n\nq\n\n1000−10\n\n 10−30 \n\n0.000000000000000000000000000001","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point"},{"link_name":"B notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_notation_(scientific_notation)"},{"link_name":"binary prefixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_prefix"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin_1968-21"}],"text":"Just like decimal engineering notation can be viewed as a base-1000 scientific notation (103 = 1000), binary engineering notation relates to a base-1024 scientific notation (210 = 1024), where the exponent of two must be divisible by ten. This is closely related to the base-2 floating-point representation (B notation) commonly used in computer arithmetic, and the usage of IEC binary prefixes, e.g. 1B10 for 1 × 210, 1B20 for 1 × 220, 1B30 for 1 × 230, 1B40 for 1 × 240 etc.[19]","title":"Binary engineering notation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Cubic_2-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Exp-Shift_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Exp-Shift_7-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_NewBinPrefix_22-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_NewBinPrefix_22-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_NewBinPrefix_22-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_NewBinPrefix_22-3"},{"link_name":"ronna-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronna-"},{"link_name":"quetta-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quetta-"},{"link_name":"International Committee for Weights and Measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures"},{"link_name":"robi-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robi-"},{"link_name":"quebi-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebi-"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Engineering_notation&action=edit"}],"text":"^ Except in the case of square and cubic units: in this case the SI prefixes provide only steps of a factor of one million or one billion respectively.\n\n^ a b One exponent shift action would decrease the exponent by the same amount as the decimal point would be moved to the right, so that the value of the displayed number does not change. Preceding the keypress with INV would inverse the action in the other direction.\n\n^ a b c d Natural binary counterparts to the ronna- and quetta- decimal prefixes introduced in 2022 were suggested in a consultation paper of the International Committee for Weights and Measures' Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) as robi- (Ri, 10249) and quebi- (Qi, 102410). As of 2022[update], these binary prefixes have not been adopted by the IEC and ISO.","title":"Notes"}] | [] | [{"title":"Significant figures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figures"},{"title":"Scientific notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation"},{"title":"Binary prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_prefix"},{"title":"International System of Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"title":"RKM code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RKM_code"}] | [{"reference":"Gordon, Gary B.; Reeser, Gilbert A. (May 1969). \"Introducing the Computing Counter - Here is the most significant advance in electronic counters in recent years\" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 20 (9). Hewlett-Packard Company: 2–16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-04. Retrieved 2017-06-04. […] Measurements are displayed around a stationary decimal point and the display tubes are grouped in threes to make the display more readable. The numerical display is accompanied by appropriate measurement units (hertz, second, etc.) and a prefix multiplier which is computed by the counter (e.g., k for kilo, M for mega, etc.). There are 12 digital display tubes, to permit shifting the displayed value (11 digits maximum) around the fixed decimal point. Insignificant digits and leading zeros are automatically blanked so only significant digits are displayed, or any number of digits from 3 to 11 can be selected manually. Internally, however, the computer always carries 11 digits. […]","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/pdfs/IssuePDFs/1969-05.pdf","url_text":"\"Introducing the Computing Counter - Here is the most significant advance in electronic counters in recent years\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Journal","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Company","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170604195957/http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/pdfs/IssuePDFs/1969-05.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Neff, Randall B.; Tillman, Lynn (November 1975). \"Three New Pocket Calculators: Smaller, less Costly, More Powerful\" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 27 (3). Hewlett-Packard Company: 1–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-10. Retrieved 2017-06-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/pdfs/IssuePDFs/1975-11.pdf","url_text":"\"Three New Pocket Calculators: Smaller, less Costly, More Powerful\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Journal","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Company","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170610140406/http://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/pdfs/IssuePDFs/1975-11.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"commodore - Multi-Function Preprogrammed Rechargeable Scientific Notation Calculator - Model SR4190R - Owner's Manual (PDF). Commodore. 1975. pp. 10–11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-24. Retrieved 2017-06-24. Variable scientific notation: Commodore scientific calculators offer the possibility of changing the exponent at will, therefore allowing the full choice of the unit in which the display may be read. The EE↑ and EE↓ will algebraically increment or decrement the value of the exponent by one for each depression, moving accordingly the decimal point of the mantissa.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wass.net/manuals/Commodore%20SR4190R.pdf","url_text":"commodore - Multi-Function Preprogrammed Rechargeable Scientific Notation Calculator - Model SR4190R - Owner's Manual"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International","url_text":"Commodore"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170624161616/http://www.wass.net/manuals/Commodore%20SR4190R.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_Business_Machines","url_text":"Commodore"}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/SCI/MAJESTIC/sr-40.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/SCI/MAJESTIC/TI-30.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/Sci/MAJESTIC/TI-30_BR.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/Sci/MAJESTIC/TI-30_2.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/Sci/MAJESTIC/TI-30_RCI1380.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/SCI/MAJESTIC/TI-30_1.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/Others/KohINoor/TI-30.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"Datamath\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.datamath.org/Sci/MAJESTIC/TI-45.htm","url_text":"\"Datamath\""}]},{"reference":"\"CODATA Value: Speed of light in vacuum c, c0\". CODATA 2014: The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: Fundamental Physical Constants. NIST. 2017-05-24. Archived from the original on 2017-06-25. Retrieved 2017-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?c","url_text":"\"CODATA Value: Speed of light in vacuum c, c0\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CODATA_2014","url_text":"CODATA 2014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST","url_text":"NIST"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170625090639/http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?c","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Martin, Bruce Alan (October 1968). \"Letters to the editor: On binary notation\". Communications of the ACM. 11 (10). Associated Universities Inc.: 658. doi:10.1145/364096.364107. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picture-in-picture | Picture-in-picture | ["1 History","2 Software support","3 References"] | Display of a video window within another window
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Picture-in-picture (PiP) is a feature that can be found in television receivers, personal computers, and smartphones. It consists of a video stream playing within an inset window, freeing the rest of the screen for other tasks.
For televisions, picture-in-picture requires two independent tuners or signal sources to supply the large and the small picture. Two-tuner PiP TVs have a second tuner built in, but a single-tuner PiP TV requires an external signal source, which may be an external tuner, videocassette recorder, DVD player, or cable box. Picture-in-picture is often used to watch one program while waiting for another to start or advertisements to finish.
History
Adding a picture to an existing picture was done long before affordable PiP was available on consumer products. The first PiP was seen on the televised coverage of the 1976 Summer Olympics where a Quantel digital framestore device was used to insert a close-up picture of the Olympic flame during the opening ceremony. In 1978 Sharp introduced its TV in TV "Mr.X" (CT-1804 X) in Japan; the export version began in 1979 as "Dualvision" (17D50). In 1980, NEC introduced its "Popvision" television (CV-20T74P) in Japan with a rudimentary picture-aside-picture feature: a separate 6" (15 cm) CRT and tuner complemented the set's main 20" (50 cm) screen. Its price was ¥298,000 MSRP, equal to about $1,200 (at $1 = ¥250), and $1,200 in 1980 had the approximate buying power of $3,000 in 2007.
An early consumer implementation of picture-in-picture was the Multivision set-top box; it was not a commercial success. Later, PiP became available as a feature of advanced television receivers.
The first widespread consumer implementation of picture-in-picture was produced by Philips in 1983 in their high-end television sets. A separate video or RF input was available on the back of the set and displayed in black and white on one of the four corners of the screen. Televisions at the time were still in analog format, and earlier versions of the PiP implemented in analog were too costly. New digital technology allowed the second video signal to be digitized and saved in a digital memory chip, then replayed in a mini version. While the new technology was not good enough for color or full-screen viewing, it did provide a low-cost PiP feature.
The Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD specifications included picture in picture, allowing viewers to see content such as the director's commentary on a film they are watching. All the Blu-ray Disc titles in 2006 and 2007 that had a PiP track used two separate HD encodings, with one of the HD encodings including a hard-coded PiP track. Starting in 2008 Blu-ray Disc titles started being released that use one HD and one SD video track which can be combined with a Bonus View or BD-Live player. This method uses less disc space, allowing for PiP to be more easily added to a title. Several studios released Bonus View PiP Blu-ray Disc titles in 2008 such as Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem, Resident Evil: Extinction, V for Vendetta, and War.
In 2011, after DirecTV released the HR34 Home Media Center HD DVR, Picture in Picture was introduced to all HD DVR models onwards; The feature has five options: Upper Left, Upper Right, Lower Right, Lower Left, and Side-by-Side.
Software support
Some streaming video websites may minimize a video stream similarly when browsing outside the playback page. Some web browsers (including Google Chrome, Firefox, and Safari) provide APIs or similar functions that allow a playing video to be opened in a pop-up overlay atop other applications.
The mobile operating systems Android (starting with Android 7.0 for Android TV devices and Android 8.0 for other devices) and iOS (starting with iOS 14) similarly provide native APIs for picture-in-picture overlays.
References
^ Peter M. Bracke (April 18, 2008). "Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on July 26, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.
^ Joshua Zyber (January 7, 2008). "Resident Evil: Extinction". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on March 29, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.
^ Peter M. Bracke (May 14, 2008). "V for Vendetta". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.
^ Kenneth S. Brown (January 18, 2008). "War". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on March 9, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.
^ Sweet, Stuart (February 4, 2018). "TIP: Watch two programs at the same time with DIRECTV". The Solid Signal Blog. Archived from the original on March 21, 2020. Retrieved January 5, 2020.
^ HR34-700 PIP, archived from the original on February 21, 2020, retrieved January 5, 2020
^ "Firefox 63 arrives with Enhanced Tracking Protection, search shortcuts, and Picture-in-Picture on Android". VentureBeat. October 23, 2018. Archived from the original on April 19, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
^ Porter, Jon (October 19, 2018). "Chrome 70 brings picture-in-picture support to Windows and Mac". The Verge. Archived from the original on January 10, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
^ Amadeo, Ron (September 4, 2017). "Android 8.0 Oreo, thoroughly reviewed". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on April 12, 2024. Retrieved May 16, 2024.
^ "iOS 14: How to do Picture in Picture video multitasking on iPhone". 9to5Mac. September 17, 2020. Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved September 22, 2020. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"personal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"tuners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuner_(radio)"},{"link_name":"videocassette recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorder"},{"link_name":"DVD player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_player"},{"link_name":"cable box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_converter_box"},{"link_name":"advertisements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisement"}],"text":"Picture-in-picture (PiP) is a feature that can be found in television receivers, personal computers, and smartphones. It consists of a video stream playing within an inset window, freeing the rest of the screen for other tasks.For televisions, picture-in-picture requires two independent tuners or signal sources to supply the large and the small picture. Two-tuner PiP TVs have a second tuner built in, but a single-tuner PiP TV requires an external signal source, which may be an external tuner, videocassette recorder, DVD player, or cable box. Picture-in-picture is often used to watch one program while waiting for another to start or advertisements to finish.","title":"Picture-in-picture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1976 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Quantel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantel"},{"link_name":"Olympic flame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_flame"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=dPghCfOew7M"},{"link_name":"MSRP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSRP"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/EXJPUS.txt"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl"},{"link_name":"Multivision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivision_(television_technology)"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video"},{"link_name":"black and white","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_and_white"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray Disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc"},{"link_name":"HD DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_DVD"},{"link_name":"Bonus View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BD-J"},{"link_name":"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliens_vs._Predator:_Requiem"},{"link_name":"Resident Evil: Extinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil:_Extinction"},{"link_name":"V for Vendetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_for_Vendetta_(film)"},{"link_name":"War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_(2007_film)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"DirecTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirecTV"},{"link_name":"DVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video_recorder"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Adding a picture to an existing picture was done long before affordable PiP was available on consumer products. The first PiP was seen on the televised coverage of the 1976 Summer Olympics where a Quantel digital framestore device was used to insert a close-up picture of the Olympic flame during the opening ceremony. In 1978 Sharp introduced its TV in TV \"Mr.X\" (CT-1804 X) in Japan; the export version began in 1979 as \"Dualvision\" (17D50). In 1980, NEC introduced its \"Popvision\" television (CV-20T74P) [1] in Japan with a rudimentary picture-aside-picture feature: a separate 6\" (15 cm) CRT and tuner complemented the set's main 20\" (50 cm) screen. Its price was ¥298,000 MSRP, equal to about $1,200 (at $1 = ¥250)[2], and $1,200 in 1980 had the approximate buying power of $3,000 in 2007.[3]An early consumer implementation of picture-in-picture was the Multivision set-top box; it was not a commercial success. Later, PiP became available as a feature of advanced television receivers.The first widespread consumer implementation of picture-in-picture was produced by Philips in 1983 in their high-end television sets. A separate video or RF input was available on the back of the set and displayed in black and white on one of the four corners of the screen. Televisions at the time were still in analog format, and earlier versions of the PiP implemented in analog were too costly. New digital technology allowed the second video signal to be digitized and saved in a digital memory chip, then replayed in a mini version. While the new technology was not good enough for color or full-screen viewing, it did provide a low-cost PiP feature.The Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD specifications included picture in picture, allowing viewers to see content such as the director's commentary on a film they are watching. All the Blu-ray Disc titles in 2006 and 2007 that had a PiP track used two separate HD encodings, with one of the HD encodings including a hard-coded PiP track. Starting in 2008 Blu-ray Disc titles started being released that use one HD and one SD video track which can be combined with a Bonus View or BD-Live player. This method uses less disc space, allowing for PiP to be more easily added to a title. Several studios released Bonus View PiP Blu-ray Disc titles in 2008 such as Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem, Resident Evil: Extinction, V for Vendetta, and War.[1][2][3][4]In 2011, after DirecTV released the HR34 Home Media Center HD DVR, Picture in Picture was introduced to all HD DVR models onwards; The feature has five options: Upper Left, Upper Right, Lower Right, Lower Left, and Side-by-Side.[5][6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"streaming video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_video"},{"link_name":"Google Chrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Chrome"},{"link_name":"Firefox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firefox"},{"link_name":"Safari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_(web_browser)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"mobile operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_operating_system"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Android 7.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_7.0"},{"link_name":"Android TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_TV"},{"link_name":"Android 8.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_8.0"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"iOS 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Some streaming video websites may minimize a video stream similarly when browsing outside the playback page. Some web browsers (including Google Chrome, Firefox, and Safari) provide APIs or similar functions that allow a playing video to be opened in a pop-up overlay atop other applications.[7][8]The mobile operating systems Android (starting with Android 7.0 for Android TV devices and Android 8.0 for other devices)[9] and iOS (starting with iOS 14)[10] similarly provide native APIs for picture-in-picture overlays.","title":"Software support"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Peter M. Bracke (April 18, 2008). \"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem\". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on July 26, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1369/alienvspredatorrequiem.html","url_text":"\"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080726170102/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1369/alienvspredatorrequiem.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Joshua Zyber (January 7, 2008). \"Resident Evil: Extinction\". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on March 29, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1212/residentevilextinction.html","url_text":"\"Resident Evil: Extinction\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080329063723/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1212/residentevilextinction.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Peter M. Bracke (May 14, 2008). \"V for Vendetta\". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/373/vforvendetta.html","url_text":"\"V for Vendetta\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080517043215/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/373/vforvendetta.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kenneth S. Brown (January 18, 2008). \"War\". High-Def Digest. Archived from the original on March 9, 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1189/war.html","url_text":"\"War\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080309083448/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1189/war.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sweet, Stuart (February 4, 2018). \"TIP: Watch two programs at the same time with DIRECTV\". The Solid Signal Blog. Archived from the original on March 21, 2020. Retrieved January 5, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.solidsignal.com/tutorials/tip-watch-two-programs-time-directv/","url_text":"\"TIP: Watch two programs at the same time with DIRECTV\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200321003739/https://blog.solidsignal.com/tutorials/tip-watch-two-programs-time-directv/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"HR34-700 PIP, archived from the original on February 21, 2020, retrieved January 5, 2020","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhM4n72J-Vc","url_text":"HR34-700 PIP"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200221013725/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhM4n72J-Vc&gl=US&hl=en","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Firefox 63 arrives with Enhanced Tracking Protection, search shortcuts, and Picture-in-Picture on Android\". VentureBeat. October 23, 2018. Archived from the original on April 19, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2018/10/23/mozilla-firefox-63/","url_text":"\"Firefox 63 arrives with Enhanced Tracking Protection, search shortcuts, and Picture-in-Picture on Android\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190419213921/https://venturebeat.com/2018/10/23/mozilla-firefox-63/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Porter, Jon (October 19, 2018). \"Chrome 70 brings picture-in-picture support to Windows and Mac\". The Verge. Archived from the original on January 10, 2019. Retrieved April 19, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/19/17999482/chrome-70-picture-video-youtube-android-windows-mac-linux","url_text":"\"Chrome 70 brings picture-in-picture support to Windows and Mac\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190110184330/https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/19/17999482/chrome-70-picture-video-youtube-android-windows-mac-linux","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Amadeo, Ron (September 4, 2017). \"Android 8.0 Oreo, thoroughly reviewed\". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on April 12, 2024. Retrieved May 16, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/09/android-8-0-oreo-thoroughly-reviewed/6/#h6","url_text":"\"Android 8.0 Oreo, thoroughly reviewed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ars_Technica","url_text":"Ars Technica"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240412041919/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/09/android-8-0-oreo-thoroughly-reviewed/6/#h6","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"iOS 14: How to do Picture in Picture video multitasking on iPhone\". 9to5Mac. September 17, 2020. Archived from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved September 22, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://9to5mac.com/2020/09/17/how-to-picture-in-picture-video-iphone-ios-14/","url_text":"\"iOS 14: How to do Picture in Picture video multitasking on iPhone\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210128224040/https://9to5mac.com/2020/09/17/how-to-picture-in-picture-video-iphone-ios-14/","url_text":"Archived"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Picture-in-picture%22","external_links_name":"\"Picture-in-picture\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Picture-in-picture%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Picture-in-picture%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Picture-in-picture%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Picture-in-picture%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Picture-in-picture%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dPghCfOew7M","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/data/EXJPUS.txt","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl","external_links_name":"[3]"},{"Link":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1369/alienvspredatorrequiem.html","external_links_name":"\"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080726170102/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1369/alienvspredatorrequiem.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1212/residentevilextinction.html","external_links_name":"\"Resident Evil: Extinction\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080329063723/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1212/residentevilextinction.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/373/vforvendetta.html","external_links_name":"\"V for Vendetta\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080517043215/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/373/vforvendetta.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1189/war.html","external_links_name":"\"War\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080309083448/http://bluray.highdefdigest.com/1189/war.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://blog.solidsignal.com/tutorials/tip-watch-two-programs-time-directv/","external_links_name":"\"TIP: Watch two programs at the same time with DIRECTV\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200321003739/https://blog.solidsignal.com/tutorials/tip-watch-two-programs-time-directv/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhM4n72J-Vc","external_links_name":"HR34-700 PIP"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200221013725/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhM4n72J-Vc&gl=US&hl=en","external_links_name":"archived"},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2018/10/23/mozilla-firefox-63/","external_links_name":"\"Firefox 63 arrives with Enhanced Tracking Protection, search shortcuts, and Picture-in-Picture on Android\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190419213921/https://venturebeat.com/2018/10/23/mozilla-firefox-63/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/19/17999482/chrome-70-picture-video-youtube-android-windows-mac-linux","external_links_name":"\"Chrome 70 brings picture-in-picture support to Windows and Mac\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190110184330/https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/19/17999482/chrome-70-picture-video-youtube-android-windows-mac-linux","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/09/android-8-0-oreo-thoroughly-reviewed/6/#h6","external_links_name":"\"Android 8.0 Oreo, thoroughly reviewed\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240412041919/https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/09/android-8-0-oreo-thoroughly-reviewed/6/#h6","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://9to5mac.com/2020/09/17/how-to-picture-in-picture-video-iphone-ios-14/","external_links_name":"\"iOS 14: How to do Picture in Picture video multitasking on iPhone\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210128224040/https://9to5mac.com/2020/09/17/how-to-picture-in-picture-video-iphone-ios-14/","external_links_name":"Archived"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogue_raisonn%C3%A9 | Catalogue raisonné | ["1 Etymology","2 Description","3 Role in authentication","3.1 Wildenstein example","3.2 Destruction of fake paintings","4 Examples","5 Explanatory notes","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"] | Comprehensive, annotated listing of all the known artworks by an artist
A volume from Graham Reynolds's catalogue raisonné of John Constable
A catalogue raisonné (or critical catalogue) is a comprehensive, annotated listing of all the known artworks by an artist either in a particular medium or all media. The works are described in such a way that they may be reliably identified by third parties, and such listings play an important role in authentication.
Etymology
The term catalogue raisonné is French, meaning "reasoned catalogue" (i.e. containing arguments for the information given, such as attributions), but is part of the technical terminology of the English-speaking art world. The spelling is never Americanized to "catalog", even in the United States. The French pluralization catalogues raisonnés is used.
Description
There are many variations, both broader and narrower than "all the works" or "one artist". The parameters may be restricted to one type of artwork by one artist or widened to all the works by a group of artists.
It can take many years to complete a catalogue raisonné, and large teams of researchers are sometimes employed on the task. For example, about 25 people reportedly contributed over 11 years to the three-volume catalogue raisonné for abstract-expressionist painter Robert Motherwell, an effort organized by the Dedalus Foundation and published by Yale University Press in 2012.
Early examples consisted of two distinct parts: a biography and the catalogue itself. Their modern counterpart is the critical catalogue, which may contain personal views of the author.
Role in authentication
The New York Times has described catalogues raisonnés as the definitive, scholarly compendia of an artist's work, the "supreme arbiter of the genuine and fake". In the case of deceased artists the producer of a catalogue raisonné which is regarded as a standard text may have considerable power to determine whether a particular work is regarded as authentic or not. In this context "producers" may include authors, editors, committees or publishers.
Inclusion in or exclusion from a respected catalogue raisonné can have a considerable effect on the market price of a work, amounting in some cases to large sums of money. Inclusion has been called the difference between "great wealth and the gutter", and auction houses sometimes refuse to handle unlisted works. As a result, catalogue raisonné authors have been the targets of lawsuits, and allegedly of bribes and even death threats although no evidence of the latter has reached the courts.
Difficulties can occur when more than one catalogue raisonné is published for the same oeuvre. The work of the artist Amedeo Modigliani is the subject of at least five catalogues raisonnés.
In 2012, the New York Times reported that some scholars and artists' foundations have decided not to publish future catalogues raisonnés because they fear being sued by buyers or sellers unhappy with their conclusions. The question of whether producers of catalogues raisonnés should accept responsibility for determining the authenticity of works was debated at a seminar on 29 March 2012 held at Christie's, New York under the auspices of the Catalogue Raisonné Scholars Association.
Wildenstein example
An example of individual policies is given by the Wildenstein Institute's stated policy with regard to the authentication of artworks which (at 8 February 2014) was as follows: 'After examination, and based on the opinion of the members of the committee, a recommendation is made in the form of the intention to include or not to include the work under study; a third possibility also exists, that of continuing the examination of the work. Under no circumstance is a recommendation to be considered as a certificate of authenticity or appraisal, and no justification will be provided for said recommendation.' This policy contrasts with the text of the letter from the Institute which was read out on the first-ever episode of the 2011 British television series, Fake or Fortune?:
In the first-ever episode of Fake or Fortune?, broadcast in 2011, the subject was the authenticity of the Claude Monet painting Bords de la Seine à Argenteuil. The painting was submitted to the Wildenstein Institute which is the publisher of the catalogues raisonnés most widely accepted as authoritative on the subject of Monet paintings. The result of this submission was that the institute, acting in accordance with the wishes of a descendant of the original author of the catalogues, refused to include it in future editions. This decision was taken despite the fact that the Institute had been presented with considerable evidence of the painting's authenticity.
In contrast to this decision, episode one series 3 of the programme, broadcast in 2014, investigated one of a group of paintings reputedly by French post-impressionist Édouard Vuillard and on this occasion, a committee of the Wildenstein Institute decided that the painting should be included in their catalogue raisonné for the artist. The art dealer and historian Philip Mould stated while presenting the programme that this painting would be worth approximately £250,000 if it was accepted for inclusion in the catalogue raisonné, but that if it was not accepted it would be worth approximately £1,500 'as a piece of decorative art' – less than 1% of the full value.
Destruction of fake paintings
Even if there is no published catalogue raisonné for an artist, there may be an organization that publishes authentications which are regarded as having the same effect as a formal catalogue. In episode 3 series 3 in the UK television series, Fake or Fortune? the subject was a painting that bore a signature reading "Marc Chagall". It had been included in a reference work on the painter, but not in the most recent edition of that work, and forensic tests showed that it was painted with pigments not available at the time it was purported to have been executed. Despite this uncertain evidence of authenticity, the makers of the programme submitted it to a group referred to as the "Chagall Committee", which includes descendants of the artist. This committee ruled that the painting is a fake and sought its destruction either with the agreement of the owner or, failing that, by court order under the French law of droit moral.
The art historian Dr Bendor Grosvenor criticised the Chagall Committee's decision to seek the destruction of the painting, which contrasts with the policy of the Wildenstein Institute when works are submitted to it: "Whatever the committee's recommendation, the work will be returned upon presentation of the consignment receipt". Presenter and art dealer Philip Mould said "I would now three times or more before sending it to Paris. Ugly acts like the one proposed by the Committee can have the effect of damaging the progress of art history."
Examples
Andy Warhol Prints: A Catalogue Raisonné 1962-1987 by Frayda Feldman, Claudia Defendi, Jörg Schellmann is widely considered to be the most authoritative listing of Andy Warhol's prints.
Explanatory notes
^ As seen in the CRSA homepage, catalogueraisonne.org.
^ Wildenstein Index Number
References
^ Reynolds, Graham. The Early Paintings and Drawings of John Constable, (London: Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art and Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 9780300063370
^ "What is a Catalogue Raisonné?", New York Public Library.
^ a b "Catalogue raisonné", Online Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ "Car-Caz". ArtLex.com. 13 July 2007. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 26 November 2018. Although 'catalogue raisonné' was originally a French term, English speakers have used it for a long time.
^ FAQ, placing the Catalogue Raisonné in context with other types of art catalogues: "What Is a Catalogue?". ArtHistory.About.com. Archived from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
^ Roeder, Oliver (17 August 2017). "One Art Lover's Crusade To Catalog The World". FiveThirtyEight. Such a catalog can itself represent the life's work of the scholar who compiles it. It took Jacob-Baart de la Faille 11 years to complete van Gogh's catalog. Monet's catalog was published over a span of 18 years by a French billionaire. And it took 46 years for all of Picasso's catalog to be released, while its publisher sold his car and apartment to finance the project.
^ Flam, J.; Rogers, K.; and Clifford, T. (2012). "Robert Motherwell Paintings and Collages: A Catalogue Raisonné 1941–1991". Archived from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300149159.
^ Boroff and Kazakina (2013). A $40,000-an-Hour Fee, Lawsuits Rock Artist Foundations", BusinessWeek.com.
^ a b c "Catalogue Raisonné, Critical Catalogue". Wildenstein Institute. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
^ a b Cohen, Patricia (19 June 2012). "In Art, Freedom of Expression Doesn't Extend to 'Is It Real?'", New York Times.
^ a b c Cohen, Patricia (2 February 2014). "A Modigliani? Who Says So?", New York Times.
^ Harris, Gareth (2013). ""Modigliani Institute president arrested", The Art Newspaper". Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ ""Programs", Catalogue Raisonne Scholars Association". Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
^ ""Catalogue of Publications", Wildenstein Institute". Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
^ "Reviews". The Arts Desk. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 13 July 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
^ "Painting Bought For £3,000 On Ebay Actually Worth A Fortune". Huffington Post. 20 January 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
^ Transcribed from BBC iPlayer: Fake or Fortune? S3 E1/4: "Vuillard", BBC.co.UK.
^ Alberge, Dalya (1 February 2014). "The man whose 'real Chagall' could now be burnt as a fake, Guardian.com (2014/02/01).
^ (2014). "Mon Dieu - le feu! (ctd.)", Art History News.
^ Mould, Philip (2 February 2014). "Burning fake paintings could damage art history". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
^ "Andy Warhol Print Guide | Warhol Catalogue Raisonne". Andipa Editions. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
Further reading
Art Books: A Basic Bibliography of Monographs on Artists (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) by W. Freitag; Publisher: Routledge; Second Edition (April 1, 1997)
Judging the Authenticity of Prints by The Masters: A Primer for Collectors by David Rudd Cycleback
External links
The Catalogue Raisonné Scholars Association
The International Foundation for Art Research's database of catalogues raisonnés
Authentication in Art 2014 Guidelines on Catalogues Raisonnés
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2 | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_early_paintings_and_drawings_of_John_Constable_cover.jpg"},{"link_name":"Graham Reynolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Reynolds_(art_historian)"},{"link_name":"John Constable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Constable"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"A volume from Graham Reynolds's catalogue raisonné of John Constable[1]A catalogue raisonné (or critical catalogue) is a comprehensive, annotated listing of all the known artworks by an artist either in a particular medium or all media.[2] The works are described in such a way that they may be reliably identified by third parties, and such listings play an important role in authentication.","title":"Catalogue raisonné"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Merriam-Webster-3"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The term catalogue raisonné is French, meaning \"reasoned catalogue\"[3] (i.e. containing arguments for the information given, such as attributions), but is part of the technical terminology of the English-speaking art world. The spelling is never Americanized to \"catalog\", even in the United States.[4][5] The French pluralization catalogues raisonnés is used.[3][a]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Robert Motherwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Motherwell"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wildenstein_Institute-10"}],"text":"There are many variations, both broader and narrower than \"all the works\" or \"one artist\". The parameters may be restricted to one type of artwork by one artist or widened to all the works by a group of artists.It can take many years to complete a catalogue raisonné,[6] and large teams of researchers are sometimes employed on the task. For example, about 25 people reportedly contributed over 11 years to the three-volume catalogue raisonné for abstract-expressionist painter Robert Motherwell, an effort organized by the Dedalus Foundation and published by Yale University Press in 2012.[7][8]Early examples consisted of two distinct parts: a biography and the catalogue itself. Their modern counterpart is the critical catalogue, which may contain personal views of the author.[9]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cohen-11"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cohen-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times_2014/02/03-13"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times_2014/02/03-13"},{"link_name":"Amedeo Modigliani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_York_Times_2014/02/03-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The New York Times has described catalogues raisonnés as the definitive, scholarly compendia of an artist's work, the \"supreme arbiter of the genuine and fake\".[10] In the case of deceased artists the producer of a catalogue raisonné which is regarded as a standard text may have considerable power to determine whether a particular work is regarded as authentic or not.[b] In this context \"producers\" may include authors, editors, committees or publishers.Inclusion in or exclusion from a respected catalogue raisonné can have a considerable effect on the market price of a work, amounting in some cases to large sums of money. Inclusion has been called the difference between \"great wealth and the gutter\",[10] and auction houses sometimes refuse to handle unlisted works.[11] As a result, catalogue raisonné authors have been the targets of lawsuits, and allegedly of bribes and even death threats[11] although no evidence of the latter has reached the courts.Difficulties can occur when more than one catalogue raisonné is published for the same oeuvre. The work of the artist Amedeo Modigliani is the subject of at least five catalogues raisonnés.[12]In 2012, the New York Times reported that some scholars and artists' foundations have decided not to publish future catalogues raisonnés because they fear being sued by buyers or sellers unhappy with their conclusions.[11] The question of whether producers of catalogues raisonnés should accept responsibility for determining the authenticity of works was debated at a seminar on 29 March 2012 held at Christie's, New York under the auspices of the Catalogue Raisonné Scholars Association.[13]","title":"Role in authentication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wildenstein_Institute-10"},{"link_name":"first-ever episode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_or_Fortune%3F#Series_1_(2011)"},{"link_name":"Fake or Fortune?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_or_Fortune%3F"},{"link_name":"Fake or Fortune?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_or_Fortune%3F"},{"link_name":"Claude Monet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Monet"},{"link_name":"Bords de la Seine à Argenteuil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bords_de_la_Seine_%C3%A0_Argenteuil"},{"link_name":"Wildenstein Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildenstein_Institute"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"authoritative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildenstein_Index_Number"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"episode one series 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_or_Fortune%3F#Series_3_(2014)"},{"link_name":"group of paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Grand_Teddy_tea-rooms_paintings"},{"link_name":"Édouard Vuillard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Vuillard"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Huff_vuillard-18"},{"link_name":"Philip Mould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Mould"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Wildenstein example","text":"An example of individual policies is given by the Wildenstein Institute's stated policy with regard to the authentication of artworks which (at 8 February 2014) was as follows: 'After examination, and based on the opinion of the members of the committee, a recommendation is made in the form of the intention to include or not to include the work under study; a third possibility also exists, that of continuing the examination of the work. Under no circumstance is a recommendation to be considered as a certificate of authenticity or appraisal, and no justification will be provided for said recommendation.'[9] This policy contrasts with the text of the letter from the Institute which was read out on the first-ever episode of the 2011 British television series, Fake or Fortune?:In the first-ever episode of Fake or Fortune?, broadcast in 2011, the subject was the authenticity of the Claude Monet painting Bords de la Seine à Argenteuil. The painting was submitted to the Wildenstein Institute which is the publisher of the catalogues raisonnés[14] most widely accepted as authoritative on the subject of Monet paintings. The result of this submission was that the institute, acting in accordance with the wishes of a descendant of the original author of the catalogues, refused to include it in future editions. This decision was taken despite the fact that the Institute had been presented with considerable evidence of the painting's authenticity.[15]\nIn contrast to this decision, episode one series 3 of the programme, broadcast in 2014, investigated one of a group of paintings reputedly by French post-impressionist Édouard Vuillard and on this occasion, a committee of the Wildenstein Institute decided that the painting should be included in their catalogue raisonné for the artist.[16] The art dealer and historian Philip Mould stated while presenting the programme that this painting would be worth approximately £250,000 if it was accepted for inclusion in the catalogue raisonné, but that if it was not accepted it would be worth approximately £1,500 'as a piece of decorative art' – less than 1% of the full value.[17]","title":"Role in authentication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"episode 3 series 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_or_Fortune%3F#Series_3_(2014)"},{"link_name":"Marc Chagall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall"},{"link_name":"droit moral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_moral"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Bendor Grosvenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendor_Grosvenor"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wildenstein_Institute-10"},{"link_name":"Philip Mould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Mould"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Destruction of fake paintings","text":"Even if there is no published catalogue raisonné for an artist, there may be an organization that publishes authentications which are regarded as having the same effect as a formal catalogue. In episode 3 series 3 in the UK television series, Fake or Fortune? the subject was a painting that bore a signature reading \"Marc Chagall\". It had been included in a reference work on the painter, but not in the most recent edition of that work, and forensic tests showed that it was painted with pigments not available at the time it was purported to have been executed. Despite this uncertain evidence of authenticity, the makers of the programme submitted it to a group referred to as the \"Chagall Committee\", which includes descendants of the artist. This committee ruled that the painting is a fake and sought its destruction either with the agreement of the owner or, failing that, by court order under the French law of droit moral.[18]The art historian Dr Bendor Grosvenor criticised the Chagall Committee's decision to seek the destruction of the painting,[19] which contrasts with the policy of the Wildenstein Institute when works are submitted to it: \"Whatever the committee's recommendation, the work will be returned upon presentation of the consignment receipt\".[9] Presenter and art dealer Philip Mould said \"I would now [think] three times or more before sending it to Paris. Ugly acts like the one proposed by the Committee can have the effect of damaging the progress of art history.\"[20]","title":"Role in authentication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Andy Warhol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Warhol"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Andy Warhol Prints: A Catalogue Raisonné 1962-1987 by Frayda Feldman, Claudia Defendi, Jörg Schellmann is widely considered to be the most authoritative listing of Andy Warhol's prints.[21]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"catalogueraisonne.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.catalogueraisonne.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Wildenstein Index Number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildenstein_Index_Number"}],"text":"^ As seen in the CRSA homepage, catalogueraisonne.org.\n\n^ Wildenstein Index Number","title":"Explanatory notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Art Books: A Basic Bibliography of Monographs on Artists (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities) by W. Freitag; Publisher: Routledge; Second Edition (April 1, 1997)\nJudging the Authenticity of Prints by The Masters: A Primer for Collectors by David Rudd Cycleback","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"A volume from Graham Reynolds's catalogue raisonné of John Constable[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/The_early_paintings_and_drawings_of_John_Constable_cover.jpg/220px-The_early_paintings_and_drawings_of_John_Constable_cover.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Car-Caz\". ArtLex.com. 13 July 2007. Archived from the original on 13 July 2007. Retrieved 26 November 2018. Although 'catalogue raisonné' was originally a French term, English speakers have used it for a long time.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070713171515/http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/Car.html","url_text":"\"Car-Caz\""},{"url":"https://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/Car.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"What Is a Catalogue?\". ArtHistory.About.com. Archived from the original on 9 September 2017. Retrieved 19 February 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170909211530/http://arthistory.about.com/od/artspeak_faqs/f/catalogue.htm","url_text":"\"What Is a Catalogue?\""},{"url":"http://arthistory.about.com/od/artspeak_faqs/f/catalogue.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Roeder, Oliver (17 August 2017). \"One Art Lover's Crusade To Catalog The World\". FiveThirtyEight. Such a catalog can itself represent the life's work of the scholar who compiles it. It took Jacob-Baart de la Faille 11 years to complete van Gogh's catalog. Monet's catalog was published over a span of 18 years by a French billionaire. And it took 46 years for all of Picasso's catalog to be released, while its publisher sold his car and apartment to finance the project.","urls":[{"url":"https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/one-art-lovers-crusade-to-catalog-the-world/","url_text":"\"One Art Lover's Crusade To Catalog The World\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FiveThirtyEight","url_text":"FiveThirtyEight"}]},{"reference":"\"Robert Motherwell Paintings and Collages: A Catalogue Raisonné 1941–1991\". Archived from the original on 29 September 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140929215632/http://yalebooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9780300149159","url_text":"\"Robert Motherwell Paintings and Collages: A Catalogue Raisonné 1941–1991\""}]},{"reference":"\"Catalogue Raisonné, Critical Catalogue\". Wildenstein Institute. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140223131620/http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-catalogue-raisonne-catalogue-critique&lang=en","url_text":"\"Catalogue Raisonné, Critical Catalogue\""},{"url":"http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-catalogue-raisonne-catalogue-critique&lang=en","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"\"Modigliani Institute president arrested\", The Art Newspaper\". Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150404042512/http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Modigliani-Institute-president-arrested/28490","url_text":"\"\"Modigliani Institute president arrested\", The Art Newspaper\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"Programs\", Catalogue Raisonne Scholars Association\". Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140222195618/http://www.catalogueraisonne.org/programs/programs.html","url_text":"\"\"Programs\", Catalogue Raisonne Scholars Association\""},{"url":"http://www.catalogueraisonne.org/programs/programs.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"\"Catalogue of Publications\", Wildenstein Institute\". Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140223132505/http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-publications-liste&lang=en","url_text":"\"\"Catalogue of Publications\", Wildenstein Institute\""},{"url":"http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-publications-liste&lang=en","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Reviews\". The Arts Desk. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 13 July 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180713074928/https://theartsdesk.com/?option=com_k2&view=item&id=3936%3Afake-or-fortune%3F-episodes-1-2-bbc1&Itemid=27","url_text":"\"Reviews\""},{"url":"http://www.theartsdesk.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=3936:fake-or-fortune?-episodes-1-2-bbc1&Itemid=27","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Painting Bought For £3,000 On Ebay Actually Worth A Fortune\". Huffington Post. 20 January 2014. Retrieved 24 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/01/20/ebay-painting-fortune_n_4630252.html","url_text":"\"Painting Bought For £3,000 On Ebay Actually Worth A Fortune\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffington_Post","url_text":"Huffington Post"}]},{"reference":"Mould, Philip (2 February 2014). \"Burning fake paintings could damage art history\". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 9 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-news/10612704/Philip-Mould-burning-fake-paintings-could-damage-art-history.html","url_text":"\"Burning fake paintings could damage art history\""}]},{"reference":"\"Andy Warhol Print Guide | Warhol Catalogue Raisonne\". Andipa Editions. Retrieved 21 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://andipaeditions.com/andy-warhol-print-guide/","url_text":"\"Andy Warhol Print Guide | Warhol Catalogue Raisonne\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.catalogueraisonne.org/","external_links_name":"catalogueraisonne.org"},{"Link":"http://www.nypl.org/node/29583","external_links_name":"What is a Catalogue Raisonné?"},{"Link":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/catalogue+raisonne","external_links_name":"Catalogue raisonné"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070713171515/http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/Car.html","external_links_name":"\"Car-Caz\""},{"Link":"https://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/Car.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170909211530/http://arthistory.about.com/od/artspeak_faqs/f/catalogue.htm","external_links_name":"\"What Is a Catalogue?\""},{"Link":"http://arthistory.about.com/od/artspeak_faqs/f/catalogue.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/one-art-lovers-crusade-to-catalog-the-world/","external_links_name":"\"One Art Lover's Crusade To Catalog The World\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140929215632/http://yalebooks.co.uk/display.asp?K=9780300149159","external_links_name":"\"Robert Motherwell Paintings and Collages: A Catalogue Raisonné 1941–1991\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-09-09/a-40-000-an-hour-fee-lawsuits-rock-artist-foundations","external_links_name":"A $40,000-an-Hour Fee, Lawsuits Rock Artist Foundations"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140223131620/http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-catalogue-raisonne-catalogue-critique&lang=en","external_links_name":"\"Catalogue Raisonné, Critical Catalogue\""},{"Link":"http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-catalogue-raisonne-catalogue-critique&lang=en","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/20/arts/design/art-scholars-fear-lawsuits-in-declaring-works-real-or-fake.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0","external_links_name":"In Art, Freedom of Expression Doesn't Extend to 'Is It Real?'"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/03/arts/design/a-modigliani-who-says-so.html?ref=design&_r=2","external_links_name":"A Modigliani? Who Says So?"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150404042512/http://www.theartnewspaper.com/articles/Modigliani-Institute-president-arrested/28490","external_links_name":"\"\"Modigliani Institute president arrested\", The Art Newspaper\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140222195618/http://www.catalogueraisonne.org/programs/programs.html","external_links_name":"\"\"Programs\", Catalogue Raisonne Scholars Association\""},{"Link":"http://www.catalogueraisonne.org/programs/programs.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140223132505/http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-publications-liste&lang=en","external_links_name":"\"\"Catalogue of Publications\", Wildenstein Institute\""},{"Link":"http://wildenstein-institute.fr/spip.php?page=wildenstein-publications-liste&lang=en","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180713074928/https://theartsdesk.com/?option=com_k2&view=item&id=3936%3Afake-or-fortune%3F-episodes-1-2-bbc1&Itemid=27","external_links_name":"\"Reviews\""},{"Link":"http://www.theartsdesk.com/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=3936:fake-or-fortune?-episodes-1-2-bbc1&Itemid=27","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/01/20/ebay-painting-fortune_n_4630252.html","external_links_name":"\"Painting Bought For £3,000 On Ebay Actually Worth A Fortune\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03rmbqc","external_links_name":"Fake or Fortune? S3 E1/4: \"Vuillard\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/feb/01/chagall-could-be-furnt-fortune-or-fake","external_links_name":"The man whose 'real Chagall' could now be burnt as a fake"},{"Link":"http://www.arthistorynews.com/articles/2641_Mon_Dieu__le_feu_ctd","external_links_name":"Mon Dieu - le feu! (ctd.)"},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-news/10612704/Philip-Mould-burning-fake-paintings-could-damage-art-history.html","external_links_name":"\"Burning fake paintings could damage art history\""},{"Link":"https://andipaeditions.com/andy-warhol-print-guide/","external_links_name":"\"Andy Warhol Print Guide | Warhol Catalogue Raisonne\""},{"Link":"http://www.catalogueraisonne.org/","external_links_name":"The Catalogue Raisonné Scholars Association"},{"Link":"http://www.ifar.org/cat_rais.php","external_links_name":"The International Foundation for Art Research's database of catalogues raisonnés"},{"Link":"http://authenticationinart.org/pdf/Guidelines.pdf","external_links_name":"Authentication in Art 2014 Guidelines on Catalogues Raisonnés"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120780077","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120780077","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4189680-4","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007284859505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85020925","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh99001388","external_links_name":"2"}] |
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Crocus Technology International CorporationCompany typePrivateIndustrySemiconductorsFounded2004; 20 years ago (2004)HeadquartersMilpitas, California, USANumber of locations
Milpitas, California
Grenoble, France
Beijing, China
Key peopleZack Deiri, (President & CEO)
Ken Mc Kay, (VP Tech. Development)
Jeff Childress, (CTO)
Anuraag Mohan, (VP Applications)ProductsIntegrated magnetic sensors for industrial, automotive, and consumer applications.OwnerIndependent (2004–23)Allegro MicroSystems (2023–present)Number of employees~75Websitecrocus-technology.com
Crocus Technology, founded in 2004, is a venture-capital-backed semiconductor startup company developing and manufacturing integrated magnetic field sensors for a variety of applications: Automotive, consumer goods, industrial and medical IoT.
History
Crocus Technology was founded at Grenoble in 2004, based on research at the Spintec laboratory. It eventually moved its headquarters to Santa Clara, California, but retained its engineering base in Grenoble.
The company initially developed its MLU™ (Magnetic Logic Unit™) technology for stand-alone and embedded spintronic MRAM (magnetic random-access memory). In 2015, Crocus Technology introduced its first magnetic sensor product based on its technology.
Today, it focuses its activities entirely on integrated, high-performance magnetic sensors. In 2022, it moved its California Headquarters from Santa Clara to Milpitas.
On October 31, 2023, Allegro MicroSystems completed the acquisition of the company for $420 million in cash.
Patents
In intellectual property, the company possesses 154 patents supporting its products, relating to TMR technology, memory and sensor design.
Joint ventures
On June 18, 2009, Crocus Technology announced a partnership with an integrated circuit specialty foundry Tower Semiconductor. As part of the deal, both companies will dedicate special equipment to Tower’s factory, and Tower will fully manufacture Crocus’ technology in its 200mm Fab2 facility. Tower took a $1.25 million equity position in Crocus.
Investors
Other investors include Idinvest Partners, CDC Innovation, Enterprises et Patrimonies, Nano Dimension, Sofinnova Partners, Sofinnova Ventures, and Ventech.
References
^ Mark LaPedus,
^ "Allegro MicroSystems Completes Acquisition of Crocus Technology to Accelerate Innovation in TMR Sensing Technology". Allegro MicroSystems. Retrieved 2023-11-25.
^ Mark LaPedus (June 18, 2009). "Tower invests in Crocus, tips MRAM foundry deal". EE Times. Retrieved July 10, 2013.
^ "Idinvest Partners". 2011. Retrieved July 18, 2011.
^ "CDC Innovation". 2011. Retrieved July 18, 2011.
^ “Entreprises et Patriomoine” Archived 2012-03-28 at the Wayback Machine. 2011. Retrieved Aug. 2, 2011.
^ "NanoDimension". 2011. Retrieved July 20, 2011.
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"venture-capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capital"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"startup company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_company"}],"text":"Crocus Technology, founded in 2004, is a venture-capital-backed semiconductor startup company developing and manufacturing integrated magnetic field sensors for a variety of applications: Automotive, consumer goods, industrial and medical IoT.","title":"Crocus Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grenoble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EETimes-1"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara,_California"},{"link_name":"Allegro MicroSystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Allegro_MicroSystems&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Crocus Technology was founded at Grenoble in 2004, based on research at the Spintec laboratory.[1] It eventually moved its headquarters to Santa Clara, California, but retained its engineering base in Grenoble.The company initially developed its MLU™ (Magnetic Logic Unit™) technology for stand-alone and embedded spintronic MRAM (magnetic random-access memory). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luau | Lūʻau | ["1 History","2 Food","3 Lūʻau-themed parties","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"] | Traditional Hawaiian feast
For other uses, see Luau (disambiguation).
This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (March 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Hawaiians roast a pig for an 1890 lūʻau
Princess Kaiulani's lūʻau banquet at ʻĀinahau for the U.S. Commissioners in 1898
Dancers and musicians at a commercial lūʻau
A lūʻau (Hawaiian: lūʻau, also anglicized as "luau") is a traditional Hawaiian party or feast that is usually accompanied by entertainment. It often features Native Hawaiian cuisine with foods such as poi, kālua puaʻa (kālua pig), poke, lomi salmon, lomi oio, ʻopihi, and haupia, and is often accompanied with beer and entertainment such as traditional Hawaiian music, kanikapila, and hula. Among people from Hawaiʻi, the concepts of "lūʻau" and "party" are often blended, resulting in graduation lūʻau, wedding lūʻau, baby lūʻau, and birthday lūʻau.
History
Royal Luau thrown by King Kalakaua with Robert Louis Stevenson and Queen Liliuokalani, 1889
In ancient Hawaiʻi, men and women ate meals separately, according to the religious kapu (taboo) system which governed the way of life of Native Hawaiians in every aspect. Commoners and women were not allowed to eat foods that were rarely eaten or foods that were only served during special occasions. However, in 1819, King Kamehameha II performed the act of eating with the women, thus ending the kapu, and entering the period called the ʻAi Noa. Messengers were then sent over the islands announcing that eating was free and the kapu had fallen. This is when the lūʻau parties were first created, dinners or smaller gatherings called pāʻina or larger feasts called ʻahaʻaina.
People dancing at a lūʻau The modern name comes from a food often served at a lūʻau goes back at least to 1856, when so used by the Pacific Commercial Advertiser. It referenced the wedding celebration of King Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma: “On the following day the palace grounds were thrown open to the native population, large numbers of whom visited the King and Queen, and partook of a luau (or native feast), prepared for them. A luau was also served up at the residence of Dr. Rooke.”
Food
The modern name comes from a food often served at a lūʻau: lūʻau stew, a stew that is made with lūʻau (lit. young taro leaves) and usually consist of octopus ("squid") or chicken, and coconut milk. However, the highlight of many lūʻau is the kālua puaʻa, a whole pig that is slow-cooked in an imu (earth oven). Another dish that is served is poi, made from the roots of taro. This feast was usually served on the floor, on the mats often decorated with large centerpieces typically made of tī leaves (Cordyline fruticosa). Utensils were never present during a lūʻau; everything was eaten by hand. The thickness of poi was often identified by the number of fingers needed to eat it: "three-finger" poi has the thinness of applesauce; "two-finger", thickness of pudding, or the thickest, "one-finger poi" often non-diluted and non-fermented freshly pounded taro called paʻiʻai.
A traditional lūʻau consists of food such as:
Food at a lūʻau on Oʻahu in 1996
Chicken long rice
Haupia
ʻUala
Hawaiian rolls
Kālua puaʻa (Hawaiian roast pig)
Kōʻelepālau
Kūlolo
Laulau
Lūʻau stew
Lomi ʻōʻio
Lomi salmon
Pepeieʻe
Piele
Poi
Poke
Tropical fruits
Lūʻau-themed parties
Lūʻau-themed or Hawaiian-themed parties vary in their range of dedication to Hawaiian traditions. For example, some extravagant affairs go so far as to ship food from the islands, while others settle for artificial lei, maitais, and a poolside atmosphere.
To have a lūʻau-themed party, it is essential to have an open area, such as a backyard, because lūʻau are celebrated under large tents in outdoor areas. Also a lei is a very common item in a lūʻau. A lei is a necklace made of plant material such as flowers, ferns, ti leaves, or kukui nuts (polished candlenut shells). At lūʻau-themed parties, the guests can be invited to make their own lei to wear. Live music and entertainment are often enjoyed, such as kanikapila style. The instruments used are typically the ukulele, guitar and sometimes drums. There are also often hula dancers.
Some credit Donn Beach with the initial popularity and commercialization of lūʻaus within the continental United States. A Life article from 1946 graphically displays one of his famous lūʻaus that he held in Encino, California. In a 1986 interview Beach described his role in shaping private, home based lūʻaus into larger public affairs, where he included entertainment from singers such as Alfred Apaka.
References
Hawaii portal
^ "History of the Hawaiian Luau". hawaii-luaus.com. Retrieved January 3, 2017.
^ "About the Hawaiian Luau". Hawaii.com. 15 December 2004.
^ "Lūʻau". Images of Old Hawaiʻi. 18 October 2019.
^ a b "Celebrating the Luau with Flower Leis". March 15, 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
^ Bitner, Arnold (2001). Hawaiʻi Tropical Rum Drinks by Don the Beachcomber. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing.
^ "Life magazine". No. Sept 23, 1946. 23 September 1946. Retrieved 18 March 2019.
^ Sinesky, Alice (September 16, 1986). "Interview With Donn Beach" (PDF). The Watumull Foundation, Oral History Project.
Further reading
Brennan, Jennifer (2000), Tradewinds and Coconuts: A Reminiscence and Recipes from the Pacific Islands, Periplus, ISBN 962-593-819-2.
Philpotts, Kaui (2004), Great Chefs of Hawaiʻi, Honolulu, Hawaii: Mutual Publishing, ISBN 1-56647-595-3.
Pukui, Mary Kawena; Samuel H. Elbert (1986), Hawaiian Dictionary, Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, ISBN 0-8248-0703-0
External links
Look up lūʻau in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Media related to Luaus at Wikimedia Commons
Hawaii Lūʻaus Official Website
Authority control databases: National
Israel
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It often features Native Hawaiian cuisine with foods such as poi, kālua puaʻa (kālua pig), poke, lomi salmon, lomi oio, ʻopihi, and haupia, and is often accompanied with beer and entertainment such as traditional Hawaiian music, kanikapila, and hula. 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For example, some extravagant affairs go so far as to ship food from the islands, while others settle for artificial lei, maitais, and a poolside atmosphere.[4]To have a lūʻau-themed party, it is essential to have an open area, such as a backyard, because lūʻau are celebrated under large tents in outdoor areas. Also a lei is a very common item in a lūʻau. A lei is a necklace made of plant material such as flowers, ferns, ti leaves, or kukui nuts (polished candlenut shells). At lūʻau-themed parties, the guests can be invited to make their own lei to wear. Live music and entertainment are often enjoyed, such as kanikapila style. The instruments used are typically the ukulele, guitar and sometimes drums. There are also often hula dancers.[4]Some credit Donn Beach with the initial popularity and commercialization of lūʻaus within the continental United States.[5] A Life article from 1946 graphically displays one of his famous lūʻaus that he held in Encino, California.[6] In a 1986 interview Beach described his role in shaping private, home based lūʻaus into larger public affairs, where he included entertainment from singers such as Alfred Apaka.[7]","title":"Lūʻau-themed parties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"962-593-819-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-593-819-2"},{"link_name":"Great Chefs of Hawaiʻi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.greatchefs.com"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-56647-595-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56647-595-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8248-0703-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-0703-0"}],"text":"Brennan, Jennifer (2000), Tradewinds and Coconuts: A Reminiscence and Recipes from the Pacific Islands, Periplus, ISBN 962-593-819-2.\nPhilpotts, Kaui (2004), Great Chefs of Hawaiʻi, Honolulu, Hawaii: Mutual Publishing, ISBN 1-56647-595-3.\nPukui, Mary Kawena; Samuel H. Elbert (1986), Hawaiian Dictionary, Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, ISBN 0-8248-0703-0","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Hawaiians roast a pig for an 1890 lūʻau","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Hawaiians_roasting_pig_for_luau%2C_c._1890.jpg/220px-Hawaiians_roasting_pig_for_luau%2C_c._1890.jpg"},{"image_text":"Princess Kaiulani's lūʻau banquet at ʻĀinahau for the U.S. Commissioners in 1898","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Luau_at_Ainahau%2C_1898.jpg/220px-Luau_at_Ainahau%2C_1898.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dancers and musicians at a commercial lūʻau","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Luau-hula-SL.jpg/220px-Luau-hula-SL.jpg"},{"image_text":"Royal Luau thrown by King Kalakaua with Robert Louis Stevenson and Queen Liliuokalani, 1889","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Robert_Louis_Stevenson_at_Royal_Luau%2C_1889_%28PP-98-12-004%29_%28mono%29.jpg/220px-Robert_Louis_Stevenson_at_Royal_Luau%2C_1889_%28PP-98-12-004%29_%28mono%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"People dancing at a lūʻau","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Luau.jpg/220px-Luau.jpg"},{"image_text":"Food at a lūʻau on Oʻahu in 1996","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Food_at_a_traditional_Hawaiian_luau.png/220px-Food_at_a_traditional_Hawaiian_luau.png"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"History of the Hawaiian Luau\". hawaii-luaus.com. Retrieved January 3, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hawaii-luaus.com/history.htm","url_text":"\"History of the Hawaiian Luau\""}]},{"reference":"\"About the Hawaiian Luau\". Hawaii.com. 15 December 2004.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hawaii.com/culture-historic-info/hawaiian-luau/#:~:text=Local%20records%20show%20the%20word%20%E2%80%9C%20l%C5%AB%CA%BBau%20%E2%80%9D,of%20what%20later%20would%20be%20The%20Honolulu%20Advertiser%29.","url_text":"\"About the Hawaiian Luau\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lūʻau\". Images of Old Hawaiʻi. 18 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://imagesofoldhawaii.com/lu%ca%bbau/","url_text":"\"Lūʻau\""}]},{"reference":"\"Celebrating the Luau with Flower Leis\". March 15, 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.flowerleis.com/hawaiiana/celebrating-luau-flower-leis/","url_text":"\"Celebrating the Luau with Flower Leis\""}]},{"reference":"Bitner, Arnold (2001). Hawaiʻi Tropical Rum Drinks by Don the Beachcomber. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Life magazine\". No. Sept 23, 1946. 23 September 1946. Retrieved 18 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WUkEAAAAMBAJ&q=don+the+beachcomber&pg=PA134","url_text":"\"Life magazine\""}]},{"reference":"Sinesky, Alice (September 16, 1986). \"Interview With Donn Beach\" (PDF). The Watumull Foundation, Oral History Project.","urls":[{"url":"https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/77119254.pdf","url_text":"\"Interview With Donn Beach\""}]},{"reference":"Brennan, Jennifer (2000), Tradewinds and Coconuts: A Reminiscence and Recipes from the Pacific Islands, Periplus, ISBN 962-593-819-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/962-593-819-2","url_text":"962-593-819-2"}]},{"reference":"Philpotts, Kaui (2004), Great Chefs of Hawaiʻi, Honolulu, Hawaii: Mutual Publishing, ISBN 1-56647-595-3","urls":[{"url":"http://www.greatchefs.com/","url_text":"Great Chefs of Hawaiʻi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56647-595-3","url_text":"1-56647-595-3"}]},{"reference":"Pukui, Mary Kawena; Samuel H. Elbert (1986), Hawaiian Dictionary, Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press, ISBN 0-8248-0703-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-0703-0","url_text":"0-8248-0703-0"}]}] | [{"Link":"http://www.hawaii-luaus.com/history.htm","external_links_name":"\"History of the Hawaiian Luau\""},{"Link":"https://www.hawaii.com/culture-historic-info/hawaiian-luau/#:~:text=Local%20records%20show%20the%20word%20%E2%80%9C%20l%C5%AB%CA%BBau%20%E2%80%9D,of%20what%20later%20would%20be%20The%20Honolulu%20Advertiser%29.","external_links_name":"\"About the Hawaiian Luau\""},{"Link":"https://imagesofoldhawaii.com/lu%ca%bbau/","external_links_name":"\"Lūʻau\""},{"Link":"http://www.flowerleis.com/hawaiiana/celebrating-luau-flower-leis/","external_links_name":"\"Celebrating the Luau with Flower Leis\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WUkEAAAAMBAJ&q=don+the+beachcomber&pg=PA134","external_links_name":"\"Life magazine\""},{"Link":"https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/77119254.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Interview With Donn Beach\""},{"Link":"http://www.greatchefs.com/","external_links_name":"Great Chefs of Hawaiʻi"},{"Link":"http://www.hawaiiluaus.com/","external_links_name":"Hawaii Lūʻaus Official Website"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007539483805171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh90005089","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_Computing | Edge computing | ["1 Definition","2 Concept","2.1 Privacy and security","2.2 Scalability","2.3 Reliability","2.4 Speed","2.5 Efficiency","3 Applications","4 See also","5 References"] | Distributed computing paradigm
This article may contain excessive or irrelevant examples. Please help improve the article by adding descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. (July 2023)
Edge computing is a distributed computing model that brings computation and data storage closer to the sources of data. More broadly, it refers to any design that pushes computation physically closer to a user, so as to reduce the latency compared to when an application runs on a centralized data centre.
The term began being used in the 1990s to describe content delivery networks—these were used to deliver website and video content from servers located near users. In the early 2000s, these systems expanded their scope to hosting other applications, leading to early edge computing services. These services could do things like find dealers, manage shopping carts, gather real-time data, and place ads.
The Internet of Things (IoT), where devices are connected to the internet, is often linked with edge computing. However, it's important to understand that edge computing and IoT are not the same thing.
The edge computing infrastructure
Definition
Edge computing involves running computer programs that deliver quick responses close to where requests are made. Karim Arabi, during an IEEE DAC 2014 keynote and later at an MIT MTL Seminar in 2015, described edge computing as computing that occurs outside the cloud, at the network's edge, particularly for applications needing immediate data processing. Unlike data centers , edge computing environments are not always climate-controlled, despite requiring significant processing power.
Edge computing is often equated with fog computing, particularly in smaller setups. However, in larger deployments, such as smart cities, fog computing serves as a distinct layer between edge computing and cloud computing, with each layer having its own responsibilities.
"The State of the Edge" report explains that edge computing focuses on servers located close to the end-users. Alex Reznik, Chair of the ETSI MEC ISG standards committee, defines 'edge' loosely as anything that's not a traditional data center.
In cloud gaming, edge nodes, known as "gamelets," are typically within one or two network hops from the client, ensuring quick response times for real-time games.
Edge computing might use virtualization technology to simplify deploying and managing various applications on edge servers.
Concept
The world's data is expected to grow 61 percent to 175 zettabytes by 2025. According to research firm Gartner, around 10 percent of enterprise-generated data is created and processed outside a traditional centralized data center or cloud. By 2025, the firm predicts that this figure will reach 75 percent. The increase of IoT devices at the edge of the network is producing a massive amount of data — storing and using all that data in cloud data centers pushes network bandwidth requirements to the limit. Despite the improvements of network technology, data centers cannot guarantee acceptable transfer rates and response times, which often is a critical requirement for many applications. Furthermore, devices at the edge constantly consume data coming from the cloud, forcing companies to decentralize data storage and service provisioning, leveraging physical proximity to the end user.
In a similar way, the aim of edge computing is to move the computation away from data centers towards the edge of the network, exploiting smart objects, mobile phones, or network gateways to perform tasks and provide services on behalf of the cloud. By moving services to the edge, it is possible to provide content caching, service delivery, persistent data storage, and IoT management resulting in better response times and transfer rates. At the same time, distributing the logic to different network nodes introduces new issues and challenges.
Privacy and security
The distributed nature of this paradigm introduces a shift in security schemes used in cloud computing. In edge computing, data may travel between different distributed nodes connected through the Internet and thus requires special encryption mechanisms independent of the cloud. Edge nodes may also be resource-constrained devices, limiting the choice in terms of security methods. Moreover, a shift from centralized top-down infrastructure to a decentralized trust model is required.
On the other hand, by keeping and processing data at the edge, it is possible to increase privacy by minimizing the transmission of sensitive information to the cloud. Furthermore, the ownership of collected data shifts from service providers to end-users.
Scalability
Scalability in a distributed network must face different issues. First, it must take into account the heterogeneity of the devices, having different performance and energy constraints, the highly dynamic condition, and the reliability of the connections compared to more robust infrastructure of cloud data centers. Moreover, security requirements may introduce further latency in the communication between nodes, which may slow down the scaling process.
The state-of-the-art scheduling technique can increase the effective utilization of edge resources and scales the edge server by assigning minimum edge resources to each offloaded task.
Reliability
Management of failovers is crucial in order to keep a service alive. If a single node goes down and is unreachable, users should still be able to access a service without interruptions. Moreover, edge computing systems must provide actions to recover from a failure and alert the user about the incident. To this aim, each device must maintain the network topology of the entire distributed system, so that detection of errors and recovery become easily applicable. Other factors that may influence this aspect are the connection technologies in use, which may provide different levels of reliability, and the accuracy of the data produced at the edge that could be unreliable due to particular environment conditions. As an example, an edge computing device, such as a voice assistant, may continue to provide service to local users even during cloud service or internet outages.
Speed
Edge computing brings analytical computational resources close to the end users and therefore can increase the responsiveness and throughput of applications. A well-designed edge platform would significantly outperform a traditional cloud-based system. Some applications rely on short response times, making edge computing a significantly more feasible option than cloud computing. Examples range from IoT to autonomous driving, anything health or human / public safety relevant, or involving human perception such as facial recognition, which typically takes a human between 370-620 ms to perform. Edge computing is more likely to be able to mimic the same perception speed as humans, which is useful in applications such as augmented reality where the headset should preferably recognize who a person is at the same time as the wearer does.
Efficiency
Due to the nearness of the analytical resources to the end users, sophisticated analytical tools and Artificial Intelligence tools can run on the edge of the system. This placement at the edge helps to increase operational efficiency and is responsible for many advantages to the system.
Additionally, the usage of edge computing as an intermediate stage between client devices and the wider internet results in efficiency savings that can be demonstrated in the following example: A client device requires computationally intensive processing on video files to be performed on external servers. By using servers located on a local edge network to perform those computations, the video files only need to be transmitted in the local network. Avoiding transmission over the internet results in significant bandwidth savings and therefore increases efficiency. Another example is voice recognition. If the recognition is performed locally, it is possible to send the recognized text to the cloud rather than audio recordings, significantly reducing the amount of required bandwidth.
Applications
Edge application services reduce the volumes of data that must be moved, the consequent traffic, and the distance that data must travel. That provides lower latency and reduces transmission costs. Computation offloading for real-time applications, such as facial recognition algorithms, showed considerable improvements in response times, as demonstrated in early research. Further research showed that using resource-rich machines called cloudlets or micro data centers near mobile users, which offer services typically found in the cloud, provided improvements in execution time when some of the tasks are offloaded to the edge node. On the other hand, offloading every task may result in a slowdown due to transfer times between device and nodes, so depending on the workload, an optimal configuration can be defined.
IoT-based power grid system enables communication of electricity and data to monitor and control the power grid, which makes energy management more efficient.
Other notable applications include connected cars, autonomous cars, smart cities, Industry 4.0, home automation and satellite systems. The nascent field of edge artificial intelligence (edge AI) implements the artificial intelligence in an edge computing environment, on the device or close to where data is collected.
See also
Content delivery network
Dew computing
Edge data integration
Edge device
Fat client
Heterogeneous computing
Mobile edge computing
Personal computer
Serverless architecture
Smart camera
Ubiquitous computing
References
^ Gartner. "Gartner Trend Insights report 2018" (PDF). Gartner. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-18. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
^ "Globally Distributed Content Delivery, by J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman and B. Weihl, IEEE Internet Computing, Volume 6, Issue 5, November 2002" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2019-10-25.
^ Nygren., E.; Sitaraman R. K.; Sun, J. (2010). "The Akamai network: A platform for high-performance internet applications" (PDF). ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. 44 (3): 2–19. doi:10.1145/1842733.1842736. S2CID 207181702. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 13, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2012. See Section 6.2: Distributing Applications to the Edge
^ Davis, A.; Parikh, J.; Weihl, W. (2004). "Edgecomputing: Extending enterprise applications to the edge of the internet". Proceedings of the 13th international World Wide Web conference on Alternate track papers & posters - WWW Alt. '04. p. 180. doi:10.1145/1013367.1013397. ISBN 1581139128. S2CID 578337.
^ Gartner. "2021 Strategic Roadmap for Edge Computing". www.gartner.com. Archived from the original on 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2021-07-11.
^ "IEEE DAC 2014 Keynote: Mobile Computing Opportunities, Challenges and Technology Drivers". Archived from the original on 2020-07-30. Retrieved 2019-03-25.
^ MIT MTL Seminar: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges Driving Architecture and Design of Next Generation Mobile Computing and IoT Devices
^ Kenn Anthony Mendoza. "Super Micro Computer introduces new systems for edge computing". Supermicro.
^ "What is fog and edge computing?". Capgemini Worldwide. 2017-03-02. Retrieved 2021-07-06.
^ Dolui, Koustabh; Datta, Soumya Kanti (June 2017). "Comparison of edge computing implementations: Fog computing, cloudlet and mobile edge computing". 2017 Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS). pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/GIOTS.2017.8016213. ISBN 978-1-5090-5873-0. S2CID 11600169.
^ "Difference Between Edge Computing and Fog Computing". GeeksforGeeks. 2021-11-27. Retrieved 2022-09-11.
^ "Data at the Edge Report". Seagate Technology.
^ Reznik, Alex (2018-05-14). "What is Edge?". ETSI - ETSI Blog - etsi.org. Retrieved 2019-02-19. What is 'Edge'? The best that I can do is this: it's anything that's not a 'data center cloud'.
^ Anand, B.; Edwin, A. J. Hao (January 2014). "Gamelets — Multiplayer mobile games with distributed micro-clouds". 2014 Seventh International Conference on Mobile Computing and Ubiquitous Networking (ICMU). pp. 14–20. doi:10.1109/ICMU.2014.6799051. ISBN 978-1-4799-2231-4. S2CID 10374389.
^ "Edge virtualization manages the data deluge, but can be complex | TechTarget". IT Operations. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
^ Patrizio, Andy (2018-12-03). "IDC: Expect 175 zettabytes of data worldwide by 2025". Network World. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
^ "What We Do and How We Got Here". Gartner. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
^ Ivkovic, Jovan (2016-07-11). The Methods and Procedures for Accelerating Operations and Queries in Large Database Systems and Data Warehouse (Big Data Systems) (PDF). National Repository of Dissertations in Serbia (Doctoral thesis) (in Serbian and American English).
^ a b c Shi, Weisong; Cao, Jie; Zhang, Quan; Li, Youhuizi; Xu, Lanyu (October 2016). "Edge Computing: Vision and Challenges". IEEE Internet of Things Journal. 3 (5): 637–646. doi:10.1109/JIOT.2016.2579198. S2CID 4237186.
^ Merenda, Massimo; Porcaro, Carlo; Iero, Demetrio (29 April 2020). "Edge Machine Learning for AI-Enabled IoT Devices: A Review". Sensors. 20 (9): 2533. Bibcode:2020Senso..20.2533M. doi:10.3390/s20092533. PMC 7273223. PMID 32365645.
^ "IoT management". Retrieved 2020-04-08.
^ Garcia Lopez, Pedro; Montresor, Alberto; Epema, Dick; Datta, Anwitaman; Higashino, Teruo; Iamnitchi, Adriana; Barcellos, Marinho; Felber, Pascal; Riviere, Etienne (30 September 2015). "Edge-centric Computing". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. 45 (5): 37–42. doi:10.1145/2831347.2831354. hdl:11572/114780.
^ a b c 3 Advantages of Edge Computing. Aron Brand. Medium.com. Sep 20, 2019
^ Babar, Mohammad; Sohail Khan, Muhammad (July 2021). "ScalEdge: A framework for scalable edge computing in Internet of things–based smart systems". International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. 17 (7): 155014772110353. doi:10.1177/15501477211035332. ISSN 1550-1477. S2CID 236917011.
^ Liu, S.; Liu, L.; Tang, B. Wu; Wang, J.; Shi, W. (2019). "Edge Computing for Autonomous Driving: Opportunities and Challenges". Proceedings of the IEEE. 107 (8): 1697–1716. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2019.2915983. S2CID 198311944. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
^ Yu, W.; et al. (2018). "A Survey on the Edge Computing for the Internet of Things". IEEE Access, vol. 6, pp. 6900-6919. arXiv:2104.01776. doi:10.1109/JIOT.2021.3072611. S2CID 233025108. Archived from the original on 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
^ a b Satyanarayanan, Mahadev (January 2017). "The Emergence of Edge Computing". Computer. 50 (1): 30–39. doi:10.1109/MC.2017.9. ISSN 1558-0814. S2CID 12563598.
^ Yi, S.; Hao, Z.; Qin, Z.; Li, Q. (November 2015). "Fog Computing: Platform and Applications". 2015 Third IEEE Workshop on Hot Topics in Web Systems and Technologies (HotWeb). pp. 73–78. doi:10.1109/HotWeb.2015.22. ISBN 978-1-4673-9688-2. S2CID 6753944.
^ Verbelen, Tim; Simoens, Pieter; De Turck, Filip; Dhoedt, Bart (2012). "Cloudlets". Proceedings of the third ACM workshop on Mobile cloud computing and services. ACM. pp. 29–36. doi:10.1145/2307849.2307858. hdl:1854/LU-2984272. ISBN 9781450313193. S2CID 3249347. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
^ Minh, Quy Nguyen; Nguyen, Van-Hau; Quy, Vu Khanh; Ngoc, Le Anh; Chehri, Abdellah; Jeon, Gwanggil (2022). "Edge Computing for IoT-Enabled Smart Grid: The Future of Energy". Energies. 15 (17): 6140. doi:10.3390/en15176140. ISSN 1996-1073.
^ It's Time to Think Beyond Cloud Computing Published by wired.com retrieved April 10, 2019
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^ "What is edge AI?". www.redhat.com. Retrieved 2023-10-25.
vteEmbedded systemsGeneral terms
ASIC
Board support package
Bootloader
Consumer electronics
Cross compiler
Embedded database
Embedded hypervisor
Embedded OS
Embedded software
FPGA
IoT
Memory footprint
Microcontroller
Single-board computer
Raspberry Pi
SoC
Firmware and controls
Firmware
Custom firmware
Proprietary firmware
Closed platform
Crippleware
Defective by Design
Hacking of consumer electronics
Homebrew (video games)
iOS jailbreaking
PlayStation 3 Jailbreak
Rooting (Android)
UEFI
Vendor lock-in
Boot loaders
U-Boot
Barebox
Software libraries
uClibc
dietlibc
Embedded GLIBC
lwIP
musl
Programming tools
Almquist shell
BitBake
Buildroot
BusyBox
OpenEmbedded
Stand-alone shell
Toybox
Yocto Project
Operating systems
Linux on embedded systems
Linux for mobile devices
Light-weight Linux distribution
Real-time operating system
Windows IoT
Win CE
Programming languages
Ada
Assembly language
CAPL
Embedded C
Embedded C++
Embedded Java
MISRA C
MicroPython
Lightweight browsers
List of open-source hardware
Open-source robotics
vteAmbient intelligenceConcepts
Ambient IoT
Context awareness
Device ecology
Internet of things
Object hyperlinking
Profiling
Spime
Supranet
Ubiquitous computing
Web of Things
Wireless sensor networks
Technologies
6LoWPAN
ANT+
DASH7
IEEE 802.15.4
Internet 0
Machine to machine
Radio-frequency identification
Smartdust
XBee
Platforms
Arduino
Contiki
Gadgeteer
ioBridge
Netduino
Raspberry Pi
TinyOS
Wiring
Xively
NodeMCU
Applications
Ambient device
CeNSE
Connected car
Home automation
HomeOS
Internet refrigerator
Nabaztag
Smart city
Smart TV
Smarter Planet
Pioneers
Kevin Ashton
Gaetano Borriello
Adam Dunkels
Stefano Marzano
Don Norman
Roel Pieper
Josef Preishuber-Pflügl
John Seely Brown
Bruce Sterling
Mark Weiser
Other
Ambient Devices
AmbieSense
Ebbits project
IPSO Alliance | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latency_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"data centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centre"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"content delivery networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_Delivery_Network"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_Things"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edge_computing_infrastructure.png"}],"text":"Edge computing is a distributed computing model that brings computation and data storage closer to the sources of data. More broadly, it refers to any design that pushes computation physically closer to a user, so as to reduce the latency compared to when an application runs on a centralized data centre.[1]The term began being used in the 1990s to describe content delivery networks—these were used to deliver website and video content from servers located near users.[2] In the early 2000s, these systems expanded their scope to hosting other applications,[3] leading to early edge computing services.[4] These services could do things like find dealers, manage shopping carts, gather real-time data, and place ads.The Internet of Things (IoT), where devices are connected to the internet, is often linked with edge computing. However, it's important to understand that edge computing and IoT are not the same thing.[5]The edge computing infrastructure","title":"Edge computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"close to where requests are made","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locality_of_reference"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"the cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centers"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"fog computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog_computing"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"smart cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_cities"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"ETSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETSI"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"cloud gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_gaming"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Anand_14%E2%80%9320-14"},{"link_name":"virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtualization"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Edge computing involves running computer programs that deliver quick responses close to where requests are made. Karim Arabi, during an IEEE DAC 2014 keynote[6] and later at an MIT MTL Seminar in 2015, described edge computing as computing that occurs outside the cloud, at the network's edge, particularly for applications needing immediate data processing.[7] Unlike data centers , edge computing environments are not always climate-controlled, despite requiring significant processing power.[8]Edge computing is often equated with fog computing, particularly in smaller setups.[9] However, in larger deployments, such as smart cities, fog computing serves as a distinct layer between edge computing and cloud computing, with each layer having its own responsibilities.[10][11]\"The State of the Edge\" report explains that edge computing focuses on servers located close to the end-users.[12] Alex Reznik, Chair of the ETSI MEC ISG standards committee, defines 'edge' loosely as anything that's not a traditional data center.[13]In cloud gaming, edge nodes, known as \"gamelets,\" are typically within one or two network hops from the client, ensuring quick response times for real-time games.[14]Edge computing might use virtualization technology to simplify deploying and managing various applications on edge servers.[15]","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"zettabytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte#Multiple-byte_units"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"IoT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centers"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_network"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shi-edge-19"},{"link_name":"smart objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_objects"},{"link_name":"mobile phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"network gateways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(systems_architecture)"},{"link_name":"caching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The world's data is expected to grow 61 percent to 175 zettabytes by 2025.[16] According to research firm Gartner, around 10 percent of enterprise-generated data is created and processed outside a traditional centralized data center or cloud. By 2025, the firm predicts that this figure will reach 75 percent.[17] The increase of IoT devices at the edge of the network is producing a massive amount of data — storing and using all that data in cloud data centers pushes network bandwidth requirements to the limit.[18] Despite the improvements of network technology, data centers cannot guarantee acceptable transfer rates and response times, which often is a critical requirement for many applications.[19] Furthermore, devices at the edge constantly consume data coming from the cloud, forcing companies to decentralize data storage and service provisioning, leveraging physical proximity to the end user.In a similar way, the aim of edge computing is to move the computation away from data centers towards the edge of the network, exploiting smart objects, mobile phones, or network gateways to perform tasks and provide services on behalf of the cloud.[20] By moving services to the edge, it is possible to provide content caching, service delivery, persistent data storage, and IoT management resulting in better response times and transfer rates. At the same time, distributing the logic to different network nodes introduces new issues and challenges.[21]","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lopez-edge-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brand-23"}],"sub_title":"Privacy and security","text":"The distributed nature of this paradigm introduces a shift in security schemes used in cloud computing. In edge computing, data may travel between different distributed nodes connected through the Internet and thus requires special encryption mechanisms independent of the cloud. Edge nodes may also be resource-constrained devices, limiting the choice in terms of security methods. Moreover, a shift from centralized top-down infrastructure to a decentralized trust model is required.[22]\nOn the other hand, by keeping and processing data at the edge, it is possible to increase privacy by minimizing the transmission of sensitive information to the cloud. Furthermore, the ownership of collected data shifts from service providers to end-users.[23]","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scalability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalability"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shi-edge-19"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Scalability","text":"Scalability in a distributed network must face different issues. First, it must take into account the heterogeneity of the devices, having different performance and energy constraints, the highly dynamic condition, and the reliability of the connections compared to more robust infrastructure of cloud data centers. Moreover, security requirements may introduce further latency in the communication between nodes, which may slow down the scaling process.[19]The state-of-the-art scheduling technique can increase the effective utilization of edge resources and scales the edge server by assigning minimum edge resources to each offloaded task.[24]","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"failovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failover"},{"link_name":"network topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shi-edge-19"},{"link_name":"voice assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_assistant"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brand-23"}],"sub_title":"Reliability","text":"Management of failovers is crucial in order to keep a service alive. If a single node goes down and is unreachable, users should still be able to access a service without interruptions. Moreover, edge computing systems must provide actions to recover from a failure and alert the user about the incident. To this aim, each device must maintain the network topology of the entire distributed system, so that detection of errors and recovery become easily applicable. Other factors that may influence this aspect are the connection technologies in use, which may provide different levels of reliability, and the accuracy of the data produced at the edge that could be unreliable due to particular environment conditions.[19] As an example, an edge computing device, such as a voice assistant, may continue to provide service to local users even during cloud service or internet outages.[23]","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-27"},{"link_name":"speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed"}],"sub_title":"Speed","text":"Edge computing brings analytical computational resources close to the end users and therefore can increase the responsiveness and throughput of applications. A well-designed edge platform would significantly outperform a traditional cloud-based system. Some applications rely on short response times, making edge computing a significantly more feasible option than cloud computing. Examples range from IoT to autonomous driving,[25] anything health or human / public safety relevant,[26] or involving human perception such as facial recognition, which typically takes a human between 370-620 ms to perform.[27] Edge computing is more likely to be able to mimic the same perception speed as humans, which is useful in applications such as augmented reality where the headset should preferably recognize who a person is at the same time as the wearer does.","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-27"},{"link_name":"voice recognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_recognition"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brand-23"}],"sub_title":"Efficiency","text":"Due to the nearness of the analytical resources to the end users, sophisticated analytical tools and Artificial Intelligence tools can run on the edge of the system. This placement at the edge helps to increase operational efficiency and is responsible for many advantages to the system.Additionally, the usage of edge computing as an intermediate stage between client devices and the wider internet results in efficiency savings that can be demonstrated in the following example: A client device requires computationally intensive processing on video files to be performed on external servers. By using servers located on a local edge network to perform those computations, the video files only need to be transmitted in the local network. Avoiding transmission over the internet results in significant bandwidth savings and therefore increases efficiency.[27] Another example is voice recognition. If the recognition is performed locally, it is possible to send the recognized text to the cloud rather than audio recordings, significantly reducing the amount of required bandwidth.[23]","title":"Concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computation offloading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation_offloading"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fog-yi-28"},{"link_name":"cloudlets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudlet"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verbelen-cloudlets-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"energy management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_management"},{"link_name":"connected cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_car"},{"link_name":"autonomous cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_car"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"smart cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_city"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taleb-mobile-32"},{"link_name":"Industry 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_4.0"},{"link_name":"home automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chakraborty-home-33"},{"link_name":"satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"Edge application services reduce the volumes of data that must be moved, the consequent traffic, and the distance that data must travel. That provides lower latency and reduces transmission costs. Computation offloading for real-time applications, such as facial recognition algorithms, showed considerable improvements in response times, as demonstrated in early research.[28] Further research showed that using resource-rich machines called cloudlets or micro data centers near mobile users, which offer services typically found in the cloud, provided improvements in execution time when some of the tasks are offloaded to the edge node.[29] On the other hand, offloading every task may result in a slowdown due to transfer times between device and nodes, so depending on the workload, an optimal configuration can be defined.IoT-based power grid system enables communication of electricity and data to monitor and control the power grid,[30] which makes energy management more efficient.Other notable applications include connected cars, autonomous cars,[31] smart cities,[32] Industry 4.0, home automation[33] and satellite systems.[34] The nascent field of edge artificial intelligence (edge AI) implements the artificial intelligence in an edge computing environment, on the device or close to where data is collected.[35]","title":"Applications"}] | [{"image_text":"The edge computing infrastructure","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Edge_computing_infrastructure.png/220px-Edge_computing_infrastructure.png"}] | [{"title":"Content delivery network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_delivery_network"},{"title":"Dew computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dew_computing"},{"title":"Edge data integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_data_integration"},{"title":"Edge device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_device"},{"title":"Fat client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_client"},{"title":"Heterogeneous computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterogeneous_computing"},{"title":"Mobile edge computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_edge_computing"},{"title":"Personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"title":"Serverless architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serverless_architecture"},{"title":"Smart camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_camera"},{"title":"Ubiquitous computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquitous_computing"}] | [{"reference":"Gartner. \"Gartner Trend Insights report 2018\" (PDF). Gartner. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-12-18. Retrieved 2021-05-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://emtemp.gcom.cloud/ngw/globalassets/en/doc/documents/3889058-the-edge-completes-the-cloud-a-gartner-trend-insight-report.pdf","url_text":"\"Gartner Trend Insights report 2018\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201218093221/https://emtemp.gcom.cloud/ngw/globalassets/en/doc/documents/3889058-the-edge-completes-the-cloud-a-gartner-trend-insight-report.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Globally Distributed Content Delivery, by J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman and B. Weihl, IEEE Internet Computing, Volume 6, Issue 5, November 2002\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2019-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://people.cs.umass.edu/~ramesh/Site/PUBLICATIONS_files/DMPPSW02.pdf","url_text":"\"Globally Distributed Content Delivery, by J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman and B. Weihl, IEEE Internet Computing, Volume 6, Issue 5, November 2002\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170809231307/http://people.cs.umass.edu/~ramesh/Site/PUBLICATIONS_files/DMPPSW02.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nygren., E.; Sitaraman R. K.; Sun, J. (2010). \"The Akamai network: A platform for high-performance internet applications\" (PDF). ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review. 44 (3): 2–19. doi:10.1145/1842733.1842736. S2CID 207181702. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 13, 2012. Retrieved November 19, 2012. See Section 6.2: Distributing Applications to the Edge","urls":[{"url":"http://www.akamai.com/dl/technical_publications/network_overview_osr.pdf","url_text":"\"The Akamai network: A platform for high-performance internet applications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1842733.1842736","url_text":"10.1145/1842733.1842736"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207181702","url_text":"207181702"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120913205810/http://www.akamai.com/dl/technical_publications/network_overview_osr.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Davis, A.; Parikh, J.; Weihl, W. (2004). \"Edgecomputing: Extending enterprise applications to the edge of the internet\". Proceedings of the 13th international World Wide Web conference on Alternate track papers & posters - WWW Alt. '04. p. 180. doi:10.1145/1013367.1013397. ISBN 1581139128. S2CID 578337.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1013367.1013397","url_text":"10.1145/1013367.1013397"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1581139128","url_text":"1581139128"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:578337","url_text":"578337"}]},{"reference":"Gartner. \"2021 Strategic Roadmap for Edge Computing\". www.gartner.com. Archived from the original on 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2021-07-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gartner.com/doc/reprints?id=1-24JFAZOO&ct=201104&st=sb","url_text":"\"2021 Strategic Roadmap for Edge Computing\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210330133536/https://www.gartner.com/doc/reprints?id=1-24JFAZOO&ct=201104&st=sb","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"IEEE DAC 2014 Keynote: Mobile Computing Opportunities, Challenges and Technology Drivers\". Archived from the original on 2020-07-30. Retrieved 2019-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200730234708/http://www2.dac.com/events/videoarchive.aspx?confid=170&filter=keynote&id=170-103--0&#video","url_text":"\"IEEE DAC 2014 Keynote: Mobile Computing Opportunities, Challenges and Technology Drivers\""},{"url":"http://www2.dac.com/events/videoarchive.aspx?confid=170&filter=keynote&id=170-103--0&#video","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kenn Anthony Mendoza. \"Super Micro Computer introduces new systems for edge computing\". Supermicro.","urls":[{"url":"https://itwire.com/business-it-sp-511/business-it/super-micro-computer-introduces-new-systems-for-edge-computing.html","url_text":"\"Super Micro Computer introduces new systems for edge computing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermicro","url_text":"Supermicro"}]},{"reference":"\"What is fog and edge computing?\". Capgemini Worldwide. 2017-03-02. Retrieved 2021-07-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.capgemini.com/2017/03/what-is-fog-and-edge-computing/","url_text":"\"What is fog and edge computing?\""}]},{"reference":"Dolui, Koustabh; Datta, Soumya Kanti (June 2017). \"Comparison of edge computing implementations: Fog computing, cloudlet and mobile edge computing\". 2017 Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS). pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/GIOTS.2017.8016213. ISBN 978-1-5090-5873-0. 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Retrieved 2022-09-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/difference-between-edge-computing-and-fog-computing/","url_text":"\"Difference Between Edge Computing and Fog Computing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Data at the Edge Report\". Seagate Technology.","urls":[{"url":"https://stateoftheedge.com/reports/data-at-the-edge-2019/","url_text":"\"Data at the Edge Report\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate_Technology","url_text":"Seagate Technology"}]},{"reference":"Reznik, Alex (2018-05-14). \"What is Edge?\". ETSI - ETSI Blog - etsi.org. Retrieved 2019-02-19. What is 'Edge'? The best that I can do is this: it's anything that's not a 'data center cloud'.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.etsi.org/newsroom/blogs/entry/what-is-edge","url_text":"\"What is Edge?\""}]},{"reference":"Anand, B.; Edwin, A. J. Hao (January 2014). \"Gamelets — Multiplayer mobile games with distributed micro-clouds\". 2014 Seventh International Conference on Mobile Computing and Ubiquitous Networking (ICMU). pp. 14–20. doi:10.1109/ICMU.2014.6799051. ISBN 978-1-4799-2231-4. S2CID 10374389.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICMU.2014.6799051","url_text":"10.1109/ICMU.2014.6799051"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-2231-4","url_text":"978-1-4799-2231-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10374389","url_text":"10374389"}]},{"reference":"\"Edge virtualization manages the data deluge, but can be complex | TechTarget\". IT Operations. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_of_America | Sega | ["1 History","1.1 1940–1982: Origins and arcade success","1.2 1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence","1.3 1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success","1.4 1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success","1.5 1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles","1.6 2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development","1.7 2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion","1.8 2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive","1.9 2020–present: Recent history","2 Corporate structure","2.1 Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation","2.2 Research and development","3 Legacy","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"] | Japanese video game company
"Sega Games" redirects here. For a list of video games published by Sega, see Lists of Sega games. For other uses, see Sega (disambiguation).
Sega CorporationSega's headquarters in Shinagawa, TokyoTrade nameSegaNative name株式会社セガRomanized nameKabushiki-gaisha SegaFormerlyNihon Goraku Bussan (1960-1965)Sega Enterprises, Ltd. (1965-2000)Sega Corporation (2000-2015)Sega Games Co., Ltd. (2015-2020)Company typeSubsidiaryIndustryVideo gamesPredecessorService Games of JapanFoundedJune 3, 1960; 64 years ago (June 3, 1960)FoundersMartin BromleyRichard StewartHeadquartersShinagawa, Tokyo, JapanArea servedWorldwideKey peopleHaruki Satomi (chairman and CEO)Yukio Sugino (vice president and COO)Shuji Utsumi (president, COO and CEO, Sega of America and Sega Europe)ProductsGamesVideo game consolesMobile gamesFranchisesRevenue ¥247.7 billion (2020)Operating income ¥14.8 billion (2020)Number of employees3,155 (March 31, 2024)ParentSega Sammy HoldingsDivisionsList of development studiosSubsidiariesAtlusSega Sapporo StudioSega FaveTMS EntertainmentMarza Animation PlanetPlay HeartSega XDWebsitesega.co.jpFootnotes / references
Sega Corporation is a Japanese multinational video game company and subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. It produces several multi-million-selling game franchises for arcades and consoles, including Sonic the Hedgehog, Angry Birds, Puyo Puyo, Super Monkey Ball, Total War, Virtua Fighter, and Yakuza. From 1983 until 2001, Sega also developed its own consoles.
Sega was founded by American businessmen Martin Bromley and Richard Stewart as Nihon Goraku Bussan on June 3, 1960. Shortly after, the company acquired the assets of its predecessor, Service Games of Japan. In 1965, it became known as Sega Enterprises, Ltd., after acquiring Rosen Enterprises, an importer of coin-operated games. Sega developed its first coin-operated game, Periscope, in 1966. Sega was sold to Gulf and Western Industries in 1969. Following a downturn in the arcade business in the early 1980s, Sega began to develop video game consoles, starting with the SG-1000 and Master System, but struggled against competitors such as the Nintendo Entertainment System. In 1984, Sega executives David Rosen and Hayao Nakayama led a management buyout, with backing from CSK Corporation.
In 1988, Sega released the Mega Drive (known as the Genesis in North America). The Mega Drive struggled against competition in Japan, but the Genesis found success overseas after the release of Sonic the Hedgehog in 1991 and briefly outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, in the US. Later in the decade, Sega suffered several commercial failures such as the 32X, Saturn, and Dreamcast. In 2001, Sega stopped manufacturing consoles to become a third-party developer and publisher, and was acquired by Sammy Corporation in 2004. Sega Holdings Co. Ltd. was established in 2015; Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd., and its arcade, entertainment, and toy divisions separated into other companies. In 2020, Sega Games and Sega Interactive merged to become Sega Corporation.
Sega's international branches, Sega of America and Sega Europe are headquartered in Irvine, California, and London. Its development studios include their internal research and development divisions (which utilize the Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio, Sega AM2 and Sonic Team brands for several core franchise entries), Sega Sapporo Studio which mainly provides support for the Tokyo-based development teams as well as handling partial game development, & Atlus (including their R&D divisions, such as P-Studio and Studio Zero respectively) and six development studios in the UK and Europe: Amplitude Studios, Creative Assembly, Sports Interactive, Sega Hardlight, Two Point Studios and Rovio Entertainment (including Ruby Games). Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers and its mascot, Sonic, is internationally recognized. Its name and branding are used for owned and/or affiliated companies that operate amusement arcades and produce other entertainment products, including Sega Fave; however, these are largely separate ventures. Sega is recognized for its video game consoles, creativity and innovations. In more recent years, it has been criticized for its business decisions and the quality of its creative output.
Being the entertainment contents division of Sega Sammy Holdings, forming one half of the Sega Sammy Group, Sega also owns a toy and amusement machine company, Sega Fave, which compromises their arcade development & manufacturing divisions that were previously under Sega and two animation studios: TMS Entertainment, which animates, produces, and/or distributes anime such as Lupin the 3rd, Case Closed and Anpanman & Marza Animation Planet, which specializes in CG animation.
History
Main article: History of Sega
1940–1982: Origins and arcade success
The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.
In May 1940, American businessmen Martin Bromley, Irving Bromberg and James Humpert formed Standard Games in Honolulu, Hawaii. Their aim was to provide coin-operated amusement machines, including slot machines, to military bases as the increase in personnel with the onset of World War II would create demand for entertainment. After the war, the founders sold Standard Games in 1945, and in 1946 established Service Games, named for the military focus. After the US government outlawed slot machines in its territories in 1952, Bromley sent employees Richard Stewart and Ray LeMaire to Tokyo to establish Service Games of Japan to provide coin-operated slot machines to US bases in Japan. A year later, all five men established Service Games Panama to control the entities of Service Games worldwide. The company expanded over the next seven years to include distribution in South Korea, the Philippines, and South Vietnam. The name Sega, an abbreviation of Service Games, was first used in 1954 on a slot machine, the Diamond Star.
Due to notoriety arising from investigations by the US government into criminal business practices, Service Games of Japan was dissolved on May 31, 1960. On June 3, Bromley established two companies to take over its business activities, Nihon Goraku Bussan and Nihon Kikai Seizō. The two new companies purchased all of Service Games of Japan's assets. Kikai Seizō, doing business as Sega, Inc., focused on manufacturing slot machines. Goraku Bussan, doing business under Stewart as Utamatic, Inc., served as a distributor and operator of coin-operated machines, particularly jukeboxes. The companies merged in 1964, retaining the Nihon Goraku Bussan name.
Around the same time, David Rosen, an American officer in the United States Air Force stationed in Japan, launched a photo booth business in Tokyo in 1954. This company became Rosen Enterprises, and in 1957 began importing coin-operated games into Japan. In 1965, Nihon Goraku Bussan acquired Rosen Enterprises to form Sega Enterprises, Ltd. Rosen was installed as the CEO and managing director, while Stewart was named president and LeMaire was the director of planning. Shortly afterward, Sega stopped leasing to military bases and moved its focus from slot machines to coin-operated amusement machines. Its imports included Rock-Ola jukeboxes, pinball games by Williams, and gun games by Midway Manufacturing.
Former logo used until 1975.
Because Sega imported second-hand machines, which required frequent maintenance, it began constructing replacement guns and flippers for its imported games. According to former Sega director Akira Nagai, this led to the company developing its own games. The first arcade electro-mechanical game (EM game) Sega manufactured was the submarine simulator Periscope, released worldwide in the late 1960s. It featured light and sound effects considered innovative and was successful in Japan. It was then exported to malls and department stores in Europe and the United States and helped standardize the 25-cent-per-play cost for arcade games in the US. Sega was surprised by the success, and for the next two years, the company produced and exported between eight and ten games per year. The worldwide success of Periscope led to a "technological renaissance" in the arcade industry, which was reinvigorated by a wave of "audio-visual" EM novelty games that followed in the wake of Periscope during the late 1960s to early 1970s. However, rampant piracy led Sega to cease exporting its games around 1970.
In 1969, Sega was sold to the American conglomerate Gulf and Western Industries, although Rosen remained CEO. In 1974, Gulf and Western made Sega Enterprises, Ltd., a subsidiary of an American company renamed Sega Enterprises, Inc. Sega released Pong-Tron, its first video-based game, in 1973. Despite late competition from Taito's hit arcade game Space Invaders in 1978, Sega prospered from the arcade video game boom of the late 1970s, with revenues climbing to over US$100 million by 1979. During this period, Sega acquired Gremlin Industries, which manufactured microprocessor-based arcade games, and Esco Boueki, a coin-op distributor founded and owned by Hayao Nakayama. Nakayama was placed in a management role of Sega's Japanese operations. In the early 1980s, Sega was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States, as company revenues rose to $214 million. 1979 saw the release of Head On, which introduced the "eat-the-dots" gameplay Namco later used in Pac-Man. In 1981, Sega licensed Frogger, its most successful game until then. In 1982, Sega introduced the first game with isometric graphics, Zaxxon.
1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence
Further information: SG-1000 and Master System
Sega's first video game console, the SG-1000
Following a downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982, Gulf and Western sold its North American arcade game manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to Bally Manufacturing in September 1983. Gulf and Western retained Sega's North American R&D operation and its Japanese subsidiary, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. With its arcade business in decline, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. president Nakayama advocated for the company to use its hardware expertise to move into the home consumer market in Japan. This led to Sega's development of a computer, the SC-3000. Learning that Nintendo was developing a games-only console, the Famicom, Sega developed its first home video game system, the SG-1000, alongside the SC-3000. Rebranded versions of the SG-1000 were released in several other markets worldwide. The SG-1000 sold 160,000 units in 1983, which far exceeded Sega's projection of 50,000 in the first year but was outpaced by the Famicom. This was in part because Nintendo expanded its game library by courting third-party developers, whereas Sega was hesitant to collaborate with companies with which it was competing in the arcades.
In November 1983, Rosen announced his intention to step down as president of Sega Enterprises, Inc. on January 1, 1984. Jeffrey Rochlis was announced as the new president and CEO of Sega. Shortly after the launch of the SG-1000, and the death of company founder Charles Bluhdorn, Gulf and Western began to sell off its secondary businesses. Nakayama and Rosen arranged a management buyout of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from CSK Corporation, a prominent Japanese software company. Sega's Japanese assets were purchased for $38 million by a group of investors led by Rosen and Nakayama. Isao Okawa, head of CSK, became chairman, while Nakayama was installed as CEO of Sega Enterprises, Ltd.
The Master System, released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987
In 1985, Sega began working on the Mark III, a redesigned SG-1000. For North America, Sega rebranded the Mark III as the Master System, with a futuristic design intended to appeal to Western tastes. The Mark III was released in Japan in October 1985. Despite featuring more powerful hardware than the Famicom in some ways, it was unsuccessful at launch. As Nintendo required third-party developers not to publish their Famicom games on other consoles, Sega developed its own games and obtained the rights to port games from other developers. To help market the console in North America, Sega planned to sell the Master System as a toy, similar to how Nintendo had done with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sega partnered with Tonka, an American toy company, to make use of Tonka's expertise in the toy industry. Ineffective marketing by Tonka handicapped sales of the Master System. By early 1992, production had ceased in North America. The Master System sold between 1.5 million and 2 million units in the region. This was less market share in North America than both Nintendo and Atari, which controlled 80 percent and 12 percent of the market. The Master System was eventually a success in Europe, where its sales were comparable to the NES. As late as 1993, the Master System's active installed user base in Europe was 6.25 million units. The Master System has had continued success in Brazil. New versions continue to be released by Sega's partner in the region, Tectoy. By 2016, the Master System had sold 8 million units in Brazil.
During 1984, Sega opened its European division of arcade distribution, Sega Europe. It re-entered the North American arcade market in 1985 with the establishment of Sega Enterprises USA at the end of a deal with Bally. The release of Hang-On in 1985 would prove successful in the region, becoming so popular that Sega struggled to keep up with demand for the game. UFO Catcher was introduced in 1985 and as of 2005 was Japan's most commonly installed claw crane game. In 1986, Sega of America was established to manage the company's consumer products in North America, beginning with marketing the Master System. During Sega's partnership with Tonka, Sega of America relinquished marketing and distribution of the console and focused on customer support and some localization of games. Out Run, released in 1986, became Sega's best selling arcade cabinet of the 1980s. Former Sega director Akira Nagai said Hang-On and Out Run helped to pull the arcade game market out of the 1982 downturn and created new genres of video games.
1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success
Further information: Sega Genesis
The Sega Genesis (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the Master System, took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.
With the arcade game market once again growing, Sega was one of the most recognized game brands at the end of the 1980s. In the arcades, the company focused on releasing games to appeal to diverse tastes, including racing games and side-scrollers. Sega released the Master System's successor, the Mega Drive, in Japan on October 29, 1988. The launch was overshadowed by Nintendo's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier. Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep! helped establish a following, with the latter launching a new publication dedicated to the console, but Sega shipped only 400,000 units in the first year.
The Mega Drive struggled to compete against the Famicom and lagged behind Nintendo's Super Famicom and the TurboGrafx-16, made by NEC, in Japanese sales throughout the 16-bit era. For the North American launch, where the console was renamed Genesis, Sega had no sales and marketing organization. After Atari declined an offer to market the console in the region, Sega launched it through its own Sega of America subsidiary. The Genesis was launched in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, and in the rest of North America later that year. The European version of the Mega Drive was released in September 1990.
Former Atari executive and new Sega of America president Michael Katz developed a two-part strategy to build sales in North America. The first part involved a marketing campaign to challenge Nintendo and emphasize the more arcade-like experience available on the Genesis, with slogans including "Genesis does what Nintendon't". Since Nintendo owned the console rights to most arcade games of the time, the second part involved creating a library of games which used the names and likenesses of celebrities, such as Michael Jackson's Moonwalker and Joe Montana Football. Nonetheless, Sega had difficulty overcoming Nintendo's ubiquity in homes. Sega of America sold only 500,000 Genesis units in its first year, half of Nakayama's goal.
Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot since 1991.
After the launch of the Genesis, Sega sought a new flagship line of releases to compete with Nintendo's Mario series. Its new character, Sonic the Hedgehog, went on to feature in one of the best-selling video game franchises in history. Sonic the Hedgehog began with a tech demo created by Yuji Naka involving a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a winding tube; this was fleshed out with Naoto Ohshima's character design and levels conceived by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara. Sonic's color was chosen to match Sega's cobalt blue logo; his shoes were inspired by Michael Jackson's boots, and his personality by Bill Clinton's "can-do" attitude.
Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske as CEO of Sega of America in mid-1990, and Katz departed soon after. Kalinske knew little about the video game market, but surrounded himself with industry-savvy advisors. A believer in the razor-and-blades business model, he developed a four-point plan: cut the price of the Genesis, create a US team to develop games targeted at the American market, expand the aggressive advertising campaigns, and replace the bundled game Altered Beast with Sonic the Hedgehog. The Japanese board of directors disapproved, but it was approved by Nakayama, who told Kalinske, "I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas, so go ahead and do it."
In large part due to the popularity of Sonic the Hedgehog, the Genesis outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), in the United States nearly two to one during the 1991 holiday season. By January 1992, Sega controlled 65 percent of the 16-bit console market. Sega outsold Nintendo for four consecutive Christmas seasons due to the Genesis' head start, lower price, and a larger library compared to the SNES at release. Nintendo's dollar share of the US 16-bit market dropped from 60% at the end of 1992 to 37% at the end of 1993, Sega claimed 55% of all 16-bit hardware sales during 1994, and the SNES outsold the Genesis from 1995 through 1997.
Game Gear, released in 1990
In 1990, Sega launched the Game Gear, a handheld console, to compete against Nintendo's Game Boy. The Game Gear was designed as a portable version of the Master System and featured a full-color screen, in contrast to the monochrome Game Boy screen. Due to its short battery life, lack of original games, and weak support from Sega, the Game Gear did not surpass the Game Boy, having sold approximately 11 million units. Sega launched the Mega-CD in Japan on December 1, 1991, initially retailing at JP¥49,800. The add-on uses CD-ROM technology. Further features include a second, faster processor, vastly expanded system memory, a graphics chip that performed scaling and rotation similar to the company's arcade games, and another sound chip. In North America, it was renamed the Sega CD and launched on October 15, 1992, with a retail price of US$299. It was released in Europe as the Mega-CD in 1993. The Mega-CD sold only 100,000 units during its first year in Japan, falling well below expectations.
Larger Virtua Formula installation of Virtua Racing at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in Luxor Las Vegas, circa late 1993
Throughout the early 1990s, Sega largely continued its success in arcades around the world. In 1992 and 1993, the new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased in-house development studio Sega AM2's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter (the first 3D fighting game), which, though expensive, played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics. In addition, complex simulator equipment like the rotational R360 kept Sega competing with machines by rival arcade companies, including Taito. New official region-specific distributors and manufacturers, including the UK's Deith Leisure, allowed Sega to sell its machines outside of Japan with ease. Sega's domestic operations division also opened hundreds of family-oriented suburban Sega World amusement arcades in Japan during this period, as well as large over-18s "GiGO" facilities in the high-profile urban areas of Roppongi and Ikebukuro. In 1993, this success was mirrored in overseas territories with the openings of several large branded entertainment centers, such as Sega VirtuaLand in Luxor Las Vegas. In 1994, Sega generated a revenue of ¥354.032 billion or $3,464,000,000 (equivalent to $7,121,000,000 in 2023).
In 1993, the American media began to focus on the mature content of certain video games, such as Night Trap for the Sega CD and the Genesis version of Midway's Mortal Kombat. This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an "edgy" company with "attitude", and this reinforced that image. To handle this, Sega instituted the United States' first video game ratings system, the Videogame Rating Council (VRC), for all its systems. Ratings ranged from the family-friendly GA rating to the more mature rating of MA-13, and the adults-only rating of MA-17. Executive vice president of Nintendo of America Howard Lincoln was quick to point out in the United States congressional hearings in 1993 that Night Trap was not rated at all. Senator Joe Lieberman called for another hearing in February 1994 to check progress toward a rating system for video game violence. After the hearings, Sega proposed the universal adoption of the VRC; after objections by Nintendo and others, Sega took a role in forming the Entertainment Software Rating Board.
1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success
Further information: Sega Saturn and 32X
Sega began work on the Genesis' successor, the Sega Saturn, more than two years before showcasing it at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994. According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Nakayama became concerned about the 1994 release of the Atari Jaguar, and that the Saturn would not be available until the next year. As a result, Nakayama decided to have a second console release to market by the end of 1994. Sega began to develop the 32X, a Genesis add-on which would serve as a less expensive entry into the 32-bit era. The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn, but would play Genesis games. Sega released the 32X on November 21, 1994, in North America, December 3, 1994, in Japan, and January 1995 in PAL territories, and was sold at less than half of the Saturn's launch price. After the holiday season, interest in the 32X rapidly declined.
The Sega Saturn failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.
Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22, 1994. Virtua Fighter, a port of the popular arcade game, sold at a nearly one-to-one ratio with the Saturn at launch and was crucial to the system's early success in Japan. Sega's initial shipment of 200,000 Saturn units sold out on the first day, and it was more popular than the PlayStation, made by Sony, in Japan. In March 1995, Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the US on "Saturn-day" (Saturday) September 2, 1995. Sega of Japan mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation. At the first Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in Los Angeles on May 11, 1995, Kalinske revealed the release price and that Sega had shipped 30,000 Saturns to Toys "R" Us, Babbage's, Electronics Boutique, and Software Etc. for immediate release. A by-product of the surprise launch was the provocation of retailers not included in Sega's rollout; KB Toys in particular decided to no longer stock its products in response.
The Saturn's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date, on July 8, 1995. Within two days of the PlayStation's American launch on September 9, 1995, the PlayStation sold more units than the Saturn. Within its first year, the PlayStation secured over twenty percent of the US video game market. The console's high price point, surprise launch, and difficulty handling polygonal graphics were factors in its lack of success. Sega also underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis; 16-bit sales accounted for 64 percent of the market in 1995. Despite capturing 43 percent of the US market dollar share and selling more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995, Kalinske estimated that, if prepared for demand, another 300,000 could have been sold.
Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America in July 1996, while Kalinske left Sega after September 30 of that year. A former Honda executive, Irimajiri had been involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993. The company also announced that Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions at Sega of America, though both remained with Sega. Bernie Stolar, a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America, became Sega of America's executive vice president in charge of product development and third-party relations. Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn, believing its hardware was poorly designed.
While Stolar had said "the Saturn is not our future" at E3 1997, he continued to emphasize the quality of its games, and later reflected that "we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer." At Sony, Stolar had opposed the localization of certain Japanese PlayStation games that he felt would not represent the system well in North America. He advocated a similar policy for the Saturn, generally blocking 2D arcade games and role-playing games from release, although he later sought to distance himself from this stance. Other changes included a softer image in Sega's advertising, including removing the "Sega!" scream, and holding press events for the education industry.
Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999
Sega partnered with GE to develop the Sega Model 2 arcade system board, building on 3D technology in the arcade industry at the time. This led to several successful arcade games, including Daytona USA, launched in a limited capacity in late 1993 and worldwide in 1994. Other popular games included Virtua Cop, Sega Rally Championship, and Virtua Fighter 2. Virtua Fighter and Virtua Fighter 2 became Sega's best-selling arcade games of all time, surpassing their previous record holder Out Run. There was also a technological arms race between Sega and Namco during this period, driving the growth of 3D gaming.
Beginning in 1994, Sega launched a series of indoor theme parks in Japan under a concept dubbed "Amusement Theme Park", including Joypolis parks sited in urban Tokyo locations such as Yokohama and Odaiba. A rapid overseas rollout was planned, with at least 100 locations across the world proposed to be opened by 2000, however only two, Sega World London and Sega World Sydney, would ultimately materialise in September 1996 and March 1997, respectively. Following on from difficulties faced in setting up theme parks in the United States, Sega established the GameWorks chain of urban entertainment centers in a joint venture with DreamWorks SKG and Universal Studios during March 1997.
In 1995, Sega partnered with Atlus to launch Print Club (purikura), an arcade photo sticker machine that produces selfie photos. Atlus and Sega introduced Purikura in February 1995, initially at game arcades, before expanding to other popular culture locations such as fast food shops, train stations, karaoke establishments and bowling alleys. Purikura became a popular form of entertainment among youths across East Asia, laying the foundations for modern selfie culture. By 1997, about 47,000 Purikura machines had been sold, earning Sega an estimated ¥25 billion (£173 million) or $283,000,000 (equivalent to $537,000,000 in 2023) from Purikura sales that year. Various other similar Purikura machines appeared from other manufacturers, with Sega controlling about half of the market in 1997.
Sega also made forays in the PC market with the 1995 establishment of SegaSoft, which was tasked with creating original Saturn and PC games. From 1994 to 1999, Sega also participated in the arcade pinball market when it took over Data East's pinball division, renaming it Sega Pinball.
In January 1997, Sega announced its intentions to merge with the Japanese toy maker Bandai. The merger, planned as a $1 billion stock swap whereby Sega would wholly acquire Bandai, was set to form a company known as Sega Bandai, Ltd. Though it was to be finalized in October of that year, it was called off in May after growing opposition from Bandai's mid-level executives. Bandai instead agreed to a business alliance with Sega. As a result of Sega's deteriorating financial situation, Nakayama resigned as Sega president in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri. Nakayama's resignation may have in part been due to the failure of the merger, as well as Sega's 1997 performance. Stolar became CEO and president of Sega of America.
After the launch of the Nintendo 64 in the US during 1996, sales of the Saturn and its games fell sharply in much of the west. The PlayStation outsold the Saturn three-to-one in the US in 1997, and the latter failed to gain a foothold in Europe and Australia, where the Nintendo 64 would not release until March 1997. After several years of declining profits, Sega had a slight increase in the fiscal year ended March 1997, partly driven by increasing arcade revenue, while outperforming Nintendo during the mid-term period. However, in the fiscal year ending March 1998, Sega suffered its first financial loss since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange as both a parent company and a corporation as a whole. Shortly before the announcement of the losses, Sega discontinued the Saturn in North America to prepare for the launch of its successor, the Dreamcast, releasing remaining games in low quantities.
The decision to discontinue the Saturn effectively left the North American home console market without Sega games for over a year, with most of its activity in the country coming from arcade divisions. The Saturn lasted longer in some Europe territories and particularly Japan, with it notably outperforming the Nintendo 64 in the latter. Nonetheless, Irimajiri confirmed in an interview with Japanese newspaper Daily Yomiuri that Saturn development would stop at the end of 1998 and games would continue to be produced until mid-1999. With lifetime sales of 9.26 million units, the Saturn is retrospectively considered a commercial failure in much of the world. While Sega had success with the Model 3 arcade board and titles like Virtua Fighter 3, Sega's arcade divisions struggled in the West during the late 1990s. On the other hand, Sega's arcade divisions were more successful in Asia, with Sega's overall arcade revenues increasing year-on-year throughout the late 1990s, but it was not enough to offset the significant declining revenues of Sega's home consumer divisions.
1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles
Further information: Dreamcast
The Dreamcast, discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.
Despite a 75 percent drop in half-year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast, Sega felt confident about its new system. The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre-orders. Sega announced that Sonic Adventure, the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog, would be a Dreamcast launch game. It was promoted with a large-scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall. Due to a high failure rate in the manufacturing process, Sega could not ship enough consoles for the Dreamcast's Japanese launch. As more than half of its limited stock had been pre-ordered, Sega stopped pre-orders in Japan. Before the launch, Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea (NAOMI) arcade system board, which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3. NAOMI shared technology with the Dreamcast, allowing nearly identical ports of arcade games.
The Dreamcast launched in Japan on November 27, 1998. The entire stock of 150,000 consoles sold out by the end of the day. Irimajiri estimated that another 200,000 to 300,000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply. He hoped to sell more than a million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999, but less than 900,000 were sold. The low sales undermined Sega's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers. Sega suffered a further ¥42.881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999, and announced plans to eliminate 1,000 jobs, nearly a quarter of its workforce. Before the Western launch, Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast in Japan by JP¥9,100, effectively making it unprofitable but increasing sales.
On August 11, 1999, Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired. Peter Moore, whom Stolar had hired as a Sega of America executive only six months before, was placed in charge of the North American launch. The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9, 1999, with 18 games. Sega set a record by selling more than 225,132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours, earning $98.4 million in what Moore called "the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history". Within two weeks, US Dreamcast sales exceeded 500,000. By Christmas, Sega held 31 percent of the US video game market by revenue. On November 4, Sega announced it had sold more than a million Dreamcast units. Nevertheless, the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega's manufacturing plants, which produced defective GD-ROMs where data was not properly recorded onto the disc. Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14, 1999. While Sega sold 500,000 units in Europe by Christmas 1999, sales there slowed, and by October 2000 Sega had sold only about a million units.
Though the Dreamcast was successful, Sony's PlayStation still held 60 percent of the overall market share in North America at the end of 1999. On March 2, 1999, in what one report called a "highly publicized, vaporware-like announcement", Sony revealed the first details of the PlayStation 2. The same year, Nintendo announced that its next console would meet or exceed anything on the market, and Microsoft began development of its own console, the Xbox. Sega's initial momentum proved fleeting as US Dreamcast sales—which exceeded 1.5 million by the end of 1999—began to decline as early as January 2000. Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega's ¥42.88 billion ($404 million) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000. This followed a similar loss of ¥42.881 billion the previous year and marked Sega's third consecutive annual loss. Sega's overall sales for the term increased 27.4 percent, and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded its expectations. However, this coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan. At the same time, worsening conditions reduced the profitability of Sega's Japanese arcade business, prompting the closure of 246 locations.
Moore became the president and chief operating officer of Sega of America on 8 May 2000. He said the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the US by the end of 2000 to remain viable, but Sega fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold. Moreover, Sega's attempts to spur Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses. In March 2001, Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥51.7 billion ($417.5 million). While the PlayStation 2's October 26 US launch was marred by shortages, this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected, as many disappointed consumers continued to wait or purchased a PSone. Eventually, Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market, while Sega held only 15 percent.
2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development
CSK chairman Isao Okawa replaced Irimajiri as president of Sega on May 22, 2000. Okawa had long advocated that Sega abandon the console business. Others shared this view; Sega co-founder David Rosen had "always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware", and Stolar had suggested Sega should have sold the company to Microsoft. In a September 2000 meeting with Sega's Japanese executives and heads of its first-party game studios, Moore and Sega of America executive Charles Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business. In response, the studio heads walked out. Sega announced an official company name change from Sega Enterprises, Ltd. to Sega Corporation effective November 1, 2000. Sega stated in a release that this was to display its commitment to its "network entertainment business".
On January 23, 2001, Japanese newspaper Nihon Keizai Shinbun reported that Sega would cease production of the Dreamcast and develop software for other platforms. After an initial denial, Sega released a press release confirming it was considering producing software for the PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance as part of its "new management policy". On January 31, 2001, Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a "platform-agnostic" third-party developer. Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to eliminate its unsold inventory, estimated at 930,000 units as of April 2001. This was followed by further reductions to clear the remaining inventory. The final manufactured Dreamcast was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega's first-party game studios, plus the heads of sports game developer Visual Concepts and audio studio Wave Master, and given away with all 55 first-party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro.
Okawa, who had loaned Sega $500 million in 1999, died on March 16, 2001. Shortly before his death, he forgave Sega's debts to him and returned his $695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock, helping the company survive the third-party transition. He held failed talks with Microsoft about a sale or merger with their Xbox division. According to former Microsoft executive Joachim Kempin, Microsoft founder, Bill Gates, decided against acquiring Sega because "he didn't think that Sega had enough muscle to eventually stop Sony". A business alliance with Microsoft was announced whereby Sega would develop 11 games for the Xbox. As part of the restructuring, nearly one third of Sega's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001. 2002 was Sega's fifth consecutive fiscal year of net losses.
After Okawa's death, Hideki Sato, a 30-year Sega veteran who had worked on Sega's consoles, became the company president. Following poor sales in 2002, Sega cut its profit forecast for 2003 by 90 percent, and explored opportunities for mergers. In 2003, Sega began talks with Sammy Corporation–a pachinko and pachislot manufacturing company–and Namco. The president of Sammy, Hajime Satomi, had been mentored by Okawa and was previously asked to be CEO of Sega. On February 13, Sega announced that it would merge with Sammy; however, as late as April 17, Sega was still in talks with Namco, which was attempting to overturn the merger. Sega's consideration of Namco's offer upset Sammy executives. The day after Sega announced it no longer planned to merge with Sammy, Namco withdrew its offer.
In 2003, Sato and COO Tetsu Kamaya stepped down. Sato was replaced by Hisao Oguchi, the head of the Sega studio Hitmaker. Moore left Sega in January 2003 following a meeting in which he was frustrated by Japanese executives refusing to adapt to industry changes, such as the demand for mature games such as Grand Theft Auto III. Hideaki Irie, who had worked at Agetec and ASCII, became the new president and COO of Sega of America in October 2003.
2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion
Sega Sammy Holdings (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer Sammy Corporation's purchase of Sega.
In August 2003, Sammy bought 22.4 percent of Sega's shares from CSK, making Sammy into Sega's largest shareholder. In the same year, Hajime Satomi said Sega's activity would focus on its profitable arcade business as opposed to loss-incurring home software development. In 2004, Sega Sammy Holdings, an entertainment conglomerate, was created; Sega and Sammy became subsidiaries of the new holding company, both companies operating independently while the executive departments merged. According to the first Sega Sammy Annual Report, the merger went ahead as both companies were facing difficulties. Satomi said Sega had been operating at a loss for nearly ten years, while Sammy feared stagnation and over-reliance of its highly profitable pachislot and pachinko machine business and wanted to diversify. Sammy acquired the remaining percentages of Sega, completing a takeover. The stock swap deal valued Sega between $1.45 billion and $1.8 billion. Sega Sammy Holdings was structured into four parts: Consumer Business (video games), Amusement Machine Business (arcade games), Amusement Center Business (Sega's theme parks and arcades) and Pachislot and Pachinko Business (Sammy's pachinko and pachislot business).
According to an industry survey, as of 2005, sales of arcade machines were up for the previous four years in Japan, while down for nine straight years overseas. In response to the decline of the global arcade industry in the late 1990s, Sega created several novel concepts tailored to the Japanese market. Derby Owners Club was an arcade machine with memory cards for data storage, designed to take over half an hour to complete and costing JP¥500 to play. Testing of Derby Owners Club in a Chicago arcade showed that it had become the most popular machine at the location, with a 92% replay rate. While the eight-player Japanese version of the game was released in 1999, the game was reduced to a smaller four-player version due to size issues and released in North America in 2003. The cabinet was too expensive and the game did not entice casual users which are essential to the western arcade market. While the Japanese market retained core players, western arcades had become more focused on casual players, and Sega Amusements Europe, the entity created to officially distribute and manufacture Sega's machines on the continent after the consolidation of its regional divisions, subsequently decided to develop more games locally that were better suited to western tastes.
In 2005, the GameWorks chain of arcades came under the sole ownership of Sega, which previously was shared with Vivendi Universal, and remained under their ownership until 2011. In 2009, Sega Republic, an indoor theme park, opened in Dubai. Sega gradually reduced its arcade centers from 450 in 2005 to around 200 in 2015. Arcade machine sales incurred higher profits than the company's console, mobile and PC games on a year-to-year basis until the fiscal year of 2014.
In order to drive growth in western markets, Sega announced new leadership for Sega of America and Sega Europe in 2005. Simon Jeffery became president and COO of Sega of America, and Mike Hayes president and COO for Sega Europe. In 2009, Hayes became president of the combined outfit of both Sega of America and Sega Europe, due to Jeffery leaving. Sega sold Visual Concepts to Take-Two Interactive, and purchased UK-based developer Creative Assembly, known for its Total War series. In the same year, Sega Racing Studio was also formed by former Codemasters employees. In 2006, Sega Europe purchased Sports Interactive, known for its Football Manager series. In the console and handheld business, Sega found success in the Japanese market with the Yakuza, Phantasy Star Portable and Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA series. Sega began providing the 3D imaging for Hatsune Miku holographic concerts in 2010. Sega also distributes games from smaller Japanese game developers and sells localizations of Western games in Japan. In 2013, Index Corporation was purchased by Sega Sammy after going bankrupt. The year before, Sega signed a deal to distribute Atlus titles in Japan. After the buyout, Sega implemented a corporate spin-off with Index. The latter's game assets were rebranded as Atlus, a wholly owned subsidiary of Sega.
In the mobile market, Sega released its first app on the iTunes Store with a version of Super Monkey Ball in 2008. Due in part to the decline of packaged game sales worldwide in the 2010s, Sega began layoffs and closed five offices based in Europe and Australia on July 1, 2012. This was to focus on the digital game market, such as PC and mobile devices. In 2012, Sega also began acquiring studios for mobile development, studios such as Hardlight, Three Rings Design, and Demiurge Studios becoming fully owned subsidiaries. 19 older mobile games were pulled due to quality concerns in May 2015.
To streamline operations, Sega established operational firms for each of its businesses in the 2010s. In 2012, Sega established Sega Networks as a subsidiary company for its mobile games. The same year, Sega Entertainment was established for Sega's amusement facility business. In January 2015, Sega of America announced its relocation from San Francisco to Atlus USA's headquarters in Irvine, California, which was completed later that year. From 2005 to 2015, Sega's operating income generally saw improvements compared to Sega's past financial problems, but was not profitable every year.
Sega operating income 2005–2015, Japanese yen in millions
Business year
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Amusement Machine Sales
7,423
12,176
11,682
7,152
6,890
7,094
7,317
7,415
1,902
−1,264
−2,356
Amusement Center Operations
5,472
9,244
132
−9,807
−7,520
−1,338
342
355
1,194
60
−946
Consumer Business
−8,809
9,244
1,748
−5,989
−941
6,332
1,969
−15,182
−732
2,089
4,033
2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive
In April 2015, Sega Corporation was reorganized into Sega Group, one of three groups of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was established, with four business sectors under its control. Haruki Satomi, son of Hajime Satomi, took office as president and CEO of the company in April 2015. Sega Games Co., Ltd. became the legal name of Sega Corporation and continued to manage home video games, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd. was founded to take control of the arcade division. Sega Networks merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. in 2015. At the Tokyo Game Show in September 2016, Sega announced that it had acquired the intellectual property and development rights to all games developed and published by Technosoft. Effective from January 2017, 85.1% of the shares in Sega's theme park business became owned by China Animations Character Co., renaming the former Sega Live Creation to CA Sega Joypolis.
Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Sega Sammy Holdings announced in April 2017 that it would relocate its head office functions and domestic subsidiaries located in the Tokyo metropolitan area to Shinagawa-ku by January 2018. This was to consolidate scattered head office functions including Sega Sammy Holdings, Sammy Corporation, Sega Holdings, Sega Games, Atlus, Sammy Network, and Dartslive. Sega's previous headquarters in Ōta was sold in 2019.
In June 2017, Chris Bergstresser replaced Jurgen Post as president and COO of Sega Europe. In June 2018, Gary Dale, formerly of Rockstar Games and Take-Two Interactive, replaced Chris Bergstresser as president and COO of Sega Europe. A few months later, Ian Curran, a former executive at THQ and Acclaim Entertainment, replaced John Cheng as president and COO of Sega of America in August 2018. In October 2018, Sega reported favorable western sales results from games such as Yakuza 6 and Persona 5, due to the localization work of Atlus USA.
Despite a 35-percent increase in the sale of console games and success in its PC game business, profits fell 70 percent for the 2018 fiscal year in comparison to the previous year, mainly due to the digital games market which includes mobile games as well as Phantasy Star Online 2. In response, Sega announced that for its digital games it would focus on releases for its existing intellectual property and also focus on growth areas such as packaged games in the overseas market. Sega blamed the loss on market miscalculations and having too many games under development. Projects in development at Sega included a new game in the Yakuza series, the Sonic the Hedgehog film, and the Sega Genesis Mini, which was released in September 2019. In May 2019, Sega acquired Two Point Studios, known for Two Point Hospital.
On April 1, 2020, Sega Interactive merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. The company was again renamed Sega Corporation, while Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was renamed Sega Group Corporation. According to a company statement, the move was made to allow greater research and development flexibility. Also in April 2020, Sega sold Demiurge Studios to Demiurge co-founder Albert Reed. Demiurge said it would continue to support the mobile games it developed under Sega.
2020–present: Recent history
As part of its 60th anniversary, Sega announced the Game Gear Micro microconsole for release on October 6, 2020, in Japan. Sega also announced its Fog Gaming platform, which uses the unused processing power of arcade machines in Japanese arcades overnight to help power cloud gaming applications.
Sega made a number of restructuring moves in the early 2020s. During the latter half of 2020, many of the financial gains Sega made in the earlier part of the year dissolved due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its Sega Entertainment division, which ran its arcades. That November, Sega Sammy sold 85.1% of its shares in the division to Genda Inc., though the Sega branding and coin-operated machines continued to be used in arcades. Arcade game development was unaffected by the sale. By January 2022, Sega sold the remaining portion of this division to Genda. Sega Group Corporation was formally dissolved by its parent company in 2021.
Contrasting its losses brought forth by amusement operations in 2020, sales and critical reception of Sega's home console games improved; Metacritic named Sega the best publisher of the year in 2020. Of its 28 releases that year, 95% had "good" Metacritic scores (above 75/100), including two with "great" scores (above 90/100 for Persona 5 Royal and Yakuza 0), with an average Metacritic score of 81.6 for all 2020 Sega releases. In 2023, Sega acquired the Finnish video game developer Rovio Entertainment, best known for the Angry Birds series, for US$776 million.
On April 24, 2023, 144 Sega of America employees announced plans to file a new union election under the new labor union, Allied Employees Guild Improving Sega (AEGIS), which is allied with the Communication Workers of America via CWA Local 9510. AEGIS represents workers from departments including marketing, quality assurance, development and localization, making it the first of its kind in the game industry in the United States. On July 10, 2023, it was announced that workers had voted 91–26 to form the union. AEGIS is undergoing certification with the National Labor Relations Board before going into bargaining.
In May 2023, Sega announced that 121 employees at Relic Entertainment had been made redundant to focus on cored franchises. That same year, Sega cancelled their upcoming shooter Hyenas and began restructuring its British and European operations. At The Game Awards 2023, Sega announced an initiative to revive many of its dormant franchises, beginning with new Crazy Taxi, Golden Axe, Jet Set Radio, Shinobi and Streets of Rage games. The Washington Post characterized the announcement as a return to Sega's 1990s "bohemian" and "countercultural" spirit. The co-CEO, Shuji Utsumi, said Sega wanted to "show edginess and a rebellious mindset", and that the industry was now large enough to sustain its less conventional games. In November 2023, AEGIS filed an unfair labor practice after Sega proposed a plan to phase out temporary employees by February 2024, which would affect around 80 employees.
In January 2024, Jurgen Post rejoined Sega Europe to become COO of its western studios and also serve as managing director. That month, Shuji Utsumi became the president, COO and CEO of Sega of America and Europe. Utsumi had previously helped found Sony Computer Entertainment, where he helped launch the original PlayStation, before moving to Sega and assisting with the North American Dreamcast launch. After a period with Disney Interactive, he co-founded Q Entertainment before returning to Sega in 2020. On January 9, Sega Sammy Holdings announced that Sega's amusement machine business would be demerged and transferred to Sega Toys, which will be renamed Sega Fave Corporation. The changes will take effect by April. On February 29, Sega appointed Justin Scarpone as an executive vice president of a group to expand Sega's presence in film and television.
In January 2024, Sega announced that it would lay off 61 workers at its Irvine, California location. AEGIS had been negotiating with Sega of America since November to reduce the total redundancies. On March 27, 2024, AEGIS announced that its workers had ratified a contract with Sega of America, focusing on key issues. The following day, Sega laid off 240 workers from its British and European operations, including Sega Europe, Creative Assembly, and Hardlight, and sold Relic Entertainment to an external investor.
Corporate structure
Since 2004, Sega has been a subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega's global headquarters are in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan. Sega also has offices in Irvine, California (as Sega of America), in London (as Sega Europe), in Seoul, South Korea (as Sega Publishing Korea), and in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Taipei. In other regions, Sega has contracted distributors for its games and consoles, such as Tectoy in Brazil. Sega has had offices in France, Germany, Spain, and Australia; those markets have since contracted distributors.
Relations between the regional offices have not always been smooth. Some conflict in the 1990s may have been caused by Sega president Nakayama and his admiration for Sega of America; according to Kalinske, "There were some guys in the executive suites who really didn't like that Nakayama in particular appeared to favor the US executives. A lot of the Japanese executives were maybe a little jealous, and I think some of that played into the decisions that were made." By contrast, author Steven L. Kent said Nakayama bullied American executives and that Nakayama believed the Japanese executives made the best decisions. Kent also said Sega of America CEOs Kalinske, Stolar, and Moore dreaded meeting with Sega of Japan executives.
Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation
A Club Sega game center in Akihabara, Tokyo, shown before the Sega brand was removed from it in 2022
After the formation of Sega Group in 2015 and the founding of Sega Holdings, the former Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd. Under this structure, Sega Games was responsible for the home video game market and consumer development, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd., comprised Sega's arcade game business. The two were consolidated in 2020, renamed as Sega Corporation, and Sega Group Corporation was formally absorbed into Sega Corporation in 2021. The company includes Sega Networks, which handles game development for smartphones. Sega Corporation develops and publishes games for major video game consoles and has not expressed interest in developing consoles again. According to former Sega Europe CEO Mike Brogan, "There is no future in selling hardware. In any market, through competition, the hardware eventually becomes a commodity ... If a company has to sell hardware then it should only be to leverage software, even if that means taking a hit on the hardware."
Sega Fave Corporation, originally known as Yonezawa Toys and acquired by Sega in 1991, has created toys for children's franchises such as Oshare Majo: Love and Berry, Mushiking: King of the Beetles, Lilpri, Bakugan, Jewelpet, Rilu Rilu Fairilu, Dinosaur King, and Hero Bank. Products released in the West include the home planetarium Homestar and the robot dog iDog. The Homestar was released in 2005 and has been improved several times. Its newest model, Flux, was released in 2019. The series is developed by the Japanese inventor and entrepreneur Takayuki Ohira. As a recognized specialist for professional planetariums, he has received numerous innovation prizes and supplies large planetariums internationally with his company Megastar. Sega Toys also inherited the Sega Pico handheld system and produced Pico software. The company also develops and sells arcade games that were previously held under Sega until 2024.
Since the late 1960s, Sega has been affiliated with operations of bowling alleys and arcades through its former Sega Entertainment Co., Ltd. subsidiary in Japan, as well as a number of other smaller regional subsidiaries in other countries. Initiatives to expand operations in other territories, such as the US, UK, France, Spain, and Taiwan, have been more short-lived, and following the 85.1% majority acquisition of Sega Entertainment's shares in November 2020 to mitigate losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, Sega's arcades in Japan since have been run under Genda Incorporated's Genda GiGO Entertainment division. Its DartsLive subsidiary creates electronic darts games, while Sega Logistics Service distributes and repairs arcade games.
In 2015, Sega and Japanese advertising agency Hakuhodo formed a joint venture, Stories LLC, to create entertainment for film and TV. Stories LLC has exclusive licensing rights to adapt Sega properties into film and television, and has partnered with producers to develop series based on properties including Shinobi, Golden Axe, Virtua Fighter, The House of the Dead, and Crazy Taxi.
Research and development
See also: Sega development studios
Sega produces games through its research and development teams. The Sonic the Hedgehog franchise, maintained through Sega's Sonic Team division, is one of the best-selling franchises in video games. Sega has also acquired third-party studios including Atlus, Play Heart, Amplitude Studios, Creative Assembly, Hardlight, Relic Entertainment, Sports Interactive, Two Point Studios. and Rovio Entertainment.
Sega's software research and development teams began with one development division operating under Sega's longtime head of R&D, Hisashi Suzuki. As the market increased for home video game consoles, Sega expanded with three Consumer Development (CS) divisions. After October 1983, arcade development expanded to three teams: Sega DD No. 1, 2, and 3. Some time after the release of Power Drift, Sega restructured its teams again as the Sega Amusement Machine Research and Development Teams, or AM teams. Each arcade division was segregated, and a rivalry existed between the arcade and consumer development divisions.
In what has been called "a brief moment of remarkable creativity", in 2000, Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi-autonomous studios headed by the company's top designers. The studios were United Game Artists, Smilebit, Hitmaker, Sega Rosso, WOW Entertainment, Overworks, Amusement Vision, Sega-AM2, and Sonic Team. Sega's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process. After taking over as company president in 2003, Hisao Oguchi announced his intention to consolidate Sega's studios. Prior to the acquisition by Sammy, Sega began the process of re-integrating its subsidiaries into the main company. Toshihiro Nagoshi, formerly the head of Amusement Vision, recalls this period as "in many ways a labour of love" from Sega, teaching the creatives the experience of managing a business.
Sega still operates first-party studios as departments of its research and development division. Sonic Team exists as Sega's CS2 research and development department, while Sega's CS3 or Online department has developed games such as Phantasy Star Online 2, and Sega's AM2 department has more recently worked on projects such as smartphone game Soul Reverse Zero. Toshihiro Nagoshi remained involved with research and development as Sega's chief creative officer or creative director while working on the Yakuza series until 2021. Other studios include Ignited Artists and Play Heart.
Legacy
A demo Dreamcast kiosk at the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere, Finland, in 2017
Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers, having developed more than 500 games, 70 franchises, and 20 arcade system boards since 1981. It has been recognized by Guinness World Records for this achievement. Of Sega's arcade division, Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said, "It's boisterous, broad and with a neat sense of showmanship running through its range. On top of that, it has something that's often evaded its console-dwelling cousin: success."
The Sega Genesis is often ranked among the best consoles in history. In 2014, USgamer's Jeremy Parish credited it for galvanizing the market by breaking Nintendo's near-monopoly, helping create modern sports game franchises, and popularizing television games in the UK. Kalinske felt Sega had innovated by developing games for an older demographic and pioneering the "street date" concept with the simultaneous North American and European release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2. Sega of America's marketing campaign for the Genesis influenced marketing for later consoles.
Despite its commercial failure, the Saturn is well regarded for its library, though it has been criticized for a lack of high-profile franchise releases. Edge wrote that "hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like Burning Rangers, Guardian Heroes, Dragon Force, and Panzer Dragoon Saga." Sega's management was criticized for its handling of the Saturn. According to Greg Sewart of 1Up.com, "the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled, and greatest, systems of all time".
The Dreamcast is remembered for being ahead of its time, with several concepts that became standard in consoles, such as motion controls and online functionality. Its demise has been connected with transitions in the video game industry. In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die, Duncan Harris wrote that the Dreamcast's end "signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright, attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games." Parish contrasted the Dreamcast's diverse library with the "suffocating sense of conservatism" that pervaded the industry in the following decade.
In Eurogamer, Damien McFerran wrote that Sega's decisions in the late 1990s were "a tragic spectacle of overconfidence and woefully misguided business practice". Travis Fahs of IGN noted that since the Sammy takeover Sega had developed fewer games and outsourced to more western studios, and that its arcade operations had been significantly reduced. Nonetheless, he wrote: "Sega was one of the most active, creative, and productive developers the industry has ever known, and nothing that can happen to their name since will change that." In 2015, Sega president Haruki Satomi told Famitsu that, in the previous ten years, Sega had "betrayed" the trust of older fans and that he hoped to re-establish the Sega brand. During the promotion of the Sega Genesis Mini, Sega executive manager Hiroyuki Miyazaki reflected on Sega's history, saying, "I feel like Sega has never been the champion, at the top of all the video game companies, but I feel like a lot of people love Sega because of the underdog image." Former Sega management cited the absence of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy games on their home consoles as a reason for the console division's struggles, especially in Japan. In his 2018 book The Sega Arcade Revolution, Horowitz connected Sega's decline in the arcades after 1995 with broader industry changes. He argued that its most serious problems came from the loss of its creative talent, particularly Yuji Naka and Yu Suzuki, after the Sammy takeover, but concluded that "as of this writing, Sega is in its best financial shape of the past two decades. The company has endured."
See also
Video games portal
List of Sega video game franchises
Lists of Sega games
Sega, S.A. SONIC
Sega Technical Institute
Notes
^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega
^ Japanese: 日本娯楽物産株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon goraku bussan kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Amusement Products Stock Company
^ Japanese: 日本機械製造株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon kikai seizō kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Machine Manufacturers Co., Ltd.
^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ・エンタープライゼズ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega Entapuraizezu
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^ Horowitz 2018, p. 282
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vteSegaA subsidiary of Sega Sammy HoldingsProducts
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vteSega Sammy HoldingsExecutive
Hajime Satomi (chairman)
Sega CorporationvteSegaA subsidiary of Sega Sammy HoldingsProducts
Software
Video game franchises
List of games
Hardware
Consoles
Development studiosJapan
Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio
Sega AM2
Sonic Team
Sega Saporro Studio
Sega AM1
Atlus
Europe
Amplitude Studios
Creative Assembly
Sofia
Hardlight
Rovio Entertainment
Ruby Games
Sports Interactive
Two Point Studios
Sega FaveProducts
Arcade systems
Arcade games
Sega Logistics Services
DartsliveTMS Entertainment
Telecom Animation Film
TMS JINNI'S
TMS Music
Toms Photo
Other assets
Play Heart
Sega XD
Marza Animation Planet
Online gaming services
Sega Meganet
Sega Channel
Sega Net Link
Dreamcast services
ALL.Net
Sega Forever
Former assets
Career Soft
GameWorks
Demiurge Studios
Index Corporation
Relic Entertainment
Sega Studios San Francisco
Sega Studios Australia
Sega Sports R&D
Sega Ozisoft
Sega Entertainment
Sega World
Sega World Sydney
SegaWorld London
SIMS Co., Ltd.
Sonic! Software Planning
Visual Concepts
Technosoft
Three Rings Design
Defunct
Amusement Vision
Hitmaker
Sega Rosso
Sega WOW
WOW Entertainment
Overworks
Smilebit
Orbi
Related
Gremlin Industries
Gulf and Western Industries
Sega Technical Institute
SCSK Corporation
Sega v. Accolade
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Sammy Corporation
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Taiyo Elec
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m2r
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Wave Master
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Defunct
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Career Soft
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vteVideo game franchises owned by SegaSega
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Angry Birds
Bayonetta
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Eastside Hockey Manager
Ecco the Dolphin
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Initial D
Like a Dragon
Panzer Dragoon
Phantasy Star
Puyo Puyo
Sakura Wars
Sega Ages
Sega Rally
Sega Worldwide Soccer
Shenmue
Shining
Shinobi
Sonic the Hedgehog
Streets of Rage
Super Monkey Ball
Thunder Force
Total War
Valkyria Chronicles
Virtua Fighter
Virtua Striker
Virtua Tennis
Virtual On
Wonder Boy
World Series Baseball
Atlus
Dept. Heaven
Etrian Odyssey
Growlanser
Megami Tensei
Devil Children
Devil Summoner
Last Bible
Majin Tensei
Persona
Power Instinct
Trauma Center
vteSonic the Hedgehog
List of games
Music
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Main seriesConsole
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2
CD
3
& Knuckles
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Heroes
Sonic the Hedgehog (2006)
Unleashed
4: Episode I
Colors
Generations
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4: Episode II
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Superstars
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2
Chaos
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Blast
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RelatedVideo games
Flicky
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Super Smash Bros.
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Fall Guys
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Yuji Naka
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ESP Ra.De.
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GP-1
GP-1: Part II
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Heaven's Gate
Hellnight
Hoshigami
Imadoki no Vampire: Bloody Bride
Jaws
The Karate Kid
Kartia: The Word of Fate
Kat's Run
Kwirk
Maken X
Metaphor: ReFantazio
My Disney Kitchen
Naname De Magic!
Nijiiro Dodge Ball
Odin Sphere
Oh My God!
Peak Performance
Princess Crown
Pro Kishi Jinsei Simulation: Shōgi no Hanamichi
Purikura Daisakusen
Radiant Historia
River City Ransom EX
Rockin' Kats
Run Saber
Sengoku Blade
Somer Assault
Spud's Adventure
Stella Deus
Strikers 1945
Tesla Effect
Thousand Arms
Tokyo Mono Hara Shi
Unicorn Overlord
Wacky Races
Widget
Wizardry: Tale of the Forsaken Land
People
Katsura Hashino
Kazuma Kaneko
Shoji Meguro
Toshihiro Nagoshi
Kouji Okada
Shigenori Soejima
Related companies
Atlus USA
ACE Team
Aquaplus
Quest
Sting Entertainment
Sega
iXIT Corporation
Takara
Category
vteTMS Entertainment television series1960s
Big X (1964–1965)
Obake no Q-Tarō (1965–1967)
Perman (1967–1968)
Kyojin no Hoshi (1968–1971)
Kaibutsu-kun (1968–1969)
Moomin (1969–1970)
Attack No. 1 (1969–1971)
1970s
Shin Obake no Q-Tarō (1971–1972)
Tensai Bakabon (1971–1972)
Lupin III (1971–1972)
Dokonjō Gaeru (1972–1974)
Jungle Kurobe (1973)
Kōya no Shōnen Isamu (1973–1974)
Karate Baka Ichidai (1973–1974)
Ace o Nerae! (1973–1974)
First Human Giatrus (1974–1976)
Gamba no Bouken (1975)
Ganso Tensai Bakabon (1975–1977)
Hyōga Senshi Guyslugger (1977)
Shin Kyojin no Hoshi (1977–1978)
Ie Naki Ko (1977–1978)
Shin Lupin III (1977–1980)
Treasure Island (1978–1979)
Shin Ace o Nerae! (1978–1979)
Shin Kyojin no Hoshi II (1979)
The Rose of Versailles (1979–1980)
1980s
New Tetsujin 28-go (1980–1981)
Ashita no Joe 2 (1980–1981)
Ohayō! Spank (1981–1982)
Shin Dokonjō Gaeru (1981–1982)
Rokushin Gattai God Mars (1981–1982)
Jarinko Chie (1981–1983)
Uchu Densetsu Ulysses 31 (1981–1982)
Acrobunch (1982)
Space Cobra (1982–1983)
Perman (1983–1985)
Lady Georgie (1983–1984)
Chō Jikū Seiki Orguss (1983–1984)
Cat's Eye (1983–1984)
Lupin III Part III (1984–1985)
God Mazinger (1984)
Mighty Orbots (1984)
Cat's Eye (1984–1985)
Meitantei Holmes (1984–1985)
Onegai! Samia-don (1985–1986)
Robotan (1986)
Galaxy High School (1986)
Bug-tte Honey (1986–1987)
Soreike! Anpanman (1988–present)
Ohayō! Spank (1989–1991)
Bye Bye, Lady Liberty (1989)
Lupin III television specials (1989–present)
1990s
Mischievous Twins: The Tales of St. Clare's (1991)
Kinkyū Hasshin Saver Kids (1991–1992)
Reporter Blues (1991–1996)
Jarinko Chie: Chie-chan Funsenki (1991–1992)
Tetsujin 28-go FX (1992–1993)
My Patrasche (1992–1993)
Ohayō! Spank (1994–1995)
Soccer Fever (1994–1995)
Red Baron (1994–1995)
Magic Knight Rayearth (1994–1995)
Virtua Fighter (1995–1996)
Kaito Saint Tail (1995–1996)
Detective Conan (1996–present)
B't X (1996)
B't X Neo (1997)
Devil Lady (1998–1999)
Monster Rancher (1999–2001)
Gozonji! Gekko Kamen-kun (1999–2000)
Cybersix (1999)
Karakurizōshi Ayatsuri Sakon (1999–2000)
2000s
Hamtaro (2000–2006)
Shin Megami Tensei: DeviChil (2000–2001)
Project ARMS (2001)
Project ARMS: The 2nd Chapter (2001–2002)
Patapata Hikōsen no Bōken (2002)
Tenshi Na Konamaiki (2002–2003)
Episode 0: The First Contact (2002)
Sonic X (2003–2004)
Rumiko Takahashi Anthology (2003)
Requiem from the Darkness (2003)
Mermaid's Forest (2003)
PoPoLoCrois (2003–2004)
Uninhabited Planet Survive! (2003–2004)
Aishiteruze Baby (2004)
Futakoi (2004)
Gallery Fake (2005)
Buzzer Beater (2005)
Glass no Kamen (2005–2006)
The Snow Queen (2005–2006)
Tide-Line Blue (2005)
Fighting Beauty Wulong (2005–2006)
Mushiking: The King of Beetles (2005–2006)
Angel Heart (2005–2006)
Fighting Beauty Wulong Rebirth (2006)
Trotting Hamtaro Hai! (2006–2008)
Muteki Kanban Musume (2006)
D.Gray-man (2006–2008)
Kenichi: The Mightiest Disciple (2006–2007)
Pururun! Shizuku-chan (2006–2007)
Bakugan Battle Brawlers (2007–2008)
Buzzer Beater II (2007)
Pururun! Shizuku-chan Aha (2007–2008)
Moyasimon: Tales of Agriculture (2007)
Noramimi (2008)
Itazura na Kiss (2008)
CHIKO, Heiress of the Phantom Thief (2008)
Telepathy Shōjo Ran Jiken Note (2008)
Bakugan Battle Brawlers: New Vestroia (2009–2010)
Kupū~!! Mamegoma! (2009)
Genji Monogatari Sennenki (2009)
Lupin the 3rd vs. Detective Conan (2009)
2010s
Bakugan: Gundalian Invaders (2010–2011)
Lilpri (2010–2011)
Magic Kaito (2010–2012)
Cardfight!! Vanguard (2011–2014)
Bakugan: Mechtanium Surge (2011–2012)
Trotting Hamtaro Dechu! (2011–2013)
Battle Girls: Time Paradox (2011)
Brave 10 (2012)
Lupin the Third: The Woman Called Fujiko Mine (2012)
Zetman (2012)
Moyasimon Returns (2012)
Kamisama Kiss (2012)
Bakumatsu Gijinden Roman (2013)
Yowamushi Pedal (2013–2014)
The Pilot's Love Song (2014)
Z/X Ignition (2014)
Hero Bank (2014–2015)
Sengoku Basara: End of Judgement (2014)
Gugure! Kokkuri-san (2014)
Yowamushi Pedal Grande Road (2014–2015)
Hi-sCoool! SeHa Girls (2014)
Cardfight!! Vanguard G (2014–2016)
Kamisama Kiss◎ (2015)
Jewelpet: Magical Change (2015)
My Monster Secret (2015)
Lupin the 3rd Part IV: The Italian Adventure (2015–2016)
Phantasy Star Online 2: The Animation (2016)
Bakuon!! (2016)
Kamiwaza Wanda (2016–2017)
ReLIFE (2016)
Orange (2016)
D.Gray-man Hallow (2016)
Sweetness and Lightning (2016)
Ninja Girl & Samurai Master (2016–2017)
Trickster (2016–2017)
All Out!! (2016–2017)
Case Closed Episode One: The Great Detective Turned Small (2016)
Chain Chronicle ~Light of Haecceitas~ (2017)
Yowamushi Pedal: New Generation (2017)
Ninja Girl & Samurai Master 2nd (2017)
Nana Maru San Batsu (2017)
Yowamushi Pedal: Glory Line (2018)
Lupin the 3rd Part V: Misadventures in France (2018)
Megalobox (2018)
Ninja Girl & Samurai Master 3rd (2018)
The Thousand Musketeers (2018)
Tsukumogami Kashimasu (2018)
Between the Sky and Sea (2018)
Bakugan: Battle Planet (2018–2020)
Meiji Tokyo Renka (2019)
Fruits Basket (2019–2021)
Hachigatsu no Cinderella Nine (2019)
Dr. Stone (2019)
2020s
Bakugan: Armored Alliance (2020–2021)
Tower of God (2020)
Rent-A-Girlfriend (2020–present)
Dr. Stone: Stone Wars (2021)
Bakugan: Geogan Rising (2021)
Burning Kabaddi (2021)
Don't Toy with Me, Miss Nagatoro (2021)
Megalobox 2: Nomad (2021)
Seirei Gensouki: Spirit Chronicles (2021–present)
Lupin the 3rd Part 6 (2021–2022)
Detective Conan: Police Academy Arc (2021–present)
Bakugan: Evolutions (2022)
Shenmue: The Animation (2022)
Insect Land (2022)
Case Closed: Zero's Tea Time (2022)
Case Closed: The Culprit Hanzawa (2022)
Yowamushi Pedal: Limit Break (2022–present)
Bakugan: Legends (2023)
Dr. Stone: New World (2023)
Four Knights of the Apocalypse (2023)
Rinkai! (2024)
Astro Note (2024)
Blue Box (2024)
Sakamoto Days (2025)
Rick and Morty: The Anime (TBA)
Category
vteMarza Animation PlanetFeature films
Space Pirate Captain Harlock
Resident Evil: Vendetta
Lupin III: The First
Sonic the Hedgehog
Video game franchises
Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA
Phantasy Star
Sega All-Stars
Sonic the Hedgehog
Super Monkey Ball
Standalone video games
Kingdom Conquest
Nights: Journey of Dreams
Oshare Majo: Love and Berry
Resonance of Fate
Samba de Amigo
Sengoku Taisen
Virtua Fighter 5
Virtua Tennis 4
Related
Sega Sammy Holdings
Sega
TMS Entertainment
vteElectronics industry in JapanCompaniesCurrent
Aiwa
Alaxala Networks
Alinco
Alps
Alpine
Anritsu
AOR
Audio-Technica
Bandai Namco
Brother
Canon
Casio
CatEye
Citizen Watch
Cosina
D+M Group
Denon
Marantz
Daikin
Denso
Denso Ten
DNP
Eiki
Eizo
Elecom
ESP Guitars
FANUC
Fostex
Fuji Electric
Fujifilm
Business Innovation
Fujitsu
Funai
Furuno
Futaba
Hamamatsu Photonics
Hirose Electric
Hitachi
Clarion
Maxell
Hoya
Ibanez
Ibiden
Icom
Ikegami Tsushinki
Iwatsu
Japan Display
JEOL
JRC
JR Propo
JVCKenwood
JVC
Kenwood
Kawai
Keyence
Kioxia
Kiramek
Konami
Konica Minolta
KO PROPO
Korg
Kyocera
Luxman
Mabuchi Motor
Mamiya
Maspro
Melco
Micron Memory Japan
MinebeaMitsumi
Mitsumi
Mitsubishi Electric
Murata Manufacturing
Mutoh
Nakamichi
NEC
Mobile Communications
Nichia
Nichicon
Nidec
Nidec Copal Corporation
Nihon Dempa Kogyo
Nikon
Nintendo
Nippon Chemi-Con
Nitto Denko
NKK Switches
Oki
Olympus
Omron
Onkyo
Integra Home Theater
Orion Electric
Panasonic
Sanyo
Technics
Pioneer
Pixela
Plextor
Renesas Electronics
Ricoh
Pentax
Riso Kagaku
Rohm
Roland
Rubycon
Sansui
Sanwa Electronic
SCREEN
Sega Sammy
Sega
Seiko Group
Pulsar
Seiko
Epson
Orient Watch
Seiko Instruments
Sharp
Shimadzu
Shindengen Electric Manufacturing
Sigma
Sony
SNK
Square Enix
Taito
Stanley Electric
Star Micronics
Stax
Sumitomo Electric
Taiyo Yuden
Tamron
TDK
TEAC
Tiger
TOA Corporation
Tokyo Electron
Topcon
Toshiba
Uniden
Ushio
Wacom
Yaesu
Yamaha
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Yokogawa
Zojirushi
Zoom
Zuken
Defunct
Aiwa
Akai
Bronica
Chinon
Contax
Konica
Minolta
National
Norita
Okaya Optical
Other
Electronic Industries Association
INCJ
Japan Electronic Industries Development Association
Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association
Yagi–Uda antenna
Category
Portals: Video games Companies Tokyo Japan
Authority control databases International
FAST
ISNI
VIAF
2
National
Norway
France
BnF data
Catalonia
Germany
United States
Japan
2
Australia
Academics
CiNii
Artists
MusicBrainz
2
Other
MusicBrainz label
2
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-Sega-article.ogg"},{"link_name":"Lists of Sega games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Sega_games"},{"link_name":"Sega (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Sega Sammy Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings"},{"link_name":"Shinagawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinagawa"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"multi-million-selling game 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consoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sega_video_game_consoles"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Service Games of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sega"},{"link_name":"coin-operated games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"Periscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periscope_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"Gulf and Western Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_and_Western_Industries"},{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Entertainment System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"David Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rosen_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Hayao Nakayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao_Nakayama"},{"link_name":"management 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Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Point_Studios"},{"link_name":"Rovio Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovio_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Sonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(character)"},{"link_name":"amusement arcades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_arcade"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Sega Fave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Fave"},{"link_name":"TMS Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TMS_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Lupin the 3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupin_the_3rd"},{"link_name":"Case Closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Closed"},{"link_name":"Anpanman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anpanman"},{"link_name":"Marza Animation Planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marza_Animation_Planet"}],"text":"Japanese video game company\"Sega Games\" redirects here. For a list of video games published by Sega, see Lists of Sega games. For other uses, see Sega (disambiguation).Sega Corporation[a] is a Japanese multinational video game company and subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. It produces several multi-million-selling game franchises for arcades and consoles, including Sonic the Hedgehog, Angry Birds, Puyo Puyo, Super Monkey Ball, Total War, Virtua Fighter, and Yakuza. From 1983 until 2001, Sega also developed its own consoles.Sega was founded by American businessmen Martin Bromley and Richard Stewart as Nihon Goraku Bussan[b] on June 3, 1960. Shortly after, the company acquired the assets of its predecessor, Service Games of Japan. In 1965, it became known as Sega Enterprises, Ltd., after acquiring Rosen Enterprises, an importer of coin-operated games. Sega developed its first coin-operated game, Periscope, in 1966. Sega was sold to Gulf and Western Industries in 1969. Following a downturn in the arcade business in the early 1980s, Sega began to develop video game consoles, starting with the SG-1000 and Master System, but struggled against competitors such as the Nintendo Entertainment System. In 1984, Sega executives David Rosen and Hayao Nakayama led a management buyout, with backing from CSK Corporation.In 1988, Sega released the Mega Drive (known as the Genesis in North America). The Mega Drive struggled against competition in Japan, but the Genesis found success overseas after the release of Sonic the Hedgehog in 1991 and briefly outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, in the US. Later in the decade, Sega suffered several commercial failures such as the 32X, Saturn, and Dreamcast. In 2001, Sega stopped manufacturing consoles to become a third-party developer and publisher, and was acquired by Sammy Corporation in 2004. Sega Holdings Co. Ltd. was established in 2015; Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd., and its arcade, entertainment, and toy divisions separated into other companies. In 2020, Sega Games and Sega Interactive merged to become Sega Corporation.Sega's international branches, Sega of America and Sega Europe are headquartered in Irvine, California, and London. Its development studios include their internal research and development divisions (which utilize the Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio, Sega AM2 and Sonic Team brands for several core franchise entries), Sega Sapporo Studio which mainly provides support for the Tokyo-based development teams as well as handling partial game development,[4] & Atlus (including their R&D divisions, such as P-Studio and Studio Zero respectively) and six development studios in the UK and Europe: Amplitude Studios, Creative Assembly, Sports Interactive, Sega Hardlight, Two Point Studios and Rovio Entertainment (including Ruby Games). Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers and its mascot, Sonic, is internationally recognized. Its name and branding are used for owned and/or affiliated companies that operate amusement arcades and produce other entertainment products, including Sega Fave; however, these are largely separate ventures. Sega is recognized for its video game consoles, creativity and innovations. In more recent years, it has been criticized for its business decisions and the quality of its creative output.Being the entertainment contents division of Sega Sammy Holdings, forming one half of the Sega Sammy Group,[5] Sega also owns a toy and amusement machine company, Sega Fave, which compromises their arcade development & manufacturing divisions that were previously under Sega and two animation studios: TMS Entertainment, which animates, produces, and/or distributes anime such as Lupin the 3rd, Case Closed and Anpanman & Marza Animation Planet, which specializes in CG animation.","title":"Sega"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slot_machines_at_Wookey_Hole_Caves.JPG"},{"link_name":"Honolulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honolulu"},{"link_name":"coin-operated amusement machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"slot machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slot_machine"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"its territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent4-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"jukeboxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukebox"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p3-6-12"},{"link_name":"David Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rosen_(business)"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"photo booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_booth"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Rock-Ola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock-Ola"},{"link_name":"pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball"},{"link_name":"Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMS_Industries"},{"link_name":"gun games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_gun_shooter"},{"link_name":"Midway Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midway_Games"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_1960s_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"},{"link_name":"electro-mechanical game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-mechanical_game"},{"link_name":"Periscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periscope_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-22"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p14%E2%80%9316-23"},{"link_name":"Gulf and Western Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_and_Western_Industries"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p14%E2%80%9316-23"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"Space Invaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Invaders"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"},{"link_name":"arcade video game boom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_age_of_arcade_video_games"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"Gremlin Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gremlin_Industries"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Hayao Nakayama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayao_Nakayama"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_esco-25"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Head On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_On_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"Pac-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Frogger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frogger"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"isometric graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_graphics_in_video_games_and_pixel_art"},{"link_name":"Zaxxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaxxon"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"1940–1982: Origins and arcade success","text":"The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.In May 1940, American businessmen Martin Bromley, Irving Bromberg and James Humpert formed Standard Games in Honolulu, Hawaii. Their aim was to provide coin-operated amusement machines, including slot machines, to military bases as the increase in personnel with the onset of World War II would create demand for entertainment. After the war, the founders sold Standard Games in 1945, and in 1946 established Service Games, named for the military focus.[6] After the US government outlawed slot machines in its territories in 1952, Bromley sent employees Richard Stewart and Ray LeMaire to Tokyo to establish Service Games of Japan to provide coin-operated slot machines to US bases in Japan.[7][8][9] A year later, all five men established Service Games Panama to control the entities of Service Games worldwide. The company expanded over the next seven years to include distribution in South Korea, the Philippines, and South Vietnam.[10] The name Sega, an abbreviation of Service Games,[11] was first used in 1954 on a slot machine, the Diamond Star.[10]Due to notoriety arising from investigations by the US government into criminal business practices, Service Games of Japan was dissolved on May 31, 1960.[10] On June 3,[12] Bromley established two companies to take over its business activities, Nihon Goraku Bussan and Nihon Kikai Seizō.[c] The two new companies purchased all of Service Games of Japan's assets. Kikai Seizō, doing business as Sega, Inc., focused on manufacturing slot machines. Goraku Bussan, doing business under Stewart as Utamatic, Inc., served as a distributor and operator of coin-operated machines, particularly jukeboxes.[10][13][14] The companies merged in 1964, retaining the Nihon Goraku Bussan name.[10]Around the same time, David Rosen, an American officer in the United States Air Force stationed in Japan, launched a photo booth business in Tokyo in 1954.[7] This company became Rosen Enterprises, and in 1957 began importing coin-operated games into Japan. In 1965, Nihon Goraku Bussan acquired Rosen Enterprises to form Sega Enterprises, Ltd.[d] Rosen was installed as the CEO and managing director, while Stewart was named president and LeMaire was the director of planning. Shortly afterward, Sega stopped leasing to military bases and moved its focus from slot machines to coin-operated amusement machines.[15] Its imports included Rock-Ola jukeboxes, pinball games by Williams, and gun games by Midway Manufacturing.[16]Former logo used until 1975.Because Sega imported second-hand machines, which required frequent maintenance, it began constructing replacement guns and flippers for its imported games. According to former Sega director Akira Nagai, this led to the company developing its own games.[16] The first arcade electro-mechanical game (EM game) Sega manufactured was the submarine simulator Periscope, released worldwide in the late 1960s. It featured light and sound effects considered innovative and was successful in Japan. It was then exported to malls and department stores in Europe and the United States and helped standardize the 25-cent-per-play cost for arcade games in the US. Sega was surprised by the success, and for the next two years, the company produced and exported between eight and ten games per year.[17] The worldwide success of Periscope led to a \"technological renaissance\" in the arcade industry, which was reinvigorated by a wave of \"audio-visual\" EM novelty games that followed in the wake of Periscope during the late 1960s to early 1970s.[18] However, rampant piracy led Sega to cease exporting its games around 1970.[19]In 1969, Sega was sold to the American conglomerate Gulf and Western Industries, although Rosen remained CEO. In 1974, Gulf and Western made Sega Enterprises, Ltd., a subsidiary of an American company renamed Sega Enterprises, Inc. Sega released Pong-Tron, its first video-based game, in 1973.[19] Despite late competition from Taito's hit arcade game Space Invaders in 1978,[16] Sega prospered from the arcade video game boom of the late 1970s, with revenues climbing to over US$100 million by 1979. During this period, Sega acquired Gremlin Industries, which manufactured microprocessor-based arcade games,[20] and Esco Boueki, a coin-op distributor founded and owned by Hayao Nakayama. Nakayama was placed in a management role of Sega's Japanese operations.[21] In the early 1980s, Sega was one of the top five arcade game manufacturers active in the United States, as company revenues rose to $214 million.[22] 1979 saw the release of Head On, which introduced the \"eat-the-dots\" gameplay Namco later used in Pac-Man.[23] In 1981, Sega licensed Frogger, its most successful game until then.[24] In 1982, Sega introduced the first game with isometric graphics, Zaxxon.[25]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"Bally Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bally_Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herald-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"R&D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wired1-33"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"games-only console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"Famicom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"SG-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SG-1000"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wired-35"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku_Plunkett_2017-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"third-party developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-party_developer"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retro1632-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosen_Departs_Sega-38"},{"link_name":"Charles Bluhdorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bluhdorn"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herald2-39"},{"link_name":"management buyout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_buyout"},{"link_name":"CSK Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSK"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001343-40"},{"link_name":"Isao Okawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isao_Okawa"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_esco-25"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001494-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection2-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku1000-43"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edge2-45"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MK3-46"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection2-42"},{"link_name":"Tonka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonka"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2016_6%E2%80%9315-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usgamer_next_gen-48"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-startribune-49"},{"link_name":"Atari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTdismiss-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digest_60-51"},{"link_name":"installed user base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_base"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-digest_60-51"},{"link_name":"Tectoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tectoy"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MDB-53"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Hang-On","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang-On"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"claw crane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claw_crane"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings_Annual_Report_2005-56"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2016_6%E2%80%9315-47"},{"link_name":"Out Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out_Run"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thorpe_2016-58"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Arcade_History_p20-23-20"}],"sub_title":"1982–1989: Entry into the game console market and arcade resurgence","text":"Further information: SG-1000 and Master SystemSega's first video game console, the SG-1000Following a downturn in the arcade business starting in 1982, Gulf and Western sold its North American arcade game manufacturing organization and the licensing rights for its arcade games to Bally Manufacturing in September 1983.[26][27][28] Gulf and Western retained Sega's North American R&D operation and its Japanese subsidiary, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. With its arcade business in decline, Sega Enterprises, Ltd. president Nakayama advocated for the company to use its hardware expertise to move into the home consumer market in Japan.[29] This led to Sega's development of a computer, the SC-3000. Learning that Nintendo was developing a games-only console, the Famicom, Sega developed its first home video game system, the SG-1000, alongside the SC-3000.[30] Rebranded versions of the SG-1000 were released in several other markets worldwide.[30][31][32][33] The SG-1000 sold 160,000 units in 1983, which far exceeded Sega's projection of 50,000 in the first year but was outpaced by the Famicom.[30] This was in part because Nintendo expanded its game library by courting third-party developers, whereas Sega was hesitant to collaborate with companies with which it was competing in the arcades.[30]In November 1983, Rosen announced his intention to step down as president of Sega Enterprises, Inc. on January 1, 1984. Jeffrey Rochlis was announced as the new president and CEO of Sega.[34] Shortly after the launch of the SG-1000, and the death of company founder Charles Bluhdorn, Gulf and Western began to sell off its secondary businesses.[35] Nakayama and Rosen arranged a management buyout of the Japanese subsidiary in 1984 with financial backing from CSK Corporation, a prominent Japanese software company.[36] Sega's Japanese assets were purchased for $38 million by a group of investors led by Rosen and Nakayama. Isao Okawa, head of CSK, became chairman,[21] while Nakayama was installed as CEO of Sega Enterprises, Ltd.[37]The Master System, released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987In 1985, Sega began working on the Mark III,[38] a redesigned SG-1000.[39] For North America, Sega rebranded the Mark III as the Master System,[40] with a futuristic design intended to appeal to Western tastes.[41] The Mark III was released in Japan in October 1985.[42] Despite featuring more powerful hardware than the Famicom in some ways, it was unsuccessful at launch. As Nintendo required third-party developers not to publish their Famicom games on other consoles, Sega developed its own games and obtained the rights to port games from other developers.[38] To help market the console in North America, Sega planned to sell the Master System as a toy, similar to how Nintendo had done with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Sega partnered with Tonka, an American toy company, to make use of Tonka's expertise in the toy industry.[43] Ineffective marketing by Tonka handicapped sales of the Master System.[44] By early 1992, production had ceased in North America. The Master System sold between 1.5 million and 2 million units in the region.[45] This was less market share in North America than both Nintendo and Atari, which controlled 80 percent and 12 percent of the market.[46] The Master System was eventually a success in Europe, where its sales were comparable to the NES.[47] As late as 1993, the Master System's active installed user base in Europe was 6.25 million units.[47] The Master System has had continued success in Brazil. New versions continue to be released by Sega's partner in the region, Tectoy.[48] By 2016, the Master System had sold 8 million units in Brazil.[49]During 1984, Sega opened its European division of arcade distribution, Sega Europe.[50] It re-entered the North American arcade market in 1985 with the establishment of Sega Enterprises USA at the end of a deal with Bally. The release of Hang-On in 1985 would prove successful in the region, becoming so popular that Sega struggled to keep up with demand for the game.[51] UFO Catcher was introduced in 1985 and as of 2005 was Japan's most commonly installed claw crane game.[52] In 1986, Sega of America was established to manage the company's consumer products in North America, beginning with marketing the Master System.[53] During Sega's partnership with Tonka, Sega of America relinquished marketing and distribution of the console and focused on customer support and some localization of games.[43] Out Run, released in 1986, became Sega's best selling arcade cabinet of the 1980s.[54] Former Sega director Akira Nagai said Hang-On and Out Run helped to pull the arcade game market out of the 1982 downturn and created new genres of video games.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega-Genesis-Mod2-Set.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sega Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Master System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_System"},{"link_name":"racing games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_video_game"},{"link_name":"side-scrollers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-scrolling_video_game"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Mega Drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Super Mario Bros. 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3"},{"link_name":"Famitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famitsu"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection5-60"},{"link_name":"Famicom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"Super Famicom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Nintendo_Entertainment_System"},{"link_name":"TurboGrafx-16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TurboGrafx-16"},{"link_name":"NEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC"},{"link_name":"16-bit era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_generation_of_video_game_consoles"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent_2001_p405-63"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edge_Feb1994_DataStream-64"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent_2001_p405-63"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection5-60"},{"link_name":"Michael Jackson's Moonwalker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson%27s_Moonwalker"},{"link_name":"Joe Montana 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franchises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-selling_video_game_franchises"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris_2014_386-69"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(1991_video_game)"},{"link_name":"tech demo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_demo"},{"link_name":"Yuji Naka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuji_Naka"},{"link_name":"Naoto Ohshima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naoto_Ohshima"},{"link_name":"Hirokazu Yasuhara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirokazu_Yasuhara"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yasuhara-71"},{"link_name":"cobalt blue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt_blue"},{"link_name":"Michael Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Bill 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Gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Game_Gear"},{"link_name":"handheld console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_game_console"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"monochrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochromatic"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGNGG-83"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDillon2016165-84"},{"link_name":"Mega-CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_CD"},{"link_name":"JP¥","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_yen"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroGamer-85"},{"link_name":"CD-ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM"},{"link_name":"scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaling_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent_2001_p449%E2%80%93461-86"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Takami-87"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kent_2001_p449%E2%80%93461-86"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroGamer-85"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroGamer-85"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virtua_formula.jpg"},{"link_name":"Virtua Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Formula"},{"link_name":"Luxor Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxor_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Sega Model 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_1#Sega_Model_1"},{"link_name":"Sega AM2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM2"},{"link_name":"Virtua Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Racing"},{"link_name":"Virtua Fighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Fighter_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"fighting game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting_game"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP_VF-90"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"R360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R360"},{"link_name":"Taito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Sega World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_World"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EN-JOINT-94"},{"link_name":"Roppongi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roppongi"},{"link_name":"Ikebukuro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikebukuro"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Luxor Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxor_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"Night Trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_Trap"},{"link_name":"Mortal Kombat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_(1992_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"Videogame Rating Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videogame_Rating_Council"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"},{"link_name":"Howard Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"United States congressional hearings in 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_congressional_hearings_on_video_games"},{"link_name":"Joe Lieberman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Lieberman"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Software Rating Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Software_Rating_Board"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-night_trap-100"}],"sub_title":"1989–1994: Genesis, Sonic the Hedgehog, and mainstream success","text":"Further information: Sega GenesisThe Sega Genesis (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the Master System, took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.With the arcade game market once again growing, Sega was one of the most recognized game brands at the end of the 1980s. In the arcades, the company focused on releasing games to appeal to diverse tastes, including racing games and side-scrollers.[55] Sega released the Master System's successor, the Mega Drive, in Japan on October 29, 1988. The launch was overshadowed by Nintendo's release of Super Mario Bros. 3 a week earlier. Positive coverage from magazines Famitsu and Beep! helped establish a following, with the latter launching a new publication dedicated to the console, but Sega shipped only 400,000 units in the first year.[56]The Mega Drive struggled to compete against the Famicom[57] and lagged behind Nintendo's Super Famicom and the TurboGrafx-16, made by NEC, in Japanese sales throughout the 16-bit era.[58] For the North American launch, where the console was renamed Genesis, Sega had no sales and marketing organization. After Atari declined an offer to market the console in the region, Sega launched it through its own Sega of America subsidiary. The Genesis was launched in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, and in the rest of North America later that year.[59] The European version of the Mega Drive was released in September 1990.[60]Former Atari executive and new Sega of America president Michael Katz developed a two-part strategy to build sales in North America. The first part involved a marketing campaign to challenge Nintendo and emphasize the more arcade-like experience available on the Genesis,[59] with slogans including \"Genesis does what Nintendon't\".[56] Since Nintendo owned the console rights to most arcade games of the time, the second part involved creating a library of games which used the names and likenesses of celebrities, such as Michael Jackson's Moonwalker and Joe Montana Football.[7][61] Nonetheless, Sega had difficulty overcoming Nintendo's ubiquity in homes.[62] Sega of America sold only 500,000 Genesis units in its first year, half of Nakayama's goal.[56]Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot since 1991.[63]After the launch of the Genesis, Sega sought a new flagship line of releases to compete with Nintendo's Mario series.[64] Its new character, Sonic the Hedgehog, went on to feature in one of the best-selling video game franchises in history.[65][66] Sonic the Hedgehog began with a tech demo created by Yuji Naka involving a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a winding tube; this was fleshed out with Naoto Ohshima's character design and levels conceived by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara.[67] Sonic's color was chosen to match Sega's cobalt blue logo; his shoes were inspired by Michael Jackson's boots, and his personality by Bill Clinton's \"can-do\" attitude.[68][69][70]Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske as CEO of Sega of America in mid-1990, and Katz departed soon after. Kalinske knew little about the video game market, but surrounded himself with industry-savvy advisors. A believer in the razor-and-blades business model, he developed a four-point plan: cut the price of the Genesis, create a US team to develop games targeted at the American market, expand the aggressive advertising campaigns, and replace the bundled game Altered Beast with Sonic the Hedgehog. The Japanese board of directors disapproved,[62] but it was approved by Nakayama, who told Kalinske, \"I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas, so go ahead and do it.\"[56]In large part due to the popularity of Sonic the Hedgehog,[62] the Genesis outsold its main competitor, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), in the United States nearly two to one during the 1991 holiday season. By January 1992, Sega controlled 65 percent of the 16-bit console market.[71] Sega outsold Nintendo for four consecutive Christmas seasons[72] due to the Genesis' head start, lower price, and a larger library compared to the SNES at release.[73] Nintendo's dollar share of the US 16-bit market dropped from 60% at the end of 1992 to 37% at the end of 1993,[74] Sega claimed 55% of all 16-bit hardware sales during 1994,[75] and the SNES outsold the Genesis from 1995 through 1997.[76][77][78]Game Gear, released in 1990In 1990, Sega launched the Game Gear, a handheld console, to compete against Nintendo's Game Boy. The Game Gear was designed as a portable version of the Master System and featured a full-color screen, in contrast to the monochrome Game Boy screen.[79] Due to its short battery life, lack of original games, and weak support from Sega, the Game Gear did not surpass the Game Boy, having sold approximately 11 million units.[80] Sega launched the Mega-CD in Japan on December 1, 1991, initially retailing at JP¥49,800.[81] The add-on uses CD-ROM technology. Further features include a second, faster processor, vastly expanded system memory, a graphics chip that performed scaling and rotation similar to the company's arcade games, and another sound chip.[82][83] In North America, it was renamed the Sega CD and launched on October 15, 1992, with a retail price of US$299.[82] It was released in Europe as the Mega-CD in 1993.[81] The Mega-CD sold only 100,000 units during its first year in Japan, falling well below expectations.[81]Larger Virtua Formula installation of Virtua Racing at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in Luxor Las Vegas, circa late 1993Throughout the early 1990s, Sega largely continued its success in arcades around the world. In 1992 and 1993, the new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased in-house development studio Sega AM2's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter (the first 3D fighting game), which, though expensive, played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics.[84][85][86][87] In addition, complex simulator equipment like the rotational R360 kept Sega competing with machines by rival arcade companies, including Taito.[88] New official region-specific distributors and manufacturers, including the UK's Deith Leisure, allowed Sega to sell its machines outside of Japan with ease.[89] Sega's domestic operations division also opened hundreds of family-oriented suburban Sega World amusement arcades in Japan during this period,[90] as well as large over-18s \"GiGO\" facilities in the high-profile urban areas of Roppongi and Ikebukuro.[91] In 1993, this success was mirrored in overseas territories with the openings of several large branded entertainment centers, such as Sega VirtuaLand in Luxor Las Vegas.[92][93] In 1994, Sega generated a revenue of ¥354.032 billion or $3,464,000,000 (equivalent to $7,121,000,000 in 2023).[94]In 1993, the American media began to focus on the mature content of certain video games, such as Night Trap for the Sega CD and the Genesis version of Midway's Mortal Kombat.[95][96] This came at a time when Sega was capitalizing on its image as an \"edgy\" company with \"attitude\", and this reinforced that image.[57] To handle this, Sega instituted the United States' first video game ratings system, the Videogame Rating Council (VRC), for all its systems. Ratings ranged from the family-friendly GA rating to the more mature rating of MA-13, and the adults-only rating of MA-17.[96] Executive vice president of Nintendo of America Howard Lincoln was quick to point out in the United States congressional hearings in 1993 that Night Trap was not rated at all. Senator Joe Lieberman called for another hearing in February 1994 to check progress toward a rating system for video game violence.[96] After the hearings, Sega proposed the universal adoption of the VRC; after objections by Nintendo and others, Sega took a role in forming the Entertainment Software Rating Board.[96]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"Sega Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Saturn"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Atari Jaguar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Jaguar"},{"link_name":"32X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32X"},{"link_name":"32-bit 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Irimajiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoichiro_Irimajiri"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kalinske_out-123"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-124"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001559-125"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M2_Press-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001535-127"},{"link_name":"Bernie 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Model 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_2"},{"link_name":"Daytona USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daytona_USA_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Virtua Cop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Cop"},{"link_name":"Sega Rally Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Rally_Championship"},{"link_name":"Virtua Fighter 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Fighter_2"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SAH-134"},{"link_name":"arms race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_race"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RG127-135"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ATP-136"},{"link_name":"Joypolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joypolis"},{"link_name":"Yokohama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yokohama"},{"link_name":"Odaiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odaiba"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VR_Focus-137"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_esco-25"},{"link_name":"Sega World London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SegaWorld_London"},{"link_name":"Sega World Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_World_Sydney"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"GameWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameWorks"},{"link_name":"DreamWorks SKG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DreamWorks_SKG"},{"link_name":"Universal Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Studios"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NGen30-140"},{"link_name":"Atlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus"},{"link_name":"Print 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Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pan-142"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller-143"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"SegaSoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SegaSoft"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"pinball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball"},{"link_name":"Data East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_East"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CPB-148"},{"link_name":"Bandai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandai"},{"link_name":"stock swap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_swap"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kotaku_Plunkett_2011-149"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT_Sega_to_Acquire_Bandai-150"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-124"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"Nintendo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_64"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Finn2-117"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"parent company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent_company"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001558-129"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001559-125"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"commercial failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commercial_failures_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brandweek-159"},{"link_name":"Model 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_3"},{"link_name":"Virtua Fighter 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtua_Fighter_3"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p211%E2%80%93212-160"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"}],"sub_title":"1994–1998: 32X, Saturn, falling console sales, and continued arcade success","text":"Further information: Sega Saturn and 32XSega began work on the Genesis' successor, the Sega Saturn, more than two years before showcasing it at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994.[97] According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Nakayama became concerned about the 1994 release of the Atari Jaguar, and that the Saturn would not be available until the next year. As a result, Nakayama decided to have a second console release to market by the end of 1994. Sega began to develop the 32X, a Genesis add-on which would serve as a less expensive entry into the 32-bit era.[98] The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn, but would play Genesis games.[37] Sega released the 32X on November 21, 1994, in North America, December 3, 1994, in Japan, and January 1995 in PAL territories, and was sold at less than half of the Saturn's launch price.[99][100] After the holiday season, interest in the 32X rapidly declined.[98][101]The Sega Saturn failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22, 1994.[102] Virtua Fighter, a port of the popular arcade game, sold at a nearly one-to-one ratio with the Saturn at launch and was crucial to the system's early success in Japan.[103][104][105] Sega's initial shipment of 200,000 Saturn units sold out on the first day,[7][105][106] and it was more popular than the PlayStation, made by Sony, in Japan.[105][107] In March 1995, Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the US on \"Saturn-day\" (Saturday) September 2, 1995.[108][109] Sega of Japan mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation.[106] At the first Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) in Los Angeles on May 11, 1995, Kalinske revealed the release price and that Sega had shipped 30,000 Saturns to Toys \"R\" Us, Babbage's, Electronics Boutique, and Software Etc. for immediate release.[108] A by-product of the surprise launch was the provocation of retailers not included in Sega's rollout; KB Toys in particular decided to no longer stock its products in response.[108]The Saturn's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date, on July 8, 1995.[110] Within two days of the PlayStation's American launch on September 9, 1995, the PlayStation sold more units than the Saturn.[111][112] Within its first year, the PlayStation secured over twenty percent of the US video game market.[113] The console's high price point, surprise launch, and difficulty handling polygonal graphics were factors in its lack of success.[114] Sega also underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis; 16-bit sales accounted for 64 percent of the market in 1995.[115][116] Despite capturing 43 percent of the US market dollar share and selling more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995, Kalinske estimated that, if prepared for demand, another 300,000 could have been sold.[117]Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America in July 1996, while Kalinske left Sega after September 30 of that year.[118][119] A former Honda executive,[120][121] Irimajiri had been involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993.[118][122] The company also announced that Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions at Sega of America, though both remained with Sega.[118][123] Bernie Stolar, a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America,[124][125] became Sega of America's executive vice president in charge of product development and third-party relations.[118][119] Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn, believing its hardware was poorly designed.[7]While Stolar had said \"the Saturn is not our future\" at E3 1997, he continued to emphasize the quality of its games,[7] and later reflected that \"we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer.\"[125] At Sony, Stolar had opposed the localization of certain Japanese PlayStation games that he felt would not represent the system well in North America. He advocated a similar policy for the Saturn, generally blocking 2D arcade games and role-playing games from release, although he later sought to distance himself from this stance.[7][126][127] Other changes included a softer image in Sega's advertising, including removing the \"Sega!\" scream, and holding press events for the education industry.[128]Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999Sega partnered with GE to develop the Sega Model 2 arcade system board, building on 3D technology in the arcade industry at the time. This led to several successful arcade games, including Daytona USA, launched in a limited capacity in late 1993 and worldwide in 1994. Other popular games included Virtua Cop, Sega Rally Championship, and Virtua Fighter 2.[129] Virtua Fighter and Virtua Fighter 2 became Sega's best-selling arcade games of all time, surpassing their previous record holder Out Run.[130] There was also a technological arms race between Sega and Namco during this period, driving the growth of 3D gaming.[131]Beginning in 1994, Sega launched a series of indoor theme parks in Japan under a concept dubbed \"Amusement Theme Park\",[132] including Joypolis parks sited in urban Tokyo locations such as Yokohama and Odaiba.[133] A rapid overseas rollout was planned, with at least 100 locations across the world proposed to be opened by 2000,[21] however only two, Sega World London and Sega World Sydney, would ultimately materialise in September 1996 and March 1997, respectively.[134][135] Following on from difficulties faced in setting up theme parks in the United States, Sega established the GameWorks chain of urban entertainment centers in a joint venture with DreamWorks SKG and Universal Studios during March 1997.[136]In 1995, Sega partnered with Atlus to launch Print Club (purikura),[137] an arcade photo sticker machine that produces selfie photos.[138][139] Atlus and Sega introduced Purikura in February 1995, initially at game arcades, before expanding to other popular culture locations such as fast food shops, train stations, karaoke establishments and bowling alleys.[140] Purikura became a popular form of entertainment among youths across East Asia, laying the foundations for modern selfie culture.[138][139] By 1997, about 47,000 Purikura machines had been sold, earning Sega an estimated ¥25 billion (£173 million) or $283,000,000 (equivalent to $537,000,000 in 2023) from Purikura sales that year. Various other similar Purikura machines appeared from other manufacturers, with Sega controlling about half of the market in 1997.[141]Sega also made forays in the PC market with the 1995 establishment of SegaSoft, which was tasked with creating original Saturn and PC games.[142][143] From 1994 to 1999, Sega also participated in the arcade pinball market when it took over Data East's pinball division, renaming it Sega Pinball.[144]In January 1997, Sega announced its intentions to merge with the Japanese toy maker Bandai. The merger, planned as a $1 billion stock swap whereby Sega would wholly acquire Bandai, was set to form a company known as Sega Bandai, Ltd.[145][146] Though it was to be finalized in October of that year, it was called off in May after growing opposition from Bandai's mid-level executives. Bandai instead agreed to a business alliance with Sega.[147] As a result of Sega's deteriorating financial situation, Nakayama resigned as Sega president in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri.[120] Nakayama's resignation may have in part been due to the failure of the merger, as well as Sega's 1997 performance.[148] Stolar became CEO and president of Sega of America.[125][149]After the launch of the Nintendo 64 in the US during 1996, sales of the Saturn and its games fell sharply in much of the west.[125] The PlayStation outsold the Saturn three-to-one in the US in 1997, and the latter failed to gain a foothold in Europe and Australia, where the Nintendo 64 would not release until March 1997.[113] After several years of declining profits,[94] Sega had a slight increase in the fiscal year ended March 1997, partly driven by increasing arcade revenue,[94] while outperforming Nintendo during the mid-term period.[150] However, in the fiscal year ending March 1998, Sega suffered its first financial loss since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange as both a parent company and a corporation as a whole.[151] Shortly before the announcement of the losses, Sega discontinued the Saturn in North America to prepare for the launch of its successor, the Dreamcast, releasing remaining games in low quantities.[120][125]The decision to discontinue the Saturn effectively left the North American home console market without Sega games for over a year, with most of its activity in the country coming from arcade divisions.[152] The Saturn lasted longer in some Europe territories and particularly Japan, with it notably outperforming the Nintendo 64 in the latter.[121] Nonetheless, Irimajiri confirmed in an interview with Japanese newspaper Daily Yomiuri that Saturn development would stop at the end of 1998 and games would continue to be produced until mid-1999.[153] With lifetime sales of 9.26 million units,[154] the Saturn is retrospectively considered a commercial failure in much of the world.[155] While Sega had success with the Model 3 arcade board and titles like Virtua Fighter 3, Sega's arcade divisions struggled in the West during the late 1990s.[156] On the other hand, Sega's arcade divisions were more successful in Asia, with Sega's overall arcade revenues increasing year-on-year throughout the late 1990s, but it was not enough to offset the significant declining revenues of Sega's home consumer divisions.[94]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dreamcast-Console-Set.png"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"Sonic Adventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Adventure"},{"link_name":"launch game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch_game"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_International_Forum"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G4_GM-165"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563-166"},{"link_name":"New Arcade Operation Machine Idea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_NAOMI"},{"link_name":"arcade system board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_system_board"},{"link_name":"Sega Model 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Model_3"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Unified-168"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563-166"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563-166"},{"link_name":"installed base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installed_base"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001564-169"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Kennedy_2009-172"},{"link_name":"Peter Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Moore_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Kennedy_2009-172"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001564%E2%80%93565-174"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Timeline-175"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001564-169"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamcast_memorial-177"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamcast_memorial-177"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessweek.com-180"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-181"},{"link_name":"GD-ROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GD-ROM"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"recorded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-181"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamarena-183"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC-181"},{"link_name":"vaporware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaporware"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_2"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001560%E2%80%93561-185"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Xbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_(console)"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001563,_574-187"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001566-191"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001582-193"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessweek.com-180"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001581,_588-195"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"},{"link_name":"PSone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSOne"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-businessweek.com-180"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001585%E2%80%93588-199"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionD-161"}],"sub_title":"1998–2001: Dreamcast and continuing struggles","text":"Further information: DreamcastThe Dreamcast, discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.Despite a 75 percent drop in half-year profits just before the Japanese launch of the Dreamcast, Sega felt confident about its new system. The Dreamcast attracted significant interest and drew many pre-orders.[157] Sega announced that Sonic Adventure, the next game starring company mascot Sonic the Hedgehog, would be a Dreamcast launch game. It was promoted with a large-scale public demonstration at the Tokyo Kokusai Forum Hall.[158][159][160] Due to a high failure rate in the manufacturing process, Sega could not ship enough consoles for the Dreamcast's Japanese launch.[157][161] As more than half of its limited stock had been pre-ordered, Sega stopped pre-orders in Japan.[162] Before the launch, Sega announced the release of its New Arcade Operation Machine Idea (NAOMI) arcade system board, which served as a cheaper alternative to the Sega Model 3.[163] NAOMI shared technology with the Dreamcast, allowing nearly identical ports of arcade games.[152][164]The Dreamcast launched in Japan on November 27, 1998. The entire stock of 150,000 consoles sold out by the end of the day.[162] Irimajiri estimated that another 200,000 to 300,000 Dreamcast units could have been sold with sufficient supply.[162] He hoped to sell more than a million Dreamcast units in Japan by February 1999, but less than 900,000 were sold. The low sales undermined Sega's attempts to build up a sufficient installed base to ensure the Dreamcast's survival after the arrival of competition from other manufacturers.[165] Sega suffered a further ¥42.881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999, and announced plans to eliminate 1,000 jobs, nearly a quarter of its workforce.[166][167] Before the Western launch, Sega reduced the price of the Dreamcast in Japan by JP¥9,100, effectively making it unprofitable but increasing sales.[157]On August 11, 1999, Sega of America confirmed that Stolar had been fired.[168] Peter Moore, whom Stolar had hired as a Sega of America executive only six months before,[169] was placed in charge of the North American launch.[168][170][171][172] The Dreamcast launched in North America on September 9, 1999,[152][165][173] with 18 games.[173][174][175] Sega set a record by selling more than 225,132 Dreamcast units in 24 hours, earning $98.4 million in what Moore called \"the biggest 24 hours in entertainment retail history\".[169] Within two weeks, US Dreamcast sales exceeded 500,000.[169] By Christmas, Sega held 31 percent of the US video game market by revenue.[176] On November 4, Sega announced it had sold more than a million Dreamcast units.[177] Nevertheless, the launch was marred by a glitch at one of Sega's manufacturing plants, which produced defective GD-ROMs where data was not properly recorded onto the disc.[178] Sega released the Dreamcast in Europe on October 14, 1999.[177] While Sega sold 500,000 units in Europe by Christmas 1999,[157] sales there slowed, and by October 2000 Sega had sold only about a million units.[179]Though the Dreamcast was successful, Sony's PlayStation still held 60 percent of the overall market share in North America at the end of 1999.[177] On March 2, 1999, in what one report called a \"highly publicized, vaporware-like announcement\",[180] Sony revealed the first details of the PlayStation 2.[181][182] The same year, Nintendo announced that its next console would meet or exceed anything on the market, and Microsoft began development of its own console, the Xbox.[183][184][185] Sega's initial momentum proved fleeting as US Dreamcast sales—which exceeded 1.5 million by the end of 1999[186]—began to decline as early as January 2000.[187] Poor Japanese sales contributed to Sega's ¥42.88 billion ($404 million) consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 2000. This followed a similar loss of ¥42.881 billion the previous year and marked Sega's third consecutive annual loss.[166][188] Sega's overall sales for the term increased 27.4 percent, and Dreamcast sales in North America and Europe greatly exceeded its expectations. However, this coincided with a decrease in profitability due to the investments required to launch the Dreamcast in Western markets and poor software sales in Japan.[166] At the same time, worsening conditions reduced the profitability of Sega's Japanese arcade business, prompting the closure of 246 locations.[166][189]Moore became the president and chief operating officer of Sega of America on 8 May 2000.[190] He said the Dreamcast would need to sell 5 million units in the US by the end of 2000 to remain viable, but Sega fell short of this goal with some 3 million units sold.[176][191] Moreover, Sega's attempts to spur Dreamcast sales through lower prices and cash rebates caused escalating financial losses.[192] In March 2001, Sega posted a consolidated net loss of ¥51.7 billion ($417.5 million).[193] While the PlayStation 2's October 26 US launch was marred by shortages, this did not benefit the Dreamcast as much as expected, as many disappointed consumers continued to wait or purchased a PSone.[176][194][195] Eventually, Sony and Nintendo held 50 and 35 percent of the US video game market, while Sega held only 15 percent.[157]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_Annual_Income(Loss)_1993-2004.svg"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1998_report-98"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2000_report-170"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report_2002-200"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-report_2004-201"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001581%E2%80%93582-202"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001577,_582-203"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rosen-204"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra1-173"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega_name_change-205"},{"link_name":"Nihon Keizai Shinbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Keizai_Shinbun"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_sega_sinks-206"},{"link_name":"Game Boy Advance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign_gba_ps2-207"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001588%E2%80%93589-208"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pulls_plug-211"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"link_name":"Visual Concepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Concepts"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_okawa-215"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001582,_589-216"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nytimes_ms_sega-218"},{"link_name":"Joachim Kempin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Kempin"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taipei_loss-222"},{"link_name":"Sammy Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Corporation"},{"link_name":"pachinko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachinko"},{"link_name":"pachislot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachislot"},{"link_name":"Hajime Satomi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hajime_Satomi"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horowitz_2018_p.253%E2%80%937-224"},{"link_name":"COO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_operating_officer"},{"link_name":"Hitmaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM3"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fahey-225"},{"link_name":"Grand Theft Auto III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto_III"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"Agetec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agetec"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_Media_Works"},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"}],"sub_title":"2001–2003: Shift to third-party software development","text":"[94][166][196][197]CSK chairman Isao Okawa replaced Irimajiri as president of Sega on May 22, 2000.[198] Okawa had long advocated that Sega abandon the console business.[199] Others shared this view; Sega co-founder David Rosen had \"always felt it was a bit of a folly for them to be limiting their potential to Sega hardware\", and Stolar had suggested Sega should have sold the company to Microsoft.[7][200] In a September 2000 meeting with Sega's Japanese executives and heads of its first-party game studios, Moore and Sega of America executive Charles Bellfield recommended that Sega abandon its console business. In response, the studio heads walked out.[169] Sega announced an official company name change from Sega Enterprises, Ltd. to Sega Corporation effective November 1, 2000. Sega stated in a release that this was to display its commitment to its \"network entertainment business\".[201]On January 23, 2001, Japanese newspaper Nihon Keizai Shinbun reported that Sega would cease production of the Dreamcast and develop software for other platforms.[202] After an initial denial, Sega released a press release confirming it was considering producing software for the PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance as part of its \"new management policy\".[203] On January 31, 2001, Sega announced the discontinuation of the Dreamcast after March 31 and the restructuring of the company as a \"platform-agnostic\" third-party developer.[204][205] Sega also announced a Dreamcast price reduction to eliminate its unsold inventory, estimated at 930,000 units as of April 2001.[206][207] This was followed by further reductions to clear the remaining inventory.[208][209] The final manufactured Dreamcast was autographed by the heads of all nine of Sega's first-party game studios, plus the heads of sports game developer Visual Concepts and audio studio Wave Master, and given away with all 55 first-party Dreamcast games through a competition organized by GamePro.[210]Okawa, who had loaned Sega $500 million in 1999, died on March 16, 2001. Shortly before his death, he forgave Sega's debts to him and returned his $695 million worth of Sega and CSK stock, helping the company survive the third-party transition.[211][212][213] He held failed talks with Microsoft about a sale or merger with their Xbox division.[214] According to former Microsoft executive Joachim Kempin, Microsoft founder, Bill Gates, decided against acquiring Sega because \"he didn't think that Sega had enough muscle to eventually stop Sony\".[215] A business alliance with Microsoft was announced whereby Sega would develop 11 games for the Xbox.[216] As part of the restructuring, nearly one third of Sega's Tokyo workforce was laid off in 2001.[217] 2002 was Sega's fifth consecutive fiscal year of net losses.[218]After Okawa's death, Hideki Sato, a 30-year Sega veteran who had worked on Sega's consoles, became the company president. Following poor sales in 2002, Sega cut its profit forecast for 2003 by 90 percent, and explored opportunities for mergers. In 2003, Sega began talks with Sammy Corporation–a pachinko and pachislot manufacturing company–and Namco. The president of Sammy, Hajime Satomi, had been mentored by Okawa and was previously asked to be CEO of Sega.[219] On February 13, Sega announced that it would merge with Sammy; however, as late as April 17, Sega was still in talks with Namco, which was attempting to overturn the merger. Sega's consideration of Namco's offer upset Sammy executives. The day after Sega announced it no longer planned to merge with Sammy, Namco withdrew its offer.[220]In 2003, Sato and COO Tetsu Kamaya stepped down. Sato was replaced by Hisao Oguchi, the head of the Sega studio Hitmaker.[221] Moore left Sega in January 2003 following a meeting in which he was frustrated by Japanese executives refusing to adapt to industry changes, such as the demand for mature games such as Grand Theft Auto III.[222] Hideaki Irie, who had worked at Agetec and ASCII, became the new president and COO of Sega of America in October 2003.[223]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_Sammy_Holdings_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"Sega Sammy Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings"},{"link_name":"Sammy Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sammy_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gspot_sammy_merge-228"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurog_segasammy-230"},{"link_name":"Sega Sammy Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Niizumi_2004-231"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings_Annual_Report_2005-56"},{"link_name":"takeover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeover"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Niizumi_2004-231"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-234"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega_sammy_annual_report_2007-235"},{"link_name":"Derby Owners Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derby_Owners_Club"},{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"},{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-237"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-238"},{"link_name":"GameWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameWorks"},{"link_name":"Vivendi Universal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivendi_Universal"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-239"},{"link_name":"[236]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-240"},{"link_name":"Sega Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Republic"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-241"},{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired_layoffs-242"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segasammy_pres-243"},{"link_name":"[240]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_finance-244"},{"link_name":"Simon Jeffery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Jeffery"},{"link_name":"Mike Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Hayes_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-245"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-246"},{"link_name":"Take-Two Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-Two_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Total War series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_War_(video_game_series)"},{"link_name":"Sega Racing Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Racing_Studio"},{"link_name":"Codemasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codemasters"},{"link_name":"Sports Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Football Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_Manager"},{"link_name":"Yakuza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_(series)"},{"link_name":"Phantasy Star Portable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasy_Star_Portable"},{"link_name":"Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatsune_Miku:_Project_DIVA"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-247"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-248"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-249"},{"link_name":"holographic concerts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holography"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired_miku_concert-250"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_product_info-251"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_localization-252"},{"link_name":"Index Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg-atlussega-253"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254"},{"link_name":"corporate spin-off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_spin-off"},{"link_name":"Atlus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon_index_split-255"},{"link_name":"iTunes Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store"},{"link_name":"Super Monkey Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Monkey_Ball"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-256"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamasutra_focus-257"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gspot_eu_au-258"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcmag_layoffs-259"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yahoo_axe-260"},{"link_name":"Hardlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardlight"},{"link_name":"Three Rings Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rings_Design"},{"link_name":"Demiurge Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demiurge_Studios"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-poly-segademiurge-261"},{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pocketgamer_Cowley_2017-263"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SEGA_Mobile_Game_Closures-264"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-265"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega-games_about-266"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segajp_restructure-267"},{"link_name":"Atlus USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlus_USA"},{"link_name":"Irvine, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine,_California"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-268"},{"link_name":"operating income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnings_before_interest_and_taxes"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-segasammy1-269"}],"sub_title":"2003–2015: Sammy takeover and business expansion","text":"Sega Sammy Holdings (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer Sammy Corporation's purchase of Sega.In August 2003, Sammy bought 22.4 percent of Sega's shares from CSK, making Sammy into Sega's largest shareholder.[224][225] In the same year, Hajime Satomi said Sega's activity would focus on its profitable arcade business as opposed to loss-incurring home software development.[226] In 2004, Sega Sammy Holdings, an entertainment conglomerate, was created; Sega and Sammy became subsidiaries of the new holding company, both companies operating independently while the executive departments merged. According to the first Sega Sammy Annual Report, the merger went ahead as both companies were facing difficulties. Satomi said Sega had been operating at a loss for nearly ten years,[227] while Sammy feared stagnation and over-reliance of its highly profitable pachislot and pachinko machine business and wanted to diversify.[52] Sammy acquired the remaining percentages of Sega, completing a takeover.[228] The stock swap deal valued Sega between $1.45 billion and $1.8 billion.[227][229] Sega Sammy Holdings was structured into four parts: Consumer Business (video games), Amusement Machine Business (arcade games), Amusement Center Business (Sega's theme parks and arcades) and Pachislot and Pachinko Business (Sammy's pachinko and pachislot business).[230]According to an industry survey, as of 2005, sales of arcade machines were up for the previous four years in Japan, while down for nine straight years overseas.[231] In response to the decline of the global arcade industry in the late 1990s, Sega created several novel concepts tailored to the Japanese market. Derby Owners Club was an arcade machine with memory cards for data storage, designed to take over half an hour to complete and costing JP¥500 to play. Testing of Derby Owners Club in a Chicago arcade showed that it had become the most popular machine at the location, with a 92% replay rate. While the eight-player Japanese version of the game was released in 1999, the game was reduced to a smaller four-player version due to size issues and released in North America in 2003.[232] The cabinet was too expensive and the game did not entice casual users which are essential to the western arcade market.[233] While the Japanese market retained core players, western arcades had become more focused on casual players, and Sega Amusements Europe, the entity created to officially distribute and manufacture Sega's machines on the continent after the consolidation of its regional divisions, subsequently decided to develop more games locally that were better suited to western tastes.[234]In 2005, the GameWorks chain of arcades came under the sole ownership of Sega, which previously was shared with Vivendi Universal,[235] and remained under their ownership until 2011.[236] In 2009, Sega Republic, an indoor theme park, opened in Dubai.[237] Sega gradually reduced its arcade centers from 450 in 2005 to around 200 in 2015.[238][239] Arcade machine sales incurred higher profits than the company's console, mobile and PC games on a year-to-year basis until the fiscal year of 2014.[240]In order to drive growth in western markets, Sega announced new leadership for Sega of America and Sega Europe in 2005. Simon Jeffery became president and COO of Sega of America, and Mike Hayes president and COO for Sega Europe.[241] In 2009, Hayes became president of the combined outfit of both Sega of America and Sega Europe, due to Jeffery leaving.[242] Sega sold Visual Concepts to Take-Two Interactive, and purchased UK-based developer Creative Assembly, known for its Total War series. In the same year, Sega Racing Studio was also formed by former Codemasters employees. In 2006, Sega Europe purchased Sports Interactive, known for its Football Manager series. In the console and handheld business, Sega found success in the Japanese market with the Yakuza, Phantasy Star Portable and Hatsune Miku: Project DIVA series.[243][244][245] Sega began providing the 3D imaging for Hatsune Miku holographic concerts in 2010.[246] Sega also distributes games from smaller Japanese game developers and sells localizations of Western games in Japan.[247][248] In 2013, Index Corporation was purchased by Sega Sammy after going bankrupt.[249] The year before, Sega signed a deal to distribute Atlus titles in Japan.[250] After the buyout, Sega implemented a corporate spin-off with Index. The latter's game assets were rebranded as Atlus, a wholly owned subsidiary of Sega.[251]In the mobile market, Sega released its first app on the iTunes Store with a version of Super Monkey Ball in 2008.[252] Due in part to the decline of packaged game sales worldwide in the 2010s,[253] Sega began layoffs and closed five offices based in Europe and Australia on July 1, 2012.[254] This was to focus on the digital game market, such as PC and mobile devices.[255][256] In 2012, Sega also began acquiring studios for mobile development, studios such as Hardlight, Three Rings Design, and Demiurge Studios becoming fully owned subsidiaries.[257][258][259] 19 older mobile games were pulled due to quality concerns in May 2015.[260][261]To streamline operations, Sega established operational firms for each of its businesses in the 2010s. In 2012, Sega established Sega Networks as a subsidiary company for its mobile games.[262] The same year, Sega Entertainment was established for Sega's amusement facility business.[263] In January 2015, Sega of America announced its relocation from San Francisco to Atlus USA's headquarters in Irvine, California, which was completed later that year.[264] From 2005 to 2015, Sega's operating income generally saw improvements compared to Sega's past financial problems, but was not profitable every year.[265]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Famitsu_interview_Haruki_Satomi-270"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-271"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History_of_SEGA_SAMMY_group-273"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega-games_about-266"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Game Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Game_Show"},{"link_name":"Technosoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technosoft"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-274"},{"link_name":"CA Sega Joypolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CA_Sega_Joypolis"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-275"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_HQ_2018_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tokyo metropolitan area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Shinagawa-ku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinagawa-ku"},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-276"},{"link_name":"Ōta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cta,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-277"},{"link_name":"[274]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-278"},{"link_name":"Rockstar Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockstar_Games"},{"link_name":"Take-Two Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take-Two_Interactive"},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-279"},{"link_name":"THQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THQ"},{"link_name":"Acclaim Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclaim_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[276]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-280"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_6:_The_Song_of_Life"},{"link_name":"Persona 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_5"},{"link_name":"[277]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-281"},{"link_name":"fiscal year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_year"},{"link_name":"Phantasy Star Online 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasy_Star_Online_2"},{"link_name":"intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_(film)"},{"link_name":"Sega Genesis Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Genesis_Mini"},{"link_name":"[278]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-282"},{"link_name":"[279]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-283"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-284"},{"link_name":"Two Point Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Point_Studios"},{"link_name":"Two Point Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Point_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamesindustry_Sinclair_2019-285"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_Wales_2019-286"},{"link_name":"[283]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-287"},{"link_name":"research and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Notice_of_mergers-288"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-289"}],"sub_title":"2015–2020: Sega Games and Sega Interactive","text":"In April 2015, Sega Corporation was reorganized into Sega Group, one of three groups of Sega Sammy Holdings. Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was established, with four business sectors under its control. Haruki Satomi, son of Hajime Satomi, took office as president and CEO of the company in April 2015.[266][267] Sega Games Co., Ltd. became the legal name of Sega Corporation and continued to manage home video games, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd. was founded to take control of the arcade division.[268][269] Sega Networks merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. in 2015.[262] At the Tokyo Game Show in September 2016, Sega announced that it had acquired the intellectual property and development rights to all games developed and published by Technosoft.[270] Effective from January 2017, 85.1% of the shares in Sega's theme park business became owned by China Animations Character Co., renaming the former Sega Live Creation to CA Sega Joypolis.[271]Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, JapanSega Sammy Holdings announced in April 2017 that it would relocate its head office functions and domestic subsidiaries located in the Tokyo metropolitan area to Shinagawa-ku by January 2018. This was to consolidate scattered head office functions including Sega Sammy Holdings, Sammy Corporation, Sega Holdings, Sega Games, Atlus, Sammy Network, and Dartslive.[272] Sega's previous headquarters in Ōta was sold in 2019.[273]In June 2017, Chris Bergstresser replaced Jurgen Post as president and COO of Sega Europe.[274] In June 2018, Gary Dale, formerly of Rockstar Games and Take-Two Interactive, replaced Chris Bergstresser as president and COO of Sega Europe.[275] A few months later, Ian Curran, a former executive at THQ and Acclaim Entertainment, replaced John Cheng as president and COO of Sega of America in August 2018.[276] In October 2018, Sega reported favorable western sales results from games such as Yakuza 6 and Persona 5, due to the localization work of Atlus USA.[277]Despite a 35-percent increase in the sale of console games and success in its PC game business, profits fell 70 percent for the 2018 fiscal year in comparison to the previous year, mainly due to the digital games market which includes mobile games as well as Phantasy Star Online 2. In response, Sega announced that for its digital games it would focus on releases for its existing intellectual property and also focus on growth areas such as packaged games in the overseas market. Sega blamed the loss on market miscalculations and having too many games under development. Projects in development at Sega included a new game in the Yakuza series, the Sonic the Hedgehog film, and the Sega Genesis Mini,[278][279] which was released in September 2019.[280] In May 2019, Sega acquired Two Point Studios, known for Two Point Hospital.[281][282]On April 1, 2020, Sega Interactive merged with Sega Games Co., Ltd. The company was again renamed Sega Corporation, while Sega Holdings Co., Ltd. was renamed Sega Group Corporation.[283] According to a company statement, the move was made to allow greater research and development flexibility.[284] Also in April 2020, Sega sold Demiurge Studios to Demiurge co-founder Albert Reed. Demiurge said it would continue to support the mobile games it developed under Sega.[285]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game Gear Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Gear_Micro"},{"link_name":"microconsole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microconsole"},{"link_name":"cloud gaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_gaming"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_60th_announces-290"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[287]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-291"},{"link_name":"[288]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-292"},{"link_name":"[289]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-293"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-294"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"in 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"[291]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-295"},{"link_name":"Persona 5 Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persona_5_Royal"},{"link_name":"Yakuza 0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakuza_0"},{"link_name":"[292]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-296"},{"link_name":"[293]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-297"},{"link_name":"Rovio Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rovio_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Angry Birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angry_Birds"},{"link_name":"[294]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-298"},{"link_name":"Communication Workers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_Workers_of_America"},{"link_name":"National Labor Relations Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board"},{"link_name":"[295]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-299"},{"link_name":"[296]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-300"},{"link_name":"Relic Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relic_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[297]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-301"},{"link_name":"[298]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-302"},{"link_name":"The Game Awards 2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Game_Awards_2023"},{"link_name":"Crazy Taxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_Taxi"},{"link_name":"Golden Axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Axe"},{"link_name":"Jet Set Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Set_Radio"},{"link_name":"Shinobi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinobi_(series)"},{"link_name":"Streets of Rage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streets_of_Rage"},{"link_name":"[299]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-303"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[300]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-304"},{"link_name":"[300]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-304"},{"link_name":"unfair labor practice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfair_labor_practice"},{"link_name":"[301]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-305"},{"link_name":"[302]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-306"},{"link_name":"Sony Computer Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Disney Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Interactive"},{"link_name":"Q Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[303]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-307"},{"link_name":"Sega Fave Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Fave"},{"link_name":"[304]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-308"},{"link_name":"[305]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-309"},{"link_name":"[306]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-310"},{"link_name":"[307]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-311"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Hardlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardlight"},{"link_name":"[308]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-312"},{"link_name":"[309]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-313"}],"sub_title":"2020–present: Recent history","text":"As part of its 60th anniversary, Sega announced the Game Gear Micro microconsole for release on October 6, 2020, in Japan. Sega also announced its Fog Gaming platform, which uses the unused processing power of arcade machines in Japanese arcades overnight to help power cloud gaming applications.[286]Sega made a number of restructuring moves in the early 2020s. During the latter half of 2020, many of the financial gains Sega made in the earlier part of the year dissolved due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its Sega Entertainment division, which ran its arcades.[287] That November, Sega Sammy sold 85.1% of its shares in the division to Genda Inc., though the Sega branding and coin-operated machines continued to be used in arcades. Arcade game development was unaffected by the sale.[288] By January 2022, Sega sold the remaining portion of this division to Genda.[289] Sega Group Corporation was formally dissolved by its parent company in 2021.[290]Contrasting its losses brought forth by amusement operations in 2020, sales and critical reception of Sega's home console games improved; Metacritic named Sega the best publisher of the year in 2020.[291] Of its 28 releases that year, 95% had \"good\" Metacritic scores (above 75/100), including two with \"great\" scores (above 90/100 for Persona 5 Royal and Yakuza 0), with an average Metacritic score of 81.6 for all 2020 Sega releases.[292][293] In 2023, Sega acquired the Finnish video game developer Rovio Entertainment, best known for the Angry Birds series, for US$776 million.[294]On April 24, 2023, 144 Sega of America employees announced plans to file a new union election under the new labor union, Allied Employees Guild Improving Sega (AEGIS), which is allied with the Communication Workers of America via CWA Local 9510. AEGIS represents workers from departments including marketing, quality assurance, development and localization, making it the first of its kind in the game industry in the United States. On July 10, 2023, it was announced that workers had voted 91–26 to form the union. AEGIS is undergoing certification with the National Labor Relations Board before going into bargaining.[295][296]In May 2023, Sega announced that 121 employees at Relic Entertainment had been made redundant to focus on cored franchises.[297] That same year, Sega cancelled their upcoming shooter Hyenas and began restructuring its British and European operations.[298] At The Game Awards 2023, Sega announced an initiative to revive many of its dormant franchises, beginning with new Crazy Taxi, Golden Axe, Jet Set Radio, Shinobi and Streets of Rage games.[299] The Washington Post characterized the announcement as a return to Sega's 1990s \"bohemian\" and \"countercultural\" spirit.[300] The co-CEO, Shuji Utsumi, said Sega wanted to \"show edginess and a rebellious mindset\", and that the industry was now large enough to sustain its less conventional games.[300] In November 2023, AEGIS filed an unfair labor practice after Sega proposed a plan to phase out temporary employees by February 2024, which would affect around 80 employees.[301]In January 2024, Jurgen Post rejoined Sega Europe to become COO of its western studios and also serve as managing director.[302] That month, Shuji Utsumi became the president, COO and CEO of Sega of America and Europe. Utsumi had previously helped found Sony Computer Entertainment, where he helped launch the original PlayStation, before moving to Sega and assisting with the North American Dreamcast launch. After a period with Disney Interactive, he co-founded Q Entertainment before returning to Sega in 2020.[303] On January 9, Sega Sammy Holdings announced that Sega's amusement machine business would be demerged and transferred to Sega Toys, which will be renamed Sega Fave Corporation. The changes will take effect by April.[304] On February 29, Sega appointed Justin Scarpone as an executive vice president of a group to expand Sega's presence in film and television.[305]In January 2024, Sega announced that it would lay off 61 workers at its Irvine, California location. AEGIS had been negotiating with Sega of America since November to reduce the total redundancies.[306] On March 27, 2024, AEGIS announced that its workers had ratified a contract with Sega of America, focusing on key issues.[307] The following day, Sega laid off 240 workers from its British and European operations, including Sega Europe, Creative Assembly, and Hardlight, and sold Relic Entertainment to an external investor.[308][309]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot_Niizumi_2004-231"},{"link_name":"Shinagawa, Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinagawa,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[310]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-314"},{"link_name":"[311]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-315"},{"link_name":"[312]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-316"},{"link_name":"[313]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings-317"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retroinspection2-42"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gspot_eu_au-258"},{"link_name":"[314]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-318"},{"link_name":"[315]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xtreme2-319"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"Steven L. Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_L._Kent"},{"link_name":"[316]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-320"}],"text":"Since 2004, Sega has been a subsidiary of Sega Sammy Holdings.[227] Sega's global headquarters are in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan.[310] Sega also has offices in Irvine, California (as Sega of America), in London (as Sega Europe),[311] in Seoul, South Korea (as Sega Publishing Korea),[312] and in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Taipei.[313] In other regions, Sega has contracted distributors for its games and consoles, such as Tectoy in Brazil.[38] Sega has had offices in France, Germany, Spain, and Australia;[254] those markets have since contracted distributors.[314]Relations between the regional offices have not always been smooth.[315] Some conflict in the 1990s may have been caused by Sega president Nakayama and his admiration for Sega of America; according to Kalinske, \"There were some guys in the executive suites who really didn't like that Nakayama in particular appeared to favor the US executives. A lot of the Japanese executives were maybe a little jealous, and I think some of that played into the decisions that were made.\"[7] By contrast, author Steven L. Kent said Nakayama bullied American executives and that Nakayama believed the Japanese executives made the best decisions. Kent also said Sega of America CEOs Kalinske, Stolar, and Moore dreaded meeting with Sega of Japan executives.[316]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CLUB_SEGA_Akihabara_Annex_20111122.jpg"},{"link_name":"Akihabara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akihabara"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History_of_SEGA_SAMMY_group-273"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Notice_of_mergers-288"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-294"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Famitsu_interview_Haruki_Satomi-270"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"Sega Fave Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Fave"},{"link_name":"Oshare Majo: Love and Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshare_Majo:_Love_and_Berry"},{"link_name":"Mushiking: King of the Beetles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushiking:_King_of_the_Beetles"},{"link_name":"Lilpri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilpri"},{"link_name":"Bakugan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakugan_Battle_Brawlers"},{"link_name":"Jewelpet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewelpet"},{"link_name":"Rilu Rilu Fairilu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rilu_Rilu_Fairilu"},{"link_name":"Dinosaur King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_King"},{"link_name":"Hero Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_Bank"},{"link_name":"Homestar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megastar_(projector)"},{"link_name":"iDog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDog"},{"link_name":"Takayuki Ohira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takayuki_Ohira"},{"link_name":"Sega Pico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Pico"},{"link_name":"[317]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-321"},{"link_name":"bowling alleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowling_alley"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[318]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-322"},{"link_name":"[319]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-323"},{"link_name":"darts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darts"},{"link_name":"[313]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Sammy_Holdings-317"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega_Business_Summary-272"},{"link_name":"Hakuhodo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakuhodo"},{"link_name":"[320]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-324"},{"link_name":"[321]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-325"},{"link_name":"[322]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-326"}],"sub_title":"Subsidiaries of Sega Corporation","text":"A Club Sega game center in Akihabara, Tokyo, shown before the Sega brand was removed from it in 2022After the formation of Sega Group in 2015 and the founding of Sega Holdings, the former Sega Corporation was renamed Sega Games Co., Ltd.[269] Under this structure, Sega Games was responsible for the home video game market and consumer development, while Sega Interactive Co., Ltd., comprised Sega's arcade game business.[268] The two were consolidated in 2020, renamed as Sega Corporation,[284] and Sega Group Corporation was formally absorbed into Sega Corporation in 2021.[290] The company includes Sega Networks, which handles game development for smartphones.[266] Sega Corporation develops and publishes games for major video game consoles and has not expressed interest in developing consoles again. According to former Sega Europe CEO Mike Brogan, \"There is no future in selling hardware. In any market, through competition, the hardware eventually becomes a commodity ... If a company has to sell hardware then it should only be to leverage software, even if that means taking a hit on the hardware.\"[57]Sega Fave Corporation, originally known as Yonezawa Toys and acquired by Sega in 1991, has created toys for children's franchises such as Oshare Majo: Love and Berry, Mushiking: King of the Beetles, Lilpri, Bakugan, Jewelpet, Rilu Rilu Fairilu, Dinosaur King, and Hero Bank. Products released in the West include the home planetarium Homestar and the robot dog iDog. The Homestar was released in 2005 and has been improved several times. Its newest model, Flux, was released in 2019. The series is developed by the Japanese inventor and entrepreneur Takayuki Ohira. As a recognized specialist for professional planetariums, he has received numerous innovation prizes and supplies large planetariums internationally with his company Megastar. Sega Toys also inherited the Sega Pico handheld system and produced Pico software.[317] The company also develops and sells arcade games that were previously held under Sega until 2024.Since the late 1960s, Sega has been affiliated with operations of bowling alleys and arcades through its former Sega Entertainment Co., Ltd. subsidiary in Japan, as well as a number of other smaller regional subsidiaries in other countries.[268] Initiatives to expand operations in other territories, such as the US, UK, France, Spain, and Taiwan, have been more short-lived, and following the 85.1% majority acquisition of Sega Entertainment's shares in November 2020 to mitigate losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic,[318] Sega's arcades in Japan since have been run under Genda Incorporated's Genda GiGO Entertainment division.[319] Its DartsLive subsidiary creates electronic darts games,[313] while Sega Logistics Service distributes and repairs arcade games.[268]In 2015, Sega and Japanese advertising agency Hakuhodo formed a joint venture, Stories LLC, to create entertainment for film and TV. Stories LLC has exclusive licensing rights to adapt Sega properties into film and television,[320][321] and has partnered with producers to develop series based on properties including Shinobi, Golden Axe, Virtua Fighter, The House of the Dead, and Crazy Taxi.[322]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sega development studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_development_studios"},{"link_name":"research and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog"},{"link_name":"Sonic Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_Team"},{"link_name":"[323]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sega_sammy_annual_report_2014-327"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon_index_split-255"},{"link_name":"[324]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-playheart-328"},{"link_name":"Amplitude Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_Studios"},{"link_name":"[325]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-329"},{"link_name":"Creative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[326]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurog_creative_assembly-330"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pocketgamer_Cowley_2017-263"},{"link_name":"[327]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-polygon_relic_entertainment-331"},{"link_name":"[328]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurog_sports_int-332"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamesindustry_Sinclair_2019-285"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eurogamer_Wales_2019-286"},{"link_name":"Power Drift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Drift"},{"link_name":"[329]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-333"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dreamcast_memorial-177"},{"link_name":"[330]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKent2001577%E2%80%93578,_581-334"},{"link_name":"United Game Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Game_Artists"},{"link_name":"Smilebit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sports_R%26D"},{"link_name":"WOW Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_AM1"},{"link_name":"Amusement Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_Vision"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Dreamcast-156"},{"link_name":"[331]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sega's_new_beginning-335"},{"link_name":"[332]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Avant-Garde-336"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fahey-225"},{"link_name":"[333]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-337"},{"link_name":"[334]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-338"},{"link_name":"[335]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4gamer_Inemoto_2011-339"},{"link_name":"Phantasy Star Online 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasy_Star_Online_2"},{"link_name":"[336]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-340"},{"link_name":"[337]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-341"},{"link_name":"[338]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-342"},{"link_name":"[339]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-343"},{"link_name":"[340]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-344"},{"link_name":"[341]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-345"},{"link_name":"[342]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ignartists-346"},{"link_name":"[324]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-playheart-328"}],"sub_title":"Research and development","text":"See also: Sega development studiosSega produces games through its research and development teams. The Sonic the Hedgehog franchise, maintained through Sega's Sonic Team division, is one of the best-selling franchises in video games.[323] Sega has also acquired third-party studios including Atlus,[251] Play Heart,[324] Amplitude Studios,[325] Creative Assembly,[326] Hardlight,[259] Relic Entertainment,[327] Sports Interactive,[328] Two Point Studios.[281][282] and Rovio Entertainment.Sega's software research and development teams began with one development division operating under Sega's longtime head of R&D, Hisashi Suzuki. As the market increased for home video game consoles, Sega expanded with three Consumer Development (CS) divisions. After October 1983, arcade development expanded to three teams: Sega DD No. 1, 2, and 3. Some time after the release of Power Drift, Sega restructured its teams again as the Sega Amusement Machine Research and Development Teams, or AM teams. Each arcade division was segregated, and a rivalry existed between the arcade and consumer development divisions.[329]In what has been called \"a brief moment of remarkable creativity\",[152] in 2000, Sega restructured its arcade and console development teams into nine semi-autonomous studios headed by the company's top designers.[7][173][330] The studios were United Game Artists, Smilebit, Hitmaker, Sega Rosso, WOW Entertainment, Overworks, Amusement Vision, Sega-AM2, and Sonic Team.[152][331] Sega's design houses were encouraged to experiment and benefited from a relatively lax approval process.[332] After taking over as company president in 2003, Hisao Oguchi announced his intention to consolidate Sega's studios.[221] Prior to the acquisition by Sammy, Sega began the process of re-integrating its subsidiaries into the main company.[333] Toshihiro Nagoshi, formerly the head of Amusement Vision, recalls this period as \"in many ways a labour of love\" from Sega, teaching the creatives the experience of managing a business.[334]Sega still operates first-party studios as departments of its research and development division. Sonic Team exists as Sega's CS2 research and development department,[335] while Sega's CS3 or Online department has developed games such as Phantasy Star Online 2,[336][337] and Sega's AM2 department has more recently worked on projects such as smartphone game Soul Reverse Zero.[338] Toshihiro Nagoshi remained involved with research and development as Sega's chief creative officer or creative director while working on the Yakuza series until 2021.[339][340][341] Other studios include Ignited Artists[342] and Play Heart.[324]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sega_Dreamcast_arcade_machine.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dreamcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreamcast"},{"link_name":"Finnish Museum of Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Museum_of_Games"},{"link_name":"Tampere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampere"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Guinness World Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Records"},{"link_name":"[343]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guinness_record-347"},{"link_name":"Eurogamer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurogamer"},{"link_name":"[344]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-348"},{"link_name":"[345]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN-top-25-349"},{"link_name":"[346]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-350"},{"link_name":"[347]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-351"},{"link_name":"sports game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_game"},{"link_name":"[348]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-352"},{"link_name":"street date","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_date"},{"link_name":"Sonic the Hedgehog 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_2"},{"link_name":"[349]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-353"},{"link_name":"[350]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-354"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionSaturn2-114"},{"link_name":"[351]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP_Pleasure_and_Pain-355"},{"link_name":"[352]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parish-356"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Burning Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_Rangers"},{"link_name":"Guardian Heroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardian_Heroes"},{"link_name":"Dragon Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Force"},{"link_name":"Panzer Dragoon Saga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer_Dragoon_Saga"},{"link_name":"[353]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-357"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RetroinspectionSaturn2-114"},{"link_name":"1Up.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1Up.com"},{"link_name":"[351]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1UP_Pleasure_and_Pain-355"},{"link_name":"[354]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGNGreat-358"},{"link_name":"[355]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forensic-359"},{"link_name":"[356]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Edge20-360"},{"link_name":"[357]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-361"},{"link_name":"1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1001_Video_Games_You_Must_Play_Before_You_Die"},{"link_name":"[358]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-362"},{"link_name":"[359]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-363"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eurogamer-61"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGN_History_of_Sega-9"},{"link_name":"[360]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-364"},{"link_name":"[361]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-365"},{"link_name":"Dragon Quest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_Quest"},{"link_name":"Final Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Fantasy"},{"link_name":"[362]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-366"},{"link_name":"[363]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-367"},{"link_name":"Yu Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yu_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"[364]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-368"}],"text":"A demo Dreamcast kiosk at the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere, Finland, in 2017Sega is one of the world's most prolific arcade game producers, having developed more than 500 games, 70 franchises, and 20 arcade system boards since 1981. It has been recognized by Guinness World Records for this achievement.[343] Of Sega's arcade division, Eurogamer's Martin Robinson said, \"It's boisterous, broad and with a neat sense of showmanship running through its range. On top of that, it has something that's often evaded its console-dwelling cousin: success.\"[344]The Sega Genesis is often ranked among the best consoles in history.[345][346][347] In 2014, USgamer's Jeremy Parish credited it for galvanizing the market by breaking Nintendo's near-monopoly, helping create modern sports game franchises, and popularizing television games in the UK.[348] Kalinske felt Sega had innovated by developing games for an older demographic and pioneering the \"street date\" concept with the simultaneous North American and European release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2.[349] Sega of America's marketing campaign for the Genesis influenced marketing for later consoles.[350]Despite its commercial failure, the Saturn is well regarded for its library,[110][351][352] though it has been criticized for a lack of high-profile franchise releases.[7] Edge wrote that \"hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like Burning Rangers, Guardian Heroes, Dragon Force, and Panzer Dragoon Saga.\"[353] Sega's management was criticized for its handling of the Saturn.[7][110] According to Greg Sewart of 1Up.com, \"the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled, and greatest, systems of all time\".[351]The Dreamcast is remembered for being ahead of its time,[354][355][356] with several concepts that became standard in consoles, such as motion controls and online functionality.[357] Its demise has been connected with transitions in the video game industry. In 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die, Duncan Harris wrote that the Dreamcast's end \"signaled the demise of arcade gaming culture ... Sega's console gave hope that things were not about to change for the worse and that the tenets of fast fun and bright, attractive graphics were not about to sink into a brown and green bog of realistic war games.\"[358] Parish contrasted the Dreamcast's diverse library with the \"suffocating sense of conservatism\" that pervaded the industry in the following decade.[359]In Eurogamer, Damien McFerran wrote that Sega's decisions in the late 1990s were \"a tragic spectacle of overconfidence and woefully misguided business practice\".[57] Travis Fahs of IGN noted that since the Sammy takeover Sega had developed fewer games and outsourced to more western studios, and that its arcade operations had been significantly reduced. Nonetheless, he wrote: \"Sega was one of the most active, creative, and productive developers the industry has ever known, and nothing that can happen to their name since will change that.\"[7] In 2015, Sega president Haruki Satomi told Famitsu that, in the previous ten years, Sega had \"betrayed\" the trust of older fans and that he hoped to re-establish the Sega brand.[360] During the promotion of the Sega Genesis Mini, Sega executive manager Hiroyuki Miyazaki reflected on Sega's history, saying, \"I feel like Sega has never been the champion, at the top of all the video game companies, but I feel like a lot of people love Sega because of the underdog image.\"[361] Former Sega management cited the absence of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy games on their home consoles as a reason for the console division's struggles, especially in Japan.[362][363] In his 2018 book The Sega Arcade Revolution, Horowitz connected Sega's decline in the arcades after 1995 with broader industry changes. He argued that its most serious problems came from the loss of its creative talent, particularly Yuji Naka and Yu Suzuki, after the Sammy takeover, but concluded that \"as of this writing, Sega is in its best financial shape of the past two decades. The company has endured.\"[364]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"Kabushiki gaisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabushiki_gaisha"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Hepburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepburn_romanization"}],"text":"^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega\n\n^ Japanese: 日本娯楽物産株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon goraku bussan kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Amusement Products Stock Company\n\n^ Japanese: 日本機械製造株式会社, Hepburn: Nihon kikai seizō kabushiki gaisha, Japanese Machine Manufacturers Co., Ltd.\n\n^ Japanese: 株式会社セガ・エンタープライゼズ, Hepburn: Kabushiki gaisha Sega Entapuraizezu","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"The Diamond 3 Star was a coin-operated slot machine produced by Sega in the 1950s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Slot_machines_at_Wookey_Hole_Caves.JPG/220px-Slot_machines_at_Wookey_Hole_Caves.JPG"},{"image_text":"Former logo used until 1975.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sega_1960s_logo.svg/220px-Sega_1960s_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Sega's first video game console, the SG-1000","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg/220px-Sega-SG-1000-Console-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Master System, released in North America in 1986 and Europe in 1987","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg/220px-Sega-Master-System-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Sega Genesis (second North American version pictured), Sega's successor to the Master System, took control of the 16-bit console market in much of the world during the fourth generation of video game consoles.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Sega-Genesis-Mod2-Set.jpg/220px-Sega-Genesis-Mod2-Set.jpg"},{"image_text":"Characterized by the matching blue color of its long-standing logo, Sonic the Hedgehog has been Sega's mascot since 1991.[63]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/df/Sonic_1991.png/160px-Sonic_1991.png"},{"image_text":"Game Gear, released in 1990","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Game-Gear-Handheld_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Game-Gear-Handheld_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Larger Virtua Formula installation of Virtua Racing at the Sega VirtuaLand arcade in Luxor Las Vegas, circa late 1993","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Virtua_formula.jpg/220px-Virtua_formula.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Sega Saturn failed to repeat the western success of the Genesis.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Sega-Saturn-Console-Set-Mk1.jpg/220px-Sega-Saturn-Console-Set-Mk1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tokyo Joypolis, the flagship Sega indoor theme park, in 1999","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tokyo_Joypolis_entrance.jpg/220px-Tokyo_Joypolis_entrance.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Dreamcast, discontinued in 2001, was Sega's last video game console.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Dreamcast-Console-Set.png/220px-Dreamcast-Console-Set.png"},{"image_text":"[94][166][196][197]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sega_Annual_Income%28Loss%29_1993-2004.svg/400px-Sega_Annual_Income%28Loss%29_1993-2004.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Sega Sammy Holdings (current logo pictured) was founded in 2004 with pachinko and pachislot manufacturer Sammy Corporation's purchase of Sega.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Sega_Sammy_Holdings_logo.svg/220px-Sega_Sammy_Holdings_logo.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Sega's headquarters in Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, Japan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Sega_HQ_2018_2.jpg/220px-Sega_HQ_2018_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Club Sega game center in Akihabara, Tokyo, shown before the Sega brand was removed from it in 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/CLUB_SEGA_Akihabara_Annex_20111122.jpg/220px-CLUB_SEGA_Akihabara_Annex_20111122.jpg"},{"image_text":"A demo Dreamcast kiosk at the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere, Finland, in 2017","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Sega_Dreamcast_arcade_machine.jpg/150px-Sega_Dreamcast_arcade_machine.jpg"},{}] | [{"title":"Video games portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Video_games"},{"title":"List of Sega video game franchises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sega_video_game_franchises"},{"title":"Lists of Sega games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Sega_games"},{"title":"Sega, S.A. SONIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega,_S.A._SONIC"},{"title":"Sega Technical Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Technical_Institute"}] | [{"reference":"\"Company Outline\". Sega. Retrieved June 16, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sega.co.jp/en/company/outline/index.html","url_text":"\"Company Outline\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sega Sammy Holdings Fiscal Year 2020 Full Results Appendix\" (PDF). Sega Sammy Holdings. May 13, 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2020. Retrieved May 15, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200515113342/https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/202003_4q_hosoku_20200513_final_e_.pdf","url_text":"\"Sega Sammy Holdings Fiscal Year 2020 Full Results Appendix\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings","url_text":"Sega Sammy Holdings"},{"url":"https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/202003_4q_hosoku_20200513_final_e_.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Notice of Changes of Directors and Executive Officers at SEGA SAMMY HOLDINGS INC. and its Major Subsidiaries\" (PDF). Sega Sammy Holdings. February 28, 2020. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 3, 2020. Retrieved May 17, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200603162255/https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/20200228_jinji_e_final.pdf","url_text":"\"Notice of Changes of Directors and Executive Officers at SEGA SAMMY HOLDINGS INC. and its Major Subsidiaries\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Sammy_Holdings","url_text":"Sega Sammy Holdings"},{"url":"https://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/pdf/release/20200228_jinji_e_final.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SEGA officially opens Sega Sapporo Studio to handle game-development operations in Hokkaido, Japan\". Sega. January 11, 2022. Retrieved May 27, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sega.co.jp/en/release/220111_1.html","url_text":"\"SEGA officially opens Sega Sapporo Studio to handle game-development operations in Hokkaido, Japan\""}]},{"reference":"Ballestrasse, Michelle (February 1, 2021). \"Sega Is Splitting Into Separate Gaming & Pachinko Companies\". Screen Rant. 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New Riders. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-13-102009-2. Archived from the original on November 23, 2015. Retrieved August 2, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IfDouSUqOUIC&pg=PA3","url_text":"Core Techniques and Algorithms in Game Programming"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-102009-2","url_text":"978-0-13-102009-2"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151123110659/https://books.google.com/books?id=IfDouSUqOUIC&pg=PA3&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAmoVChMIgsnbx7mKxwIVhQOOCh2YkAql#v=onepage&f=false","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Horowitz, Ken (2018). The Sega Arcade Revolution, A History in 62 Games. McFarland & Company. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-1-4766-3196-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McFarland_%26_Company","url_text":"McFarland & Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-3196-7","url_text":"978-1-4766-3196-7"}]},{"reference":"Kent, Steven L. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World. Prima Publishing. p. 331. 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Retrieved May 7, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/04/business/sega-takes-aim-at-disney-s-world.html?pagewanted=3","url_text":"\"Sega Takes Aim at Disney's World\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150526082802/http://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/04/business/sega-takes-aim-at-disney-s-world.html?pagewanted=3","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Brandt, Richard; Gross, Neil (February 20, 1994). \"Sega!\". Businessweek. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Levinson | Paul Levinson | ["1 Education","2 Published works","3 Educational and professional activities","4 Media presentations","5 Musical and recording activities","6 Selected bibliography","6.1 Novels","6.2 Non-fiction books","7 References","8 External links"] | American novelist
Paul LevinsonLevinson in 2019Born (1947-03-25) March 25, 1947 (age 77)Bronx, New York, U.S.EducationChristopher Columbus High SchoolCity College of New YorkNew York University (BA, PhD)The New School (MA)Occupation(s)Media theorist, novelist, singer-songwriter, short story writer
Paul Levinson (born March 25, 1947) is an American media theorist, novelist, singer-songwriter, and short story writer. He currently serves as professor of communications and media studies at Fordham University in New York City. His novels, short fiction, and non-fiction works have been translated into sixteen languages. He is frequently quoted in news articles and appears as a guest commentator on major news outlets.
Education
Paul Levinson graduated from Christopher Columbus High School in the Bronx, attended the City College of New York (CCNY) in the 1960s, and received a BA in journalism from New York University in 1975; an MA in Media Studies from The New School in 1976; and a PhD from New York University in media ecology in 1979. His doctoral dissertation, Human Replay: A Theory of the Evolution of Media (1979), was mentored by Neil Postman.
Published works
Levinson writes science fiction, fantasy, and sf/mystery hybrids with philosophical undertones as well as non-fiction about the history and future of communications media, the First Amendment, the importance of space exploration, and popular culture themes. His work has been translated into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Czech, Polish, Romanian, Macedonian, Croatian, Russian, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic. Levinson's recent book, Touching the Face of the Cosmos: On the Intersection of Space Travel and Religion, is an anthology of essays and science fiction stories which he edited with Michael Waltemathe, and his latest novel is It's Real Life: An Alternate History of The Beatles.
Levinson has received multiple nominations for the Hugo, Nebula, Sturgeon, Prometheus, Sidewise, Edgar and Audie Awards. His novella Loose Ends was a 1998 finalist for a Hugo, a Sturgeon, and a Nebula. In 2000, his novel The Silk Code won the Locus Award for Best First Novel of 1999. The central character of The Silk Code, NYPD forensic detective Dr. Phil D'Amato, made his first appearance in Levinson's novelette, "The Chronology Protection Case", (published in Analog magazine, September 1995). D'Amato returned in "The Copyright Notice Case" novelette (Analog, April 1996), "The Mendelian Lamp Case" novelette (Analog, April 1997), and in subsequent novels The Consciousness Plague (2002), and The Pixel Eye (2003). An adaptation of Levinson's "The Chronology Protection Case" (radioplay by Mark Shanahan with Paul Levinson & Jay Kensinger) was nominated by the Mystery Writers of America for the Edgar Award for Best Play of 2002.
His next novel was The Plot To Save Socrates, a time travel story. Entertainment Weekly magazine called it "challenging fun". His subsequent novel was Unburning Alexandria, a sequel to The Plot To Save Socrates. The first two chapters of Unburning Alexandria appeared as a novelette in the November 2008 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact, and the expanded novel was published as an e-book in May 2013. The concluding novel in the series, titled Chronica, was published in December 2014.
Educational and professional activities
He has taught at Fordham University since 1998; he has been Professor of communication and media studies since 2000, and was chair of the department from 2002 to 2008. He had previously been Assistant (1977–82) and then Associate (1982–88) Professor at Farleigh Dickinson University, and had adjunct positions at The New School, Hofstra University, St. John's University, Polytechnic University of New York, Audrey Cohen College and the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute. He has given lectures and keynote addresses at conferences at many universities and authored over 100 scholarly articles.
In 1985 he co-founded Connected Education, offering online courses for Masters credit.
He served as president of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America from 1998 to 2001.
Media presentations
Levinson has been interviewed more than 500 times on local, national and international television and radio as a commentator on media, popular culture, and science fiction. He is frequently quoted in newspapers and magazines around the world and his op-eds have appeared in such major papers as The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, New York's Newsday, and The New York Sun. He was interviewed in a short weekly spot early Sunday mornings on KNX-AM Radio in Los Angeles, from 2006 to 2008 on media-related news events and popular culture. He has
several podcasts and blogs. In April 2009, The Chronicle of Higher Education named him ("PaulLev") one of Twitter's ten "High Fliers".
Musical and recording activities
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, prior to his academic career, Levinson was a songwriter, singer, and record producer with recordings by the Vogues, Donna Marie of the Archies, June Valli, Jimmy Clanton, and Ellie Greenwich. As a radio producer he worked with Murray the K and Wolfman Jack.
He wrote over 100 songs published by major music publishers including Bourne, Chappell, Belwin Mills/Warner Brothers, Bobby Darin's TM Music, and Sunbury/RCA. Recordings of his songs were produced by Ellie Greenwich, Jimmy Wisner, and Paul Leka for other artists. Songs he wrote, performed and/or produced were released on record labels including Columbia, Decca, Philips, Atlantic, Buddah and London Records.
He was principal artist, writer, and producer for Twice Upon a Rhyme, a 1972 LP released on HappySad Records and subsequently re-issued on CD. His song "Hung Up On Love" (co-writer Mikie Harris, produced by Ellie Greenwich and Mike Rashkow) was recorded by his trio The Other Voices and released on Atlantic Records in 1968; it was included in Rhino Handmade's 2004 compilation CD Come to the Sunshine: Soft Pop Nuggets from the WEA Vaults, compiled by Andrew Sandoval. He sang falsetto harmony on many of The Other Voices' recordings.
His songs "Merri Goes Round" and "Looking for Sunsets (In the Early Morning)", both co-written with Ed Fox in the 1970s, were recorded by Sundial Symphony (Robbie Rist and Don Frankel) and released by Big Stir Records in 2019. His recent album of new songs, Welcome Up: Songs of Space and Time, was released by Old Bear Records and Light In The Attic Records in 2020.
Selected bibliography
Main article: Paul Levinson bibliography
Novels
The Silk Code (1999) Tor Books ISBN 0-312-86823-5
Borrowed Tides (2001) Tor Books ISBN 0-312-84869-2
The Consciousness Plague (2002) Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0098-2
The Pixel Eye (2003) Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0556-9
The Plot To Save Socrates (2006) Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0570-4
Unburning Alexandria (2013) JoSara Media ISBN 978-1-56178-012-9
Chronica (2014) JoSara Media ISBN 978-1-56178-031-0
It's Real Life: An Alternate History of The Beatles (2024) Connected Editions ISBN 978-1-56178-088-4
Non-fiction books
In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday (editor and contributor) with Forewords by Isaac Asimov and Helmut Schmidt (1982) Humanities Press ISBN 0-391-02609-7
Mind at Large: Knowing in the Technological Age (1988) JAI Press ISBN 0-89232-816-9
Electronic Chronicles: Columns of the Changes in our Time (1992) Anamnesis Press ISBN 0-9631203-3-6
Learning Cyberspace: Essays on the Evolution of Media and the New Education (1995) Anamnesis Press ISBN 0-9631203-9-5
The Soft Edge: A Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution (1997) Routledge ISBN 0-415-15785-4
Bestseller: Wired, Analog, and Digital Writings (1999) Pulpless ISBN 1-58445-033-9
Digital McLuhan: A Guide to the Information Millennium (1999) Routledge ISBN 0-415-19251-X
Realspace: The Fate of Physical Presence in the Digital Age, On and Off Planet (2003) Routledge ISBN 0-415-27743-4
Cellphone: The Story of the World's Most Mobile Medium (2004) Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 1-4039-6041-0
New New Media (2009/2012) Penguin/Pearson ISBN 0-205-67330-9; second, revised edition (2012) ISBN 0-205-86557-7
Touching the Face of the Cosmos: On the Intersection of Space Travel and Religion ed. Paul Levinson & Michael Waltemathe (2015/2016) Connected Editions/Fordham University Press ISBN 978-1-56178-042-6
References
^
"Levinson, Paul". Revised June 7, 2014. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (sf-encyclopedia.com). Retrieved 20 July 2015. Entry by 'JC', John Clute.
^ Levinson, Paul (February 1979). Human Replay: A Theory of the Evolution of Media. #79 18,852. Vol. 40/3. University Microfilms, Int.
^ a b Gale Reference Team (2007). "Biography: Levinson, Paul (1947–)". Contemporary Authors Online. Thomson Gale.
^ Jandrić, Petar (2017). Learning in the Age of Digital Reason. Springer. p. 273. ISBN 978-94-6351-077-6. Retrieved October 9, 2017.
^ a b Lee, Robert A. (February 7, 2016). "Book Review: Touching the Face of the Cosmos - National Space Society". National Space Society. Retrieved January 4, 2022.
^ Ricci, Charlie. "It's Real Life: An Alternate History Of The Beatles - A Short Story, Radio Play And Full Length Novel By Paul Levinson (2022 and 2024)". Bloggerhythms. Retrieved May 21, 2024.
^ "It's Real Life: A Book Launch for Paul Levinson's New Novel". nysgs.org. New York Society for General Semantics. Retrieved May 21, 2024.
^ "sfadb: Locus Awards 2000". www.sfadb.com.
^ Schulz, J. (December 1, 1999). "Biodetective". Wired. Retrieved January 4, 2022.
^ "Locus Online: New Books Listings". www.locusmag.com. September 1999.
^ Russo, Tom (February 24, 2006). "Book review: The Plot to Save Socrates". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ Tomaino, Sam (September 27, 2008). "Review of Analog Science Fiction and Fact – November 2008 – Vol. CXXVIII No.11". SFRevu. Retrieved April 29, 2013.
^ Levinson, Paul (2013). Unburning Alexandria. ISBN 978-1-56178-012-9.
^ Levinson, Paul (2014). Chronica. Connected Editions. ISBN 978-1-56178-031-0.
^ Curriculum Vitae
^ "Managing the Frenzy: Translating Communication Skills to New Media". Communicators Forum. University of Minnesota. May 2000. Archived from the original on January 24, 2008. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ Withrow, Frank (June 1, 1997). "Technology in Education and the Next Twenty-Five Years – THE Journal". T.H.E. Journal. Retrieved January 21, 2014.
^ Goldman, Norm (December 2007). "A conversation with well-known author Paul Levinson". Book Pleasures: Meet the Author. Knowledge Base. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ Levinson, Paul (February 15, 2003). "Op-Ed: The FCC and Halftime". Atlanta Journal-Constitution. pp. Q2.
^ Levinson, Paul (October 12, 2003). "Op-Ed: Schwarzenegger and the fame game". Atlanta Journal-Constitution. pp. C1.
^ Levinson, Paul (April 13, 2009). "Is Spitzer fit to be a pundit?". Newsday. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ Levinson, Paul (September 27, 2006). "An important cable vote". The New York Sun. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ Young, Jeffrey R. (April 10, 2009). "Ten High Fliers on Twitter". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Vol.55, Issue 31. pp. A10. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ "Mevio: Personality-driven entertainment". Related information: Levinson News Clips. Mevio. Archived from the original on January 29, 2013. Retrieved April 19, 2009.
^ "Paul Levinson". Modern Music Maker. March 23, 2018.
^ "Happysad debuts its first album". Billboard. September 30, 1972. Retrieved August 30, 2013.
^ Major, Paul; Kugelberg, Johan; Daley, Michael P. (2012). Enjoy the experience : homemade records, 1958-1992 (First ed.). Los Angeles: Sinecure Books. ISBN 978-1-938265-04-4. I've seen multitudes of folkpsych wannabes hyped to the skies for their garage charm in euro lists that don't hold a candle to this baby.
^ "Twice Upon a Rhyme". RateYourMusic. Retrieved February 2, 2018.
^ Mathews, Austin. "Twice Upon a Rhyme". Shindig, January–February 2011. "Superb fuzz guitar irresistibly drizzled across several tracks ... a memorable personality indelibly locked inside the grooves ... the perfect sound track for a lethargic spring day."
^ DeAngelis, Mike. "Big Stir Singles: The Third Wave". There Once Was A Note. Retrieved January 3, 2022.
^ Breznikar, Klemen (February 3, 2020). "'Welcome Up: Songs of Space and Time' by Paul Levinson". It's Psychedelic Baby! Magazine.
^ Freese, Lee (March 1984). "Book Reviews : In Pursuit of Truth: Essays in Honour of Karl Popper's 80th Birthday. Paul Levinson, editor (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1982) 337 pp". Knowledge. 5 (3): 405–409. doi:10.1177/107554708400500308.
^ Percival, Ray (November 18, 1995). "Carry on learning: Learning Cyberspace". New Scientist. Retrieved January 4, 2022.
^ Tympas, Aristotle. "Paul Levinson, The Soft Edge: A Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution ," in IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 76-76, July-Sept. 1999, doi: 10.1109/MAHC.1999.778991.
^ Headlam, Bruce (July 1, 1999). "Digital McLuhan: A Guide to the Information Millennium by Paul Levinson". The New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2022.
^ "Nonfiction Book Review: Realspace: The Fate of Physical Presence in the Digital Age, on and Off Planet by Paul Levinson, Author Routledge $34.95 (192p) ISBN 978-0-415-27743-3". PublishersWeekly.com. Retrieved January 4, 2022.
^ Brereton, Pat (June 2005). "Reviews : Paul Levinson, Cellphone: The story of the world's most mobile medium and how it transformed everything! (New York: Palgrave, 2004), 221 pp. ISBN: 1 4039 6041 0 (pbk". Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies. 11 (2): 116–118. doi:10.1177/135485650501100212. ISSN 1354-8565. S2CID 143650864.
^ Burzynski Bullard, Sue (October 2011). "Book Review – New New Media by Paul Levinson". ResearchGate.
External links
Official website
Articles
Short Fiction
Music career; MP3s
Awards and honors
scholarly writing
pop culture & political criticism
podcasts
"Light On Light Through"
"Ask Lev!"
videos
interview on The Alcove with Mark Molaro on YouTube
quotes
Paul Levinson on Internet Speculative Fiction Database
Paul Levinson at Library of Congress, with 17 library catalog records
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
WorldCat
National
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BnF data
Israel
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Japan
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Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFE-1"},{"link_name":"media studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_studies"},{"link_name":"Fordham University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordham_University"}],"text":"Paul Levinson (born March 25, 1947)[1] is an American media theorist, novelist, singer-songwriter, and short story writer. He currently serves as professor of communications and media studies at Fordham University in New York City. His novels, short fiction, and non-fiction works have been translated into sixteen languages. He is frequently quoted in news articles and appears as a guest commentator on major news outlets.","title":"Paul Levinson"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christopher Columbus High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_High_School_(Bronx,_New_York)"},{"link_name":"City College of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_College_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"CCNY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCNY"},{"link_name":"New York University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University"},{"link_name":"Media Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Studies"},{"link_name":"The New School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_School"},{"link_name":"media ecology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_ecology"},{"link_name":"Neil Postman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Postman"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-humanreplay-2"}],"text":"Paul Levinson graduated from Christopher Columbus High School in the Bronx, attended the City College of New York (CCNY) in the 1960s, and received a BA in journalism from New York University in 1975; an MA in Media Studies from The New School in 1976; and a PhD from New York University in media ecology in 1979. His doctoral dissertation, Human Replay: A Theory of the Evolution of Media (1979), was mentored by Neil Postman.[2]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"mystery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_fiction"},{"link_name":"communications media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication"},{"link_name":"First Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"space exploration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gale-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jandri%C4%872017-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nss-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RealLife-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-booklaunch-7"},{"link_name":"Hugo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award"},{"link_name":"Nebula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula_Award"},{"link_name":"Sturgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Sturgeon_Award"},{"link_name":"Prometheus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_Award"},{"link_name":"Sidewise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidewise_Award_for_Alternate_History"},{"link_name":"Edgar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Award"},{"link_name":"Audie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audie_Awards"},{"link_name":"Locus Award for Best First Novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_Award_for_Best_First_Novel"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"NYPD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NYPD"},{"link_name":"forensic detective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detective_fiction"},{"link_name":"Phil D'Amato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_D%27Amato"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Analog magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_magazine"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Mystery Writers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystery_Writers_of_America"},{"link_name":"Edgar Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Award"},{"link_name":"The Plot To Save Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plot_To_Save_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Analog Science Fiction and Fact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Fact"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Levinson writes science fiction, fantasy, and sf/mystery hybrids with philosophical undertones as well as non-fiction about the history and future of communications media, the First Amendment, the importance of space exploration, and popular culture themes.[3] His work has been translated into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Czech, Polish, Romanian, Macedonian, Croatian, Russian, Turkish, Persian, and Arabic.[4] Levinson's recent book, Touching the Face of the Cosmos: On the Intersection of Space Travel and Religion, is an anthology of essays and science fiction stories which he edited with Michael Waltemathe,[5] and his latest novel is It's Real Life: An Alternate History of The Beatles.[6][7]Levinson has received multiple nominations for the Hugo, Nebula, Sturgeon, Prometheus, Sidewise, Edgar and Audie Awards. His novella Loose Ends was a 1998 finalist for a Hugo, a Sturgeon, and a Nebula. In 2000, his novel The Silk Code won the Locus Award for Best First Novel of 1999.[8] The central character of The Silk Code, NYPD forensic detective Dr. Phil D'Amato,[9] made his first appearance in Levinson's novelette, \"The Chronology Protection Case\", (published in Analog magazine, September 1995). D'Amato returned in \"The Copyright Notice Case\" novelette (Analog, April 1996), \"The Mendelian Lamp Case\" novelette (Analog, April 1997),[10] and in subsequent novels The Consciousness Plague (2002), and The Pixel Eye (2003). An adaptation of Levinson's \"The Chronology Protection Case\" (radioplay by Mark Shanahan with Paul Levinson & Jay Kensinger) was nominated by the Mystery Writers of America for the Edgar Award for Best Play of 2002.His next novel was The Plot To Save Socrates, a time travel story. Entertainment Weekly magazine called it \"challenging fun\".[11] His subsequent novel was Unburning Alexandria, a sequel to The Plot To Save Socrates. The first two chapters of Unburning Alexandria appeared as a novelette in the November 2008 issue of Analog Science Fiction and Fact,[12] and the expanded novel was published as an e-book in May 2013.[13] The concluding novel in the series, titled Chronica, was published in December 2014.[14]","title":"Published works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fordham University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fordham_University"},{"link_name":"Farleigh Dickinson University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farleigh_Dickinson_University"},{"link_name":"The New School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_School"},{"link_name":"Hofstra University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hofstra_University"},{"link_name":"St. John's University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_University_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"Polytechnic University of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytechnic_University_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"Audrey Cohen College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_College_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"Western Behavioral Sciences Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Behavioral_Sciences_Institute"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-comm_forum-16"},{"link_name":"Connected Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connected_Education"},{"link_name":"online courses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_learning"},{"link_name":"Masters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T.H.E.-17"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy_Writers_of_America"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gale-3"}],"text":"He has taught at Fordham University since 1998; he has been Professor of communication and media studies since 2000, and was chair of the department from 2002 to 2008. He had previously been Assistant (1977–82) and then Associate (1982–88) Professor at Farleigh Dickinson University, and had adjunct positions at The New School, Hofstra University, St. John's University, Polytechnic University of New York, Audrey Cohen College and the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute.[15] He has given lectures and keynote addresses at conferences at many universities and authored over 100 scholarly articles.[16]In 1985 he co-founded Connected Education, offering online courses for Masters credit.[17]He served as president of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America from 1998 to 2001.[3]","title":"Educational and professional activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-goldman-18"},{"link_name":"op-eds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Op-ed"},{"link_name":"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlanta_Journal-Constitution"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atl-fcc-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atl-schwarz-20"},{"link_name":"Newsday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsday"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newsday-spitz-21"},{"link_name":"The New York Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Sun"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nysun-22"},{"link_name":"KNX-AM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNX-AM"},{"link_name":"The Chronicle of Higher Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chronicle_of_Higher_Education"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ChronHigherEd-23"}],"text":"Levinson has been interviewed more than 500 times on local, national and international television and radio as a commentator on media, popular culture, and science fiction.[18] He is frequently quoted in newspapers and magazines around the world and his op-eds have appeared in such major papers as The Atlanta Journal-Constitution,[19][20] New York's Newsday,[21] and The New York Sun.[22] He was interviewed in a short weekly spot early Sunday mornings on KNX-AM Radio in Los Angeles, from 2006 to 2008 on media-related news events and popular culture. He has\nseveral podcasts and blogs. In April 2009, The Chronicle of Higher Education named him (\"PaulLev\") one of Twitter's ten \"High Fliers\".[23]","title":"Media presentations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the Vogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vogues"},{"link_name":"the Archies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Archies"},{"link_name":"June Valli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_Valli"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Clanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Clanton"},{"link_name":"Ellie Greenwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellie_Greenwich"},{"link_name":"Murray the K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_the_K"},{"link_name":"Wolfman Jack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfman_Jack"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mevio-24"},{"link_name":"Bourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_Co._Music_Publishers"},{"link_name":"Chappell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chappell_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"Warner Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Bobby Darin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Darin"},{"link_name":"RCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"Ellie Greenwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellie_Greenwich"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Wisner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Wisner"},{"link_name":"Paul Leka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Leka"},{"link_name":"Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"Decca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips_Records"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Records"},{"link_name":"Buddah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddah_Records"},{"link_name":"London Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Records"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Twice Upon a Rhyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twice_Upon_a_Rhyme"},{"link_name":"HappySad Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HappySad_Records"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bb093072-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Ellie Greenwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellie_Greenwich"},{"link_name":"Mike Rashkow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Rashkow"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Records"},{"link_name":"Rhino Handmade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhino_Handmade"},{"link_name":"Come to the Sunshine: Soft Pop Nuggets from the WEA Vaults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Come_to_the_Sunshine:_Soft_Pop_Nuggets_from_the_WEA_Vaults"},{"link_name":"Andrew Sandoval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Sandoval"},{"link_name":"Robbie Rist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Rist"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sundial-30"},{"link_name":"Light In The Attic Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_In_The_Attic_Records"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-psychedelic-31"}],"text":"In the late 1960s and early 1970s, prior to his academic career, Levinson was a songwriter, singer, and record producer with recordings by the Vogues, Donna Marie of the Archies, June Valli, Jimmy Clanton, and Ellie Greenwich. As a radio producer he worked with Murray the K and Wolfman Jack.[24]He wrote over 100 songs published by major music publishers including Bourne, Chappell, Belwin Mills/Warner Brothers, Bobby Darin's TM Music, and Sunbury/RCA. Recordings of his songs were produced by Ellie Greenwich, Jimmy Wisner, and Paul Leka for other artists. Songs he wrote, performed and/or produced were released on record labels including Columbia, Decca, Philips, Atlantic, Buddah and London Records.[25]He was principal artist, writer, and producer for Twice Upon a Rhyme, a 1972 LP released on HappySad Records[26][27] and subsequently re-issued on CD.[28][29] His song \"Hung Up On Love\" (co-writer Mikie Harris, produced by Ellie Greenwich and Mike Rashkow) was recorded by his trio The Other Voices and released on Atlantic Records in 1968; it was included in Rhino Handmade's 2004 compilation CD Come to the Sunshine: Soft Pop Nuggets from the WEA Vaults, compiled by Andrew Sandoval. He sang falsetto harmony on many of The Other Voices' recordings.His songs \"Merri Goes Round\" and \"Looking for Sunsets (In the Early Morning)\", both co-written with Ed Fox in the 1970s, were recorded by Sundial Symphony (Robbie Rist and Don Frankel) and released by Big Stir Records in 2019.[30] His recent album of new songs, Welcome Up: Songs of Space and Time, was released by Old Bear Records and Light In The Attic Records in 2020.[31]","title":"Musical and recording activities"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Selected bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-86823-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-86823-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-84869-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-84869-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7653-0098-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7653-0098-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7653-0556-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7653-0556-9"},{"link_name":"The Plot To Save Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plot_To_Save_Socrates"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7653-0570-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7653-0570-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-56178-012-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56178-012-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-56178-031-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56178-031-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-56178-088-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56178-088-4"}],"sub_title":"Novels","text":"The Silk Code (1999) Tor Books ISBN 0-312-86823-5\nBorrowed Tides (2001) Tor Books ISBN 0-312-84869-2\nThe Consciousness Plague (2002) Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0098-2\nThe Pixel Eye (2003) Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0556-9\nThe Plot To Save Socrates (2006) Tor Books ISBN 0-7653-0570-4\nUnburning Alexandria (2013) JoSara Media ISBN 978-1-56178-012-9\nChronica (2014) JoSara Media ISBN 978-1-56178-031-0\nIt's Real Life: An Alternate History of The Beatles (2024) Connected Editions ISBN 978-1-56178-088-4","title":"Selected bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Isaac Asimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimov"},{"link_name":"Helmut Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-391-02609-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-391-02609-7"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89232-816-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89232-816-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-9631203-3-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9631203-3-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-9631203-9-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9631203-9-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-15785-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-15785-4"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-58445-033-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58445-033-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-19251-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-19251-X"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-27743-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-27743-4"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-4039-6041-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-6041-0"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-205-67330-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-67330-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-205-86557-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-205-86557-7"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-56178-042-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56178-042-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nss-5"}],"sub_title":"Non-fiction books","text":"In Pursuit of Truth: Essays on the Philosophy of Karl Popper on the Occasion of his 80th Birthday (editor and contributor) with Forewords by Isaac Asimov and Helmut Schmidt (1982) Humanities Press ISBN 0-391-02609-7[32]\nMind at Large: Knowing in the Technological Age (1988) JAI Press ISBN 0-89232-816-9\nElectronic Chronicles: Columns of the Changes in our Time (1992) Anamnesis Press ISBN 0-9631203-3-6\nLearning Cyberspace: Essays on the Evolution of Media and the New Education (1995) Anamnesis Press ISBN 0-9631203-9-5[33]\nThe Soft Edge: A Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution (1997) Routledge ISBN 0-415-15785-4 [34]\nBestseller: Wired, Analog, and Digital Writings (1999) Pulpless ISBN 1-58445-033-9 [includes fiction and non-fiction]\nDigital McLuhan: A Guide to the Information Millennium (1999) Routledge ISBN 0-415-19251-X[35]\nRealspace: The Fate of Physical Presence in the Digital Age, On and Off Planet (2003) Routledge ISBN 0-415-27743-4[36]\nCellphone: The Story of the World's Most Mobile Medium (2004) Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 1-4039-6041-0[37]\nNew New Media (2009/2012) Penguin/Pearson ISBN 0-205-67330-9; second, revised edition (2012) ISBN 0-205-86557-7[38]\nTouching the Face of the Cosmos: On the Intersection of Space Travel and Religion ed. Paul Levinson & Michael Waltemathe (2015/2016) Connected Editions/Fordham University Press ISBN 978-1-56178-042-6 [includes fiction and non-fiction][5]","title":"Selected bibliography"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"Levinson, Paul (February 1979). Human Replay: A Theory of the Evolution of Media. #79 18,852. Vol. 40/3. University Microfilms, Int.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Gale Reference Team (2007). \"Biography: Levinson, Paul (1947–)\". Contemporary Authors Online. Thomson Gale.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Jandrić, Petar (2017). Learning in the Age of Digital Reason. Springer. p. 273. ISBN 978-94-6351-077-6. Retrieved October 9, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3i8tDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Learning in the Age of Digital Reason"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6351-077-6","url_text":"978-94-6351-077-6"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Robert A. (February 7, 2016). \"Book Review: Touching the Face of the Cosmos - National Space Society\". National Space Society. Retrieved January 4, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://space.nss.org/book-review-touching-the-face-of-the-cosmos/","url_text":"\"Book Review: Touching the Face of the Cosmos - National Space Society\""}]},{"reference":"Ricci, Charlie. \"It's Real Life: An Alternate History Of The Beatles - A Short Story, Radio Play And Full Length Novel By Paul Levinson (2022 and 2024)\". Bloggerhythms. Retrieved May 21, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://bloggerhythms.blogspot.com/2023/07/its-real-life-alternate-history-of.html","url_text":"\"It's Real Life: An Alternate History Of The Beatles - A Short Story, Radio Play And Full Length Novel By Paul Levinson (2022 and 2024)\""}]},{"reference":"\"It's Real Life: A Book Launch for Paul Levinson's New Novel\". nysgs.org. New York Society for General Semantics. Retrieved May 21, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://nysgs.org/event-5627922","url_text":"\"It's Real Life: A Book Launch for Paul Levinson's New Novel\""}]},{"reference":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2000\". www.sfadb.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sfadb.com/Locus_Awards_2000","url_text":"\"sfadb: Locus Awards 2000\""}]},{"reference":"Schulz, J. (December 1, 1999). \"Biodetective\". Wired. Retrieved January 4, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/1999/12/biodetective","url_text":"\"Biodetective\""}]},{"reference":"\"Locus Online: New Books Listings\". www.locusmag.com. September 1999.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.locusmag.com/1999/Monitor/BooksSFFH09.html","url_text":"\"Locus Online: New Books Listings\""}]},{"reference":"Russo, Tom (February 24, 2006). \"Book review: The Plot to Save Socrates\". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved April 19, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,1166962,00.html","url_text":"\"Book review: The Plot to Save Socrates\""}]},{"reference":"Tomaino, Sam (September 27, 2008). \"Review of Analog Science Fiction and Fact – November 2008 – Vol. CXXVIII No.11\". SFRevu. Retrieved April 29, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sfrevu.com/php/Review-id.php?id=8174","url_text":"\"Review of Analog Science Fiction and Fact – November 2008 – Vol. CXXVIII No.11\""}]},{"reference":"Levinson, Paul (2013). Unburning Alexandria. ISBN 978-1-56178-012-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56178-012-9","url_text":"978-1-56178-012-9"}]},{"reference":"Levinson, Paul (2014). Chronica. Connected Editions. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_Equipment_Manufacturer | Original equipment manufacturer | ["1 Automotive parts","2 Computer software","3 Economies of scale","4 See also","5 References"] | Company that fabricates parts used in another company's products
"OEM" redirects here. For other uses, see OEM (disambiguation).
Supply chain pyramid
An original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is generally perceived as a company that produces parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer. The term is also used in several other ways, which causes ambiguity. It sometimes means the maker of a system that includes other companies' subsystems, an end-product producer, an automotive part that is manufactured by the same company that produced the original part used in the automobile's assembly, or a value-added reseller.
Automotive parts
When referring to auto parts, OEM typically refers to the manufacturer of the original equipment, that is, the parts which are then subsequently assembled and installed during the construction of a new vehicle. In contrast, aftermarket parts are those made by companies other than the OEM, which might be installed as replacements or enhancements after the car comes out of the factory. For example, if Ford used Autolite spark plugs, Exide batteries, Bosch fuel injectors, and Ford's own engine blocks and heads when building a car, then car restorers and collectors consider those to be the OEM parts.
Other-brand parts would be considered aftermarket, such as Champion spark plugs, DieHard batteries, Kinsler fuel injectors, and BMP engine blocks and heads. Many auto parts manufacturers sell parts through multiple channels, for example to car makers for installation during new-vehicle construction, to car makers for resale as automaker-branded replacement parts, and through general merchandising supply chains. Any given brand of part can be OEM on some vehicle models and aftermarket on others.
Computer software
Microsoft is a popular example of a company that issues its Windows operating systems for use by OEM computer manufacturers via the bundling of Microsoft Windows. OEM product keys are priced lower than their retail counterparts, especially as they are purchased in bulk quantities, although they use the same software as retail versions of Windows. They are primarily for PC manufacturer OEMs and system builders, and as such are typically sold in volume licensing deals to a variety of manufacturers (Dell, HP, ASUS, Acer, Lenovo, Wistron, Inventec, Supermicro, Compal Electronics, Quanta Computer, Foxconn, Pegatron, Jabil, Flex, etc.).
These OEMs commonly use a procedure known as System Locked Pre-installation, which pre-activates Windows on PCs that are to be sold via mass distribution. These OEMs also commonly bundle software that is not installed on stock Windows on the images of Windows that will be deployed with their PCs (appropriate hardware drivers, anti-malware and maintenance software, various apps, etc.).
Individuals may also purchase OEM "system-builder" licenses for personal use (to include virtual hardware), or for sale/resale on PCs which they build. Per Microsoft's EULA regarding PC manufacturers and system-builder OEM licenses, the product key is tied to the PC motherboard which it is initially installed on, and there is typically no transferring the key between PCs afterward. This is in contrast to retail keys, which may be transferred, provided they are only activated on one PC at a time. A significant hardware change will trigger a reactivation notice, just as with retail.
Direct OEMs are officially held liable for things such as installation/recovery media, and as such were commonly provided until the late-2000s. These were phased out in favor of recovery partitions located on the primary storage drive of the PC (and available for order from the manufacturer upon request) for the user to repair or restore their systems to the factory state. This not only cut down on costs, but was also a consequence of the gradual obsolescence and phasing out of optical media from 2010 onward. System builders also have a different requirement regarding installation media from Direct OEMs.
While a clean retail media of Windows can be installed and activated on these devices with OEM keys (most commonly using the SLP key that's embedded in to the system firmware already), actual OEM recovery media that was created by the PC manufacturer (not system-builder, nor retail Windows versions) typically only works on the PC model line that was designed for it. For example, a recovery disc/USB for a Toshiba Satellite P50-B will only work on that model, and not a Satellite S55T.
Economies of scale
OEMs rely on their ability to drive down the cost of production through economies of scale. Using an OEM also allows the purchasing company to obtain needed components or products without owning and operating a factory.
See also
Contract manufacturer
Electronics manufacturing services
Open-design movement
Open-source hardware
Original design manufacturer
Outsourcing
Private label
White-label product
Rebranding
Secondary market
Value-added reseller
References
^ Kidder, John Tracy (1981). "1. How to Make a Lot of Money". The Soul of a New Machine. United States: Little, Brown and Company. ¶ 17. ISBN 9780316491709. Many customers, such as the Department of Defense, wanted to buy complete systems, all put together and ready to run with the turn of a key; hence the rise of companies known as original equipment manufacturers, or OEMs—they'd buy gear from various companies and put it together in packages.
^ "Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)". Practical Law. Archived from the original on 19 June 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
^ Khartit, Khadija; Kvilhaug, Suzanne (15 April 2015). "What Is an Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)? Definition". Investopedia. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2024. OEM stands for Original Equipment Manufacturer. The OEM is the original producer of a vehicle's components, and so OEM car parts are identical to the parts used in producing a vehicle. Aftermarket parts are produced by other vendors and do not necessarily have a consistent level of quality or compatibility with the vehicle.
^ "OEM - Encyclopedia". Automotive Fleet. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2024. In the automotive industry, OEM refers to the company that designs and manufactures the original components and systems used in vehicles during their initial assembly.
^ Kagan, Julia; et al. (20 June 2005). "Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM): Definition and Examples". Investopedia. Archived from the original on 4 January 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2024. In the auto repair industry, OEM parts are those products used by a car manufacturer. Aftermarket parts are made by a third-party manufacturer but may be compatible with the same vehicles.
^ Delbridge, Emily; et al. (29 July 2013). "OEM Parts vs. Aftermarket Parts: What's the Difference?". The Balance. Archived from the original on 19 September 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2024. OEM parts are made by the car manufacturer, and aftermarket parts, which may cost less, are made by another company.
^ "General Info on Microsoft OEM COA's, CDs, Ect". eBay. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
^ "Licensing FAQ: System builder licensing". Microsoft. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 1 October 2015.
^ "OEM System Builder Licensing Guide" (PDF). Microsoft. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2014. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
vteMajor EMS, ODMs, and OEMsCompanies with an annual revenue of over US$3 billion
Celestica
Compal Electronics
Flex
Foxconn
Jabil
Pegatron
Quanta
Sanmina Corporation
TPV Technology
Wistron Corporation
See also
Largest IT companies
Electronics manufacturing services
Original design manufacturer
Original equipment manufacturer | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OEM (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lieferantenpyramide_(English_version).jpg"},{"link_name":"value-added reseller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value-added_reseller"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"\"OEM\" redirects here. For other uses, see OEM (disambiguation).Supply chain pyramidAn original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is generally perceived as a company that produces parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer. The term is also used in several other ways, which causes ambiguity. It sometimes means the maker of a system that includes other companies' subsystems, an end-product producer, an automotive part that is manufactured by the same company that produced the original part used in the automobile's assembly, or a value-added reseller.[1][2]","title":"Original equipment manufacturer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aftermarket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermarket_(automotive)"},{"link_name":"Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"Autolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autolite"},{"link_name":"spark plugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_plugs"},{"link_name":"Exide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exide"},{"link_name":"Bosch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bosch_GmbH"},{"link_name":"fuel injectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_injector"},{"link_name":"engine blocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_block"},{"link_name":"heads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_head"},{"link_name":"restorers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_restoration"},{"link_name":"collectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collecting"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Champion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champion_(spark_plug)"},{"link_name":"DieHard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DieHard_(brand)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"When referring to auto parts, OEM typically refers to the manufacturer of the original equipment, that is, the parts which are then subsequently assembled and installed during the construction of a new vehicle. In contrast, aftermarket parts are those made by companies other than the OEM, which might be installed as replacements or enhancements after the car comes out of the factory. For example, if Ford used Autolite spark plugs, Exide batteries, Bosch fuel injectors, and Ford's own engine blocks and heads when building a car, then car restorers and collectors consider those to be the OEM parts.[3][4]Other-brand parts would be considered aftermarket, such as Champion spark plugs, DieHard batteries, Kinsler fuel injectors, and BMP engine blocks and heads. Many auto parts manufacturers sell parts through multiple channels, for example to car makers for installation during new-vehicle construction, to car makers for resale as automaker-branded replacement parts, and through general merchandising supply chains. Any given brand of part can be OEM on some vehicle models and aftermarket on others.[5][6]","title":"Automotive parts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"bundling of Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundling_of_Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"product keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_key"},{"link_name":"volume licensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_license_key"},{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"HP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"ASUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus"},{"link_name":"Acer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Inc."},{"link_name":"Lenovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo"},{"link_name":"Wistron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wistron"},{"link_name":"Inventec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventec"},{"link_name":"Supermicro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermicro"},{"link_name":"Compal Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compal_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Quanta Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanta_Computer"},{"link_name":"Foxconn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxconn"},{"link_name":"Pegatron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegatron"},{"link_name":"Jabil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabil"},{"link_name":"Flex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flex_(company)"},{"link_name":"System Locked Pre-installation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Locked_Pre-installation"},{"link_name":"drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"virtual hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_hardware"},{"link_name":"EULA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EULA"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-General_Info_on_Microsoft_OEM_COA's,_CDs,_Ect-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Licensing_FAQ-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEM_System_Builder_Licensing_Guide-9"},{"link_name":"Toshiba Satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba_Satellite"}],"text":"Microsoft is a popular example of a company that issues its Windows operating systems for use by OEM computer manufacturers via the bundling of Microsoft Windows. OEM product keys are priced lower than their retail counterparts, especially as they are purchased in bulk quantities, although they use the same software as retail versions of Windows. They are primarily for PC manufacturer OEMs and system builders, and as such are typically sold in volume licensing deals to a variety of manufacturers (Dell, HP, ASUS, Acer, Lenovo, Wistron, Inventec, Supermicro, Compal Electronics, Quanta Computer, Foxconn, Pegatron, Jabil, Flex, etc.).These OEMs commonly use a procedure known as System Locked Pre-installation, which pre-activates Windows on PCs that are to be sold via mass distribution. These OEMs also commonly bundle software that is not installed on stock Windows on the images of Windows that will be deployed with their PCs (appropriate hardware drivers, anti-malware and maintenance software, various apps, etc.).Individuals may also purchase OEM \"system-builder\" licenses for personal use (to include virtual hardware), or for sale/resale on PCs which they build. Per Microsoft's EULA regarding PC manufacturers and system-builder OEM licenses, the product key is tied to the PC motherboard which it is initially installed on, and there is typically no transferring the key between PCs afterward. This is in contrast to retail keys, which may be transferred, provided they are only activated on one PC at a time. A significant hardware change will trigger a reactivation notice, just as with retail.[7]Direct OEMs are officially held liable for things such as installation/recovery media, and as such were commonly provided until the late-2000s. These were phased out in favor of recovery partitions located on the primary storage drive of the PC (and available for order from the manufacturer upon request) for the user to repair or restore their systems to the factory state. This not only cut down on costs, but was also a consequence of the gradual obsolescence and phasing out of optical media from 2010 onward. System builders also have a different requirement regarding installation media from Direct OEMs.[8][9]While a clean retail media of Windows can be installed and activated on these devices with OEM keys (most commonly using the SLP key that's embedded in to the system firmware already), actual OEM recovery media that was created by the PC manufacturer (not system-builder, nor retail Windows versions) typically only works on the PC model line that was designed for it. For example, a recovery disc/USB for a Toshiba Satellite P50-B will only work on that model, and not a Satellite S55T.","title":"Computer software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"economies of scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scale"}],"text":"OEMs rely on their ability to drive down the cost of production through economies of scale. Using an OEM also allows the purchasing company to obtain needed components or products without owning and operating a factory.","title":"Economies of scale"}] | [{"image_text":"Supply chain pyramid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Lieferantenpyramide_%28English_version%29.jpg/350px-Lieferantenpyramide_%28English_version%29.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Contract manufacturer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_manufacturer"},{"title":"Electronics manufacturing services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_manufacturing_services"},{"title":"Open-design movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-design_movement"},{"title":"Open-source hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_hardware"},{"title":"Original design manufacturer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_design_manufacturer"},{"title":"Outsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing"},{"title":"Private label","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_label"},{"title":"White-label product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-label_product"},{"title":"Rebranding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebranding"},{"title":"Secondary market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermarket_(merchandise)"},{"title":"Value-added reseller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value-added_reseller"}] | [{"reference":"Kidder, John Tracy (1981). \"1. How to Make a Lot of Money\". The Soul of a New Machine. United States: Little, Brown and Company. ¶ 17. ISBN 9780316491709. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom | Pseudorandomness | ["1 Background","2 History","3 In computational complexity","4 See also","5 Further reading","6 External links","7 References"] | Appearing random but actually being generated by a deterministic, causal process
A pseudorandom sequence of numbers is one that appears to be statistically random, despite having been produced by a completely deterministic and repeatable process. Simply put, the problem is that many of the sources of randomness available to humans (such as rolling dice) rely on physical processes not readily available to computer programs.
Background
The generation of random numbers has many uses, such as for random sampling, Monte Carlo methods, board games, or gambling. In physics, however, most processes, such as gravitational acceleration, are deterministic, meaning that they always produce the same outcome from the same starting point. Some notable exceptions are radioactive decay and quantum measurement, which are both modeled as being truly random processes in the underlying physics. Since these processes are not practical sources of random numbers, pseudorandom numbers are used, which ideally have the unpredictability of a truly random sequence, despite being generated by a deterministic process.
In many applications, the deterministic process is a computer algorithm called a pseudorandom number generator, which must first be provided with a number called a random seed. Since the same seed will yield the same sequence every time, it is important that the seed be well chosen and kept hidden, especially in security applications, where the pattern's unpredictability is a critical feature.
In some cases where it is important for the sequence to be demonstrably unpredictable, physical sources of random numbers have been used, such as radioactive decay, atmospheric electromagnetic noise harvested from a radio tuned between stations, or intermixed timings of keystrokes. The time investment needed to obtain these numbers leads to a compromise: using some of these physics readings as a seed for a pseudorandom number generator.
History
Before modern computing, researchers requiring random numbers would either generate them through various means (dice, cards, roulette wheels, etc.) or use existing random number tables.
The first attempt to provide researchers with a ready supply of random digits was in 1927, when the Cambridge University Press published a table of 41,600 digits developed by L.H.C. Tippett. In 1947, the RAND Corporation generated numbers by the electronic simulation of a roulette wheel; the results were eventually published in 1955 as A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates.
In computational complexity
In theoretical computer science, a distribution is pseudorandom against a class of adversaries if no adversary from the class can distinguish it from the uniform distribution with significant advantage.
This notion of pseudorandomness is studied in computational complexity theory and has applications to cryptography.
Formally, let S and T be finite sets and let F = {f: S → T} be a class of functions. A distribution D over S is ε-pseudorandom against F if for every f in F, the statistical distance between the distributions
f
(
X
)
{\displaystyle f(X)}
and
f
(
Y
)
{\displaystyle f(Y)}
, where
X
{\displaystyle X}
is sampled from D and
Y
{\displaystyle Y}
is sampled from the uniform distribution on S, is at most ε.
In typical applications, the class F describes a model of computation with bounded resources and one is interested in designing distributions D with certain properties that are pseudorandom against F. The distribution D is often specified as the output of a pseudorandom generator.
See also
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator – Type of functions designed for being unsolvable by root-finding algorithms
List of random number generators
Pseudorandom binary sequence – Seemingly random, difficult to predict bit stream created by a deterministic algorithm
Pseudorandom ensemble
Pseudorandom number generator – Algorithm that generates an approximation of a random number sequence
Low-discrepancy sequence – Type of mathematical sequence
Random number generation – Producing a sequence that cannot be predicted better than by random chance
Pseudorandom noise – Pseudo-random signal with characteristics similar to noise
Further reading
Donald E. Knuth (1997) The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd edition). Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-89684-2
Goldreich, Oded (2008). Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88473-0. See especially Chapter 8: Pseudorandom generators, pp. 284–348, and Appendix C.2: Pseudorandomness, pp. 490–493.
Vadhan, S. P. (2012). "Pseudorandomness". Foundations and Trends in Theoretical Computer Science. 7 (1–3): 1–336. doi:10.1561/0400000010.
External links
HotBits: Genuine random numbers, generated by radioactive decay
Using and Creating Cryptographic-Quality Random Numbers
In RFC 4086, the use of pseudorandom number sequences in cryptography is discussed at length.
References
^ a b George Johnson (June 12, 2001). "Connoisseurs of Chaos Offer A Valuable Product: Randomness". The New York Times.
^ S. P. Vadhan (2012). Pseudorandomness. pseudorandomness, the theory of efficiently generating objects that "look random" despite being constructed using little or no randomness
^ Mark Ward (August 9, 2015). "Web's random numbers are too weak, researchers warn". BBC.
^ Jonathan Knudson (January 1998). "Javatalk: Horseshoes, hand grenades and random numbers". Sun Server. pp. 16–17.
^ a b "A Million Random Digits". RAND Corporation. January 2001. Retrieved March 30, 2017.
^ Oded Goldreich. Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective. Cambridge University Press. 2008.
^ "Pseudorandomness" (PDF).
^ D. Eastlake, 3rd; J. Schiller; S. Crocker (June 2005). Randomness Requirements for Security. doi:10.17487/RFC4086. BCP 106. RFC 4086.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Best Common Practice. Obsoletes RFC 1750. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"statistically random","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_randomness"},{"link_name":"deterministic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RandomArticle_Phys.NYT2001-1"}],"text":"Appearing random but actually being generated by a deterministic, causal processA pseudorandom sequence of numbers is one that appears to be statistically random, despite having been produced by a completely deterministic and repeatable process.[1] Simply put, the problem is that many of the sources of randomness available to humans (such as rolling dice) rely on physical processes not readily available to computer programs.","title":"Pseudorandomness"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"random sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"Monte Carlo methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_methods"},{"link_name":"board games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_game"},{"link_name":"gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"radioactive decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay"},{"link_name":"quantum measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_measurement"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"computer algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"pseudorandom number generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_number_generator"},{"link_name":"random seed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_seed"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"keystrokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystroke_dynamics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RandomArticle_Phys.NYT2001-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RandomArticle.SS1998-4"}],"text":"The generation of random numbers has many uses, such as for random sampling, Monte Carlo methods, board games, or gambling. In physics, however, most processes, such as gravitational acceleration, are deterministic, meaning that they always produce the same outcome from the same starting point. Some notable exceptions are radioactive decay and quantum measurement, which are both modeled as being truly random processes in the underlying physics. Since these processes are not practical sources of random numbers, pseudorandom numbers are used, which ideally have the unpredictability of a truly random sequence, despite being generated by a deterministic process.[2]In many applications, the deterministic process is a computer algorithm called a pseudorandom number generator, which must first be provided with a number called a random seed. Since the same seed will yield the same sequence every time, it is important that the seed be well chosen and kept hidden, especially in security applications, where the pattern's unpredictability is a critical feature.[3]In some cases where it is important for the sequence to be demonstrably unpredictable, physical sources of random numbers have been used, such as radioactive decay, atmospheric electromagnetic noise harvested from a radio tuned between stations, or intermixed timings of keystrokes.[1][4] The time investment needed to obtain these numbers leads to a compromise: using some of these physics readings as a seed for a pseudorandom number generator.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dice"},{"link_name":"cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playing_cards"},{"link_name":"roulette wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roulette"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"L.H.C. Tippett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.H.C._Tippett"},{"link_name":"RAND Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAND_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Million_Random_Digits_with_100,000_Normal_Deviates"}],"text":"Before modern computing, researchers requiring random numbers would either generate them through various means (dice, cards, roulette wheels,[5] etc.) or use existing random number tables.The first attempt to provide researchers with a ready supply of random digits was in 1927, when the Cambridge University Press published a table of 41,600 digits developed by L.H.C. Tippett. In 1947, the RAND Corporation generated numbers by the electronic simulation of a roulette wheel;[5] the results were eventually published in 1955 as A Million Random Digits with 100,000 Normal Deviates.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"theoretical computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"},{"link_name":"distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"computational complexity theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"statistical distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_variation_distance"},{"link_name":"uniform distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_distribution_(discrete)"},{"link_name":"pseudorandom generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_generator"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"In theoretical computer science, a distribution is pseudorandom against a class of adversaries if no adversary from the class can distinguish it from the uniform distribution with significant advantage.[6]\nThis notion of pseudorandomness is studied in computational complexity theory and has applications to cryptography.Formally, let S and T be finite sets and let F = {f: S → T} be a class of functions. A distribution D over S is ε-pseudorandom against F if for every f in F, the statistical distance between the distributions \n \n \n \n f\n (\n X\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(X)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n f\n (\n Y\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(Y)}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n is sampled from D and \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n is sampled from the uniform distribution on S, is at most ε.In typical applications, the class F describes a model of computation with bounded resources and one is interested in designing distributions D with certain properties that are pseudorandom against F. The distribution D is often specified as the output of a pseudorandom generator.[7]","title":"In computational complexity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Art of Computer Programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Computer_Programming"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-89684-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-89684-2"},{"link_name":"Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=EuguvA-w5OEC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-88473-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-88473-0"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1561/0400000010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1561%2F0400000010"}],"text":"Donald E. Knuth (1997) The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd edition). Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-89684-2\nGoldreich, Oded (2008). Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88473-0. See especially Chapter 8: Pseudorandom generators, pp. 284–348, and Appendix C.2: Pseudorandomness, pp. 490–493.\nVadhan, S. P. (2012). \"Pseudorandomness\". Foundations and Trends in Theoretical Computer Science. 7 (1–3): 1–336. doi:10.1561/0400000010.","title":"Further reading"}] | [] | [{"title":"Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator"},{"title":"List of random number generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_random_number_generators"},{"title":"Pseudorandom binary sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_binary_sequence"},{"title":"Pseudorandom ensemble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_ensemble"},{"title":"Pseudorandom number generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_number_generator"},{"title":"Low-discrepancy sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-discrepancy_sequence"},{"title":"Random number generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_number_generation"},{"title":"Pseudorandom noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_noise"}] | [{"reference":"Goldreich, Oded (2008). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SonicWALL | SonicWall | ["1 History","2 References"] | American cybersecurity company
SonicWall IncCompany typePrivateIndustryNetwork security, security appliances, Internet security, WAN optimizationFoundedAugust 1991HeadquartersMilpitas, CaliforniaKey peopleBob VanKirk (President & CEO)Bill Conner (Executive Chairman of the Board)ProductsNext-generation firewall; UTM; firewalls; virtual firewall; VPN; wireless security; SD-WAN; zero-trust security; security appliance filtering spam, spyware, viruses and other malwareOwnerFrancisco Partners and Elliott ManagementNumber of employees1600 (April 2020)Websitewww.sonicwall.com
SonicWall is an American cybersecurity company that sells a range of Internet appliances primarily directed at content control and network security. These include devices providing services for network firewalls, unified threat management (UTM), virtual private networks (VPNs), virtual firewalls, SD-WAN, cloud security and anti-spam for email. The company also markets information subscription services related to its products. The company also assists in solving problems surrounding compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI-DSS).
Originally a private company headquartered in Silicon Valley, it went public in 1999, before delisting in 2010. On March 13, 2012, USA Today said that Dell had announced its intent to acquire SonicWall, which then had 130 patents and 950 employees. Dell's acquisition of SonicWall became official on May 9, 2012.
On June 20, 2016, Dell sold SonicWall (part of its Dell Software division) to private equity firms Francisco Partners and Elliott Management.
History
In 1991, Brothers Sreekanth Ravi and Sudhakar Ravi founded the company under the name Sonic Systems to develop Ethernet and Fast Ethernet cards, hubs and bridges for the Apple market.
In the late 1990s, the company released a security product initially called Interpol and later branded SonicWALL, a dedicated hardware appliance with firewall and VPN software intended for the small-business market. As sales for security appliances rapidly accelerated, the company exited the Apple add-on networking business and refocused exclusively as a network security company.
In late 1999, the company changed its name from Sonic Systems to SonicWALL, Inc. to represent the shift to network security, and in November 1999 SonicWall went public on the Nasdaq with the symbol SNWL.
In 2001, SonicWall upgraded its Global Management System (GMS) software to manage more VPN devices.
Matthew T. Medeiros (formerly of Philips Components) became CEO in March 2003. SonicWall has acquired several companies during its existence, often expanding its product line in the process. In 2005, SonicWall announced the acquisition of enKoo, and in 2007, SonicWall announced the acquisition of Aventail Corporation.
On July 23, 2010, SonicWall announced that it had completed its merger with affiliates of an investor group led by Thoma Bravo, LLC, which included the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan through its private investor department, Teachers' Private Capital. After the merger, SonicWall was delisted from NASDAQ.
On March 13, 2012, Dell announced that they had signed a definitive agreement to acquire SonicWall.
On May 20, 2016, Dell announced the sale of Dell Software, which included SonicWall, to private equity firms Francisco Partners and Elliott Management.
In March 2021, the SonicWall SecureFirst partner program received a five-star rating in the 2021 CRN Partner Program Guide.
On January 22, 2021, SonicWall said it was attacked by "highly sophisticated threat actors" in a potential zero-day attack on certain SonicWall secure remote access products. On January 25, former lulzsec hacker Darren Martyn announced exploits against old VPN vulnerabilities. These exploits and the January 2021 attack were unrelated; SonicWall confirmed that the Martyn exploits were patched in 2015.
On January 7, 2022, SonicWall said that some of its email security and firewall products were hit by the Y2k22 bug and released patches after a few days.
On July 21, 2022, SonicWall announced that former President and CEO Bill Conner would take on the role of Executive Chairman of the Board. Former SonicWall Chief Revenue Officer Bob VanKirk was named President and CEO.
References
^ SEC – SONICWALL INC (FORM 10-K)
^ a b "SNWL: Profile for SonicWALL, Inc". Yahoo!. 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
^ "SonicWall PCI Compliance Case Study" (PDF). SonicWall. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
^ Perez, Sarah (2012-03-13). "As Dell Shifts To Software & Services, Announces Plans To Buy SonicWall". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
^ USA Today, page B1, published March 14, 2008, "Dell buys security specialist SonicWall"
^ "Dell completes acquisition SonicWall". Businesswire.com. May 9, 2012.
^ a b "Francisco Partners and Elliott Management to Acquire the Dell Software Group". www.sonicwall.com. Archived from the original on 2016-06-23.
^ a b "Corporate Information". SonicWall. 1999. Archived from the original on 1999-05-04. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
^ "SonicWall IPO Should Make Noise". Ecommerce Times. 1999. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
^
Greene, Tim (30 July 2001). "SonicWall boosts VPN software". Network World. Vol. 18, no. 31. IDG Network World Inc (published 2001-07-30). p. 8. ISSN 0887-7661. Retrieved 2015-02-03. Global Management System (GMS) 2.0 lets users manage up to 10,000 pieces of SonicWall VPN hardware, a tenfold increase .
^ "SonicWall Company Officers — Reuters". Reuters. 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
^ "News Archive Search of "SonicWall acquisition" including frequency chart". 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
^ "Analysis of SonicWall's acquisition of enKoo". 29 November 2005.
^ "SonicWall, Inc. to Acquire Aventail Corporation". PR Newswire. 2007. Retrieved 2014-04-25.
^ "SonicWALL Completes Merger With Thoma Bravo and Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan - Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan". www.otpp.com. Retrieved 2020-06-03.
^ Worthen, Ben; Sherr, Ian (2012-03-13). "Dell to Buy IT-Security Company SonicWall — WSJ.com". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
^ "2021 Partner Program Guide Details". CRN. Retrieved 2021-04-02.
^ "SonicWall says it was hacked using zero-days in its own products". ZDNet.
^ "SonicWall Says It Was Victim of 'Sophisticated' Hack". Bloomberg.com. 23 January 2021.
^ "Security Notice: Update on SMA 100 Series Product Investigation". SonicWall. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
^ "Former LulzSec Hacker Releases VPN Exploit Used to Hack Hacking Team". www.vice.com. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 2021-01-27.
^ "Twitter: SonicWall Confirms Patch for 2015 Vulnerability". Twitter.com. 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
^ "SonicWall: Y2K22 bug hits Email Security, firewall products". BleepingComputer. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ Harsh (2022-01-10). "SonicWall Releases Patches for Critical Y2K22 Bug". Firewall Authority. Retrieved 2022-01-11.
^ "SonicWall Accelerates Next Phase of Growth While Continuing to Drive Record Performance". SonicWall. Retrieved 2022-08-01. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cybersecurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersecurity"},{"link_name":"content control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content-control_software"},{"link_name":"network security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_security"},{"link_name":"network firewalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(networking)"},{"link_name":"unified threat management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_threat_management"},{"link_name":"virtual private networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"virtual firewalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_firewalls&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SD-WAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SD-WAN"},{"link_name":"cloud security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_Security"},{"link_name":"anti-spam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-spam"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-YFinance_profile-2"},{"link_name":"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Insurance_Portability_and_Accountability_Act"},{"link_name":"Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payment_Card_Industry_Data_Security_Standard"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Silicon Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley"},{"link_name":"USA Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Today"},{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Dell Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Software"},{"link_name":"Francisco Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Partners"},{"link_name":"Elliott Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Management"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FranciscoPartners_Press_Release-7"}],"text":"SonicWall is an American cybersecurity company that sells a range of Internet appliances primarily directed at content control and network security. These include devices providing services for network firewalls, unified threat management (UTM), virtual private networks (VPNs), virtual firewalls, SD-WAN, cloud security and anti-spam for email. The company also markets information subscription services related to its products.[2] The company also assists in solving problems surrounding compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) and the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI-DSS).[3]Originally a private company headquartered in Silicon Valley, it went public in 1999, before delisting in 2010. On March 13, 2012, USA Today said that Dell had announced its intent to acquire SonicWall, which then had 130 patents and 950 employees.[4] Dell's acquisition of SonicWall became official on May 9, 2012.[5][6]On June 20, 2016, Dell sold SonicWall (part of its Dell Software division) to private equity firms Francisco Partners and Elliott Management.[7]","title":"SonicWall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"Fast Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-YFinance_profile-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archiveorg_corpinfo-8"},{"link_name":"VPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archiveorg_corpinfo-8"},{"link_name":"Nasdaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasdaq"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ETimes_IPO-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuters_Officers-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archive_acquisitions-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-enkoo-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aventail-14"},{"link_name":"Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Teachers%27_Pension_Plan"},{"link_name":"Teachers' Private Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachers%27_Private_Capital"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Dell Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Software"},{"link_name":"Francisco Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Partners"},{"link_name":"Elliott Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Management"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FranciscoPartners_Press_Release-7"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"zero-day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-day_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"lulzsec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lulzsec"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Y2k22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y2k22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Bill Conner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Conner"},{"link_name":"Chief Revenue Officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_revenue_officer"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"In 1991, Brothers Sreekanth Ravi and Sudhakar Ravi founded the company under the name Sonic Systems to develop Ethernet and Fast Ethernet cards, hubs and bridges for the Apple market.[2][8]In the late 1990s, the company released a security product initially called Interpol and later branded SonicWALL, a dedicated hardware appliance with firewall and VPN software intended for the small-business market. As sales for security appliances rapidly accelerated, the company exited the Apple add-on networking business and refocused exclusively as a network security company.[8]In late 1999, the company changed its name from Sonic Systems to SonicWALL, Inc. to represent the shift to network security, and in November 1999 SonicWall went public on the Nasdaq with the symbol SNWL.[9]In 2001, SonicWall upgraded its Global Management System (GMS) software to manage more VPN devices.[10]Matthew T. Medeiros (formerly of Philips Components) became CEO in March 2003.[11] SonicWall has acquired several companies during its existence, often expanding its product line in the process.[12] In 2005, SonicWall announced the acquisition of enKoo,[13] and in 2007, SonicWall announced the acquisition of Aventail Corporation.[14]On July 23, 2010, SonicWall announced that it had completed its merger with affiliates of an investor group led by Thoma Bravo, LLC, which included the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan through its private investor department, Teachers' Private Capital.[15] After the merger, SonicWall was delisted from NASDAQ.On March 13, 2012, Dell announced that they had signed a definitive agreement to acquire SonicWall.[16]On May 20, 2016, Dell announced the sale of Dell Software, which included SonicWall, to private equity firms Francisco Partners and Elliott Management.[7]In March 2021, the SonicWall SecureFirst partner program received a five-star rating in the 2021 CRN Partner Program Guide.[17]On January 22, 2021, SonicWall said it was attacked by \"highly sophisticated threat actors\" in a potential zero-day attack on certain SonicWall secure remote access products.[18][19][20] On January 25, former lulzsec hacker Darren Martyn announced exploits against old VPN vulnerabilities.[21] These exploits and the January 2021 attack were unrelated; SonicWall confirmed that the Martyn exploits were patched in 2015.[22]On January 7, 2022, SonicWall said that some of its email security and firewall products were hit by the Y2k22 bug[23] and released patches after a few days.[24]On July 21, 2022, SonicWall announced that former President and CEO Bill Conner would take on the role of Executive Chairman of the Board. Former SonicWall Chief Revenue Officer Bob VanKirk was named President and CEO.[25]","title":"History"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"SNWL: Profile for SonicWALL, Inc\". Yahoo!. 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=SNWL","url_text":"\"SNWL: Profile for SonicWALL, Inc\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!","url_text":"Yahoo!"}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall PCI Compliance Case Study\" (PDF). SonicWall. 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-25. Retrieved 2011-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425091753/http://www.redzonetech.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Davco_Restaurants_SW.pdf","url_text":"\"SonicWall PCI Compliance Case Study\""},{"url":"http://www.redzonetech.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Davco_Restaurants_SW.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Perez, Sarah (2012-03-13). \"As Dell Shifts To Software & Services, Announces Plans To Buy SonicWall\". TechCrunch. Retrieved 2023-11-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://techcrunch.com/2012/03/13/as-dell-shifts-to-software-services-announces-acquisition-of-sonicwall/","url_text":"\"As Dell Shifts To Software & Services, Announces Plans To Buy SonicWall\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dell completes acquisition SonicWall\". Businesswire.com. May 9, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120509005671/en/Dell-Completes-Acquisition-Security-Leader-SonicWall","url_text":"\"Dell completes acquisition SonicWall\""}]},{"reference":"\"Francisco Partners and Elliott Management to Acquire the Dell Software Group\". www.sonicwall.com. Archived from the original on 2016-06-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160623135836/http://www.sonicwall.com/acquisitions/snwl.aspx","url_text":"\"Francisco Partners and Elliott Management to Acquire the Dell Software Group\""},{"url":"http://www.sonicwall.com/acquisitions/snwl.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Corporate Information\". SonicWall. 1999. Archived from the original on 1999-05-04. Retrieved 2010-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/19990504153444/http://www.sonicsys.com/Corporate_Info/index.html","url_text":"\"Corporate Information\""},{"url":"http://www.sonicsys.com/Corporate_Info/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall IPO Should Make Noise\". Ecommerce Times. 1999. Retrieved 2010-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/1715.html?wlc=1267835772","url_text":"\"SonicWall IPO Should Make Noise\""}]},{"reference":"Greene, Tim (30 July 2001). \"SonicWall boosts VPN software\". Network World. Vol. 18, no. 31. IDG Network World Inc (published 2001-07-30). p. 8. ISSN 0887-7661. Retrieved 2015-02-03. Global Management System (GMS) 2.0 lets users manage up to 10,000 pieces of SonicWall VPN hardware, a tenfold increase [...].","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HxkEAAAAMBAJ","url_text":"\"SonicWall boosts VPN software\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0887-7661","url_text":"0887-7661"}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall Company Officers — Reuters\". Reuters. 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/finance/stocks/companyOfficers?symbol=SNWL.O","url_text":"\"SonicWall Company Officers — Reuters\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"}]},{"reference":"\"News Archive Search of \"SonicWall acquisition\" including frequency chart\". 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/archivesearch?um=1&cf=all&ned=us&hl=en&q=SonicWall+acquisition&cf=all","url_text":"\"News Archive Search of \"SonicWall acquisition\" including frequency chart\""}]},{"reference":"\"Analysis of SonicWall's acquisition of enKoo\". 29 November 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.networkworld.com/article/857402/lan-wan-analysis-of-sonicwall-s-acquisition-of-enkoo.html","url_text":"\"Analysis of SonicWall's acquisition of enKoo\""}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall, Inc. to Acquire Aventail Corporation\". PR Newswire. 2007. Retrieved 2014-04-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/sonicwall-inc-to-acquire-aventail-corporation-58035117.html","url_text":"\"SonicWall, Inc. to Acquire Aventail Corporation\""}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWALL Completes Merger With Thoma Bravo and Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan - Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan\". www.otpp.com. Retrieved 2020-06-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.otpp.com/news/article/-/article/23727","url_text":"\"SonicWALL Completes Merger With Thoma Bravo and Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan - Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan\""}]},{"reference":"Worthen, Ben; Sherr, Ian (2012-03-13). \"Dell to Buy IT-Security Company SonicWall — WSJ.com\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 13 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304450004577279201767451444","url_text":"\"Dell to Buy IT-Security Company SonicWall — WSJ.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"2021 Partner Program Guide Details\". CRN. Retrieved 2021-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.crn.com/partner-program-guide/ppg2021-details.htm","url_text":"\"2021 Partner Program Guide Details\""}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall says it was hacked using zero-days in its own products\". ZDNet.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/sonicwall-says-it-was-hacked-using-zero-days-in-its-own-products/","url_text":"\"SonicWall says it was hacked using zero-days in its own products\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZDNet","url_text":"ZDNet"}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall Says It Was Victim of 'Sophisticated' Hack\". Bloomberg.com. 23 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-01-23/cyber-firm-sonicwall-says-it-was-victim-of-sophisticated-hack","url_text":"\"SonicWall Says It Was Victim of 'Sophisticated' Hack\""}]},{"reference":"\"Security Notice: Update on SMA 100 Series Product Investigation\". SonicWall. Retrieved 2021-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sonicwall.com/blog/2021/01/security-notice-update-on-sma-100-series-product-investigation/","url_text":"\"Security Notice: Update on SMA 100 Series Product Investigation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Former LulzSec Hacker Releases VPN Exploit Used to Hack Hacking Team\". www.vice.com. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 2021-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vice.com/en/article/dy85nz/former-lulzsec-hacker-releases-vpn-zero-day-used-to-hack-hacking-team","url_text":"\"Former LulzSec Hacker Releases VPN Exploit Used to Hack Hacking Team\""}]},{"reference":"\"Twitter: SonicWall Confirms Patch for 2015 Vulnerability\". Twitter.com. 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://twitter.com/SonicWall/status/1354064817557024773","url_text":"\"Twitter: SonicWall Confirms Patch for 2015 Vulnerability\""}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall: Y2K22 bug hits Email Security, firewall products\". BleepingComputer. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/sonicwall-y2k22-bug-hits-email-security-firewall-products/","url_text":"\"SonicWall: Y2K22 bug hits Email Security, firewall products\""}]},{"reference":"Harsh (2022-01-10). \"SonicWall Releases Patches for Critical Y2K22 Bug\". Firewall Authority. Retrieved 2022-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://firewallauthority.com/sonicwall-releases-patches-for-critical-y2k22-bug/","url_text":"\"SonicWall Releases Patches for Critical Y2K22 Bug\""}]},{"reference":"\"SonicWall Accelerates Next Phase of Growth While Continuing to Drive Record Performance\". SonicWall. Retrieved 2022-08-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sonicwall.com/news/sonicwall-accelerates-next-phase-of-growth-while-continuing-to-drive-record-performance/","url_text":"\"SonicWall Accelerates Next Phase of Growth While Continuing to Drive Record Performance\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.sonicwall.com/","external_links_name":"www.sonicwall.com"},{"Link":"http://www.faqs.org/sec-filings/100305/SONICWALL-INC_10-K/","external_links_name":"SEC – SONICWALL INC (FORM 10-K)"},{"Link":"https://finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=SNWL","external_links_name":"\"SNWL: Profile for SonicWALL, Inc\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425091753/http://www.redzonetech.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Davco_Restaurants_SW.pdf","external_links_name":"\"SonicWall PCI Compliance Case Study\""},{"Link":"http://www.redzonetech.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Davco_Restaurants_SW.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2012/03/13/as-dell-shifts-to-software-services-announces-acquisition-of-sonicwall/","external_links_name":"\"As Dell Shifts To Software & Services, Announces Plans To Buy SonicWall\""},{"Link":"http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120509005671/en/Dell-Completes-Acquisition-Security-Leader-SonicWall","external_links_name":"\"Dell completes acquisition SonicWall\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160623135836/http://www.sonicwall.com/acquisitions/snwl.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Francisco Partners and Elliott Management to Acquire the Dell Software Group\""},{"Link":"http://www.sonicwall.com/acquisitions/snwl.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/19990504153444/http://www.sonicsys.com/Corporate_Info/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Corporate Information\""},{"Link":"http://www.sonicsys.com/Corporate_Info/index.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/1715.html?wlc=1267835772","external_links_name":"\"SonicWall IPO Should Make Noise\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HxkEAAAAMBAJ","external_links_name":"\"SonicWall boosts VPN software\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0887-7661","external_links_name":"0887-7661"},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/finance/stocks/companyOfficers?symbol=SNWL.O","external_links_name":"\"SonicWall Company Officers — Reuters\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/archivesearch?um=1&cf=all&ned=us&hl=en&q=SonicWall+acquisition&cf=all","external_links_name":"\"News Archive Search of \"SonicWall acquisition\" including frequency chart\""},{"Link":"https://www.networkworld.com/article/857402/lan-wan-analysis-of-sonicwall-s-acquisition-of-enkoo.html","external_links_name":"\"Analysis of SonicWall's acquisition of enKoo\""},{"Link":"http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/sonicwall-inc-to-acquire-aventail-corporation-58035117.html","external_links_name":"\"SonicWall, Inc. to Acquire Aventail Corporation\""},{"Link":"https://www.otpp.com/news/article/-/article/23727","external_links_name":"\"SonicWALL Completes Merger With Thoma Bravo and Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign-extended | Sign extension | ["1 Zero extension","2 See also","3 References","4 Notes"] | Operation in computer arithmetic
Sign extension (sometimes abbreviated as sext, particularly in mnemonics) is the operation, in computer arithmetic, of increasing the number of bits of a binary number while preserving the number's sign (positive/negative) and value. This is done by appending digits to the most significant side of the number, following a procedure dependent on the particular signed number representation used.
For example, if six bits are used to represent the number "00 1010" (decimal positive 10) and the sign extends operation increases the word length to 16 bits, then the new representation is simply "0000 0000 0000 1010". Thus, both the value and the fact that the value was positive are maintained.
If ten bits are used to represent the value "11 1111 0001" (decimal negative 15) using two's complement, and this is sign extended to 16 bits, the new representation is "1111 1111 1111 0001". Thus, by padding the left side with ones, the negative sign and the value of the original number are maintained.
In the Intel x86 instruction set, for example, there are two ways of doing sign extension:
using the instructions cbw, cwd, cwde, and cdq: convert the byte to word, word to doubleword, word to extended doubleword, and doubleword to quadword, respectively (in the x86 context a byte has 8 bits, a word 16 bits, a doubleword and extended doubleword 32 bits, and a quadword 64 bits);
using one of the sign extended moves, accomplished by the movsx ("move with sign extension") family of instructions.
Zero extension
A similar concept is zero extension (sometimes abbreviated as zext). In a move or convert operation, zero extension refers to setting the high bits of the destination to zero, rather than setting them to a copy of the most significant bit of the source. If the source of the operation is an unsigned number, then zero extension is usually the correct way to move it to a larger field while preserving its numeric value, while sign extension is correct for signed numbers.
In the x86 and x64 instruction sets, the movzx instruction ("move with zero extension") performs this function. For example, movzx ebx, al copies a byte from the al register to the low-order byte of ebx and then fills the remaining bytes of ebx with zeroes.
On x64, most instructions that write to the entirety of lower 32 bits of any of the general-purpose registers will zero the upper half of the destination register. For example, the instruction mov eax, 1234 will clear the upper 32 bits of the rax register.
See also
Arithmetic shift and logical shift
References
Mano, Morris M.; Kime, Charles R. (2004). Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals (3rd ed.), pp 453. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-140539-X.
Notes
^ RAX - 64 bit accumulator | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mnemonics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic_(assembly_language)"},{"link_name":"computer arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"binary number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number"},{"link_name":"sign (positive/negative)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"most significant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_significant_bit"},{"link_name":"signed number representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_number_representation"},{"link_name":"word length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(data_type)"},{"link_name":"two's complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"x86 instruction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_instruction_listings"}],"text":"Sign extension (sometimes abbreviated as sext, particularly in mnemonics) is the operation, in computer arithmetic, of increasing the number of bits of a binary number while preserving the number's sign (positive/negative) and value. This is done by appending digits to the most significant side of the number, following a procedure dependent on the particular signed number representation used.For example, if six bits are used to represent the number \"00 1010\" (decimal positive 10) and the sign extends operation increases the word length to 16 bits, then the new representation is simply \"0000 0000 0000 1010\". Thus, both the value and the fact that the value was positive are maintained.If ten bits are used to represent the value \"11 1111 0001\" (decimal negative 15) using two's complement, and this is sign extended to 16 bits, the new representation is \"1111 1111 1111 0001\". Thus, by padding the left side with ones, the negative sign and the value of the original number are maintained.In the Intel x86 instruction set, for example, there are two ways of doing sign extension:using the instructions cbw, cwd, cwde, and cdq: convert the byte to word, word to doubleword, word to extended doubleword, and doubleword to quadword, respectively (in the x86 context a byte has 8 bits, a word 16 bits, a doubleword and extended doubleword 32 bits, and a quadword 64 bits);\nusing one of the sign extended moves, accomplished by the movsx (\"move with sign extension\") family of instructions.","title":"Sign extension"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"A similar concept is zero extension (sometimes abbreviated as zext). In a move or convert operation, zero extension refers to setting the high bits of the destination to zero, rather than setting them to a copy of the most significant bit of the source. If the source of the operation is an unsigned number, then zero extension is usually the correct way to move it to a larger field while preserving its numeric value, while sign extension is correct for signed numbers.In the x86 and x64 instruction sets, the movzx instruction (\"move with zero extension\") performs this function. For example, movzx ebx, al copies a byte from the al register to the low-order byte of ebx and then fills the remaining bytes of ebx with zeroes.On x64, most instructions that write to the entirety of lower 32 bits of any of the general-purpose registers will zero the upper half of the destination register. For example, the instruction mov eax, 1234 will clear the upper 32 bits of the rax[a] register.","title":"Zero extension"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"RAX - 64 bit accumulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86#64-bit"}],"text":"^ RAX - 64 bit accumulator","title":"Notes"}] | [] | [{"title":"Arithmetic shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_shift"},{"title":"logical shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_shift"}] | [] | [] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-422 | RS-422 | ["1 Standard scope","2 Characteristics","3 Applications","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading"] | Standard for serial communication
RS-422
Standard
TIA/EIA-422
Physical media
Twisted pair
Network topology
Point-to-point, multi-dropped
Maximum devices
10 (1 driver and 10 receivers)
Maximum distance
1,200 meters (3,900 ft)
Mode of operation
Differential
Maximum binary rate
100 kbit/s – 10 Mbit/s
Voltage levels
−6 to +6 V (maximum voltage for each line)
Mark (1)
Negative difference
Space (0)
Positive difference
Available signals
Tx+, Tx−, Rx+, Rx− (full duplex)
Connector types
Not specified
RS-422 network with multiple receivers
RS-422, also known as TIA/EIA-422, is a technical standard originated by the Electronic Industries Alliance, first issued in 1975, that specifies electrical characteristics of a digital signaling circuit. It was meant to be the foundation of a suite of standards that would replace the older RS-232C standard with standards that offered much higher speed, better immunity from noise, and longer cable lengths. RS-422 systems can transmit data at rates as high as 10 Mbit/s, or may be sent on cables as long as 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) at lower rates. It is closely related to RS-423, which uses the same signaling systems but on a different wiring arrangement.
RS-422 specifies differential signaling, with every data line paired with a dedicated return line. It is the voltage difference between these two lines that defines the mark and space, rather than, as in RS-232, the difference in voltage between a data line and a local ground. As the ground voltage can differ at either end of the cable, this required RS-232 to use signals with voltage magnitudes greater than 5 volts. Moving to dedicated return lines and always defining ground in reference to the sender allows RS-422 to use 0.4 V, allowing it to run at much higher speeds. RS-423 differs primarily in that it has a single return pin instead of one for each data pin.
Standard scope
RS-422 is the common short form title of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard ANSI/TIA/EIA-422-B Electrical Characteristics of Balanced Voltage Differential Interface Circuits and its international equivalent ITU-T Recommendation T-REC-V.11, also known as X.27. These technical standards specify the electrical characteristics of the balanced voltage digital interface circuit. RS-422 provides for data transmission, using balanced, or differential, signaling, with unidirectional/non-reversible, terminated or non-terminated transmission lines, point to point, or multi-drop. In contrast to EIA-485, RS-422/V.11 does not allow multiple drivers but only multiple receivers.
The first version of RS-422 was issued in 1975, with revision A issued in December 1978. Revision B, published in May 1994 was reaffirmed by the Telecommunications Industry Association in 2005.
Characteristics
Data rate versus line length chart, from RS-422 Annex A.1
Several key advantages offered by this standard include the differential receiver, a differential driver and data rates as high as 10 megabits per second at 12 meters (40 ft). Since the signal quality degrades with cable length, the maximum data rate decreases as cable length increases. Figure A.1 in the annex plotting this stops at 10 Mbit/s.
The maximum cable length is not specified in the standard, but guidance is given in its annex. (This annex is not a formal part of the standard, but is included for information purposes only.) Limitations on line length and data rate vary with the parameters of the cable length, balance, and termination, as well as the individual installation. Figure A.1 shows a maximum length of 1,200 meters (3,900 ft), but this is with a termination, and the annex discusses the fact that many applications can tolerate greater timing and amplitude distortion, and that experience has shown that the cable length may be extended to several kilometers. Conservative maximum data rates with 24AWG UTP (POTS) cable are 10 Mbit/s at 12 m (39 ft) to 90 kbit/s at 1,200 m (3,900 ft), as shown in the figure A.1. This figure is a conservative guide based on empirical data, not a limit imposed by the standard.
RS-422 specifies the electrical characteristics of a single balanced signal. The standard was written to be referenced by other standards that specify the complete DTE/DCE interface for applications which require a balanced voltage circuit to transmit data. These other standards would define protocols, connectors, pin assignments and functions. Standards such as EIA-530 (DB-25 connector) and EIA-449 (DC-37 connector) use RS-422 electrical signals. Some RS-422 devices have 4 screw terminals for pairs of wire, with one pair used for data in each direction.
RS-422 cannot implement a true multi-point communications network, such as with EIA-485, since there can be only one driver on each pair of wires. However, one driver can fan-out to up to ten receivers.
RS-422 can interoperate with interfaces designed to MIL-STD-188-114B, but they are not identical. RS-422 uses a nominal 0 to 5-volt signal, while MIL-STD-188-114B uses a signal symmetric about 0 V. However, the tolerance for common-mode voltage in both specifications allows them to interoperate. Care must be taken with the termination network.
EIA-423 is a similar specification for unbalanced signaling (RS-423).
When used in relation to communications wiring, RS-422 wiring refers to cable made of 2 sets of twisted pair, often with each pair being shielded, and a ground wire. While a double-pair cable may be practical for many RS-422 applications, the RS-422 specification only defines one signal path and does not assign any function to it. Any complete cable assembly with connectors should be labeled with the specification that defined the signal function and mechanical layout of the connector, such as RS-449.
Applications
One of the most widespread uses of RS-422 was on the early Macintosh computers. This was implemented in a multi-pin connector that had enough pins to support the majority of the common RS-232 pins; the first models used a 9-pin D connector, but this was quickly replaced by a mini-DIN-8 connector. The ports could be put into either RS-232 or RS-422 mode, which changes the behavior of some of the pins while turning others on or off completely. These connectors are used to support RS-232 devices like modems, AppleTalk networking, RS-422 printers, and other peripherals. Two such ports were part of early Apple Macintosh series designs until they were replaced, along with ADB ports, by Universal Serial Bus on the iMac in 1998.
RS-422 is a common transport mechanism for RS-232 extenders. These consist of RS-232 ports on either end of an RS-422 connection.
Before hard-disk-based playout and editing systems were used, broadcast automation systems and post-production linear editing facilities used RS-422A to remotely control the players/recorders located in the central apparatus room. In most cases the Sony 9-pin connection was used, which makes use of a DE-9 connector. This is the de facto industry standard connector for RS-422, which is still found on broadcast equipment today.
See also
Differential TTL
Electronic Industries Alliance
Fieldbus
List of network buses
Profibus
References
^ "EIA-423". foldoc.org. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
^ "V.11 : Electrical characteristics for balanced double-current interchange circuits operating at data signalling rates up to 10 Mbit/s". International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
^ TIA/EIA STANDARD, Electrical Characteristics of Balanced Voltage Digital Interface Circuits, TIA/EIA-422-B, May 1994
^ Douglas A. Cassell, Microcomputers and Modern Control Engineering, Reston Publishing Company, 1983 ISBN 0835943658 page 569
^ "First Macintosh Press Release". stanford.edu. 1984. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
^ Sony 9-Pin Remote Protocol.
Further reading
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Programming:Serial Data Communications
"Maxim IC Application Note 723 'Selecting and Using RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data Standards'" (PDF). MaximIntegrated.com. Maxim Integrated Products. December 2000.
"Texas Instruments Application Report '422 and 485 Standards Overview and System Configurations'" (PDF). Focus.TI.com. Texas Instruments. June 2002.
"Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B 'Comparing Bus Solutions'" (PDF). Focus.TI.com. Texas Instruments. October 2009.
vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral
System bus
Front-side bus
Back-side bus
Daisy chain
Control bus
Address bus
Bus contention
Bus mastering
Network on a chip
Plug and play
List of bus bandwidths
Standards
SS-50 bus
S-100 bus
Multibus
Unibus
VAXBI
MBus
STD Bus
SMBus
Q-Bus
Europe Card Bus
ISA
STEbus
Zorro II
Zorro III
CAMAC
FASTBUS
LPC
HP Precision Bus
EISA
VME
VXI
VXS
NuBus
TURBOchannel
MCA
SBus
VLB
HP GSC bus
InfiniBand
Ethernet
UPA
PCI
PCI Extended (PCI-X)
PXI
PCI Express (PCIe)
AGP
Compute Express Link (CXL)
Direct Media Interface (DMI)
RapidIO
Intel QuickPath Interconnect
NVLink
HyperTransport
Infinity Fabric
Intel Ultra Path Interconnect
Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI)
SpaceWire
Storage
ST-506
ESDI
IPI
SMD
Parallel ATA (PATA)
Bus and Tag
DSSI
HIPPI
Serial ATA (SATA)
SCSI
Parallel
SAS
ESCON
Fibre Channel
SSA
SATAe
PCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface)
Peripheral
Apple Desktop Bus
Atari SIO
DCB
Commodore bus
HP-IL
HIL
MIDI
RS-232
RS-422
RS-423
RS-485
Lightning
DMX512-A
IEEE-488 (GPIB)
IEEE-1284 (parallel port)
IEEE-1394 (FireWire)
UNI/O
1-Wire
I²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus)
I3C
SPI
D²B
Parallel SCSI
Profibus
USB
Camera Link
External PCIe
Thunderbolt
Audio
ADAT Lightpipe
AES3
Intel HD Audio
I²S
MADI
McASP
S/PDIF
TOSLINK
Portable
PC Card
ExpressCard
Embedded
Multidrop bus
CoreConnect
AMBA (AXI)
Wishbone
SLIMbus
Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RS-422_Network.svg"},{"link_name":"Electronic Industries Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Industries_Alliance"},{"link_name":"RS-232C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232C"},{"link_name":"Mbit/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitrate"},{"link_name":"RS-423","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-423"},{"link_name":"differential signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"RS-422 network with multiple receiversRS-422, also known as TIA/EIA-422, is a technical standard originated by the Electronic Industries Alliance, first issued in 1975, that specifies electrical characteristics of a digital signaling circuit. It was meant to be the foundation of a suite of standards that would replace the older RS-232C standard with standards that offered much higher speed, better immunity from noise, and longer cable lengths. RS-422 systems can transmit data at rates as high as 10 Mbit/s, or may be sent on cables as long as 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) at lower rates. It is closely related to RS-423, which uses the same signaling systems but on a different wiring arrangement.RS-422 specifies differential signaling, with every data line paired with a dedicated return line. It is the voltage difference between these two lines that defines the mark and space, rather than, as in RS-232, the difference in voltage between a data line and a local ground. As the ground voltage can differ at either end of the cable, this required RS-232 to use signals with voltage magnitudes greater than 5 volts. Moving to dedicated return lines and always defining ground in reference to the sender allows RS-422 to use 0.4 V, allowing it to run at much higher speeds. RS-423 differs primarily in that it has a single return pin instead of one for each data pin.[1]","title":"RS-422"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American National Standards Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardization"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-definition-3"},{"link_name":"balanced, or differential, signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"terminated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_termination"},{"link_name":"EIA-485","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIA-485"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Telecommunications Industry Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_Industry_Association"}],"text":"RS-422 is the common short form title of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard ANSI/TIA/EIA-422-B Electrical Characteristics of Balanced Voltage Differential Interface Circuits and its international equivalent ITU-T Recommendation T-REC-V.11,[2] also known as X.27. These technical standards specify the electrical characteristics of the balanced voltage digital interface circuit.[3] RS-422 provides for data transmission, using balanced, or differential, signaling, with unidirectional/non-reversible, terminated or non-terminated transmission lines, point to point, or multi-drop. In contrast to EIA-485, RS-422/V.11 does not allow multiple drivers but only multiple receivers.The first version of RS-422 was issued in 1975,[4] with revision A issued in December 1978. Revision B, published in May 1994 was reaffirmed by the Telecommunications Industry Association in 2005.","title":"Standard scope"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RS-422_CableLength-DataRate.svg"},{"link_name":"Mbit/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitrate"},{"link_name":"AWG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AWG"},{"link_name":"UTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_pair#Unshielded_twisted_pair"},{"link_name":"POTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_old_telephone_service"},{"link_name":"EIA-530","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIA-530"},{"link_name":"DB-25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DB-25"},{"link_name":"EIA-449","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIA-449"},{"link_name":"DC-37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-subminiature"},{"link_name":"fan-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan-out"},{"link_name":"MIL-STD-188-114B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIL-STD-188"},{"link_name":"volt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"EIA-423","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIA-423"},{"link_name":"RS-423","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-423"},{"link_name":"twisted pair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_pair"},{"link_name":"RS-449","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-449"}],"text":"Data rate versus line length chart, from RS-422 Annex A.1Several key advantages offered by this standard include the differential receiver, a differential driver and data rates as high as 10 megabits per second at 12 meters (40 ft). Since the signal quality degrades with cable length, the maximum data rate decreases as cable length increases. Figure A.1 in the annex plotting this stops at 10 Mbit/s.The maximum cable length is not specified in the standard, but guidance is given in its annex. (This annex is not a formal part of the standard, but is included for information purposes only.) Limitations on line length and data rate vary with the parameters of the cable length, balance, and termination, as well as the individual installation. Figure A.1 shows a maximum length of 1,200 meters (3,900 ft), but this is with a termination, and the annex discusses the fact that many applications can tolerate greater timing and amplitude distortion, and that experience has shown that the cable length may be extended to several kilometers. Conservative maximum data rates with 24AWG UTP (POTS) cable are 10 Mbit/s at 12 m (39 ft) to 90 kbit/s at 1,200 m (3,900 ft), as shown in the figure A.1. This figure is a conservative guide based on empirical data, not a limit imposed by the standard.RS-422 specifies the electrical characteristics of a single balanced signal. The standard was written to be referenced by other standards that specify the complete DTE/DCE interface for applications which require a balanced voltage circuit to transmit data. These other standards would define protocols, connectors, pin assignments and functions. Standards such as EIA-530 (DB-25 connector) and EIA-449 (DC-37 connector) use RS-422 electrical signals. Some RS-422 devices have 4 screw terminals for pairs of wire, with one pair used for data in each direction.RS-422 cannot implement a true multi-point communications network, such as with EIA-485, since there can be only one driver on each pair of wires. However, one driver can fan-out to up to ten receivers.RS-422 can interoperate with interfaces designed to MIL-STD-188-114B, but they are not identical. RS-422 uses a nominal 0 to 5-volt signal, while MIL-STD-188-114B uses a signal symmetric about 0 V. However, the tolerance for common-mode voltage in both specifications allows them to interoperate. Care must be taken with the termination network.EIA-423 is a similar specification for unbalanced signaling (RS-423).When used in relation to communications wiring, RS-422 wiring refers to cable made of 2 sets of twisted pair, often with each pair being shielded, and a ground wire. While a double-pair cable may be practical for many RS-422 applications, the RS-422 specification only defines one signal path and does not assign any function to it. Any complete cable assembly with connectors should be labeled with the specification that defined the signal function and mechanical layout of the connector, such as RS-449.","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Macintosh"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"RS-232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232"},{"link_name":"D connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_connector"},{"link_name":"mini-DIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini-DIN_connector"},{"link_name":"modems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"AppleTalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AppleTalk"},{"link_name":"ADB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Desktop_Bus"},{"link_name":"Universal Serial Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus"},{"link_name":"iMac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac"},{"link_name":"broadcast automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_automation"},{"link_name":"post-production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-production"},{"link_name":"linear editing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_editing"},{"link_name":"check spelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Typo_help_inline"},{"link_name":"central apparatus room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_apparatus_room"},{"link_name":"Sony 9-pin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9-Pin_Protocol"},{"link_name":"DE-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DE-9"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"One of the most widespread uses of RS-422 was on the early Macintosh computers.[5] This was implemented in a multi-pin connector that had enough pins to support the majority of the common RS-232 pins; the first models used a 9-pin D connector, but this was quickly replaced by a mini-DIN-8 connector. The ports could be put into either RS-232 or RS-422 mode, which changes the behavior of some of the pins while turning others on or off completely. These connectors are used to support RS-232 devices like modems, AppleTalk networking, RS-422 printers, and other peripherals. Two such ports were part of early Apple Macintosh series designs until they were replaced, along with ADB ports, by Universal Serial Bus on the iMac in 1998.RS-422 is a common transport mechanism for RS-232 extenders. These consist of RS-232 ports on either end of an RS-422 connection.Before hard-disk-based playout and editing systems were used, broadcast automation systems and post-production linear editing facilities used RS-422A[check spelling] to remotely control the players/recorders located in the central apparatus room. In most cases the Sony 9-pin connection was used, which makes use of a DE-9 connector. This is the de facto industry standard connector for RS-422,[6] which is still found on broadcast equipment today.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Programming:Serial Data Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Serial_Data_Communications"},{"link_name":"\"Maxim IC Application Note 723 'Selecting and Using RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data Standards'\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pdfserv.maximintegrated.com/en/an/AN723.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report '422 and 485 Standards Overview and System Configurations'\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//focus.ti.com/lit/an/slla070d/slla070d.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B 'Comparing Bus Solutions'\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//focus.ti.com/lit/an/slla067b/slla067b.pdf"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Computer_bus"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Computer_bus"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Computer_bus"},{"link_name":"Technical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard"},{"link_name":"de facto standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto_standard"},{"link_name":"wired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_communication"},{"link_name":"computer buses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_(computing)"},{"link_name":"System bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_bus"},{"link_name":"Front-side bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front-side_bus"},{"link_name":"Back-side bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back-side_bus"},{"link_name":"Daisy chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy_chain_(electrical_engineering)"},{"link_name":"Control bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_bus"},{"link_name":"Address bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_bus"},{"link_name":"Bus contention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_contention"},{"link_name":"Bus mastering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_mastering"},{"link_name":"Network on a chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_on_a_chip"},{"link_name":"Plug and play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_and_play"},{"link_name":"List of bus bandwidths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates#Computer_buses"},{"link_name":"SS-50 bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS-50_bus"},{"link_name":"S-100 bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-100_bus"},{"link_name":"Multibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multibus"},{"link_name":"Unibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unibus"},{"link_name":"VAXBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAXBI_bus"},{"link_name":"MBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBus_(SPARC)"},{"link_name":"STD Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STD_Bus"},{"link_name":"SMBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Management_Bus"},{"link_name":"Q-Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-Bus"},{"link_name":"Europe Card Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe_Card_Bus"},{"link_name":"ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_Standard_Architecture"},{"link_name":"STEbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEbus"},{"link_name":"Zorro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_Zorro_II"},{"link_name":"Zorro III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_Zorro_III"},{"link_name":"CAMAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Automated_Measurement_and_Control"},{"link_name":"FASTBUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASTBUS"},{"link_name":"LPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Pin_Count"},{"link_name":"HP Precision Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Precision_Bus"},{"link_name":"EISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Industry_Standard_Architecture"},{"link_name":"VME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMEbus"},{"link_name":"VXI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VME_eXtensions_for_Instrumentation"},{"link_name":"VXS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VXS"},{"link_name":"NuBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NuBus"},{"link_name":"TURBOchannel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TURBOchannel"},{"link_name":"MCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Channel_architecture"},{"link_name":"SBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBus"},{"link_name":"VLB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VESA_Local_Bus"},{"link_name":"HP GSC 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port)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1284"},{"link_name":"IEEE-1394 (FireWire)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1394"},{"link_name":"UNI/O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNI/O"},{"link_name":"1-Wire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Wire"},{"link_name":"I²C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2C"},{"link_name":"ACCESS.bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACCESS.bus"},{"link_name":"PMBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Management_Bus"},{"link_name":"SMBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Management_Bus"},{"link_name":"I3C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I3C_(bus)"},{"link_name":"SPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface"},{"link_name":"D²B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61030"},{"link_name":"Parallel SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_SCSI"},{"link_name":"Profibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profibus"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"Camera Link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_Link"},{"link_name":"External PCIe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express#PCI_Express_External_Cabling"},{"link_name":"Thunderbolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderbolt_(interface)"},{"link_name":"ADAT Lightpipe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADAT_Lightpipe"},{"link_name":"AES3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AES3"},{"link_name":"Intel HD Audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_High_Definition_Audio"},{"link_name":"I²S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2S"},{"link_name":"MADI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MADI"},{"link_name":"McASP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McASP"},{"link_name":"S/PDIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/PDIF"},{"link_name":"TOSLINK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOSLINK"},{"link_name":"PC Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Card"},{"link_name":"ExpressCard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExpressCard"},{"link_name":"Multidrop bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidrop_bus"},{"link_name":"CoreConnect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoreConnect"},{"link_name":"AMBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Microcontroller_Bus_Architecture"},{"link_name":"AXI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_eXtensible_Interface"},{"link_name":"Wishbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wishbone_(computer_bus)"},{"link_name":"SLIMbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLIMbus"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_buses"}],"text":"Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Programming:Serial Data Communications\"Maxim IC Application Note 723 'Selecting and Using RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data Standards'\" (PDF). MaximIntegrated.com. Maxim Integrated Products. December 2000.\n\"Texas Instruments Application Report '422 and 485 Standards Overview and System Configurations'\" (PDF). Focus.TI.com. Texas Instruments. June 2002.\n\"Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B 'Comparing Bus Solutions'\" (PDF). Focus.TI.com. Texas Instruments. October 2009.vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral\nSystem bus\nFront-side bus\nBack-side bus\nDaisy chain\nControl bus\nAddress bus\nBus contention\nBus mastering\nNetwork on a chip\nPlug and play\nList of bus bandwidths\nStandards\nSS-50 bus\nS-100 bus\nMultibus\nUnibus\nVAXBI\nMBus\nSTD Bus\nSMBus\nQ-Bus\nEurope Card Bus\nISA\nSTEbus\nZorro II\nZorro III\nCAMAC\nFASTBUS\nLPC\nHP Precision Bus\nEISA\nVME\nVXI\nVXS\nNuBus\nTURBOchannel\nMCA\nSBus\nVLB\nHP GSC bus\nInfiniBand\nEthernet\nUPA\nPCI\nPCI Extended (PCI-X)\nPXI\nPCI Express (PCIe)\nAGP\nCompute Express Link (CXL)\nDirect Media Interface (DMI)\nRapidIO\nIntel QuickPath Interconnect\nNVLink\nHyperTransport\nInfinity Fabric\nIntel Ultra Path Interconnect\nCoherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI)\nSpaceWire\nStorage\nST-506\nESDI\nIPI\nSMD\nParallel ATA (PATA)\nBus and Tag\nDSSI\nHIPPI\nSerial ATA (SATA)\nSCSI\nParallel\nSAS\nESCON\nFibre Channel\nSSA\nSATAe\nPCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface)\nPeripheral\nApple Desktop Bus\nAtari SIO\nDCB\nCommodore bus\nHP-IL\nHIL\nMIDI\nRS-232\nRS-422\nRS-423\nRS-485\nLightning\nDMX512-A\nIEEE-488 (GPIB)\nIEEE-1284 (parallel port)\nIEEE-1394 (FireWire)\nUNI/O\n1-Wire\nI²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus)\nI3C\nSPI\nD²B\nParallel SCSI\nProfibus\nUSB\nCamera Link\nExternal PCIe\nThunderbolt\nAudio\nADAT Lightpipe\nAES3\nIntel HD Audio\nI²S\nMADI\nMcASP\nS/PDIF\nTOSLINK\nPortable\nPC Card\nExpressCard\nEmbedded\nMultidrop bus\nCoreConnect\nAMBA (AXI)\nWishbone\nSLIMbus\nInterfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"RS-422 network with multiple receivers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/RS-422_Network.svg/368px-RS-422_Network.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Data rate versus line length chart, from RS-422 Annex A.1","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/RS-422_CableLength-DataRate.svg/220px-RS-422_CableLength-DataRate.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Differential TTL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_TTL"},{"title":"Electronic Industries Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Industries_Alliance"},{"title":"Fieldbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieldbus"},{"title":"List of network buses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_network_buses"},{"title":"Profibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profibus"}] | [{"reference":"\"EIA-423\". foldoc.org. Retrieved 8 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://foldoc.org/rs-423","url_text":"\"EIA-423\""}]},{"reference":"\"V.11 : Electrical characteristics for balanced double-current interchange circuits operating at data signalling rates up to 10 Mbit/s\". International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 19 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-V.11/en","url_text":"\"V.11 : Electrical characteristics for balanced double-current interchange circuits operating at data signalling rates up to 10 Mbit/s\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union","url_text":"International Telecommunication Union"}]},{"reference":"\"First Macintosh Press Release\". stanford.edu. 1984. Retrieved 8 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/sites/mac/primary/docs/pr1.html","url_text":"\"First Macintosh Press Release\""}]},{"reference":"\"Maxim IC Application Note 723 'Selecting and Using RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data Standards'\" (PDF). MaximIntegrated.com. Maxim Integrated Products. December 2000.","urls":[{"url":"https://pdfserv.maximintegrated.com/en/an/AN723.pdf","url_text":"\"Maxim IC Application Note 723 'Selecting and Using RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data Standards'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report '422 and 485 Standards Overview and System Configurations'\" (PDF). Focus.TI.com. Texas Instruments. June 2002.","urls":[{"url":"http://focus.ti.com/lit/an/slla070d/slla070d.pdf","url_text":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report '422 and 485 Standards Overview and System Configurations'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B 'Comparing Bus Solutions'\" (PDF). Focus.TI.com. 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October 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://focus.ti.com/lit/an/slla067b/slla067b.pdf","url_text":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B 'Comparing Bus Solutions'\""}]}] | [{"Link":"http://foldoc.org/rs-423","external_links_name":"\"EIA-423\""},{"Link":"https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-V.11/en","external_links_name":"\"V.11 : Electrical characteristics for balanced double-current interchange circuits operating at data signalling rates up to 10 Mbit/s\""},{"Link":"https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/sites/mac/primary/docs/pr1.html","external_links_name":"\"First Macintosh Press Release\""},{"Link":"ftp://ftp.jurassic.nl/mirrors/ftp.sgi.com/sgi/video/rld/vidpage/s9pinnt.html","external_links_name":"Sony 9-Pin Remote Protocol"},{"Link":"https://pdfserv.maximintegrated.com/en/an/AN723.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Maxim IC Application Note 723 'Selecting and Using RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 Serial Data Standards'\""},{"Link":"http://focus.ti.com/lit/an/slla070d/slla070d.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report '422 and 485 Standards Overview and System Configurations'\""},{"Link":"http://focus.ti.com/lit/an/slla067b/slla067b.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Texas Instruments Application Report SLLA067B 'Comparing Bus Solutions'\""}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph | Phonograph | ["1 Terminology","1.1 United States","1.2 Australia","2 Early history","2.1 Phonautograph","2.2 Paleophone","2.3 The early phonographs","2.4 Early machines","2.5 Introduction of the disc record","2.6 Oldest surviving recordings","3 Improvements at the Volta Laboratory","3.1 Volta's early challenge","3.2 Volta Graphophone","3.3 Graphophone commercialization","4 Disc vs. cylinder as a recording medium","5 Dominance of the disc record","5.1 First all-transistor phonograph","6 Turntable designs","7 Arm systems","7.1 Cue lever","7.2 Linear tracking","8 Pickup systems","8.1 Optical readout","9 Stylus","10 Equalization","11 Contemporary use and models","12 See also","13 Notes","14 References","15 Further reading","16 External links"] | Device for analogue recording of sound
Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Turntable (disambiguation), Gramophone (disambiguation), Record player (disambiguation), and Tonearm (disambiguation).
For its use as a musical instrument, see Turntablism.
Not to be confused with Phonogram.
Illustration of a typical modern turntable: here showing the curved tonearm with a headshell at the end, under which lies the magnetic cartridge and its attached stylus touching down on the grooves of a black record placed on the turntable's platter
A phonograph, later called a gramophone (as a trademark since 1887, as a generic name in the UK since 1910), and since the 1940s a record player, or more recently a turntable, is a device for the mechanical and analogue reproduction of recorded sound. The sound vibration waveforms are recorded as corresponding physical deviations of a spiral groove engraved, etched, incised, or impressed into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc, called a "record". To recreate the sound, the surface is similarly rotated while a playback stylus (or "needle") traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it, faintly reproducing the recorded sound. In early acoustic phonographs, the stylus vibrated a diaphragm that produced sound waves coupled to the open air through a flaring horn, or directly to the listener's ears through stethoscope-type earphones.
Thomas Edison with his second phonograph, photographed by Levin Corbin Handy in Washington, April 1878Emile Berliner with the first gramophone he developed, in Hanover, Germany
The phonograph was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison. Phonograph use would grow the following year. Alexander Graham Bell's Volta Laboratory made several improvements in the 1880s and introduced the graphophone, including the use of wax-coated cardboard cylinders and a cutting stylus that moved from side to side in a zigzag groove around the record. In the 1890s, Emile Berliner initiated the transition from phonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the center, coining the term gramophone for disc record players, which is predominantly used in many languages. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its drive system, the stylus or needle, pickup system, and the sound and equalization systems.
The disc phonograph record was the dominant commercial audio distribution format throughout most of the 20th century, and phonographs became the first example of home audio that people owned and used at their residences. In the 1960s, the use of 8-track cartridges and cassette tapes were introduced as alternatives. By 1987, phonograph use had declined sharply due to the popularity of cassettes and the rise of the compact disc. However, records have undergone a revival since the late 2000s. This resurgence has much to do with vinyl records' sparing use of audio processing, resulting in a more natural sound on high-quality replay equipment, compared to many digital releases that are highly processed for portable players in high-noise environmental conditions. However, unlike "plug-and-play" digital audio, vinyl record players have user-serviceable parts, which require attention to tonearm alignment and the wear and choice of stylus, the most critical component affecting turntable sound.
Terminology
The terminology used to describe record-playing devices is not uniform across the English-speaking world. In modern contexts, the playback device is often referred to as a "turntable", "record player", or "record changer". Each of these terms denotes distinct items. When integrated into a DJ setup with a mixer, turntables are colloquially known as "decks". In later versions of electric phonographs, commonly known since the 1940s as record players or turntables, the movements of the stylus are transformed into an electrical signal by a transducer. This signal is then converted back into sound through a loudspeaker.
The term "phonograph", meaning "sound writing", originates from the Greek words φωνή (phonē, meaning 'sound' or 'voice') and γραφή (graphē, meaning 'writing'). Similarly, the terms "gramophone" and "graphophone" have roots in the Greek words γράμμα (gramma, meaning 'letter') and φωνή (phōnē, meaning 'voice').
In British English, "gramophone" may refer to any sound-reproducing machine that utilizes disc records. These were introduced and popularized in the UK by the Gramophone Company. Initially, "gramophone" was a proprietary trademark of the company, and any use of the name by competing disc record manufacturers was rigorously challenged in court. However, in 1910, an English court decision ruled that the term had become generic;
United States
An Edison Standard Phonograph that uses wax cylinders
In American English, "phonograph", properly specific to machines made by Edison, was sometimes used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others. But it was then considered strictly incorrect to apply it to Emile Berliner's Gramophone, a different machine that played nonrecordable discs (although Edison's original Phonograph patent included the use of discs.)
Australia
Wood engraving published in The Illustrated Australian News, depicting a public demonstration of new technology at the Royal Society of Victoria (Melbourne, Australia) on 8 August 1878.
In Australian English, "record player" was the term; "turntable" was a more technical term; "gramophone" was restricted to the old mechanical (i.e., wind-up) players; and "phonograph" was used as in British English. The "phonograph" was first demonstrated in Australia on 14 June 1878 to a meeting of the Royal Society of Victoria by the Society's Honorary Secretary, Alex Sutherland who published "The Sounds of the Consonants, as Indicated by the Phonograph" in the Society's journal in November that year. On 8 August 1878 the phonograph was publicly demonstrated at the Society's annual conversazione, along with a range of other new inventions, including the microphone.
Early history
Phonautograph
Main article: Phonautograph
The phonautograph was invented on March 25, 1857, by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville, an editor and typographer of manuscripts at a scientific publishing house in Paris. One day while editing Professor Longet's Traité de Physiologie, he happened upon that customer's engraved illustration of the anatomy of the human ear, and conceived of "the imprudent idea of photographing the word." In 1853 or 1854 (Scott cited both years) he began working on "le problème de la parole s'écrivant elle-même" ("the problem of speech writing itself"), aiming to build a device that could replicate the function of the human ear.Dictionary illustration of a phonautograph. This version uses a barrel made of plaster of Paris.
Scott coated a plate of glass with a thin layer of lampblack. He then took an acoustic trumpet, and at its tapered end affixed a thin membrane that served as the analog to the eardrum. At the center of that membrane, he attached a rigid boar's bristle approximately a centimetre long, placed so that it just grazed the lampblack. As the glass plate was slid horizontally in a well formed groove at a speed of one meter per second, a person would speak into the trumpet, causing the membrane to vibrate and the stylus to trace figures that were scratched into the lampblack. On March 25, 1857, Scott received the French patent #17,897/31,470 for his device, which he called a phonautograph. The earliest known surviving recorded sound of a human voice was conducted on April 9, 1860, when Scott recorded someone singing the song "Au Clair de la Lune" ("By the Light of the Moon") on the device. However, the device was not designed to play back sounds, as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings, which he called phonautograms. This was not the first time someone had used a device to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects, as tuning forks had been used in this way by English physicist Thomas Young in 1807. By late 1857, with support from the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, Scott's phonautograph was recording sounds with sufficient precision to be adopted by the scientific community, paving the way for the nascent science of acoustics.
The device's true significance in the history of recorded sound was not fully realized prior to March 2008, when it was discovered and resurrected in a Paris patent office by First Sounds, an informal collaborative of American audio historians, recording engineers, and sound archivists founded to make the earliest sound recordings available to the public. The phonautograms were then digitally converted by scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California, who were able to play back the recorded sounds, something Scott had never conceived of. Prior to this point, the earliest known record of a human voice was thought to be an 1877 phonograph recording by Thomas Edison. The phonautograph would play a role in the development of the gramophone, whose inventor, Emile Berliner, worked with the phonautograph in the course of developing his own device.
Paleophone
Charles Cros, a French poet and amateur scientist, is the first person known to have made the conceptual leap from recording sound as a traced line to the theoretical possibility of reproducing the sound from the tracing and then to devising a definite method for accomplishing the reproduction. On April 30, 1877, he deposited a sealed envelope containing a summary of his ideas with the French Academy of Sciences, a standard procedure used by scientists and inventors to establish priority of conception of unpublished ideas in the event of any later dispute.
An account of his invention was published on October 10, 1877, by which date Cros had devised a more direct procedure: the recording stylus could scribe its tracing through a thin coating of acid-resistant material on a metal surface and the surface could then be etched in an acid bath, producing the desired groove without the complication of an intermediate photographic procedure. The author of this article called the device a phonographe, but Cros himself favored the word paleophone, sometimes rendered in French as voix du passé ('voice of the past').
Cros was a poet of meager means, not in a position to pay a machinist to build a working model, and largely content to bequeath his ideas to the public domain free of charge and let others reduce them to practice, but after the earliest reports of Edison's presumably independent invention crossed the Atlantic he had his sealed letter of April 30 opened and read at the December 3, 1877 meeting of the French Academy of Sciences, claiming due scientific credit for priority of conception.
Throughout the first decade (1890–1900) of commercial production of the earliest crude disc records, the direct acid-etch method first invented by Cros was used to create the metal master discs, but Cros was not around to claim any credit or to witness the humble beginnings of the eventually rich phonographic library he had foreseen. He had died in 1888 at the age of 45.
The early phonographs
Patent drawing for Edison's phonograph, May 18, 1880
Thomas Edison conceived the principle of recording and reproducing sound between May and July 1877 as a byproduct of his efforts to "play back" recorded telegraph messages and to automate speech sounds for transmission by telephone. His first experiments were with waxed paper. He announced his invention of the first phonograph, a device for recording and replaying sound, on November 21, 1877 (early reports appear in Scientific American and several newspapers in the beginning of November, and an even earlier announcement of Edison working on a 'talking-machine' can be found in the Chicago Daily Tribune on May 9 ), and he demonstrated the device for the first time on November 29 (it was patented on February 19, 1878, as US Patent 200,521). "In December, 1877, a young man came into the office of the Scientific American, and placed before the editors a small, simple machine about which few preliminary remarks were offered. The visitor without any ceremony whatever turned the crank, and to the astonishment of all present the machine said: 'Good morning. How do you do? How do you like the phonograph?' The machine thus spoke for itself, and made known the fact that it was the phonograph..."Close up of the mechanism of an Edison Amberola, c. 1915The music critic Herman Klein attended an early demonstration (1881–82) of a similar machine. On the early phonograph's reproductive capabilities he writes "It sounded to my ear like someone singing about half a mile away, or talking at the other end of a big hall; but the effect was rather pleasant, save for a peculiar nasal quality wholly due to the mechanism, although there was little of the scratching that later was a prominent feature of the flat disc. Recording for that primitive machine was a comparatively simple matter. I had to keep my mouth about six inches away from the horn and remember not to make my voice too loud if I wanted anything approximating to a clear reproduction; that was all. When it was played over to me and I heard my own voice for the first time, one or two friends who were present said that it sounded rather like mine; others declared that they would never have recognised it. I daresay both opinions were correct."
The Argus newspaper from Melbourne, Australia, reported on an 1878 demonstration at the Royal Society of Victoria, writing "There was a large attendance of ladies and gentlemen, who appeared greatly interested in the various scientific instruments exhibited. Among these the most interesting, perhaps, was the trial made by Mr. Sutherland with the phonograph, which was most amusing. Several trials were made, and were all more or less successful. "Rule Britannia" was distinctly repeated, but great laughter was caused by the repetition of the convivial song of "He's a jolly good fellow," which sounded as if it was being sung by an old man of 80 with a cracked voice."
Early machines
Phonograph cabinet built with Edison cement, 1912. The clockwork portion of the phonograph is concealed in the base beneath the statue; the amplifying horn is the shell behind the human figure.
Edison's early phonographs recorded onto a thin sheet of metal, normally tinfoil, which was temporarily wrapped around a helically grooved cylinder mounted on a correspondingly threaded rod supported by plain and threaded bearings. While the cylinder was rotated and slowly progressed along its axis, the airborne sound vibrated a diaphragm connected to a stylus that indented the foil into the cylinder's groove, thereby recording the vibrations as "hill-and-dale" variations of the depth of the indentation.
Introduction of the disc record
"I Am The Edison Phonograph"
This 1906 recording (with the character being voiced by Len Spencer) enticed store customers with the wonders of the invention.2 minutes, 23 seconds.
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By 1890, record manufacturers had begun using a rudimentary duplication process to mass-produce their product. While the live performers recorded the master phonograph, up to ten tubes led to blank cylinders in other phonographs. Until this development, each record had to be custom-made. Before long, a more advanced pantograph-based process made it possible to simultaneously produce 90–150 copies of each record. However, as demand for certain records grew, popular artists still needed to re-record and re-re-record their songs. Reportedly, the medium's first major African-American star George Washington Johnson was obliged to perform his "The Laughing Song" (or the separate "The Whistling Coon") literally thousands of times in a studio during his recording career. Sometimes he would sing "The Laughing Song" more than fifty times in a day, at twenty cents per rendition. (The average price of a single cylinder in the mid-1890s was about fifty cents.)
Oldest surviving recordings
Early phonograph at Deaf Smith County Historical Museum in Hereford, Texas
Lambert's lead cylinder recording for an experimental talking clock is often identified as the oldest surviving playable sound recording,
although the evidence advanced for its early date is controversial.
Wax phonograph cylinder recordings of Handel's choral music made on June 29, 1888, at The Crystal Palace in London were thought to be the oldest-known surviving musical recordings, until the recent playback by a group of American historians of a phonautograph recording of Au clair de la lune made on April 9, 1860.
The 1860 phonautogram had not until then been played, as it was only a transcription of sound waves into graphic form on paper for visual study. Recently developed optical scanning and image processing techniques have given new life to early recordings by making it possible to play unusually delicate or physically unplayable media without physical contact.
A recording made on a sheet of tinfoil at an 1878 demonstration of Edison's phonograph in St. Louis, Missouri, has been played back by optical scanning and digital analysis. A few other early tinfoil recordings are known to survive, including a slightly earlier one that is believed to preserve the voice of U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes, but as of May 2014 they have not yet been scanned. These antique tinfoil recordings, which have typically been stored folded, are too fragile to be played back with a stylus without seriously damaging them. Edison's 1877 tinfoil recording of Mary Had a Little Lamb, not preserved, has been called the first instance of recorded verse.
On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the phonograph, Edison recounted reciting Mary Had a Little Lamb to test his first machine. The 1927 event was filmed by an early sound-on-film newsreel camera, and an audio clip from that film's soundtrack is sometimes mistakenly presented as the original 1877 recording.
Wax cylinder recordings made by 19th-century media legends such as P. T. Barnum and Shakespearean actor Edwin Booth are amongst the earliest verified recordings by the famous that have survived to the present.
Improvements at the Volta Laboratory
Main article: Volta Laboratory and Bureau § Sound recording and phonograph development
Alexander Graham Bell and his two associates took Edison's tinfoil phonograph and modified it considerably to make it reproduce sound from wax instead of tinfoil. They began their work at Bell's Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C., in 1879, and continued until they were granted basic patents in 1886 for recording in wax.
Although Edison had invented the phonograph in 1877, the fame bestowed on him for this invention was not due to its efficiency. Recording with his tinfoil phonograph was too difficult to be practical, as the tinfoil tore easily, and even when the stylus was properly adjusted, its reproduction of sound was distorted, and good for only a few playbacks; nevertheless Edison had discovered the idea of sound recording. However immediately after his discovery he did not improve it, allegedly because of an agreement to spend the next five years developing the New York City electric light and power system.
Volta's early challenge
Meanwhile, Bell, a scientist and experimenter at heart, was looking for new worlds to conquer after having patented the telephone. According to Sumner Tainter, it was through Gardiner Green Hubbard that Bell took up the phonograph challenge. Bell had married Hubbard's daughter Mabel in 1879 while Hubbard was president of the Edison Speaking Phonograph Co., and his organization, which had purchased the Edison patent, was financially troubled because people did not want to buy a machine that seldom worked well and proved difficult for the average person to operate.
Volta Graphophone
See also: Graphophone
A 'G' (Graham Bell) model Graphophone being played back by a typist after its cylinder had recorded dictation.
The sound vibrations had been indented in the wax that had been applied to the Edison phonograph. The following was the text of one of their recordings: "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamed of in your philosophy. I am a Graphophone and my mother was a phonograph." Most of the disc machines designed at the Volta Lab had their disc mounted on vertical turntables. The explanation is that in the early experiments, the turntable, with disc, was mounted on the shop lathe, along with the recording and reproducing heads. Later, when the complete models were built, most of them featured vertical turntables.
One interesting exception was a horizontal seven inch turntable. The machine, although made in 1886, was a duplicate of one made earlier but taken to Europe by Chichester Bell. Tainter was granted U.S. patent 385,886 on July 10, 1888. The playing arm is rigid, except for a pivoted vertical motion of 90 degrees to allow removal of the record or a return to starting position. While recording or playing, the record not only rotated, but moved laterally under the stylus, which thus described a spiral, recording 150 grooves to the inch.
The basic distinction between the Edison's first phonograph patent and the Bell and Tainter patent of 1886 was the method of recording. Edison's method was to indent the sound waves on a piece of tin foil, while Bell and Tainter's invention called for cutting, or "engraving", the sound waves into a wax record with a sharp recording stylus.
Graphophone commercialization
A later-model Columbia Graphophone of 1901
Edison-Phonograph playing: Iola by the Edison Military Band (video, 3 min 51 s)
In 1885, when the Volta Associates were sure that they had a number of practical inventions, they filed patent applications and began to seek out investors. The Volta Graphophone Company of Alexandria, Virginia, was created on January 6, 1886, and incorporated on February 3, 1886. It was formed to control the patents and to handle the commercial development of their sound recording and reproduction inventions, one of which became the first Dictaphone.
After the Volta Associates gave several demonstrations in the City of Washington, businessmen from Philadelphia created the American Graphophone Company on March 28, 1887, in order to produce and sell the machines for the budding phonograph marketplace. The Volta Graphophone Company then merged with American Graphophone, which itself later evolved into Columbia Records.
A coin-operated version of the Graphophone, U.S. patent 506,348, was developed by Tainter in 1893 to compete with nickel-in-the-slot entertainment phonograph U.S. patent 428,750 demonstrated in 1889 by Louis T. Glass, manager of the Pacific Phonograph Company.
The work of the Volta Associates laid the foundation for the successful use of dictating machines in business, because their wax recording process was practical and their machines were durable. But it would take several more years and the renewed efforts of Edison and the further improvements of Emile Berliner and many others, before the recording industry became a major factor in home entertainment.
Disc vs. cylinder as a recording medium
Discs (that aren't re-recordable) are not inherently better than cylinders at providing audio fidelity. Rather, the advantages of the format are seen in the manufacturing process: discs can be stamped, and the matrixes to stamp disc can be shipped to other printing plants for a global distribution of recordings; cylinders could not be stamped until 1901–1902, when the gold moulding process was introduced by Edison.
A Victor V phonograph, circa 1907
Through experimentation, in 1892 Berliner began commercial production of his disc records and "gramophones". His "gramophone record" was the first disc record to be offered to the public. They were five inches (13 cm) in diameter and recorded on one side only. Seven-inch (17.5 cm) records followed in 1895. Also in 1895 Berliner replaced the hard rubber used to make the discs with a shellac compound. Berliner's early records had poor sound quality, however. Work by Eldridge R. Johnson eventually improved the sound fidelity to a point where it was as good as the cylinder.
Dominance of the disc record
A 1930s portable wind-up gramophone from EMI (His Master's Voice)
In the 1930s, vinyl (originally known as vinylite) was introduced as a record material for radio transcription discs, and for radio commercials. At that time, virtually no discs for home use were made from this material. Vinyl was used for the popular 78-rpm V-discs issued to US soldiers during World War II. This significantly reduced breakage during transport. The first commercial vinylite record was the set of five 12" discs "Prince Igor" (Asch Records album S-800, dubbed from Soviet masters in 1945). Victor began selling some home-use vinyl 78s in late 1945; but most 78s were made of a shellac compound until the 78-rpm format was completely phased out. (Shellac records were heavier and more brittle.) 33s and 45s were, however, made exclusively of vinyl, with the exception of some 45s manufactured out of polystyrene.
First all-transistor phonograph
Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph, developed and produced in 1955
Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph – Radio and Television News magazine, issue October 1955
In 1955, Philco developed and produced the world's first all-transistor phonograph models TPA-1 and TPA-2, which were announced in the June 28, 1955 edition of The Wall Street Journal. Philco started to sell these all-transistor phonographs in the fall of 1955, for the price of $59.95. The October 1955 issue of Radio & Television News magazine (page 41), had a full page detailed article on Philco's new consumer product. The all-transistor portable phonograph TPA-1 and TPA-2 models played only 45rpm records and used four 1.5 volt "D" batteries for their power supply. The "TPA" stands for "Transistor Phonograph Amplifier". Their circuitry used three Philco germanium PNP alloy-fused junction audio frequency transistors. After the 1956 season had ended, Philco decided to discontinue both models, for transistors were too expensive compared to vacuum tubes, but by 1961 a $49.95 ($509.29 in 2023) portable, battery-powered radio-phonograph with seven transistors was available.
Turntable designs
A Technics SL-1200 direct-drive turntable
There are presently three main phonograph designs: belt-drive, direct-drive, and idler-wheel.
In a belt-drive turntable the motor is located off-center from the platter, either underneath it or entirely outside of it, and is connected to the platter or counter-platter by a drive belt made from elastomeric material.
The direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic). In 1969, Matsushita released it as the Technics SP-10, the first direct-drive turntable on the market. The most influential direct-drive turntable was the Technics SL-1200, which, following the spread of turntablism in hip hop culture, became the most widely-used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.
Arm systems
A SME 3012 tonearm fitted on a Thorens TD124 MkII turntable
In some high quality equipment the arm carrying the pickup, known as a tonearm, is manufactured separately from the motor and turntable unit. Companies specialising in the manufacture of tonearms include the English company SME.
Cue lever
More sophisticated turntables were (and still are) frequently manufactured so as to incorporate a "cue lever", a device that mechanically lowers the tonearm on to the record. It enables the user to locate an individual track more easily, to pause a record, and to avoid the risk of scratching the record, which may require practice to avoid when lowering the tonearm manually.
Linear tracking
Early developments in linear turntables were from Rek-O-Kut (portable lathe/phonograph) and Ortho-Sonic in the 1950s, and Acoustical in the early 1960s. These were eclipsed by more successful implementations of the concept from the late 1960s through the early 1980s.
Pickup systems
Typical magnetic cartridge
The pickup or cartridge is a transducer that converts mechanical vibrations from a stylus into an electrical signal. The electrical signal is amplified and converted into sound by one or more loudspeakers. Crystal and ceramic pickups that use the piezoelectric effect have largely been replaced by magnetic cartridges.
The pickup includes a stylus with a small diamond or sapphire tip that runs in the record groove. The stylus eventually becomes worn by contact with the groove, and it is usually replaceable.
Styli are classified as spherical or elliptical, although the tip is actually shaped as a half-sphere or a half-ellipsoid. Spherical styli are generally more robust than other types, but do not follow the groove as accurately, giving diminished high frequency response. Elliptical styli usually track the groove more accurately, with increased high frequency response and less distortion. For DJ use, the relative robustness of spherical styli make them generally preferred for back-cuing and scratching. There are a number of derivations of the basic elliptical type, including the shibata or fine line stylus, which can more accurately reproduce high frequency information contained in the record groove. This is especially important for playback of quadraphonic recordings.
Optical readout
A few specialist laser turntables read the groove optically using a laser pickup. Since there is no physical contact with the record, no wear is incurred. However, this "no wear" advantage is debatable, since vinyl records have been tested to withstand even 1200 plays with no significant audio degradation, provided that it is played with a high quality cartridge and that the surfaces are clean.
An alternative approach is to take a high-resolution photograph or scan of each side of the record and interpret the image of the grooves using computer software. An amateur attempt using a flatbed scanner lacked satisfactory fidelity. A professional system employed by the Library of Congress produces excellent quality.
Stylus
Stylus for jukebox using shellac 78 rpm records, 1940s
A development in stylus form came about by the attention to the CD-4 quadraphonic sound modulation process, which requires up to 50 kHz frequency response, with cartridges like Technics EPC-100CMK4 capable of playback on frequencies up to 100 kHz. This requires a stylus with a narrow side radius, such as 5 μm (or 0.2 mil). A narrow-profile elliptical stylus is able to read the higher frequencies (greater than 20 kHz), but at an increased wear, since the contact surface is narrower. For overcoming this problem, the Shibata stylus was invented around 1972 in Japan by Norio Shibata of JVC.
The Shibata-designed stylus offers a greater contact surface with the groove, which in turn means less pressure over the vinyl surface and thus less wear. A positive side effect is that the greater contact surface also means the stylus reads sections of the vinyl that were not touched (or "worn") by the common spherical stylus. In a demonstration by JVC records "worn" after 500 plays at a relatively high 4.5 gf tracking force with a spherical stylus, played "as new" with the Shibata profile.
Other advanced stylus shapes appeared following the same goal of increasing contact surface, improving on the Shibata. Chronologically: "Hughes" Shibata variant (1975), "Ogura" (1978), Van den Hul (1982). Such a stylus may be marketed as "Hyperelliptical" (Shure), "Alliptic", "Fine Line" (Ortofon), "Line contact" (Audio Technica), "Polyhedron", "LAC", or "Stereohedron" (Stanton).
A keel-shaped diamond stylus appeared as a byproduct of the invention of the CED Videodisc. This, together with laser-diamond-cutting technologies, made possible the "ridge" shaped stylus, such as the Namiki (1985) design, and Fritz Gyger (1989) design. This type of stylus is marketed as "MicroLine" (Audio technica), "Micro-Ridge" (Shure), or "Replicant" (Ortofon).
To address the problem of steel needle wear upon records, which resulted in the cracking of the latter, RCA Victor devised unbreakable records in 1930, by mixing polyvinyl chloride with plasticisers, in a proprietary formula they called Victrolac, which was first used in 1931, in motion picture discs.
Equalization
Since the late 1950s, almost all phono input stages have used the RIAA equalization standard. Before settling on that standard, there were many different equalizations in use, including EMI, HMV, Columbia, Decca FFRR, NAB, Ortho, BBC transcription, etc. Recordings made using these other equalization schemes typically sound odd if they are played through a RIAA-equalized preamplifier. High-performance (so-called "multicurve disc") preamplifiers, which include multiple, selectable equalizations, are no longer commonly available. However, some vintage preamplifiers, such as the LEAK varislope series, are still obtainable and can be refurbished. Newer preamplifiers like the Esoteric Sound Re-Equalizer or the K-A-B MK2 Vintage Signal Processor are also available.
Contemporary use and models
An old phonograph for record preservation at Fonoteca Nacional (National Sound Archive of Mexico)See also: Vinyl revival
Although largely replaced since the introduction of the compact disc in 1982, record albums still sold in small numbers throughout the 1980s and 1990s, but gradually sidelined in favor of CD players and tape decks in home audio environments. Record players continued to be manufactured and sold into the 21st century, although in small numbers and mainly for DJs. Following a resurgence in sales of records since the late 2000s, an increasing number of turntables have been manufactured and sold. Notably, Japanese company Panasonic brought back its well-known advanced Technics SL-1200 at the 2016 Consumer Electronics Show during which Sony also headlined a turntable, amid increasing interest in the format. Similarly, Audio-Technica revived its 1980s Sound Burger portable player in 2023.
A Crosley retro-styled suitcase record player produced in c. 2013
At the low-end of the market, Crosley has been especially popular with its suitcase record players and have played a big part in the vinyl revival and its adoption among younger people and children in the 2010s.
A mid-range Yamaha turntable, c. 2019
New interest in records has led to the development of turntables with additional modern features. USB turntables have a built-in audio interface, which transfers the analog sound directly to the connected computer. Some USB turntables transfer the audio without equalization, but are sold with software that allows the EQ of the transferred audio file to be adjusted. There are also many turntables on the market designed to be plugged into a computer via a USB port for needle dropping purposes.
Modern turntables have also been released featuring Bluetooth technology to output a record's sound wirelessly through speakers. Sony have also released a high-end turntable with an analog-to-digital converter to convert the sound from a playing record into a 24-bit high-resolution audio file in DSD or WAV formats.
See also
electronics portalmusic portalRecord production portal
Phonograph record
Phonograph cylinder
Archéophone, used to convert diverse types of cylinder recordings to modern CD media
Audio signal processing
Compressed air gramophone
List of phonograph manufacturers
Talking Machine World
Vinyl killer
Turntablism
Notes
^ The names record player and turntable have gradually become synonymous, however the second one is more associated with devices requiring separate amplifiers and loudspeakers. Originally, the term turntable referred to the part of phonograph's mechanism providing rotation of the record.
^ Historical phonographs could record sound.
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^ a b Spice, Anton (2016-01-08). "Return of the deck - how turntables are taking over". The Vinyl Factory. Retrieved 2024-05-04.
^ Sparrow, Mark. "Audio-Technica's Sound Burger Deck Is Flipped In Three New Colors". Forbes. Retrieved 2024-05-04.
^ Petridis, Alexis; Gibsone, Harriet; Paphides, Pete (2016-04-21). "The Crosley generation: the record player that has the kids in a spin". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-05-04.
^ Moon, Brad. "Crosley Offers New The Beatles Options For Vinyl Collectors". Forbes. Retrieved 2024-05-04.
^ "Vinyl to USB Conversion". recordplayerreviews.org. Archived from the original on 2016-07-30.
^ "USB turntable comparison". Knowzy.com. 2008-12-01. Archived from the original on 2011-07-13. Retrieved 2011-10-12.
^ Cox, Jamieson (2016-01-06). "This new Sony turntable is turnt". The Verge. Retrieved 2024-05-04.
Further reading
Bruil, Rudolf A. (January 8, 2004). "Linear Tonearms." Retrieved on July 25, 2011.
Gelatt, Roland. The Fabulous Phonograph, 1877–1977. Second rev. ed., First Collier Books ed., in series, Sounds of the Century. New York: Collier, 1977. 349 p., ill. ISBN 0-02-032680-7
Heumann, Michael. "Metal Machine Music: The Phonograph's Voice and the Transformation of Writing." eContact! 14.3 — Turntablism (January 2013). Montréal: CEC.
Koenigsberg, Allen. The Patent History of the Phonograph, 1877–1912. APM Press, 1991.
Reddie, Lovell N. (1908). "The Gramophone And The Mechanical Recording And Reproduction Of Musical Sounds". Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 209–231. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Various. "Turntable : Bibliography." eContact! 14.3 — Turntablism (January 2013). Montréal: CEC.
Weissenbrunner, Karin. "Experimental Turntablism: Historical overview of experiments with record players / records — or Scratches from Second-Hand Technology." eContact! 14.3 — Turntablism (January 2013). Montréal: CEC.
Carson, B. H.; Burt, A. D.; Reiskind, and H. I., "A Record Changer And Record Of Complementary Design", RCA Review, June 1949
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Phonograph (category)
Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Phonograph".
c.1915 Swiss hot-air engined gramophone at Museum of Retro Technology
Interactive sculpture delivers tactile soundwave experience Archived 2021-03-08 at the Wayback Machine
Early recordings from around the world
The Birth of the Recording Industry
The Cylinder Archive
The Berliner Sound and Image Archive
Cylinder Preservation & Digitization Project – Over 6,000 cylinder recordings held by the Department of Special Collections, University of California, Santa Barbara, free for download or streamed online.
Cylinder players held at the British Library Archived 2012-02-06 at the Wayback Machine – information and high-quality images.
History of Recorded Sound: Phonographs and Records
EnjoytheMusic.com – Excerpts from the book Hi-Fi All-New 1958 Edition
Listen to early recordings on the Edison Phonograph
Mario Frazzetto's Phonograph and Gramophone Gallery.
Say What? – Essay on phonograph technology and intellectual property law
Vinyl Engine – Information, images, articles and reviews from around the world
The Analogue Dept – Information, images and tutorials; strongly focused on Thorens brand
45 rpm player and changer at work on YouTube
Historic video footage of Edison operating his original tinfoil phonograph
Turntable History on Enjoy the Music.com
2-point and Arc Protractor generators on AlignmentProtractor.com
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turntable (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntable_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Gramophone (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Record player (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_player_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Tonearm (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonearm_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Turntablism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntablism"},{"link_name":"Phonogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonogram_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turntable.svg"},{"link_name":"magnetic cartridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_cartridge"},{"link_name":"record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_record"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"reproduction of recorded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording_and_reproduction"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"waveforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveforms"},{"link_name":"\"record\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"stylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_needle"},{"link_name":"diaphragm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_(acoustics)"},{"link_name":"horn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn_loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"stethoscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stethoscope"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edison_and_phonograph_edit1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thomas Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison"},{"link_name":"Levin Corbin Handy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levin_Corbin_Handy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emile_Berliner_with_phonograph_(cropped_portrait).jpg"},{"link_name":"Emile Berliner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berliner"},{"link_name":"Hanover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover"},{"link_name":"Thomas Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Alexander Graham Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell"},{"link_name":"Volta Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_Laboratory_and_Bureau"},{"link_name":"graphophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphophone"},{"link_name":"Emile Berliner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berliner"},{"link_name":"phonograph cylinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder"},{"link_name":"flat discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_record"},{"link_name":"stylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_cartridge"},{"link_name":"equalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equalization_(audio)"},{"link_name":"phonograph record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_record"},{"link_name":"home audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_audio"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"8-track cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-track_tape"},{"link_name":"cassette tapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tape"},{"link_name":"compact disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"revival since the late 2000s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_revival"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Turntable (disambiguation), Gramophone (disambiguation), Record player (disambiguation), and Tonearm (disambiguation).For its use as a musical instrument, see Turntablism.Not to be confused with Phonogram.Illustration of a typical modern turntable: here showing the curved tonearm with a headshell at the end, under which lies the magnetic cartridge and its attached stylus touching down on the grooves of a black record placed on the turntable's platterA phonograph, later called a gramophone (as a trademark since 1887, as a generic name in the UK since 1910), and since the 1940s a record player, or more recently a turntable,[a] is a device for the mechanical and analogue reproduction of recorded[b] sound. The sound vibration waveforms are recorded as corresponding physical deviations of a spiral groove engraved, etched, incised, or impressed into the surface of a rotating cylinder or disc, called a \"record\". To recreate the sound, the surface is similarly rotated while a playback stylus (or \"needle\") traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it, faintly reproducing the recorded sound. In early acoustic phonographs, the stylus vibrated a diaphragm that produced sound waves coupled to the open air through a flaring horn, or directly to the listener's ears through stethoscope-type earphones.Thomas Edison with his second phonograph, photographed by Levin Corbin Handy in Washington, April 1878Emile Berliner with the first gramophone he developed, in Hanover, GermanyThe phonograph was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison.[1][2][3][4] Phonograph use would grow the following year. Alexander Graham Bell's Volta Laboratory made several improvements in the 1880s and introduced the graphophone, including the use of wax-coated cardboard cylinders and a cutting stylus that moved from side to side in a zigzag groove around the record. In the 1890s, Emile Berliner initiated the transition from phonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the center, coining the term gramophone for disc record players, which is predominantly used in many languages. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its drive system, the stylus or needle, pickup system, and the sound and equalization systems.The disc phonograph record was the dominant commercial audio distribution format throughout most of the 20th century, and phonographs became the first example of home audio that people owned and used at their residences.[5] In the 1960s, the use of 8-track cartridges and cassette tapes were introduced as alternatives. By 1987, phonograph use had declined sharply due to the popularity of cassettes and the rise of the compact disc. However, records have undergone a revival since the late 2000s. This resurgence has much to do with vinyl records' sparing use of audio processing, resulting in a more natural sound on high-quality replay equipment, compared to many digital releases that are highly processed for portable players in high-noise environmental conditions. However, unlike \"plug-and-play\" digital audio, vinyl record players have user-serviceable parts, which require attention to tonearm alignment and the wear and choice of stylus, the most critical component affecting turntable sound.[6]","title":"Phonograph"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"record changer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_changer"},{"link_name":"DJ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"mixer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_mixer"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"electrical signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_signal"},{"link_name":"transducer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer"},{"link_name":"loudspeaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"British English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"disc records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_records"},{"link_name":"Gramophone Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_Company"},{"link_name":"trademark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The terminology used to describe record-playing devices is not uniform across the English-speaking world. In modern contexts, the playback device is often referred to as a \"turntable\", \"record player\", or \"record changer\". Each of these terms denotes distinct items. When integrated into a DJ setup with a mixer, turntables are colloquially known as \"decks\".[7] In later versions of electric phonographs, commonly known since the 1940s as record players or turntables, the movements of the stylus are transformed into an electrical signal by a transducer. This signal is then converted back into sound through a loudspeaker.[8]The term \"phonograph\", meaning \"sound writing\", originates from the Greek words φωνή (phonē, meaning 'sound' or 'voice') and γραφή (graphē, meaning 'writing'). Similarly, the terms \"gramophone\" and \"graphophone\" have roots in the Greek words γράμμα (gramma, meaning 'letter') and φωνή (phōnē, meaning 'voice').In British English, \"gramophone\" may refer to any sound-reproducing machine that utilizes disc records. These were introduced and popularized in the UK by the Gramophone Company. Initially, \"gramophone\" was a proprietary trademark of the company, and any use of the name by competing disc record manufacturers was rigorously challenged in court. However, in 1910, an English court decision ruled that the term had become generic;[9]","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edison_Standard_Photograph_(08).jpg"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"Emile Berliner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berliner"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"United States","text":"An Edison Standard Phonograph that uses wax cylindersIn American English, \"phonograph\", properly specific to machines made by Edison, was sometimes used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others. But it was then considered strictly incorrect to apply it to Emile Berliner's Gramophone, a different machine that played nonrecordable discs (although Edison's original Phonograph patent included the use of discs.[10])","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conversazione_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Victoria.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Illustrated Australian News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Illustrated_Australian_News"},{"link_name":"Australian English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English"},{"link_name":"British English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"Royal Society of Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Alex Sutherland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Sutherland_(educator)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"Wood engraving published in The Illustrated Australian News, depicting a public demonstration of new technology at the Royal Society of Victoria (Melbourne, Australia) on 8 August 1878.In Australian English, \"record player\" was the term; \"turntable\" was a more technical term; \"gramophone\" was restricted to the old mechanical (i.e., wind-up) players; and \"phonograph\" was used as in British English. The \"phonograph\" was first demonstrated in Australia on 14 June 1878 to a meeting of the Royal Society of Victoria by the Society's Honorary Secretary, Alex Sutherland who published \"The Sounds of the Consonants, as Indicated by the Phonograph\" in the Society's journal in November that year.[11] On 8 August 1878 the phonograph was publicly demonstrated at the Society's annual conversazione, along with a range of other new inventions, including the microphone.[12]","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TimeGraphics-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NatParkService-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NatParkService-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FirstSounds-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phonautograph-cent2.png"},{"link_name":"phonautograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonautograph"},{"link_name":"plaster of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaster_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"lampblack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampblack"},{"link_name":"eardrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eardrum"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NatParkService-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBCNews-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBCNews-18"},{"link_name":"Au Clair de la Lune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au_Clair_de_la_Lune"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBCNews-18"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time5.1.18-23"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FirstSounds-17"},{"link_name":"tuning forks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuning_fork"},{"link_name":"Thomas Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FirstSounds-17"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Thomas Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBCNews-18"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimes-25"},{"link_name":"gramophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Phonautograph","text":"The phonautograph was invented on March 25, 1857, by Frenchman Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville,[13] an editor and typographer of manuscripts at a scientific publishing house in Paris.[14] One day while editing Professor Longet's Traité de Physiologie, he happened upon that customer's engraved illustration of the anatomy of the human ear, and conceived of \"the imprudent idea of photographing the word.\" In 1853 or 1854 (Scott cited both years) he began working on \"le problème de la parole s'écrivant elle-même\" (\"the problem of speech writing itself\"), aiming to build a device that could replicate the function of the human ear.[14][15]Dictionary illustration of a phonautograph. This version uses a barrel made of plaster of Paris.Scott coated a plate of glass with a thin layer of lampblack. He then took an acoustic trumpet, and at its tapered end affixed a thin membrane that served as the analog to the eardrum. At the center of that membrane, he attached a rigid boar's bristle approximately a centimetre long, placed so that it just grazed the lampblack. As the glass plate was slid horizontally in a well formed groove at a speed of one meter per second, a person would speak into the trumpet, causing the membrane to vibrate and the stylus to trace figures[14] that were scratched into the lampblack.[16] On March 25, 1857, Scott received the French patent[17] #17,897/31,470 for his device, which he called a phonautograph.[18] The earliest known surviving recorded sound of a human voice was conducted on April 9, 1860, when Scott recorded[16] someone singing the song \"Au Clair de la Lune\" (\"By the Light of the Moon\") on the device.[19] However, the device was not designed to play back sounds,[16][20] as Scott intended for people to read back the tracings,[21] which he called phonautograms.[15] This was not the first time someone had used a device to create direct tracings of the vibrations of sound-producing objects, as tuning forks had been used in this way by English physicist Thomas Young in 1807.[22] By late 1857, with support from the Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, Scott's phonautograph was recording sounds with sufficient precision to be adopted by the scientific community, paving the way for the nascent science of acoustics.[15]The device's true significance in the history of recorded sound was not fully realized prior to March 2008, when it was discovered and resurrected in a Paris patent office by First Sounds, an informal collaborative of American audio historians, recording engineers, and sound archivists founded to make the earliest sound recordings available to the public. The phonautograms were then digitally converted by scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California, who were able to play back the recorded sounds, something Scott had never conceived of. Prior to this point, the earliest known record of a human voice was thought to be an 1877 phonograph recording by Thomas Edison.[16][23] The phonautograph would play a role in the development of the gramophone, whose inventor, Emile Berliner, worked with the phonautograph in the course of developing his own device.[24]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Cros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cros"},{"link_name":"French Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"priority of conception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_priority"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RBNF-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Paleophone","text":"Charles Cros, a French poet and amateur scientist, is the first person known to have made the conceptual leap from recording sound as a traced line to the theoretical possibility of reproducing the sound from the tracing and then to devising a definite method for accomplishing the reproduction. On April 30, 1877, he deposited a sealed envelope containing a summary of his ideas with the French Academy of Sciences, a standard procedure used by scientists and inventors to establish priority of conception of unpublished ideas in the event of any later dispute.[25]An account of his invention was published on October 10, 1877, by which date Cros had devised a more direct procedure: the recording stylus could scribe its tracing through a thin coating of acid-resistant material on a metal surface and the surface could then be etched in an acid bath, producing the desired groove without the complication of an intermediate photographic procedure.[26] The author of this article called the device a phonographe, but Cros himself favored the word paleophone, sometimes rendered in French as voix du passé ('voice of the past').[citation needed]Cros was a poet of meager means, not in a position to pay a machinist to build a working model, and largely content to bequeath his ideas to the public domain free of charge and let others reduce them to practice, but after the earliest reports of Edison's presumably independent invention crossed the Atlantic he had his sealed letter of April 30 opened and read at the December 3, 1877 meeting of the French Academy of Sciences, claiming due scientific credit for priority of conception.[27]Throughout the first decade (1890–1900) of commercial production of the earliest crude disc records, the direct acid-etch method first invented by Cros was used to create the metal master discs, but Cros was not around to claim any credit or to witness the humble beginnings of the eventually rich phonographic library he had foreseen. He had died in 1888 at the age of 45.[28]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drawing_for_a_Phonograph_-_NARA_-_595515.jpg"},{"link_name":"Patent drawing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_drawing"},{"link_name":"Thomas Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison"},{"link_name":"telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph"},{"link_name":"telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Scientific American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American"},{"link_name":"Chicago Daily Tribune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Daily_Tribune"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"patented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amberola_close-up.jpg"},{"link_name":"Herman Klein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Klein"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-klein-35"},{"link_name":"The Argus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Argus_(Melbourne)"},{"link_name":"Royal Society of Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Victoria"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"The early phonographs","text":"Patent drawing for Edison's phonograph, May 18, 1880Thomas Edison conceived the principle of recording and reproducing sound between May and July 1877 as a byproduct of his efforts to \"play back\" recorded telegraph messages and to automate speech sounds for transmission by telephone.[29] His first experiments were with waxed paper.[30] He announced his invention of the first phonograph, a device for recording and replaying sound, on November 21, 1877 (early reports appear in Scientific American and several newspapers in the beginning of November, and an even earlier announcement of Edison working on a 'talking-machine' can be found in the Chicago Daily Tribune on May 9 [31]), and he demonstrated the device for the first time on November 29 (it was patented on February 19, 1878, as US Patent 200,521). \"In December, 1877, a young man came into the office of the Scientific American, and placed before the editors a small, simple machine about which few preliminary remarks were offered. The visitor without any ceremony whatever turned the crank, and to the astonishment of all present the machine said: 'Good morning. How do you do? How do you like the phonograph?' The machine thus spoke for itself, and made known the fact that it was the phonograph...\"[32]Close up of the mechanism of an Edison Amberola, c. 1915The music critic Herman Klein attended an early demonstration (1881–82) of a similar machine. On the early phonograph's reproductive capabilities he writes \"It sounded to my ear like someone singing about half a mile away, or talking at the other end of a big hall; but the effect was rather pleasant, save for a peculiar nasal quality wholly due to the mechanism, although there was little of the scratching that later was a prominent feature of the flat disc. Recording for that primitive machine was a comparatively simple matter. I had to keep my mouth about six inches away from the horn and remember not to make my voice too loud if I wanted anything approximating to a clear reproduction; that was all. When it was played over to me and I heard my own voice for the first time, one or two friends who were present said that it sounded rather like mine; others declared that they would never have recognised it. I daresay both opinions were correct.\"[33]The Argus newspaper from Melbourne, Australia, reported on an 1878 demonstration at the Royal Society of Victoria, writing \"There was a large attendance of ladies and gentlemen, who appeared greatly interested in the various scientific instruments exhibited. Among these the most interesting, perhaps, was the trial made by Mr. Sutherland with the phonograph, which was most amusing. Several trials were made, and were all more or less successful. \"Rule Britannia\" was distinctly repeated, but great laughter was caused by the repetition of the convivial song of \"He's a jolly good fellow,\" which sounded as if it was being sung by an old man of 80 with a cracked voice.\"[34]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edison_phonograph_1912.jpg"},{"link_name":"Edison cement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Portland_Cement_Company"},{"link_name":"tinfoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin#Applications"},{"link_name":"helically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"threaded rod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threaded_rod"},{"link_name":"bearings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)"},{"link_name":"axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_of_rotation"},{"link_name":"sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"diaphragm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaphragm_(acoustics)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Early machines","text":"Phonograph cabinet built with Edison cement, 1912. The clockwork portion of the phonograph is concealed in the base beneath the statue; the amplifying horn is the shell behind the human figure.Edison's early phonographs recorded onto a thin sheet of metal, normally tinfoil, which was temporarily wrapped around a helically grooved cylinder mounted on a correspondingly threaded rod supported by plain and threaded bearings. While the cylinder was rotated and slowly progressed along its axis, the airborne sound vibrated a diaphragm connected to a stylus that indented the foil into the cylinder's groove, thereby recording the vibrations as \"hill-and-dale\" variations of the depth of the indentation.[35]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"I Am The Edison Phonograph\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Advertising_Record.ogg"},{"link_name":"Len Spencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Len_Spencer"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"pantograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantograph"},{"link_name":"George Washington Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Johnson_(singer)"},{"link_name":"The Laughing Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Laughing_Song"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Introduction of the disc record","text":"\"I Am The Edison Phonograph\"\n\nThis 1906 recording (with the character being voiced by Len Spencer) enticed store customers with the wonders of the invention.2 minutes, 23 seconds.\nProblems playing this file? See media help.By 1890, record manufacturers had begun using a rudimentary duplication process to mass-produce their product. While the live performers recorded the master phonograph, up to ten tubes led to blank cylinders in other phonographs. Until this development, each record had to be custom-made. Before long, a more advanced pantograph-based process made it possible to simultaneously produce 90–150 copies of each record. However, as demand for certain records grew, popular artists still needed to re-record and re-re-record their songs. Reportedly, the medium's first major African-American star George Washington Johnson was obliged to perform his \"The Laughing Song\" (or the separate \"The Whistling Coon\")[36] literally thousands of times in a studio during his recording career. Sometimes he would sing \"The Laughing Song\" more than fifty times in a day, at twenty cents per rendition. (The average price of a single cylinder in the mid-1890s was about fifty cents.)[citation needed]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Early_phonograph,_Deaf_Smith_County_Museum,_Hereford,_TX_IMG_4857.JPG"},{"link_name":"Hereford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereford,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Lambert_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"phonograph cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder"},{"link_name":"Handel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handel"},{"link_name":"The Crystal Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"phonautograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonautograph"},{"link_name":"Au clair de la lune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au_clair_de_la_lune"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Rutherford B. Hayes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"recorded verse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiobook"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rubery-44"},{"link_name":"sound-on-film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound-on-film"},{"link_name":"newsreel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsreel"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"P. T. Barnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._T._Barnum"},{"link_name":"Edwin Booth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Booth"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Oldest surviving recordings","text":"Early phonograph at Deaf Smith County Historical Museum in Hereford, TexasLambert's lead cylinder recording for an experimental talking clock is often identified as the oldest surviving playable sound recording,[37]\nalthough the evidence advanced for its early date is controversial.[38]\nWax phonograph cylinder recordings of Handel's choral music made on June 29, 1888, at The Crystal Palace in London were thought to be the oldest-known surviving musical recordings,[39] until the recent playback by a group of American historians of a phonautograph recording of Au clair de la lune made on April 9, 1860.[40]The 1860 phonautogram had not until then been played, as it was only a transcription of sound waves into graphic form on paper for visual study. Recently developed optical scanning and image processing techniques have given new life to early recordings by making it possible to play unusually delicate or physically unplayable media without physical contact.[41]A recording made on a sheet of tinfoil at an 1878 demonstration of Edison's phonograph in St. Louis, Missouri, has been played back by optical scanning and digital analysis. A few other early tinfoil recordings are known to survive, including a slightly earlier one that is believed to preserve the voice of U.S. President Rutherford B. Hayes, but as of May 2014 they have not yet been scanned.[clarification needed] These antique tinfoil recordings, which have typically been stored folded, are too fragile to be played back with a stylus without seriously damaging them. Edison's 1877 tinfoil recording of Mary Had a Little Lamb, not preserved, has been called the first instance of recorded verse.[42]On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the phonograph, Edison recounted reciting Mary Had a Little Lamb to test his first machine. The 1927 event was filmed by an early sound-on-film newsreel camera, and an audio clip from that film's soundtrack is sometimes mistakenly presented as the original 1877 recording.[43]\nWax cylinder recordings made by 19th-century media legends such as P. T. Barnum and Shakespearean actor Edwin Booth are amongst the earliest verified recordings by the famous that have survived to the present.[44][45]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexander Graham Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell"},{"link_name":"tinfoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinfoil"},{"link_name":"Volta Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"},{"link_name":"invented the phonograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison#Beginning_his_career"},{"link_name":"sound recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_recording"},{"link_name":"New York City electric light and power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electric_power_transmission#Early_high_voltage_and_commercial_systems"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"}],"text":"Alexander Graham Bell and his two associates took Edison's tinfoil phonograph and modified it considerably to make it reproduce sound from wax instead of tinfoil. They began their work at Bell's Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C., in 1879, and continued until they were granted basic patents in 1886 for recording in wax.[46]Although Edison had invented the phonograph in 1877, the fame bestowed on him for this invention was not due to its efficiency. Recording with his tinfoil phonograph was too difficult to be practical, as the tinfoil tore easily, and even when the stylus was properly adjusted, its reproduction of sound was distorted, and good for only a few playbacks; nevertheless Edison had discovered the idea of sound recording. However immediately after his discovery he did not improve it, allegedly because of an agreement to spend the next five years developing the New York City electric light and power system.[46]","title":"Improvements at the Volta Laboratory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist"},{"link_name":"telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone"},{"link_name":"Sumner Tainter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumner_Tainter"},{"link_name":"Gardiner Green Hubbard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner_Hubbard"},{"link_name":"Hubbard's daughter Mabel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel_Gardiner_Hubbard"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"}],"sub_title":"Volta's early challenge","text":"Meanwhile, Bell, a scientist and experimenter at heart, was looking for new worlds to conquer after having patented the telephone. According to Sumner Tainter, it was through Gardiner Green Hubbard that Bell took up the phonograph challenge. Bell had married Hubbard's daughter Mabel in 1879 while Hubbard was president of the Edison Speaking Phonograph Co., and his organization, which had purchased the Edison patent, was financially troubled because people did not want to buy a machine that seldom worked well and proved difficult for the average person to operate.[46]","title":"Improvements at the Volta Laboratory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Graphophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphophone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transcription_using_cylinder_phonograph.png"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"},{"link_name":"Chichester Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichester_Bell"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 385,886","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US385886"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"}],"sub_title":"Volta Graphophone","text":"See also: GraphophoneA 'G' (Graham Bell) model Graphophone being played back by a typist after its cylinder had recorded dictation.The sound vibrations had been indented in the wax that had been applied to the Edison phonograph. The following was the text of one of their recordings: \"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamed of in your philosophy. I am a Graphophone and my mother was a phonograph.\"[47] Most of the disc machines designed at the Volta Lab had their disc mounted on vertical turntables. The explanation is that in the early experiments, the turntable, with disc, was mounted on the shop lathe, along with the recording and reproducing heads. Later, when the complete models were built, most of them featured vertical turntables.[46]One interesting exception was a horizontal seven inch turntable. The machine, although made in 1886, was a duplicate of one made earlier but taken to Europe by Chichester Bell. Tainter was granted U.S. patent 385,886 on July 10, 1888. The playing arm is rigid, except for a pivoted vertical motion of 90 degrees to allow removal of the record or a return to starting position. While recording or playing, the record not only rotated, but moved laterally under the stylus, which thus described a spiral, recording 150 grooves to the inch.[46]The basic distinction between the Edison's first phonograph patent and the Bell and Tainter patent of 1886 was the method of recording. Edison's method was to indent the sound waves on a piece of tin foil, while Bell and Tainter's invention called for cutting, or \"engraving\", the sound waves into a wax record with a sharp recording stylus.[46]","title":"Improvements at the Volta Laboratory"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Graphophone1901.jpg"},{"link_name":"patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"Volta Graphophone Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_Graphophone_Company"},{"link_name":"Dictaphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictaphone"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"American Graphophone Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Graphophone_Company&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ERS-50"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ERS-50"},{"link_name":"Columbia Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_Records"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schoenherr2005-51"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EWB2004-52"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 506,348","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US506348"},{"link_name":"U.S. patent 428,750","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//patents.google.com/patent/US428750"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"dictating machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictation_machine"},{"link_name":"Emile Berliner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Berliner"},{"link_name":"recording industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_industry"},{"link_name":"home entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_center"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newville-48"}],"sub_title":"Graphophone commercialization","text":"A later-model Columbia Graphophone of 1901Edison-Phonograph playing: Iola by the Edison Military Band (video, 3 min 51 s)In 1885, when the Volta Associates were sure that they had a number of practical inventions, they filed patent applications and began to seek out investors. The Volta Graphophone Company of Alexandria, Virginia, was created on January 6, 1886, and incorporated on February 3, 1886. It was formed to control the patents and to handle the commercial development of their sound recording and reproduction inventions, one of which became the first Dictaphone.[46]After the Volta Associates gave several demonstrations in the City of Washington, businessmen from Philadelphia created the American Graphophone Company on March 28, 1887, in order to produce and sell the machines for the budding phonograph marketplace.[48] The Volta Graphophone Company then merged with American Graphophone,[48] which itself later evolved into Columbia Records.[49][50]A coin-operated version of the Graphophone, U.S. patent 506,348, was developed by Tainter in 1893 to compete with nickel-in-the-slot entertainment phonograph U.S. patent 428,750 demonstrated in 1889 by Louis T. Glass, manager of the Pacific Phonograph Company.[51]The work of the Volta Associates laid the foundation for the successful use of dictating machines in business, because their wax recording process was practical and their machines were durable. But it would take several more years and the renewed efforts of Edison and the further improvements of Emile Berliner and many others, before the recording industry became a major factor in home entertainment.[46]","title":"Improvements at the Volta Laboratory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-the_cylinder_preservation_and_digitalization_project-54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VictorVPhonograph.jpg"},{"link_name":"gramophone record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Eldridge R. Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldridge_R._Johnson"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-life-56"}],"text":"Discs (that aren't re-recordable) are not inherently better than cylinders at providing audio fidelity. Rather, the advantages of the format are seen in the manufacturing process: discs can be stamped, and the matrixes to stamp disc can be shipped to other printing plants for a global distribution of recordings; cylinders could not be stamped until 1901–1902, when the gold moulding process was introduced by Edison.[52]A Victor V phonograph, circa 1907Through experimentation, in 1892 Berliner began commercial production of his disc records and \"gramophones\". His \"gramophone record\" was the first disc record to be offered to the public. They were five inches (13 cm) in diameter and recorded on one side only. Seven-inch (17.5 cm) records followed in 1895. Also in 1895 Berliner replaced the hard rubber used to make the discs with a shellac compound.[53] Berliner's early records had poor sound quality, however. Work by Eldridge R. Johnson eventually improved the sound fidelity to a point where it was as good as the cylinder.[54]","title":"Disc vs. cylinder as a recording medium"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portable_78_rpm_record_player.jpg"},{"link_name":"EMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI"},{"link_name":"His Master's Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Master%27s_Voice"},{"link_name":"vinyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record"},{"link_name":"transcription discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_disc"},{"link_name":"V-discs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-discs"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Prince Igor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Igor"},{"link_name":"shellac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellac"},{"link_name":"polystyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"text":"A 1930s portable wind-up gramophone from EMI (His Master's Voice)In the 1930s, vinyl (originally known as vinylite) was introduced as a record material for radio transcription discs, and for radio commercials. At that time, virtually no discs for home use were made from this material. Vinyl was used for the popular 78-rpm V-discs issued to US soldiers during World War II. This significantly reduced breakage during transport. The first commercial vinylite record was the set of five 12\" discs \"Prince Igor\" (Asch Records album S-800, dubbed from Soviet masters in 1945). Victor began selling some home-use vinyl 78s in late 1945; but most 78s were made of a shellac compound until the 78-rpm format was completely phased out. (Shellac records were heavier and more brittle.) 33s and 45s were, however, made exclusively of vinyl, with the exception of some 45s manufactured out of polystyrene.[55]","title":"Dominance of the disc record"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philco_All-Transistor_Phonograph-1955.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Philco_TPA-1_All-Transistor_phonograph_-_Radio_and_Television_News_Oct_1955.jpg"},{"link_name":"Philco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philco"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"}],"sub_title":"First all-transistor phonograph","text":"Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph, developed and produced in 1955Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph – Radio and Television News magazine, issue October 1955In 1955, Philco developed and produced the world's first all-transistor phonograph models TPA-1 and TPA-2, which were announced in the June 28, 1955 edition of The Wall Street Journal.[56] Philco started to sell these all-transistor phonographs in the fall of 1955, for the price of $59.95. The October 1955 issue of Radio & Television News magazine (page 41), had a full page detailed article on Philco's new consumer product. The all-transistor portable phonograph TPA-1 and TPA-2 models played only 45rpm records and used four 1.5 volt \"D\" batteries for their power supply. The \"TPA\" stands for \"Transistor Phonograph Amplifier\". Their circuitry used three Philco germanium PNP alloy-fused junction audio frequency transistors. After the 1956 season had ended, Philco decided to discontinue both models, for transistors were too expensive compared to vacuum tubes,[57][58] but by 1961 a $49.95 ($509.29 in 2023) portable, battery-powered radio-phonograph with seven transistors was available.[59]","title":"Dominance of the disc record"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Technics_SL-1200MK2-2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Technics SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"direct-drive turntable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-drive_turntable"},{"link_name":"belt-drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt-drive_turntable"},{"link_name":"direct-drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-drive_turntable"},{"link_name":"idler-wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idler-wheel"},{"link_name":"motor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"drive belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)"},{"link_name":"elastomeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastomer"},{"link_name":"Matsushita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-billboard-62"},{"link_name":"Technics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_(brand)"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oxford-63"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reverb-64"},{"link_name":"Technics SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired-65"},{"link_name":"turntablism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntablism"},{"link_name":"hip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wired-65"}],"text":"A Technics SL-1200 direct-drive turntableThere are presently three main phonograph designs: belt-drive, direct-drive, and idler-wheel.In a belt-drive turntable the motor is located off-center from the platter, either underneath it or entirely outside of it, and is connected to the platter or counter-platter by a drive belt made from elastomeric material.The direct-drive turntable was invented by Shuichi Obata, an engineer at Matsushita (now Panasonic).[60] In 1969, Matsushita released it as the Technics SP-10,[61] the first direct-drive turntable on the market.[62] The most influential direct-drive turntable was the Technics SL-1200,[63] which, following the spread of turntablism in hip hop culture, became the most widely-used turntable in DJ culture for several decades.[63]","title":"Turntable designs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thorens_TD124_mkii_%2B_SME_3012_(9509758745)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"SME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SME_Limited"},{"link_name":"Thorens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorens"},{"link_name":"SME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SME_Limited"}],"text":"A SME 3012 tonearm fitted on a Thorens TD124 MkII turntableIn some high quality equipment the arm carrying the pickup, known as a tonearm, is manufactured separately from the motor and turntable unit. Companies specialising in the manufacture of tonearms include the English company SME.","title":"Arm systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Cue lever","text":"More sophisticated turntables were (and still are) frequently manufactured so as to incorporate a \"cue lever\", a device that mechanically lowers the tonearm on to the record. It enables the user to locate an individual track more easily, to pause a record, and to avoid the risk of scratching the record, which may require practice to avoid when lowering the tonearm manually.[64]","title":"Arm systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"Linear tracking","text":"Early developments in linear turntables were from Rek-O-Kut (portable lathe/phonograph) and Ortho-Sonic in the 1950s, and Acoustical in the early 1960s. These were eclipsed by more successful implementations of the concept from the late 1960s through the early 1980s.[65]","title":"Arm systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NadelAufPlatte.JPG"},{"link_name":"transducer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transducer"},{"link_name":"amplified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"loudspeakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"piezoelectric effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_effect"},{"link_name":"magnetic cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_cartridge"},{"link_name":"diamond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond"},{"link_name":"sapphire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapphire"},{"link_name":"ellipsoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsoid"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"text":"Typical magnetic cartridgeThe pickup or cartridge is a transducer that converts mechanical vibrations from a stylus into an electrical signal. The electrical signal is amplified and converted into sound by one or more loudspeakers. Crystal and ceramic pickups that use the piezoelectric effect have largely been replaced by magnetic cartridges.The pickup includes a stylus with a small diamond or sapphire tip that runs in the record groove. The stylus eventually becomes worn by contact with the groove, and it is usually replaceable.Styli are classified as spherical or elliptical, although the tip is actually shaped as a half-sphere or a half-ellipsoid. Spherical styli are generally more robust than other types, but do not follow the groove as accurately, giving diminished high frequency response. Elliptical styli usually track the groove more accurately, with increased high frequency response and less distortion. For DJ use, the relative robustness of spherical styli make them generally preferred for back-cuing and scratching. There are a number of derivations of the basic elliptical type, including the shibata or fine line stylus, which can more accurately reproduce high frequency information contained in the record groove. This is especially important for playback of quadraphonic recordings.[66]","title":"Pickup systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"laser turntables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_turntable"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"computer software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Library of Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"sub_title":"Optical readout","text":"A few specialist laser turntables read the groove optically using a laser pickup. Since there is no physical contact with the record, no wear is incurred. However, this \"no wear\" advantage is debatable, since vinyl records have been tested to withstand even 1200 plays with no significant audio degradation, provided that it is played with a high quality cartridge and that the surfaces are clean.[67]An alternative approach is to take a high-resolution photograph or scan of each side of the record and interpret the image of the grooves using computer software. An amateur attempt using a flatbed scanner lacked satisfactory fidelity.[68] A professional system employed by the Library of Congress produces excellent quality.[69]","title":"Pickup systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RedDevilNeedle.jpg"},{"link_name":"jukebox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukebox"},{"link_name":"shellac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shellac"},{"link_name":"CD-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatible_Discrete_4"},{"link_name":"quadraphonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadraphonic"},{"link_name":"Technics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_(brand)"},{"link_name":"mil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thou_(length)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vinylengine.com-77"},{"link_name":"CED Videodisc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance_Electronic_Disc"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vinylengine.com-77"},{"link_name":"records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_record"},{"link_name":"RCA Victor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA_Victor"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"text":"Stylus for jukebox using shellac 78 rpm records, 1940sA development in stylus form came about by the attention to the CD-4 quadraphonic sound modulation process, which requires up to 50 kHz frequency response, with cartridges like Technics EPC-100CMK4 capable of playback on frequencies up to 100 kHz. This requires a stylus with a narrow side radius, such as 5 μm (or 0.2 mil). A narrow-profile elliptical stylus is able to read the higher frequencies (greater than 20 kHz), but at an increased wear, since the contact surface is narrower. For overcoming this problem, the Shibata stylus was invented around 1972 in Japan by Norio Shibata of JVC.[70]The Shibata-designed stylus offers a greater contact surface with the groove, which in turn means less pressure over the vinyl surface and thus less wear. A positive side effect is that the greater contact surface also means the stylus reads sections of the vinyl that were not touched (or \"worn\") by the common spherical stylus. In a demonstration by JVC[71] records \"worn\" after 500 plays at a relatively high 4.5 gf tracking force with a spherical stylus, played \"as new\" with the Shibata profile.[citation needed]Other advanced stylus shapes appeared following the same goal of increasing contact surface, improving on the Shibata. Chronologically: \"Hughes\" Shibata variant (1975),[72] \"Ogura\" (1978),[73] Van den Hul (1982).[74] Such a stylus may be marketed as \"Hyperelliptical\" (Shure), \"Alliptic\", \"Fine Line\" (Ortofon), \"Line contact\" (Audio Technica), \"Polyhedron\", \"LAC\", or \"Stereohedron\" (Stanton).[75]A keel-shaped diamond stylus appeared as a byproduct of the invention of the CED Videodisc. This, together with laser-diamond-cutting technologies, made possible the \"ridge\" shaped stylus, such as the Namiki (1985)[76] design, and Fritz Gyger (1989)[77] design. This type of stylus is marketed as \"MicroLine\" (Audio technica), \"Micro-Ridge\" (Shure), or \"Replicant\" (Ortofon).[75]To address the problem of steel needle wear upon records, which resulted in the cracking of the latter, RCA Victor devised unbreakable records in 1930, by mixing polyvinyl chloride with plasticisers, in a proprietary formula they called Victrolac, which was first used in 1931, in motion picture discs.[78]","title":"Stylus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LEAK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEAK"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"text":"Since the late 1950s, almost all phono input stages have used the RIAA equalization standard. Before settling on that standard, there were many different equalizations in use, including EMI, HMV, Columbia, Decca FFRR, NAB, Ortho, BBC transcription, etc. Recordings made using these other equalization schemes typically sound odd if they are played through a RIAA-equalized preamplifier. High-performance (so-called \"multicurve disc\") preamplifiers, which include multiple, selectable equalizations, are no longer commonly available. However, some vintage preamplifiers, such as the LEAK varislope series, are still obtainable and can be refurbished. Newer preamplifiers like the Esoteric Sound Re-Equalizer or the K-A-B MK2 Vintage Signal Processor are also available.[79]","title":"Equalization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fonoteca_Nacional_02.JPG"},{"link_name":"Fonoteca Nacional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fonoteca_Nacional&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"es","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonoteca_Nacional"},{"link_name":"Vinyl revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_revival"},{"link_name":"compact disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_disc"},{"link_name":"CD players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD_player"},{"link_name":"tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tape"},{"link_name":"home audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_audio"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"DJs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Panasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic"},{"link_name":"Technics SL-1200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technics_SL-1200"},{"link_name":"Consumer Electronics Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-88"},{"link_name":"Audio-Technica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio-Technica"},{"link_name":"Sound Burger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_Burger"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crosley_Record_Player.jpg"},{"link_name":"Crosley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosley_Radio"},{"link_name":"Crosley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crosley_Radio"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27I_Ear%27_Audio_Show_2019_31_Yamaha_Turntable_and_Jelco_tonearm.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yamaha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"needle dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_drop_(audio)"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-88"},{"link_name":"analog-to-digital converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter"},{"link_name":"high-resolution audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-resolution_audio"},{"link_name":"DSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Stream_Digital"},{"link_name":"WAV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAV"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"text":"An old phonograph for record preservation at Fonoteca Nacional [es] (National Sound Archive of Mexico)See also: Vinyl revivalAlthough largely replaced since the introduction of the compact disc in 1982, record albums still sold in small numbers throughout the 1980s and 1990s, but gradually sidelined in favor of CD players and tape decks in home audio environments.[80] Record players continued to be manufactured and sold into the 21st century, although in small numbers and mainly for DJs.[81] Following a resurgence in sales of records since the late 2000s,[82][83] an increasing number of turntables have been manufactured and sold.[84] Notably, Japanese company Panasonic brought back its well-known advanced Technics SL-1200 at the 2016 Consumer Electronics Show[85] during which Sony also headlined a turntable, amid increasing interest in the format.[86] Similarly, Audio-Technica revived its 1980s Sound Burger portable player in 2023.[87]A Crosley retro-styled suitcase record player produced in c. 2013At the low-end of the market, Crosley has been especially popular with its suitcase record players[88] and have played a big part in the vinyl revival and its adoption among younger people and children in the 2010s.[89]A mid-range Yamaha turntable, c. 2019New interest in records has led to the development of turntables with additional modern features. USB turntables have a built-in audio interface, which transfers the analog sound directly to the connected computer.[90] Some USB turntables transfer the audio without equalization, but are sold with software that allows the EQ of the transferred audio file to be adjusted. There are also many turntables on the market designed to be plugged into a computer via a USB port for needle dropping purposes.[91]Modern turntables have also been released featuring Bluetooth technology to output a record's sound wirelessly through speakers.[86] Sony have also released a high-end turntable with an analog-to-digital converter to convert the sound from a playing record into a 24-bit high-resolution audio file in DSD or WAV formats.[92]","title":"Contemporary use and models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"loudspeakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudspeaker"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"}],"text":"^ The names record player and turntable have gradually become synonymous, however the second one is more associated with devices requiring separate amplifiers and loudspeakers. Originally, the term turntable referred to the part of phonograph's mechanism providing rotation of the record.[citation needed]\n\n^ Historical phonographs could record sound.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linear Tonearms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.soundfountain.com/amb/ttrabco.html#INTRO"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-02-032680-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-032680-7"},{"link_name":"Metal Machine Music: The Phonograph's Voice and the Transformation of Writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cec.sonus.ca/econtact/14_3/heumann_phonograph.html"},{"link_name":"CEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community"},{"link_name":"\"The Gramophone And The Mechanical Recording And Reproduction Of Musical Sounds\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=gtQWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA209"},{"link_name":"Turntable [wiki]: Bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cecpublic.pbworks.com/TurntableBibliography"},{"link_name":"CEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community"},{"link_name":"Experimental Turntablism: Historical overview of experiments with record players / records — or Scratches from Second-Hand Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cec.sonus.ca/econtact/14_3/weissenbrunner_history.html"},{"link_name":"CEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Electroacoustic_Community"},{"link_name":"\"A Record Changer And Record Of Complementary Design\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20111122042326/http://homepage.mac.com/oldtownman/recording/speed45.html"}],"text":"Bruil, Rudolf A. (January 8, 2004). \"Linear Tonearms.\" Retrieved on July 25, 2011.\nGelatt, Roland. The Fabulous Phonograph, 1877–1977. Second rev. ed., [being also the] First Collier Books ed., in series, Sounds of the Century. New York: Collier, 1977. 349 p., ill. ISBN 0-02-032680-7\nHeumann, Michael. \"Metal Machine Music: The Phonograph's Voice and the Transformation of Writing.\" eContact! 14.3 — Turntablism (January 2013). Montréal: CEC.\nKoenigsberg, Allen. The Patent History of the Phonograph, 1877–1912. APM Press, 1991.\nReddie, Lovell N. (1908). \"The Gramophone And The Mechanical Recording And Reproduction Of Musical Sounds\". Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 209–231. Retrieved 2009-08-07.\nVarious. \"Turntable [wiki]: Bibliography.\" eContact! 14.3 — Turntablism (January 2013). Montréal: CEC.\nWeissenbrunner, Karin. \"Experimental Turntablism: Historical overview of experiments with record players / records — or Scratches from Second-Hand Technology.\" eContact! 14.3 — Turntablism (January 2013). Montréal: CEC.\nCarson, B. H.; Burt, A. D.; Reiskind, and H. I., \"A Record Changer And Record Of Complementary Design\", RCA Review, June 1949","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Illustration of a typical modern turntable: here showing the curved tonearm with a headshell at the end, under which lies the magnetic cartridge and its attached stylus touching down on the grooves of a black record placed on the turntable's platter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Turntable.svg/250px-Turntable.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An Edison Standard Phonograph that uses wax cylinders","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Edison_Standard_Photograph_%2808%29.jpg/220px-Edison_Standard_Photograph_%2808%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wood engraving published in The Illustrated Australian News, depicting a public demonstration of new technology at the Royal Society of Victoria (Melbourne, Australia) on 8 August 1878.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Conversazione_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Victoria.jpg/220px-Conversazione_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Victoria.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dictionary illustration of a phonautograph. This version uses a barrel made of plaster of Paris.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Phonautograph-cent2.png/222px-Phonautograph-cent2.png"},{"image_text":"Patent drawing for Edison's phonograph, May 18, 1880","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Drawing_for_a_Phonograph_-_NARA_-_595515.jpg/220px-Drawing_for_a_Phonograph_-_NARA_-_595515.jpg"},{"image_text":"Close up of the mechanism of an Edison Amberola, c. 1915","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Amberola_close-up.jpg/220px-Amberola_close-up.jpg"},{"image_text":"Phonograph cabinet built with Edison cement, 1912. The clockwork portion of the phonograph is concealed in the base beneath the statue; the amplifying horn is the shell behind the human figure.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Edison_phonograph_1912.jpg/170px-Edison_phonograph_1912.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Early phonograph at Deaf Smith County Historical Museum in Hereford, Texas","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Early_phonograph%2C_Deaf_Smith_County_Museum%2C_Hereford%2C_TX_IMG_4857.JPG/220px-Early_phonograph%2C_Deaf_Smith_County_Museum%2C_Hereford%2C_TX_IMG_4857.JPG"},{"image_text":"A 'G' (Graham Bell) model Graphophone being played back by a typist after its cylinder had recorded dictation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Transcription_using_cylinder_phonograph.png/220px-Transcription_using_cylinder_phonograph.png"},{"image_text":"A later-model Columbia Graphophone of 1901","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Graphophone1901.jpg/220px-Graphophone1901.jpg"},{"image_text":"Edison-Phonograph playing: Iola by the Edison Military Band (video, 3 min 51 s)"},{"image_text":"A Victor V phonograph, circa 1907","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/VictorVPhonograph.jpg/170px-VictorVPhonograph.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 1930s portable wind-up gramophone from EMI (His Master's Voice)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portable_78_rpm_record_player.jpg/220px-Portable_78_rpm_record_player.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph, developed and produced in 1955","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Philco_All-Transistor_Phonograph-1955.jpg/220px-Philco_All-Transistor_Phonograph-1955.jpg"},{"image_text":"Philco all-transistor model TPA-1 phonograph – Radio and Television News magazine, issue October 1955","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Philco_TPA-1_All-Transistor_phonograph_-_Radio_and_Television_News_Oct_1955.jpg/220px-Philco_TPA-1_All-Transistor_phonograph_-_Radio_and_Television_News_Oct_1955.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Technics SL-1200 direct-drive turntable","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Technics_SL-1200MK2-2.jpg/220px-Technics_SL-1200MK2-2.jpg"},{"image_text":"A SME 3012 tonearm fitted on a Thorens TD124 MkII turntable","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Thorens_TD124_mkii_%2B_SME_3012_%289509758745%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Thorens_TD124_mkii_%2B_SME_3012_%289509758745%29_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Typical magnetic cartridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/NadelAufPlatte.JPG/220px-NadelAufPlatte.JPG"},{"image_text":"Stylus for jukebox using shellac 78 rpm records, 1940s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/RedDevilNeedle.jpg/220px-RedDevilNeedle.jpg"},{"image_text":"An old phonograph for record preservation at Fonoteca Nacional [es] (National Sound Archive of Mexico)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fonoteca_Nacional_02.JPG/220px-Fonoteca_Nacional_02.JPG"},{"image_text":"A Crosley retro-styled suitcase record player produced in c. 2013","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Crosley_Record_Player.jpg/150px-Crosley_Record_Player.jpg"},{"image_text":"A mid-range Yamaha turntable, c. 2019","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/%27I_Ear%27_Audio_Show_2019_31_Yamaha_Turntable_and_Jelco_tonearm.jpg/220px-%27I_Ear%27_Audio_Show_2019_31_Yamaha_Turntable_and_Jelco_tonearm.jpg"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png"},{"title":"electronics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Electronics"},{"title":"music portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Music"},{"title":"Record production portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Record_production"},{"title":"Phonograph record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_record"},{"title":"Phonograph cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph_cylinder"},{"title":"Archéophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch%C3%A9ophone"},{"title":"Audio signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal_processing"},{"title":"Compressed air gramophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_air_gramophone"},{"title":"List of phonograph manufacturers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phonograph_manufacturers"},{"title":"Talking Machine World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talking_Machine_World"},{"title":"Vinyl killer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_killer"},{"title":"Turntablism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turntablism"}] | [{"reference":"\"The Incredible Talking Machine\". Time. June 23, 2010. Archived from the original on October 14, 2018. Retrieved October 21, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1999143_1999210,00.html","url_text":"\"The Incredible Talking Machine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)","url_text":"Time"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181014103702/http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1999143_1999210,00.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tinfoil Phonograph\". Rutgers University. Archived from the original on 2011-05-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://edison.rutgers.edu/tinfoil.htm","url_text":"\"Tinfoil Phonograph\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110513165450/http://edison.rutgers.edu/tinfoil.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the Cylinder Phonograph\". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2016-08-19. 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Reports of Patent, Design and Trade Mark Cases. The Illustrated Official Journal. 1910-07-05. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20190412094028/http://rpc.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/27/689.full.pdf","url_text":"\"Application by the Gramophone Company to register \"Gramophone\" as a trade mark\""},{"url":"http://rpc.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/27/689.full.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Edison Diamond Disc Phonograph – History, Identification, Repair\". Archived from the original on 17 March 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://intertique.com/TheEdisonDiamondDiscPhonograph.html","url_text":"\"The Edison Diamond Disc Phonograph – History, Identification, Repair\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200317051242/https://intertique.com/TheEdisonDiamondDiscPhonograph.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"State Library Victoria – Viewer\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_and_South_Western_Railway | Glasgow and South Western Railway | ["1 History","1.1 Before the G&SWR","1.2 The G&SWR formed","1.3 Expansion by alliance","1.4 Reaching towards the north of Ireland","1.5 The Paisley and Renfrew line","1.6 Crossing the Clyde, and a central Glasgow station","1.7 A direct line to Kilmarnock","1.8 Other new lines proposed, and existing branches absorbed","1.9 Reaching Greenock","1.10 The Annbank lines","1.11 Extending to Largs","1.12 Portpatrick again—or Stranraer","1.13 Paisley Canal, and the Dalry and North Johnstone line","1.14 Darvel","1.15 Linking Paisley and Barrhead","1.16 Three local lines after 1900","2 Operations","2.1 Brakes","2.2 Slip coach","3 Signalling","4 Shipping","5 Closures","6 The G&SWR network today","7 See also","8 References","9 Notes","10 Sources","11 External links"] | British pre-grouping railway company
Glasgow and South Western RailwayOverviewHeadquartersGlasgowLocaleScotlandDates of operation1850; 174 years ago (1850) –1923; 101 years ago (1923)PredecessorGlasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway and Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle RailwaySuccessorLondon, Midland and Scottish RailwayTechnicalTrack gauge4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) standard gaugeLength493 miles 38 chains (794.2 km) (1919)Track length1,141 miles 64 chains (1,837.5 km) (1919)
The Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR) was a railway company in Scotland. It served a triangular area of south-west Scotland between Glasgow, Stranraer and Carlisle. It was formed on 28 October 1850 by the merger of two earlier railways, the Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway and the Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway. Already established in Ayrshire, it consolidated its position there and extended southwards, eventually reaching Stranraer. Its main business was mineral traffic, especially coal, and passengers, but its more southerly territory was very thinly populated and local traffic, passenger and goods, was limited, while operationally parts of its network were difficult.
It later formed an alliance with the English Midland Railway and ran express passenger trains from Glasgow to London with that company, in competition with the Caledonian Railway and its English partner, the London and North Western Railway, who had an easier route. In 1923 the G&SWR formed a constituent of the London Midland and Scottish Railway group.
Much of the network remains active at the present day; Glasgow commuting particularly has developed, and parts of the network have been electrified. Many of the earlier mineral workings, and branches constructed to serve them, have ceased, and many local passenger stations in rural areas have closed.
In 1921 the G&SWR had 1,128 miles (1,815 km) of line (calculated as single track extent plus sidings) and the company’s capital was about £19 million.
History
Before the G&SWR
In the early 1830s, there were already several mineral railways operating in Scotland; local in extent, they were mostly built to serve coal mines and other mineral activity. The successful operation of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway as an inter-city line, and then the Grand Junction Railway reaching northwards, caused railway promoters in the west of Scotland to consider that one day, there might be a through railway line to London.
The Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway (GPK&AR) was authorised in 1838, and opened its line to Ayr in 1840. It was a locomotive railway, and in due time it opened its branch line from Dalry to Kilmarnock, with the intention of extending to Carlisle to meet up with whatever railway might reach that city from the south. The GPK&AR had anticipated constructing its authorised line and then the extension, but by 1846 there was a frenzy of competing schemes that threatened to destroy the Company's core business. Few of these were realistic, but the GPK&AR itself felt obliged to promote numerous branches, many of them tactical, in order to keep competing schemes out. This period of railway promotion was followed by a slump, when money was difficult to come by, and these factors prevented the GPK&AR from bringing its Carlisle extension into reality.
Enthusiasm for a connection to English railways continued, however, and was intensified by the promotion of other schemes to link central Scotland and England. Interests friendly to the GPK&AR formed the Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway (GD&CR) to extend from the southern extremity of the GPK&AR to Carlisle; their route became known as the Nithsdale Route. Opposing promoters put forward a so-called central line via Carstairs and Beattock, that had the advantage of a shorter mileage, and the capacity to serve Edinburgh directly, but the disadvantage of much heavier gradients and running through a less populous area. This route became known as the Annandale Route.
The GD&CR was authorised by Act of Parliament, but the rival Caledonian Railway (CR) had already had authorisation for building its line on the Annandale route; the GD&CR's financial position led it to abandon its intention of building an independent line to Carlisle, and it altered its plan so as to join the CR at Gretna Junction, relying on negotiating running powers for its trains to reach Carlisle.
The GD&CR and the GPK&AR formed the definite intention of merging; at first the GD&CR demanded terms that were excessive, particularly as their own financial situation was weak: they were funding construction of their line with money loaned by the GPK&AR. However more realistic expectations emerged later, and by Acts of 1846 and 1847 it was determined that the two companies would merge when the GD&CR had completed construction of its line. The GPK&AR extended as far as Horsecleugh (between Cumnock and New Cumnock) and the GD&CR reached an end-on junction there, completing the through line on 28 October 1850.
The G&SWR formed
System map of the G&SWR at vesting in 1850Accordingly on 28 October 1850 the G&SWR was formed. Although this was described as a merger, the reality was that the penniless GD&CR was dissolved, its operation was taken over by the GPK&AR, and the latter company changed its name to the G&SWR. The GPK&AR had been working the GD&CR's line for it since it (partially) opened.
The new company had lines:
from Bridge Street in Glasgow to Ayr; the Ayr station was north of the river, at Newton-on-Ayr), and the section between Bridge Street and Paisley was owned and operated jointly with the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway; and
from Dalry Junction to Gretna Junction via Kilmarnock and Dumfries; and
a number of lines in mineral districts, including the former Kilmarnock and Troon Railway, now upgraded to contemporary technical standards.
The trains on the Dumfries line now ran through to Carlisle, an arrangement having been made with the Caledonian Railway to permit this. However the CR did not encourage the G&SWR and only on 1 March 1851 was a booking clerk given accommodation at Carlisle Citadel passenger station. This was granted on an undertaking that the G&SWR would never interfere with the business of the CR or the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway, and tolls were charged for use of the line from Gretna, and for bulk goods passing through Carlisle, whether transshipped or not. The CR ensured that all traffic between south of Carlisle and Glasgow or Edinburgh was routed over its own line.
The accounts for the first half-year, produced in March 1851, showed gross income for the six months to be £87,186 and a 2¼% dividend was declared. The Company owned 72 engines, 171 passenger coaches, and 2,416 non-passenger vehicles. Good enough as the results were, the long main line to Gretna was not producing much, due to the dominance of competing route of the Caledonian Railway, and business in general declined following the first half-year. A pooling agreement was finalised in 1853 which mitigated some of the worst toll charges, but routing of goods traffic via the CR was made obligatory in many situations. The agreement included a comprehensive limitation on encroachment by either railway into the other's territory.
Expansion by alliance
Dumfries station pilot in BR daysIn the years immediately following the formation of the G&SWR, the shortage of capital meant that no definite steps were taken for further expansion. Local initiatives were encouraged, however, with the G&SWR providing some funding and in most cases working the line when it was completed.
The Ayr and Dalmellington Railway Act was passed on 4 August 1853. At this time the G&SWR Ayr station was north of the River Ayr, and the A&DR was to run from Falkland Junction, a short distance north of the station, and round the east side of the town. The new line had an Ayr passenger station (a temporary structure at first), but it was less convenient than the old terminus; until January 1860 the old G&SWR terminus station continued to be used by some trains. There were important ironworks owned by the Houldsworth family, and ironstone and coal deposits, in the lands near Dalmellington. The independent A&DR company was worked by the G&SWR and later absorbed on 1 August 1858.
On 10 July 1854 the Ayr and Maybole Junction Railway was authorised to reach Maybole by a junction from the Ayr and Dalmellington; the junction was to be called Maybole Junction, but was named Dalrymple Junction when the line opened to goods traffic on 15 May 1856. Passenger opening was delayed until 2 August 1856 because of the Board of Trade Inspecting Officer's dissatisfaction with the works at first. This line too was worked by the G&SWR.
There were discussions of a further extension railway to reach Girvan and develop the harbour there, possibly as a ferry port for Ireland: a Maybole and Girvan Railway was formed in 1855; it got its authorising Act on 14 July 1856. All of these local initiatives received the promise of cash support from the G&SWR. The Maybole and Girvan line opened on 24 May 1860; the old Maybole station, east of Redbrae, was unsuitable for an onward route and was by-passed, the new passenger station being at Culzean Road.
The Ardrossan Railway had long been allied to the G&SWR and by Act of 24 July 1854 it was vested in the G&SWR, effective on 1 August 1854. The line ran between Ardrossan Harbour and Kilwinning, with mineral branches extending further east.
Reaching towards the north of Ireland
Kilmarnock station in 1957The wide space of countryside west of Dumfries and south of Girvan still lacked any rail connection. In 1856 a provisional Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway (CD&DR) was gaining momentum. It was independently sponsored, although it was seen as a possible first step in opening up the entire region; it was authorised on 21 July 1856. This prompted the G&SWR to relocate the Dumfries station to a point north of St Mary's street; the former "temporary" station was relegated to goods status. The new station opened on 13 September 1859: it was described as "equal if not superior in lightness and beauty to any in Great Britain". The CD&DR line opened on 21 July 1856.
For many years schemes had been put forward to reach Portpatrick. There was a small harbour there and ferry crossings to Donaghadee provided the shortest route to reach the north of Ireland. Mail, cattle, and soldiers had been conveyed that way, but reaching Portpatrick with a railway across difficult and sparsely populated land had been a challenge. Encouraged by the CD&DR authorisation, at the end of 1856 promoters resolved to build a British and Irish Grand Junction Railway, 62 miles (100 km) from Castle Douglas. Government assurances were given about the use of the sea route for mail and improvement of the tiny harbour at Portpatrick, and suddenly rival railways including the English Great Northern Railway were hastening to put up money for a share. With a capital of £460,000, the line looked well supported and got its Act of Parliament on 17 August 1857, retitled the Portpatrick Railway.
The construction, through difficult terrain, went ahead, and as completion became near, the Portpatrick Railway planned the arrangements for the working of its line. The G&SWR were working the CD&DR and offered to work the Portpatrick line for 72% of gross receipts. The G&SWR had recently announced that it worked its own railway for less than 38%, and the Portpatrick line decided the proposed charge was too much; on 28 March 1860 they decided that "the board should retain the working of the line under their own management". The G&SWR had been certain that its terms for working the line would have to be accepted; it had promised a further £40,000 towards the capital cost of the Portpatrick Railway, and on a pretext it now declined to make that payment, further alienating the Portpatrick Railway. The line opened, stoutly independent, on 12 March 1861 as far as Stranraer.
The Government had implied a promise to improve the tiny harbour at Portpatrick and was now delaying; the Portpatrick Railway delayed too, but finally completed the line from Stranraer to Portpatrick on 28 August 1862. Although some use was made of the route, the anticipated major sea crossing never materialised, and in time Stranraer became the more important port.
The Paisley and Renfrew line
Before the existence of the G&SWR, its predecessor, the GPK&AR had acquired the Paisley and Renfrew Railway, a horse-operated railway with track on stone blocks, and the GS&WR acquired this line. By 1866 the primitive technology had become an embarrassment and pressure from the Burgh of Renfrew caused the G&SWR to upgrade the line to locomotive haulage, converting it to standard gauge, and connecting it to the main (joint) line at Greenlaw, east of Paisley, and facing Glasgow. The work was completed by September 1867 and through passenger trains between Glasgow and Renfrew were instituted.
Crossing the Clyde, and a central Glasgow station
System map of the G&SWR 1876As traffic increased, dependency on the Bridge Street station as the G&SWR Glasgow station became ever more strained, and a nominally independent central terminus was proposed; this would involve constructive the first railway bridge over this part of the Clyde—there had previously been no connection across the river in Glasgow. The G&SWR and the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway were partners, and invited the Caledonian Railway to join in, but the CR declined.
The City of Glasgow Union Railway obtained Parliamentary authorisation on 29 July 1864; the capital was £900,000 with the G&SWR and the E&GR taking one-third of the shares each. (The following year the two existing companies agree to take all the stock themselves.) The line would run from a junction with the Paisley joint line at West Street to Sighthill on the E&GR, with a new passenger station at St Enoch, a large goods station in land vacated by the University of Glasgow and a connection at West Street to the General Terminus goods branch on the bank of the Clyde.
Construction was slow and costs overran heavily; on 12 December 1870 the first trains ran from Shields Road to a temporary central passenger terminus at Dunlop Street. On 1 June 1871 the line was extended to Bellgrove, joining the North British Railway (NBR) there, and forming the north-south connecting link, which was heavily used for transfer goods trains.
It was not until 1 May 1876 that St Enoch station opened and through trains to London ran from there. The station was universally regarded as magnificent, and in 1879 the accompanying St Enoch Hotel, the largest in Scotland, opened too. By now the NBR enthusiasm for a general central passenger station had waned, and the northwards exit from St Enoch station was only used by local G&SWR trains to Springburn. On 29 June 1883 the station and the immediate approach lines were transferred from the CGUR to the G&SWR.
This was followed by partition of the CGUR; the section south and west of College Junction (near High Street, NBR) went to the G&SWR, and the section north and east of Bellgrove went to the NBR. These changes were enacted on 29 June 1883.
In the 1890s it became obvious that expansion of St Enoch was essential, and on 18 August 1898 an Act for the extension of St Enoch station was passed. A second arch roof and six further platforms were built; they were brought into use progressively from 1901. The extension was completed in 1904, at a cost of £2,500,000.
A direct line to Kilmarnock
The GPK&AR had declined to give Kilmarnock a direct route; it opened its line via Dalry in 1843. In 1848 the Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway (GB&NDR) opened from a South Side terminus in Glasgow. The line was friendly to the Caledonian Railway. In 1865 both the Caledonian Railway and the G&SWR obtained Parliamentary authority to build a line from Glasgow to Kilmarnock. Shareholders of both companies objected to the wasteful duplication, and in 1869 an Act was obtained for the Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway, owned jointly by both companies, running from Neilston on the GB&NDR. It opened in 1873, with a branch from Lugton to Beith. A connection into the St Enoch line was opened shortly afterwards.
Other new lines proposed, and existing branches absorbed
As well as supporting the City Union line, in 1864 the G&SWR proposed a large number of branch lines, most of them tactical in respect of competition with the Caledonian Railway. This caused considerable disquiet among shareholders—the same was true within the Caledonian company—and some moderation of the proposals took place. As part of the rapprochement, the G&SWR was granted permanent powers to run between Gretna and Carlisle, for £5,000 a year.
In 1865, four railways were absorbed, effective from 1 August; they were the Bridge of Weir Railway (from Elderslie, opened in 1864), the Maybole and Girvan Railway (described above; it had never made money and had run out of cash to finish the buildings and ancillary works on the line); the Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway (CD&DR); and the Kirkcudbright Railway. The CD&DR and the Kirkcudbright Railway were now operated as the Kirkcudbright branch as a single unit from Dumfries. The Caledonian Railway was granted running powers between Dumfries and Castle Douglas for trains it ran between Lockerbie and Stranraer.
Reaching Greenock
The Prince's Pier, Greenock, in use today as a shipping terminusFrom the outset, Greenock had been served by the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway, allied to the Caledonian Railway. The port developed and carried increasing volumes of goods, and passenger traffic for the Clyde ferries grew considerably. The G&SWR wished to secure a share of this valuable traffic, and the Bridge of Weir Railway had been a move in that direction. The friendly Greenock and Ayrshire Railway (G&AR) was heavily supported (£300,000 out of £350,000 share capital) by the G&SWR, and opened its line from Bridge of Weir to its Albert Harbour station at Greenock, in 1869. This gave a quayside transfer to steamers at Greenock, and a price war with the established CR line broke out, eventually resolved with a traffic sharing agreement: the G&SWR received 42.68% of receipts.
In 1872 the G&AR was absorbed by the G&SWR. The Greenock Harbour Trustees further developed Albert Harbour, constructing Princes Pier with extensive berthing facilities for steamers, and the G&SWR renamed their own station Princes Pier in 1875.
Further extension to the harbour facilities took place at the eastern side of Greenock, at Garvel. The G&SWR built a connecting line eastwards from Lynedoch, opening on 5 August 1886. G&SWR trains had to reverse twice to reach the harbour on a steep incline. The branch cost £262,467.
The Annbank lines
Main article: Cross-country lines of the Glasgow and South Western Railway
In 1870 and the following years, a network of lines was opened connecting Ayr with mineral-bearing districts in east Ayrshire. The first line was from Ayr to Mauchline through Annbank, and this was followed by a long loop from Annbank to Cronberry on the Muirkirk line, and a connection to Holehouse Junction on the Dalmellington route. Although the Mauchline connection facilitated some passenger journeys, mineral traffic was more important than passenger operation on these lines.
Extending to Largs
Ardrossan had long been reached, but the G&SWR wished to extend up the coast to Largs. It experienced resistance at first, the Largs Branch opened in stages between 1878 and 1885, with stations at West Kilbride, Fairlie and Largs.
A Fairlie Pier station was opened: the station roof was built using materials recovered from the temporary Dunlop Street station. Bitter and destructive competition for the ferry traffic to island locations developed.
Portpatrick again—or Stranraer
The G&SWR had reached Girvan in 1860 with the help of allied local companies. Continuing from Girvan to Portpatrick, for the crossing to the north of Ireland was still an aspiration, but this section was the most difficult, and sparsely populated terrain. After some false starts, friendly promoters put forward a Girvan and Portpatrick Junction Railway (G&PJR) obtained an authorising Act on 5 July 1865 to close the gap. Raising money, and carrying out the construction was much more difficult than expected. The railway was to reach Stranraer by joining the Portpatrick Railway at Challoch Junction, continuing over that line for 10 miles (16 km). However the Portpatrick line was being worked by the Caledonian Railway (CR), and the CR was hostile to the G&PJR, which it saw was an ally of the G&SWR.
It took until 5 October 1877 to inaugurate a full passenger service over the line. In the intervening period the supposed advantages of Portpatrick as the ferry port for the north of Ireland had dissipated, and Stranraer was now considered the better port. The G&PJR was financially exhausted and weak, operating a long main line with little local business. The financial situation worsened and the company was taken over by the Ayrshire and Wigtownshire Railway Company (A&WR) on 1 August 1887. The new ownership appears to have been a speculative move, but the A&WR was no more solvent than its predecessor. In 1892 the G&SWR purchased the company for £270,000 (on 20 June). It introduced corridor coaching stock was on the boat trains in 1899.
The Portpatrick Railway (PR) had its established line from Dumfries to Stranraer, also a long line through difficult terrain with little intermediate business, but achieving significantly better financial results. The arrangement with the CR for that company to work the line expired in 1885 and the PR considered who might take up the work. Both the CR and the G&SWR were candidates, and two English railways, the London and North Western Railway and the Midland Railway were interested in extending their influence to Stranraer to capture Irish business.
The Wigtownshire Railway was in effect a branch of the PR, running south from Newton Stewart to connect good quality farming land around Wigtown and the sea ports of Garlieston and Wigtown. Their line was being worked by an independent contractor, Thomas Wheatley and his son.
After considerable negotiation, the decision emerged not to form a further working arrangement for the PR, but instead to merge the PR and the Wigtownshire Railway. The combined network formed the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway, purchased by a consortium of the interested larger companies, the G&SWR, the CR, the MR and the LNWR. The arrangement was ratified on 6 August 1885; the sale value was £491,980. The line was worked by the G&SWR and the CR in tandem.
Paisley Canal, and the Dalry and North Johnstone line
United Kingdom legislationGlasgow and South Western Railway Act 1881Act of ParliamentParliament of the United KingdomCitation44 & 45 Vict. c. cxlixDatesRoyal assent18 July 1881Text of statute as originally enacted
As traffic developed, especially the mix of heavy mineral traffic and passenger trains, line capacity became increasingly a problem. This was particularly the case on the Glasgow and Paisley Joint Line where the traffic of the rival Caledonian Railway had to be dealt with. In 1881 the G&SWR submitted a parliamentary bill to drain the defunct Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone Canal and build a railway on it. The bill passed as the Glasgow and South Western Railway Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. cxlix), and the G&SWR started work on what became the Paisley Canal Line. The new line left the former City of Glasgow Union Line at Shields Junction, where it joined the Joint Line, and ran via the southern part of Paisley to Elderslie, where it rejoined the Ayr main line. At this time Paisley was enjoying very considerable industrial growth and the new line was able to serve the relevant areas.
Following the route of a contour canal involved many meandering curves, the worst of which were eased by the use of earthworks. The line opened fully on 1 July 1885, and some through passenger trains used the line as well as local and mineral trains. Capitalising on access to industry in Paisley, a spur off the Canal Line to Potterhill was opened in 1886.
In 1894–5, new carriage sidings were constructed at Bellahouston on the Canal Line, while new engine sheds at Corkerhill were constructed, to relieve pressure on the city centre accommodation.
Industry was expanding too in Johnstone, on the north side of the town in areas not served by the main line. As well as mineral extractive industries, there were extensive textile mills along the Black Cart Water, and a short branch line from Cart Junction to Johnstone North was opened in 1896.
The traffic congestion problem was also experienced on the main line between Elderslie and Dalry (where the Kilmarnock line diverged) and the decision was taken to duplicate this section of the route by a new line on the north of the lochs in the Garnock Valley. The scheme upgraded the Johnstone North line, and ran from its terminus (upgraded and relocated) to Brownhill Junction, north of Dalry, by way of Lochwinnoch. This was the Dalry and North Johnstone Line, which opened in 1905. The capacity relief was continued at Dalry by quadrupling the track from Brownhill Junction, and the junction itself was a flying junction, the first in Scotland.
Much more traffic took the diverging route at Elderslie towards Cart Junction—all of the new line traffic, as well as the fast Greenock boat trains—and the opportunity was taken to provide a burrowing junction at Elderslie for this route: when the Ayr main line was built, it crossed the canal by a bridge. The canal was long defunct, and a new line was built passing under the bridge and running to Cart Junction, eliminating the conflicting move. This opened in 1906.
Darvel
In 1896 the Newmilns branch was extended to Darvel. When the Caledonian Railway reached the town from the east in 1905, a non-encroachment agreement was activated and a few miles of line from Darvel to the Lanarkshire county boundary was transferred from the CR to the G&SWR. There was an end-on connection at the county line.
The volume of mineral traffic heading for Troon and Ayr caused congestion in passing through Kilmarnock station, and a by-pass line on the south side of the town opened in 1902. These developments are described in the article Cross-country lines of the Glasgow and South Western Railway.
Linking Paisley and Barrhead
Observing the success of the Paisley Canal and Potterhill lines in serving industry, both the CR and the G&SWR considered lines in the area between Paisley and Barrhead. In 1902 the G&SWR opened the Barrhead Branch from Potterhill to a new Barrhead Central station, with spurs to the GB&KJR route. For a time a circular passenger service was operated from St Enoch via Paisley Canal, Potterhill and Barrhead Central. Usage proved disappointing, and it reverted to a reduced conventional service in 1907, and Barrhead Central closed to passengers in 1917.
Three local lines after 1900
The small industrial town of Catrine had long aspired to a railway connection. Possibly responding to a petition, the G&SWR built a short branch from Brackenhill Junction, south of Mauchline. The Catrine branch opened on 1 September 1903, with a train service operated by a railmotor.
In 1905 the Cairn Valley Light Railway opened, connecting Moniaive with the G&SWR main line just north of Dumfries. It adopted a proprietary signalling system based on Sykes lock and block system. Passenger usage was poor and was hit hard by bus competition, and the line closed to passengers in 1943.
On 17 May 1906 the Maidens and Dunure Light Railway opened. Intended to open up remote coastal settlements between Ayr and Girvan it was promoted with the construction of the luxurious Turnberry Hotel. Through trains from Glasgow were run, and in both World Wars military use was made of the line. Local passenger services were discontinued in 1930, but the link at the Girvan end to Turnberry survived for a short period; at the Ayr end a holiday camp was in use, receiving holidaymakers by train to Heads of Ayr until 1968.
Operations
Brakes
In the earliest days, railways did not have continuous brakes (in which brakes on all or most vehicles in a train could be controlled by the driver). Over the course of time, accidents created pressure for their provision on passenger trains, but the system to be adopted was controversial.
At first the company adopted Smith's simple vacuum brake, but although the equipment was simple, it had the defect that it was inoperable in the event of a train becoming divided, or if the engine apparatus failed. The company decided to change systems: at the end of 1878 the Board of Trade were informed that the G&SWR had six engines operating Smith's brake, and 22 engines operating the Westinghouse brake. The Westinghouse system was much more complicated, but it was an automatic brake.
In this period there was considerable disparity in the systems used on the railways of the country, and compatibility between locomotive and the vehicles of another company, for example on through trains, was a serious issue. The company began to see its future as an ally of the Midland Railway, a large English system using the automatic vacuum brake, and in 1884 decided to convert to that system. There was a lengthy transition period during which compatibility with other companies' rolling stock was a problem.
By the end of 1900 the company had 210 engines fitted with continuous brake equipment, and 97% of passenger mileage was under such conditions. 2,021,266 train miles were run with the automatic vacuum brake, and 69,160 with Westinghouse.
Slip coach
Between 1888 and 1901 the G&SWR operated a slip coach service. The slip coach section was slipped at Irvine off the 4.15 pm St Enoch to Ayr, which ran non-stop from Paisley to Prestwick. The slip section was attached to an Ardrossan to Ayr stopping train, with which it followed the main train. Six-wheel brake vans with end windows were built for the service.
Signalling
Swan, writing for the G&SWRA, described early concentration of signalling and primitive interlocking at Dumfries:
In 1859 the Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway formed a junction at Dumfries, and at the request of the G&SWR built a brick "lighthouse" or octagonal signalbox at Albany Junction. It opened with two wooden masts built into the castellated telegraph hut, the tallest for running up and down a flag to signify if the main line north to St Enoch was clear and the second one slightly shorter to signal the trains for the Castle Douglas branch.
With the opening of the Lockerbie branch into Dumfries in 1863 the pointsman's tower was removed from the junction beyond Albany Place and was re-erected on the summit of the slope at the deep cutting north of Dumfries station. The Castle Douglas and Lockerbie railways formed junctions with the G&SWR line in the cutting opposite the pointsman's tower.
The Kirkcudbright Advertizer (sic) further reported: The points at the sidings and junctions will be worked from the top of this bank by means of rods and levers. Three semaphore signal posts have been erected at the tower; the central post, which is higher than the others, is for the G&SWR line; that on the eastern side, for the Lockerbie line; and the one on the western side, for the Castle Douglas line. The semaphores for each line will be connected with the levers which work the points, and consequently when the pointsman shifts the points the semaphore is made by the same movement to show the proper signal ... In the night the signals will be by lamp lighted with wax lights.
Shipping
Serving many piers and harbours on the Firth of Clyde it was natural that the G&SWR developed shipping services to the islands and other piers. This traffic increased considerably in the 1870s and excursion traffic also became significant.
Closures
In the 1960s consideration was given to rationalising the railway facilities in Glasgow, and it was decided to concentrate the south-facing passenger services on Glasgow Central station, closing St Enoch. The closure took place in 1966, and for some time the trainshed was used principally as a car park; the roof was demolished in 1975. The site was redeveloped as the St Enoch Centre, which was opened in May 1989.
A stub of the G&SWR route relaid at Kilmarnock for coal traffic in 2010
The Greenock line was shortened to operate only between Elderslie and Kilmacolm in 1966. In 1971 the Princes Pier stub was connected to the Wemyss Bay line at Cartsburn Junction in order to serve the Clyde Port Authority container terminal.
In June 1965 the Port Road between Dumfries and Challoch Junction was closed; Stranraer boat trains were diverted via Mauchline. In 1966 local services were withdrawn from the Dalry to Kilmarnock line; the route closed completely in October 1973 after completion of the West Coast Main Line electrification.
The Paisley Canal Line was closed in January 1983, and the original Paisley Canal station, on the east side of Causeyside Street, was converted into a restaurant. In the 1980s and 1990s the course of the line beyond Paisley was made into a footpath and cycle path. This links Lady Octavia Park in Greenock, through upper Port Glasgow, Kilmacolm and past Quarrier's Village to Paisley. It is part of the Sustrans National Cycle Route linking Edinburgh and Gourock.
The G&SWR network today
The main line of the G&SWR, from Glasgow to Carlisle via Kilmarnock and Dumfries continues to operate at the present day. The line from Glasgow to Stranraer via Ayr also continues in use, together with the branch from Kilwinning to Largs. After a period of closure the Paisley Canal line reopened, operating only between Shields Junction and Paisley Canal. Passenger services are supported by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport.
See also
Locomotives of the Glasgow and South Western Railway
References
^ a b The Railway Year Book for 1920. London: The Railway Publishing Company Limited. 1920. p. 113.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o David Ross, The Glasgow and South Western Railway: A History, Stenlake Publishing Limited, Catrine, 2104, ISBN 978 1 84033 648 1
^ a b c d e f g h Stephenson Locomotive Society, The Glasgow and South Western Railway, 1850 - 1923, 1950
^ a b c d Campbell Highet, The Glasgow & South-Western Railway, Oakwood Press, Lingfield, 1965
^ Glasgow Herald (newspaper), 27 September 1859, quoted in Ross
^ a b c C E J Fryer, The Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Railways, The Oakwood Press, Headington, 1991, ISBN 0 85361 408 3
^ a b David L Smith, The Little Railways of South West Scotland, David and Charles, Newton Abbot, 1969, ISBN 0-7153-4652-0
^ H D Thorne, Rails to Portpatrick, T Stephenson and Sons Ltd, Prescot, 1976, ISBN 0 901314 18 8
^ E F Carter, An Historical Geography of the Railways of the British Isles, Cassell, London, 1959
^ David McConnell and Stuart Rankin, Rails to Turnberry and Heads of Ayr: The Maidens & Dunure Light Railway & the Butlin's Branch, The Oakwood Press, Usk, 2010, ISBN 978-0853616993
^ Gordon Stansfield, Ayrshire and Renfrewshire's Lost Railways, Stenlake Publishing Ltd, Catrine, 1999, ISBN 1 84033 077 5
^ David L Smith, Tales of the Glasgow and South Western Railway, Ian Allan Limited, London, undated, page 20
^ Ross, pages 102 to 103, 142 and 188
^ Ross, page 123
^ Andrew F Swan, G&SWR Signalling, G&SWR Association, Paisley, 1999, ISSN 1367-9058
^ "Leisure - Sports". Inverclyde Council. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006.
Notes
^ The SLS says 7 November.
^ Later referred to as Eglinton Street Junction, and later still merged with Shields Junction.
Sources
Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.
Robertson, C. J. A. (1983). The Origins of the Scottish Railway System: 1722-1844 (1st ed.). Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-8597-6088-X.
The Railway Year Book: 1912. London: Railway Publishing Company. OCLC 12305143.
Thomas, John (1971). A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain. Vol. VI Scotland: The Lowlands and the Borders (1st ed.). Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-5408-6. OCLC 16198685.
Thomas, John; Paterson, Rev A. J. S. (1984). A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain. Vol. VI Scotland: The Lowlands and the Borders (2nd ed.). Newton Abbott, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 0-9465-3712-7. OCLC 12521072.
The Glasgow & South Western Railway Association
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Glasgow and South Western Railway
Highland Railway
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway
London and North Western Railway
Midland Railway
North Staffordshire Railway
Subsidiary companies
Arbroath and Forfar Railway
Brechin and Edzell District Railway
Callander and Oban Railway
Cathcart District Railway
Charnwood Forest Railway
Cleator and Workington Junction Railway
Cockermouth, Keswick and Penrith Railway
Dearne Valley Railway
Dornoch Light Railway
Dundee and Newtyle Railway
Harborne Railway
Killin Railway
Lanarkshire and Ayrshire Railway
Knott End Railway
Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway
Maryport and Carlisle Railway
Mold and Denbigh Junction Railway
North and South Western Junction Railway
North London Railway
Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway
Shropshire Union Railways and Canal Company
Solway Junction Railway
Stratford-upon-Avon and Midland Junction Railway
Tottenham and Forest Gate Railway
Wick and Lybster Light Railway
Wirral Railway
Yorkshire Dales Railway
Former joint railways
Ashby and Nuneaton Joint Railway
Citadel Station Joint Committee
Glasgow and Paisley Joint Railway
Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway
Furness and Midland Joint Railway
Goods Traffic Committee
Lancashire Union Railway
North Union Railway
Preston and Longridge Railway
Preston and Wyre Joint Railway
Whitehaven, Cleator and Egremont Railway
(Full list of constituents)
vteHistorical Scottish railway companiesPrimary companies
Caledonian Railway
Glasgow and South Western Railway
Great North of Scotland Railway
Highland Railway
North British Railway
CaledonianRailway
Aberdeen Railway
Alloa Railway
Alyth
Arbroath and Forfar
Busby Railway
Cathcart District
Clydesdale Junction
Crieff Junction
Crieff and Comrie
Crieff and Methven Junction
Dumfries, Lochmaben and Lockerbie
Dunblane, Doune and Callander
Dundee and Perth
Dundee and Perth and Aberdeen
Forfar and Brechin
General Terminus and Glasgow Harbour
Garnkirk and Glasgow
Glasgow Central Railway
Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock
Greenock and Wemyss Bay
Hamilton and Strathaven
Lanarkshire and Ayrshire
Lanarkshire and Dumbartonshire
Leadhills and Wanlockhead
Lesmahagow Railway
Lochearnhead, St Fillans and Comrie
Paisley and Barrhead District
Perth, Almond Valley and Methven
Polloc and Govan
Rutherglen and Coatbridge
Scottish Central
Scottish Midland Junction
Scottish North Eastern
Solway Junction
Symington, Biggar and Broughton
Talla Railway
Wishaw and Coltness
Lines built by the Caledonian Railway
Balerno line
CR Cleland and Midcalder
CR Main Line
CR Douglas Branch
CR Hamilton Branch
CR Hamiltonhill Branch
CR The Switchback
Independent lines worked by the Caledonian Railway
Callander and Oban
Killin Railway
Glasgow and South Western Railway
Ardrossan Railway
Ardrossan and Johnstone
Ayr and Dalmellington
Ayr and Maybole Junction
Ayr to Mauchline
Ayrshire and Wigtownshire
Barrhead Branch
Bridge of Weir Railway
Cairn Valley
Caledonian and Dumbartonshire Junction
Castle Douglas and Dumfries
Dalry and North Johnstone
Darvel Branch
Girvan and Portpatrick Junction
Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle
Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr
Greenock and Ayrshire
Kilmarnock and Troon
Largs Branch
Maidens and Dunure
Maybole and Girvan
Paisley and Renfrew
Paisley Canal Line
Great North of Scotland Railway
Aberdeen and Turriff
Aboyne and Braemar
Alford Valley
Banff, Macduff and Turriff Junction
Banff, Portsoy and Strathisla
Boddam Branch
Deeside
Denburn Valley
Formartine and Buchan
Inverury and Old Meldrum Junction
Keith and Dufftown
Moray Coast
Morayshire
St Combs Light Railway
Strathspey Railway
Highland Railway
Buckie and Portessie Branch
Dingwall and Skye
Duke of Sutherland
Findhorn Railway
Fortrose Branch
Inverness and Aberdeen Junction
Inverness and Aviemore Direct
Inverness and Nairn
Inverness and Perth Junction
Inverness and Ross-shire
Kyle of Lochalsh Extension
Perth and Dunkeld
Sutherland and Caithness
Sutherland Railway
Independent lines worked by the Highland Railway
Dornoch Light Railway
Wick and Lybster Light Railway
North BritishRailway
Aberlady, Gullane and North Berwick
Anstruther and St Andrews Railway
Ballochney
Bathgate and Coatbridge
Blane Valley
Border Counties Railway
Border Union Railway
Campsie Branch
Carlisle and Silloth Bay Railway and Dock Company
Charlestown Railway and Harbour Company
Coatbridge Branch
Devon Valley Railway
Dunfermline and Queensferry
East of Fife Railway
Edinburgh and Bathgate
Edinburgh and Dalkeith
Edinburgh and Glasgow
Edinburgh and Hawick
Edinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railway
Edinburgh, Loanhead and Roslin Railway
Edinburgh and Northern
Edinburgh Suburban and Southside Junction
Esk Valley
Eyemouth Railway
Fife and Kinross Railway
Forth and Clyde Junction
Gifford and Garvald
Glasgow, Bothwell, Hamilton and Coatbridge
Glasgow City and District
Glasgow, Dumbarton and Helensburgh
Glasgow and Milngavie Junction
Glasgow, Yoker and Clydebank
Kelvin Valley Railway
Kincardine Line
Kinross-shire Railway
Kirkcaldy and District Railway
Leadburn, Linton and Dolphinton
Leven Railway
Leven and East of Fife Railway
Macmerry Branch
Monkland and Kirkintilloch
Monkland Railways
Montrose and Bervie
Mallaig Extension
Newburgh and North Fife Railway (worked by NBR)
Newport Railway
North Berwick Branch
North British, Arbroath and Montrose
Peebles Railway
The St. Andrews Railway
Stirling and Dunfermline
Strathendrick and Aberfoyle
Slamannan
Slamannan and Borrowstounness
Wemyss and Buckhaven Railway
West Highland Railway
West of Fife Mineral Railway
Wilsontown, Morningside and Coltness
Joint lines
Caledonian and Dumbartonshire Junction
City Union
Dundee and Arbroath
Darvel and Strathaven
Glasgow and Paisley Joint
Glasgow and Renfrew District
Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint
Kilsyth and Bonnybridge
Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint
Other lines
Brechin and Edzell District
Campbeltown and Machrihanish Light Railway
Cromarty and Dingwall Light Railway
Dundee and Arbroath
Hagdale Chromate Railway
Invergarry and Fort Augustus
Lealt Valley Diatomite Railway
Lochaber Narrow Gauge
Perth, Almond Valley and Methven
Rothesay and Ettrick Bay Light Railway
Skye Marble Railway
Tranent to Cockenzie Waggonway
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
United States | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"Stranraer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranraer"},{"link_name":"Carlisle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle,_Cumbria"},{"link_name":"Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Paisley,_Kilmarnock_and_Ayr_Railway"},{"link_name":"Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Dumfries_and_Carlisle_Railway"},{"link_name":"Midland Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Railway"},{"link_name":"Caledonian Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledonian_Railway"},{"link_name":"London and North Western Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_and_North_Western_Railway"},{"link_name":"London Midland and Scottish Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Midland_and_Scottish_Railway"}],"text":"The Glasgow and South Western Railway (G&SWR) was a railway company in Scotland. It served a triangular area of south-west Scotland between Glasgow, Stranraer and Carlisle. It was formed on 28 October 1850 by the merger of two earlier railways, the Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway and the Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway. Already established in Ayrshire, it consolidated its position there and extended southwards, eventually reaching Stranraer. Its main business was mineral traffic, especially coal, and passengers, but its more southerly territory was very thinly populated and local traffic, passenger and goods, was limited, while operationally parts of its network were difficult.It later formed an alliance with the English Midland Railway and ran express passenger trains from Glasgow to London with that company, in competition with the Caledonian Railway and its English partner, the London and North Western Railway, who had an easier route. In 1923 the G&SWR formed a constituent of the London Midland and Scottish Railway group.Much of the network remains active at the present day; Glasgow commuting particularly has developed, and parts of the network have been electrified. Many of the earlier mineral workings, and branches constructed to serve them, have ceased, and many local passenger stations in rural areas have closed.In 1921 the G&SWR had 1,128 miles (1,815 km) of line (calculated as single track extent plus sidings) and the company’s capital was about £19 million.","title":"Glasgow and South Western Railway"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Liverpool and Manchester Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_and_Manchester_Railway"},{"link_name":"Grand Junction Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Junction_Railway"},{"link_name":"Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Paisley,_Kilmarnock_and_Ayr_Railway"},{"link_name":"Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Dumfries_and_Carlisle_Railway"},{"link_name":"Caledonian Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledonian_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"}],"sub_title":"Before the G&SWR","text":"In the early 1830s, there were already several mineral railways operating in Scotland; local in extent, they were mostly built to serve coal mines and other mineral activity. The successful operation of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway as an inter-city line, and then the Grand Junction Railway reaching northwards, caused railway promoters in the west of Scotland to consider that one day, there might be a through railway line to London.The Glasgow, Paisley, Kilmarnock and Ayr Railway (GPK&AR) was authorised in 1838, and opened its line to Ayr in 1840. It was a locomotive railway, and in due time it opened its branch line from Dalry to Kilmarnock, with the intention of extending to Carlisle to meet up with whatever railway might reach that city from the south. The GPK&AR had anticipated constructing its authorised line and then the extension, but by 1846 there was a frenzy of competing schemes that threatened to destroy the Company's core business. Few of these were realistic, but the GPK&AR itself felt obliged to promote numerous branches, many of them tactical, in order to keep competing schemes out. This period of railway promotion was followed by a slump, when money was difficult to come by, and these factors prevented the GPK&AR from bringing its Carlisle extension into reality.Enthusiasm for a connection to English railways continued, however, and was intensified by the promotion of other schemes to link central Scotland and England. Interests friendly to the GPK&AR formed the Glasgow, Dumfries and Carlisle Railway (GD&CR) to extend from the southern extremity of the GPK&AR to Carlisle; their route became known as the Nithsdale Route. Opposing promoters put forward a so-called central line via Carstairs and Beattock, that had the advantage of a shorter mileage, and the capacity to serve Edinburgh directly, but the disadvantage of much heavier gradients and running through a less populous area. This route became known as the Annandale Route.The GD&CR was authorised by Act of Parliament, but the rival Caledonian Railway (CR) had already had authorisation for building its line on the Annandale route; the GD&CR's financial position led it to abandon its intention of building an independent line to Carlisle, and it altered its plan so as to join the CR at Gretna Junction, relying on negotiating running powers for its trains to reach Carlisle.The GD&CR and the GPK&AR formed the definite intention of merging; at first the GD&CR demanded terms that were excessive, particularly as their own financial situation was weak: they were funding construction of their line with money loaned by the GPK&AR. However more realistic expectations emerged later, and by Acts of 1846 and 1847 it was determined that the two companies would merge when the GD&CR had completed construction of its line. The GPK&AR extended as far as Horsecleugh (between Cumnock and New Cumnock) and the GD&CR reached an end-on junction there, completing the through line on 28 October 1850.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:G%26SWR_1850.gif"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"},{"link_name":"Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Paisley_and_Greenock_Railway"},{"link_name":"Kilmarnock and Troon Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilmarnock_and_Troon_Railway"},{"link_name":"Lancaster and Carlisle Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster_and_Carlisle_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-highet-4"}],"sub_title":"The G&SWR formed","text":"System map of the G&SWR at vesting in 1850Accordingly on 28 October 1850 the G&SWR was formed.[3] Although this was described as a merger, the reality was that the penniless GD&CR was dissolved, its operation was taken over by the GPK&AR, and the latter company changed its name to the G&SWR. The GPK&AR had been working the GD&CR's line for it since it (partially) opened.The new company had lines:from Bridge Street in Glasgow to Ayr; the Ayr station was north of the river, at Newton-on-Ayr), and the section between Bridge Street and Paisley was owned and operated jointly with the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway; and\nfrom Dalry Junction to Gretna Junction via Kilmarnock and Dumfries; and\na number of lines in mineral districts, including the former Kilmarnock and Troon Railway, now upgraded to contemporary technical standards.The trains on the Dumfries line now ran through to Carlisle, an arrangement having been made with the Caledonian Railway to permit this. However the CR did not encourage the G&SWR and only on 1 March 1851 was a booking clerk given accommodation at Carlisle Citadel passenger station. This was granted on an undertaking that the G&SWR would never interfere with the business of the CR or the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway, and tolls were charged for use of the line from Gretna, and for bulk goods passing through Carlisle, whether transshipped or not. The CR ensured that all traffic between south of Carlisle and Glasgow or Edinburgh was routed over its own line.[2]The accounts for the first half-year, produced in March 1851, showed gross income for the six months to be £87,186 and a 2¼% dividend was declared. The Company owned 72 engines, 171 passenger coaches, and 2,416 non-passenger vehicles. Good enough as the results were, the long main line to Gretna was not producing much, due to the dominance of competing route of the Caledonian Railway, and business in general declined following the first half-year. A pooling agreement was finalised in 1853 which mitigated some of the worst toll charges, but routing of goods traffic via the CR was made obligatory in many situations. The agreement included a comprehensive limitation on encroachment by either railway into the other's territory.[2][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dumfries_2_railway_station_geograph-2194711.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ayr and Dalmellington Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayr_and_Dalmellington_Railway"},{"link_name":"Ayr and Maybole Junction Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayr_and_Maybole_Junction_Railway"},{"link_name":"Ardrossan Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardrossan_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"}],"sub_title":"Expansion by alliance","text":"Dumfries station pilot in BR daysIn the years immediately following the formation of the G&SWR, the shortage of capital meant that no definite steps were taken for further expansion. Local initiatives were encouraged, however, with the G&SWR providing some funding and in most cases working the line when it was completed.The Ayr and Dalmellington Railway Act was passed on 4 August 1853. At this time the G&SWR Ayr station was north of the River Ayr, and the A&DR was to run from Falkland Junction, a short distance north of the station, and round the east side of the town. The new line had an Ayr passenger station (a temporary structure at first), but it was less convenient than the old terminus; until January 1860 the old G&SWR terminus station continued to be used by some trains. There were important ironworks owned by the Houldsworth family, and ironstone and coal deposits, in the lands near Dalmellington. The independent A&DR company was worked by the G&SWR and later absorbed on 1 August 1858.On 10 July 1854 the Ayr and Maybole Junction Railway was authorised to reach Maybole by a junction from the Ayr and Dalmellington; the junction was to be called Maybole Junction, but was named Dalrymple Junction when the line opened to goods traffic on 15 May 1856. Passenger opening was delayed until 2 August 1856 because of the Board of Trade Inspecting Officer's dissatisfaction with the works at first. This line too was worked by the G&SWR.There were discussions of a further extension railway to reach Girvan and develop the harbour there, possibly as a ferry port for Ireland: a Maybole and Girvan Railway was formed in 1855; it got its authorising Act on 14 July 1856. All of these local initiatives received the promise of cash support from the G&SWR. The Maybole and Girvan line opened on 24 May 1860; the old Maybole station, east of Redbrae, was unsuitable for an onward route and was by-passed, the new passenger station being at Culzean Road.The Ardrossan Railway had long been allied to the G&SWR and by Act of 24 July 1854 it was vested in the G&SWR, effective on 1 August 1854. The line ran between Ardrossan Harbour and Kilwinning, with mineral branches extending further east.[2][3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kilmarnock_2_Station_geograph-2194692.jpg"},{"link_name":"Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Douglas_and_Dumfries_Railway"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herald-5"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"Portpatrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portpatrick"},{"link_name":"Donaghadee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donaghadee"},{"link_name":"Great Northern Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_Railway_(Great_Britain)"},{"link_name":"Portpatrick Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portpatrick_and_Wigtownshire_Joint_Railway"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fryer-7"},{"link_name":"Stranraer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranraer_railway_station"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fryer-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thorne-9"}],"sub_title":"Reaching towards the north of Ireland","text":"Kilmarnock station in 1957The wide space of countryside west of Dumfries and south of Girvan still lacked any rail connection. In 1856 a provisional Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway (CD&DR) was gaining momentum. It was independently sponsored, although it was seen as a possible first step in opening up the entire region; it was authorised on 21 July 1856. This prompted the G&SWR to relocate the Dumfries station to a point north of St Mary's street; the former \"temporary\" station was relegated to goods status. The new station opened on 13 September 1859: it was described as \"equal if not superior in lightness and beauty to any in Great Britain\".[5] The CD&DR line opened on 21 July 1856.[note 1][2]For many years schemes had been put forward to reach Portpatrick. There was a small harbour there and ferry crossings to Donaghadee provided the shortest route to reach the north of Ireland. Mail, cattle, and soldiers had been conveyed that way, but reaching Portpatrick with a railway across difficult and sparsely populated land had been a challenge. Encouraged by the CD&DR authorisation, at the end of 1856 promoters resolved to build a British and Irish Grand Junction Railway, 62 miles (100 km) from Castle Douglas. Government assurances were given about the use of the sea route for mail and improvement of the tiny harbour at Portpatrick, and suddenly rival railways including the English Great Northern Railway were hastening to put up money for a share. With a capital of £460,000, the line looked well supported and got its Act of Parliament on 17 August 1857, retitled the Portpatrick Railway.[6]The construction, through difficult terrain, went ahead, and as completion became near, the Portpatrick Railway planned the arrangements for the working of its line. The G&SWR were working the CD&DR and offered to work the Portpatrick line for 72% of gross receipts. The G&SWR had recently announced that it worked its own railway for less than 38%, and the Portpatrick line decided the proposed charge was too much; on 28 March 1860 they decided that \"the board should retain the working of the line under their own management\". The G&SWR had been certain that its terms for working the line would have to be accepted; it had promised a further £40,000 towards the capital cost of the Portpatrick Railway, and on a pretext it now declined to make that payment, further alienating the Portpatrick Railway. The line opened, stoutly independent, on 12 March 1861 as far as Stranraer.The Government had implied a promise to improve the tiny harbour at Portpatrick and was now delaying; the Portpatrick Railway delayed too, but finally completed the line from Stranraer to Portpatrick on 28 August 1862. Although some use was made of the route, the anticipated major sea crossing never materialised, and in time Stranraer became the more important port.[3][6][7][8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paisley and Renfrew Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley_and_Renfrew_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"}],"sub_title":"The Paisley and Renfrew line","text":"Before the existence of the G&SWR, its predecessor, the GPK&AR had acquired the Paisley and Renfrew Railway, a horse-operated railway with track on stone blocks, and the GS&WR acquired this line. By 1866 the primitive technology had become an embarrassment and pressure from the Burgh of Renfrew caused the G&SWR to upgrade the line to locomotive haulage, converting it to standard gauge, and connecting it to the main (joint) line at Greenlaw, east of Paisley, and facing Glasgow. The work was completed by September 1867 and through passenger trains between Glasgow and Renfrew were instituted.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:G%26SWR_1876.gif"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_and_Glasgow_Railway"},{"link_name":"City of Glasgow Union Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Union_Line"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carter-10"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"University of Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Glasgow"},{"link_name":"General Terminus goods branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Terminus_and_Glasgow_Harbour_Railway"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"},{"link_name":"North British Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_British_Railway"}],"sub_title":"Crossing the Clyde, and a central Glasgow station","text":"System map of the G&SWR 1876As traffic increased, dependency on the Bridge Street station as the G&SWR Glasgow station became ever more strained, and a nominally independent central terminus was proposed; this would involve constructive the first railway bridge over this part of the Clyde—there had previously been no connection across the river in Glasgow. The G&SWR and the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway were partners, and invited the Caledonian Railway to join in, but the CR declined.The City of Glasgow Union Railway obtained Parliamentary authorisation on 29 July 1864; the capital was £900,000 with the G&SWR and the E&GR taking one-third of the shares each.[2][9] (The following year the two existing companies agree to take all the stock themselves.) The line would run from a junction with the Paisley joint line at West Street[note 2] to Sighthill on the E&GR, with a new passenger station at St Enoch, a large goods station in land vacated by the University of Glasgow and a connection at West Street to the General Terminus goods branch on the bank of the Clyde.[3]Construction was slow and costs overran heavily; on 12 December 1870 the first trains ran from Shields Road to a temporary central passenger terminus at Dunlop Street. On 1 June 1871 the line was extended to Bellgrove, joining the North British Railway (NBR) there, and forming the north-south connecting link, which was heavily used for transfer goods trains.It was not until 1 May 1876 that St Enoch station opened and through trains to London ran from there. The station was universally regarded as magnificent, and in 1879 the accompanying St Enoch Hotel, the largest in Scotland, opened too. By now the NBR enthusiasm for a general central passenger station had waned, and the northwards exit from St Enoch station was only used by local G&SWR trains to Springburn. On 29 June 1883 the station and the immediate approach lines were transferred from the CGUR to the G&SWR.This was followed by partition of the CGUR; the section south and west of College Junction (near High Street, NBR) went to the G&SWR, and the section north and east of Bellgrove went to the NBR. These changes were enacted on 29 June 1883.In the 1890s it became obvious that expansion of St Enoch was essential, and on 18 August 1898 an Act for the extension of St Enoch station was passed. A second arch roof and six further platforms were built; they were brought into use progressively from 1901. The extension was completed in 1904, at a cost of £2,500,000.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Barrhead_and_Kilmarnock_Joint_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-highet-4"}],"sub_title":"A direct line to Kilmarnock","text":"The GPK&AR had declined to give Kilmarnock a direct route; it opened its line via Dalry in 1843. In 1848 the Glasgow, Barrhead and Neilston Direct Railway (GB&NDR) opened from a South Side terminus in Glasgow. The line was friendly to the Caledonian Railway. In 1865 both the Caledonian Railway and the G&SWR obtained Parliamentary authority to build a line from Glasgow to Kilmarnock. Shareholders of both companies objected to the wasteful duplication, and in 1869 an Act was obtained for the Glasgow, Barrhead and Kilmarnock Joint Railway, owned jointly by both companies, running from Neilston on the GB&NDR. It opened in 1873, with a branch from Lugton to Beith. A connection into the St Enoch line was opened shortly afterwards.[2][3][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carlisle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Bridge of Weir Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_Weir_Railway"},{"link_name":"Kirkcudbright Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkcudbright_Railway"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"},{"link_name":"Stranraer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stranraer_railway_station"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"}],"sub_title":"Other new lines proposed, and existing branches absorbed","text":"As well as supporting the City Union line, in 1864 the G&SWR proposed a large number of branch lines, most of them tactical in respect of competition with the Caledonian Railway. This caused considerable disquiet among shareholders—the same was true within the Caledonian company—and some moderation of the proposals took place. As part of the rapprochement, the G&SWR was granted permanent powers to run between Gretna and Carlisle, for £5,000 a year.In 1865, four railways were absorbed, effective from 1 August; they were the Bridge of Weir Railway (from Elderslie, opened in 1864), the Maybole and Girvan Railway (described above; it had never made money and had run out of cash to finish the buildings and ancillary works on the line); the Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway (CD&DR); and the Kirkcudbright Railway. The CD&DR and the Kirkcudbright Railway were now operated as the Kirkcudbright branch as a single unit from Dumfries.[3] The Caledonian Railway was granted running powers between Dumfries and Castle Douglas for trains it ran between Lockerbie and Stranraer.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Greenock_esplanade.jpg"},{"link_name":"Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Paisley_and_Greenock_Railway"},{"link_name":"Caledonian Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledonian_Railway"},{"link_name":"Greenock and Ayrshire Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenock_and_Ayrshire_Railway"},{"link_name":"Albert Harbour station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenock_Princes_Pier_railway_station"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"}],"sub_title":"Reaching Greenock","text":"The Prince's Pier, Greenock, in use today as a shipping terminusFrom the outset, Greenock had been served by the Glasgow, Paisley and Greenock Railway, allied to the Caledonian Railway. The port developed and carried increasing volumes of goods, and passenger traffic for the Clyde ferries grew considerably. The G&SWR wished to secure a share of this valuable traffic, and the Bridge of Weir Railway had been a move in that direction. The friendly Greenock and Ayrshire Railway (G&AR) was heavily supported (£300,000 out of £350,000 share capital) by the G&SWR, and opened its line from Bridge of Weir to its Albert Harbour station at Greenock, in 1869. This gave a quayside transfer to steamers at Greenock, and a price war with the established CR line broke out, eventually resolved with a traffic sharing agreement: the G&SWR received 42.68% of receipts.In 1872 the G&AR was absorbed by the G&SWR. The Greenock Harbour Trustees further developed Albert Harbour, constructing Princes Pier with extensive berthing facilities for steamers, and the G&SWR renamed their own station Princes Pier in 1875.Further extension to the harbour facilities took place at the eastern side of Greenock, at Garvel. The G&SWR built a connecting line eastwards from Lynedoch, opening on 5 August 1886. G&SWR trains had to reverse twice to reach the harbour on a steep incline. The branch cost £262,467.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"The Annbank lines","text":"In 1870 and the following years, a network of lines was opened connecting Ayr with mineral-bearing districts in east Ayrshire. The first line was from Ayr to Mauchline through Annbank, and this was followed by a long loop from Annbank to Cronberry on the Muirkirk line, and a connection to Holehouse Junction on the Dalmellington route. Although the Mauchline connection facilitated some passenger journeys, mineral traffic was more important than passenger operation on these lines.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Largs Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Largs_Branch"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"}],"sub_title":"Extending to Largs","text":"Ardrossan had long been reached, but the G&SWR wished to extend up the coast to Largs. It experienced resistance at first, the Largs Branch opened in stages between 1878 and 1885, with stations at West Kilbride, Fairlie and Largs.A Fairlie Pier station was opened: the station roof was built using materials recovered from the temporary Dunlop Street station. Bitter and destructive competition for the ferry traffic to island locations developed.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Girvan and Portpatrick Junction Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girvan_and_Portpatrick_Junction_Railway"},{"link_name":"Portpatrick Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portpatrick_and_Wigtownshire_Joint_Railway"},{"link_name":"Caledonian Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caledonian_Railway"},{"link_name":"London and North Western Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_and_North_Western_Railway"},{"link_name":"Midland Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Railway"},{"link_name":"Thomas Wheatley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wheatley_(locomotive_engineer)"},{"link_name":"Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portpatrick_and_Wigtownshire_Joint_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-highet-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fryer-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-8"}],"sub_title":"Portpatrick again—or Stranraer","text":"The G&SWR had reached Girvan in 1860 with the help of allied local companies. Continuing from Girvan to Portpatrick, for the crossing to the north of Ireland was still an aspiration, but this section was the most difficult, and sparsely populated terrain. After some false starts, friendly promoters put forward a Girvan and Portpatrick Junction Railway (G&PJR) obtained an authorising Act on 5 July 1865 to close the gap. Raising money, and carrying out the construction was much more difficult than expected. The railway was to reach Stranraer by joining the Portpatrick Railway at Challoch Junction, continuing over that line for 10 miles (16 km). However the Portpatrick line was being worked by the Caledonian Railway (CR), and the CR was hostile to the G&PJR, which it saw was an ally of the G&SWR.It took until 5 October 1877 to inaugurate a full passenger service over the line. In the intervening period the supposed advantages of Portpatrick as the ferry port for the north of Ireland had dissipated, and Stranraer was now considered the better port. The G&PJR was financially exhausted and weak, operating a long main line with little local business. The financial situation worsened and the company was taken over by the Ayrshire and Wigtownshire Railway Company (A&WR) on 1 August 1887. The new ownership appears to have been a speculative move, but the A&WR was no more solvent than its predecessor. In 1892 the G&SWR purchased the company for £270,000 (on 20 June). It introduced corridor coaching stock was on the boat trains in 1899.The Portpatrick Railway (PR) had its established line from Dumfries to Stranraer, also a long line through difficult terrain with little intermediate business, but achieving significantly better financial results. The arrangement with the CR for that company to work the line expired in 1885 and the PR considered who might take up the work. Both the CR and the G&SWR were candidates, and two English railways, the London and North Western Railway and the Midland Railway were interested in extending their influence to Stranraer to capture Irish business.The Wigtownshire Railway was in effect a branch of the PR, running south from Newton Stewart to connect good quality farming land around Wigtown and the sea ports of Garlieston and Wigtown. Their line was being worked by an independent contractor, Thomas Wheatley and his son.After considerable negotiation, the decision emerged not to form a further working arrangement for the PR, but instead to merge the PR and the Wigtownshire Railway. The combined network formed the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire Joint Railway, purchased by a consortium of the interested larger companies, the G&SWR, the CR, the MR and the LNWR. The arrangement was ratified on 6 August 1885; the sale value was £491,980. The line was worked by the G&SWR and the CR in tandem.[2][4][6][7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow,_Paisley_and_Johnstone_Canal"},{"link_name":"44 & 45 Vict.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/44_%26_45_Vict."},{"link_name":"Paisley Canal Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley_Canal_Line"},{"link_name":"Dalry and North Johnstone Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalry_and_North_Johnstone_Line"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"}],"sub_title":"Paisley Canal, and the Dalry and North Johnstone line","text":"United Kingdom legislationAs traffic developed, especially the mix of heavy mineral traffic and passenger trains, line capacity became increasingly a problem. This was particularly the case on the Glasgow and Paisley Joint Line where the traffic of the rival Caledonian Railway had to be dealt with. In 1881 the G&SWR submitted a parliamentary bill to drain the defunct Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone Canal and build a railway on it. The bill passed as the Glasgow and South Western Railway Act 1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. cxlix), and the G&SWR started work on what became the Paisley Canal Line. The new line left the former City of Glasgow Union Line at Shields Junction, where it joined the Joint Line, and ran via the southern part of Paisley to Elderslie, where it rejoined the Ayr main line. At this time Paisley was enjoying very considerable industrial growth and the new line was able to serve the relevant areas.Following the route of a contour canal involved many meandering curves, the worst of which were eased by the use of earthworks. The line opened fully on 1 July 1885, and some through passenger trains used the line as well as local and mineral trains. Capitalising on access to industry in Paisley, a spur off the Canal Line to Potterhill was opened in 1886.In 1894–5, new carriage sidings were constructed at Bellahouston on the Canal Line, while new engine sheds at Corkerhill were constructed, to relieve pressure on the city centre accommodation.Industry was expanding too in Johnstone, on the north side of the town in areas not served by the main line. As well as mineral extractive industries, there were extensive textile mills along the Black Cart Water, and a short branch line from Cart Junction to Johnstone North was opened in 1896.The traffic congestion problem was also experienced on the main line between Elderslie and Dalry (where the Kilmarnock line diverged) and the decision was taken to duplicate this section of the route by a new line on the north of the lochs in the Garnock Valley. The scheme upgraded the Johnstone North line, and ran from its terminus (upgraded and relocated) to Brownhill Junction, north of Dalry, by way of Lochwinnoch. This was the Dalry and North Johnstone Line, which opened in 1905. The capacity relief was continued at Dalry by quadrupling the track from Brownhill Junction, and the junction itself was a flying junction, the first in Scotland.Much more traffic took the diverging route at Elderslie towards Cart Junction—all of the new line traffic, as well as the fast Greenock boat trains—and the opportunity was taken to provide a burrowing junction at Elderslie for this route: when the Ayr main line was built, it crossed the canal by a bridge. The canal was long defunct, and a new line was built passing under the bridge and running to Cart Junction, eliminating the conflicting move. This opened in 1906.[2][3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cross-country lines of the Glasgow and South Western Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-country_lines_of_the_Glasgow_and_South_Western_Railway"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"}],"sub_title":"Darvel","text":"In 1896 the Newmilns branch was extended to Darvel. When the Caledonian Railway reached the town from the east in 1905, a non-encroachment agreement was activated and a few miles of line from Darvel to the Lanarkshire county boundary was transferred from the CR to the G&SWR. There was an end-on connection at the county line.The volume of mineral traffic heading for Troon and Ayr caused congestion in passing through Kilmarnock station, and a by-pass line on the south side of the town opened in 1902. These developments are described in the article Cross-country lines of the Glasgow and South Western Railway.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barrhead Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrhead_Branch"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sls-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-highet-4"}],"sub_title":"Linking Paisley and Barrhead","text":"Observing the success of the Paisley Canal and Potterhill lines in serving industry, both the CR and the G&SWR considered lines in the area between Paisley and Barrhead. In 1902 the G&SWR opened the Barrhead Branch from Potterhill to a new Barrhead Central station, with spurs to the GB&KJR route. For a time a circular passenger service was operated from St Enoch via Paisley Canal, Potterhill and Barrhead Central. Usage proved disappointing, and it reverted to a reduced conventional service in 1907, and Barrhead Central closed to passengers in 1917.[2][3][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Catrine branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catrine_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Cairn Valley Light Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairn_Valley_Light_Railway"},{"link_name":"Maidens and Dunure Light Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maidens_and_Dunure_Light_Railway"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcconnell-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stansfield-13"}],"sub_title":"Three local lines after 1900","text":"The small industrial town of Catrine had long aspired to a railway connection. Possibly responding to a petition, the G&SWR built a short branch from Brackenhill Junction, south of Mauchline. The Catrine branch opened on 1 September 1903, with a train service operated by a railmotor.In 1905 the Cairn Valley Light Railway opened, connecting Moniaive with the G&SWR main line just north of Dumfries. It adopted a proprietary signalling system based on Sykes lock and block system. Passenger usage was poor and was hit hard by bus competition, and the line closed to passengers in 1943.On 17 May 1906 the Maidens and Dunure Light Railway opened. Intended to open up remote coastal settlements between Ayr and Girvan it was promoted with the construction of the luxurious Turnberry Hotel. Through trains from Glasgow were run, and in both World Wars military use was made of the line. Local passenger services were discontinued in 1930, but the link at the Girvan end to Turnberry survived for a short period; at the Ayr end a holiday camp was in use, receiving holidaymakers by train to Heads of Ayr until 1968.[10][11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Westinghouse brake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_air_brake"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tales20-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-brakes-15"}],"sub_title":"Brakes","text":"In the earliest days, railways did not have continuous brakes (in which brakes on all or most vehicles in a train could be controlled by the driver). Over the course of time, accidents created pressure for their provision on passenger trains, but the system to be adopted was controversial.At first the company adopted Smith's simple vacuum brake, but although the equipment was simple, it had the defect that it was inoperable in the event of a train becoming divided, or if the engine apparatus failed. The company decided to change systems: at the end of 1878 the Board of Trade were informed that the G&SWR had six engines operating Smith's brake, and 22 engines operating the Westinghouse brake. The Westinghouse system was much more complicated, but it was an automatic brake.In this period there was considerable disparity in the systems used on the railways of the country, and compatibility between locomotive and the vehicles of another company, for example on through trains, was a serious issue. The company began to see its future as an ally of the Midland Railway, a large English system using the automatic vacuum brake, and in 1884 decided to convert to that system. There was a lengthy transition period during which compatibility with other companies' rolling stock was a problem.[12]By the end of 1900 the company had 210 engines fitted with continuous brake equipment, and 97% of passenger mileage was under such conditions. 2,021,266 train miles were run with the automatic vacuum brake, and 69,160 with Westinghouse.[13]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"slip coach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_coach"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ross-slip-16"}],"sub_title":"Slip coach","text":"Between 1888 and 1901 the G&SWR operated a slip coach service. The slip coach section was slipped at Irvine off the 4.15 pm St Enoch to Ayr, which ran non-stop from Paisley to Prestwick. The slip section was attached to an Ardrossan to Ayr stopping train, with which it followed the main train. Six-wheel brake vans with end windows were built for the service.[14]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Douglas_and_Dumfries_Railway"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swan-17"}],"text":"Swan, writing for the G&SWRA, described early concentration of signalling and primitive interlocking at Dumfries:In 1859 the Castle Douglas and Dumfries Railway formed a junction at Dumfries, and at the request of the G&SWR built a brick \"lighthouse\" or octagonal signalbox at Albany Junction. It opened with two wooden masts built into the castellated telegraph hut, the tallest for running up and down a flag to signify if the main line north to St Enoch was clear and the second one slightly shorter to signal the trains for the Castle Douglas branch.With the opening of the Lockerbie branch into Dumfries in 1863 the pointsman's tower was removed from the junction beyond Albany Place and was re-erected on the summit of the slope at the deep cutting north of Dumfries station. The Castle Douglas and Lockerbie railways formed junctions with the G&SWR line in the cutting opposite the pointsman's tower.The Kirkcudbright Advertizer (sic) further reported: The points at the sidings and junctions will be worked from the top of this bank by means of rods and levers. Three semaphore signal posts have been erected at the tower; the central post, which is higher than the others, is for the G&SWR line; that on the eastern side, for the Lockerbie line; and the one on the western side, for the Castle Douglas line. The semaphores for each line will be connected with the levers which work the points, and consequently when the pointsman shifts the points the semaphore is made by the same movement to show the proper signal ... In the night the signals will be by lamp lighted with wax lights.[15]","title":"Signalling"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Firth of Clyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firth_of_Clyde"},{"link_name":"shipping services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%26SWR_shipping_services"}],"text":"Serving many piers and harbours on the Firth of Clyde it was natural that the G&SWR developed shipping services to the islands and other piers. This traffic increased considerably in the 1870s and excursion traffic also became significant.","title":"Shipping"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St Enoch Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Enoch_Centre"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coal_sidings,_Kilmarnock,_towards_Crosshouse.jpg"},{"link_name":"container terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_terminal"},{"link_name":"West Coast Main Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_Main_Line"},{"link_name":"Paisley Canal Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley_Canal_Line"},{"link_name":"cycle path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_path"},{"link_name":"Sustrans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustrans"},{"link_name":"Gourock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gourock"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"In the 1960s consideration was given to rationalising the railway facilities in Glasgow, and it was decided to concentrate the south-facing passenger services on Glasgow Central station, closing St Enoch. The closure took place in 1966, and for some time the trainshed was used principally as a car park; the roof was demolished in 1975. The site was redeveloped as the St Enoch Centre, which was opened in May 1989.A stub of the G&SWR route relaid at Kilmarnock for coal traffic in 2010The Greenock line was shortened to operate only between Elderslie and Kilmacolm in 1966. In 1971 the Princes Pier stub was connected to the Wemyss Bay line at Cartsburn Junction in order to serve the Clyde Port Authority container terminal.In June 1965 the Port Road between Dumfries and Challoch Junction was closed; Stranraer boat trains were diverted via Mauchline. In 1966 local services were withdrawn from the Dalry to Kilmarnock line; the route closed completely in October 1973 after completion of the West Coast Main Line electrification.The Paisley Canal Line was closed in January 1983, and the original Paisley Canal station, on the east side of Causeyside Street, was converted into a restaurant. In the 1980s and 1990s the course of the line beyond Paisley was made into a footpath and cycle path. This links Lady Octavia Park in Greenock, through upper Port Glasgow, Kilmacolm and past Quarrier's Village to Paisley. It is part of the Sustrans National Cycle Route linking Edinburgh and Gourock.[16]","title":"Closures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Strathclyde Partnership for Transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strathclyde_Partnership_for_Transport"}],"text":"The main line of the G&SWR, from Glasgow to Carlisle via Kilmarnock and Dumfries continues to operate at the present day. The line from Glasgow to Stranraer via Ayr also continues in use, together with the branch from Kilwinning to Largs. After a period of closure the Paisley Canal line reopened, operating only between Shields Junction and Paisley Canal. Passenger services are supported by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport.","title":"The G&SWR network today"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"}],"text":"^ The SLS says 7 November.\n\n^ Later referred to as Eglinton Street Junction, and later still merged with Shields Junction.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Awdry, Christopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Awdry"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-8526-0049-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8526-0049-7"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"19514063","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/19514063"},{"link_name":"Robertson, C. J. A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C._J._A._Robertson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8597-6088-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8597-6088-X"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12305143","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/12305143"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7153-5408-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7153-5408-6"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"16198685","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16198685"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-9465-3712-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9465-3712-7"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12521072","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/12521072"},{"link_name":"The Glasgow & South Western Railway Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.gswra.org/"}],"text":"Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.\nRobertson, C. J. A. (1983). The Origins of the Scottish Railway System: 1722-1844 (1st ed.). Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-8597-6088-X.\nThe Railway Year Book: 1912. London: Railway Publishing Company. OCLC 12305143.Thomas, John (1971). A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain. Vol. VI Scotland: The Lowlands and the Borders (1st ed.). Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-5408-6. OCLC 16198685.\nThomas, John; Paterson, Rev A. J. S. (1984). A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain. Vol. VI Scotland: The Lowlands and the Borders (2nd ed.). Newton Abbott, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 0-9465-3712-7. OCLC 12521072.\nThe Glasgow & South Western Railway Association","title":"Sources"}] | [{"image_text":"System map of the G&SWR at vesting in 1850","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/G%26SWR_1850.gif/220px-G%26SWR_1850.gif"},{"image_text":"Dumfries station pilot in BR days","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Dumfries_2_railway_station_geograph-2194711.jpg/220px-Dumfries_2_railway_station_geograph-2194711.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kilmarnock station in 1957","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Kilmarnock_2_Station_geograph-2194692.jpg/220px-Kilmarnock_2_Station_geograph-2194692.jpg"},{"image_text":"System map of the G&SWR 1876","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/G%26SWR_1876.gif/220px-G%26SWR_1876.gif"},{"image_text":"The Prince's Pier, Greenock, in use today as a shipping terminus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Greenock_esplanade.jpg/220px-Greenock_esplanade.jpg"},{"image_text":"A stub of the G&SWR route relaid at Kilmarnock for coal traffic in 2010","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Coal_sidings%2C_Kilmarnock%2C_towards_Crosshouse.jpg/200px-Coal_sidings%2C_Kilmarnock%2C_towards_Crosshouse.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Locomotives of the Glasgow and South Western Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locomotives_of_the_Glasgow_and_South_Western_Railway"}] | [{"reference":"The Railway Year Book for 1920. London: The Railway Publishing Company Limited. 1920. p. 113.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Leisure - Sports\". Inverclyde Council. Archived from the original on 25 September 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060925230246/http://www.inverclyde.gov.uk/portal/index.php?module=article&view=47&lay_quiet=1","url_text":"\"Leisure - Sports\""},{"url":"http://www.inverclyde.gov.uk/portal/index.php?module=article&view=47&lay_quiet=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Awdry, Christopher (1990). Encyclopaedia of British Railway Companies. Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 1-8526-0049-7. OCLC 19514063. CN 8983.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Awdry","url_text":"Awdry, Christopher"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8526-0049-7","url_text":"1-8526-0049-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19514063","url_text":"19514063"}]},{"reference":"Robertson, C. J. A. (1983). The Origins of the Scottish Railway System: 1722-1844 (1st ed.). Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-8597-6088-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C._J._A._Robertson&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Robertson, C. J. A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8597-6088-X","url_text":"0-8597-6088-X"}]},{"reference":"The Railway Year Book: 1912. London: Railway Publishing Company. OCLC 12305143.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12305143","url_text":"12305143"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, John (1971). A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain. Vol. VI Scotland: The Lowlands and the Borders (1st ed.). Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-5408-6. OCLC 16198685.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7153-5408-6","url_text":"0-7153-5408-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16198685","url_text":"16198685"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, John; Paterson, Rev A. J. S. (1984). A Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain. Vol. VI Scotland: The Lowlands and the Borders (2nd ed.). Newton Abbott, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 0-9465-3712-7. OCLC 12521072.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9465-3712-7","url_text":"0-9465-3712-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12521072","url_text":"12521072"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/Vict/44-45/149/pdfs/ukla_18810149_en.pdf","external_links_name":"Text of statute as originally enacted"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1367-9058","external_links_name":"1367-9058"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060925230246/http://www.inverclyde.gov.uk/portal/index.php?module=article&view=47&lay_quiet=1","external_links_name":"\"Leisure - Sports\""},{"Link":"http://www.inverclyde.gov.uk/portal/index.php?module=article&view=47&lay_quiet=1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/19514063","external_links_name":"19514063"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12305143","external_links_name":"12305143"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16198685","external_links_name":"16198685"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12521072","external_links_name":"12521072"},{"Link":"http://www.gswra.org/","external_links_name":"The Glasgow & South Western Railway Association"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110726041737/http://www.virtualhunterston.eu.org/proposed.htm","external_links_name":"Proposed G&SWR Railway at Hunterston"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/139703921","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n93041382","external_links_name":"United States"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox | Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox | ["1 The \"Paradox\" paper","1.1 Bohr's reply","1.2 Einstein's own argument","2 Later developments","2.1 Bohm's variant","2.2 Bell's theorem","3 Steering","4 Locality","5 Mathematical formulation","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","8.1 Selected papers","8.2 Books","9 External links"] | Historical critique of quantum mechanics
Part of a series of articles aboutQuantum mechanics
i
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d
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{\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle }
Schrödinger equation
Introduction
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Albert Einstein
The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox is a thought experiment proposed by physicists Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen which argues that the description of physical reality provided by quantum mechanics is incomplete. In a 1935 paper titled "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?", they argued for the existence of "elements of reality" that were not part of quantum theory, and speculated that it should be possible to construct a theory containing these hidden variables. Resolutions of the paradox have important implications for the interpretation of quantum mechanics.
The thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what would later become known as an entangled state. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted. If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is impossible according to the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.
The "Paradox" paper
The term "Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox" or "EPR" arose from a paper written in 1934 after Einstein joined the Institute for Advanced Study, having fled the rise of Nazi Germany.
The original paper purports to describe what must happen to "two systems I and II, which we permit to interact", and after some time "we suppose that there is no longer any interaction between the two parts." The EPR description involves "two particles, A and B, interact briefly and then move off in opposite directions." According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is impossible to measure both the momentum and the position of particle B exactly; however, it is possible to measure the exact position of particle A. By calculation, therefore, with the exact position of particle A known, the exact position of particle B can be known. Alternatively, the exact momentum of particle A can be measured, so the exact momentum of particle B can be worked out. As Manjit Kumar writes, "EPR argued that they had proved that ... B can have simultaneously exact values of position and momentum. ... Particle B has a position that is real and a momentum that is real. EPR appeared to have contrived a means to establish the exact values of either the momentum or the position of B due to measurements made on particle A, without the slightest possibility of particle B being physically disturbed."
EPR tried to set up a paradox to question the range of true application of quantum mechanics: Quantum theory predicts that both values cannot be known for a particle, and yet the EPR thought experiment purports to show that they must all have determinate values. The EPR paper says: "We are thus forced to conclude that the quantum-mechanical description of physical reality given by wave functions is not complete." The EPR paper ends by saying: "While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the physical reality, we left open the question of whether or not such a description exists. We believe, however, that such a theory is possible." The 1935 EPR paper condensed the philosophical discussion into a physical argument. The authors claim that given a specific experiment, in which the outcome of a measurement is known before the measurement takes place, there must exist something in the real world, an "element of reality", that determines the measurement outcome. They postulate that these elements of reality are, in modern terminology, local, in the sense that each belongs to a certain point in spacetime. Each element may, again in modern terminology, only be influenced by events which are located in the backward light cone of its point in spacetime (i.e. in the past). These claims are founded on assumptions about nature that constitute what is now known as local realism.
Article headline regarding the EPR paradox paper in the May 4, 1935, issue of The New York Times.
Though the EPR paper has often been taken as an exact expression of Einstein's views, it was primarily authored by Podolsky, based on discussions at the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein and Rosen. Einstein later expressed to Erwin Schrödinger that, "it did not come out as well as I had originally wanted; rather, the essential thing was, so to speak, smothered by the formalism." Einstein would later go on to present an individual account of his local realist ideas. Shortly before the EPR paper appeared in the Physical Review, The New York Times ran a news story about it, under the headline "Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory". The story, which quoted Podolsky, irritated Einstein, who wrote to the Times, "Any information upon which the article 'Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory' in your issue of May 4 is based was given to you without authority. It is my invariable practice to discuss scientific matters only in the appropriate forum and I deprecate advance publication of any announcement in regard to such matters in the secular press.": 189
The Times story also sought out comment from physicist Edward Condon, who said, "Of course, a great deal of the argument hinges on just what meaning is to be attached to the word 'reality' in physics.": 189 The physicist and historian Max Jammer later noted, "t remains a historical fact that the earliest criticism of the EPR paper — moreover, a criticism which correctly saw in Einstein's conception of physical reality the key problem of the whole issue — appeared in a daily newspaper prior to the publication of the criticized paper itself.": 190
Bohr's reply
The publication of the paper prompted a response by Niels Bohr, which he published in the same journal (Physical Review), in the same year, using the same title. (This exchange was only one chapter in a prolonged debate between Bohr and Einstein about the nature of quantum reality.)
He argued that EPR had reasoned fallaciously. Bohr said measurements of position and of momentum are complementary, meaning the choice to measure one excludes the possibility of measuring the other. Consequently, a fact deduced regarding one arrangement of laboratory apparatus could not be combined with a fact deduced by means of the other, and so, the inference of predetermined position and momentum values for the second particle was not valid. Bohr concluded that EPR's "arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum description turns out to be essentially incomplete."
Einstein's own argument
In his own publications and correspondence, Einstein indicated that he was not satisfied with the EPR paper and that Rosen had authored most of it. He later used a different argument to insist that quantum mechanics is an incomplete theory.: 83ff He explicitly de-emphasized EPR's attribution of "elements of reality" to the position and momentum of particle B, saying that "I couldn't care less" whether the resulting states of particle B allowed one to predict the position and momentum with certainty.
For Einstein, the crucial part of the argument was the demonstration of nonlocality, that the choice of measurement done in particle A, either position or momentum, would lead to two different quantum states of particle B. He argued that, because of locality, the real state of particle B could not depend on which kind of measurement was done in A and that the quantum states therefore cannot be in one-to-one correspondence with the real states. Einstein struggled unsuccessfully for the rest of his life to find a theory that could better comply with his idea of locality.
Later developments
Bohm's variant
In 1951, David Bohm proposed a variant of the EPR thought experiment in which the measurements have discrete ranges of possible outcomes, unlike the position and momentum measurements considered by EPR. The EPR–Bohm thought experiment can be explained using electron–positron pairs. Suppose we have a source that emits electron–positron pairs, with the electron sent to destination A, where there is an observer named Alice, and the positron sent to destination B, where there is an observer named Bob. According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted pair occupies a quantum state called a spin singlet. The particles are thus said to be entangled. This can be viewed as a quantum superposition of two states, which we call state I and state II. In state I, the electron has spin pointing upward along the z-axis (+z) and the positron has spin pointing downward along the z-axis (−z). In state II, the electron has spin −z and the positron has spin +z. Because it is in a superposition of states, it is impossible without measuring to know the definite state of spin of either particle in the spin singlet.: 421–422
The EPR thought experiment, performed with electron–positron pairs. A source (center) sends particles toward two observers, electrons to Alice (left) and positrons to Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.
Alice now measures the spin along the z-axis. She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: +z or −z. Suppose she gets +z. Informally speaking, the quantum state of the system collapses into state I. The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system. In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the z-axis, there is 100% probability that he will obtain −z. Similarly, if Alice gets −z, Bob will get +z. There is nothing special about choosing the z-axis: according to quantum mechanics the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the x direction.: 318
Whatever axis their spins are measured along, they are always found to be opposite. In quantum mechanics, the x-spin and z-spin are "incompatible observables", meaning the Heisenberg uncertainty principle applies to alternating measurements of them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both of these variables. Suppose Alice measures the z-spin and obtains +z, so that the quantum state collapses into state I. Now, instead of measuring the z-spin as well, Bob measures the x-spin. According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's x-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing +x and a 50% probability of -x. It is impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually performs the measurement. Therefore, Bob's positron will have a definite spin when measured along the same axis as Alice's electron, but when measured in the perpendicular axis its spin will be uniformly random. It seems as if information has propagated (faster than light) from Alice's apparatus to make Bob's positron assume a definite spin in the appropriate axis.
Bell's theorem
Main article: Bell's theorem
In 1964, John Stewart Bell published a paper investigating the puzzling situation at that time: on one hand, the EPR paradox purportedly showed that quantum mechanics was nonlocal, and suggested that a hidden-variable theory could heal this nonlocality. On the other hand, David Bohm had recently developed the first successful hidden-variable theory, but it had a grossly nonlocal character. Bell set out to investigate whether it was indeed possible to solve the nonlocality problem with hidden variables, and found out that first, the correlations shown in both EPR's and Bohm's versions of the paradox could indeed be explained in a local way with hidden variables, and second, that the correlations shown in his own variant of the paradox couldn't be explained by any local hidden-variable theory. This second result became known as the Bell theorem.
To understand the first result, consider the following toy hidden-variable theory introduced later by J.J. Sakurai:: 239–240 in it, quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for "true" physical states possessing definite values for the z-spin and x-spin. In these "true" states, the positron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random. For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be "(+z, −x) to Alice and (−z, +x) to Bob", the next pair "(−z, −x) to Alice and (+z, +x) to Bob", and so forth. Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get "+" and "−" with equal probability.
Bell showed, however, that such models can only reproduce the singlet correlations when Alice and Bob make measurements on the same axis or on perpendicular axes. As soon as other angles between their axes are allowed, local hidden-variable theories become unable to reproduce the quantum mechanical correlations. This difference, expressed using inequalities known as "Bell's inequalities", is in principle experimentally testable. After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments to test Bell's inequalities were carried out, notably by the group of Alain Aspect in the 1980s; all experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of quantum mechanics. The present view of the situation is that quantum mechanics flatly contradicts Einstein's philosophical postulate that any acceptable physical theory must fulfill "local realism". The fact that quantum mechanics violates Bell inequalities indicates that any hidden-variable theory underlying quantum mechanics must be non-local; whether this should be taken to imply that quantum mechanics itself is non-local is a matter of continuing debate.
Steering
Main article: Quantum steering
Inspired by Schrödinger's treatment of the EPR paradox back in 1935, Howard M. Wiseman et al. formalised it in 2007 as the phenomenon of quantum steering. They defined steering as the situation where Alice's measurements on a part of an entangled state steer Bob's part of the state. That is, Bob's observations cannot be explained by a local hidden state model, where Bob would have a fixed quantum state in his side, that is classically correlated but otherwise independent of Alice's.
Locality
Locality has several different meanings in physics. EPR describe the principle of locality as asserting that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location. At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of special relativity, which states that energy can never be transmitted faster than the speed of light without violating causality;: 427–428 however, it turns out that the usual rules for combining quantum mechanical and classical descriptions violate EPR's principle of locality without violating special relativity or causality.: 427–428 Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e., information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis. Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining "+" and 50% probability of obtaining "−", completely at random; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets. Furthermore, Bob is able to perform his measurement only once: there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, the no-cloning theorem, which makes it impossible for him to make an arbitrary number of copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results. Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting "+" and 50% of getting "−", regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's.
As a summary, the results of the EPR thought experiment do not contradict the predictions of special relativity. Neither the EPR paradox nor any quantum experiment demonstrates that superluminal signaling is possible; however, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it. Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as "spooky action at a distance". The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory.
Mathematical formulation
Bohm's variant of the EPR paradox can be expressed mathematically using the quantum mechanical formulation of spin. The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional complex vector space V, with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space. The operators corresponding to the spin along the x, y, and z direction, denoted Sx, Sy, and Sz respectively, can be represented using the Pauli matrices:: 9
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{\displaystyle S_{x}={\frac {\hbar }{2}}{\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{bmatrix}},\quad S_{y}={\frac {\hbar }{2}}{\begin{bmatrix}0&-i\\i&0\end{bmatrix}},\quad S_{z}={\frac {\hbar }{2}}{\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\0&-1\end{bmatrix}},}
where
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{\displaystyle \hbar }
is the reduced Planck constant (or the Planck constant divided by 2π).
The eigenstates of Sz are represented as
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{\displaystyle \left|+z\right\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}},\quad \left|-z\right\rangle \leftrightarrow {\begin{bmatrix}0\\1\end{bmatrix}}}
and the eigenstates of Sx are represented as
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{\displaystyle \left|+x\right\rangle \leftrightarrow {\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1\\1\end{bmatrix}},\quad \left|-x\right\rangle \leftrightarrow {\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\begin{bmatrix}1\\-1\end{bmatrix}}.}
The vector space of the electron-positron pair is
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{\displaystyle V\otimes V}
, the tensor product of the electron's and positron's vector spaces. The spin singlet state is
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{\displaystyle \left|\psi \right\rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\biggl (}\left|+z\right\rangle \otimes \left|-z\right\rangle -\left|-z\right\rangle \otimes \left|+z\right\rangle {\biggr )},}
where the two terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state I and state II above.
From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written as
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{\displaystyle \left|\psi \right\rangle =-{\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}{\biggl (}\left|+x\right\rangle \otimes \left|-x\right\rangle -\left|-x\right\rangle \otimes \left|+x\right\rangle {\biggr )},}
where the terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state Ia and state IIa.
To illustrate the paradox, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of Sz (or Sx), Bob's value of Sz (or Sx) is uniquely determined and Bob's value of Sx (or Sz) is uniformly random. This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics. When Sz is measured, the system state
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{\displaystyle |\psi \rangle }
collapses into an eigenvector of Sz. If the measurement result is +z, this means that immediately after measurement the system state collapses to
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{\displaystyle \left|+z\right\rangle \otimes \left|-z\right\rangle =\left|+z\right\rangle \otimes {\frac {\left|+x\right\rangle -\left|-x\right\rangle }{\sqrt {2}}}.}
Similarly, if Alice's measurement result is −z, the state collapses to
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{\displaystyle \left|-z\right\rangle \otimes \left|+z\right\rangle =\left|-z\right\rangle \otimes {\frac {\left|+x\right\rangle +\left|-x\right\rangle }{\sqrt {2}}}.}
The left hand side of both equations show that the measurement of Sz on Bob's positron is now determined, it will be −z in the first case or +z in the second case. The right hand side of the equations show that the measurement of Sx on Bob's positron will return, in both cases, +x or -x with probability 1/2 each.
See also
Aspect's experiment
Bohr-Einstein debates: The argument of EPR
CHSH inequality
Coherence
Correlation does not imply causation
ER=EPR
GHZ experiment
Measurement problem
Philosophy of information
Philosophy of physics
Popper's experiment
Superdeterminism
Quantum entanglement
Quantum information
Quantum pseudo-telepathy
Quantum teleportation
Quantum Zeno effect
Synchronicity
Ward's probability amplitude
Notes
^ "Ob die
ψ
B
{\displaystyle \psi _{B}}
und
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_
{\displaystyle \psi _{\underline {B}}}
als Eigenfunktionen von Observabeln
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_
{\displaystyle B,{\underline {B}}}
aufgefasst werden können ist mir wurst." Emphasis from the original. "Ist mir wurst" is a German expression that literally translates to "It is a sausage to me", but means "I couldn't care less". Letter from Einstein to Schrödinger, dated 19th June 1935.
^ "Spukhaften Fernwirkung", in the German original. Used in a letter to Max Born dated March 3, 1947.
References
^ Einstein, A; B Podolsky; N Rosen (1935-05-15). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?" (PDF). Physical Review. 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777.
^ Peres, Asher (2002). Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods. Kluwer. p. 149.
^ Robinson, Andrew (2018-04-30). "Did Einstein really say that?". Nature. 557 (7703): 30. Bibcode:2018Natur.557...30R. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4. S2CID 14013938.
^ Levenson, Thomas (9 June 1917). "The Scientist and the Fascist". The Atlantic. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
^ Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (May 15, 1935). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?". Physical Review. 47 (10). Princeton, New Jersey: Institute for Advanced Study: 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777.
^ a b c Kumar, Manjit (2011). Quantum: Einstein, Bohr, and the Great Debate about the Nature of Reality (Reprint ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 305–306. ISBN 978-0393339888. Retrieved September 12, 2021 – via Internet Archive.
^ Jaeger, Gregg (2014). Quantum Objects. Springer Verlag. pp. 9–15. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37629-0. ISBN 978-3-642-37628-3.
^
Kaiser, David (1994). "Bringing the human actors back on stage: the personal context of the Einstein-Bohr debate". British Journal for the History of Science. 27 (2): 129–152. doi:10.1017/S0007087400031861. JSTOR 4027432. S2CID 145143635.
^ Einstein, Albert (1936). "Physik und Realität". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 221 (3): 313–347. doi:10.1016/S0016-0032(36)91045-1. English translation by Jean Piccard, pp 349–382 in the same issue, doi:10.1016/S0016-0032(36)91047-5).
^ "Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory". The New York Times. 4 May 1935. p. 11. Retrieved 10 January 2021.
^ a b c Jammer, Max (1974). The Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics: The Interpretations of QM in Historical Perspective. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-43958-4.
^ Bohr, N. (1935-10-13). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?" (PDF). Physical Review. 48 (8): 696–702. Bibcode:1935PhRv...48..696B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.48.696.
^ a b Harrigan, Nicholas; Spekkens, Robert W. (2010). "Einstein, incompleteness, and the epistemic view of quantum states". Foundations of Physics. 40 (2): 125. arXiv:0706.2661. Bibcode:2010FoPh...40..125H. doi:10.1007/s10701-009-9347-0. S2CID 32755624.
^ a b Howard, D. (1985). "Einstein on locality and separability". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A. 16 (3): 171–201. Bibcode:1985SHPSA..16..171H. doi:10.1016/0039-3681(85)90001-9.
^ Sauer, Tilman (2007-12-01). "An Einstein manuscript on the EPR paradox for spin observables". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part B: Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics. 38 (4): 879–887. Bibcode:2007SHPMP..38..879S. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.571.6089. doi:10.1016/j.shpsb.2007.03.002. ISSN 1355-2198.
^ Einstein, Albert (1949). "Autobiographical Notes". In Schilpp, Paul Arthur (ed.). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist. Open Court Publishing Company.
^ Bohm, D. (1951). Quantum Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, page 29, and Chapter 5 section 3, and Chapter 22 Section 19.
^ D. Bohm; Y. Aharonov (1957). "Discussion of Experimental Proof for the Paradox of Einstein, Rosen, and Podolsky". Physical Review. 108 (4): 1070. Bibcode:1957PhRv..108.1070B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.108.1070.
^ Reid, M. D.; Drummond, P. D.; Bowen, W. P.; Cavalcanti, E. G.; Lam, P. K.; Bachor, H. A.; Andersen, U. L.; Leuchs, G. (2009-12-10). "Colloquium: The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox: From concepts to applications". Reviews of Modern Physics. 81 (4): 1727–1751. arXiv:0806.0270. Bibcode:2009RvMP...81.1727R. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1727. S2CID 53407634.
^ a b c Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-111892-8.
^ Laloe, Franck (2012). "Do We Really Understand Quantum Mechanics". American Journal of Physics. 69 (6): 655–701. arXiv:quant-ph/0209123. Bibcode:2001AmJPh..69..655L. doi:10.1119/1.1356698. S2CID 123349369. (Erratum: doi:10.1119/1.1466818)
^ Bell, J. S. (1964). "On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox" (PDF). Physics Physique Физика. 1 (3): 195–200. doi:10.1103/PhysicsPhysiqueFizika.1.195.
^ Bohm, D. (1952). "A Suggested Interpretation of the Quantum Theory in Terms of "Hidden" Variables. I". Physical Review. 85 (2): 166. Bibcode:1952PhRv...85..166B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.85.166.
^ Bohm, D. (1952). "A Suggested Interpretation of the Quantum Theory in Terms of "Hidden" Variables. II". Physical Review. 85 (2): 180. Bibcode:1952PhRv...85..180B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.85.180.
^ a b Sakurai, J. J.; Napolitano, Jim (2010). Modern Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805382914.
^ Aspect A (1999-03-18). "Bell's inequality test: more ideal than ever" (PDF). Nature. 398 (6724): 189–90. Bibcode:1999Natur.398..189A. doi:10.1038/18296. S2CID 44925917.
^ Werner, R. F. (2014). "Comment on 'What Bell did'". Journal of Physics A. 47 (42): 424011. Bibcode:2014JPhA...47P4011W. doi:10.1088/1751-8113/47/42/424011. S2CID 122180759.
^ Żukowski, M.; Brukner, Č. (2014). "Quantum non-locality—it ain't necessarily so...". Journal of Physics A. 47 (42): 424009. arXiv:1501.04618. Bibcode:2014JPhA...47P4009Z. doi:10.1088/1751-8113/47/42/424009. S2CID 119220867.
^ Schrödinger, E. (October 1936). "Probability relations between separated systems". Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 32 (3): 446–452. Bibcode:1936PCPS...32..446S. doi:10.1017/s0305004100019137. ISSN 0305-0041. S2CID 122822435.
^ Schrödinger, E. (October 1935). "Discussion of Probability Relations between Separated Systems". Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 31 (4): 555–563. Bibcode:1935PCPS...31..555S. doi:10.1017/s0305004100013554. ISSN 0305-0041. S2CID 121278681.
^ Wiseman, H. M.; Jones, S. J.; Doherty, A. C. (2007). "Steering, Entanglement, Nonlocality, and the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox". Physical Review Letters. 98 (14): 140402. arXiv:quant-ph/0612147. Bibcode:2007PhRvL..98n0402W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.140402. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 17501251. S2CID 30078867.
^ a b Blaylock, Guy (January 2010). "The EPR paradox, Bell's inequality, and the question of locality". American Journal of Physics. 78 (1): 111–120. arXiv:0902.3827. Bibcode:2010AmJPh..78..111B. doi:10.1119/1.3243279. S2CID 118520639.
^ Albert Einstein Max Born, Briefwechsel 1916-1955 (in German) (3 ed.). München: Langen Müller. 2005. p. 254.
^ Bell, John (1981). "Bertlmann's socks and the nature of reality". J. Physique Colloques. C22: 41–62. Bibcode:1988nbpw.conf..245B.
Selected papers
Eberhard, P. H. (1977). "Bell's theorem without hidden variables". Il Nuovo Cimento B. Series 11. 38 (1): 75–80. arXiv:quant-ph/0010047. Bibcode:1977NCimB..38...75E. doi:10.1007/bf02726212. ISSN 1826-9877. S2CID 51759163.
Eberhard, P. H. (1978). "Bell's theorem and the different concepts of locality". Il Nuovo Cimento B. Series 11. 46 (2): 392–419. Bibcode:1978NCimB..46..392E. doi:10.1007/bf02728628. ISSN 1826-9877. S2CID 118836806.
Einstein, A.; Podolsky, B.; Rosen, N. (1935-05-15). "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?" (PDF). Physical Review. 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/physrev.47.777. ISSN 0031-899X.
Fine, Arthur (1982-02-01). "Hidden Variables, Joint Probability, and the Bell Inequalities". Physical Review Letters. 48 (5): 291–295. Bibcode:1982PhRvL..48..291F. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.48.291. ISSN 0031-9007.
A. Fine, Do Correlations need to be explained?, in Philosophical Consequences of Quantum Theory: Reflections on Bell's Theorem, edited by Cushing & McMullin (University of Notre Dame Press, 1986).
Hardy, Lucien (1993-09-13). "Nonlocality for two particles without inequalities for almost all entangled states". Physical Review Letters. 71 (11): 1665–1668. Bibcode:1993PhRvL..71.1665H. doi:10.1103/physrevlett.71.1665. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10054467.
M. Mizuki, A classical interpretation of Bell's inequality. Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie 26 683 (2001)
Peres, Asher (2005). "Einstein, Podolsky, Rosen, and Shannon". Foundations of Physics. 35 (3): 511–514. arXiv:quant-ph/0310010. Bibcode:2005FoPh...35..511P. doi:10.1007/s10701-004-1986-6. ISSN 0015-9018. S2CID 119556878.
P. Pluch, "Theory for Quantum Probability", PhD Thesis University of Klagenfurt (2006)
Rowe, M. A.; Kielpinski, D.; Meyer, V.; Sackett, C. A.; Itano, W. M.; Monroe, C.; Wineland, D. J. (2001). "Experimental violation of a Bell's inequality with efficient detection". Nature. 409 (6822): 791–794. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..791R. doi:10.1038/35057215. hdl:2027.42/62731. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11236986. S2CID 205014115.
Smerlak, Matteo; Rovelli, Carlo (2007-02-03). "Relational EPR". Foundations of Physics. 37 (3): 427–445. arXiv:quant-ph/0604064. Bibcode:2007FoPh...37..427S. doi:10.1007/s10701-007-9105-0. ISSN 0015-9018. S2CID 11816650.
Books
Bell, John S. (1987). Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36869-3.
Fine, Arthur (1996). The Shaky Game: Einstein, Realism and the Quantum Theory. 2nd ed. Univ. of Chicago Press.
Gribbin, John (1984). In Search of Schrödinger's Cat. Black Swan. ISBN 978-0-552-12555-0
Leaderman, Leon; Teresi, Dick (1993). The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question? Houghton Mifflin Company, pp. 21, 187–189.
Selleri, Franco (1988). Quantum Mechanics Versus Local Realism: The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen Paradox. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-306-42739-7.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: The Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory; 1.2 The argument in the text
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument and the Bell Inequalities"
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abner Shimony (2019) "Bell's Theorem"
EPR, Bell & Aspect: The Original References
Does Bell's Inequality Principle rule out local theories of quantum mechanics? from the Usenet Physics FAQ
Theoretical use of EPR in teleportation
Effective use of EPR in cryptography
EPR experiment with single photons interactive
Spooky Actions At A Distance?: Oppenheimer Lecture by Prof. Mermin
Original paper
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IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein,_by_Doris_Ulmann.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"thought experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"Boris Podolsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Podolsky"},{"link_name":"Nathan Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Rosen"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EPR-1"},{"link_name":"hidden variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden-variable_theory"},{"link_name":"interpretation of quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_of_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"entangled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_state"},{"link_name":"theory of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity"},{"link_name":"probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability"},{"link_name":"incompatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable#Incompatibility_of_observables_in_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Albert EinsteinThe Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox is a thought experiment proposed by physicists Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen which argues that the description of physical reality provided by quantum mechanics is incomplete.[1] In a 1935 paper titled \"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?\", they argued for the existence of \"elements of reality\" that were not part of quantum theory, and speculated that it should be possible to construct a theory containing these hidden variables. Resolutions of the paradox have important implications for the interpretation of quantum mechanics.The thought experiment involves a pair of particles prepared in what would later become known as an entangled state. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted. If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is impossible according to the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the \"EPR criterion of reality\", positing that: \"If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity.\" From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.[2]","title":"Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"fled the rise of Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein#1933:_Emigration_to_the_US"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kumar2011-6"},{"link_name":"Heisenberg's uncertainty principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heisenberg%27s_uncertainty_principle"},{"link_name":"Manjit Kumar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manjit_Kumar"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kumar2011-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kumar2011-6"},{"link_name":"local","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"light cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_cone"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jaeger2014-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NYT_May_4,_1935.jpg"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"Erwin Schrödinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"local realist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Physical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jammer1974-11"},{"link_name":"Edward Condon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Condon"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jammer1974-11"},{"link_name":"Max Jammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Jammer"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jammer1974-11"}],"text":"The term \"Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox\" or \"EPR\" arose from a paper written in 1934 after Einstein joined the Institute for Advanced Study, having fled the rise of Nazi Germany.[3][4]\nThe original paper[5] purports to describe what must happen to \"two systems I and II, which we permit to interact\", and after some time \"we suppose that there is no longer any interaction between the two parts.\" The EPR description involves \"two particles, A and B, [which] interact briefly and then move off in opposite directions.\"[6] According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, it is impossible to measure both the momentum and the position of particle B exactly; however, it is possible to measure the exact position of particle A. By calculation, therefore, with the exact position of particle A known, the exact position of particle B can be known. Alternatively, the exact momentum of particle A can be measured, so the exact momentum of particle B can be worked out. As Manjit Kumar writes, \"EPR argued that they had proved that ... [particle] B can have simultaneously exact values of position and momentum. ... Particle B has a position that is real and a momentum that is real. EPR appeared to have contrived a means to establish the exact values of either the momentum or the position of B due to measurements made on particle A, without the slightest possibility of particle B being physically disturbed.\"[6]EPR tried to set up a paradox to question the range of true application of quantum mechanics: Quantum theory predicts that both values cannot be known for a particle, and yet the EPR thought experiment purports to show that they must all have determinate values. The EPR paper says: \"We are thus forced to conclude that the quantum-mechanical description of physical reality given by wave functions is not complete.\"[6] The EPR paper ends by saying: \"While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the physical reality, we left open the question of whether or not such a description exists. We believe, however, that such a theory is possible.\" The 1935 EPR paper condensed the philosophical discussion into a physical argument. The authors claim that given a specific experiment, in which the outcome of a measurement is known before the measurement takes place, there must exist something in the real world, an \"element of reality\", that determines the measurement outcome. They postulate that these elements of reality are, in modern terminology, local, in the sense that each belongs to a certain point in spacetime. Each element may, again in modern terminology, only be influenced by events which are located in the backward light cone of its point in spacetime (i.e. in the past). These claims are founded on assumptions about nature that constitute what is now known as local realism.[7]Article headline regarding the EPR paradox paper in the May 4, 1935, issue of The New York Times.Though the EPR paper has often been taken as an exact expression of Einstein's views, it was primarily authored by Podolsky, based on discussions at the Institute for Advanced Study with Einstein and Rosen. Einstein later expressed to Erwin Schrödinger that, \"it did not come out as well as I had originally wanted; rather, the essential thing was, so to speak, smothered by the formalism.\"[8] Einstein would later go on to present an individual account of his local realist ideas.[9] Shortly before the EPR paper appeared in the Physical Review, The New York Times ran a news story about it, under the headline \"Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory\".[10] The story, which quoted Podolsky, irritated Einstein, who wrote to the Times, \"Any information upon which the article 'Einstein Attacks Quantum Theory' in your issue of May 4 is based was given to you without authority. It is my invariable practice to discuss scientific matters only in the appropriate forum and I deprecate advance publication of any announcement in regard to such matters in the secular press.\"[11]: 189The Times story also sought out comment from physicist Edward Condon, who said, \"Of course, a great deal of the argument hinges on just what meaning is to be attached to the word 'reality' in physics.\"[11]: 189 The physicist and historian Max Jammer later noted, \"[I]t remains a historical fact that the earliest criticism of the EPR paper — moreover, a criticism which correctly saw in Einstein's conception of physical reality the key problem of the whole issue — appeared in a daily newspaper prior to the publication of the criticized paper itself.\"[11]: 190","title":"The \"Paradox\" paper"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Niels Bohr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohr"},{"link_name":"Physical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bohr1935-12"},{"link_name":"a prolonged debate between Bohr and Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates"},{"link_name":"complementary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementarity_(physics)"}],"sub_title":"Bohr's reply","text":"The publication of the paper prompted a response by Niels Bohr, which he published in the same journal (Physical Review), in the same year, using the same title.[12] (This exchange was only one chapter in a prolonged debate between Bohr and Einstein about the nature of quantum reality.)\nHe argued that EPR had reasoned fallaciously. Bohr said measurements of position and of momentum are complementary, meaning the choice to measure one excludes the possibility of measuring the other. Consequently, a fact deduced regarding one arrangement of laboratory apparatus could not be combined with a fact deduced by means of the other, and so, the inference of predetermined position and momentum values for the second particle was not valid. Bohr concluded that EPR's \"arguments do not justify their conclusion that the quantum description turns out to be essentially incomplete.\"","title":"The \"Paradox\" paper"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-howard-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"nonlocality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_nonlocality"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality"}],"sub_title":"Einstein's own argument","text":"In his own publications and correspondence, Einstein indicated that he was not satisfied with the EPR paper and that Rosen had authored most of it. He later used a different argument to insist that quantum mechanics is an incomplete theory.[13][14][15][16]: 83ff He explicitly de-emphasized EPR's attribution of \"elements of reality\" to the position and momentum of particle B, saying that \"I couldn't care less\" whether the resulting states of particle B allowed one to predict the position and momentum with certainty.[a]For Einstein, the crucial part of the argument was the demonstration of nonlocality, that the choice of measurement done in particle A, either position or momentum, would lead to two different quantum states of particle B. He argued that, because of locality, the real state of particle B could not depend on which kind of measurement was done in A and that the quantum states therefore cannot be in one-to-one correspondence with the real states.[13] Einstein struggled unsuccessfully for the rest of his life to find a theory that could better comply with his idea of locality.","title":"The \"Paradox\" paper"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Later developments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Bohm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"positron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron"},{"link_name":"Alice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_and_Bob"},{"link_name":"Bob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_and_Bob"},{"link_name":"spin singlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_singlet"},{"link_name":"entangled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"link_name":"quantum superposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_superposition"},{"link_name":"spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffiths2004-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EPR_illustration.svg"},{"link_name":"collapses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefunction_collapse"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laloe-22"},{"link_name":"Heisenberg uncertainty principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle"}],"sub_title":"Bohm's variant","text":"In 1951, David Bohm proposed a variant of the EPR thought experiment in which the measurements have discrete ranges of possible outcomes, unlike the position and momentum measurements considered by EPR.[17][18][19] The EPR–Bohm thought experiment can be explained using electron–positron pairs. Suppose we have a source that emits electron–positron pairs, with the electron sent to destination A, where there is an observer named Alice, and the positron sent to destination B, where there is an observer named Bob. According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted pair occupies a quantum state called a spin singlet. The particles are thus said to be entangled. This can be viewed as a quantum superposition of two states, which we call state I and state II. In state I, the electron has spin pointing upward along the z-axis (+z) and the positron has spin pointing downward along the z-axis (−z). In state II, the electron has spin −z and the positron has spin +z. Because it is in a superposition of states, it is impossible without measuring to know the definite state of spin of either particle in the spin singlet.[20]: 421–422The EPR thought experiment, performed with electron–positron pairs. A source (center) sends particles toward two observers, electrons to Alice (left) and positrons to Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.Alice now measures the spin along the z-axis. She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: +z or −z. Suppose she gets +z. Informally speaking, the quantum state of the system collapses into state I. The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system. In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the z-axis, there is 100% probability that he will obtain −z. Similarly, if Alice gets −z, Bob will get +z. There is nothing special about choosing the z-axis: according to quantum mechanics the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the x direction.[21]: 318Whatever axis their spins are measured along, they are always found to be opposite. In quantum mechanics, the x-spin and z-spin are \"incompatible observables\", meaning the Heisenberg uncertainty principle applies to alternating measurements of them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both of these variables. Suppose Alice measures the z-spin and obtains +z, so that the quantum state collapses into state I. Now, instead of measuring the z-spin as well, Bob measures the x-spin. According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's x-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing +x and a 50% probability of -x. It is impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually performs the measurement. Therefore, Bob's positron will have a definite spin when measured along the same axis as Alice's electron, but when measured in the perpendicular axis its spin will be uniformly random. It seems as if information has propagated (faster than light) from Alice's apparatus to make Bob's positron assume a definite spin in the appropriate axis.","title":"Later developments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Stewart Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bell1964-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sakurai-26"},{"link_name":"Bell's inequalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_inequalities"},{"link_name":"experiments to test Bell's inequalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test"},{"link_name":"Alain Aspect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Aspect"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Aspect1999-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Bell's theorem","text":"In 1964, John Stewart Bell published a paper[22] investigating the puzzling situation at that time: on one hand, the EPR paradox purportedly showed that quantum mechanics was nonlocal, and suggested that a hidden-variable theory could heal this nonlocality. On the other hand, David Bohm had recently developed the first successful hidden-variable theory, but it had a grossly nonlocal character.[23][24] Bell set out to investigate whether it was indeed possible to solve the nonlocality problem with hidden variables, and found out that first, the correlations shown in both EPR's and Bohm's versions of the paradox could indeed be explained in a local way with hidden variables, and second, that the correlations shown in his own variant of the paradox couldn't be explained by any local hidden-variable theory. This second result became known as the Bell theorem.To understand the first result, consider the following toy hidden-variable theory introduced later by J.J. Sakurai:[25]: 239–240 in it, quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for \"true\" physical states possessing definite values for the z-spin and x-spin. In these \"true\" states, the positron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random. For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be \"(+z, −x) to Alice and (−z, +x) to Bob\", the next pair \"(−z, −x) to Alice and (+z, +x) to Bob\", and so forth. Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get \"+\" and \"−\" with equal probability.Bell showed, however, that such models can only reproduce the singlet correlations when Alice and Bob make measurements on the same axis or on perpendicular axes. As soon as other angles between their axes are allowed, local hidden-variable theories become unable to reproduce the quantum mechanical correlations. This difference, expressed using inequalities known as \"Bell's inequalities\", is in principle experimentally testable. After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments to test Bell's inequalities were carried out, notably by the group of Alain Aspect in the 1980s;[26] all experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of quantum mechanics. The present view of the situation is that quantum mechanics flatly contradicts Einstein's philosophical postulate that any acceptable physical theory must fulfill \"local realism\". The fact that quantum mechanics violates Bell inequalities indicates that any hidden-variable theory underlying quantum mechanics must be non-local; whether this should be taken to imply that quantum mechanics itself is non-local is a matter of continuing debate.[27][28]","title":"Later developments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Howard M. Wiseman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_M._Wiseman"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"Inspired by Schrödinger's treatment of the EPR paradox back in 1935,[29][30] Howard M. Wiseman et al. formalised it in 2007 as the phenomenon of quantum steering.[31] They defined steering as the situation where Alice's measurements on a part of an entangled state steer Bob's part of the state. That is, Bob's observations cannot be explained by a local hidden state model, where Bob would have a fixed quantum state in his side, that is classically correlated but otherwise independent of Alice's.","title":"Steering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Locality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality"},{"link_name":"special relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"causality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffiths2004-21"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blaylock-33"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffiths2004-21"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blaylock-33"},{"link_name":"random","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomness"},{"link_name":"no-cloning theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-cloning_theorem"},{"link_name":"superluminal signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster-than-light_communication"},{"link_name":"spooky action at a distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_at_a_distance_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bell1981-36"}],"text":"Locality has several different meanings in physics. EPR describe the principle of locality as asserting that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location. At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of special relativity, which states that energy can never be transmitted faster than the speed of light without violating causality;[20]: 427–428 [32] however, it turns out that the usual rules for combining quantum mechanical and classical descriptions violate EPR's principle of locality without violating special relativity or causality.[20]: 427–428 [32] Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e., information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis. Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining \"+\" and 50% probability of obtaining \"−\", completely at random; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets. Furthermore, Bob is able to perform his measurement only once: there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, the no-cloning theorem, which makes it impossible for him to make an arbitrary number of copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results. Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting \"+\" and 50% of getting \"−\", regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's.As a summary, the results of the EPR thought experiment do not contradict the predictions of special relativity. Neither the EPR paradox nor any quantum experiment demonstrates that superluminal signaling is possible; however, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it. Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as \"spooky action at a distance\".[b] The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory.[34]","title":"Locality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantum mechanical formulation of spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"Pauli matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_matrices"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sakurai-26"},{"link_name":"eigenstates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenstate"},{"link_name":"tensor product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_product"},{"link_name":"measurement in quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_in_quantum_mechanics"}],"text":"Bohm's variant of the EPR paradox can be expressed mathematically using the quantum mechanical formulation of spin. The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional complex vector space V, with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space. The operators corresponding to the spin along the x, y, and z direction, denoted Sx, Sy, and Sz respectively, can be represented using the Pauli matrices:[25]: 9S\n \n x\n \n \n =\n \n \n ℏ\n 2\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n S\n \n y\n \n \n =\n \n \n ℏ\n 2\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n i\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n S\n \n z\n \n \n =\n \n \n ℏ\n 2\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{x}={\\frac {\\hbar }{2}}{\\begin{bmatrix}0&1\\\\1&0\\end{bmatrix}},\\quad S_{y}={\\frac {\\hbar }{2}}{\\begin{bmatrix}0&-i\\\\i&0\\end{bmatrix}},\\quad S_{z}={\\frac {\\hbar }{2}}{\\begin{bmatrix}1&0\\\\0&-1\\end{bmatrix}},}ℏ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\hbar }reduced Planck constantThe eigenstates of Sz are represented as|\n \n +\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ↔\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n |\n \n −\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ↔\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|+z\\right\\rangle \\leftrightarrow {\\begin{bmatrix}1\\\\0\\end{bmatrix}},\\quad \\left|-z\\right\\rangle \\leftrightarrow {\\begin{bmatrix}0\\\\1\\end{bmatrix}}}Sx|\n \n +\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n ↔\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n |\n \n −\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n ↔\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|+x\\right\\rangle \\leftrightarrow {\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\begin{bmatrix}1\\\\1\\end{bmatrix}},\\quad \\left|-x\\right\\rangle \\leftrightarrow {\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\begin{bmatrix}1\\\\-1\\end{bmatrix}}.}The vector space of the electron-positron pair is \n \n \n \n V\n ⊗\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V\\otimes V}\n \n, the tensor product of the electron's and positron's vector spaces. The spin singlet state is|\n ψ\n ⟩\n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n |\n \n +\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n |\n \n −\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n −\n \n |\n \n −\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n |\n \n +\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|\\psi \\right\\rangle ={\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\biggl (}\\left|+z\\right\\rangle \\otimes \\left|-z\\right\\rangle -\\left|-z\\right\\rangle \\otimes \\left|+z\\right\\rangle {\\biggr )},}From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written as|\n ψ\n ⟩\n \n =\n −\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n |\n \n +\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n |\n \n −\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n −\n \n |\n \n −\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n |\n \n +\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|\\psi \\right\\rangle =-{\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2}}}{\\biggl (}\\left|+x\\right\\rangle \\otimes \\left|-x\\right\\rangle -\\left|-x\\right\\rangle \\otimes \\left|+x\\right\\rangle {\\biggr )},}To illustrate the paradox, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of Sz (or Sx), Bob's value of Sz (or Sx) is uniquely determined and Bob's value of Sx (or Sz) is uniformly random. This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics. When Sz is measured, the system state \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n collapses into an eigenvector of Sz. If the measurement result is +z, this means that immediately after measurement the system state collapses to|\n \n +\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n |\n \n −\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n =\n \n |\n \n +\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n +\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n −\n \n |\n \n −\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|+z\\right\\rangle \\otimes \\left|-z\\right\\rangle =\\left|+z\\right\\rangle \\otimes {\\frac {\\left|+x\\right\\rangle -\\left|-x\\right\\rangle }{\\sqrt {2}}}.}Similarly, if Alice's measurement result is −z, the state collapses to|\n \n −\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n |\n \n +\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n =\n \n |\n \n −\n z\n \n ⟩\n \n ⊗\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n +\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n +\n \n |\n \n −\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|-z\\right\\rangle \\otimes \\left|+z\\right\\rangle =\\left|-z\\right\\rangle \\otimes {\\frac {\\left|+x\\right\\rangle +\\left|-x\\right\\rangle }{\\sqrt {2}}}.}SzzzSxxx","title":"Mathematical formulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-howard-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"Max Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"^ \"Ob die \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi _{B}}\n \n und \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n B\n _\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi _{\\underline {B}}}\n \n als Eigenfunktionen von Observabeln \n \n \n \n B\n ,\n \n \n B\n _\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle B,{\\underline {B}}}\n \n aufgefasst werden können ist mir wurst.\" Emphasis from the original. \"Ist mir wurst\" is a German expression that literally translates to \"It is a sausage to me\", but means \"I couldn't care less\". Letter from Einstein to Schrödinger, dated 19th June 1935.[14]\n\n^ \"Spukhaften Fernwirkung\", in the German original. Used in a letter to Max Born dated March 3, 1947.[33]","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Albert Einstein","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Albert_Einstein%2C_by_Doris_Ulmann.jpg/200px-Albert_Einstein%2C_by_Doris_Ulmann.jpg"},{"image_text":"Article headline regarding the EPR paradox paper in the May 4, 1935, issue of The New York Times.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/NYT_May_4%2C_1935.jpg/250px-NYT_May_4%2C_1935.jpg"},{"image_text":"The EPR thought experiment, performed with electron–positron pairs. A source (center) sends particles toward two observers, electrons to Alice (left) and positrons to Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/EPR_illustration.svg/500px-EPR_illustration.svg.png"}] | [{"title":"Aspect's experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect%27s_experiment"},{"title":"Bohr-Einstein debates: The argument of EPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr%E2%80%93Einstein_debates#The_argument_of_EPR"},{"title":"CHSH inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHSH_inequality"},{"title":"Coherence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_(physics)"},{"title":"Correlation does not imply causation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation"},{"title":"ER=EPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ER%3DEPR"},{"title":"GHZ experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GHZ_experiment"},{"title":"Measurement problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_problem"},{"title":"Philosophy of information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_information"},{"title":"Philosophy of physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics"},{"title":"Popper's experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popper%27s_experiment"},{"title":"Superdeterminism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superdeterminism"},{"title":"Quantum entanglement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"title":"Quantum information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information"},{"title":"Quantum pseudo-telepathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_pseudo-telepathy"},{"title":"Quantum teleportation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_teleportation"},{"title":"Quantum Zeno effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Zeno_effect"},{"title":"Synchronicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronicity"},{"title":"Ward's probability amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clive_Ward"}] | [{"reference":"Einstein, A; B Podolsky; N Rosen (1935-05-15). \"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?\" (PDF). Physical Review. 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777.","urls":[{"url":"https://cds.cern.ch/record/405662/files/PhysRev.47.777.pdf","url_text":"\"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review","url_text":"Physical Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...47..777E","url_text":"1935PhRv...47..777E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.47.777","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.47.777"}]},{"reference":"Peres, Asher (2002). Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods. Kluwer. p. 149.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asher_Peres","url_text":"Peres, Asher"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Theory:_Concepts_and_Methods","url_text":"Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods"}]},{"reference":"Robinson, Andrew (2018-04-30). \"Did Einstein really say that?\". Nature. 557 (7703): 30. Bibcode:2018Natur.557...30R. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4. 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Retrieved 28 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/06/einstein-germany-and-the-bomb/528534/","url_text":"\"The Scientist and the Fascist\""}]},{"reference":"Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (May 15, 1935). \"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?\". Physical Review. 47 (10). Princeton, New Jersey: Institute for Advanced Study: 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.47.777","url_text":"\"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...47..777E","url_text":"1935PhRv...47..777E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.47.777","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.47.777"}]},{"reference":"Kumar, Manjit (2011). Quantum: Einstein, Bohr, and the Great Debate about the Nature of Reality (Reprint ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 305–306. ISBN 978-0393339888. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_validation | XML validation | ["1 Standards","2 Tools","3 References"] | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "XML validation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
XML validation is the process of checking a document written in XML (eXtensible Markup Language) to confirm that it is both well-formed and also "valid" in that it follows a defined structure. A well-formed document follows the basic syntactic rules of XML, which are the same for all XML documents. A valid document also respects the rules dictated by a particular DTD or XML schema. Automated tools – validators – can perform well-formedness tests and many other validation tests, but not those that require human judgement, such as correct application of a schema to a data set.
Standards
OASIS CAM is a standard specification that provides contextual validation of content and structure that is more flexible than basic schema validations.
Schematron, a method for advanced XML validation.
Tools
xmllint is a command line XML tool that can perform XML validation. It can be found in UNIX / Linux environments.
XML toolkit. The XML C parser and toolkit of Gnome – libxml includes xmllint
XML Validator Online Validate your XML data.
XML Schema Validator Validate XML files against an XML Schema.
References
^ "Well-Formed XML Documents". Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.1. W3C. 2004.
^ "Constraints and Validation Rules". XML Schema Part 1: Structures Second Edition. W3C. 2004.
Articles discussing XML validation
DEVX March, 2009 - Taking XML Validation to the Next Level: Introducing CAM Archived 2012-03-16 at the Wayback Machine
This markup language article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"well-formed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_document"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"DTD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_Type_Definition"},{"link_name":"XML schema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_Schema_(W3C)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"validators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validator"}],"text":"XML validation is the process of checking a document written in XML (eXtensible Markup Language) to confirm that it is both well-formed and also \"valid\" in that it follows a defined structure. A well-formed document follows the basic syntactic rules of XML, which are the same for all XML documents.[1] A valid document also respects the rules dictated by a particular DTD or XML schema.[2] Automated tools – validators – can perform well-formedness tests and many other validation tests, but not those that require human judgement, such as correct application of a schema to a data set.","title":"XML validation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Schematron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematron"}],"text":"OASIS CAM is a standard specification that provides contextual validation of content and structure that is more flexible than basic schema validations.\nSchematron, a method for advanced XML validation.","title":"Standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"xmllint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libxml2"},{"link_name":"UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"The XML C parser and toolkit of Gnome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//xmlsoft.org/xmldtd.html"},{"link_name":"XML Validator Online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//codebeautify.org/xmlvalidator"},{"link_name":"XML Schema Validator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.corefiling.com/opensource/schemaValidate"}],"text":"xmllint is a command line XML tool that can perform XML validation. It can be found in UNIX / Linux environments.\nXML toolkit. The XML C parser and toolkit of Gnome – libxml includes xmllint\nXML Validator Online Validate your XML data.\nXML Schema Validator Validate XML files against an XML Schema.","title":"Tools"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Well-Formed XML Documents\". Extensible Markup Language (XML) 1.1. W3C. 2004.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-xml11-20040204/#sec-well-formed","url_text":"\"Well-Formed XML Documents\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3C","url_text":"W3C"}]},{"reference":"\"Constraints and Validation Rules\". XML Schema Part 1: Structures Second Edition. W3C. 2004.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-1/#concepts-schemaConstraints","url_text":"\"Constraints and Validation Rules\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W3C","url_text":"W3C"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22XML+validation%22","external_links_name":"\"XML validation\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22XML+validation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22XML+validation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22XML+validation%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22XML+validation%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22XML+validation%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://xmlsoft.org/xmldtd.html","external_links_name":"The XML C parser and toolkit of Gnome"},{"Link":"https://codebeautify.org/xmlvalidator","external_links_name":"XML Validator Online"},{"Link":"https://www.corefiling.com/opensource/schemaValidate","external_links_name":"XML Schema Validator"},{"Link":"http://www.w3.org/TR/2004/REC-xml11-20040204/#sec-well-formed","external_links_name":"\"Well-Formed XML Documents\""},{"Link":"http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-1/#concepts-schemaConstraints","external_links_name":"\"Constraints and Validation Rules\""},{"Link":"http://www.devx.com/xml/Article/41066","external_links_name":"DEVX March, 2009 - Taking XML Validation to the Next Level: Introducing CAM"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120316091304/http://www.devx.com/xml/Article/41066","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=XML_validation&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences | Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | ["1 History","1.1 American national security concerns","1.2 Contributed review concerns","2 Editors","3 Notes","4 References","5 External links"] | Academic journal of the National Academy of Sciences
"PNAS" and "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" redirect here. For the Indian journal, see Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India. For the protein, see Sodium/phosphate cotransporter. For other uses, see PNA (disambiguation).
Academic journalProceedings of the National Academy of SciencesDisciplineMultidisciplinaryLanguageEnglishEdited byMay BerenbaumPublication detailsHistory1915–presentPublisherUnited States National Academy of Sciences (United States)FrequencyWeeklyOpen accessHybrid, delayed (after 6 months)Impact factor11.1 (2022)Standard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.IndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusCODENPNASA6ISSN0027-8424 (print)1091-6490 (web)LCCN16010069JSTOR00278424OCLC no.43473694Links
Journal homepage
Online access
Online archive
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (often abbreviated PNAS or PNAS USA) is a peer-reviewed multidisciplinary scientific journal. It is the official journal of the National Academy of Sciences, published since 1915, and publishes original research, scientific reviews, commentaries, and letters. According to Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 11.1. PNAS is the second most cited scientific journal, with more than 1.9 million cumulative citations from 2008 to 2018. In the mass media, PNAS has been described variously as "prestigious", "sedate", "renowned" and "high impact".
PNAS is a delayed open-access journal, with an embargo period of six months that can be bypassed for an author fee (hybrid open access). Since September 2017, open access articles are published under a Creative Commons license. Since January 2019, PNAS has been online-only, although print issues are available on demand.
History
PNAS was established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 1914,: 30 with its first issue published in 1915. The NAS itself was founded in 1863 as a private institution, but chartered by the United States Congress, with the goal to "investigate, examine, experiment and report upon any subject of science or art."
Prior to the inception of PNAS, the National Academy of Sciences published three volumes of organizational transactions, consisting mostly of minutes of meetings and annual reports. For much of the journal's history, PNAS published brief first announcements of Academy members' and associates' contributions to research. In December 1995, PNAS opened submissions to all authors without first needing to be sponsored by an NAS member.
Members were allowed to communicate up to two papers from non-members to PNAS every year. The review process for these papers was anonymous in that the identities of the referees were not revealed to the authors. Referees were selected by the NAS member. PNAS eliminated communicated submissions through NAS members as of July 1, 2010, while continuing to make the final decision on all PNAS papers.
95% of papers are peer reviewed Direct Submissions and 5% are contributed submissions.
In 2022 NAS established PNAS Nexus, an interdisciplinary open-access journal published by Oxford Academic.
American national security concerns
In 2003, PNAS issued an editorial stating its policy on publication of sensitive material in the life sciences. PNAS stated that it would "continue to monitor submitted papers for material that may be deemed inappropriate and that could, if published, compromise the public welfare." This statement was in keeping with the efforts of several other journals. In 2005 PNAS published an article titled "Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk", despite objections raised by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The paper was published with a commentary by the president of the Academy at the time, Bruce Alberts, titled "Modeling attacks on the food supply".
Contributed review concerns
The controversial Younger Dryas impact hypothesis, which evolved directly from pseudoscience and now forms the basis for the pseudoarchaeology of Graham Hancock's Ancient Apocalypse, was first published in PNAS using a nonstandard review system, according to a comprehensive refutation by Holliday et al (2023). According to this 2023 review, "Claiming evidence where none exists and providing misleading citations may be accidental, but when conducted repeatedly, it becomes negligent and undermines scientific advancement as well as the credibility of science itself. Also culpable is the failure of the peer review process to prevent such errors of fact from entering the literature. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 'contributed review' system for National Academy members...is at least partially responsible. The 'pal reviews' (as some refer to them) were significantly curtailed in 2010, in part due to the YDIH controversy."
Editors
The following people have been editors-in-chief of the journal:
1914–1918: Arthur A. Noyes
1918–1940: Raymond Pearl
1940–1949: Robert A. Millikan
1950–1955: Linus Pauling
1955–1960: Wendell M. Stanley
1960–1968: Saunders Mac Lane
1968–1972: John T. Edsall
1972–1980: Robert Louis Sinsheimer
1980–1984: Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.
1985–1988: Maxine Singer
1988–1991: Igor B. Dawid
1991–1995: Lawrence Bogorad
1995–2006: Nicholas R. Cozzarelli
2006–2011: Randy Schekman
2011–2017: Inder Verma
2018–2019: Natasha Raikhel
2019–present: May Berenbaum
The first managing editor of the journal was mathematician Edwin Bidwell Wilson.
Notes
^ The Stankus book reference states 1918 as the year instead of 1914.
References
^ "Journal Citation Reports". Clarivate. Retrieved July 13, 2021.
^ "InCites – Sign In". error.incites.thomsonreuters.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved January 31, 2019.
^ "Discovery (could pave way for better diabetes treatments)". The News-Star. Vol. 86, no. 264. Monroe, Louisiana. July 6, 2015. p. 2D – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Ben-Gurion study highlights gene that could lead to new therapies for ALS". South Florida Sun Sentinel. September 21, 2016. p. A52 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Lear, John (August 11, 1986). "On Our Knees". The Gettysburg Times. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. p. 4 – via Newspapers.com.
^ Byerman, Mikalee (October 26, 2008). "Survival skills". Living Green. Reno Gazette-Journal. Vol. 27, no. 300. Reno, Nevada. p. 7 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "U of U programs frequently cited as references". School News. The Daily Spectrum. Vol. 27, no. 167. St. George, Utah. August 16, 1993. p. B2 – via Newspapers.com.
^ "Assistant professor's research gets published". Poughkeepsie Journal. Poughkeepsie, New York. October 13, 2009. p. 1D – via Newspapers.com.
^ Stankus, Tony (1990). Scientific journals: Improving library collections through analysis of publishing trends. Haworth Press. ISBN 0-886656-905-7 – via Internet Archive.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)
^ a b Information for Authors
^ Schekman, R. (2007). "Introducing Feature Articles in PNAS" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (16): 6495. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.6495S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702818104. PMC 1871811. S2CID 84888136.
^ Fersht, Alan (May 3, 2005). "Editorial: How and why to publish in PNAS". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (18): 6241–6242. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502713102. PMC 1088396. PMID 16576766.
^ Garfield, Eugene (September 7, 1987). "Classic Papers from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" (PDF). Essays of an Information Scientist. 10 (36): 247. Retrieved September 28, 2007.
^ Schekman, Randy (2009). "PNAS will eliminate Communicated submissions in July 2010". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (37): 15518. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10615518S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909515106. PMC 2747149.
^ Verma, Inder M. (October 7, 2014). "Simplifying the Direct Submission process". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (40): 14311. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11114311V. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417688111. PMC 4210033. PMID 25246596.
^ "About Direct Submission | PNAS".
^ "About the Journal". oup.com. Oxford University Press. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
^ "PNAS Nexus". nasonline.org. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
^ Cozzarelli, Nicholas R. (2003). "PNAS policy on publication of sensitive material in the life sciences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (4): 1463. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.1463C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0630514100. PMC 149849. PMID 12590130.
^ Harmon, Amy (February 16, 2003). "Journal Editors to Consider U.S. Security in Publishing". Archives. The New York Times.
^ Fauber, John (February 16, 2003). "Science articles to be censored in terror fight". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.
^ Wein, L. M. (2005). "Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (28): 9984–9989. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.9984W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0408526102. PMC 1161865. PMID 15985558.
^ "Provocative report on bioterror online". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. June 29, 2005.
^ Alberts, B. (2005). "Modeling attacks on the food supply". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (28): 9737–9738. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.9737A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504944102. PMC 1175018. PMID 15985557.
^ Holliday, Vance T.; Daulton, Tyrone L.; Bartlein, Patrick J.; Boslough, Mark B.; Breslawski, Ryan P.; Fisher, Abigail E.; Jorgeson, Ian A.; Scott, Andrew C.; Koeberl, Christian; Marlon, Jennifer; Severinghaus, Jeffrey; Petaev, Michail I.; Claeys, Philippe (July 26, 2023). "Comprehensive refutation of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH)". Earth-Science Reviews: 104502. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104502. S2CID 260218223.
^ Sinsheimer, Robert L. (August 29, 1976). "Caution May Be an Essential Scientific Virtue". Los Angeles Times. Vol. XCV, no. 270. p. IV:5 – via Newspapers.com. Robert L. Sinsheimer is head of Caltech's biology division and chairman of the editorial board of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
^ Robbins, Gary (December 28, 2017), "Renowned Salk Institute scientist loses a top post due to gender discrimination claims", Los Angeles Times
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Media from Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.
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According to Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 11.1.[1] PNAS is the second most cited scientific journal, with more than 1.9 million cumulative citations from 2008 to 2018.[2] In the mass media, PNAS has been described variously as \"prestigious\",[3][4] \"sedate\",[5] \"renowned\"[6] and \"high impact\".[7]PNAS is a delayed open-access journal, with an embargo period of six months that can be bypassed for an author fee (hybrid open access). Since September 2017, open access articles are published under a Creative Commons license. Since January 2019, PNAS has been online-only, although print issues are available on demand.","title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"chartered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_charter"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"NAS member","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"NAS member","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garfield-14"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Oxford Academic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Academic"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"PNAS was established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 1914,[note 1][8][9]: 30 with its first issue published in 1915. The NAS itself was founded in 1863 as a private institution, but chartered by the United States Congress, with the goal to \"investigate, examine, experiment and report upon any subject of science or art.\"Prior to the inception of PNAS, the National Academy of Sciences published three volumes of organizational transactions, consisting mostly of minutes of meetings and annual reports. For much of the journal's history, PNAS published brief first announcements of Academy members' and associates' contributions to research.[10] In December 1995,[11] PNAS opened submissions to all authors without first needing to be sponsored by an NAS member.Members were allowed to communicate up to two papers from non-members to PNAS every year. The review process for these papers was anonymous in that the identities of the referees were not revealed to the authors. Referees were selected by the NAS member.[10][12][13] PNAS eliminated communicated submissions through NAS members as of July 1, 2010[update], while continuing to make the final decision on all PNAS papers.[14]95% of papers are peer reviewed Direct Submissions and 5% are contributed submissions.[15][16][failed verification]In 2022 NAS established PNAS Nexus, an interdisciplinary open-access journal published by Oxford Academic.[17][18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Bruce Alberts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"American national security concerns","text":"In 2003, PNAS issued an editorial stating its policy on publication of sensitive material in the life sciences.[19] PNAS stated that it would \"continue to monitor submitted papers for material that may be deemed inappropriate and that could, if published, compromise the public welfare.\" This statement was in keeping with the efforts of several other journals.[20][21] In 2005 PNAS published an article titled \"Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk\",[22] despite objections raised by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.[23] The paper was published with a commentary by the president of the Academy at the time, Bruce Alberts, titled \"Modeling attacks on the food supply\".[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Younger Dryas impact hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Younger_Dryas_impact_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Graham Hancock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Hancock"},{"link_name":"Ancient Apocalypse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Apocalypse"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Contributed review concerns","text":"The controversial Younger Dryas impact hypothesis, which evolved directly from pseudoscience and now forms the basis for the pseudoarchaeology of Graham Hancock's Ancient Apocalypse, was first published in PNAS using a nonstandard review system, according to a comprehensive refutation by Holliday et al (2023).[25] According to this 2023 review, \"Claiming evidence where none exists and providing misleading citations may be accidental, but when conducted repeatedly, it becomes negligent and undermines scientific advancement as well as the credibility of science itself. Also culpable is the failure of the peer review process to prevent such errors of fact from entering the literature. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 'contributed review' system for National Academy members...is at least partially responsible. The 'pal reviews' (as some refer to them) were significantly curtailed in 2010, in part due to the YDIH controversy.\"","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"editors-in-chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editors-in-chief"},{"link_name":"Arthur A. Noyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Amos_Noyes"},{"link_name":"Raymond Pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Pearl"},{"link_name":"Robert A. Millikan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan"},{"link_name":"Linus Pauling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling"},{"link_name":"Wendell M. Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendell_Meredith_Stanley"},{"link_name":"Saunders Mac Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saunders_Mac_Lane"},{"link_name":"John T. Edsall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Tileston_Edsall"},{"link_name":"Robert Louis Sinsheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Louis_Sinsheimer&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Maxine Singer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxine_Singer"},{"link_name":"Igor B. Dawid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Igor_B._Dawid&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lawrence Bogorad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Bogorad"},{"link_name":"Nicholas R. Cozzarelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_R._Cozzarelli"},{"link_name":"Randy Schekman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Schekman"},{"link_name":"Inder Verma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inder_Verma"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Natasha Raikhel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_Raikhel"},{"link_name":"May Berenbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_Berenbaum"},{"link_name":"Edwin Bidwell Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Bidwell_Wilson"}],"text":"The following people have been editors-in-chief of the journal:1914–1918: Arthur A. Noyes\n1918–1940: Raymond Pearl\n1940–1949: Robert A. Millikan\n1950–1955: Linus Pauling\n1955–1960: Wendell M. Stanley\n1960–1968: Saunders Mac Lane\n1968–1972: John T. Edsall\n1972–1980: Robert Louis Sinsheimer[26]\n1980–1984: Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.\n1985–1988: Maxine Singer\n1988–1991: Igor B. Dawid\n1991–1995: Lawrence Bogorad\n1995–2006: Nicholas R. Cozzarelli\n2006–2011: Randy Schekman\n2011–2017: Inder Verma[27]\n2018–2019: Natasha Raikhel\n2019–present: May BerenbaumThe first managing editor of the journal was mathematician Edwin Bidwell Wilson.","title":"Editors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"}],"text":"^ The Stankus book reference states 1918 as the year instead of 1914.","title":"Notes"}] | [] | null | [{"reference":"\"Journal Citation Reports\". Clarivate. Retrieved July 13, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://clarivate.com/products/journal-citation-reports/","url_text":"\"Journal Citation Reports\""}]},{"reference":"\"InCites [v2.54] – Sign In\". error.incites.thomsonreuters.com. Archived from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved January 31, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190108042046/https://error.incites.thomsonreuters.com/error/Error?DestApp=IC2ESI&Error=IPError&Params=DestApp%3DIC2ESI&RouterURL=https%3A%2F%2Flogin.incites.thomsonreuters.com%2F&Domain=.thomsonreuters.com&Src=IP&Alias=IC2","url_text":"\"InCites [v2.54] – Sign In\""},{"url":"https://error.incites.thomsonreuters.com/error/Error?DestApp=IC2ESI&Error=IPError&Params=DestApp%3DIC2ESI&RouterURL=https%3A%2F%2Flogin.incites.thomsonreuters.com%2F&Domain=.thomsonreuters.com&Src=IP&Alias=IC2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Discovery (could pave way for better diabetes treatments)\". The News-Star. Vol. 86, no. 264. Monroe, Louisiana. July 6, 2015. p. 2D – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28043583/discovery/","url_text":"\"Discovery (could pave way for better diabetes treatments)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ben-Gurion study highlights gene that could lead to new therapies for ALS\". South Florida Sun Sentinel. September 21, 2016. p. A52 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28044223/bengurion_study_highlights_gene_that/","url_text":"\"Ben-Gurion study highlights gene that could lead to new therapies for ALS\""}]},{"reference":"Lear, John (August 11, 1986). \"On Our Knees\". The Gettysburg Times. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. p. 4 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28043829/on_our_knees/","url_text":"\"On Our Knees\""}]},{"reference":"Byerman, Mikalee (October 26, 2008). \"Survival skills\". Living Green. Reno Gazette-Journal. Vol. 27, no. 300. Reno, Nevada. p. 7 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28044889/survival_skills/","url_text":"\"Survival skills\""}]},{"reference":"\"U of U programs frequently cited as references\". School News. The Daily Spectrum. Vol. 27, no. 167. St. George, Utah. August 16, 1993. p. B2 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28045527/u_of_u_chem_programs_frequently_cited/","url_text":"\"U of U programs frequently cited as references\""}]},{"reference":"\"Assistant professor's research gets published\". Poughkeepsie Journal. Poughkeepsie, New York. October 13, 2009. p. 1D – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28038881/assistant_prof_research_gets_published/","url_text":"\"Assistant professor's research gets published\""}]},{"reference":"Stankus, Tony (1990). Scientific journals: Improving library collections through analysis of publishing trends. Haworth Press. ISBN 0-886656-905-7 – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/scientificjourna00stan/","url_text":"Scientific journals: Improving library collections through analysis of publishing trends"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-886656-905-7","url_text":"0-886656-905-7"}]},{"reference":"Schekman, R. (2007). \"Introducing Feature Articles in PNAS\" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (16): 6495. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.6495S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702818104. PMC 1871811. S2CID 84888136.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/104/16/6495.full.pdf","url_text":"\"Introducing Feature Articles in PNAS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.6495S","url_text":"2007PNAS..104.6495S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0702818104","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0702818104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1871811","url_text":"1871811"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84888136","url_text":"84888136"}]},{"reference":"Fersht, Alan (May 3, 2005). \"Editorial: How and why to publish in PNAS\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (18): 6241–6242. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502713102. PMC 1088396. PMID 16576766.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088396","url_text":"\"Editorial: How and why to publish in PNAS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0502713102","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0502713102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1088396","url_text":"1088396"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16576766","url_text":"16576766"}]},{"reference":"Garfield, Eugene (September 7, 1987). \"Classic Papers from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\" (PDF). Essays of an Information Scientist. 10 (36): 247. Retrieved September 28, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Garfield","url_text":"Garfield, Eugene"},{"url":"http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/essays/v10p247y1987.pdf","url_text":"\"Classic Papers from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences\""}]},{"reference":"Schekman, Randy (2009). \"PNAS will eliminate Communicated submissions in July 2010\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (37): 15518. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10615518S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909515106. PMC 2747149.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2747149","url_text":"\"PNAS will eliminate Communicated submissions in July 2010\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PNAS..10615518S","url_text":"2009PNAS..10615518S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0909515106","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0909515106"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2747149","url_text":"2747149"}]},{"reference":"Verma, Inder M. (October 7, 2014). \"Simplifying the Direct Submission process\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (40): 14311. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11114311V. doi:10.1073/pnas.1417688111. PMC 4210033. PMID 25246596.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210033","url_text":"\"Simplifying the Direct Submission process\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014PNAS..11114311V","url_text":"2014PNAS..11114311V"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1417688111","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.1417688111"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4210033","url_text":"4210033"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25246596","url_text":"25246596"}]},{"reference":"\"About Direct Submission | PNAS\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pnas.org/page/authors/direct-submission","url_text":"\"About Direct Submission | PNAS\""}]},{"reference":"\"About the Journal\". oup.com. Oxford University Press. Retrieved December 12, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/pages/about","url_text":"\"About the Journal\""}]},{"reference":"\"PNAS Nexus\". nasonline.org. National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved December 12, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasonline.org/publications/pnasnexus/","url_text":"\"PNAS Nexus\""}]},{"reference":"Cozzarelli, Nicholas R. (2003). \"PNAS policy on publication of sensitive material in the life sciences\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (4): 1463. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.1463C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0630514100. PMC 149849. PMID 12590130.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC149849","url_text":"\"PNAS policy on publication of sensitive material in the life sciences\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PNAS..100.1463C","url_text":"2003PNAS..100.1463C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0630514100","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0630514100"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC149849","url_text":"149849"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12590130","url_text":"12590130"}]},{"reference":"Harmon, Amy (February 16, 2003). \"Journal Editors to Consider U.S. Security in Publishing\". Archives. The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amy_Harmon","url_text":"Harmon, Amy"},{"url":"https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE5D9103AF935A25751C0A9659C8B63","url_text":"\"Journal Editors to Consider U.S. Security in Publishing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Fauber, John (February 16, 2003). \"Science articles to be censored in terror fight\". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milwaukee_Journal_Sentinel","url_text":"Milwaukee Journal Sentinel"}]},{"reference":"Wein, L. M. (2005). \"Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (28): 9984–9989. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.9984W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0408526102. PMC 1161865. PMID 15985558.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1161865","url_text":"\"Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.9984W","url_text":"2005PNAS..102.9984W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0408526102","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0408526102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1161865","url_text":"1161865"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15985558","url_text":"15985558"}]},{"reference":"\"Provocative report on bioterror online\". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. June 29, 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlanta_Journal-Constitution","url_text":"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution"}]},{"reference":"Alberts, B. (2005). \"Modeling attacks on the food supply\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (28): 9737–9738. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.9737A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504944102. PMC 1175018. PMID 15985557.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1175018","url_text":"\"Modeling attacks on the food supply\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005PNAS..102.9737A","url_text":"2005PNAS..102.9737A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0504944102","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0504944102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1175018","url_text":"1175018"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15985557","url_text":"15985557"}]},{"reference":"Holliday, Vance T.; Daulton, Tyrone L.; Bartlein, Patrick J.; Boslough, Mark B.; Breslawski, Ryan P.; Fisher, Abigail E.; Jorgeson, Ian A.; Scott, Andrew C.; Koeberl, Christian; Marlon, Jennifer; Severinghaus, Jeffrey; Petaev, Michail I.; Claeys, Philippe (July 26, 2023). \"Comprehensive refutation of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH)\". Earth-Science Reviews: 104502. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104502. S2CID 260218223.","urls":[{"url":"https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825223001915","url_text":"\"Comprehensive refutation of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2023.104502","url_text":"10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104502"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260218223","url_text":"260218223"}]},{"reference":"Sinsheimer, Robert L. (August 29, 1976). \"Caution May Be an Essential Scientific Virtue\". Los Angeles Times. Vol. XCV, no. 270. p. IV:5 – via Newspapers.com. Robert L. Sinsheimer is head of Caltech's biology division and chairman of the editorial board of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/28045979/caution_may_be_an_essential_scientific/","url_text":"\"Caution May Be an Essential Scientific Virtue\""}]},{"reference":"Robbins, Gary (December 28, 2017), \"Renowned Salk Institute scientist loses a top post due to gender discrimination claims\", Los Angeles Times","urls":[{"url":"http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-salk-expert-controversy-20171228-story.html","url_text":"\"Renowned Salk Institute scientist loses a top post due to gender discrimination claims\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://marcinwrochna.github.io/abbrevIso/?search=Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences","external_links_name":"ISO 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavandid | Bavand dynasty | ["1 Origins","2 History","2.1 Kayusiyya line","3 Culture","4 Bavandid rulers","4.1 Kayusiyya","4.2 Ispahbadhiyya","4.3 Kinkhwariyya","5 See also","6 References","7 Sources","8 External links"] | State in present-day northern Iran from 651 to 1349
Bavand dynastyباوندیان651–1349Map of the Bavand dynasty in 9th century under Qarin ICapitalPerim(651–1074)Sari(1074–1210)Amol(1238–1349)Common languages
Mazanderani
Middle Persian
New Persian
Religion Zoroastrianism(651–842)Sunni Islam(842–964)Twelver Shia Islam(964–1349)GovernmentMonarchyIspahbadh • 651–665 Farrukhzad (first)• 1334–1349 Hasan II (last)
Historical eraMiddle Ages• Established 651• Afrasiyabid conquest 1349
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Sasanian Empire
Afrasiyab dynasty
Part of a series on the
History of Iran
Prehistoric periodBCE / BC
Baradostian culture c. 36,000–18,000 Zarzian culture c. 20,000–10,000 Shulaveri–Shomu culture c. 6000–5000 Zayandeh River Culture c. 6th millennium Dalma culture c. 5th millennium
Ancient period Kura–Araxes culture 3400–2000 Proto-Elamite 3200–2700 Jiroft culture c. 3100–2200 Lullubi Kingdom/Zamua c. 3100-675 Elam 2700–539 Marhaši c. 2550-2020 Oxus Civilization c. 2400–1700 Akkadian Empire 2400–2150 Kassites c. 1500–1155 Avestan period c. 1500–500 Neo-Assyrian Empire 911–609 Urartu 860–590 Mannaea 850–616 Zikirti 750-521 Saparda 720-670
Imperial period Median Empire 678–550 BC Scythian Kingdom 652–625 BC Anshanite Kingdom 635 BC–550 BC Neo-Babylonian Empire 626 BC–539 BC Sogdia c. 6th century BC–11th century AD Achaemenid Empire 550 BC–330 BC Kingdom of Armenia 331 BC–428 AD Atropatene c. 323 BC–226 AD Kingdom of Cappadocia 320s BC–17 AD Seleucid Empire 312 BC–63 BC Kingdom of Pontus 281 BC–62 BC Fratarakas 3rd-century BC–132 BC Parthian Empire 247 BC–224 AD Elymais 147 BC–224 AD Characene 141 BC–222 AD Kings of Persis 132 BC–224 AD Indo-Parthian Kingdom 19 AD–224/5 Paratarajas 125–300 Sasanian Empire 224–651 Zarmihrids 6th century–785 Qarinvandids 550s–11th century
Medieval periodCE / AD
Rashidun Caliphate 632-661 Umayyad Caliphate 661–750 Abbasid Caliphate 750–1258 Dabuyids 642–760 Bavandids 651–1349 Masmughans of Damavand 651–760 Baduspanids 665–1598 Justanids 791 – 11th century Alid dynasties 864 – 14th century Tahirid dynasty 821–873 Samanid Empire 819–999 Saffarid dynasty 861–1003 Ghurid dynasty pre-879 – 1215 Sajid dynasty 889–929 Sallarid dynasty 919–1062 Ziyarid dynasty 930–1090 Ilyasids 932–968 Buyid dynasty 934–1062 Rawadid dynasty 955–1070 Hasanwayhids 959–1095 Ghaznavid dynasty 977–1186 Annazids 990/1–1117 Kakuyids 1008–1141 Nasrid dynasty 1029–1236 Shabankara 1030–1355 Seljuk Empire 1037–1194 Khwarazmian dynasty 1077–1231 Eldiguzids 1135–1225 Atabegs of Yazd 1141–1319 Salghurids 1148–1282 Hazaraspids 1155–1424 Pishkinid dynasty 1155–1231 Khorshidi dynasty 1184-1597 Qutlugh-Khanids 1223-1306 Mihrabanids 1236–1537 Kurt dynasty 1244–1396 Ilkhanate Empire 1256–1335 Chobanid dynasty 1335–1357 Muzaffarid dynasty 1335–1393 Jalayirid Sultanate 1337–1376 Sarbadars 1337–1376 Injuids 1335–1357 Afrasiyab dynasty 1349–1504 Mar'ashis 1359–1596 Timurid Empire 1370–1507 Kar-Kiya dynasty 1370s–1592 Qara Qoyunlu 1406–1468 Aq Qoyunlu 1468–1508
Early modern period Safavid Iran 1501–1736 (Hotak dynasty) 1722–1729 Afsharid Iran 1736–1796 Zand dynasty 1751–1794
Modern period Qajar Iran 1789–1925 Pahlavi Iran 1925–1979
Contemporary period Iranian Revolution 1979 Interim Government 1979 Islamic Republic 1979–present
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The Bavand dynasty (Persian: باوندیان) (also spelled Bavend), or simply the Bavandids, was an Iranian dynasty that ruled in parts of Tabaristan (present-day Mazandaran province) in what is now northern Iran from 651 until 1349, alternating between outright independence and submission as vassals to more powerful regional rulers. They ruled for 698 years, which is the second longest dynasty of Iran after the Baduspanids.
Origins
The dynasty itself traced its descent back to Bav, who was alleged to be a grandson of the Sasanian prince Kawus, brother of Khosrow I, and son of the shah Kavad I (ruled 488–531), who supposedly fled to Tabaristan from the Muslim conquest of Persia. He rallied the locals around him, repelled the first Arab attacks, and reigned for fifteen years until he was murdered by a certain Valash, who ruled the country for eight years. Bav's son, Sohrab or Sorkab (Surkhab I), established himself at Perim on the eastern mountain ranges of Tabaristan, which thereafter became the family's domain. The scholar J. Marquart, however, proposed an alternative identification of the legendary Bav with a late-6th-century Zoroastrian priest ("magian") from Ray. Parvaneh Pourshariati, in her re-examination of late Sasanian history, asserts that this Bav is a conflation of several members of the powerful House of Ispahbudhan: Bawi, his grandson Vistahm and his great-nephew Farrukhzad. She also reconstructs the events of the middle 7th century as a civil war between two rival clans, the Ispahbudhan and Valash's House of Karen, before the Dabuyid Farrukhan the Great conquered Tabaristan and subdued the various local leaders to vassalage. The Dabuyid house then ruled Tabaristan until the Abbasids subdued the region in 760.
History
It is at the time after the Abbasid conquest that the Bavandids enter documented history, with Sharwin I, in later tradition accounted the great-grandson of Surkhab I. The dynasty is commonly divided into three major branches: the Kayusiyya, named after Kayus ibn Kubad, the Arabicized name of the family's legendary ancestor Kawus son of Kavad, which ruled from 665 until 1006, when the family's rule was ended by Qabus ibn Wushmagir. Several members of the family continued to rule in various localities thereafter, giving rise to the second line, the Ispahbadhiyya, in 1073. Their capital was Sari, and their rule extended over Gilan, Ray and Qumis as well as Tabaristan, although they were mostly vassals of the Seljuqs and later of the Khwarezmshahs. The line was ended in 1210 with the murder of Rustam V, and the Khwarezmshah Muhammad II took over direct control of the region. The third line or Kinakhwariyya was established in 1237 following the Mongol invasions and the widespread chaos that prevailed, and lasted, as a vassal of the Mongols, until the final end of the dynasty in 1349.
Kayusiyya line
Following the demise of the Dabuyids, two major local dynasties were left in Tabaristan: the Bavandids in the eastern mountains and the Karenids, who also appropriated the heritage of the Dabuyid rulers, in the central and western mountain ranges. Both claimed Sasanian origin and titulature, with the Bavandids styling themselves as "kings of Tabaristan" and, like the Karenids, claiming the title of ispahbadh.
Sharwin I, along with the Karenid ruler Vandad Hormozd, led the native resistance to Muslim rule and the efforts at Islamization and settlement begun by the Abbasid governor, Khalid ibn Barmak (768–772). Following his departure, the native princes destroyed the towns he had built in the highlands, and although in 781 they affirmed loyalty to the Caliphate, in 782 they launched a general anti-Muslim revolt that was not suppressed until 785, when Sa'id al-Harashi led 40,000 troops into the region. Relations with the caliphal governors in the lowlands improved thereafter, but the Bavandid and Karenid princes remained united in their opposition to Muslim penetration of the highlands, to the extent that they prohibited even the burial of Muslims there. Isolated acts of defiance like the murder of a tax collector occurred, but when the two princes were summoned before Harun al-Rashid in 805 they promised loyalty and the payment of a tax, and were forced to leave their sons behind as hostages for four years.
After his death in 817, Sharvin was succeeded by his grandson, Shahriyar I, who managed to evict the Karenid Mazyar from his own realm. Mazyar fled to the court of the Caliph al-Ma'mun, became a Muslim and in 822/23 returned with the support of the Abbasid governor to exact revenge: Shahriyar's son and successor, Shapur, was defeated and killed, and Mazyar united the highlands under his own rule. His growing power brought him into conflict with the Muslim settlers at Amul, but he was able to take the city and receive acknowledgement of his rule over all of Tabaristan from the caliphal court. Eventually, however, he quarreled with Abdallah ibn Tahir, and in 839, he was captured by the Tahirids, who now took over control of Tabaristan. The Bavandids exploited the opportunity to regain their ancestral lands: Shapur's brother, Qarin I, assisted the Tahirids against Mazyar, and was rewarded with his brother's lands and royal title. In 842, he converted to Islam.
This period saw the rapid Islamization of the native population of Tabaristan. Although the majority accepted Sunni Islam, Shi'ism also spread, especially in Amul and the neighbouring areas of Astarabad and Gurgan. Thus, in 864, a Zaydi Alid, Hasan ibn Zayd, was invited to Tabaristan, and with support from the Daylamites took over control of the province. The Bavandids remained steadfastly opposed to the Alid dynasty throughout its existence, and Qarin's grandson Rustam I was to pay with his life for this: in 895, the Alid supporter Rafi' ibn Harthama tortured him to death. The Sunni Samanids drove out the Alids in 900, but in 914 a relative of Hasan ibn Zayd, Hasan al-Utrush, managed to drive out the Samanids, restore Alid control over the province, and force even the Bavandids and Karinids to accept his rule.
The history of the Bavandis is detailed in the works of Ibn Isfandiar and Mar'ashi which belong to the genre of local histories that gained popularity in Iran after 1000 AD. We know that they were related to the Ziyarid dynasty, through the marriage of Mardanshah, the father of Ziyar, to the daughter of one of the Bavandi kings. The prominence of the Bavandi kings apparently continued throughout the Seljuq and Mongol period. One of their greatest kings, Shah Ghazi Rustam, is reported to have seriously defeated the Ismailis who were gaining prominence in Tabaristan and to have made significant progress in consolidating power in the Caspian provinces.
After the Mongol conquest, the Bavandis continued to rule as local strongmen of Tabaristan and sometimes Dailam. Their power was finally brought down around 1350 when Kiya Afrasiyab of the Afrasiyab dynasty, themselves an offshoot of the Bavandis, managed to kill Hasan II of Tabaristan, the last of the mainline Bavandi kings.
Culture
The Bavandids stressed their lineage with the Sasanian Empire. As late as the early 13th-century, their coronation customs were assumed to go back to the remote past, as depicted thorough by the 13th-century Iranian historian Ibn Isfandiyar;
The coronation festivities lasted seven days, according to the old Iranian fashion, and included the usual feastings, rejoicings, giving of presents, while the notables and ispahbads and Bavandids assembled from all the countryside. When these congratulations were finished, on the eight day the ispahad ascended the throne, girded on the royal girdle, and confirmed the governors in their appointments, and caused the ispahbads and amirs to cast aside their mourning, and clad them in robes of honour.
Bavandid rulers
Kayusiyya
Farrukhzad (651–665)
Valash (usurper, 665–673)
Surkhab I (673–717)
Mihr Mardan (717–755)
Surkhab II (755–772)
Sharwin I (772–817)
Shahriyar I (817–825)
Shapur (825)
Rule by the Karenid Mazyar (825–839)
Qarin I (839–867)
Rustam I (867–895)
Sharwin II (896–930)
Shahriyar II (930–964)
Rustam II (964–979)
al-Marzuban (979–986)
Sharwin III (986)
Shahriyar III (986–987)
al-Marzuban (987–998)
Shahriyar III (998)
al-Marzuban (998–1006)
Abu Ja'far Muhammad (???-1027)
Qarin II (1057–1074)
Ispahbadhiyya
Shahriyar IV (1074–1114)
Qarin III (1114–1117)
Rustam III (1117–1118)
Ali I (1118–1142)
Shah Ghazi Rustam (1142–1165)
Hasan I (1165–1173)
Ardashir I (1173–1205)
Rustam V (1205–1210)
Kinkhwariyya
Ardashir II (1238–1249)
Muhammad (1249–1271)
Ali II (1271)
Yazdagird (1271–1300)
Shahriyar V (1300–1310)
Shah-Kaykhusraw (1310–1328)
Sharaf al-Muluk (1328–1334)
Hasan II (1334–1349)
See also
Bavandid family tree
References
^ a b Bosworth 1968, pp. 27–28.
^ a b c d Madelung 1984, pp. 747–753.
^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 292–293.
^ a b c d Frye 1986, p. 1110.
^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 289–294.
^ Pourshariati 2008, pp. 304–318.
^ Madelung 1975, pp. 200–202.
^ Madelung 1975, p. 202.
^ Madelung 1975, pp. 202, 204.
^ Madelung 1975, pp. 204–205.
^ Madelung 1975, pp. 205–206.
^ Madelung 1975, pp. 206–207.
^ Madelung 1975, p. 207.
^ Madelung 1975, pp. 207–209.
^ Babaie & Grigor 2015, p. 157.
Sources
Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)". In Boyle, J.A. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–202. ISBN 0-521-06936-X.
Frye, R. N. (1986). "Bāwand". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden and New York: BRILL. p. 1110. ISBN 90-04-08114-3.
Madelung, W. (1975). "The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran". In Frye, R. N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–249. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6.
Madelung, W. (1984). "ĀL-E BĀVAND (BAVANDIDS)". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. London u.a.: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 747–753. ISBN 90-04-08114-3.
Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.
Babaie, Sussan; Grigor, Talinn (2015). Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9780857734778.
Ibn Isfandiar, Mohammad b. Hasan. Tarikh-e Tabaristan, ed. M. Mehrabadi, Tehran: Ahl-e Qalam, 1381 .
Kasravi, Ahmad. Shahriaran-e Gomnam, Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1957.
Mar'ashi, Sayyed Zahiruddin. Tarikh-e Tabaristan o Royan of Mazandaran, ed. by Bernhard Darn, St. Petersburg, 1850 (Tehran Edition: Gostareh, 1363 ).
External links
Britannica: Bavandi Dynasty
Iranolgie.com: Independent Kingdoms
vteBavand dynastyKayusiyya branch (651–1074)
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Poland | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_peoples"},{"link_name":"Tabaristan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaristan"},{"link_name":"Mazandaran province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazandaran_province"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"vassals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal"},{"link_name":"Baduspanids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baduspanids"}],"text":"The Bavand dynasty (Persian: باوندیان) (also spelled Bavend), or simply the Bavandids, was an Iranian dynasty that ruled in parts of Tabaristan (present-day Mazandaran province) in what is now northern Iran from 651 until 1349, alternating between outright independence and submission as vassals to more powerful regional rulers. They ruled for 698 years, which is the second longest dynasty of Iran after the Baduspanids.","title":"Bavand dynasty"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sasanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian"},{"link_name":"Kawus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawus"},{"link_name":"Khosrow I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khosrow_I"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth196827%E2%80%9328-1"},{"link_name":"Kavad I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavad_I"},{"link_name":"Tabaristan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaristan"},{"link_name":"Muslim conquest of Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia"},{"link_name":"Valash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valash"},{"link_name":"Surkhab I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surkhab_I"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1984747%E2%80%93753-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008292%E2%80%93293-3"},{"link_name":"magian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magian"},{"link_name":"Ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray,_Iran"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1984747%E2%80%93753-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye19861110-4"},{"link_name":"Parvaneh Pourshariati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvaneh_Pourshariati"},{"link_name":"House of Ispahbudhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Ispahbudhan"},{"link_name":"Bawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bawi"},{"link_name":"Vistahm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistahm"},{"link_name":"Farrukhzad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrukhzad"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008289%E2%80%93294-5"},{"link_name":"House of Karen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Karen"},{"link_name":"Dabuyid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dabuyid"},{"link_name":"Farrukhan the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrukhan_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Abbasids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasids"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPourshariati2008304%E2%80%93318-6"}],"text":"The dynasty itself traced its descent back to Bav, who was alleged to be a grandson of the Sasanian prince Kawus, brother of Khosrow I,[1] and son of the shah Kavad I (ruled 488–531), who supposedly fled to Tabaristan from the Muslim conquest of Persia. He rallied the locals around him, repelled the first Arab attacks, and reigned for fifteen years until he was murdered by a certain Valash, who ruled the country for eight years. Bav's son, Sohrab or Sorkab (Surkhab I), established himself at Perim on the eastern mountain ranges of Tabaristan, which thereafter became the family's domain.[2][3] The scholar J. Marquart, however, proposed an alternative identification of the legendary Bav with a late-6th-century Zoroastrian priest (\"magian\") from Ray.[2][4] Parvaneh Pourshariati, in her re-examination of late Sasanian history, asserts that this Bav is a conflation of several members of the powerful House of Ispahbudhan: Bawi, his grandson Vistahm and his great-nephew Farrukhzad.[5] She also reconstructs the events of the middle 7th century as a civil war between two rival clans, the Ispahbudhan and Valash's House of Karen, before the Dabuyid Farrukhan the Great conquered Tabaristan and subdued the various local leaders to vassalage. The Dabuyid house then ruled Tabaristan until the Abbasids subdued the region in 760.[6]","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sharwin I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharwin_I"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1984747%E2%80%93753-2"},{"link_name":"Qabus ibn Wushmagir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qabus_ibn_Wushmagir"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye19861110-4"},{"link_name":"Sari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sari,_Iran"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBosworth196827%E2%80%9328-1"},{"link_name":"Gilan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilan"},{"link_name":"Qumis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumis_(region)"},{"link_name":"Seljuqs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuq_Empire"},{"link_name":"Khwarezmshahs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwarezmshah"},{"link_name":"Rustam V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_V"},{"link_name":"Muhammad II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_II_of_Khwarezm"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye19861110-4"},{"link_name":"Mongol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrye19861110-4"}],"text":"It is at the time after the Abbasid conquest that the Bavandids enter documented history, with Sharwin I, in later tradition accounted the great-grandson of Surkhab I.[2] The dynasty is commonly divided into three major branches: the Kayusiyya, named after Kayus ibn Kubad, the Arabicized name of the family's legendary ancestor Kawus son of Kavad, which ruled from 665 until 1006, when the family's rule was ended by Qabus ibn Wushmagir.[4] Several members of the family continued to rule in various localities thereafter, giving rise to the second line, the Ispahbadhiyya, in 1073. Their capital was Sari,[1] and their rule extended over Gilan, Ray and Qumis as well as Tabaristan, although they were mostly vassals of the Seljuqs and later of the Khwarezmshahs. The line was ended in 1210 with the murder of Rustam V, and the Khwarezmshah Muhammad II took over direct control of the region.[4] The third line or Kinakhwariyya was established in 1237 following the Mongol invasions and the widespread chaos that prevailed, and lasted, as a vassal of the Mongols, until the final end of the dynasty in 1349.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tabaristan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabaristan"},{"link_name":"ispahbadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispahbadh"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975200%E2%80%93202-7"},{"link_name":"Vandad Hormozd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandad_Hormozd"},{"link_name":"Khalid ibn Barmak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Barmak"},{"link_name":"Sa'id al-Harashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sa%27id_al-Harashi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975202-8"},{"link_name":"Harun al-Rashid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975202,_204-9"},{"link_name":"Shahriyar I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_I"},{"link_name":"Mazyar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazyar"},{"link_name":"al-Ma'mun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun"},{"link_name":"Shapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Amul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amol"},{"link_name":"Abdallah ibn Tahir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Tahir"},{"link_name":"Tahirids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahirids"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975204%E2%80%93205-10"},{"link_name":"Qarin I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qarin_I"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1984747%E2%80%93753-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975205%E2%80%93206-11"},{"link_name":"Sunni Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni_Islam"},{"link_name":"Shi'ism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27ism"},{"link_name":"Astarabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astarabad"},{"link_name":"Gurgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurgan"},{"link_name":"Zaydi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaydi"},{"link_name":"Alid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alid"},{"link_name":"Hasan ibn Zayd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_ibn_Zayd"},{"link_name":"Daylamites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylamites"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975206%E2%80%93207-12"},{"link_name":"Alid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran"},{"link_name":"Rustam I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_I"},{"link_name":"Rafi' ibn Harthama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafi%27_ibn_Harthama"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975207-13"},{"link_name":"Samanids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samanids"},{"link_name":"Hasan al-Utrush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_al-Utrush"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadelung1975207%E2%80%93209-14"},{"link_name":"Ziyarid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziyarid"},{"link_name":"Seljuq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuq_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mongol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol"},{"link_name":"Shah Ghazi Rustam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Ghazi_Rustam"},{"link_name":"Ismailis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizari_Ismaili_state"},{"link_name":"Kiya Afrasiyab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiya_Afrasiyab"},{"link_name":"Afrasiyab dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Hasan II of Tabaristan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_II_of_Tabaristan"}],"sub_title":"Kayusiyya line","text":"Following the demise of the Dabuyids, two major local dynasties were left in Tabaristan: the Bavandids in the eastern mountains and the Karenids, who also appropriated the heritage of the Dabuyid rulers, in the central and western mountain ranges. Both claimed Sasanian origin and titulature, with the Bavandids styling themselves as \"kings of Tabaristan\" and, like the Karenids, claiming the title of ispahbadh.[7]Sharwin I, along with the Karenid ruler Vandad Hormozd, led the native resistance to Muslim rule and the efforts at Islamization and settlement begun by the Abbasid governor, Khalid ibn Barmak (768–772). Following his departure, the native princes destroyed the towns he had built in the highlands, and although in 781 they affirmed loyalty to the Caliphate, in 782 they launched a general anti-Muslim revolt that was not suppressed until 785, when Sa'id al-Harashi led 40,000 troops into the region.[8] Relations with the caliphal governors in the lowlands improved thereafter, but the Bavandid and Karenid princes remained united in their opposition to Muslim penetration of the highlands, to the extent that they prohibited even the burial of Muslims there. Isolated acts of defiance like the murder of a tax collector occurred, but when the two princes were summoned before Harun al-Rashid in 805 they promised loyalty and the payment of a tax, and were forced to leave their sons behind as hostages for four years.[9]After his death in 817, Sharvin was succeeded by his grandson, Shahriyar I, who managed to evict the Karenid Mazyar from his own realm. Mazyar fled to the court of the Caliph al-Ma'mun, became a Muslim and in 822/23 returned with the support of the Abbasid governor to exact revenge: Shahriyar's son and successor, Shapur, was defeated and killed, and Mazyar united the highlands under his own rule. His growing power brought him into conflict with the Muslim settlers at Amul, but he was able to take the city and receive acknowledgement of his rule over all of Tabaristan from the caliphal court. Eventually, however, he quarreled with Abdallah ibn Tahir, and in 839, he was captured by the Tahirids, who now took over control of Tabaristan.[10] The Bavandids exploited the opportunity to regain their ancestral lands: Shapur's brother, Qarin I, assisted the Tahirids against Mazyar, and was rewarded with his brother's lands and royal title. In 842, he converted to Islam.[2][11]This period saw the rapid Islamization of the native population of Tabaristan. Although the majority accepted Sunni Islam, Shi'ism also spread, especially in Amul and the neighbouring areas of Astarabad and Gurgan. Thus, in 864, a Zaydi Alid, Hasan ibn Zayd, was invited to Tabaristan, and with support from the Daylamites took over control of the province.[12] The Bavandids remained steadfastly opposed to the Alid dynasty throughout its existence, and Qarin's grandson Rustam I was to pay with his life for this: in 895, the Alid supporter Rafi' ibn Harthama tortured him to death.[13] The Sunni Samanids drove out the Alids in 900, but in 914 a relative of Hasan ibn Zayd, Hasan al-Utrush, managed to drive out the Samanids, restore Alid control over the province, and force even the Bavandids and Karinids to accept his rule.[14]The history of the Bavandis is detailed in the works of Ibn Isfandiar and Mar'ashi which belong to the genre of local histories that gained popularity in Iran after 1000 AD. We know that they were related to the Ziyarid dynasty, through the marriage of Mardanshah, the father of Ziyar, to the daughter of one of the Bavandi kings. The prominence of the Bavandi kings apparently continued throughout the Seljuq and Mongol period. One of their greatest kings, Shah Ghazi Rustam, is reported to have seriously defeated the Ismailis who were gaining prominence in Tabaristan and to have made significant progress in consolidating power in the Caspian provinces.After the Mongol conquest, the Bavandis continued to rule as local strongmen of Tabaristan and sometimes Dailam. Their power was finally brought down around 1350 when Kiya Afrasiyab of the Afrasiyab dynasty, themselves an offshoot of the Bavandis, managed to kill Hasan II of Tabaristan, the last of the mainline Bavandi kings.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ibn Isfandiyar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Isfandiyar"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBabaieGrigor2015157-15"},{"link_name":"ispahbads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ispahbad"}],"text":"The Bavandids stressed their lineage with the Sasanian Empire. As late as the early 13th-century, their coronation customs were assumed to go back to the remote past, as depicted thorough by the 13th-century Iranian historian Ibn Isfandiyar;[15]The coronation festivities lasted seven days, according to the old Iranian fashion, and included the usual feastings, rejoicings, giving of presents, while the notables and ispahbads and Bavandids assembled from all the countryside. When these congratulations were finished, on the eight day the ispahad ascended the throne, girded on the royal girdle, and confirmed the governors in their appointments, and caused the ispahbads and amirs to cast aside their mourning, and clad them in robes of honour.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Bavandid rulers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Farrukhzad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrukhzad"},{"link_name":"Valash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valash"},{"link_name":"Surkhab I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surkhab_I"},{"link_name":"Mihr Mardan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihr_Mardan"},{"link_name":"Surkhab II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surkhab_II"},{"link_name":"Sharwin I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharwin_I"},{"link_name":"Shahriyar I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_I"},{"link_name":"Shapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Mazyar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazyar"},{"link_name":"Qarin I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qarin_I"},{"link_name":"Rustam I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_I"},{"link_name":"Sharwin II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharwin_II"},{"link_name":"Shahriyar II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_II"},{"link_name":"Rustam II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_II"},{"link_name":"al-Marzuban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Marzuban"},{"link_name":"Sharwin III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharwin_III"},{"link_name":"Shahriyar III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_III"},{"link_name":"al-Marzuban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Marzuban"},{"link_name":"Shahriyar III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_III"},{"link_name":"al-Marzuban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Marzuban"},{"link_name":"Abu Ja'far Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Qarin II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qarin_II"}],"sub_title":"Kayusiyya","text":"Farrukhzad (651–665)\nValash (usurper, 665–673)\nSurkhab I (673–717)\nMihr Mardan (717–755)\nSurkhab II (755–772)\nSharwin I (772–817)\nShahriyar I (817–825)\nShapur (825)\nRule by the Karenid Mazyar (825–839)\nQarin I (839–867)\nRustam I (867–895)\nSharwin II (896–930)\nShahriyar II (930–964)\nRustam II (964–979)\nal-Marzuban (979–986)\nSharwin III (986)\nShahriyar III (986–987)\nal-Marzuban (987–998)\nShahriyar III (998)\nal-Marzuban (998–1006)\nAbu Ja'far Muhammad (???-1027)\nQarin II (1057–1074)","title":"Bavandid rulers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shahriyar IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_IV"},{"link_name":"Qarin III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qarin_III"},{"link_name":"Rustam III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_III"},{"link_name":"Ali I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_I_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Shah Ghazi Rustam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Ghazi_Rustam"},{"link_name":"Hasan I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_I_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Ardashir I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardashir_I_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Rustam V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustam_V"}],"sub_title":"Ispahbadhiyya","text":"Shahriyar IV (1074–1114)\nQarin III (1114–1117)\nRustam III (1117–1118)\nAli I (1118–1142)\nShah Ghazi Rustam (1142–1165)\nHasan I (1165–1173)\nArdashir I (1173–1205)\nRustam V (1205–1210)","title":"Bavandid rulers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ardashir II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardashir_II_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Ali II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_II_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Yazdagird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazdagird_(Bavandid_ruler)"},{"link_name":"Shahriyar V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahriyar_V"},{"link_name":"Shah-Kaykhusraw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah-Kaykhusraw"},{"link_name":"Sharaf al-Muluk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharaf_al-Muluk"},{"link_name":"Hasan II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_II_(Bavandid_ruler)"}],"sub_title":"Kinkhwariyya","text":"Ardashir II (1238–1249)\nMuhammad (1249–1271)\nAli II (1271)\nYazdagird (1271–1300)\nShahriyar V (1300–1310)\nShah-Kaykhusraw (1310–1328)\nSharaf al-Muluk (1328–1334)\nHasan II (1334–1349)","title":"Bavandid rulers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bosworth, C. E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._E._Bosworth"},{"link_name":"\"The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-06936-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-06936-X"},{"link_name":"\"Bāwand\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bawand-SIM_1294"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"90-04-08114-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08114-3"},{"link_name":"Madelung, W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung"},{"link_name":"\"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA198"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-20093-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6"},{"link_name":"Madelung, W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung"},{"link_name":"\"ĀL-E BĀVAND (BAVANDIDS)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-bavand"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"90-04-08114-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08114-3"},{"link_name":"Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84511-645-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3"},{"link_name":"Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=8GhsCgAAQBAJ&q=false"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780857734778","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857734778"}],"text":"Bosworth, C. E. (1968). \"The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)\". In Boyle, J.A. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–202. ISBN 0-521-06936-X.\nFrye, R. N. (1986). \"Bāwand\". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden and New York: BRILL. p. 1110. ISBN 90-04-08114-3.\nMadelung, W. (1975). \"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran\". In Frye, R. N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–249. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6.\nMadelung, W. (1984). \"ĀL-E BĀVAND (BAVANDIDS)\". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. London u.a.: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 747–753. ISBN 90-04-08114-3.\nPourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.\nBabaie, Sussan; Grigor, Talinn (2015). Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9780857734778.\nIbn Isfandiar, Mohammad b. Hasan. Tarikh-e Tabaristan, ed. M. Mehrabadi, Tehran: Ahl-e Qalam, 1381 [2002].\nKasravi, Ahmad. Shahriaran-e Gomnam, Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1957.\nMar'ashi, Sayyed Zahiruddin. Tarikh-e Tabaristan o Royan of Mazandaran, ed. by Bernhard Darn, St. Petersburg, 1850 (Tehran Edition: Gostareh, 1363 [1984]).","title":"Sources"}] | [] | [{"title":"Bavandid family tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavandid_family_tree"}] | [{"reference":"Bosworth, C. E. (1968). \"The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)\". In Boyle, J.A. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–202. ISBN 0-521-06936-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._E._Bosworth","url_text":"Bosworth, C. E."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA1","url_text":"\"The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-06936-X","url_text":"0-521-06936-X"}]},{"reference":"Frye, R. N. (1986). \"Bāwand\". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume I: A–B. Leiden and New York: BRILL. p. 1110. ISBN 90-04-08114-3.","urls":[{"url":"http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bawand-SIM_1294","url_text":"\"Bāwand\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08114-3","url_text":"90-04-08114-3"}]},{"reference":"Madelung, W. (1975). \"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran\". In Frye, R. N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–249. ISBN 978-0-521-20093-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung","url_text":"Madelung, W."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA198","url_text":"\"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20093-6","url_text":"978-0-521-20093-6"}]},{"reference":"Madelung, W. (1984). \"ĀL-E BĀVAND (BAVANDIDS)\". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. London u.a.: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 747–753. ISBN 90-04-08114-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilferd_Madelung","url_text":"Madelung, W."},{"url":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-bavand","url_text":"\"ĀL-E BĀVAND (BAVANDIDS)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08114-3","url_text":"90-04-08114-3"}]},{"reference":"Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-645-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-645-3","url_text":"978-1-84511-645-3"}]},{"reference":"Babaie, Sussan; Grigor, Talinn (2015). Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–288. ISBN 9780857734778.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8GhsCgAAQBAJ&q=false","url_text":"Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780857734778","url_text":"9780857734778"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=16yHq5v3QZAC&pg=PA1","external_links_name":"\"The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)\""},{"Link":"http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/bawand-SIM_1294","external_links_name":"\"Bāwand\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&pg=PA198","external_links_name":"\"The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran\""},{"Link":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-bavand","external_links_name":"\"ĀL-E BĀVAND (BAVANDIDS)\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=I-xtAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8GhsCgAAQBAJ&q=false","external_links_name":"Persian Kingship and Architecture: Strategies of Power in Iran from the Achaemenids to the Pahlavis"},{"Link":"http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-56536/Bavand-dynasty","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080423062650/http://www.iranologie.com/history/history7.html","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/61156009941949581204","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810550724705606","external_links_name":"Poland"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod | iPod | ["1 History","2 Hardware","2.1 Audio","2.2 Connectivity","2.3 Accessories","3 Software","3.1 Interface","3.2 iTunes Store","3.3 Games","3.4 File storage and transfer","4 Models and features","5 Patent disputes","6 Sales","6.1 Market share","7 Industry impact","8 Criticism","8.1 Battery problems","8.2 Reliability and durability","8.3 Labor disputes","9 Timeline of models","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 External links"] | Line of portable media players by Apple (2001–2022)
Not to be confused with iPad or AirPods.
"IPOD" redirects here. For other uses, see IPOD (disambiguation).
This article is about the series. For specific versions of the iPod, see iPod Touch, iPod Classic, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, and iPod Shuffle.
For the music player app formerly called iPod, see Music (software).
iPodThe final iteration of each iPod product. From left to right: iPod Shuffle, iPod Nano, iPod Classic and iPod Touch.DeveloperApple Inc.TypePortable media playerRelease dateNovember 10, 2001; 22 years ago (2001-11-10)DiscontinuedMay 10, 2022; 2 years ago (2022-05-10)Units sold450 million (as of May 2022)Storage512 MB—256 GBRelated
iPad
iPhone
(comparison)
Websiteapple.com/ipod redirects to support.apple.com/ipod-touch
This article is part of a series on theiPod
Classic
Mini
Nano
Shuffle
Touch
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
List of iPod modelsvte
The iPod is a discontinued series of portable media players and multi-purpose mobile devices designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The first version was released on November 10, 2001, about 8+1⁄2 months after the Macintosh version of iTunes was released. Apple sold an estimated 450 million iPod products as of 2022. Apple discontinued the iPod product line on May 10, 2022. At over 20 years, the iPod brand is the oldest to be discontinued by Apple.
Some versions of the iPod can serve as external data storage devices, like other digital music players. Prior to macOS 10.15, Apple's iTunes software (and other alternative software) could be used to transfer music, photos, videos, games, contact information, e-mail settings, Web bookmarks, and calendars to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of Apple macOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems.
Before the release of iOS 5, the iPod branding was used for the media player included with the iPhone and iPad, which was separated into apps named "Music" and "Videos" on the iPod Touch. As of iOS 5, separate Music and Videos apps are standardized across all iOS-powered products. While the iPhone and iPad have essentially the same media player capabilities as the iPod line, they are generally treated as separate products. During the middle of 2010, iPhone sales overtook those of the iPod.
History
See also: Timeline of Apple Inc. products
Various iPod models. From left to right: iPod 5th generation in a case, iPod 4th generation, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, iPod Shuffle
Portable MP3 players had existed since the mid-1990s, but Apple found existing digital music players "big and clunky or small and useless" with user interfaces that were "unbelievably awful". They also identified weaknesses in existing models' attempt to negotiate the trade-off between capacity and portability; flash memory-based players held too few songs, while the hard drive based models were too big and heavy. To address these deficits, the company decided to develop its own MP3 player.
At Apple CEO Steve Jobs’ direction, hardware engineering chief Jon Rubinstein recruited Tony Fadell, a former employee of General Magic and Philips, who had a business idea to invent a better MP3 player and build a complementary music sales store. Fadell had previously developed the Philips Velo and Nino PDA before starting a company called Fuse Systems to build the new MP3 player, but RealNetworks, Sony and Philips had already passed on the project. Rubinstein had already discovered the Toshiba hard disk drive while meeting with an Apple supplier in Japan, ultimately purchasing the rights to it for Apple. Rubinstein had also already made substantial progress on development of other key hardware elements, including the device's screen and battery.
Fadell found support for his project with Apple Computer and was hired by Apple in 2001 as an independent contractor to work on the iPod project, then code-named project P-68. Because most of Apple's engineering manpower and resources were already dedicated to the iMac line, Fadell hired engineers from his startup company, Fuse, and veteran engineers from General Magic and Philips to build the core iPod development team.
Time constraints forced Fadell to develop various components of the iPod outside Apple. Fadell partnered with a company called PortalPlayer to design software for the device; this work eventually took shape as the iPod OS. Within eight months, Tony Fadell's team and PortalPlayer had completed a prototype. The power supply was then designed by Michael Dhuey, while the display was designed in-house by Apple design engineer Jonathan Ive. The original iPod's physical appearance was inspired by the 1958 Braun T3 transistor radio designed by Dieter Rams, while the wheel-based user interface drew on Bang & Olufsen's BeoCom 6000 telephone. Apple CEO Steve Jobs set an exacting standard for the device's physical design; one anecdote relates an occasion on which Jobs dropped a prototype into an aquarium in front of engineers to demonstrate from bubbles leaving its housing that the current design contained unused internal space.
Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to help design and implement the user interface (as well as Unicode, memory management, and event processing) under Jobs' direct supervision.
The name iPod was proposed by Vinnie Chieco, a freelance copywriter, who (with others) was contracted by Apple to determine how to introduce the new player to the public. After Chieco saw a prototype, he was reminded of the phrase "Open the pod bay doors, Hal" from the classic sci-fi film 2001: A Space Odyssey, referring to the white EVA Pods of the Discovery One spaceship. Chieco's proposal drew an analogy between the relationship of the spaceship to the smaller independent pods and that of a personal computer to its companion music player.
The product (which Fortune called "Apple's 21st-Century Walkman") was developed in less than one year and unveiled on October 23, 2001. Jobs announced it as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put "1,000 songs in your pocket."
Apple researched the trademark and found that it was already in use. Joseph N. Grasso of New Jersey had originally listed an "iPod" trademark with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in July 2000 for Internet kiosks. The first iPod kiosks had been demonstrated to the public in New Jersey in March 1998, and commercial use began in January 2000, but the venture had apparently been discontinued by 2001. The trademark was registered by the USPTO in November 2003, and Grasso assigned it to Apple Computer, Inc. in 2005. Separately, the earliest recorded use in commerce of an "iPod" trademark was in 1991 by Chrysalis Corp. of Sturgis, Michigan, styled "iPOD", for office furniture.
As development of the iPod progressed, Apple continued to refine the software's look and feel, rewriting much of the code. Starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apple's corporate font, Myriad. Color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock.
On January 8, 2004, Hewlett-Packard (HP) announced that they would sell HP-branded iPods under a license agreement from Apple. Several new retail channels were used—including Walmart—and these iPods eventually made up 5% of all iPod sales. In July 2005, HP stopped selling iPods due to unfavorable terms and conditions imposed by Apple.
In 2006, Apple partnered with Irish rock band U2 to present a special edition of the 5th-generation iPod. Like its predecessor, this iPod has the signatures of the four members of the band engraved on its back, but this one was the first time the company changed the color of the stainless steel back from a silver chrome to black. This iPod was only available with 30 GB of storage capacity. The special edition entitled purchasers to an exclusive video with 33 minutes of interviews and performance by U2, downloadable from the iTunes Store.
In 2007, Apple modified the iPod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation iPod Classic and third-generation iPod Nano by changing the font to Helvetica and, in most cases, splitting the screen in half, displaying the menus on the left and album artwork, photos, or videos on the right.
In mid-2015, several new color schemes for all of the current iPod models were spotted in the iTunes 12.2 update. Belgian website Belgium iPhone originally found the images after plugging in an iPod for the first time, and subsequent photos were discovered by Pierre Dandumont before being leaked.
On July 27, 2017, Apple removed the iPod Nano and Shuffle from its stores, marking the end of Apple's production of standalone music players. On May 10, 2022, Apple discontinued the iPod Touch, the last remaining product in the iPod line. iOS 15 was the last iOS release the 7th generation iPod touch received, as future versions from iOS 16 onward no longer support the device.
Hardware
Chipsets and electronics
Chipset or electronic
Product(s)
Component(s)
Microcontroller
iPod Classic 1st to 3rd generations
Two ARM7TDMI-derived cores running at 90 MHz
iPod Classic 4th and 5th generations, iPod Mini, iPod Nano 1st generation
Variable-speed ARM7TDMI cores, running at a peak of 80 MHz to save battery life
iPod Classic 6th generation, iPod Nano 2nd generation onwards, iPod Shuffle 2nd generation onwards
Samsung System-on-a-chip, based around an ARM processor.
iPod Shuffle 1st generation
SigmaTel D-Major STMP3550 chip running at 75 MHz that handles both the music decoding and the audio circuitry.
iPod Touch 1st and 2nd generation
ARM 1176JZ(F)-S at 412 MHz for 1st gen, 533 MHz for 2nd gen.
iPod Touch 3rd and 4th generation
ARM Cortex A8 at 600 MHz for 3rd gen, 800 MHz for 4th gen. (Apple A4)
iPod Touch 5th generation
ARM Cortex A9 at 800 MHz (Apple A5)
iPod Touch 6th generation
Apple ARMv8-A "Typhoon" at 1.1 GHz (Apple A8) with Apple M8 Motion coprocessor
iPod Touch 7th generation
Apple ARMv8-A "Hurricane" and "Zephyr" at 1.64 GHz (Apple A10 Fusion) with Apple M10 Motion coprocessor
Audio chip
iPod Classic 1st to 5th generation, iPod Touch 1st generation, iPod Nano 1st to 3rd generation, iPod Mini
Audio Codecs developed by Wolfson Microelectronics
iPod Classic 6th generation, iPod Touch 2nd generation onwards, iPod Shuffle, iPod Nano 4th generation onwards
Cirrus Logic Audio Codec Chip
Video chip
iPod Classic 5th generation
Broadcom BCM2722 VideoCore 2 graphics processor
Storage medium
iPod Classic
45.7 mm (1.8 in) hard drives (ATA-6, 4200 rpm with ZIF connectors) made by Toshiba
iPod Mini
25.4 mm (1 in) Microdrive by Hitachi and Seagate
iPod Nano
Flash Memory from Samsung, Toshiba, and others
iPod Shuffle and Touch
Flash Memory
Batteries
iPod Classic 1st and 2nd generation
Internal Recyclable Lithium Polymer Batteries
iPod Classic 3rd generation onwards, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, iPod Touch, iPod Shuffle
Internal Recyclable Lithium-Ion Batteries
Display
iPod Nano 7th generation
2.5-inch (diagonal) Multi-Touch, 432-by-240 resolution at 202 pixels per inch
iPod Classic 5th and 6th generation
2.5-inch (diagonal) color LCD with LED backlight, 320-by-240 resolution at 163 pixels per inch
iPod Touch 1st to 3rd generation
3.5-inch (diagonal) widescreen Multi-Touch, 480-by-320 resolution at 163 pixels per inch
iPod Touch 4th generation
3.5-inch (diagonal) widescreen Multi-Touch, 960-by-640 resolution at 326 pixels per inch
iPod Touch 5th to 7th generation
4-inch (diagonal) widescreen Multi-Touch, 1136-by-640 resolution at 326 pixels per inch
Audio
Audio tests showed that the third-generation iPod has a weak bass response. The combination of the undersized DC-blocking capacitors and the typical low impedance of most consumer headphones form a high-pass filter, which attenuates the low-frequency bass output. Similar capacitors were used in the fourth-generation iPods. The problem is reduced when using high-impedance headphones and is completely masked when driving high-impedance (line level) loads, such as when using an external headphone amplifier. The first-generation iPod Shuffle uses a dual-transistor output stage, rather than a single capacitor-coupled output, and does not exhibit reduced bass response for any load.
For all iPods released in 2006 and earlier, some equalizer (EQ) sound settings can easily distort the bass sound, even on undemanding tracks. This occurs when using EQ settings such as R&B, Rock, Acoustic, and Bass Booster, because the equalizer amplifies the digital audio level beyond the software's limit, causing distortion (clipping) on bass instruments.
From the fifth-generation iPod on, Apple introduced a user-configurable volume limit in response to concerns about hearing loss. Users report that in the sixth-generation iPod, the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 dB in EU markets. Apple previously had to remove iPods from shelves in France for exceeding this legal limit. However, users who bought new sixth-generation iPods in late 2013 reported a new option that allowed them to disable the EU volume limit. Some have attributed this change to a software update that shipped with these devices. Older sixth-generation iPods, however, are unable to update to this software version.
Connectivity
See also: Apple dock connectors
Four iPod wall chargers for North America, all made by Apple. These have FireWire (left) and USB (right three) connectors, which allow iPods to charge without a computer. The unit second-to-left appears to be a model number A1102 unit. The units have been miniaturized over time.
Originally, a FireWire connection to the host computer was used to update songs or recharge the battery. The battery could also be charged with a power adapter that was included with the first four generations.
The third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector, allowing for FireWire or USB connectivity. This provided better compatibility with non-Apple machines, as most of them did not have FireWire ports at the time. Eventually, Apple began shipping iPods with USB cables instead of FireWire, although the latter was available separately. As of the first-generation iPod Nano and the fifth-generation iPod Classic, Apple discontinued using FireWire for data transfer (while still allowing for use of FireWire to charge the device) in an attempt to reduce cost and form factor. As of the second-generation iPod Touch and the fourth-generation iPod Nano, FireWire charging ability has been removed. The second-, third-, and fourth-generation iPod Shuffle uses a single 3.5 mm minijack phone connector which acts as both a headphone jack or a USB data and charging port for the dock/cable.
The dock connector also allowed the iPod to connect to accessories, which often supplement the iPod's music, video, and photo playback. Apple sells a few accessories, such as the now-discontinued iPod Hi-Fi, but most are manufactured by third parties such as Belkin and Griffin. Some peripherals use their own interface, while others use the iPod's own screen. Because the dock connector is a proprietary interface, the implementation of the interface requires paying royalties to Apple.
Apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector, named Lightning, on September 12, 2012 with their announcement of the iPhone 5, the fifth-generation iPod Touch, and the seventh-generation iPod Nano, which all feature it. The new connector replaces the older 30-pin dock connector used by older iPods, iPhones, and iPads. Apple Lightning cables have pins on both sides of the plug so it can be inserted with either side facing up.
Bluetooth connectivity was added to the last model of the iPod Nano, and Wi-Fi to the iPod Touch.
Accessories
iPod earbuds
Two early designs of iPod earphones
Apple EarPods, introduced 2012
The "Made for iPod" logo found on most classic iPod accessories
Many accessories have been made for the iPod line. A large number are made by third-party companies, although many, such as the iPod Hi-Fi and iPod Socks, are made by Apple. Some accessories add extra features that other music players have, such as sound recorders, FM radio tuners, wired remote controls, and audio/visual cables for TV connections. Other accessories offer unique features like the Nike+iPod pedometer and the iPod Camera Connector. Other notable accessories include external speakers, wireless remote controls, protective case, screen films, and wireless earphones. Among the first accessory manufacturers were Griffin Technology, Belkin, JBL, Bose, Monster Cable, and SendStation.
BMW released the first iPod automobile interface, allowing drivers of newer BMW vehicles to control an iPod using either the built-in steering wheel controls or the radio head-unit buttons. Apple announced in 2005 that similar systems would be available for other vehicle brands, including Mercedes-Benz, Volvo, Nissan, Toyota, Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, Acura, Audi, Honda, Renault, Infiniti and Volkswagen. Scion offers standard iPod connectivity on all their cars.
Some independent stereo manufacturers including JVC, Pioneer, Kenwood, Alpine, Sony, and Harman Kardon also have iPod-specific integration solutions. Alternative connection methods include adapter kits (that use the cassette deck or the CD changer port), audio input jacks, and FM transmitters such as the iTrip—although personal FM transmitters are illegal in some countries. Many car manufacturers have added audio input jacks as standard.
Beginning in mid-2007, four major airlines, United, Continental, Delta, and Emirates, reached agreements to install iPod seat connections. The free service will allow passengers to power and charge an iPod, and view video and music libraries on individual seat-back displays. Originally KLM and Air France were reported to be part of the deal with Apple, but they later released statements explaining that they were only contemplating the possibility of incorporating such systems.
Software
The iPod line can play several audio file formats including MP3, AAC/M4A, Protected AAC, AIFF, WAV, Audible audiobook, and Apple Lossless. The iPod Photo introduced the ability to display JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG image file formats. Fifth- and sixth-generation iPod Classic models, as well as third-generation iPod Nano models, can also play MPEG-4 (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) and QuickTime video formats, with restrictions on video dimensions, encoding techniques and data rates. Originally, iPod software only worked with Classic Mac OS and macOS; iPod software for Microsoft Windows was launched with the second-generation model. Unlike most other media players, Apple does not support Microsoft's WMA audio format—but a converter for WMA files without digital rights management (DRM) is provided with the Windows version of iTunes. MIDI files also cannot be played, but can be converted to audio files using the "Advanced" menu in iTunes. Alternative open-source audio formats, such as Ogg Vorbis and FLAC, are not supported without installing custom firmware onto an iPod (e.g., Rockbox).
During installation, an iPod is associated with one host computer. Each time an iPod connects to its host computer, iTunes can synchronize entire music libraries or music playlists either automatically or manually. Song ratings can be set on an iPod and synchronized later to the iTunes library, and vice versa. A user can access, play, and add music on a second computer if an iPod is set to manual and not automatic sync, but anything added or edited will be reversed upon connecting and syncing with the main computer and its library. If a user wishes to automatically sync music with another computer, an iPod's library will be entirely wiped and replaced with the other computer's library.
Interface
The signature iPod click wheel
iPods with color displays use anti-aliased graphics and text, with sliding animations. All iPods (except the 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle, the 6th & 7th generation iPod Nano, and iPod Touch) have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel – an innovation that gives an uncluttered, minimalist interface. The buttons perform basic functions such as menu, play, pause, next track, and previous track. Other operations, such as scrolling through menu items and controlling the volume, are performed by using the click wheel in a rotational manner. The 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle does not have any controls on the actual player; instead, it has a small control on the earphone cable, with volume-up and -down buttons and a single button for play and pause, next track, etc. The iPod Touch has no click-wheel; instead, it uses a touch screen along with a home button, sleep/wake button, and (on the second and third generations of the iPod Touch) volume-up and -down buttons. The user interface for the iPod Touch is identical to that of the iPhone. Differences include the lack of a phone application. Both devices use iOS.
iTunes Store
Main articles: iTunes and iTunes Store
The iTunes Store (introduced April 28, 2003) is an online media store run by Apple and accessed through iTunes. The store became the market leader soon after its launch and Apple announced the sale of videos through the store on October 12, 2005. Full-length movies became available on September 12, 2006.
At the time the store was introduced, purchased audio files used the AAC format with added encryption, based on the FairPlay DRM system. Up to five authorized computers and an unlimited number of iPods could play the files. Burning the files with iTunes as an audio CD, then re-importing would create music files without the DRM. The DRM could also be removed using third-party software. However, in a deal with Apple, EMI began selling DRM-free, higher-quality songs on the iTunes Stores, in a category called "iTunes Plus." While individual songs were made available at a cost of US$1.29, 30¢ more than the cost of a regular DRM song, entire albums were available for the same price, US$9.99, as DRM encoded albums. On October 17, 2007, Apple lowered the cost of individual iTunes Plus songs to US$0.99 per song, the same as DRM encoded tracks. On January 6, 2009, Apple announced that DRM has been removed from 80% of the music catalog and that it would be removed from all music by April 2009.
iPods cannot play music files from competing music stores that use rival-DRM technologies like Microsoft's protected WMA or RealNetworks' Helix DRM. Example stores include Napster and MSN Music. RealNetworks claims that Apple is creating problems for itself by using FairPlay to lock users into using the iTunes Store. Steve Jobs stated that Apple makes little profit from song sales, although Apple uses the store to promote iPod sales. However, iPods can also play music files from online stores that do not use DRM, such as eMusic or Amie Street.
Universal Music Group decided not to renew their contract with the iTunes Store on July 3, 2007. Universal will now supply iTunes in an 'at will' capacity.
Apple debuted the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store on September 5, 2007, in its Media Event entitled "The Beat Goes On...". This service allows users to access the Music Store from either an iPhone or an iPod Touch and download songs directly to the device that can be synced to the user's iTunes Library over a WiFi connection, or, in the case of an iPhone, the cellular network.
Games
Main articles: iPod game and App Store (iOS)
Video games are playable on various versions of iPods. The original iPod had the game Brick (originally invented by Apple's co-founder Steve Wozniak) included as an easter egg hidden feature; later firmware versions added it as a menu option. Later revisions of the iPod added three more games: Parachute, Solitaire, and Music Quiz.
In September 2006, the iTunes Store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of iTunes 7, compatible with the fifth generation iPod with iPod software 1.2 or later. Those games were: Bejeweled, Cubis 2, Mahjong, Mini Golf, Pac-Man, Tetris, Texas Hold 'Em, Vortex, Asphalt 4: Elite Racing and Zuma. Additional games have since been added. These games work on the 6th and 5th generation iPod Classic and the 5th and 4th generation iPod Nano.
With third parties like Namco, Square Enix, Electronic Arts, Sega, and Hudson Soft all making games for the iPod, Apple's MP3 player has taken steps towards entering the video game handheld console market. Even video game magazines like GamePro and EGM have reviewed and rated most of their games as of late.
The games are in the form of .ipg files, which are actually .zip archives in disguise. When unzipped, they reveal executable files along with common audio and image files, leading to the possibility of third party games. Apple has not publicly released a software development kit (SDK) for iPod-specific development. Apps produced with the iPhone SDK are compatible only with the iOS on the iPod Touch and iPhone, which cannot run click wheel-based games.
File storage and transfer
All iPods except for the iPod Touch can function in "disk mode" as mass storage devices to store data files but this has to be manually activated. If an iPod is formatted on a Mac OS computer, it uses the HFS+ file system format, which allows it to serve as a boot disk for a Mac computer. If it is formatted on Windows, the FAT32 format is used. With the release of the Windows-compatible iPod, the default file system used on the iPod line switched from HFS+ to FAT32, although it can be reformatted to either file system (excluding the iPod Shuffle which is strictly FAT32). Generally, if a new iPod (excluding the iPod Shuffle) is initially plugged into a computer running Windows, it will be formatted with FAT32, and if initially plugged into a Mac running Mac OS it will be formatted with HFS+.
Unlike many other MP3 players, simply copying audio or video files to the drive with a typical file management application will not allow an iPod to properly access them. The user must use software that has been specifically designed to transfer media files to iPods so that the files are playable and viewable. Usually iTunes is used to transfer media to an iPod, though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms.
iTunes 7 and above can transfer purchased media of the iTunes Store from an iPod to a computer, provided that computer containing the DRM protected media is authorized to play it.
Media files are stored on an iPod in a hidden folder, along with a proprietary database file. The hidden content can be accessed on the host operating system by enabling hidden files to be shown. The media files can then be recovered manually by copying the files or folders off the iPod. Many third-party applications also allow easy copying of media files off of an iPod.
Models and features
While the suffix "Classic" was not introduced until the sixth generation, it has been applied here retroactively to all non-suffixed iPods for clarity.
Model
Generation
Image
Capacity
Connection
Original release date
Minimum OS to sync
Rated battery life (hours)
Classic
1st
5, 10 GB
FireWire
November 10, 2001
Mac: 9, 10.1
audio: 10
First model, with mechanical scroll wheel. 10 GB model released later.
2nd
10, 20 GB
FireWire
August 2002
Mac: 10.1Win: 2000
audio: 10
Touch-sensitive wheel. FireWire port had a cover. Hold switch revised. Windows compatibility through Musicmatch.
3rd
10, 15, 20, 30, 40 GB
FireWire (USB for syncing only)
May 2, 2003
Mac: 10.1Win: 2000
audio: 8
First complete redesign with all-touch interface, dock connector, 4-pin remote connector and slimmer case. Musicmatch support dropped with later release of iTunes 4.1 for Windows.
4th(Photo)(with color display)
20, 40 GB
FireWire or USB
July 19, 2004
Mac: 10.2Win: 2000
audio: 12
Adopted Click Wheel from iPod Mini, added charging through USB in addition to FireWire.
photo:30, 40, 60 GB
FireWire or USB
October 26, 2004
Mac: 10.2Win: 2000
audio: 15slideshow: 5
color:20, 60 GB
June 28, 2005
Premium spin-off of 4th generation iPod with color screen, plus picture viewing. Later reintegrated into main iPod line.
5th
30, 60, 80 GB
USB (FireWire for charging only)
October 2005
Mac: 10.3Win: 2000
30 GBaudio: 14video: 2(later 3.5)
60/80 GBaudio: 20video: 3/6.5
Second full redesign with a slimmer case, and larger screen with video playback. Remote connector near the headphone jack was omitted as was syncing through FireWire. Offered in black or white. Hardware and firmware updated with 60 GB model replaced with 80 GB model on September 12, 2006.
6th
80, 120, 160 GB
USB (FireWire for charging only)
September 5, 2007
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
80 GBaudio: 30video: 5
120 GBaudio: 36video: 6
160 GB2007 modelaudio: 40video: 72009 modelaudio: 36video: 6
Introduced the "Classic" suffix. New interface and anodized aluminum front plate. Silver replaces white. In September 2008 the hardware and firmware was updated with a 120 GB model replacing the 80 GB model and the 160 GB model was discontinued. In September 2009, the 120 GB model was replaced with a 160 GB model. Discontinued on September 9, 2014.
Mini
1st
4 GB
USB or FireWire
February 20, 2004
Mac: 10.1Win: 2000
audio: 8
New smaller model, available in 5 colors. Introduced the "Click Wheel".
2nd
4, 6 GB
USB or FireWire
February 23, 2005
Mac: 10.2Win: 2000
audio: 18
Brighter color variants with longer battery life. Click Wheel lettering matched body color. Gold color discontinued. Later replaced by iPod Nano.
Nano
1st
1, 2, 4 GB
USB (FireWire for charging only)
September 7, 2005
Mac: 10.3Win: 2000
audio: 14slideshow: 4
Replaced Mini. Available in black or white and used flash memory. Color screen for picture viewing. 1 GB version released later.
2nd
2, 4, 8 GB
USB (FireWire for charging only)
September 12, 2006
Mac: 10.3Win: 2000
audio: 24slideshow: 5
Anodized aluminum casing and 6 colors available.
3rd
4, 8 GB
USB (FireWire for charging only)
September 5, 2007
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 24video: 5
2" QVGA screen, colors refreshed with chrome back, new interface, video capability, smaller Click Wheel.
4th
4, 8, 16 GB
USB
September 9, 2008
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 24video: 4
Reverted to tall form factor and all-aluminum enclosure with nine color choices, added accelerometer for "shake to shuffle" functionality and horizontal viewing. 4 GB model limited release in selected markets.
5th
8, 16 GB
USB
September 9, 2009
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 24video: 5
First iPod to include a video camera; also included a larger screen, FM radio, speaker, pedometer, and a polished exterior case while retaining similar colors to the 4th generation model.
6th
8, 16 GB
USB
September 1, 2010
Mac: 10.5Win: XP
audio: 24
First iPod Nano to include multi-touch screen; clip from iPod Shuffle added. Video playback, speakers and camera removed.
7th
16 GB
USB
September 12, 2012
Mac: 10.6Win: XP
audio: 30video: 3.5
Reverted to tall form factor with larger 2.5" multi-touch screen. Clip removed. Video playback restored and Bluetooth added. Replaced 30-pin dock connector with new Lightning connector. Discontinued July 27, 2017.
Shuffle
1st
512 MB, 1 GB
USB(no adaptor required)
January 11, 2005
Mac: 10.2Win: 2000
audio: 12
New entry-level model. Uses flash memory and has no screen.
2nd
1, 2 GB
USB
September 12, 2006
Mac: 10.3Win: 2000
audio: 12
Smaller clip design with anodized aluminum casing. 4 color options added later. Colors were changed in 2007 and 2008.
3rd
2, 4 GB
USB
March 11, 2009
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 10
Smaller design with controls relocated to right earbud cable. Introduced with two colors, and featured VoiceOver. More colors and 2 GB model added in September 2009.
4th
2 GB
USB
September 1, 2010
Mac: 10.5Win: XP
audio: 15
Controls returned to the body of the iPod. Introduced with five colors, and featured VoiceOver. Discontinued July 27, 2017.
Touch
1st
8, 16, 32 GB
USB (FireWire for charging only)
September 5, 2007
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 22video: 5
First iPod with Wi-Fi and a Multi-touch interface. Features Safari browser and wireless access to the iTunes Store and YouTube. 32 GB model later added. iOS 2.0 and App Store access required an upgrade fee.
2nd
8, 16, 32 GB
USB
September 9, 2008
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 36video: 6
New tapered chrome back with Nike+ functionality, volume buttons, and built-in speaker added. iOS 2.0 and App Store access standard. Bluetooth support added but not made active until iOS 3.0, which required an upgrade fee.
3rd
32, 64 GB
USB
September 9, 2009
Mac: 10.4Win: XP
audio: 30video: 6
Updated to include the upgraded internals from the iPhone 3GS; included Voice Control support and bundled remote earphones.
4th
8, 16, 32, 64 GB
USB
September 1, 2010
Mac: 10.5Win: XP
audio: 40video: 7
New thinner design including two cameras for FaceTime and HD video recording, hold button moved to top right corner, Retina Display similar to iPhone 4, Apple A4 chip. White-colored version added on October 4, 2011.
5th
16, 32, 64 GB
USB (over Lightning)
September 12, 2012
Mac: 10.6Win: XP
audio: 40video: 8
New aluminum design with colored case options. Featured improved cameras along with A5 processor, Siri, and taller 4" Retina Display. First 16 GB models released have no color choices and no iSight camera, In early 2014 16 GB models were released that featured iSight cameras and color choices.
6th
16, 32, 64, 128 GB
USB (over Lightning)
July 15, 2015
Mac: 10.7Win: 7
audio: 40video: 8
Updated with a new lineup of six colors, a new 128 GB model, and improved internals. The improved internals feature new cameras and the A8 processor with M8 motion coprocessor, 1 GB of RAM (twice the amount of the previous generation), and 802.11ac Wi-Fi.
7th
32, 128, 256 GB
USB (over Lightning)
May 28, 2019
Mac: 10.11.4Win: 7
audio: 40video: 8
Updated with a new 256 GB model, and an upgraded SoC from the A8 to the A10 Fusion. Also added support for features not previously supported on the 6th generation iPod touch, like AR and Group FaceTime. Discontinued May 10, 2022.
Sources: Apple Inc., Mactracker
Patent disputes
In 2005, Apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the iPod line and its associated technologies: Advanced Audio Devices claimed the iPod line breached its patent on a "music jukebox", while a Hong Kong-based IP portfolio company called Pat-rights filed a suit claiming that Apple's FairPlay technology breached a patent issued to inventor Ho Keung Tse. The latter case also includes the online music stores of Sony, RealNetworks, Napster, and Musicmatch as defendants.
Apple's application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office for a patent on "rotational user inputs", as used on the iPod interface, received a third "non-final rejection" (NFR) in August 2005. Also in August 2005, Creative Technology, one of Apple's main rivals in the MP3 player market, announced that it held a patent on part of the music selection interface used by the iPod line, which Creative Technology dubbed the "Zen Patent", granted on August 9, 2005. On May 15, 2006, Creative filed another suit against Apple with the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Creative also asked the United States International Trade Commission to investigate whether Apple was breaching U.S. trade laws by importing iPods into the United States.
On August 24, 2006, Apple and Creative announced a broad settlement to end their legal disputes. Apple will pay Creative US$100 million for a paid-up license, to use Creative's awarded patent in all Apple products. As part of the agreement, Apple will recoup part of its payment, if Creative is successful in licensing the patent. Creative then announced its intention to produce iPod accessories by joining the Made for iPod program.
Sales
See also: iPod advertising
iPod quarterly sales. Click for table of data and sources. Note that Q1 is October through December of previous year, the holiday season.
Sales of iPods peaked in 2008, following rapid growth in the period of 2005 to 2007.
In January 2007, Apple reported record quarterly revenue of US$7.1 billion, of which 48% was made from iPod sales. On April 9, 2007, it was announced that Apple had sold its one-hundred millionth iPod, making it the best-selling digital music player of all time. Its second-quarter revenue of US$5.2 billion, of which 32% was made from iPod sales. Apple and several industry analysts suggest that iPod users are likely to purchase other Apple products such as Mac computers. 42% of Apple's revenue for the First fiscal quarter of 2008 came from iPod sales (followed by 21% from notebook sales and 16% from desktop sales).
On October 21, 2008, Apple reported that only 14.21% of total revenue for fiscal quarter 4 of the year 2008 came from iPods. At the September 9, 2009 keynote presentation at the Apple Event, Phil Schiller announced total cumulative sales of iPods exceeded 220 million. The continual decline of iPod sales since 2009 has not been a surprising trend for the Apple corporation, as Apple CFO Peter Oppenheimer explained in June 2009: "We expect our traditional MP3 players to decline over time as we cannibalize ourselves with the iPod Touch and the iPhone." Since 2009, the company's iPod sales have continually decreased every financial quarter and in 2013 a new model was not introduced onto the market.
As of September 2012, Apple reported that total number of iPods sold worldwide was 350 million.
Market share
Since October 2004, the iPod line has dominated digital music player sales in the United States, with over 90% of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70% of the market for all types of players. During the year from January 2004 to January 2005, the high rate of sales caused its U.S. market share to increase from 31% to 65%, and in July 2005, this market share was measured at 74%. In January 2007 the iPod market share reached 72.7% according to Bloomberg Online. In the Japanese market iPod market share was 36% in 2005, albeit still leader there. In Europe, Apple also led the market (especially the UK) but local brands such as Archos managed to outsell Apple in certain categories.
One of the reasons for the iPod's early success, having been released three years after the very first digital audio player (namely the MPMan), was its seamless integration with the company's iTunes software, and the ecosystem built around it such as the iTunes Music Store, as well as a competitive price. As a result, Apple achieved a dominance in the MP3 player market as Sony's Walkman did with personal cassette players two decades earlier. The software similarity between computer and player made it easy to transfer music over and synchronize it, tasks that were considered difficult on pre-iPod MP3 players such as those from Rio and Creative.
Comparison of iPod Mini (right) and a competitor Creative Zen Micro (left)
Some of the iPod's chief competitors during its pinnacle include Creative's Zen, SanDisk's Sansa, Sony's Walkman, iriver, and Samsung's Yepp. The iPod's dominance was challenged numerous times: in 2004 Sony's first hard disk Walkman was designed to take on the iPod, accompanied by its own music store Sony Connect; Microsoft initially attempted to compete using a software platform called Portable Media Center, and in later years designed the Zune line; the most vocal rival was Creative, whose CEO in November 2004 "declared war" on the iPod. Samsung declared that they would take the top spot from Apple by 2007, while SanDisk ran a specific anti-iPod marketing campaign called iDon't. These competitors failed to make major dents, and Apple remained dominant in the fast-growing digital audio player market during the decade. Mobile phone manufacturers Nokia and Sony Ericsson also made "music phones" to rival iPod.
A suggested factor of iPod's popularity has been cited to be Apple's popular iTunes Store catalog, playing a part in keeping Apple firmly market leader, while also helped by the mismanagement of others, such as Sony's unpopular SonicStage software.
One notable exception where iPod was not faring well was in South Korea, where as of 2005 Apple held a small market share of less than 2%, compared to market leaders iriver, Samsung and Cowon.
As of 2011, iPod held a 70% market share in global MP3 players. Its closest competitor was noted to be the Sansa line from SanDisk.
Industry impact
iPods have won several awards ranging from engineering excellence, to most innovative audio product, to fourth-best computer product of 2006. iPods often receive favorable reviews; scoring on looks, clean design, and ease of use. PC World wrote that iPod line has "altered the landscape for portable audio players". Several industries are modifying their products to work better with both the iPod line and the AAC audio format. Examples include CD copy-protection schemes, and mobile phones, such as phones from Sony Ericsson and Nokia, which play AAC files rather than WMA.
Besides earning a reputation as a respected entertainment device, the iPod has also been accepted as a business device. Government departments, major institutions, and international organizations have turned to the iPod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training, such as the Royal and Western Infirmaries in Glasgow, Scotland, where iPods are used to train new staff.
iPods have also gained popularity for use in education. Apple offers more information on educational uses for iPods on its website, including a collection of lesson plans. There has also been academic research done in this area in nursing education and more general K-16 education. Duke University provided iPods to all incoming freshmen in the fall of 2004, and the iPod program continues today with modifications. Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Yes, children, there really was a time when we roamed the earth without thousands of our favorite jams tucked comfortably into our hip pockets. Weird."
The iPod has also been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The iPod's popularization of digital music storage allows users to abandon listening to entire albums and instead be able to choose specific singles which hastened the end of the album era in popular music.
Criticism
Battery problems
The advertised battery life on most models is different from the real-world achievable life. For example, the fifth-generation 30 GB iPod Classic was advertised as having up to 14 hours of music playback. However, an MP3.com report stated that this was virtually unachievable under real-life usage conditions, with a writer for the site getting, on average, less than 8 hours from an iPod. In 2003, class action lawsuits were brought against Apple complaining that the battery charges lasted for shorter lengths of time than stated and that the battery degraded over time. The lawsuits were settled by offering individuals with first- or second-generation iPods either US$50 store credit or a free battery replacement, and offering individuals with third-generation iPods an extended warranty that would allow them to get a replacement iPod if they experienced battery problems.
As an instance of planned obsolescence, iPod batteries are not designed to be removed or replaced by the user, although some users have been able to open the case themselves, usually following instructions from third-party vendors of iPod replacement batteries. Compounding the problem, Apple initially would not replace worn-out batteries. The official policy was that the customer should buy a refurbished replacement iPod, at a cost almost equivalent to a brand new one. All lithium-ion batteries lose capacity during their lifetime even when not in use (guidelines are available for prolonging life-span) and this situation led to a market for third-party battery replacement kits.
Apple announced a battery replacement program on November 14, 2003, a week before a high publicity stunt and website by the Neistat Brothers. The initial cost was US$99, and it was lowered to US$59 in 2005. One week later, Apple offered an extended iPod warranty for US$59. For the iPod Nano, soldering tools are needed because the battery is soldered onto the main board. Fifth generation iPods have their battery attached to the backplate with adhesive.
The first generation iPod Nano may overheat and pose a health and safety risk. Affected iPod Nanos were sold between September 2005 and December 2006. This is due to a flawed battery used by Apple from a single battery manufacturer. Apple recommended that owners of affected iPod Nanos stop using them. Under an Apple product replacement program, affected Nanos were replaced with current generation Nanos free of charge.
Reliability and durability
iPods have been criticized for alleged short lifespan and fragile hard drives. A 2005 survey conducted on the MacInTouch website found that the iPod line had an average failure rate of 13.7% (although they note that comments from respondents indicate that "the true iPod failure rate may be lower than it appears"). It concluded that some models were more durable than others. In particular, failure rates for iPods employing hard drives were usually above 20% while those with flash memory had a failure rate below 10%. In late 2005, many users complained that the surface of the first-generation iPod Nano can become scratched easily, rendering the screen unusable. A class-action lawsuit was also filed. Apple initially considered the issue a minor defect, but later began shipping these iPods with protective sleeves.
Labor disputes
On June 11, 2006, the British tabloid The Mail on Sunday reported that iPods are mainly manufactured by workers who earn no more than US$50 per month and work 15-hour shifts. Apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that, while some of the plant's labor practices met Apple's Code of Conduct, others did not: employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35% of the time and worked more than six consecutive days for 25% of the time.
Foxconn, Apple's manufacturer, initially denied the abuses, but when an auditing team from Apple found that workers had been working longer hours than were allowed under Chinese law, they promised to prevent workers working more hours than the code allowed. Apple hired a workplace standards auditing company, Verité, and joined the Electronic Industry Code of Conduct Implementation Group to oversee the measures. On December 31, 2006, workers at the Foxconn factory in Longhua, Shenzhen formed a union affiliated with the All-China Federation of Trade Unions, the Chinese government-approved union umbrella organization.
In 2010, a number of workers committed suicide at a Foxconn operations in China. Apple, HP, and others stated that they were investigating the situation. Foxconn guards have been videotaped beating employees. Another employee killed himself in 2009 when an Apple prototype went missing, and claimed in messages to friends, that he had been beaten and interrogated.
As of 2006, the iPod was produced by about 14,000 workers in the U.S. and 27,000 overseas. Further, the salaries attributed to this product were overwhelmingly distributed to highly skilled U.S. professionals, as opposed to lower-skilled U.S. retail employees or overseas manufacturing labor. One interpretation of this result is that U.S. innovation can create more jobs overseas than domestically.
Timeline of models
See also: Timeline of full-sized iPod models and Timeline of compact iPod models
Timeline of iPod models vte
Sources: Apple press release library, Mactracker Apple Inc. model database
See also
Comparison of portable media players
Comparison of iPod managers
iPhone
Podcast
iPad
Notes
^ The restrictions vary from generation to generation; for the earliest video iPods, video is required to be Baseline Profile (BP), up to Level 1.3, meaning most significantly no B-frames (BP), a maximum bitrate of 768 kb/s (BP Level 1.3), and a maximum framerate of 30 frame/s at 320×240 resolution. Newer iPods support BP up to level 3.0 (10,000 kb/s), for a maximum framerate of 30 frame/s at 640×480 resolution. Current specifications can be seen at iPod classic Technical Specs, and practical implementations can be seen in the libx264-ipod320.ffpreset and libx264-ipod640.ffpreset preset files for FFmpeg, as discussed in Successful ipod h264 encoding Archived August 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, by Daniel Rogers, June 11, 2006.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to iPod.
Wikiquote has quotations related to iPod.
iPod – official site at Apple Inc.
iPod troubleshooting basics and service FAQ at Apple Inc.
Apple's 21st century Walkman article, Brent Schlender, Fortune, November 12, 2001
iPod Nation article at the Wayback Machine (archived October 15, 2007), Steven Levy, Newsweek, July 26, 2004
The Perfect Thing article, Steven Levy, Wired, November 2006
iPod (1st generation) complete disassembly at TakeItApart.com
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Portals: 2000s Electronics Music Radio Technology | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iPad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPad"},{"link_name":"AirPods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AirPods"},{"link_name":"IPOD (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPOD_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"iPod Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Touch"},{"link_name":"iPod Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Classic"},{"link_name":"iPod Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Mini"},{"link_name":"iPod Nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Nano"},{"link_name":"iPod Shuffle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Shuffle"},{"link_name":"Music (software)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_(software)"},{"link_name":"portable media players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"mobile devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device"},{"link_name":"Apple Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"first version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Classic#1st_generation"},{"link_name":"iTunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"data storage devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_mass_storage_device_class"},{"link_name":"games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_game"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"iOS 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_5"},{"link_name":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"link_name":"iPad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPad"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Line of portable media players by Apple (2001–2022)Not to be confused with iPad or AirPods.\"IPOD\" redirects here. For other uses, see IPOD (disambiguation).This article is about the series. For specific versions of the iPod, see iPod Touch, iPod Classic, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, and iPod Shuffle.For the music player app formerly called iPod, see Music (software).The iPod is a discontinued series of portable media players and multi-purpose mobile devices designed and marketed by Apple Inc.[2][3] The first version was released on November 10, 2001, about 8+1⁄2 months after the Macintosh version of iTunes was released. Apple sold an estimated 450 million iPod products as of 2022. Apple discontinued the iPod product line on May 10, 2022. At over 20 years, the iPod brand is the oldest to be discontinued by Apple.[4][5]Some versions of the iPod can serve as external data storage devices, like other digital music players. Prior to macOS 10.15, Apple's iTunes software (and other alternative software) could be used to transfer music, photos, videos, games, contact information, e-mail settings, Web bookmarks, and calendars to the devices supporting these features from computers using certain versions of Apple macOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems.[6][7]Before the release of iOS 5, the iPod branding was used for the media player included with the iPhone and iPad, which was separated into apps named \"Music\" and \"Videos\" on the iPod Touch. As of iOS 5, separate Music and Videos apps are standardized across all iOS-powered products.[8] While the iPhone and iPad have essentially the same media player capabilities as the iPod line, they are generally treated as separate products. During the middle of 2010, iPhone sales overtook those of the iPod.[9]","title":"iPod"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of Apple Inc. products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Apple_Inc._products"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Various_iPods.jpg"},{"link_name":"iPod Mini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Mini"},{"link_name":"iPod Nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Nano"},{"link_name":"iPod Shuffle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Shuffle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-straight-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"Steve Jobs’","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs"},{"link_name":"Jon Rubinstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Rubinstein"},{"link_name":"Tony Fadell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Fadell"},{"link_name":"General 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Dhuey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dhuey"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Ive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Ive"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-straight-10"},{"link_name":"Dieter 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One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_One"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-straight-10"},{"link_name":"Walkman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkman"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-icon_steve_jobs-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Guglielmo-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"U.S. Patent and Trademark Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office"},{"link_name":"Internet kiosks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_kiosk"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"iPod 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15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_15"},{"link_name":"iOS 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_16"}],"text":"See also: Timeline of Apple Inc. productsVarious iPod models. From left to right: iPod 5th generation in a case, iPod 4th generation, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, iPod ShufflePortable MP3 players had existed since the mid-1990s, but Apple found existing digital music players \"big and clunky or small and useless\" with user interfaces that were \"unbelievably awful\".[10] They also identified weaknesses in existing models' attempt to negotiate the trade-off between capacity and portability; flash memory-based players held too few songs, while the hard drive based models were too big and heavy. To address these deficits, the company decided to develop its own MP3 player.[11]At Apple CEO Steve Jobs’ direction, hardware engineering chief Jon Rubinstein recruited Tony Fadell, a former employee of General Magic and Philips, who had a business idea to invent a better MP3 player and build a complementary music sales store. Fadell had previously developed the Philips Velo and Nino PDA before starting a company called Fuse Systems to build the new MP3 player, but RealNetworks, Sony and Philips had already passed on the project.[11][12] Rubinstein had already discovered the Toshiba hard disk drive while meeting with an Apple supplier in Japan, ultimately purchasing the rights to it for Apple. Rubinstein had also already made substantial progress on development of other key hardware elements, including the device's screen and battery.[13]Fadell found support for his project with Apple Computer and was hired by Apple in 2001 as an independent contractor to work on the iPod project, then code-named project P-68.[14] Because most of Apple's engineering manpower and resources were already dedicated to the iMac line, Fadell hired engineers from his startup company, Fuse, and veteran engineers from General Magic and Philips to build the core iPod development team.[11]Time constraints forced Fadell to develop various components of the iPod outside Apple.[11] Fadell partnered with a company called PortalPlayer to design software for the device; this work eventually took shape as the iPod OS.[14] Within eight months, Tony Fadell's team and PortalPlayer had completed a prototype.[15] The power supply was then designed by Michael Dhuey,[16] while the display was designed in-house by Apple design engineer Jonathan Ive.[10] The original iPod's physical appearance was inspired by the 1958 Braun T3 transistor radio designed by Dieter Rams, while the wheel-based user interface drew on Bang & Olufsen's BeoCom 6000 telephone.[17][18] Apple CEO Steve Jobs set an exacting standard for the device's physical design; one anecdote relates an occasion on which Jobs dropped a prototype into an aquarium in front of engineers to demonstrate from bubbles leaving its housing that the current design contained unused internal space.[19]Apple contracted another company, Pixo,[14] to help design and implement the user interface (as well as Unicode, memory management, and event processing[14]) under Jobs' direct supervision.[10]The name iPod was proposed by Vinnie Chieco, a freelance copywriter, who (with others) was contracted by Apple to determine how to introduce the new player to the public. After Chieco saw a prototype, he was reminded of the phrase \"Open the pod bay doors, Hal\" from the classic sci-fi film 2001: A Space Odyssey, referring to the white EVA Pods of the Discovery One spaceship.[20] Chieco's proposal drew an analogy between the relationship of the spaceship to the smaller independent pods and that of a personal computer to its companion music player.[10]The product (which Fortune called \"Apple's 21st-Century Walkman\"[21]) was developed in less than one year and unveiled on October 23, 2001.[22] Jobs announced it as a Mac-compatible product with a 5 GB hard drive that put \"1,000 songs in your pocket.\"[23]Apple researched the trademark and found that it was already in use. Joseph N. Grasso of New Jersey had originally listed an \"iPod\" trademark with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) in July 2000 for Internet kiosks. The first iPod kiosks had been demonstrated to the public in New Jersey in March 1998, and commercial use began in January 2000, but the venture had apparently been discontinued by 2001. The trademark was registered by the USPTO in November 2003, and Grasso assigned it to Apple Computer, Inc. in 2005.[24] Separately, the earliest recorded use in commerce of an \"iPod\" trademark was in 1991 by Chrysalis Corp. of Sturgis, Michigan, styled \"iPOD\", for office furniture.[25]As development of the iPod progressed, Apple continued to refine the software's look and feel, rewriting much of the code. Starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apple's corporate font, Myriad. Color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock.On January 8, 2004, Hewlett-Packard (HP) announced that they would sell HP-branded iPods under a license agreement from Apple. Several new retail channels were used—including Walmart—and these iPods eventually made up 5% of all iPod sales. In July 2005, HP stopped selling iPods due to unfavorable terms and conditions imposed by Apple.[26]In 2006, Apple partnered with Irish rock band U2 to present a special edition of the 5th-generation iPod. Like its predecessor, this iPod has the signatures of the four members of the band engraved on its back, but this one was the first time the company changed the color of the stainless steel back from a silver chrome to black. This iPod was only available with 30 GB of storage capacity. The special edition entitled purchasers to an exclusive video with 33 minutes of interviews and performance by U2, downloadable from the iTunes Store.[27][28]In 2007, Apple modified the iPod interface again with the introduction of the sixth-generation iPod Classic and third-generation iPod Nano by changing the font to Helvetica and, in most cases, splitting the screen in half, displaying the menus on the left and album artwork, photos, or videos on the right.In mid-2015, several new color schemes for all of the current iPod models were spotted in the iTunes 12.2 update. Belgian website Belgium iPhone originally found the images after plugging in an iPod for the first time, and subsequent photos were discovered by Pierre Dandumont before being leaked.[29][30]On July 27, 2017, Apple removed the iPod Nano and Shuffle from its stores, marking the end of Apple's production of standalone music players.[31] On May 10, 2022, Apple discontinued the iPod Touch, the last remaining product in the iPod line.[4] iOS 15 was the last iOS release the 7th generation iPod touch received, as future versions from iOS 16 onward no longer support the device.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-playertest-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"capacitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor"},{"link_name":"impedance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance"},{"link_name":"high-pass filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-pass_filter"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"headphone amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headphone_amplifier"},{"link_name":"dual-transistor output stage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_tied_load"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-playertest-39"},{"link_name":"equalizer (EQ)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equalization_(audio)"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"clipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipping_(audio)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-volumelimit-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipodsfrance-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Audio","text":"Audio tests showed that the third-generation iPod has a weak bass response.[39][40] The combination of the undersized DC-blocking capacitors and the typical low impedance of most consumer headphones form a high-pass filter, which attenuates the low-frequency bass output. Similar capacitors were used in the fourth-generation iPods.[41] The problem is reduced when using high-impedance headphones and is completely masked when driving high-impedance (line level) loads, such as when using an external headphone amplifier. The first-generation iPod Shuffle uses a dual-transistor output stage,[39] rather than a single capacitor-coupled output, and does not exhibit reduced bass response for any load.For all iPods released in 2006 and earlier, some equalizer (EQ) sound settings can easily distort the bass sound, even on undemanding tracks.[42][43] This occurs when using EQ settings such as R&B, Rock, Acoustic, and Bass Booster, because the equalizer amplifies the digital audio level beyond the software's limit, causing distortion (clipping) on bass instruments.From the fifth-generation iPod on, Apple introduced a user-configurable volume limit in response to concerns about hearing loss.[44] Users report that in the sixth-generation iPod, the maximum volume output level is limited to 100 dB in EU markets. Apple previously had to remove iPods from shelves in France for exceeding this legal limit.[45] However, users who bought new sixth-generation iPods in late 2013 reported a new option that allowed them to disable the EU volume limit.[46] Some have attributed this change to a software update that shipped with these devices.[47] Older sixth-generation iPods, however, are unable to update to this software version.[48]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apple dock connectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock_connector#Apple_dock_connectors"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apple_iPod_Chargers.jpg"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEMA_connector"},{"link_name":"miniaturized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniaturization"},{"link_name":"FireWire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FireWire"},{"link_name":"battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"dock connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock_connector"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"3.5 mm minijack phone connector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_connector_(audio)"},{"link_name":"iPod Hi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Hi-Fi"},{"link_name":"Belkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belkin"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Lightning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_(connector)"},{"link_name":"iPhone 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_5"},{"link_name":"iPod Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Touch"},{"link_name":"iPod Nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Nano"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Connectivity","text":"See also: Apple dock connectorsFour iPod wall chargers for North America, all made by Apple. These have FireWire (left) and USB (right three) connectors, which allow iPods to charge without a computer. The unit second-to-left appears to be a model number A1102 unit. The units have been miniaturized over time.Originally, a FireWire connection to the host computer was used to update songs or recharge the battery. The battery could also be charged with a power adapter that was included with the first four generations.The third generation began including a 30-pin dock connector, allowing for FireWire or USB connectivity. This provided better compatibility with non-Apple machines, as most of them did not have FireWire ports at the time. Eventually, Apple began shipping iPods with USB cables instead of FireWire, although the latter was available separately. As of the first-generation iPod Nano and the fifth-generation iPod Classic, Apple discontinued using FireWire for data transfer (while still allowing for use of FireWire to charge the device) in an attempt to reduce cost and form factor. As of the second-generation iPod Touch and the fourth-generation iPod Nano, FireWire charging ability has been removed. The second-, third-, and fourth-generation iPod Shuffle uses a single 3.5 mm minijack phone connector which acts as both a headphone jack or a USB data and charging port for the dock/cable.The dock connector also allowed the iPod to connect to accessories, which often supplement the iPod's music, video, and photo playback. Apple sells a few accessories, such as the now-discontinued iPod Hi-Fi, but most are manufactured by third parties such as Belkin and Griffin. Some peripherals use their own interface, while others use the iPod's own screen. Because the dock connector is a proprietary interface, the implementation of the interface requires paying royalties to Apple.[49]Apple introduced a new 8-pin dock connector, named Lightning, on September 12, 2012 with their announcement of the iPhone 5, the fifth-generation iPod Touch, and the seventh-generation iPod Nano, which all feature it. The new connector replaces the older 30-pin dock connector used by older iPods, iPhones, and iPads. Apple Lightning cables have pins on both sides of the plug so it can be inserted with either side facing up.[50]Bluetooth connectivity was added to the last model of the iPod Nano, and Wi-Fi to the iPod Touch.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPod_Earbuds.JPG"},{"link_name":"iPod earphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_earphones"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EarPods_derecho.JPG"},{"link_name":"EarPods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_earbuds#EarPods"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Made_for_iPod.svg"},{"link_name":"iPod Hi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Hi-Fi"},{"link_name":"iPod Socks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Socks"},{"link_name":"Nike+iPod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike%2BiPod"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Belkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belkin"},{"link_name":"JBL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JBL_(company)"},{"link_name":"Bose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Monster Cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_Cable"},{"link_name":"SendStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SendStation_Systems"},{"link_name":"BMW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Mercedes-Benz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Volvo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo_Cars"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Nissan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan"},{"link_name":"Toyota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Alfa Romeo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfa_Romeo"},{"link_name":"Ferrari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Acura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acura"},{"link_name":"Audi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Renault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault"},{"link_name":"Infiniti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiniti"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Scion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scion_(car)"},{"link_name":"JVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JVC"},{"link_name":"Pioneer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Kenwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenwood_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Alpine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Harman Kardon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harman_Kardon"},{"link_name":"iTrip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ITrip&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Airlines"},{"link_name":"Continental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Airlines"},{"link_name":"Delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Air_Lines"},{"link_name":"Emirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirates_(airline)"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"KLM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KLM"},{"link_name":"Air France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_France"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"sub_title":"Accessories","text":"iPod earbuds\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTwo early designs of iPod earphones\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tApple EarPods, introduced 2012The \"Made for iPod\" logo found on most classic iPod accessoriesMany accessories have been made for the iPod line. A large number are made by third-party companies, although many, such as the iPod Hi-Fi and iPod Socks, are made by Apple. Some accessories add extra features that other music players have, such as sound recorders, FM radio tuners, wired remote controls, and audio/visual cables for TV connections. Other accessories offer unique features like the Nike+iPod pedometer and the iPod Camera Connector. Other notable accessories include external speakers, wireless remote controls, protective case, screen films, and wireless earphones.[51] Among the first accessory manufacturers were Griffin Technology, Belkin, JBL, Bose, Monster Cable, and SendStation.BMW released the first iPod automobile interface,[52] allowing drivers of newer BMW vehicles to control an iPod using either the built-in steering wheel controls or the radio head-unit buttons. Apple announced in 2005 that similar systems would be available for other vehicle brands, including Mercedes-Benz,[53] Volvo,[54] Nissan, Toyota,[55] Alfa Romeo, Ferrari,[56] Acura, Audi, Honda,[57] Renault, Infiniti[58] and Volkswagen.[59] Scion offers standard iPod connectivity on all their cars.Some independent stereo manufacturers including JVC, Pioneer, Kenwood, Alpine, Sony, and Harman Kardon also have iPod-specific integration solutions. Alternative connection methods include adapter kits (that use the cassette deck or the CD changer port), audio input jacks, and FM transmitters such as the iTrip—although personal FM transmitters are illegal in some countries. Many car manufacturers have added audio input jacks as standard.[60]Beginning in mid-2007, four major airlines, United, Continental, Delta, and Emirates, reached agreements to install iPod seat connections. The free service will allow passengers to power and charge an iPod, and view video and music libraries on individual seat-back displays.[61] Originally KLM and Air France were reported to be part of the deal with Apple, but they later released statements explaining that they were only contemplating the possibility of incorporating such systems.[62]","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"audio file formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_file_format"},{"link_name":"AAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding"},{"link_name":"M4A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-4_Part_14"},{"link_name":"Protected AAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FairPlay"},{"link_name":"AIFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Interchange_File_Format"},{"link_name":"WAV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAV"},{"link_name":"Audible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audible.com"},{"link_name":"audiobook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiobook"},{"link_name":"Apple Lossless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Lossless"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-63"},{"link_name":"JPEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG"},{"link_name":"BMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_bitmap"},{"link_name":"GIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Interchange_Format"},{"link_name":"TIFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIFF"},{"link_name":"PNG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"MPEG-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-4"},{"link_name":"H.264/MPEG-4 AVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.264/MPEG-4_AVC"},{"link_name":"QuickTime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuickTime"},{"link_name":"video formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_format_(digital)"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Classic Mac OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"WMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Media_Audio"},{"link_name":"digital rights management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights_management"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-63"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Ogg Vorbis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogg_Vorbis"},{"link_name":"FLAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAC"},{"link_name":"Rockbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockbox"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-69"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"text":"The iPod line can play several audio file formats including MP3, AAC/M4A, Protected AAC, AIFF, WAV, Audible audiobook, and Apple Lossless.[63] The iPod Photo introduced the ability to display JPEG, BMP, GIF, TIFF, and PNG image file formats.[64] Fifth- and sixth-generation iPod Classic models, as well as third-generation iPod Nano models, can also play MPEG-4 (H.264/MPEG-4 AVC) and QuickTime video formats, with restrictions on video dimensions, encoding techniques and data rates.[note 1] Originally, iPod software only worked with Classic Mac OS and macOS;[65] iPod software for Microsoft Windows was launched with the second-generation model.[66] Unlike most other media players, Apple does not support Microsoft's WMA audio format—but a converter for WMA files without digital rights management (DRM) is provided with the Windows version of iTunes.[63] MIDI files also cannot be played, but can be converted to audio files using the \"Advanced\" menu in iTunes.[67] Alternative open-source audio formats, such as Ogg Vorbis and FLAC, are not supported without installing custom firmware onto an iPod (e.g., Rockbox).During installation, an iPod is associated with one host computer.[68] Each time an iPod connects to its host computer, iTunes can synchronize entire music libraries or music playlists either automatically or manually.[68] Song ratings can be set on an iPod and synchronized later to the iTunes library, and vice versa.[69] A user can access, play, and add music on a second computer if an iPod is set to manual and not automatic sync, but anything added or edited will be reversed upon connecting and syncing with the main computer and its library. If a user wishes to automatically sync music with another computer, an iPod's library will be entirely wiped and replaced with the other computer's library.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IPod_wheel.svg"},{"link_name":"iPod click wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_click_wheel"},{"link_name":"anti-aliased","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_anti-aliasing"},{"link_name":"3rd-generation iPod Shuffle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Shuffle"},{"link_name":"6th & 7th generation iPod Nano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Nano"},{"link_name":"iPod Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Touch"},{"link_name":"click wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_click_wheel"},{"link_name":"interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface"},{"link_name":"iPod Shuffle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Shuffle"},{"link_name":"iPod Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Touch"},{"link_name":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"}],"sub_title":"Interface","text":"The signature iPod click wheeliPods with color displays use anti-aliased graphics and text, with sliding animations. All iPods (except the 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle, the 6th & 7th generation iPod Nano, and iPod Touch) have five buttons and the later generations have the buttons integrated into the click wheel – an innovation that gives an uncluttered, minimalist interface. The buttons perform basic functions such as menu, play, pause, next track, and previous track. Other operations, such as scrolling through menu items and controlling the volume, are performed by using the click wheel in a rotational manner. The 3rd-generation iPod Shuffle does not have any controls on the actual player; instead, it has a small control on the earphone cable, with volume-up and -down buttons and a single button for play and pause, next track, etc. The iPod Touch has no click-wheel; instead, it uses a touch screen along with a home button, sleep/wake button, and (on the second and third generations of the iPod Touch) volume-up and -down buttons. The user interface for the iPod Touch is identical to that of the iPhone. Differences include the lack of a phone application. Both devices use iOS.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"FairPlay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FairPlay"},{"link_name":"EMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMI"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"protected WMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Media_DRM"},{"link_name":"RealNetworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks"},{"link_name":"Helix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix_(project)"},{"link_name":"Napster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napster"},{"link_name":"MSN Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN_Music"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"eMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMusic"},{"link_name":"Amie Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amie_Street"},{"link_name":"Universal Music Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Music_Group"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Wi-Fi_Music_Store"},{"link_name":"WiFi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiFi"},{"link_name":"cellular network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network"}],"sub_title":"iTunes Store","text":"The iTunes Store (introduced April 28, 2003) is an online media store run by Apple and accessed through iTunes. [70] The store became the market leader soon after its launch[71] and Apple announced the sale of videos through the store on October 12, 2005. Full-length movies became available on September 12, 2006.[72]At the time the store was introduced, purchased audio files used the AAC format with added encryption, based on the FairPlay DRM system. Up to five authorized computers and an unlimited number of iPods could play the files. Burning the files with iTunes as an audio CD, then re-importing would create music files without the DRM. The DRM could also be removed using third-party software. However, in a deal with Apple, EMI began selling DRM-free, higher-quality songs on the iTunes Stores, in a category called \"iTunes Plus.\" While individual songs were made available at a cost of US$1.29, 30¢ more than the cost of a regular DRM song, entire albums were available for the same price, US$9.99, as DRM encoded albums. On October 17, 2007, Apple lowered the cost of individual iTunes Plus songs to US$0.99 per song, the same as DRM encoded tracks. On January 6, 2009, Apple announced that DRM has been removed from 80% of the music catalog and that it would be removed from all music by April 2009.iPods cannot play music files from competing music stores that use rival-DRM technologies like Microsoft's protected WMA or RealNetworks' Helix DRM. Example stores include Napster and MSN Music. RealNetworks claims that Apple is creating problems for itself[73] by using FairPlay to lock users into using the iTunes Store. Steve Jobs stated that Apple makes little profit from song sales, although Apple uses the store to promote iPod sales.[74] However, iPods can also play music files from online stores that do not use DRM, such as eMusic or Amie Street.Universal Music Group decided not to renew their contract with the iTunes Store on July 3, 2007. Universal will now supply iTunes in an 'at will' capacity.[75]Apple debuted the iTunes Wi-Fi Music Store on September 5, 2007, in its Media Event entitled \"The Beat Goes On...\". This service allows users to access the Music Store from either an iPhone or an iPod Touch and download songs directly to the device that can be synced to the user's iTunes Library over a WiFi connection, or, in the case of an iPhone, the cellular network.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakout_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Steve Wozniak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wozniak"},{"link_name":"easter egg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_(media)"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware"},{"link_name":"Parachute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parachute_(iPod_game)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Solitaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitaire_(game)"},{"link_name":"iTunes Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store"},{"link_name":"iTunes 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_version_history"},{"link_name":"fifth generation iPod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_(5G)"},{"link_name":"Bejeweled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bejeweled_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Mahjong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahjong_solitaire"},{"link_name":"Mini Golf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini_Golf"},{"link_name":"Pac-Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man"},{"link_name":"Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris"},{"link_name":"Texas Hold 'Em","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Hold_%27Em"},{"link_name":"Vortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex_(iPod_game)"},{"link_name":"Asphalt 4: Elite Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphalt_4:_Elite_Racing"},{"link_name":"Zuma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuma_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Namco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namco"},{"link_name":"Square Enix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_Enix"},{"link_name":"Electronic Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Arts"},{"link_name":"Sega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega"},{"link_name":"Hudson Soft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Soft"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"EGM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":".ipg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ipg"},{"link_name":".zip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.zip"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"third party games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-party_developer"},{"link_name":"software development kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_kit"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"iPhone SDK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone_SDK"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"}],"sub_title":"Games","text":"Video games are playable on various versions of iPods. The original iPod had the game Brick (originally invented by Apple's co-founder Steve Wozniak) included as an easter egg hidden feature;[76] later firmware versions added it as a menu option. Later revisions of the iPod added three more games: Parachute, Solitaire, and Music Quiz.In September 2006, the iTunes Store began to offer additional games for purchase with the launch of iTunes 7, compatible with the fifth generation iPod with iPod software 1.2 or later. Those games were: Bejeweled, Cubis 2, Mahjong, Mini Golf, Pac-Man, Tetris, Texas Hold 'Em, Vortex, Asphalt 4: Elite Racing and Zuma. Additional games have since been added. These games work on the 6th and 5th generation iPod Classic and the 5th and 4th generation iPod Nano.With third parties like Namco, Square Enix, Electronic Arts, Sega, and Hudson Soft all making games for the iPod, Apple's MP3 player has taken steps towards entering the video game handheld console market. Even video game magazines like GamePro and EGM have reviewed and rated most of their games as of late.[77]The games are in the form of .ipg files, which are actually .zip archives in disguise.[78] When unzipped, they reveal executable files along with common audio and image files, leading to the possibility of third party games. Apple has not publicly released a software development kit (SDK) for iPod-specific development.[79] Apps produced with the iPhone SDK are compatible only with the iOS on the iPod Touch and iPhone, which cannot run click wheel-based games.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mass storage devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_mass_storage_device_class"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"HFS+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HFS_Plus"},{"link_name":"boot disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_disk"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"FAT32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT32"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"file management application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_management_application"},{"link_name":"several alternative third-party applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_iPod_managers"},{"link_name":"hidden files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_files"}],"sub_title":"File storage and transfer","text":"All iPods except for the iPod Touch can function in \"disk mode\" as mass storage devices to store data files but this has to be manually activated.[80][81] If an iPod is formatted on a Mac OS computer, it uses the HFS+ file system format, which allows it to serve as a boot disk for a Mac computer.[82] If it is formatted on Windows, the FAT32 format is used. With the release of the Windows-compatible iPod, the default file system used on the iPod line switched from HFS+ to FAT32, although it can be reformatted to either file system (excluding the iPod Shuffle which is strictly FAT32). Generally, if a new iPod (excluding the iPod Shuffle) is initially plugged into a computer running Windows, it will be formatted with FAT32, and if initially plugged into a Mac running Mac OS it will be formatted with HFS+.[83]Unlike many other MP3 players, simply copying audio or video files to the drive with a typical file management application will not allow an iPod to properly access them. The user must use software that has been specifically designed to transfer media files to iPods so that the files are playable and viewable. Usually iTunes is used to transfer media to an iPod, though several alternative third-party applications are available on a number of different platforms.iTunes 7 and above can transfer purchased media of the iTunes Store from an iPod to a computer, provided that computer containing the DRM protected media is authorized to play it.Media files are stored on an iPod in a hidden folder, along with a proprietary database file. The hidden content can be accessed on the host operating system by enabling hidden files to be shown. The media files can then be recovered manually by copying the files or folders off the iPod. Many third-party applications also allow easy copying of media files off of an iPod.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"While the suffix \"Classic\" was not introduced until the sixth generation, it has been applied here retroactively to all non-suffixed iPods for clarity.","title":"Models and features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"patent infringement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_infringement"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Napster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napster"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"United States Patent and Trademark Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Creative Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Technology"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"United States District Court for the Northern District of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Northern_District_of_California"},{"link_name":"United States International Trade Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-macworldcreativelawsuit-99"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"}],"text":"In 2005, Apple faced two lawsuits claiming patent infringement by the iPod line and its associated technologies:[91] Advanced Audio Devices claimed the iPod line breached its patent on a \"music jukebox\",[92] while a Hong Kong-based IP portfolio company called Pat-rights filed a suit claiming that Apple's FairPlay technology breached a patent[93] issued to inventor Ho Keung Tse. The latter case also includes the online music stores of Sony, RealNetworks, Napster, and Musicmatch as defendants.[94]Apple's application to the United States Patent and Trademark Office for a patent on \"rotational user inputs\",[95] as used on the iPod interface, received a third \"non-final rejection\" (NFR) in August 2005. Also in August 2005, Creative Technology, one of Apple's main rivals in the MP3 player market, announced that it held a patent[96] on part of the music selection interface used by the iPod line, which Creative Technology dubbed the \"Zen Patent\", granted on August 9, 2005.[97] On May 15, 2006, Creative filed another suit against Apple with the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. Creative also asked the United States International Trade Commission to investigate whether Apple was breaching U.S. trade laws by importing iPods into the United States.[98]On August 24, 2006, Apple and Creative announced a broad settlement to end their legal disputes. Apple will pay Creative US$100 million for a paid-up license, to use Creative's awarded patent in all Apple products. As part of the agreement, Apple will recoup part of its payment, if Creative is successful in licensing the patent. Creative then announced its intention to produce iPod accessories by joining the Made for iPod program.[99]","title":"Patent disputes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iPod advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_advertising"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ipod_sales_per_quarter.svg"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IPod&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"text":"See also: iPod advertisingiPod quarterly sales. Click for table of data and sources. Note that Q1 is October through December of previous year, the holiday season.Sales of iPods peaked in 2008, following rapid growth in the period of 2005 to 2007.[100]In January 2007, Apple reported record quarterly revenue of US$7.1 billion, of which 48% was made from iPod sales.[101][failed verification] On April 9, 2007, it was announced that Apple had sold its one-hundred millionth iPod, making it the best-selling digital music player of all time. Its second-quarter revenue of US$5.2 billion, of which 32% was made from iPod sales.[102] Apple and several industry analysts suggest that iPod users are likely to purchase other Apple products such as Mac computers.[103] 42% of Apple's revenue for the First fiscal quarter of 2008 came from iPod sales (followed by 21% from notebook sales and 16% from desktop sales).[104]On October 21, 2008, Apple reported that only 14.21% of total revenue for fiscal quarter 4 of the year 2008 came from iPods.[105] At the September 9, 2009 keynote presentation at the Apple Event, Phil Schiller announced total cumulative sales of iPods exceeded 220 million.[106] The continual decline of iPod sales since 2009 has not been a surprising trend for the Apple corporation, as Apple CFO Peter Oppenheimer explained in June 2009: \"We expect our traditional MP3 players to decline over time as we cannibalize ourselves with the iPod Touch and the iPhone.\" Since 2009, the company's iPod sales have continually decreased every financial quarter and in 2013 a new model was not introduced onto the market.[107]As of September 2012[update], Apple reported that total number of iPods sold worldwide was 350 million.[108]","title":"Sales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-111"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Archos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archos"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"digital audio player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_player"},{"link_name":"MPMan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPMan"},{"link_name":"iTunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes"},{"link_name":"iTunes Music Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Walkman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkman"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-knowledge.insead.edu-115"},{"link_name":"Rio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_(digital_audio_players)"},{"link_name":"Creative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Technology"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Creative_Zen_Micro_%5E_Apple_iPod_Mini_-_Flickr_-_dan_taylor.jpg"},{"link_name":"Creative Zen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Zen"},{"link_name":"Zen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Zen"},{"link_name":"SanDisk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SanDisk"},{"link_name":"Sansa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SanDisk_Sansa"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Walkman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkman"},{"link_name":"iriver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iriver"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"Yepp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yepp"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Sony Connect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Connect"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Portable Media Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Media_Center"},{"link_name":"Zune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Zune"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"iDon't","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDon%27t"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"Sony Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Ericsson"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"SonicStage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SonicStage"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Cowon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowon"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-111"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"Sansa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SanDisk_Sansa"},{"link_name":"SanDisk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SanDisk"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-knowledge.insead.edu-115"}],"sub_title":"Market share","text":"Since October 2004, the iPod line has dominated digital music player sales in the United States, with over 90% of the market for hard drive-based players and over 70% of the market for all types of players.[109] During the year from January 2004 to January 2005, the high rate of sales caused its U.S. market share to increase from 31% to 65%, and in July 2005, this market share was measured at 74%. In January 2007 the iPod market share reached 72.7% according to Bloomberg Online. In the Japanese market iPod market share was 36% in 2005, albeit still leader there.[110] In Europe, Apple also led the market (especially the UK[111]) but local brands such as Archos managed to outsell Apple in certain categories.[112]One of the reasons for the iPod's early success, having been released three years after the very first digital audio player (namely the MPMan), was its seamless integration with the company's iTunes software, and the ecosystem built around it such as the iTunes Music Store, as well as a competitive price.[113] As a result, Apple achieved a dominance in the MP3 player market as Sony's Walkman did with personal cassette players two decades earlier.[114] The software similarity between computer and player made it easy to transfer music over and synchronize it, tasks that were considered difficult on pre-iPod MP3 players such as those from Rio and Creative.[115]Comparison of iPod Mini (right) and a competitor Creative Zen Micro (left)Some of the iPod's chief competitors during its pinnacle include Creative's Zen, SanDisk's Sansa, Sony's Walkman, iriver, and Samsung's Yepp.[116] The iPod's dominance was challenged numerous times: in 2004 Sony's first hard disk Walkman was designed to take on the iPod, accompanied by its own music store Sony Connect;[117][118] Microsoft initially attempted to compete using a software platform called Portable Media Center, and in later years designed the Zune line;[119][120] the most vocal rival was Creative,[121] whose CEO in November 2004 \"declared war\" on the iPod.[122] Samsung declared that they would take the top spot from Apple by 2007,[123] while SanDisk ran a specific anti-iPod marketing campaign called iDon't.[124][125] These competitors failed to make major dents, and Apple remained dominant in the fast-growing digital audio player market during the decade.[126] Mobile phone manufacturers Nokia and Sony Ericsson also made \"music phones\" to rival iPod.[127]A suggested factor of iPod's popularity has been cited to be Apple's popular iTunes Store catalog, playing a part in keeping Apple firmly market leader, while also helped by the mismanagement of others, such as Sony's unpopular SonicStage software.[128]One notable exception where iPod was not faring well was in South Korea, where as of 2005 Apple held a small market share of less than 2%, compared to market leaders iriver, Samsung and Cowon.[110]As of 2011, iPod held a 70% market share in global MP3 players.[129] Its closest competitor was noted to be the Sansa line from SanDisk.[114]","title":"Sales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcworld25-132"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"PC World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_World"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcworld25-132"},{"link_name":"CD copy-protection schemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Disc_and_DVD_copy_protection"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"Sony Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Ericsson"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Royal_Infirmary"},{"link_name":"Western Infirmaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Infirmary"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maag2006-137"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"Entertainment Weekly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"music industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_industry"},{"link_name":"hastened","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Album_era#2000s:_Decline_in_the_digital_age,_shift_to_pop_and_urban"},{"link_name":"album era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Album_era"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morey-141"}],"text":"iPods have won several awards ranging from engineering excellence,[130][failed verification] to most innovative audio product,[131] to fourth-best computer product of 2006.[132] iPods often receive favorable reviews; scoring on looks, clean design, and ease of use. PC World wrote that iPod line has \"altered the landscape for portable audio players\".[131] Several industries are modifying their products to work better with both the iPod line and the AAC audio format. Examples include CD copy-protection schemes,[133] and mobile phones, such as phones from Sony Ericsson and Nokia, which play AAC files rather than WMA.Besides earning a reputation as a respected entertainment device, the iPod has also been accepted as a business device. Government departments, major institutions, and international organizations have turned to the iPod line as a delivery mechanism for business communication and training, such as the Royal and Western Infirmaries in Glasgow, Scotland, where iPods are used to train new staff.[134]iPods have also gained popularity for use in education. Apple offers more information on educational uses for iPods on its website,[135] including a collection of lesson plans. There has also been academic research done in this area in nursing education[136] and more general K-16 education.[137] Duke University provided iPods to all incoming freshmen in the fall of 2004, and the iPod program continues today with modifications.[138] Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, \"best-of\" list, saying, \"Yes, children, there really was a time when we roamed the earth without thousands of our favorite jams tucked comfortably into our hip pockets. Weird.\"[139]The iPod has also been credited with accelerating shifts within the music industry. The iPod's popularization of digital music storage allows users to abandon listening to entire albums and instead be able to choose specific singles which hastened the end of the album era in popular music.[140]","title":"Industry impact"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"iPod Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Classic"},{"link_name":"MP3.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3.com"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"planned obsolescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"prolonging life-span","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Lifespan"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"soldering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldering"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"}],"sub_title":"Battery problems","text":"The advertised battery life on most models is different from the real-world achievable life. For example, the fifth-generation 30 GB iPod Classic was advertised as having up to 14 hours of music playback. However, an MP3.com report stated that this was virtually unachievable under real-life usage conditions, with a writer for the site getting, on average, less than 8 hours from an iPod.[141] In 2003, class action lawsuits were brought against Apple complaining that the battery charges lasted for shorter lengths of time than stated and that the battery degraded over time.[142] The lawsuits were settled by offering individuals with first- or second-generation iPods either US$50 store credit or a free battery replacement, and offering individuals with third-generation iPods an extended warranty that would allow them to get a replacement iPod if they experienced battery problems.[143][144]As an instance of planned obsolescence, iPod batteries are not designed to be removed or replaced by the user, although some users have been able to open the case themselves, usually following instructions from third-party vendors of iPod replacement batteries. Compounding the problem, Apple initially would not replace worn-out batteries. The official policy was that the customer should buy a refurbished replacement iPod, at a cost almost equivalent to a brand new one. All lithium-ion batteries lose capacity during their lifetime even when not in use[145] (guidelines are available for prolonging life-span) and this situation led to a market for third-party battery replacement kits.Apple announced a battery replacement program on November 14, 2003, a week before[146] a high publicity stunt and website by the Neistat Brothers.[147] The initial cost was US$99,[148] and it was lowered to US$59 in 2005. One week later, Apple offered an extended iPod warranty for US$59.[149] For the iPod Nano, soldering tools are needed because the battery is soldered onto the main board. Fifth generation iPods have their battery attached to the backplate with adhesive.[150][151]The first generation iPod Nano may overheat and pose a health and safety risk. Affected iPod Nanos were sold between September 2005 and December 2006. This is due to a flawed battery used by Apple from a single battery manufacturer.[152] Apple recommended that owners of affected iPod Nanos stop using them. Under an Apple product replacement program, affected Nanos were replaced with current generation Nanos free of charge.","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"}],"sub_title":"Reliability and durability","text":"iPods have been criticized for alleged short lifespan and fragile hard drives. A 2005 survey conducted on the MacInTouch website found that the iPod line had an average failure rate of 13.7% (although they note that comments from respondents indicate that \"the true iPod failure rate may be lower than it appears\"). It concluded that some models were more durable than others.[153] In particular, failure rates for iPods employing hard drives were usually above 20% while those with flash memory had a failure rate below 10%. In late 2005, many users complained that the surface of the first-generation iPod Nano can become scratched easily, rendering the screen unusable.[154][155] A class-action lawsuit was also filed.[156] Apple initially considered the issue a minor defect, but later began shipping these iPods with protective sleeves.[157][158]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Mail on Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mail_on_Sunday"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"Foxconn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxconn"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"Shenzhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhen"},{"link_name":"All-China Federation of Trade Unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-China_Federation_of_Trade_Unions"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ihloorg030107-163"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt20070405-164"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard2006811-165"},{"link_name":"suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsjDeaTsa20100527-166"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsjfoxsui-167"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"}],"sub_title":"Labor disputes","text":"On June 11, 2006, the British tabloid The Mail on Sunday reported that iPods are mainly manufactured by workers who earn no more than US$50 per month and work 15-hour shifts.[159] Apple investigated the case with independent auditors and found that, while some of the plant's labor practices met Apple's Code of Conduct, others did not: employees worked over 60 hours a week for 35% of the time and worked more than six consecutive days for 25% of the time.[160]Foxconn, Apple's manufacturer, initially denied the abuses,[161] but when an auditing team from Apple found that workers had been working longer hours than were allowed under Chinese law, they promised to prevent workers working more hours than the code allowed. Apple hired a workplace standards auditing company, Verité, and joined the Electronic Industry Code of Conduct Implementation Group to oversee the measures. On December 31, 2006, workers at the Foxconn factory in Longhua, Shenzhen formed a union affiliated with the All-China Federation of Trade Unions,[162] the Chinese government-approved union umbrella organization.[163][164]In 2010, a number of workers committed suicide at a Foxconn operations in China. Apple, HP, and others stated that they were investigating the situation. Foxconn guards have been videotaped beating employees. Another employee killed himself in 2009 when an Apple prototype went missing, and claimed in messages to friends, that he had been beaten and interrogated.[165][166]As of 2006, the iPod was produced by about 14,000 workers in the U.S. and 27,000 overseas. Further, the salaries attributed to this product were overwhelmingly distributed to highly skilled U.S. professionals, as opposed to lower-skilled U.S. retail employees or overseas manufacturing labor. One interpretation of this result is that U.S. innovation can create more jobs overseas than domestically.[167]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of full-sized iPod models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Classic#Timeline_of_full-size_iPod_models"},{"link_name":"Timeline of compact iPod models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod_Nano#Timeline_of_compact_iPod_models"}],"text":"See also: Timeline of full-sized iPod models and Timeline of compact iPod models","title":"Timeline of models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-65"},{"link_name":"Baseline Profile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi10P"},{"link_name":"Level 1.3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.264/MPEG-4_AVC#Levels"},{"link_name":"B-frames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B-frame"},{"link_name":"iPod classic Technical Specs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.apple.com/ipodclassic/specs.html"},{"link_name":"FFmpeg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFmpeg"},{"link_name":"[Ffmpeg-user] Successful ipod h264 encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lists.mplayerhq.hu/pipermail/ffmpeg-user/2006-June/003218.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100826061150/https://lists.mplayerhq.hu/pipermail/ffmpeg-user/2006-June/003218.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"^ The restrictions vary from generation to generation; for the earliest video iPods, video is required to be Baseline Profile (BP), up to Level 1.3, meaning most significantly no B-frames (BP), a maximum bitrate of 768 kb/s (BP Level 1.3), and a maximum framerate of 30 frame/s at 320×240 resolution. Newer iPods support BP up to level 3.0 (10,000 kb/s), for a maximum framerate of 30 frame/s at 640×480 resolution. Current specifications can be seen at iPod classic Technical Specs, and practical implementations can be seen in the libx264-ipod320.ffpreset and libx264-ipod640.ffpreset preset files for FFmpeg, as discussed in [Ffmpeg-user] Successful ipod h264 encoding Archived August 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, by Daniel Rogers, June 11, 2006.","title":"Notes"}] | [{"image_text":"Various iPod models. From left to right: iPod 5th generation in a case, iPod 4th generation, iPod Mini, iPod Nano, iPod Shuffle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Various_iPods.jpg/220px-Various_iPods.jpg"},{"image_text":"Four iPod wall chargers for North America, all made by Apple. These have FireWire (left) and USB (right three) connectors, which allow iPods to charge without a computer. The unit second-to-left appears to be a model number A1102 unit. The units have been miniaturized over time.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Apple_iPod_Chargers.jpg/220px-Apple_iPod_Chargers.jpg"},{"image_text":"The \"Made for iPod\" logo found on most classic iPod accessories","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Made_for_iPod.svg/150px-Made_for_iPod.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The signature iPod click wheel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/IPod_wheel.svg/220px-IPod_wheel.svg.png"},{"image_text":"iPod quarterly sales. Click for table of data and sources. Note that Q1 is October through December of previous year, the holiday season.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ipod_sales_per_quarter.svg/400px-Ipod_sales_per_quarter.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Comparison of iPod Mini (right) and a competitor Creative Zen Micro (left)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Creative_Zen_Micro_%5E_Apple_iPod_Mini_-_Flickr_-_dan_taylor.jpg/220px-Creative_Zen_Micro_%5E_Apple_iPod_Mini_-_Flickr_-_dan_taylor.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Comparison of portable media players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_portable_media_players"},{"title":"Comparison of iPod managers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_iPod_managers"},{"title":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"title":"Podcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podcast"},{"title":"iPad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPad"}] | [{"reference":"Mickle, Tripp (May 10, 2022). \"Farewell to the iPod\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBR_disk_timestamp | Master boot record | ["1 Overview","2 Disk partitioning","2.1 Sector layout","2.2 Partition table entries","3 System bootstrapping","4 Disk identity","5 Programming considerations","5.1 BIOS to MBR interface","5.2 MBR to VBR interface","6 Editing and replacing contents","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"] | First sector of a partitioned computer disk
This article is about an IBM PC-specific type of boot sector on partitioned media. For the first sector on non-partitioned media, see volume boot record.
A master boot record (MBR) is a type of boot sector in the first few blocks of partitioned computer mass storage devices like fixed disks or removable drives intended for use with IBM PC-compatible systems and beyond. The concept of MBRs was publicly introduced in 1983 with PC DOS 2.0.
The MBR holds the information on how the disc's sectors (aka "blocks") are divided into partitions, each partition notionally containing a file system. The MBR also contains executable code to function as a loader for the installed operating system—usually by passing control over to the loader's second stage, or in conjunction with each partition's volume boot record (VBR). This MBR code is usually referred to as a boot loader.
The organization of the partition table in the MBR limits the maximum addressable storage space of a partitioned disk to 2 TiB (232 × 512 bytes). Approaches to slightly raise this limit utilizing 32-bit arithmetic or 4096-byte sectors are not officially supported, as they fatally break compatibility with existing boot loaders, most MBR-compliant operating systems and associated system tools, and may cause serious data corruption when used outside of narrowly controlled system environments. Therefore, the MBR-based partitioning scheme is in the process of being superseded by the GUID Partition Table (GPT) scheme in new computers. A GPT can coexist with an MBR in order to provide some limited form of backward compatibility for older systems.
MBRs are not present on non-partitioned media such as floppies, superfloppies or other storage devices configured to behave as such, nor are they necessarily present on drives used in non-PC platforms.
Overview
Support for partitioned media, and thereby the master boot record (MBR), was introduced with IBM PC DOS 2.0 in March 1983 in order to support the 10 MB hard disk of the then-new IBM Personal Computer XT, still using the FAT12 file system. The original version of the MBR was written by David Litton of IBM in June 1982. The partition table supported up to four primary partitions. This did not change when FAT16 was introduced as a new file system with DOS 3.0. Support for an extended partition, a special primary partition type used as a container to hold other partitions, was added with DOS 3.2, and nested logical drives inside an extended partition came with DOS 3.30. Since MS-DOS, PC DOS, OS/2 and Windows were never enabled to boot off them, the MBR format and boot code remained almost unchanged in functionality (except some third-party implementations) throughout the eras of DOS and OS/2 up to 1996.
In 1996, support for logical block addressing (LBA) was introduced in Windows 95B and MS-DOS 7.10 (Not to be confused with IBM PC-DOS 7.1) in order to support disks larger than 8 GB. Disk timestamps were also introduced. This also reflected the idea that the MBR is meant to be operating system and file system independent. However, this design rule was partially compromised in more recent Microsoft implementations of the MBR, which enforce CHS access for FAT16B and FAT32 partition types 0x06/0x0B, whereas LBA is used for 0x0E/0x0C.
Despite sometimes poor documentation of certain intrinsic details of the MBR format (which occasionally caused compatibility problems), it has been widely adopted as a de facto industry standard, due to the broad popularity of PC-compatible computers and its semi-static nature over decades. This was even to the extent of being supported by computer operating systems for other platforms. Sometimes this was in addition to other pre-existing or cross-platform standards for bootstrapping and partitioning.
MBR partition entries and the MBR boot code used in commercial operating systems, however, are limited to 32 bits. Therefore, the maximum disk size supported on disks using 512-byte sectors (whether real or emulated) by the MBR partitioning scheme (without 32-bit arithmetic) is limited to 2 TiB. Consequently, a different partitioning scheme must be used for larger disks, as they have become widely available since 2010. The MBR partitioning scheme is therefore in the process of being superseded by the GUID Partition Table (GPT). The official approach does little more than ensuring data integrity by employing a protective MBR. Specifically, it does not provide backward compatibility with operating systems that do not support the GPT scheme as well. Meanwhile, multiple forms of hybrid MBRs have been designed and implemented by third parties in order to maintain partitions located in the first physical 2 TiB of a disk in both partitioning schemes "in parallel" and/or to allow older operating systems to boot off GPT partitions as well. The present non-standard nature of these solutions causes various compatibility problems in certain scenarios.
The MBR consists of 512 or more bytes located in the first sector of the drive.
It may contain one or more of:
A partition table describing the partitions of a storage device. In this context the boot sector may also be called a partition sector.
Bootstrap code: Instructions to identify the configured bootable partition, then load and execute its volume boot record (VBR) as a chain loader.
Optional 32-bit disk timestamp.
Optional 32-bit disk signature.
Disk partitioning
IBM PC DOS 2.0 introduced the FDISK utility to set up and maintain MBR partitions. When a storage device has been partitioned according to this scheme, its MBR contains a partition table describing the locations, sizes, and other attributes of linear regions referred to as partitions.
The partitions themselves may also contain data to describe more complex partitioning schemes, such as extended boot records (EBRs), BSD disklabels, or Logical Disk Manager metadata partitions.
The MBR is not located in a partition; it is located at a first sector of the device (physical offset 0), preceding the first partition. (The boot sector present on a non-partitioned device or within an individual partition is called a volume boot record instead.) In cases where the computer is running a DDO BIOS overlay or boot manager, the partition table may be moved to some other physical location on the device; e.g., Ontrack Disk Manager often placed a copy of the original MBR contents in the second sector, then hid itself from any subsequently booted OS or application, so the MBR copy was treated as if it were still residing in the first sector.
Sector layout
By convention, there are exactly four primary partition table entries in the MBR partition table scheme, although some operating systems and system tools extended this to five (Advanced Active Partitions (AAP) with PTS-DOS 6.60 and DR-DOS 7.07), eight (AST and NEC MS-DOS 3.x as well as Storage Dimensions SpeedStor), or even sixteen entries (with Ontrack Disk Manager).
Structure of a classical generic MBR
Address
Description
Size(bytes)
0x0000 (0)
Bootstrap code area
446
0x01BE (446)
Partition entry №1
Partition table(for primary partitions)
16
0x01CE (462)
Partition entry №2
16
0x01DE (478)
Partition entry №3
16
0x01EE (494)
Partition entry №4
16
0x01FE (510)
0x55
Boot signature
2
0x01FF (511)
0xAA
Total size: 446 + 4×16 + 2
512
Structure of a modern standard MBR
Address
Description
Size(bytes)
0x0000 (0)
Bootstrap code area (part 1)
218
0x00DA (218)
0x0000
Disk timestamp (optional; Windows 95B/98/98SE/ME (MS-DOS 7.1–8.0). Alternatively, can serve as OEM loader signature with NEWLDR)
2
0x00DC (220)
Original physical drive (0x80–0xFF)
1
0x00DD (221)
Seconds (0–59)
1
0x00DE (222)
Minutes (0–59)
1
0x00DF (223)
Hours (0–23)
1
0x00E0 (224)
Bootstrap code area (part 2, code entry at 0x0000)
216 (or 222)
0x01B8 (440)
32-bit disk signature
Disk signature (optional; UEFI, Linux, Windows NT family and other OSes)
4
0x01BC (444)
0x0000 (0x5A5A if copy-protected)
2
0x01BE (446)
Partition entry №1
Partition table(for primary partitions)
16
0x01CE (462)
Partition entry №2
16
0x01DE (478)
Partition entry №3
16
0x01EE (494)
Partition entry №4
16
0x01FE (510)
0x55
Boot signature
2
0x01FF (511)
0xAA
Total size: 218 + 6 + 216 + 6 + 4×16 + 2
512
Structure of AAP MBR
Address
Description
Size(bytes)
0x0000 (0)
Bootstrap code area
428
0x01AC (428)
0x78
AAP signature (optional)
2
0x01AD (429)
0x56
0x01AE (430)
AAP physical drive (0x80–0xFE; 0x00: not used; 0x01–0x7F, 0xFF: reserved)
AAP record (optional) (AAP partition entry #0 with special semantics)
1
0x01AF (431)
CHS (start) address of AAP partition/image file or VBR/EBR
3
0x01B2 (434)
Reserved for AAP partition type (0x00 if not used) (optional)
1
0x01B3 (435)
Reserved for CHS end address in AAP (optional; byte at offset 0x01B5 is also used for MBR checksum (PTS DE, BootWizard); 0x000000 if not used)
3
0x01B6 (438)
Start LBA of AAP image file or VBR/EBR or relative sectors of AAP partition (copied to offset +01Chex in the loaded sector over the "hidden sectors" entry of a DOS 3.31 BPB (or emulation thereof) to also support EBR booting)
4
0x01BA (442)
Reserved for sectors in AAP (optional; 0x00000000 if not used)
4
0x01BE (446)
Partition entry №1
Partition table(for primary partitions)
16
0x01CE (462)
Partition entry №2
16
0x01DE (478)
Partition entry №3
16
0x01EE (494)
Partition entry №4
16
0x01FE (510)
0x55
Boot signature
2
0x01FF (511)
0xAA
Total size: 428 + 2 + 16 + 4×16 + 2
512
Structure of NEWLDR MBR
Address
Description
Size(bytes)
0x0000 (0)
JMPS (EBhex) / NEWLDR record size (often 0x0A/0x16/0x1C for code start at 0x000C/0x0018/0x001E)
NEWLDR record (optional)
2
0x0002 (2)
"NEWLDR" signature
6
0x0008 (8)
LOADER physical drive and boot flag (0x80–0xFE, 0x00–0x7E, 0xFF, 0x7F) (if not used, this and following 3 bytes must be all 0)
1
0x0009 (9)
CHS address of LOADER boot sector or image file (f.e. IBMBIO.LDR) (0x000000 if not used)
3
0x000C (12)
Allowed DL minimum, else take from partition table (0x80: default; 0x00: always use DL; 0xFF: always use table entry)
1
0x000D (13)
Reserved (default: 0x000000)
3
0x0010 (16)
LBA of LOADER boot sector or image file (optional; 0x00000000 if not used)
4
0x0014 (20)
Patch offset of VBR boot unit (default 0x0000 if not used, else 0024hex or 01FDhex)
2
0x0016 (22)
Checksum (0x0000 if not used)
2
0x0018 (24)
OEM loader signature ("MSWIN4" for REAL/32, see also offset +0DAhex, corresponds with OEM label at offset +003hex in VBRs (optional)
6
Varies
Bootstrap code area (code entry at 0x0000)
Varies
0x01AC (428)
0x78
AAP signature (optional)
2
0x01AD (429)
0x56
0x01AE (430)
AAP partition entry №0 with special semantics
AAP record (optional)
16
0x01BE (446)
Partition entry №1
Partition table(for primary partitions)
16
0x01CE (462)
Partition entry №2
16
0x01DE (478)
Partition entry №3
16
0x01EE (494)
Partition entry №4
16
0x01FE (510)
0x55
Boot signature
2
0x01FF (511)
0xAA
Total size: 30 + 398 + 2 + 16 + 4×16 + 2
512
Structure of AST/NEC MS-DOS and SpeedStor MBR
Address
Description
Size(bytes)
0x0000 (0)
Bootstrap code area
380
0x017C (380)
0x5A
AST/NEC signature (optional; not for SpeedStor)
2
0x017D (381)
0xA5
0x017E (382)
Partition entry №8
AST/NEC expanded partition table(optional; also for SpeedStor)
16
0x018E (398)
Partition entry №7
16
0x019E (414)
Partition entry №6
16
0x01AE (430)
Partition entry №5
16
0x01BE (446)
Partition entry №4
Partition table(for primary partitions)
16
0x01CE (462)
Partition entry №3
16
0x01DE (478)
Partition entry №2
16
0x01EE (494)
Partition entry №1
16
0x01FE (510)
0x55
Boot signature
2
0x01FF (511)
0xAA
Total size: 380 + 2 + 4×16 + 4×16 + 2
512
Structure of Ontrack Disk Manager MBR
Address
Description
Size(bytes)
0x0000 (0)
Bootstrap code area
252
0x00FC (252)
0xAA
DM signature (optional)
2
0x00FD (253)
0x55
0x00FE (254)
Partition entry
DM expanded partition table(optional)
16
0x010E (270)
Partition entry
16
0x011E (286)
Partition entry
16
0x012E (302)
Partition entry
16
0x013E (318)
Partition entry
16
0x014E (334)
Partition entry
16
0x015E (350)
Partition entry
16
0x016E (366)
Partition entry
16
0x017E (382)
Partition entry
16
0x018E (398)
Partition entry
16
0x019E (414)
Partition entry
16
0x01AE (430)
Partition entry
16
0x01BE (446)
Partition entry №1
Partition table(for primary partitions)
16
0x01CE (462)
Partition entry №2
16
0x01DE (478)
Partition entry №3
16
0x01EE (494)
Partition entry №4
16
0x01FE (510)
0x55
Boot signature
2
0x01FF (511)
0xAA
Total size: 252 + 2 + 12×16 + 4×16 + 2
512
Partition table entries
Layout of one 16-byte partition entry (all multi-byte fields are little-endian)
Offset(bytes)
Fieldlength
Description
0x00
1 byte
Status or physical drive (bit 7 set is for active or bootable, old MBRs only accept 0x80, 0x00 means inactive, and 0x01–0x7F stand for invalid)
0x01
3 bytes
CHS address of first absolute sector in partition. The format is described by three bytes, see the next three rows.
0x01
1 byte
h7–0
head
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0x02
1 byte
c9–8
s5–0
sector in bits 5–0; bits 7–6 are high bits of cylinder
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0x03
1 byte
c7–0
bits 7–0 of cylinder
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0x04
1 byte
Partition type
0x05
3 bytes
CHS address of last absolute sector in partition. The format is described by 3 bytes, see the next 3 rows.
0x05
1 byte
h7–0
head
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0x06
1 byte
c9–8
s5–0
sector in bits 5–0; bits 7–6 are high bits of cylinder
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0x07
1 byte
c7–0
bits 7–0 of cylinder
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0x08
4 bytes
LBA of first absolute sector in the partition
0x0C
4 bytes
Number of sectors in partition
An artifact of hard disk technology from the era of the PC XT, the partition table subdivides a storage medium using units of cylinders, heads, and sectors (CHS addressing). These values no longer correspond to their namesakes in modern disk drives, as well as being irrelevant in other devices such as solid-state drives, which do not physically have cylinders or heads.
In the CHS scheme, sector indices have (almost) always begun with sector 1 rather than sector 0 by convention, and due to an error in all versions of MS-DOS/PC DOS up to including 7.10, the number of heads is generally limited to 255 instead of 256. When a CHS address is too large to fit into these fields, the tuple (1023, 254, 63) is typically used today, although on older systems, and with older disk tools, the cylinder value often wrapped around modulo the CHS barrier near 8 GB, causing ambiguity and risks of data corruption. (If the situation involves a "protective" MBR on a disk with a GPT, Intel's Extensible Firmware Interface specification requires that the tuple (1023, 255, 63) be used.) The 10-bit cylinder value is recorded within two bytes in order to facilitate making calls to the original/legacy INT 13h BIOS disk access routines, where 16 bits were divided into sector and cylinder parts, and not on byte boundaries.
Due to the limits of CHS addressing, a transition was made to using LBA, or logical block addressing. Both the partition length and partition start address are sector values stored in the partition table entries as 32-bit quantities. The sector size used to be considered fixed at 512 (29) bytes, and a broad range of important components including chipsets, boot sectors, operating systems, database engines, partitioning tools, backup and file system utilities and other software had this value hard-coded. Since the end of 2009, disk drives employing 4096-byte sectors (4Kn or Advanced Format) have been available, although the size of the sector for some of these drives was still reported as 512 bytes to the host system through conversion in the hard-drive firmware and referred to as 512 emulation drives (512e).
Since block addresses and sizes are stored in the partition table of an MBR using 32 bits, the maximum size, as well as the highest start address, of a partition using drives that have 512-byte sectors (actual or emulated) cannot exceed 2 TiB−512 bytes (2199023255040 bytes or 4294967295 (232−1) sectors × 512 (29) bytes per sector). Alleviating this capacity limitation was one of the prime motivations for the development of the GPT.
Since partitioning information is stored in the MBR partition table using a beginning block address and a length, it may in theory be possible to define partitions in such a way that the allocated space for a disk with 512-byte sectors gives a total size approaching 4 TiB, if all but one partition are located below the 2 TiB limit and the last one is assigned as starting at or close to block 232−1 and specify the size as up to 232−1, thereby defining a partition that requires 33 rather than 32 bits for the sector address to be accessed. However, in practice, only certain LBA-48-enabled operating systems, including Linux, FreeBSD and Windows 7 that use 64-bit sector addresses internally actually support this. Due to code space constraints and the nature of the MBR partition table to only support 32 bits, boot sectors, even if enabled to support LBA-48 rather than LBA-28, often use 32-bit calculations, unless they are specifically designed to support the full address range of LBA-48 or are intended to run on 64-bit platforms only. Any boot code or operating system using 32-bit sector addresses internally would cause addresses to wrap around accessing this partition and thereby result in serious data corruption over all partitions.
For disks that present a sector size other than 512 bytes, such as USB external drives, there are limitations as well. A sector size of 4096 results in an eight-fold increase in the size of a partition that can be defined using MBR, allowing partitions up to 16 TiB (232 × 4096 bytes) in size. Versions of Windows more recent than Windows XP support the larger sector sizes, as well as Mac OS X, and Linux has supported larger sector sizes since 2.6.31 or 2.6.32, but issues with boot loaders, partitioning tools and computer BIOS implementations present certain limitations, since they are often hard-wired to reserve only 512 bytes for sector buffers, causing memory to become overwritten for larger sector sizes. This may cause unpredictable behaviour as well, and therefore should be avoided when compatibility and standard conformity is an issue.
Where a data storage device has been partitioned with the GPT scheme, the master boot record will still contain a partition table, but its only purpose is to indicate the existence of the GPT and to prevent utility programs that understand only the MBR partition table scheme from creating any partitions in what they would otherwise see as free space on the disk, thereby accidentally erasing the GPT.
System bootstrapping
On IBM PC-compatible computers, the bootstrapping firmware (contained within the ROM BIOS) loads and executes the master boot record. The PC/XT (type 5160) used an Intel 8088 microprocessor. In order to remain compatible, all x86 BIOS architecture systems start with the microprocessor in an operating mode referred to as real mode. The BIOS reads the MBR from the storage device into physical memory, and then it directs the microprocessor to the start of the boot code. The BIOS will switch the processor to real mode, then begin to execute the MBR program, and so the beginning of the MBR is expected to contain real-mode machine code.
Since the BIOS bootstrap routine loads and runs exactly one sector from the physical disk, having the partition table in the MBR with the boot code simplifies the design of the MBR program. It contains a small program that loads the Volume Boot Record (VBR) of the targeted partition. Control is then passed to this code, which is responsible for loading the actual operating system. This process is known as chain loading.
Popular MBR code programs were created for booting PC DOS and MS-DOS, and similar boot code remains in wide use. These boot sectors expect the FDISK partition table scheme to be in use and scans the list of partitions in the MBR's embedded partition table to find the only one that is marked with the active flag. It then loads and runs the volume boot record (VBR) of the active partition.
There are alternative boot code implementations, some of which are installed by boot managers, which operate in a variety of ways. Some MBR code loads additional code for a boot manager from the first track of the disk, which it assumes to be "free" space that is not allocated to any disk partition, and executes it. A MBR program may interact with the user to determine which partition on which drive should boot, and may transfer control to the MBR of a different drive. Other MBR code contains a list of disk locations (often corresponding to the contents of files in a filesystem) of the remainder of the boot manager code to load and to execute. (The first relies on behavior that is not universal across all disk partitioning utilities, most notably those that read and write GPTs. The last requires that the embedded list of disk locations be updated when changes are made that would relocate the remainder of the code.)
On machines that do not use x86 processors, or on x86 machines with non-BIOS firmware such as Open Firmware or Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) firmware, this design is unsuitable, and the MBR is not used as part of the system bootstrap. EFI firmware is instead capable of directly understanding the GPT partitioning scheme and the FAT filesystem format, and loads and runs programs held as files in the EFI System partition. The MBR will be involved only insofar as it might contain a partition table for compatibility purposes if the GPT partition table scheme has been used.
There is some MBR replacement code that emulates EFI firmware's bootstrap, which makes non-EFI machines capable of booting from disks using the GPT partitioning scheme. It detects a GPT, places the processor in the correct operating mode, and loads the EFI compatible code from disk to complete this task.
Disk identity
Information contained in the partition table of an external hard drive as it appears in the utility program QtParted, running under Linux (with KDE)
In addition to the bootstrap code and a partition table, master boot records may contain a disk signature. This is a 32-bit value that is intended to identify uniquely the disk medium (as opposed to the disk unit—the two not necessarily being the same for removable hard disks).
The disk signature was introduced by Windows NT version 3.5, but it is now used by several operating systems, including the Linux kernel version 2.6 and later. Linux tools can use the NT disk signature to determine which disk the machine booted from.
Windows NT (and later Microsoft operating systems) uses the disk signature as an index to all the partitions on any disk ever connected to the computer under that OS; these signatures are kept in Windows Registry keys, primarily for storing the persistent mappings between disk partitions and drive letters. It may also be used in Windows NT BOOT.INI files (though most do not), to describe the location of bootable Windows NT (or later) partitions. One key (among many), where NT disk signatures appear in a Windows 2000/XP registry, is:
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\MountedDevices\
If a disk's signature stored in the MBR was A8 E1 B9 D2 (in that order) and its first partition corresponded with logical drive C: under Windows, then the REG_BINARY data under the key value \DosDevices\C: would be:
A8 E1 B9 D2 00 7E 00 00 00 00 00 00
The first four bytes are said disk signature. (In other keys, these bytes may appear in reverse order from that found in the MBR sector.) These are followed by eight more bytes, forming a 64-bit integer, in little-endian notation, which are used to locate the byte offset of this partition. In this case, 00 7E corresponds to the hexadecimal value 0x7E00 (32,256). Under the assumption that the drive in question reports a sector size of 512 bytes, then dividing this byte offset by 512 results in 63, which is the physical sector number (or LBA) containing the first sector of the partition (unlike the sector count used in the sectors value of CHS tuples, which counts from one, the absolute or LBA sector value starts counting from zero).
If this disk had another partition with the values 00 F8 93 71 02 following the disk signature (under, e.g., the key value \DosDevices\D:), it would begin at byte offset 0x00027193F800 (10,495,457,280), which is also the first byte of physical sector 20,498,940.
Starting with Windows Vista, the disk signature is also stored in the Boot Configuration Data (BCD) store, and the boot process depends on it. If the disk signature changes, cannot be found or has a conflict, Windows is unable to boot. Unless Windows is forced to use the overlapping part of the LBA address of the Advanced Active Partition entry as pseudo-disk signature, Windows' usage is conflictive with the Advanced Active Partition feature of PTS-DOS 7 and DR-DOS 7.07, in particular if their boot code is located outside the first 8 GB of the disk, so that LBA addressing must be used.
Programming considerations
The MBR originated in the PC XT. IBM PC-compatible computers are little-endian, which means the processor stores numeric values spanning two or more bytes in memory least significant byte first. The format of the MBR on media reflects this convention. Thus, the MBR signature will appear in a disk editor as the sequence 55 AA.
The bootstrap sequence in the BIOS will load the first valid MBR that it finds into the computer's physical memory at address 0x0000:0x7C00. The last instruction executed in the BIOS code will be a "jump" to that address in order to direct execution to the beginning of the MBR copy. The primary validation for most BIOSes is the signature at offset 0x01FE, although a BIOS implementer may choose to include other checks, such as verifying that the MBR contains a valid partition table without entries referring to sectors beyond the reported capacity of the disk.
To the BIOS, removable (e.g. floppy) and fixed disks are essentially the same. For either, the BIOS reads the first physical sector of the media into RAM at absolute address 0x7C00, checks the signature in the last two bytes of the loaded sector, and then, if the correct signature is found, transfers control to the first byte of the sector with a jump (JMP) instruction. The only real distinction that the BIOS makes is that (by default, or if the boot order is not configurable) it attempts to boot from the first removable disk before trying to boot from the first fixed disk. From the perspective of the BIOS, the action of the MBR loading a volume boot record into RAM is exactly the same as the action of a floppy disk volume boot record loading the object code of an operating system loader into RAM. In either case, the program that the BIOS loaded is going about the work of chain loading an operating system.
While the MBR boot sector code expects to be loaded at physical address 0x0000:0x7C00, all the memory from physical address 0x0000:0x0501 (address 0x0000:0x0500 is the last one used by a Phoenix BIOS) to 0x0000:0x7FFF, later relaxed to 0x0000:0xFFFF (and sometimes up to 0x9000:0xFFFF)—the end of the first 640 KB—is available in real mode. The INT 12h BIOS interrupt call may help in determining how much memory can be allocated safely (by default, it simply reads the base memory size in KB from segment:offset location 0x0040:0x0013, but it may be hooked by other resident pre-boot software like BIOS overlays, RPL code or viruses to reduce the reported amount of available memory in order to keep other boot stage software like boot sectors from overwriting them).
The last 66 bytes of the 512-byte MBR are reserved for the partition table and other information, so the MBR boot sector program must be small enough to fit within 446 bytes of memory or less.
The MBR code examines the partition table, selects a suitable partition and loads the program that will perform the next stage of the boot process, usually by making use of INT 13h BIOS calls. The MBR bootstrap code loads and runs (a boot loader- or operating system-dependent) volume boot record code that is located at the beginning of the "active" partition. The volume boot record will fit within a 512-byte sector, but it is safe for the MBR code to load additional sectors to accommodate boot loaders longer than one sector, provided they do not make any assumptions on what the sector size is. In fact, at least 1 KB of RAM is available at address 0x7C00 in every IBM XT- and AT-class machine, so a 1 KB sector could be used with no problem. Like the MBR, a volume boot record normally expects to be loaded at address 0x0000:0x7C00. This derives from the fact that the volume boot record design originated on unpartitioned media, where a volume boot record would be directly loaded by the BIOS boot procedure; as mentioned above, the BIOS treats MBRs and volume boot records (VBRs) exactly alike. Since this is the same location where the MBR is loaded, one of the first tasks of an MBR is to relocate itself somewhere else in memory. The relocation address is determined by the MBR, but it is most often 0x0000:0x0600 (for MS-DOS/PC DOS, OS/2 and Windows MBR code) or 0x0060:0x0000 (most DR-DOS MBRs). (Even though both of these segmented addresses resolve to the same physical memory address in real mode, for Apple Darwin to boot, the MBR must be relocated to 0x0000:0x0600 instead of 0x0060:0x0000, since the code depends on the DS:SI pointer to the partition entry provided by the MBR, but it erroneously refers to it via 0x0000:SI only.) It is important not to relocate to other addresses in memory because many VBRs will assume a certain standard memory layout when loading their boot file.
The Status field in a partition table record is used to indicate an active partition. Standard-conformant MBRs will allow only one partition marked active and use this as part of a sanity-check to determine the existence of a valid partition table. They will display an error message, if more than one partition has been marked active. Some non-standard MBRs will not treat this as an error condition and just use the first marked partition in the row.
Traditionally, values other than 0x00 (not active) and 0x80 (active) were invalid and the bootstrap program would display an error message upon encountering them. However, the Plug and Play BIOS Specification and BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) allowed other devices to become bootable as well since 1994. Consequently, with the introduction of MS-DOS 7.10 (Windows 95B) and higher, the MBR started to treat a set bit 7 as active flag and showed an error message for values 0x01..0x7F only. It continued to treat the entry as physical drive unit to be used when loading the corresponding partition's VBR later on, thereby now also accepting other boot drives than 0x80 as valid, however, MS-DOS did not make use of this extension by itself. Storing the actual physical drive number in the partition table does not normally cause backward compatibility problems, since the value will differ from 0x80 only on drives other than the first one (which have not been bootable before, anyway). However, even with systems enabled to boot off other drives, the extension may still not work universally, for example, after the BIOS assignment of physical drives has changed when drives are removed, added or swapped. Therefore, per the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS), it is best practice for a modern MBR accepting bit 7 as active flag to pass on the DL value originally provided by the BIOS instead of using the entry in the partition table.
BIOS to MBR interface
The MBR is loaded at memory location 0x0000:0x7C00 and with the following CPU registers set up when the prior bootstrap loader (normally the IPL in the BIOS) passes execution to it by jumping to 0x0000:0x7C00 in the CPU's real mode.
CS:IP = 0x0000:0x7C00 (fixed)
Some Compaq BIOSes erroneously use 0x07C0:0x0000 instead. While this resolves to the same location in real mode memory, it is non-standard and should be avoided, since MBR code assuming certain register values or not written to be relocatable may not work otherwise.
DL = boot drive unit (fixed disks / removable drives: 0x80 = first, 0x81 = second, ..., 0xFE; floppies / superfloppies: 0x00 = first, 0x01 = second, ..., 0x7E; values 0x7F and 0xFF are reserved for ROM / remote drives and must not be used on disk).
DL is supported by IBM BIOSes as well as most other BIOSes. The Toshiba T1000 BIOS is known not to support this properly, and some old Wyse 286 BIOSes use DL values greater or equal to 2 for fixed disks (thereby reflecting the logical drive numbers under DOS rather than the physical drive numbers of the BIOS). USB sticks configured as removable drives typically get an assignment of DL = 0x80, 0x81, etc. However, some rare BIOSes erroneously presented them under DL = 0x01, just as if they were configured as superfloppies.
A standard conformant BIOS assigns numbers greater or equal to 0x80 exclusively to fixed disk / removable drives, and traditionally only values 0x80 and 0x00 were passed on as physical drive units during boot. By convention, only fixed disks / removable drives are partitioned, therefore, the only DL value a MBR could see traditionally was 0x80. Many MBRs were coded to ignore the DL value and work with a hard-wired value (normally 0x80), anyway.
The Plug and Play BIOS Specification and BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) allow other devices to become bootable as well since 1994. The later recommends that MBR and VBR code should use DL rather than internally hardwired defaults. This will also ensure compatibility with various non-standard assignments (see examples above), as far as the MBR code is concerned.
Bootable CD-ROMs following the El Torito specification may contain disk images mounted by the BIOS to occur as floppy or superfloppies on this interface. DL values of 0x00 and 0x01 may also be used by Protected Area Run Time Interface Extension Services (PARTIES) and Trusted Computing Group (TCG) BIOS extensions in Trusted mode to access otherwise invisible PARTIES partitions, disk image files located via the Boot Engineering Extension Record (BEER) in the last physical sector of a hard disk's Host Protected Area (HPA). While designed to emulate floppies or superfloppies, MBR code accepting these non-standard DL values allows to use images of partitioned media at least in the boot stage of operating systems.
DH bit 5 = 0: device supported through INT 13h; else: don't care (should be zero). DH is supported by some IBM BIOSes.
Some of the other registers may typically also hold certain register values (DS, ES, SS = 0x0000; SP = 0x0400) with original IBM ROM BIOSes, but this is nothing to rely on, as other BIOSes may use other values. For this reason, MBR code by IBM, Microsoft, Digital Research, etc. never did take any advantage of it. Relying on these register values in boot sectors may also cause problems in chain-boot scenarios.
Systems with Plug-and-Play BIOS or BBS support will provide a pointer to PnP data in addition to DL:
DL = boot drive unit (see above)
ES:DI = points to "$PnP" installation check structure
This information allows the boot loader in the MBR (or VBR, if passed on) to actively interact with the BIOS or a resident PnP / BBS BIOS overlay in memory in order to configure the boot order, etc., however, this information is ignored by most standard MBRs and VBRs. Ideally, ES:DI is passed on to the VBR for later use by the loaded operating system, but PnP-enabled operating systems typically also have fallback methods to retrieve the PnP BIOS entry point later on so that most operating systems do not rely on this.
MBR to VBR interface
By convention, a standard conformant MBR passes execution to a successfully loaded VBR, loaded at memory location 0x0000:0x7C00, by jumping to 0x0000:0x7C00 in the CPU's real mode with the following registers maintained or specifically set up:
CS:IP = 0x0000:0x7C00 (constant)
DL = boot drive unit (see above)
MS-DOS 2.0–7.0 / PC DOS 2.0–6.3 MBRs do not pass on the DL value received on entry, but they rather use the boot status entry in the partition table entry of the selected primary partition as physical boot drive unit. Since this is, by convention, 0x80 in most MBR partition tables, it won't change things unless the BIOS attempted to boot off a physical device other than the first fixed disk / removable drive in the row. This is also the reason why these operating systems cannot boot off a second hard disk, etc. Some FDISK tools allow to mark partitions on secondary disks as "active" as well. In this situation, knowing that these operating systems cannot boot off other drives anyway, some of them continue to use the traditionally fixed value of 0x80 as active marker, whereas others use values corresponding with the currently assigned physical drive unit (0x81, 0x82), thereby allowing booting from other drives, at least in theory. In fact, this will work with many MBR codes, which take a set bit 7 of the boot status entry as active flag rather than insisting on 0x80, however, MS-DOS/PC DOS MBRs are hard-wired to accept the fixed value of 0x80 only. Storing the actual physical drive number in the partition table will also cause problems, when the BIOS assignment of physical drives changes, for example when drives are removed, added or swapped. Therefore, for a normal MBR accepting bit 7 as active flag and otherwise just using and passing on to the VBR the DL value originally provided by the BIOS allows for maximum flexibility. MS-DOS 7.1–8.0 MBRs have changed to treat bit 7 as active flag and any values 0x01..0x7F as invalid, but they still take the physical drive unit from the partition table rather than using the DL value provided by the BIOS. DR-DOS 7.07 extended MBRs treat bit 7 as active flag and use and pass on the BIOS DL value by default (including non-standard values 0x00..0x01 used by some BIOSes also for partitioned media), but they also provide a special NEWLDR configuration block in order to support alternative boot methods in conjunction with LOADER and REAL/32 as well as to change the detail behaviour of the MBR, so that it can also work with drive values retrieved from the partition table (important in conjunction with LOADER and AAPs, see NEWLDR offset 0x000C), translate Wyse non-standard drive units 0x02..0x7F to 0x80..0xFD, and optionally fix up the drive value (stored at offset 0x019 in the Extended BIOS Parameter Block (EBPB) or at sector offset 0x01FD) in loaded VBRs before passing execution to them (see NEWLDR offset 0x0014)—this also allows other boot loaders to use NEWLDR as a chain-loader, configure its in-memory image on the fly and "tunnel" the loading of VBRs, EBRs, or AAPs through NEWLDR.
The contents of DH and ES:DI should be preserved by the MBR for full Plug-and-Play support (see above), however, many MBRs, including those of MS-DOS 2.0–8.0 / PC DOS 2.0–6.3 and Windows NT/2000/XP, do not. (This is unsurprising, since those versions of DOS predate the Plug-and-Play BIOS standard, and previous standards and conventions indicated no requirements to preserve any register other than DL.) Some MBRs set DH to 0.
The MBR code passes additional information to the VBR in many implementations:
DS:SI = points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry (in the relocated MBR) corresponding with the activated VBR. PC-MOS 5.1 depends on this to boot if no partition in the partition table is flagged as bootable. In conjunction with LOADER, Multiuser DOS and REAL/32 boot sectors use this to locate the boot sector of the active partition (or another bootstrap loader like IBMBIO.LDR at a fixed position on disk) if the boot file (LOADER.SYS) could not be found. PTS-DOS 6.6 and S/DOS 1.0 use this in conjunction with their Advanced Active Partition (AAP) feature. In addition to support for LOADER and AAPs, DR-DOS 7.07 can use this to determine the necessary INT 13h access method when using its dual CHS/LBA VBR code and it will update the boot drive / status flag field in the partition entry according to the effectively used DL value. Darwin bootloaders (Apple's boot1h, boot1u, and David Elliott's boot1fat32) depend on this pointer as well, but additionally they don't use DS, but assume it to be set to 0x0000 instead. This will cause problems if this assumption is incorrect. The MBR code of OS/2, MS-DOS 2.0 to 8.0, PC DOS 2.0 to 7.10 and Windows NT/2000/XP provides this same interface as well, although these systems do not use it. The Windows Vista/7 MBRs no longer provide this DS:SI pointer. While some extensions only depend on the 16-byte partition table entry itself, other extensions may require the whole 4 (or 5 entry) partition table to be present as well.
DS:BP = optionally points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry (in the relocated MBR) corresponding with the activated VBR. This is identical to the pointer provided by DS:SI (see above) and is provided by MS-DOS 2.0–8.0, PC DOS 2.0–7.10, Windows NT/2000/XP/Vista/7 MBRs. It is, however, not supported by most third-party MBRs.
Under DR-DOS 7.07 an extended interface may be optionally provided by the extended MBR and in conjunction with LOADER:
AX = magic signature indicating the presence of this NEWLDR extension (0x0EDC)
DL = boot drive unit (see above)
DS:SI = points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry used (see above)
ES:BX = start of boot sector or NEWLDR sector image (typically 0x7C00)
CX = reserved
In conjunction with GPT, an Enhanced Disk Drive Specification (EDD) 4 Hybrid MBR proposal recommends another extension to the interface:
EAX = 0x54504721 ("!GPT")
DL = boot drive unit (see above)
DS:SI = points to a Hybrid MBR handover structure, consisting of a 16-byte dummy MBR partition table entry (with all bits set except for the boot flag at offset 0x00 and the partition type at offset 0x04) followed by additional data. This is partially compatible with the older DS:SI extension discussed above, if only the 16-byte partition entry, not the whole partition table is required by these older extensions.
Since older operating systems (including their VBRs) do not support this extension nor are they able to address sectors beyond the 2 TiB barrier, a GPT-enabled hybrid boot loader should still emulate the 16-byte dummy MBR partition table entry if the boot partition is located within the first 2 TiB.
ES:DI = points to "$PnP" installation check structure (see above)
Editing and replacing contents
Though it is possible to manipulate the bytes in the MBR sector directly using various disk editors, there are tools to write fixed sets of functioning code to the MBR. Since MS-DOS 5.0, the program FDISK has included the switch /MBR, which will rewrite the MBR code. Under Windows 2000 and Windows XP, the Recovery Console can be used to write new MBR code to a storage device using its fixmbr command. Under Windows Vista and Windows 7, the Recovery Environment can be used to write new MBR code using the BOOTREC /FIXMBR command.
Some third-party utilities may also be used for directly editing the contents of partition tables (without requiring any knowledge of hexadecimal or disk/sector editors), such as MBRWizard.
dd is a POSIX command commonly used to read or write any location on a storage device, MBR included. In Linux, ms-sys may be used to install a Windows MBR. The GRUB and LILO projects have tools for writing code to the MBR sector, namely grub-install and lilo -mbr. The GRUB Legacy interactive console can write to the MBR, using the setup and embed commands, but GRUB2 currently requires grub-install to be run from within an operating system.
Various programs are able to create a "backup" of both the primary partition table and the logical partitions in the extended partition.
Linux sfdisk (on a SystemRescueCD) is able to save a backup of the primary and extended partition table. It creates a file that can be read in a text editor, or this file can be used by sfdisk to restore the primary/extended partition table. An example command to back up the partition table is sfdisk -d /dev/hda > hda.out and to restore is sfdisk /dev/hda < hda.out. It is possible to copy the partition table from one disk to another this way, useful for setting up mirroring, but sfdisk executes the command without prompting/warnings using sfdisk -d /dev/sda | sfdisk /dev/sdb.
See also
Extended boot record (EBR)
Volume boot record (VBR)
GUID Partition Table (GPT)
BIOS Boot partition
EFI System partition
Boot engineering extension record (BEER)
Host protected area (HPA)
Device configuration overlay (DCO)
Apple partition map (APM)
Amiga rigid disk block (RDB)
Volume Table of Contents (VTOC)
BSD disklabel
Boot loader
Disk cloning
Recovery disc
GNU Parted
Partition alignment
Notes
^ a b c d e f g The signature at offset 0x01FE in boot sectors is 55hex AAhex, that is 0x55 at offset 0x01FE and AAhex at offset 0x01FF. Since little-endian representation must be assumed in the context of IBM PC compatible machines, this can be written as 16-bit word AA55hex in programs for x86 processors (note the swapped order), whereas it would have to be written as 55AAhex in programs for other CPU architectures using a big-endian representation. Since this has been mixed up numerous times in books and even in original Microsoft reference documents, this article uses the offset-based byte-wise on-disk representation to avoid any possible misinterpretation.
^ In order to ensure the integrity of the MBR boot loader code, it is important that the bytes at 0x00DA to 0x00DF are never changed, unless either all six bytes represent a value of 0 or the whole MBR bootstrap loader code (except for the (extended) partition table) is replaced at the same time as well. This includes resetting these values to 00 00 00 00 00 00hex unless the code stored in the MBR is known. Windows adheres to this rule.
^ Originally, status values other than 0x00 and 0x80 were invalid, but modern MBRs treat the bit 7 as active flag and use this entry to store the physical boot unit.
^ a b The starting sector fields are limited to 1023+1 cylinders, 255+1 heads, and 63 sectors; ending sector fields have the same limitations.
^ a b c d e The range for sector is 1 through 63; the range for cylinder is 0 through 1023; the range for head is 0 through 255 inclusive.
^ This entry is used by operating systems in certain circumstances; in such cases the CHS addresses are ignored.
^ Zero is reserved and must not be used in normal partition entries. This entry is used by operating systems in certain circumstances; in such cases the CHS addresses are ignored.
^ "Quote: versions of MS-DOS (including MS-DOS 7 ) have a bug which prevents booting on hard disks with 256 heads (FFh), so many modern BIOSes provide mappings with at most 255 (FEh) heads." RBIL
^ The address 0000hex:7C00hex is the first byte of the 32nd KB of RAM. The loading of the boot program at this address historically was the reason why, while the minimum RAM size of an original IBM PC (type 5150) was 16 KB, 32 KB were required for the disk option in the IBM XT.
^ If there is an EBDA, the available memory ends below it.
^ Very old machines may have less than 640 KB (A0000hex or 655,360 bytes) of memory. In theory, only 32 KB (up to 0000hex:7FFFhex) or 64 KB (up to 0000hex:FFFFhex) are guaranteed to exist; this would be the case on an IBM XT-class machine equipped with only the required minimum amount of memory for a disk system.
^ This applies when the BIOS handles a VBR, which is when it is in the first physical sector of unpartitioned media. Otherwise, the BIOS has nothing to do with the VBR. The design of VBRs is such as it is because VBRs originated solely on unpartitioned floppy disk media—the type 5150 IBM PC originally had no hard disk option—and the partitioning system using an MBR was later developed as an adaptation to put more than one volume, each beginning with its own VBR as-already-defined, onto a single fixed disk. By this design, essentially the MBR emulates the BIOS boot routine, doing the same things the BIOS would do to process this VBR and set up the initial operating environment for it just as if the BIOS had found that VBR on an unpartitioned medium.
^ IP is set as a result of the jump. CS may be set to 0 either by executing a far jump or by loading the register value explicitly before executing a near jump. (It is impossible for jumped-to x86 code to detect whether a near or far jump was used to reach it .)
^ This is not part of the above mentioned proposal, but a natural consequence of pre-existing conditions.
^ For example, PowerQuest's Partition Table Editor (PTEDIT32.EXE), which runs under Windows operating systems, is still available here: Symantec's FTP site.
References
^ a b c d "Windows support for hard disks that are larger than 2 TB". 1. Microsoft. 2013-06-26. 2581408. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
^ a b c Sedory, Daniel B. (2004). "The Mystery Bytes (or the Drive/Timestamp Bytes) of the MS-Windows 95B, 98, 98SE and Me Master Boot Record (MBR)". Master Boot Records. thestarman.pcministry.com. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
^ Lucas, Michael (2003). Absolute OpenBSD: Unix for the practical paranoid. p. 73. ISBN 9781886411999. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Every operating system includes tools to manage MBR partitions. Unfortunately, every operating system handles MBR partitions in a slightly different manner.
^ Norton, Peter; Clark, Scott (2002). Peter Norton's New Inside the PC. Sams Publishing. pp. 360–361. ISBN 0-672-32289-7.
^ Graves, Michael W. (2004). A+ Guide To PC Hardware Maintenance and Repair. Thomson Delmar. p. 276. ISBN 1-4018-5230-0.
^ Andrews, Jean (2003). Upgrade and Repair with Jean Andrews. Thomson Course Technology. p. 646. ISBN 1-59200-112-2.
^ Boswell, William (2003). Inside Windows Server 2003. Addison-Wesley Professional. p. 13. ISBN 0-7357-1158-5.
^ Smith, Roderick W. (2000). The Multi-Boot Configuration Handbook. Que Publishing. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0-7897-2283-6.
^ Brouwer, Andries Evert (2004-04-22) . "Properties of partition tables". Partition types. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. Matthias Paul writes: " PTS-DOS a special fifth partition entry in front of the other four entries in the MBR and corresponding AAP-aware MBR bootstrap code. "
^ Brouwer, Andries Evert (2004-04-22) . "Properties of partition tables". Partition types. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. Some OEM systems, such as AST DOS (type 14hex) and NEC DOS (type 24hex) had 8 instead of 4 partition entries in their MBR sectors. (Matthias R. Paul). (NB. NEC MS-DOS 3.30 and AST MS-DOS partition tables with eight entries are preceded with a signature A55Ahex at offset 0x017C.)
^ Sedory, Daniel B. (2007-05-18) . "Notes on the Differences in one OEM version of the DOS 3.30 MBR". Master Boot Records. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. When we added partitions to this NEC table, the first one was placed at offsets 0x01EE through 0x01FD and the next entry was added just above it. So, the entries are inserted and listed backwards from that of a normal Table. Thus, looking at such a Table with a disk editor or partition listing utility, it would show the first entry in a NEC eight-entry table as being the last one (fourth entry) in a normal Partition Table. (NB. Shows an 8-entry partition table and where its boot code differs from MS-DOS 3.30.)
^ "Partition Table". osdev.org. 2017-03-18 . Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.
^ a b c System BIOS for IBM PC/XT/AT Computers and Compatibles. Phoenix technical reference. Addison-Wesley. 1989. ISBN 0-201-51806-6.
^ Brouwer, Andries Evert (2013) . "List of partition identifiers for PCs". Partition types. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.
^ a b Wood, Sybil (2002). Microsoft Windows 2000 Server Operations Guide. Microsoft Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-73561796-4.
^ "An Introduction to Hard Disk Geometry". Tech Juice. 2012-12-06 . Archived from the original on 2013-02-04.
^ Kozierok, Charles M. (2001-04-17). "BIOS and the Hard Disk". The PC Guide. Archived from the original on 2017-06-17. Retrieved 2013-04-19.
^ Smith, Robert (2011-06-26). "Working Around MBR's Limitations". GPT fdisk Tutorial. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ "More than 2 TiB on a MBR disk". superuser.com. 2013-03-07. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-10-22.
^ "Transition to Advanced Format 4K Sector Hard Drives". Tech Insight. Seagate Technology. 2012. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-19.
^ Calvert, Kelvin (2011-03-16). "WD AV‐GP Large Capacity Hard Drives" (PDF). Western Digital. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ Smith, Roderick W. (2010-04-27). "Linux on 4KB-sector disks: Practical advice". DeveloperWorks. IBM. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-19.
^ a b "MBR (x86)". OSDev Wiki. OSDev.org. 2012-03-05. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ Sedory, Daniel B. (2003-07-30). "IBM DOS 2.00 Master Boot Record". The Starman's Realm. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2011-07-22.
^ Singh, Amit (2009-12-25) . "Booting Mac OS X". Mac OS X Internals: The Book. Retrieved 2011-07-22.
^ de Boyne Pollard, Jonathan (2011-07-10). "The EFI boot process". Frequently Given Answers. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2011-07-22.
^ Domsch, Matt (2005-03-22) . "Re: RFC 2.6.0 EDD enhancements". Linux Kernel Mailing List. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.
^ "Windows may use Signature() syntax in the BOOT.INI file". KnowledgeBase. Microsoft.
^ McTavish (February 2014). "Vista's MBR Disk Signature". Multibooters: Dual and Multibooting with Vista. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.
^ Russinovich, Mark (2011-11-08). "Fixing Disk Signature Collisions". Mark Russinovich's Blog. Microsoft. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-19.
^ a b c Sakamoto, Masahiko (2010-05-13). "Why BIOS loads MBR into 0x7C00 in x86?". Glamenv-Septzen.net. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2011-05-04.
^ a b c d e f Compaq Computer Corporation; Phoenix Technologies Ltd.; Intel Corporation (1996-01-11). "BIOS Boot Specification 1.01" (PDF). 1.01. ACPICA. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ a b Elliott, David F. (2009-10-12). "Why does the "standard" MBR set SI?". tgwbd.org. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ a b c Compaq Computer Corporation; Phoenix Technologies Ltd.; Intel Corporation (1994-05-05). "Plug and Play BIOS Specification 1.0A" (PDF). 1.0A. Intel. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ Paul, Matthias R. (1997-10-02) . "Caldera OpenDOS 7.01/7.02 Update Alpha 3 IBMBIO.COM - README.TXT and BOOT.TXT - A short description of how OpenDOS is booted". Archived from the original on 2003-10-04. Retrieved 2009-03-29.
^ Paul, Matthias R. (2017-08-14) . "The continuing saga of Windows 3.1 in enhanced mode on OmniBook 300". MoHPC - the Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2018-05-01. Retrieved 2018-05-01. SYS /O Override IPL reported boot drive unit (n=0..126, 128..254). Preparing target disk... Choosing FAT12 CHS Boot Sector (requires IPL to report boot unit). Treating target as diskette or superfloppy medium (boot drive unit 0). Writing new Boot Sector... (NB. SYS writes volume boot records rather than master boot records, but their incoming register interface is similar (with extensions) since they could both be loaded initially by the underlying system.)
^ Elliott, Robert (2010-01-04). "EDD-4 Hybrid MBR boot code annex" (PDF). Hewlett Packard, T13 Technical Committee. e09127r3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ "FDISK /MBR rewrites the Master Boot Record". Support. 1. Microsoft. 2011-09-23. 69013. Archived from the original on 2017-02-08. Retrieved 2013-04-19.
^ "sfdisk(8) – Linux man page". die.net. 2013 . Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
^ Brown, Ralf D. (2000-07-16). "Ralf Browns Interrupt List (v61 html)". Delorie Software. Retrieved 2016-11-03.
^ Brown, Ralf D. (2000-07-16). "B-1302: INT 13 - DISK - READ SECTOR(S) INTO MEMORY". Ralf Brown's Interrupt List (RBIL) (61 ed.). Retrieved 2016-11-03. (NB. See file INTERRUP.B inside archive "INTER61A.ZIP.)
Further reading
Gilbert, Howard (1996-01-01) . "Partitions and Volumes". PC Lube & Tune. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
Knights, Ray (2004-12-22) . "Ray's Place". MBR and Windows Boot Sectors (includes code disassembly and explanations of boot process). Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.
Landis, Hale (2002-05-06). "Master Boot Record". How It Works. Archived from the original on 2014-07-01.
Sedory, Daniel B. (2015-06-25) . "MBRs (Master Boot Records)". Boot Records Revealed. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.
External links
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EDL mode | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"volume boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"link_name":"boot sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_sector"},{"link_name":"partitioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_partitioning"},{"link_name":"mass storage devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_storage_device"},{"link_name":"fixed disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_disk"},{"link_name":"removable drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Removable_drive"},{"link_name":"IBM PC-compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC-compatible"},{"link_name":"PC DOS 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_DOS_2.0"},{"link_name":"TiB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tebibyte"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2013_2581408-1"},{"link_name":"GUID Partition Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"},{"link_name":"floppies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy"},{"link_name":"superfloppies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfloppy"}],"text":"This article is about an IBM PC-specific type of boot sector on partitioned media. For the first sector on non-partitioned media, see volume boot record.A master boot record (MBR) is a type of boot sector in the first few blocks of partitioned computer mass storage devices like fixed disks or removable drives intended for use with IBM PC-compatible systems and beyond. The concept of MBRs was publicly introduced in 1983 with PC DOS 2.0.The MBR holds the information on how the disc's sectors (aka \"blocks\") are divided into partitions, each partition notionally containing a file system. The MBR also contains executable code to function as a loader for the installed operating system—usually by passing control over to the loader's second stage, or in conjunction with each partition's volume boot record (VBR). This MBR code is usually referred to as a boot loader.The organization of the partition table in the MBR limits the maximum addressable storage space of a partitioned disk to 2 TiB (232 × 512 bytes).[1] Approaches to slightly raise this limit utilizing 32-bit arithmetic or 4096-byte sectors are not officially supported, as they fatally break compatibility with existing boot loaders, most MBR-compliant operating systems and associated system tools, and may cause serious data corruption when used outside of narrowly controlled system environments. Therefore, the MBR-based partitioning scheme is in the process of being superseded by the GUID Partition Table (GPT) scheme in new computers. A GPT can coexist with an MBR in order to provide some limited form of backward compatibility for older systems.MBRs are not present on non-partitioned media such as floppies, superfloppies or other storage devices configured to behave as such, nor are they necessarily present on drives used in non-PC platforms.","title":"Master boot record"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PC DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_DOS"},{"link_name":"hard disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk"},{"link_name":"IBM Personal Computer XT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT"},{"link_name":"FAT12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT12"},{"link_name":"FAT16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT16"},{"link_name":"extended partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_partition"},{"link_name":"logical block addressing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sedory_2004_Timestamp-2"},{"link_name":"CHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder-head-sector"},{"link_name":"FAT16B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT16B"},{"link_name":"FAT32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT32"},{"link_name":"0x06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type#PID_06h"},{"link_name":"0x0B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type#PID_0Bh"},{"link_name":"0x0E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type#PID_0Eh"},{"link_name":"0x0C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type#PID_0Ch"},{"link_name":"cross-platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-platform"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lucas_2003_OpenBSD-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2013_2581408-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2013_2581408-1"},{"link_name":"GUID Partition Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_sector"},{"link_name":"partition table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_table"},{"link_name":"Bootstrap code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(computing)"},{"link_name":"volume boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"link_name":"chain loader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_loader"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sedory_2004_Timestamp-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Norton_2002_Inside-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graves_2004_Guide-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Andrews_2003_Upgrade-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boswell_2003_Inside-7"}],"text":"Support for partitioned media, and thereby the master boot record (MBR), was introduced with IBM PC DOS 2.0 in March 1983 in order to support the 10 MB hard disk of the then-new IBM Personal Computer XT, still using the FAT12 file system. The original version of the MBR was written by David Litton of IBM in June 1982. The partition table supported up to four primary partitions. This did not change when FAT16 was introduced as a new file system with DOS 3.0. Support for an extended partition, a special primary partition type used as a container to hold other partitions, was added with DOS 3.2, and nested logical drives inside an extended partition came with DOS 3.30. Since MS-DOS, PC DOS, OS/2 and Windows were never enabled to boot off them, the MBR format and boot code remained almost unchanged in functionality (except some third-party implementations) throughout the eras of DOS and OS/2 up to 1996.In 1996, support for logical block addressing (LBA) was introduced in Windows 95B and MS-DOS 7.10 (Not to be confused with IBM PC-DOS 7.1) in order to support disks larger than 8 GB. Disk timestamps were also introduced.[2] This also reflected the idea that the MBR is meant to be operating system and file system independent. However, this design rule was partially compromised in more recent Microsoft implementations of the MBR, which enforce CHS access for FAT16B and FAT32 partition types 0x06/0x0B, whereas LBA is used for 0x0E/0x0C.Despite sometimes poor documentation of certain intrinsic details of the MBR format (which occasionally caused compatibility problems), it has been widely adopted as a de facto industry standard, due to the broad popularity of PC-compatible computers and its semi-static nature over decades. This was even to the extent of being supported by computer operating systems for other platforms. Sometimes this was in addition to other pre-existing or cross-platform standards for bootstrapping and partitioning.[3]MBR partition entries and the MBR boot code used in commercial operating systems, however, are limited to 32 bits.[1] Therefore, the maximum disk size supported on disks using 512-byte sectors (whether real or emulated) by the MBR partitioning scheme (without 32-bit arithmetic) is limited to 2 TiB.[1] Consequently, a different partitioning scheme must be used for larger disks, as they have become widely available since 2010. The MBR partitioning scheme is therefore in the process of being superseded by the GUID Partition Table (GPT). The official approach does little more than ensuring data integrity by employing a protective MBR. Specifically, it does not provide backward compatibility with operating systems that do not support the GPT scheme as well. Meanwhile, multiple forms of hybrid MBRs have been designed and implemented by third parties in order to maintain partitions located in the first physical 2 TiB of a disk in both partitioning schemes \"in parallel\" and/or to allow older operating systems to boot off GPT partitions as well. The present non-standard nature of these solutions causes various compatibility problems in certain scenarios.The MBR consists of 512 or more bytes located in the first sector of the drive.It may contain one or more of:A partition table describing the partitions of a storage device. In this context the boot sector may also be called a partition sector.\nBootstrap code: Instructions to identify the configured bootable partition, then load and execute its volume boot record (VBR) as a chain loader.\nOptional 32-bit disk timestamp.[2]\nOptional 32-bit disk signature.[4][5][6][7]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"PC DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_DOS"},{"link_name":"FDISK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDISK"},{"link_name":"extended boot records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_boot_record"},{"link_name":"BSD disklabels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_disklabel"},{"link_name":"Logical Disk Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_Disk_Manager"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith_2000_Multi-Boot-8"},{"link_name":"volume boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"link_name":"DDO BIOS overlay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Drive_Overlay"},{"link_name":"boot manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_manager"},{"link_name":"Ontrack Disk Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontrack_Disk_Manager"}],"text":"IBM PC DOS 2.0 introduced the FDISK utility to set up and maintain MBR partitions. When a storage device has been partitioned according to this scheme, its MBR contains a partition table describing the locations, sizes, and other attributes of linear regions referred to as partitions.The partitions themselves may also contain data to describe more complex partitioning schemes, such as extended boot records (EBRs), BSD disklabels, or Logical Disk Manager metadata partitions.[8]The MBR is not located in a partition; it is located at a first sector of the device (physical offset 0), preceding the first partition. (The boot sector present on a non-partitioned device or within an individual partition is called a volume boot record instead.) In cases where the computer is running a DDO BIOS overlay or boot manager, the partition table may be moved to some other physical location on the device; e.g., Ontrack Disk Manager often placed a copy of the original MBR contents in the second sector, then hid itself from any subsequently booted OS or application, so the MBR copy was treated as if it were still residing in the first sector.","title":"Disk partitioning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PTS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTS-DOS"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brouwer_2003_Types-2A-9"},{"link_name":"DR-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS"},{"link_name":"AST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AST_Research"},{"link_name":"NEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brouwer_2003_Types-2B-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sedory_2007_DOS33MBR-11"},{"link_name":"Storage Dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Storage_Dimensions&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SpeedStor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SpeedStor&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ontrack Disk Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontrack_Disk_Manager"}],"sub_title":"Sector layout","text":"By convention, there are exactly four primary partition table entries in the MBR partition table scheme, although some operating systems and system tools extended this to five (Advanced Active Partitions (AAP) with PTS-DOS 6.60[9] and DR-DOS 7.07), eight (AST and NEC MS-DOS 3.x[10][11] as well as Storage Dimensions SpeedStor), or even sixteen entries (with Ontrack Disk Manager).","title":"Disk partitioning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PC XT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_XT"},{"link_name":"cylinders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(disk_drive)"},{"link_name":"heads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_read-and-write_head"},{"link_name":"sectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_sector"},{"link_name":"CHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder-head-sector"},{"link_name":"solid-state drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_drive"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_RBIL_Head_Limit-23"},{"link_name":"tuple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuple"},{"link_name":"Extensible Firmware Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Firmware_Interface"},{"link_name":"INT 13h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INT_13h"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phoenix_1989_System-BIOS-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tech-Juice_2011_Geometry-24"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PC-Guide_BIOS-25"},{"link_name":"logical block addressing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing"},{"link_name":"chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipsets"},{"link_name":"boot sectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_sector"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"database engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_engine"},{"link_name":"partitioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_partitioning"},{"link_name":"backup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup"},{"link_name":"file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"4Kn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4Kn"},{"link_name":"Advanced Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Format"},{"link_name":"512e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/512e"},{"link_name":"TiB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tebibyte"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2013_2581408-1"},{"link_name":"LBA-48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing#LBA48"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith_2011_gdisk-26"},{"link_name":"LBA-28","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"external drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_drive"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Superuser_2013-27"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seagate_4K-28"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Western-Digital_1-29"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_4K-30"}],"sub_title":"Partition table entries","text":"An artifact of hard disk technology from the era of the PC XT, the partition table subdivides a storage medium using units of cylinders, heads, and sectors (CHS addressing). These values no longer correspond to their namesakes in modern disk drives, as well as being irrelevant in other devices such as solid-state drives, which do not physically have cylinders or heads.In the CHS scheme, sector indices have (almost) always begun with sector 1 rather than sector 0 by convention, and due to an error in all versions of MS-DOS/PC DOS up to including 7.10, the number of heads is generally limited to 255[h] instead of 256. When a CHS address is too large to fit into these fields, the tuple (1023, 254, 63) is typically used today, although on older systems, and with older disk tools, the cylinder value often wrapped around modulo the CHS barrier near 8 GB, causing ambiguity and risks of data corruption. (If the situation involves a \"protective\" MBR on a disk with a GPT, Intel's Extensible Firmware Interface specification requires that the tuple (1023, 255, 63) be used.) The 10-bit cylinder value is recorded within two bytes in order to facilitate making calls to the original/legacy INT 13h BIOS disk access routines, where 16 bits were divided into sector and cylinder parts, and not on byte boundaries.[13]Due to the limits of CHS addressing,[16][17] a transition was made to using LBA, or logical block addressing. Both the partition length and partition start address are sector values stored in the partition table entries as 32-bit quantities. The sector size used to be considered fixed at 512 (29) bytes, and a broad range of important components including chipsets, boot sectors, operating systems, database engines, partitioning tools, backup and file system utilities and other software had this value hard-coded. Since the end of 2009, disk drives employing 4096-byte sectors (4Kn or Advanced Format) have been available, although the size of the sector for some of these drives was still reported as 512 bytes to the host system through conversion in the hard-drive firmware and referred to as 512 emulation drives (512e).Since block addresses and sizes are stored in the partition table of an MBR using 32 bits, the maximum size, as well as the highest start address, of a partition using drives that have 512-byte sectors (actual or emulated) cannot exceed 2 TiB−512 bytes (2199023255040 bytes or 4294967295 (232−1) sectors × 512 (29) bytes per sector).[1] Alleviating this capacity limitation was one of the prime motivations for the development of the GPT.Since partitioning information is stored in the MBR partition table using a beginning block address and a length, it may in theory be possible to define partitions in such a way that the allocated space for a disk with 512-byte sectors gives a total size approaching 4 TiB, if all but one partition are located below the 2 TiB limit and the last one is assigned as starting at or close to block 232−1 and specify the size as up to 232−1, thereby defining a partition that requires 33 rather than 32 bits for the sector address to be accessed. However, in practice, only certain LBA-48-enabled operating systems, including Linux, FreeBSD and Windows 7[18] that use 64-bit sector addresses internally actually support this. Due to code space constraints and the nature of the MBR partition table to only support 32 bits, boot sectors, even if enabled to support LBA-48 rather than LBA-28, often use 32-bit calculations, unless they are specifically designed to support the full address range of LBA-48 or are intended to run on 64-bit platforms only. Any boot code or operating system using 32-bit sector addresses internally would cause addresses to wrap around accessing this partition and thereby result in serious data corruption over all partitions.For disks that present a sector size other than 512 bytes, such as USB external drives, there are limitations as well. A sector size of 4096 results in an eight-fold increase in the size of a partition that can be defined using MBR, allowing partitions up to 16 TiB (232 × 4096 bytes) in size.[19] Versions of Windows more recent than Windows XP support the larger sector sizes, as well as Mac OS X, and Linux has supported larger sector sizes since 2.6.31[20] or 2.6.32,[21] but issues with boot loaders, partitioning tools and computer BIOS implementations present certain limitations,[22] since they are often hard-wired to reserve only 512 bytes for sector buffers, causing memory to become overwritten for larger sector sizes. This may cause unpredictable behaviour as well, and therefore should be avoided when compatibility and standard conformity is an issue.Where a data storage device has been partitioned with the GPT scheme, the master boot record will still contain a partition table, but its only purpose is to indicate the existence of the GPT and to prevent utility programs that understand only the MBR partition table scheme from creating any partitions in what they would otherwise see as free space on the disk, thereby accidentally erasing the GPT.","title":"Disk partitioning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM PC-compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC-compatible"},{"link_name":"bootstrapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping"},{"link_name":"firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSDev_2011_MBR-31"},{"link_name":"PC/XT (type 5160)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_XT"},{"link_name":"Intel 8088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_processor"},{"link_name":"operating mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86#Operating_modes"},{"link_name":"real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"physical memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_memory"},{"link_name":"machine code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSDev_2011_MBR-31"},{"link_name":"Volume Boot Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_Boot_Record"},{"link_name":"chain loading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_loading"},{"link_name":"PC DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_DOS"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sedory_2003_MBR200-32"},{"link_name":"volume boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"link_name":"boot managers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_manager"},{"link_name":"files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file"},{"link_name":"filesystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesystem"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"Open Firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Firmware"},{"link_name":"Extensible Firmware Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Firmware_Interface"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singh_2009_OSX-33"},{"link_name":"FAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Allocation_Table"},{"link_name":"EFI System partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFI_System_partition"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boyne_2011_EFI-Boot-34"}],"text":"On IBM PC-compatible computers, the bootstrapping firmware (contained within the ROM BIOS) loads and executes the master boot record.[23] The PC/XT (type 5160) used an Intel 8088 microprocessor. In order to remain compatible, all x86 BIOS architecture systems start with the microprocessor in an operating mode referred to as real mode. The BIOS reads the MBR from the storage device into physical memory, and then it directs the microprocessor to the start of the boot code. The BIOS will switch the processor to real mode, then begin to execute the MBR program, and so the beginning of the MBR is expected to contain real-mode machine code.[23]Since the BIOS bootstrap routine loads and runs exactly one sector from the physical disk, having the partition table in the MBR with the boot code simplifies the design of the MBR program. It contains a small program that loads the Volume Boot Record (VBR) of the targeted partition. Control is then passed to this code, which is responsible for loading the actual operating system. This process is known as chain loading.Popular MBR code programs were created for booting PC DOS and MS-DOS, and similar boot code remains in wide use. These boot sectors expect the FDISK partition table scheme to be in use and scans the list of partitions in the MBR's embedded partition table to find the only one that is marked with the active flag.[24] It then loads and runs the volume boot record (VBR) of the active partition.There are alternative boot code implementations, some of which are installed by boot managers, which operate in a variety of ways. Some MBR code loads additional code for a boot manager from the first track of the disk, which it assumes to be \"free\" space that is not allocated to any disk partition, and executes it. A MBR program may interact with the user to determine which partition on which drive should boot, and may transfer control to the MBR of a different drive. Other MBR code contains a list of disk locations (often corresponding to the contents of files in a filesystem) of the remainder of the boot manager code to load and to execute. (The first relies on behavior that is not universal across all disk partitioning utilities, most notably those that read and write GPTs. The last requires that the embedded list of disk locations be updated when changes are made that would relocate the remainder of the code.)On machines that do not use x86 processors, or on x86 machines with non-BIOS firmware such as Open Firmware or Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) firmware, this design is unsuitable, and the MBR is not used as part of the system bootstrap.[25] EFI firmware is instead capable of directly understanding the GPT partitioning scheme and the FAT filesystem format, and loads and runs programs held as files in the EFI System partition.[26] The MBR will be involved only insofar as it might contain a partition table for compatibility purposes if the GPT partition table scheme has been used.There is some MBR replacement code that emulates EFI firmware's bootstrap, which makes non-EFI machines capable of booting from disks using the GPT partitioning scheme. It detects a GPT, places the processor in the correct operating mode, and loads the EFI compatible code from disk to complete this task.","title":"System bootstrapping"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qtparted-usb-hdd-snapshot.png"},{"link_name":"QtParted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QtParted"},{"link_name":"disk signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#DISK_ID"},{"link_name":"Linux kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Domsch_2003_EDD-35"},{"link_name":"Windows Registry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Registry"},{"link_name":"BOOT.INI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BOOT.INI"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_KB227704-36"},{"link_name":"little-endian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little-endian"},{"link_name":"counting from zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-based_numbering"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"Boot Configuration Data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_Configuration_Data"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Multibooters_Vista-MBR-37"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Russinovich_2011_Disk-Signature-38"}],"text":"Information contained in the partition table of an external hard drive as it appears in the utility program QtParted, running under Linux (with KDE)In addition to the bootstrap code and a partition table, master boot records may contain a disk signature. This is a 32-bit value that is intended to identify uniquely the disk medium (as opposed to the disk unit—the two not necessarily being the same for removable hard disks).The disk signature was introduced by Windows NT version 3.5, but it is now used by several operating systems, including the Linux kernel version 2.6 and later. Linux tools can use the NT disk signature to determine which disk the machine booted from.[27]Windows NT (and later Microsoft operating systems) uses the disk signature as an index to all the partitions on any disk ever connected to the computer under that OS; these signatures are kept in Windows Registry keys, primarily for storing the persistent mappings between disk partitions and drive letters. It may also be used in Windows NT BOOT.INI files (though most do not), to describe the location of bootable Windows NT (or later) partitions.[28] One key (among many), where NT disk signatures appear in a Windows 2000/XP registry, is:HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\\SYSTEM\\MountedDevices\\If a disk's signature stored in the MBR was A8 E1 B9 D2 (in that order) and its first partition corresponded with logical drive C: under Windows, then the REG_BINARY data under the key value \\DosDevices\\C: would be:A8 E1 B9 D2 00 7E 00 00 00 00 00 00The first four bytes are said disk signature. (In other keys, these bytes may appear in reverse order from that found in the MBR sector.) These are followed by eight more bytes, forming a 64-bit integer, in little-endian notation, which are used to locate the byte offset of this partition. In this case, 00 7E corresponds to the hexadecimal value 0x7E00 (32,256). Under the assumption that the drive in question reports a sector size of 512 bytes, then dividing this byte offset by 512 results in 63, which is the physical sector number (or LBA) containing the first sector of the partition (unlike the sector count used in the sectors value of CHS tuples, which counts from one, the absolute or LBA sector value starts counting from zero).If this disk had another partition with the values 00 F8 93 71 02 following the disk signature (under, e.g., the key value \\DosDevices\\D:), it would begin at byte offset 0x00027193F800 (10,495,457,280), which is also the first byte of physical sector 20,498,940.Starting with Windows Vista, the disk signature is also stored in the Boot Configuration Data (BCD) store, and the boot process depends on it.[29] If the disk signature changes, cannot be found or has a conflict, Windows is unable to boot.[30] Unless Windows is forced to use the overlapping part of the LBA address of the Advanced Active Partition entry as pseudo-disk signature, Windows' usage is conflictive with the Advanced Active Partition feature of PTS-DOS 7 and DR-DOS 7.07, in particular if their boot code is located outside the first 8 GB of the disk, so that LBA addressing must be used.","title":"Disk identity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PC XT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_XT"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sakamoto_2010_MBR-39"},{"link_name":"IBM PC-compatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC-compatible"},{"link_name":"little-endian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_processor"},{"link_name":"least significant byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_significant_byte"},{"link_name":"disk editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_editor"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Magic_AA55-12"},{"link_name":"physical memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_memory"},{"link_name":"address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_address"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sakamoto_2010_MBR-39"},{"link_name":"boot sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_sector"},{"link_name":"[i]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Load-address-40"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phoenix_1989_System-BIOS-17"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sakamoto_2010_MBR-39"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1996_BBS101-41"},{"link_name":"[j]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_EBDA-42"},{"link_name":"[k]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_free-memory-43"},{"link_name":"BIOS interrupt call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_interrupt_call"},{"link_name":"segment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_segmentation"},{"link_name":"RPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_Program_Loader"},{"link_name":"BIOS calls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_interrupt_call"},{"link_name":"volume boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"link_name":"[l]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_VBRs-44"},{"link_name":"relocate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-relocation"},{"link_name":"Apple Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Darwin"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elliott_2009_Darwin-45"},{"link_name":"VBRs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"link_name":"Plug and Play BIOS Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_and_Play_BIOS_Specification"},{"link_name":"BIOS Boot Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_Boot_Specification"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1996_BBS101-41"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1994_PnP10A-46"},{"link_name":"BIOS Boot Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_Boot_Specification"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1996_BBS101-41"}],"text":"The MBR originated in the PC XT.[31] IBM PC-compatible computers are little-endian, which means the processor stores numeric values spanning two or more bytes in memory least significant byte first. The format of the MBR on media reflects this convention. Thus, the MBR signature will appear in a disk editor as the sequence 55 AA.[a]The bootstrap sequence in the BIOS will load the first valid MBR that it finds into the computer's physical memory at address 0x0000:0x7C00.[31] The last instruction executed in the BIOS code will be a \"jump\" to that address in order to direct execution to the beginning of the MBR copy. The primary validation for most BIOSes is the signature at offset 0x01FE, although a BIOS implementer may choose to include other checks, such as verifying that the MBR contains a valid partition table without entries referring to sectors beyond the reported capacity of the disk.To the BIOS, removable (e.g. floppy) and fixed disks are essentially the same. For either, the BIOS reads the first physical sector of the media into RAM at absolute address 0x7C00, checks the signature in the last two bytes of the loaded sector, and then, if the correct signature is found, transfers control to the first byte of the sector with a jump (JMP) instruction. The only real distinction that the BIOS makes is that (by default, or if the boot order is not configurable) it attempts to boot from the first removable disk before trying to boot from the first fixed disk. From the perspective of the BIOS, the action of the MBR loading a volume boot record into RAM is exactly the same as the action of a floppy disk volume boot record loading the object code of an operating system loader into RAM. In either case, the program that the BIOS loaded is going about the work of chain loading an operating system.While the MBR boot sector code expects to be loaded at physical address 0x0000:0x7C00,[i] all the memory from physical address 0x0000:0x0501 (address 0x0000:0x0500 is the last one used by a Phoenix BIOS)[13] to 0x0000:0x7FFF,[31] later relaxed to 0x0000:0xFFFF[32] (and sometimes[j] up to 0x9000:0xFFFF)—the end of the first 640 KB—is available in real mode.[k] The INT 12h BIOS interrupt call may help in determining how much memory can be allocated safely (by default, it simply reads the base memory size in KB from segment:offset location 0x0040:0x0013, but it may be hooked by other resident pre-boot software like BIOS overlays, RPL code or viruses to reduce the reported amount of available memory in order to keep other boot stage software like boot sectors from overwriting them).The last 66 bytes of the 512-byte MBR are reserved for the partition table and other information, so the MBR boot sector program must be small enough to fit within 446 bytes of memory or less.The MBR code examines the partition table, selects a suitable partition and loads the program that will perform the next stage of the boot process, usually by making use of INT 13h BIOS calls. The MBR bootstrap code loads and runs (a boot loader- or operating system-dependent) volume boot record code that is located at the beginning of the \"active\" partition. The volume boot record will fit within a 512-byte sector, but it is safe for the MBR code to load additional sectors to accommodate boot loaders longer than one sector, provided they do not make any assumptions on what the sector size is. In fact, at least 1 KB of RAM is available at address 0x7C00 in every IBM XT- and AT-class machine, so a 1 KB sector could be used with no problem. Like the MBR, a volume boot record normally expects to be loaded at address 0x0000:0x7C00. This derives from the fact that the volume boot record design originated on unpartitioned media, where a volume boot record would be directly loaded by the BIOS boot procedure; as mentioned above, the BIOS treats MBRs and volume boot records (VBRs)[l] exactly alike. Since this is the same location where the MBR is loaded, one of the first tasks of an MBR is to relocate itself somewhere else in memory. The relocation address is determined by the MBR, but it is most often 0x0000:0x0600 (for MS-DOS/PC DOS, OS/2 and Windows MBR code) or 0x0060:0x0000 (most DR-DOS MBRs). (Even though both of these segmented addresses resolve to the same physical memory address in real mode, for Apple Darwin to boot, the MBR must be relocated to 0x0000:0x0600 instead of 0x0060:0x0000, since the code depends on the DS:SI pointer to the partition entry provided by the MBR, but it erroneously refers to it via 0x0000:SI only.[33]) It is important not to relocate to other addresses in memory because many VBRs will assume a certain standard memory layout when loading their boot file.The Status field in a partition table record is used to indicate an active partition. Standard-conformant MBRs will allow only one partition marked active and use this as part of a sanity-check to determine the existence of a valid partition table. They will display an error message, if more than one partition has been marked active. Some non-standard MBRs will not treat this as an error condition and just use the first marked partition in the row.Traditionally, values other than 0x00 (not active) and 0x80 (active) were invalid and the bootstrap program would display an error message upon encountering them. However, the Plug and Play BIOS Specification and BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) allowed other devices to become bootable as well since 1994.[32][34] Consequently, with the introduction of MS-DOS 7.10 (Windows 95B) and higher, the MBR started to treat a set bit 7 as active flag and showed an error message for values 0x01..0x7F only. It continued to treat the entry as physical drive unit to be used when loading the corresponding partition's VBR later on, thereby now also accepting other boot drives than 0x80 as valid, however, MS-DOS did not make use of this extension by itself. Storing the actual physical drive number in the partition table does not normally cause backward compatibility problems, since the value will differ from 0x80 only on drives other than the first one (which have not been bootable before, anyway). However, even with systems enabled to boot off other drives, the extension may still not work universally, for example, after the BIOS assignment of physical drives has changed when drives are removed, added or swapped. Therefore, per the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS),[32] it is best practice for a modern MBR accepting bit 7 as active flag to pass on the DL value originally provided by the BIOS instead of using the entry in the partition table.","title":"Programming considerations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"IPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_Program_Loader"},{"link_name":"real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"CS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CS_register"},{"link_name":"IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_register"},{"link_name":"DL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DL_register"},{"link_name":"fixed disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_disk"},{"link_name":"removable drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Removable_drive"},{"link_name":"floppies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy"},{"link_name":"superfloppies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfloppy"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_1997-47"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Paul_2017-48"},{"link_name":"Plug and Play BIOS Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_and_Play_BIOS_Specification"},{"link_name":"BIOS Boot Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_Boot_Specification"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1996_BBS101-41"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1994_PnP10A-46"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1996_BBS101-41"},{"link_name":"El Torito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Torito_(CD-ROM_standard)"},{"link_name":"Protected Area Run Time Interface Extension Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_Area_Run_Time_Interface_Extension_Services"},{"link_name":"Trusted Computing Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trusted_Computing_Group"},{"link_name":"Boot Engineering Extension Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_Engineering_Extension_Record"},{"link_name":"Host Protected Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_Protected_Area"},{"link_name":"DH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DH_register"},{"link_name":"INT 13h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INT_13h"},{"link_name":"Plug-and-Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-and-Play"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1996_BBS101-41"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Compaq-Phoenix-Intel_1994_PnP10A-46"},{"link_name":"ES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ES_register"},{"link_name":"DI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DI_register"}],"sub_title":"BIOS to MBR interface","text":"The MBR is loaded at memory location 0x0000:0x7C00 and with the following CPU registers set up when the prior bootstrap loader (normally the IPL in the BIOS) passes execution to it by jumping to 0x0000:0x7C00 in the CPU's real mode.CS:IP = 0x0000:0x7C00 (fixed)Some Compaq BIOSes erroneously use 0x07C0:0x0000 instead. While this resolves to the same location in real mode memory, it is non-standard and should be avoided, since MBR code assuming certain register values or not written to be relocatable may not work otherwise.DL = boot drive unit (fixed disks / removable drives: 0x80 = first, 0x81 = second, ..., 0xFE; floppies / superfloppies: 0x00 = first, 0x01 = second, ..., 0x7E; values 0x7F and 0xFF are reserved for ROM / remote drives and must not be used on disk).[35][36]DL is supported by IBM BIOSes as well as most other BIOSes. The Toshiba T1000 BIOS is known not to support this properly, and some old Wyse 286 BIOSes use DL values greater or equal to 2 for fixed disks (thereby reflecting the logical drive numbers under DOS rather than the physical drive numbers of the BIOS). USB sticks configured as removable drives typically get an assignment of DL = 0x80, 0x81, etc. However, some rare BIOSes erroneously presented them under DL = 0x01, just as if they were configured as superfloppies.\nA standard conformant BIOS assigns numbers greater or equal to 0x80 exclusively to fixed disk / removable drives, and traditionally only values 0x80 and 0x00 were passed on as physical drive units during boot. By convention, only fixed disks / removable drives are partitioned, therefore, the only DL value a MBR could see traditionally was 0x80. Many MBRs were coded to ignore the DL value and work with a hard-wired value (normally 0x80), anyway.\nThe Plug and Play BIOS Specification and BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) allow other devices to become bootable as well since 1994.[32][34] The later recommends that MBR and VBR code should use DL rather than internally hardwired defaults.[32] This will also ensure compatibility with various non-standard assignments (see examples above), as far as the MBR code is concerned.\nBootable CD-ROMs following the El Torito specification may contain disk images mounted by the BIOS to occur as floppy or superfloppies on this interface. DL values of 0x00 and 0x01 may also be used by Protected Area Run Time Interface Extension Services (PARTIES) and Trusted Computing Group (TCG) BIOS extensions in Trusted mode to access otherwise invisible PARTIES partitions, disk image files located via the Boot Engineering Extension Record (BEER) in the last physical sector of a hard disk's Host Protected Area (HPA). While designed to emulate floppies or superfloppies, MBR code accepting these non-standard DL values allows to use images of partitioned media at least in the boot stage of operating systems.DH bit 5 = 0: device supported through INT 13h; else: don't care (should be zero). DH is supported by some IBM BIOSes.\nSome of the other registers may typically also hold certain register values (DS, ES, SS = 0x0000; SP = 0x0400) with original IBM ROM BIOSes, but this is nothing to rely on, as other BIOSes may use other values. For this reason, MBR code by IBM, Microsoft, Digital Research, etc. never did take any advantage of it. Relying on these register values in boot sectors may also cause problems in chain-boot scenarios.Systems with Plug-and-Play BIOS or BBS support will provide a pointer to PnP data in addition to DL:[32][34]DL = boot drive unit (see above)\nES:DI = points to \"$PnP\" installation check structureThis information allows the boot loader in the MBR (or VBR, if passed on) to actively interact with the BIOS or a resident PnP / BBS BIOS overlay in memory in order to configure the boot order, etc., however, this information is ignored by most standard MBRs and VBRs. Ideally, ES:DI is passed on to the VBR for later use by the loaded operating system, but PnP-enabled operating systems typically also have fallback methods to retrieve the PnP BIOS entry point later on so that most operating systems do not rely on this.","title":"Programming considerations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[m]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_CS-IP-49"},{"link_name":"NEWLDR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NEWLDR"},{"link_name":"0x000C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NEWLDR_OFS_00Ch"},{"link_name":"0x019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_the_FAT_file_system#EBPB_OFS_19h"},{"link_name":"Extended BIOS Parameter Block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_BIOS_Parameter_Block"},{"link_name":"0x01FD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_the_FAT_file_system#BSIBM_OFS_1FDh"},{"link_name":"0x0014","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NEWLDR_OFS_014h"},{"link_name":"MBR partition table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBR_partition_table"},{"link_name":"PC-MOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-MOS"},{"link_name":"Multiuser DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiuser_DOS"},{"link_name":"REAL/32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REAL/32"},{"link_name":"PTS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTS-DOS"},{"link_name":"S/DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S/DOS"},{"link_name":"Advanced Active Partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Active_Partition"},{"link_name":"Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Darwin"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elliott_2009_Darwin-45"},{"link_name":"BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP_register"},{"link_name":"MBR partition table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBR_partition_table"},{"link_name":"AX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AX_register"},{"link_name":"MBR partition table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBR_partition_table"},{"link_name":"BX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BX_register"},{"link_name":"CX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CX_register"},{"link_name":"Enhanced Disk Drive Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Disk_Drive_Specification"},{"link_name":"Hybrid MBR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_MBR"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elliott_2010_EDD4-Hybrid-MBR-50"},{"link_name":"EAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EAX_register"},{"link_name":"MBR partition table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBR_partition_table"},{"link_name":"partition type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type"},{"link_name":"[n]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Hybrid_MBR-51"}],"sub_title":"MBR to VBR interface","text":"By convention, a standard conformant MBR passes execution to a successfully loaded VBR, loaded at memory location 0x0000:0x7C00, by jumping to 0x0000:0x7C00 in the CPU's real mode with the following registers maintained or specifically set up:CS:IP = 0x0000:0x7C00[m] (constant)\nDL = boot drive unit (see above)MS-DOS 2.0–7.0 / PC DOS 2.0–6.3 MBRs do not pass on the DL value received on entry, but they rather use the boot status entry in the partition table entry of the selected primary partition as physical boot drive unit. Since this is, by convention, 0x80 in most MBR partition tables, it won't change things unless the BIOS attempted to boot off a physical device other than the first fixed disk / removable drive in the row. This is also the reason why these operating systems cannot boot off a second hard disk, etc. Some FDISK tools allow to mark partitions on secondary disks as \"active\" as well. In this situation, knowing that these operating systems cannot boot off other drives anyway, some of them continue to use the traditionally fixed value of 0x80 as active marker, whereas others use values corresponding with the currently assigned physical drive unit (0x81, 0x82), thereby allowing booting from other drives, at least in theory. In fact, this will work with many MBR codes, which take a set bit 7 of the boot status entry as active flag rather than insisting on 0x80, however, MS-DOS/PC DOS MBRs are hard-wired to accept the fixed value of 0x80 only. Storing the actual physical drive number in the partition table will also cause problems, when the BIOS assignment of physical drives changes, for example when drives are removed, added or swapped. Therefore, for a normal MBR accepting bit 7 as active flag and otherwise just using and passing on to the VBR the DL value originally provided by the BIOS allows for maximum flexibility. MS-DOS 7.1–8.0 MBRs have changed to treat bit 7 as active flag and any values 0x01..0x7F as invalid, but they still take the physical drive unit from the partition table rather than using the DL value provided by the BIOS. DR-DOS 7.07 extended MBRs treat bit 7 as active flag and use and pass on the BIOS DL value by default (including non-standard values 0x00..0x01 used by some BIOSes also for partitioned media), but they also provide a special NEWLDR configuration block in order to support alternative boot methods in conjunction with LOADER and REAL/32 as well as to change the detail behaviour of the MBR, so that it can also work with drive values retrieved from the partition table (important in conjunction with LOADER and AAPs, see NEWLDR offset 0x000C), translate Wyse non-standard drive units 0x02..0x7F to 0x80..0xFD, and optionally fix up the drive value (stored at offset 0x019 in the Extended BIOS Parameter Block (EBPB) or at sector offset 0x01FD) in loaded VBRs before passing execution to them (see NEWLDR offset 0x0014)—this also allows other boot loaders to use NEWLDR as a chain-loader, configure its in-memory image on the fly and \"tunnel\" the loading of VBRs, EBRs, or AAPs through NEWLDR.The contents of DH and ES:DI should be preserved by the MBR for full Plug-and-Play support (see above), however, many MBRs, including those of MS-DOS 2.0–8.0 / PC DOS 2.0–6.3 and Windows NT/2000/XP, do not. (This is unsurprising, since those versions of DOS predate the Plug-and-Play BIOS standard, and previous standards and conventions indicated no requirements to preserve any register other than DL.) Some MBRs set DH to 0.The MBR code passes additional information to the VBR in many implementations:DS:SI = points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry (in the relocated MBR) corresponding with the activated VBR. PC-MOS 5.1 depends on this to boot if no partition in the partition table is flagged as bootable. In conjunction with LOADER, Multiuser DOS and REAL/32 boot sectors use this to locate the boot sector of the active partition (or another bootstrap loader like IBMBIO.LDR at a fixed position on disk) if the boot file (LOADER.SYS) could not be found. PTS-DOS 6.6 and S/DOS 1.0 use this in conjunction with their Advanced Active Partition (AAP) feature. In addition to support for LOADER and AAPs, DR-DOS 7.07 can use this to determine the necessary INT 13h access method when using its dual CHS/LBA VBR code and it will update the boot drive / status flag field in the partition entry according to the effectively used DL value. Darwin bootloaders (Apple's boot1h, boot1u, and David Elliott's boot1fat32) depend on this pointer as well, but additionally they don't use DS, but assume it to be set to 0x0000 instead.[33] This will cause problems if this assumption is incorrect. The MBR code of OS/2, MS-DOS 2.0 to 8.0, PC DOS 2.0 to 7.10 and Windows NT/2000/XP provides this same interface as well, although these systems do not use it. The Windows Vista/7 MBRs no longer provide this DS:SI pointer. While some extensions only depend on the 16-byte partition table entry itself, other extensions may require the whole 4 (or 5 entry) partition table to be present as well.\nDS:BP = optionally points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry (in the relocated MBR) corresponding with the activated VBR. This is identical to the pointer provided by DS:SI (see above) and is provided by MS-DOS 2.0–8.0, PC DOS 2.0–7.10, Windows NT/2000/XP/Vista/7 MBRs. It is, however, not supported by most third-party MBRs.Under DR-DOS 7.07 an extended interface may be optionally provided by the extended MBR and in conjunction with LOADER:AX = magic signature indicating the presence of this NEWLDR extension (0x0EDC)\nDL = boot drive unit (see above)\nDS:SI = points to the 16-byte MBR partition table entry used (see above)\nES:BX = start of boot sector or NEWLDR sector image (typically 0x7C00)\nCX = reservedIn conjunction with GPT, an Enhanced Disk Drive Specification (EDD) 4 Hybrid MBR proposal recommends another extension to the interface:[37]EAX = 0x54504721 (\"!GPT\")\nDL = boot drive unit (see above)\nDS:SI = points to a Hybrid MBR handover structure, consisting of a 16-byte dummy MBR partition table entry (with all bits set except for the boot flag at offset 0x00 and the partition type at offset 0x04) followed by additional data. This is partially compatible with the older DS:SI extension discussed above, if only the 16-byte partition entry, not the whole partition table is required by these older extensions.Since older operating systems (including their VBRs) do not support this extension nor are they able to address sectors beyond the 2 TiB barrier, a GPT-enabled hybrid boot loader should still emulate the 16-byte dummy MBR partition table entry if the boot partition is located within the first 2 TiB.[n]ES:DI = points to \"$PnP\" installation check structure (see above)","title":"Programming considerations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"disk editors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_editor"},{"link_name":"FDISK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDISK"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_KB69013-52"},{"link_name":"Windows 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000"},{"link_name":"Windows XP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP"},{"link_name":"Recovery Console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_Console"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"Recovery Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_Environment"},{"link_name":"MBRWizard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBRwizard"},{"link_name":"[o]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_PTEDIT32-53"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"GRUB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRUB"},{"link_name":"LILO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LILO_(boot_loader)"},{"link_name":"backup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup"},{"link_name":"SystemRescueCD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SystemRescueCD"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Linux_MAN_sfdisk-54"}],"text":"Though it is possible to manipulate the bytes in the MBR sector directly using various disk editors, there are tools to write fixed sets of functioning code to the MBR. Since MS-DOS 5.0, the program FDISK has included the switch /MBR, which will rewrite the MBR code.[38] Under Windows 2000 and Windows XP, the Recovery Console can be used to write new MBR code to a storage device using its fixmbr command. Under Windows Vista and Windows 7, the Recovery Environment can be used to write new MBR code using the BOOTREC /FIXMBR command.\nSome third-party utilities may also be used for directly editing the contents of partition tables (without requiring any knowledge of hexadecimal or disk/sector editors), such as MBRWizard.[o]dd is a POSIX command commonly used to read or write any location on a storage device, MBR included. In Linux, ms-sys may be used to install a Windows MBR. The GRUB and LILO projects have tools for writing code to the MBR sector, namely grub-install and lilo -mbr. The GRUB Legacy interactive console can write to the MBR, using the setup and embed commands, but GRUB2 currently requires grub-install to be run from within an operating system.Various programs are able to create a \"backup\" of both the primary partition table and the logical partitions in the extended partition.Linux sfdisk (on a SystemRescueCD) is able to save a backup of the primary and extended partition table. It creates a file that can be read in a text editor, or this file can be used by sfdisk to restore the primary/extended partition table. An example command to back up the partition table is sfdisk -d /dev/hda > hda.out and to restore is sfdisk /dev/hda < hda.out. It is possible to copy the partition table from one disk to another this way, useful for setting up mirroring, but sfdisk executes the command without prompting/warnings using sfdisk -d /dev/sda | sfdisk /dev/sdb.[39]","title":"Editing and replacing contents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Magic_AA55_12-6"},{"link_name":"little-endian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little-endian"},{"link_name":"IBM PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_x86"},{"link_name":"big-endian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-endian"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Timestamp_13-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-2_16-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-2_16-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-3_18-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-3_18-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-3_18-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-3_18-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-3_18-4"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phoenix_1989_System-BIOS-17"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-4_21-0"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2000_LBA-Blocks-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note-5_22-0"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Microsoft_2000_LBA-Blocks-20"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_RBIL_Head_Limit_23-0"},{"link_name":"RBIL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RBIL"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RBIL_html-55"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RBIL_archive_text-56"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Load-address_40-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_EBDA_42-0"},{"link_name":"EBDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Extended_BIOS_Data_Area&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_free-memory_43-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_VBRs_44-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_CS-IP_49-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Hybrid_MBR_51-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_PTEDIT32_53-0"},{"link_name":"Symantec's FTP site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//ftp.symantec.com/public/english_us_canada/tools/pq/utilities/PTEDIT32.zip"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g The signature at offset 0x01FE in boot sectors is 55hex AAhex, that is 0x55 at offset 0x01FE and AAhex at offset 0x01FF. Since little-endian representation must be assumed in the context of IBM PC compatible machines, this can be written as 16-bit word AA55hex in programs for x86 processors (note the swapped order), whereas it would have to be written as 55AAhex in programs for other CPU architectures using a big-endian representation. Since this has been mixed up numerous times in books and even in original Microsoft reference documents, this article uses the offset-based byte-wise on-disk representation to avoid any possible misinterpretation.\n\n^ In order to ensure the integrity of the MBR boot loader code, it is important that the bytes at 0x00DA to 0x00DF are never changed, unless either all six bytes represent a value of 0 or the whole MBR bootstrap loader code (except for the (extended) partition table) is replaced at the same time as well. This includes resetting these values to 00 00 00 00 00 00hex unless the code stored in the MBR is known. Windows adheres to this rule.\n\n^ Originally, status values other than 0x00 and 0x80 were invalid, but modern MBRs treat the bit 7 as active flag and use this entry to store the physical boot unit.\n\n^ a b The starting sector fields are limited to 1023+1 cylinders, 255+1 heads, and 63 sectors; ending sector fields have the same limitations.\n\n^ a b c d e The range for sector is 1 through 63; the range for cylinder is 0 through 1023; the range for head is 0 through 255 inclusive.[13]\n\n^ This entry is used by operating systems in certain circumstances; in such cases the CHS addresses are ignored.[15]\n\n^ Zero is reserved and must not be used in normal partition entries. This entry is used by operating systems in certain circumstances; in such cases the CHS addresses are ignored.[15]\n\n^ \"Quote: [Most] versions of MS-DOS (including MS-DOS 7 [Windows 95]) have a bug which prevents booting on hard disks with 256 heads (FFh), so many modern BIOSes provide mappings with at most 255 (FEh) heads.\" RBIL[40][41]\n\n^ The address 0000hex:7C00hex is the first byte of the 32nd KB of RAM. The loading of the boot program at this address historically was the reason why, while the minimum RAM size of an original IBM PC (type 5150) was 16 KB, 32 KB were required for the disk option in the IBM XT.\n\n^ If there is an EBDA, the available memory ends below it.\n\n^ Very old machines may have less than 640 KB (A0000hex or 655,360 bytes) of memory. In theory, only 32 KB (up to 0000hex:7FFFhex) or 64 KB (up to 0000hex:FFFFhex) are guaranteed to exist; this would be the case on an IBM XT-class machine equipped with only the required minimum amount of memory for a disk system.\n\n^ This applies when the BIOS handles a VBR, which is when it is in the first physical sector of unpartitioned media. Otherwise, the BIOS has nothing to do with the VBR. The design of VBRs is such as it is because VBRs originated solely on unpartitioned floppy disk media—the type 5150 IBM PC originally had no hard disk option—and the partitioning system using an MBR was later developed as an adaptation to put more than one volume, each beginning with its own VBR as-already-defined, onto a single fixed disk. By this design, essentially the MBR emulates the BIOS boot routine, doing the same things the BIOS would do to process this VBR and set up the initial operating environment for it just as if the BIOS had found that VBR on an unpartitioned medium.\n\n^ IP is set as a result of the jump. CS may be set to 0 either by executing a far jump or by loading the register value explicitly before executing a near jump. (It is impossible for jumped-to x86 code to detect whether a near or far jump was used to reach it [unless the code that made the jump separately passes this information in some way].)\n\n^ This is not part of the above mentioned proposal, but a natural consequence of pre-existing conditions.\n\n^ For example, PowerQuest's Partition Table Editor (PTEDIT32.EXE), which runs under Windows operating systems, is still available here: Symantec's FTP site.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Partitions and Volumes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160303210749/http://www.yale.edu/pclt/BOOT/PARTITIO.HTM"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.yale.edu/pclt/BOOT/PARTITIO.HTM"},{"link_name":"\"Ray's Place\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.rayknights.org/pc_boot/pc_boot.htm"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170824133034/http://www.rayknights.org/pc_boot/pc_boot.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Master Boot Record\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140701052540/http://www.ata-atapi.com/hiwmbr.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ata-atapi.com/hiwmbr.html"},{"link_name":"\"MBRs (Master Boot Records)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//thestarman.pcministry.com/asm/mbr/index.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170824133321/http://thestarman.pcministry.com/asm/mbr/index.html"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070510140812/http://mirror.href.com/thestarman/asm/mbr/index.html"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//thestarman.narod.ru/asm/mbr/index.html"}],"text":"Gilbert, Howard (1996-01-01) [1995]. \"Partitions and Volumes\". PC Lube & Tune. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.\nKnights, Ray (2004-12-22) [2000-12-16]. \"Ray's Place\". MBR and Windows Boot Sectors (includes code disassembly and explanations of boot process). Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.\nLandis, Hale (2002-05-06). \"Master Boot Record\". How It Works. Archived from the original on 2014-07-01.\nSedory, Daniel B. (2015-06-25) [2007]. \"MBRs (Master Boot Records)\". Boot Records Revealed. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. [3] [4]","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Information contained in the partition table of an external hard drive as it appears in the utility program QtParted, running under Linux (with KDE)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Qtparted-usb-hdd-snapshot.png/300px-Qtparted-usb-hdd-snapshot.png"}] | [{"title":"Extended boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_boot_record"},{"title":"Volume boot record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_boot_record"},{"title":"GUID Partition Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GUID_Partition_Table"},{"title":"BIOS Boot partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS_Boot_partition"},{"title":"EFI System partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EFI_System_partition"},{"title":"Boot engineering extension record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_engineering_extension_record"},{"title":"Host protected area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_protected_area"},{"title":"Device configuration overlay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_configuration_overlay"},{"title":"Apple partition map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_partition_map"},{"title":"Amiga rigid disk block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_rigid_disk_block"},{"title":"Volume Table of Contents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_Table_of_Contents"},{"title":"BSD disklabel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_disklabel"},{"title":"Boot loader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boot_loader"},{"title":"Disk cloning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_cloning"},{"title":"Recovery disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_disc"},{"title":"GNU Parted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Parted"},{"title":"Partition alignment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_alignment"}] | [{"reference":"\"Windows support for hard disks that are larger than 2 TB\". 1. Microsoft. 2013-06-26. 2581408. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27. Retrieved 2013-08-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://support.microsoft.com/kb/2581408","url_text":"\"Windows support for hard disks that are larger than 2 TB\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170427084734/https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/2581408/windows-support-for-hard-disks-that-are-larger-than-2-tb","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sedory, Daniel B. (2004). \"The Mystery Bytes (or the Drive/Timestamp Bytes) of the MS-Windows 95B, 98, 98SE and Me Master Boot Record (MBR)\". Master Boot Records. thestarman.pcministry.com. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2012-08-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://thestarman.pcministry.com/asm/mbr/mystery.htm","url_text":"\"The Mystery Bytes (or the Drive/Timestamp Bytes) of the MS-Windows 95B, 98, 98SE and Me Master Boot Record (MBR)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824002828/http://thestarman.pcministry.com/asm/mbr/mystery.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lucas, Michael (2003). Absolute OpenBSD: Unix for the practical paranoid. p. 73. ISBN 9781886411999. Retrieved 2011-04-09. Every operating system includes tools to manage MBR partitions. Unfortunately, every operating system handles MBR partitions in a slightly different manner.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=wuUuTXMkNx8C&pg=PA72","url_text":"Absolute OpenBSD: Unix for the practical paranoid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781886411999","url_text":"9781886411999"}]},{"reference":"Norton, Peter; Clark, Scott (2002). Peter Norton's New Inside the PC. Sams Publishing. pp. 360–361. ISBN 0-672-32289-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Norton","url_text":"Norton, Peter"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/peternortonsnewi00pete/page/360","url_text":"Peter Norton's New Inside the PC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sams_Publishing","url_text":"Sams Publishing"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/peternortonsnewi00pete/page/360","url_text":"360–361"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-32289-7","url_text":"0-672-32289-7"}]},{"reference":"Graves, Michael W. (2004). A+ Guide To PC Hardware Maintenance and Repair. Thomson Delmar. p. 276. ISBN 1-4018-5230-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4018-5230-0","url_text":"1-4018-5230-0"}]},{"reference":"Andrews, Jean (2003). Upgrade and Repair with Jean Andrews. Thomson Course Technology. p. 646. ISBN 1-59200-112-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/upgraderepairwit0000andr/page/646","url_text":"Upgrade and Repair with Jean Andrews"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/upgraderepairwit0000andr/page/646","url_text":"646"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59200-112-2","url_text":"1-59200-112-2"}]},{"reference":"Boswell, William (2003). Inside Windows Server 2003. Addison-Wesley Professional. p. 13. ISBN 0-7357-1158-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley_Professional","url_text":"Addison-Wesley Professional"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7357-1158-5","url_text":"0-7357-1158-5"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Roderick W. (2000). The Multi-Boot Configuration Handbook. Que Publishing. pp. 260–261. ISBN 0-7897-2283-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780789722836/page/260","url_text":"The Multi-Boot Configuration Handbook"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Que_Publishing","url_text":"Que Publishing"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780789722836/page/260","url_text":"260–261"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7897-2283-6","url_text":"0-7897-2283-6"}]},{"reference":"Brouwer, Andries Evert (2004-04-22) [2000]. \"Properties of partition tables\". Partition types. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. Matthias [R.] Paul writes: \"[…] PTS-DOS [uses] a special fifth partition entry in front of the other four entries in the MBR and corresponding AAP-aware MBR bootstrap code. […]\"","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andries_Evert_Brouwer","url_text":"Brouwer, Andries Evert"},{"url":"http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/partitions/partition_types-2.html","url_text":"\"Properties of partition tables\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824112413/http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/partitions/partition_types-2.html","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTS-DOS","url_text":"PTS-DOS"}]},{"reference":"Brouwer, Andries Evert (2004-04-22) [2000]. \"Properties of partition tables\". Partition types. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. Some OEM systems, such as AST DOS (type 14hex) and NEC DOS (type 24hex) had 8 instead of 4 partition entries in their MBR sectors. (Matthias R. Paul).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andries_Evert_Brouwer","url_text":"Brouwer, Andries Evert"},{"url":"http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/partitions/partition_types-2.html","url_text":"\"Properties of partition tables\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824112413/http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/partitions/partition_types-2.html","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type#PID_14h","url_text":"14hex"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_type#PID_24h","url_text":"24hex"}]},{"reference":"Sedory, Daniel B. (2007-05-18) [2003]. \"Notes on the Differences in one OEM version of the DOS 3.30 MBR\". Master Boot Records. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. When we added partitions to this NEC table, the first one was placed at offsets 0x01EE through 0x01FD and the next entry was added just above it. So, the entries are inserted and listed backwards from that of a normal Table. Thus, looking at such a Table with a disk editor or partition listing utility, it would show the first entry in a NEC eight-entry table as being the last one (fourth entry) in a normal Partition Table.","urls":[{"url":"http://thestarman.pcministry.com/asm/mbr/DOS33MBR.htm","url_text":"\"Notes on the Differences in one OEM version of the DOS 3.30 MBR\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824003525/http://thestarman.pcministry.com/asm/mbr/DOS33MBR.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Partition Table\". osdev.org. 2017-03-18 [2007-03-06]. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://wiki.osdev.org/Partition_Table","url_text":"\"Partition Table\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824123235/http://wiki.osdev.org/Partition_Table","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"System BIOS for IBM PC/XT/AT Computers and Compatibles. Phoenix technical reference. Addison-Wesley. 1989. ISBN 0-201-51806-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Technologies","url_text":"Phoenix"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley","url_text":"Addison-Wesley"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-51806-6","url_text":"0-201-51806-6"}]},{"reference":"Brouwer, Andries Evert (2013) [1995]. \"List of partition identifiers for PCs\". Partition types. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andries_Evert_Brouwer","url_text":"Brouwer, Andries Evert"},{"url":"http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/partitions/partition_types-1.html","url_text":"\"List of partition identifiers for PCs\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824112750/http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/partitions/partition_types-1.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wood, Sybil (2002). Microsoft Windows 2000 Server Operations Guide. Microsoft Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-73561796-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/microsoftwindows00wood/page/18","url_text":"Microsoft Windows 2000 Server Operations Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Press","url_text":"Microsoft Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/microsoftwindows00wood/page/18","url_text":"18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-73561796-4","url_text":"978-0-73561796-4"}]},{"reference":"\"An Introduction to Hard Disk Geometry\". Tech Juice. 2012-12-06 [2011-08-08]. Archived from the original on 2013-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130204205616/http://www.tech-juice.org/2011/08/08/an-introduction-to-hard-disk-geometry/","url_text":"\"An Introduction to Hard Disk Geometry\""},{"url":"http://www.tech-juice.org/2011/08/08/an-introduction-to-hard-disk-geometry/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kozierok, Charles M. (2001-04-17). \"BIOS and the Hard Disk\". The PC Guide. Archived from the original on 2017-06-17. Retrieved 2013-04-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/bios/bios.htm","url_text":"\"BIOS and the Hard Disk\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170617080653/http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/bios/bios.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Robert (2011-06-26). \"Working Around MBR's Limitations\". GPT fdisk Tutorial. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rodsbooks.com/gdisk/workarounds.html","url_text":"\"Working Around MBR's Limitations\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824114940/http://www.rodsbooks.com/gdisk/workarounds.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"More than 2 TiB on a MBR disk\". superuser.com. 2013-03-07. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-10-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://superuser.com/questions/562331/mbr-partition-with-more-than-2-tb","url_text":"\"More than 2 TiB on a MBR disk\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824122749/https://superuser.com/questions/562331/mbr-partition-with-more-than-2-tb","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Transition to Advanced Format 4K Sector Hard Drives\". Tech Insight. Seagate Technology. 2012. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2013-04-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seagate.com/tech-insights/advanced-format-4k-sector-hard-drives-master-ti/","url_text":"\"Transition to Advanced Format 4K Sector Hard Drives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate_Technology","url_text":"Seagate Technology"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170824194910/http://www.seagate.com/de/de/tech-insights/advanced-format-4k-sector-hard-drives-master-ti/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Calvert, Kelvin (2011-03-16). \"WD AV‐GP Large Capacity Hard Drives\" (PDF). Western Digital. Retrieved 2013-04-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://products.wdc.com/library/whitepapers/eng/2579-771660.pdf","url_text":"\"WD AV‐GP Large Capacity Hard Drives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Digital","url_text":"Western Digital"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Roderick W. (2010-04-27). \"Linux on 4KB-sector disks: Practical advice\". DeveloperWorks. IBM. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_impact_factor | Impact factor | ["1 History","2 Calculation","3 Use","4 Criticism","4.1 Inapplicability of impact factor to individuals and between-discipline differences","4.2 Questionable editorial policies that affect the impact factor","4.3 Assumed correlation between impact factor and quality","4.4 Negotiated values","4.5 Distribution skewness","4.6 Reproducibility","4.7 Broader negative impact on science","5 Institutional responses to criticism of the impact factor","6 Related indices","6.1 Other measures of scientific impact","6.2 Counterfeit impact factors","7 See also","8 Notes on alternatives","9 References","10 Further reading"] | Measure of relative importance of a journal
This article is about a measure of journal influence. For other similar metrics, see Citation impact.
Part of a series onCitation metrics
Altmetrics
Article-level
Author-level
Eigenfactor
G-index
H-index
Bibliographic coupling
Citation
Analysis
Dynamics
Index
Graph
Co-citation
Proximity Analysis
Coercive citation
Citation cartel
I4OC
Journal-level
CiteScore
Impact factor
SCImago
Kardashian Index
vte
The impact factor (IF) or journal impact factor (JIF) of an academic journal is a scientometric index calculated by Clarivate that reflects the yearly mean number of citations of articles published in the last two years in a given journal, as indexed by Clarivate's Web of Science.
As a journal-level metric, it is frequently used as a proxy for the relative importance of a journal within its field; journals with higher impact factor values are given the status of being more important, or carry more prestige in their respective fields, than those with lower values.
While frequently used by universities and funding bodies to decide on promotion and research proposals, it has been criticised for distorting good scientific practices.
History
The impact factor was devised by Eugene Garfield, the founder of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in Philadelphia. Impact factors began to be calculated yearly starting from 1975 for journals listed in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR). ISI was acquired by Thomson Scientific & Healthcare in 1992, and became known as Thomson ISI. In 2018, Thomson-Reuters spun off and sold ISI to Onex Corporation and Baring Private Equity Asia. They founded a new corporation, Clarivate, which is now the publisher of the JCR.
Calculation
In any given year, the two-year journal impact factor is the ratio between the number of citations received in that year for publications in that journal that were published in the two preceding years and the total number of "citable items" published in that journal during the two preceding years:
IF
y
=
Citations
y
Publications
y
−
1
+
Publications
y
−
2
.
{\displaystyle {\text{IF}}_{y}={\frac {{\text{Citations}}_{y}}{{\text{Publications}}_{y-1}+{\text{Publications}}_{y-2}}}.}
For example, Nature had an impact factor of 41.577 in 2017:
IF
2017
=
Citations
2017
Publications
2016
+
Publications
2015
=
74090
880
+
902
=
41.577.
{\displaystyle {\text{IF}}_{2017}={\frac {{\text{Citations}}_{2017}}{{\text{Publications}}_{2016}+{\text{Publications}}_{2015}}}={\frac {74090}{880+902}}=41.577.}
This means that, on average, its papers published in 2015 and 2016 received roughly 42 citations each in 2017. 2017 impact factors are reported in 2018; they cannot be calculated until all of the 2017 publications have been processed by the indexing agency.
The value of impact factor depends on how to define "citations" and "publications"; the latter are often referred to as "citable items". In current practice, both "citations" and "publications" are defined exclusively by ISI as follows. "Publications" are items that are classed as "article", "review" or "proceedings paper" in the Web of Science (WoS) database; other items like editorials, corrections, notes, retractions and discussions are excluded. WoS is accessible to all registered users, who can independently verify the number of citable items for a given journal. In contrast, the number of citations is extracted not from the WoS database, but from a dedicated JCR database, which is not accessible to general readers. Hence, the commonly used "JCR Impact Factor" is a proprietary value, which is defined and calculated by ISI and can not be verified by external users.
New journals, which are indexed from their first published issue, will receive an impact factor after two years of indexing; in this case, the citations to the year prior to volume 1, and the number of articles published in the year prior to volume 1, are known zero values. Journals that are indexed starting with a volume other than the first volume will not get an impact factor until they have been indexed for three years. Occasionally, Journal Citation Reports assigns an impact factor to new journals with less than two years of indexing, based on partial citation data. The calculation always uses two complete and known years of item counts, but for new titles one of the known counts is zero. Annuals and other irregular publications sometimes publish no items in a particular year, affecting the count. The impact factor relates to a specific time period; it is possible to calculate it for any desired period. For example, the JCR also includes a five-year impact factor, which is calculated by dividing the number of citations to the journal in a given year by the number of articles published in that journal in the previous five years.
Use
While originally invented as a tool to help university librarians to decide which journals to purchase, the impact factor soon became used as a measure for judging academic success. This use of impact factors was summarised by Hoeffel in 1998:
Impact Factor is not a perfect tool to measure the quality of articles but there is nothing better and it has the advantage of already being in existence and is, therefore, a good technique for scientific evaluation. Experience has shown that in each specialty the best journals are those in which it is most difficult to have an article accepted, and these are the journals that have a high impact factor. Most of these journals existed long before the impact factor was devised. The use of impact factor as a measure of quality is widespread because it fits well with the opinion we have in each field of the best journals in our specialty....In conclusion, prestigious journals publish papers of high level. Therefore, their impact factor is high, and not the contrary.
As impact factors are a journal-level metric, rather than an article- or individual-level metric, this use is controversial. Eugene Garfield, the inventor of the JIF agreed with Hoeffel, but warned about the "misuse in evaluating individuals" because there is "a wide variation from article to article within a single journal". Despite this warning, the use of the JIF has evolved, playing a key role in the process of assessing individual researchers, their job applications and their funding proposals. In 2005, The Journal of Cell Biology noted that:
Impact factor data ... have a strong influence on the scientific community, affecting decisions on where to publish, whom to promote or hire, the success of grant applications, and even salary bonuses.
More targeted research has begun to provide firm evidence of how deeply the impact factor is embedded within formal and informal research assessment processes. A review in 2019 studied how often the JIF featured in documents related to the review, promotion, and tenure of scientists in US and Canadian universities. It concluded that 40% of universities focused on academic research specifically mentioned the JIF as part of such review, promotion, and tenure processes. And a 2017 study of how researchers in the life sciences behave concluded that "everyday decision-making practices as highly governed by pressures to publish in high-impact journals". The deeply embedded nature of such indicators not only effect research assessment, but the more fundamental issue of what research is actually undertaken: "Given the current ways of evaluation and valuing research, risky, lengthy, and unorthodox project rarely take center stage."
Criticism
Numerous critiques have been made regarding the use of impact factors, both in terms of its statistical validity and also of its implications for how science is carried out and assessed. A 2007 study noted that the most fundamental flaw is that impact factors present the mean of data that are not normally distributed, and suggested that it would be more appropriate to present the median of these data. There is also a more general debate on the validity of the impact factor as a measure of journal importance and the effect of policies that editors may adopt to boost their impact factor (perhaps to the detriment of readers and writers). Other criticism focuses on the effect of the impact factor on behavior of scholars, editors and other stakeholders. Further criticisms argue that emphasis on impact factor results from the negative influence of neoliberal politics on academia. Some of these arguments demand not just replacement of the impact factor with more sophisticated metrics but also discussion on the social value of research assessment and the growing precariousness of scientific careers in higher education.
Inapplicability of impact factor to individuals and between-discipline differences
It has been stated that impact factors in particular and citation analysis in general are affected by field-dependent factors which invalidate comparisons not only across disciplines but even within different fields of research of one discipline. The percentage of total citations occurring in the first two years after publication also varies highly among disciplines from 1–3% in the mathematical and physical sciences to 5–8% in the biological sciences. Thus impact factors cannot be used to compare journals across disciplines.
Impact factors are sometimes used to evaluate not only the journals but the papers therein, thereby devaluing papers in certain subjects. In 2004, the Higher Education Funding Council for England was urged by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee to remind Research Assessment Exercise panels that they are obliged to assess the quality of the content of individual articles, not the reputation of the journal in which they are published. Other studies have repeatedly stated that impact factor is a metric for journals and should not be used to assess individual researchers or institutions.
Questionable editorial policies that affect the impact factor
See also: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing § COIs of journals
Because impact factor is commonly accepted as a proxy for research quality, some journals adopt editorial policies and practices, some acceptable and some of dubious purpose, to increase its impact factor. For example, journals may publish a larger percentage of review articles which generally are cited more than research reports. Research undertaken in 2020 on dentistry journals concluded that the publication of "systematic reviews have significant effect on the Journal Impact Factor ... while papers publishing clinical trials bear no influence on this factor. Greater yearly average of published papers ... means a higher impact factor."
Journals may also attempt to limit the number of "citable items"—i.e., the denominator of the impact factor equation—either by declining to publish articles that are unlikely to be cited (such as case reports in medical journals) or by altering articles (e.g., by not allowing an abstract or bibliography in hopes that Journal Citation Reports will not deem it a "citable item"). As a result of negotiations over whether items are "citable", impact factor variations of more than 300% have been observed. Items considered to be uncitable—and thus are not incorporated in impact factor calculations—can, if cited, still enter into the numerator part of the equation despite the ease with which such citations could be excluded. This effect is hard to evaluate, for the distinction between editorial comment and short original articles is not always obvious. For example, letters to the editor may be part of either class.
Another less insidious tactic journals employ is to publish a large portion of its papers, or at least the papers expected to be highly cited, early in the calendar year. This gives those papers more time to gather citations. Several methods, not necessarily with nefarious intent, exist for a journal to cite articles in the same journal which will increase the journal's impact factor.
Beyond editorial policies that may skew the impact factor, journals can take overt steps to game the system. For example, in 2007, the specialist journal Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, with an impact factor of 0.66, published an editorial that cited all its articles from 2005 to 2006 in a protest against the "absurd scientific situation in some countries" related to use of the impact factor. The large number of citations meant that the impact factor for that journal increased to 1.44. As a result of the increase, the journal was not included in the 2008 and 2009 Journal Citation Reports.
Coercive citation is a practice in which an editor forces an author to add extraneous citations to an article before the journal will agree to publish it, in order to inflate the journal's impact factor. A survey published in 2012 indicates that coercive citation has been experienced by one in five researchers working in economics, sociology, psychology, and multiple business disciplines, and it is more common in business and in journals with a lower impact factor. Editors of leading business journals banded together to disavow the practice. However, cases of coercive citation have occasionally been reported for other disciplines.
Assumed correlation between impact factor and quality
The journal impact factor was originally designed by Eugene Garfield as a metric to help librarians make decisions about which journals were worth indexing, as the JIF aggregates the number of citations to articles published in each journal. Since then, the JIF has become associated as a mark of journal "quality", and gained widespread use for evaluation of research and researchers instead, even at the institutional level. It thus has significant impact on steering research practices and behaviours.
By 2010, national and international research funding institutions were already starting to point out that numerical indicators such as the JIF should not be considered as a measure of quality. In fact, research was indicating that the JIF is a highly manipulated metric, and the justification for its continued widespread use beyond its original narrow purpose seems due to its simplicity (easily calculable and comparable number), rather than any actual relationship to research quality.
Empirical evidence shows that the misuse of the JIF—and journal ranking metrics in general—has a number of negative consequences for the scholarly communication system. These include gaps between the reach of a journal and the quality of its individual papers and insufficient coverage of social sciences and humanities as well as research outputs from across Latin America, Africa, and South-East Asia. Additional drawbacks include the marginalization of research in vernacular languages and on locally relevant topics and inducement to unethical authorship and citation practices. More generally, the impact factors fosters a reputation economy, where scientific success is based on publishing in prestigious journals ahead of actual research qualities such as rigorous methods, replicability and social impact. Using journal prestige and the JIF to cultivate a competition regime in academia has been shown to have deleterious effects on research quality.
A number of regional and international initiatives are now providing and suggesting alternative research assessment systems, including key documents such as the Leiden Manifesto and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA). Plan S calls for a broader adoption and implementation of such initiatives alongside fundamental changes in the scholarly communication system. As appropriate measures of quality for authors and research, concepts of research excellence should be remodelled around transparent workflows and accessible research results.
JIFs are still regularly used to evaluate research in many countries, which is a problem since a number of issues remain around the opacity of the metric and the fact that it is often negotiated by publishers.
Negotiated values
Results of an impact factor can change dramatically depending on which items are considered as "citable" and therefore included in the denominator. One notorious example of this occurred in 1988 when it was decided that meeting abstracts published in FASEB Journal would no longer be included in the denominator. The journal's impact factor jumped from 0.24 in 1988 to 18.3 in 1989. Publishers routinely discuss with Clarivate how to improve the "accuracy" of their journals' impact factor and therefore get higher scores.
Such discussions routinely produce "negotiated values" which result in dramatic changes in the observed scores for dozens of journals, sometimes after unrelated events like the purchase by one of the larger publishers.
Distribution skewness
Journal impact factors are influenced heavily by a small number of highly cited papers. Most papers published in 2013–14 received many fewer citations than indicated by the impact factor. Two journals (Nature and PLOS ONE ) are shown to represent a highly cited and less cited journal, respectively. The high citation impact of Nature is derived from relatively few highly cited papers. Modified after Callaway 2016.
Because citation counts have highly skewed distributions, the mean number of citations is potentially misleading if used to gauge the typical impact of articles in the journal rather than the overall impact of the journal itself. For example, about 90% of Nature's 2004 impact factor was based on only a quarter of its publications. Thus the actual number of citations for a single article in the journal is in most cases much lower than the mean number of citations across articles. Furthermore, the strength of the relationship between impact factors of journals and the citation rates of the papers therein has been steadily decreasing since articles began to be available digitally.
The effect of outliers can be seen in the case of the article "A short history of SHELX", which included this sentence: "This paper could serve as a general literature citation when one or more of the open-source SHELX programs (and the Bruker AXS version SHELXTL) are employed in the course of a crystal-structure determination". This article received more than 6,600 citations. As a consequence, the impact factor of the journal Acta Crystallographica Section A rose from 2.051 in 2008 to 49.926 in 2009, more than Nature (at 31.434) and Science (at 28.103). The second-most cited article in Acta Crystallographica Section A in 2008 had only 28 citations.
Critics of the JIF state that use of the arithmetic mean in its calculation is problematic because the pattern of citation distribution is skewed and citation distributions metrics have been proposed as an alternative to impact factors.
However, there have also been pleas to take a more nuanced approach to judging the distribution skewness of the impact factor. Waltman and Traag, in their 2021 paper, ran numerous simulations and concluded that "statistical objections against the use of the IF at the level of individual articles are not convincing", and that "the IF may be a more accurate indicator of the value of an article than the number of citations of the article".
Reproducibility
While the underlying mathematical model is publicly known, the dataset which is used to calculate the JIF is not publicly available. This prompted criticism: "Just as scientists would not accept the findings in a scientific paper without seeing the primary data, so should they not rely on Thomson Scientific's impact factor, which is based on hidden data". However, a 2019 article demonstrated that "with access to the data and careful cleaning, the JIF can be reproduced", although this required much labour to achieve. A 2020 research paper went further. It indicated that by querying open access or partly open-access databases, like Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Scopus, it is possible to calculate approximate impact factors without the need to purchase Web of Science / JCR.
Broader negative impact on science
Just as the impact factor has attracted criticism for various immediate problems associated with its application, so has there also been criticism that its application undermines the broader process of science. Research has indicated that bibliometrics figures, particularly the impact factor, decrease the quality of peer review an article receives, cause a reluctance to share data, decrease the quality of articles, and a reduce the scope in of publishable research. "For many researchers the only research questions and projects that appear viable are those that can meet the demand of scoring well in terms of metric performance indicators – and chiefly the journal impact factor.". Furthermore, the process of publication and science is slowed down – authors automatically try and publish with the journals with the highest impact factor – "as editors and reviewers are tasked with reviewing papers that are not submitted to the most appropriate venues".
Institutional responses to criticism of the impact factor
Given the growing criticism and its widespread usage as a means of research assessment, organisations and institutions have begun to take steps to move away from the journal impact factor. In November 2007 the European Association of Science Editors (EASE) issued an official statement recommending "that journal impact factors are used only—and cautiously—for measuring and comparing the influence of entire journals, but not for the assessment of single papers, and certainly not for the assessment of researchers or research programmes".
In July 2008, the International Council for Science Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the Conduct of Science issued a "statement on publication practices and indices and the role of peer review in research assessment", suggesting many possible solutions—e.g., considering a limit number of publications per year to be taken into consideration for each scientist, or even penalising scientists for an excessive number of publications per year—e.g., more than 20.
In February 2010, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) published new guidelines to reduce the number of publications that could be submitted when applying for funding: "The focus has not been on what research someone has done but rather how many papers have been published and where." They noted that for decisions concerning "performance-based funding allocations, postdoctoral qualifications, appointments, or reviewing funding proposals, increasing importance has been given to numerical indicators such as the h-index and the impact factor". The UK's Research Assessment Exercise for 2014 also banned the journal impact factor although evidence suggested that this ban was often ignored.
In response to growing concerns over the inappropriate use of journal impact factors in evaluating scientific outputs and scientists themselves, the American Society for Cell Biology together with a group of editors and publishers of scholarly journals created the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA). Released in May 2013, DORA has garnered support from thousands of individuals and hundreds of institutions, including in March 2015 the League of European Research Universities (a consortium of 21 of the most renowned research universities in Europe), who have endorsed the document on the DORA website.
Publishers, even those with high impact factors, also recognised the flaws. Nature magazine criticised the over-reliance on JIF, pointing not just to its statistical flaws but to negative effects on science: "The resulting pressures and disappointments are nothing but demoralizing, and in badly run labs can encourage sloppy research that, for example, fails to test assumptions thoroughly or to take all the data into account before submitting big claims." Various publishers now use a mixture of metrics on their website; the PLOS series of journals does not display the impact factor. Microsoft Academic took a similar view, stating that h-index, EI/SCI and journal impact factors are not shown because "the research literature has provided abundant evidence that these metrics are at best a rough approximation of research impact and scholarly influence."
In 2021, Utrecht University promised to abandon all quantitative bibliometrics, including the impact factor. The university stated that "it has become a very sick model that goes beyond what is really relevant for science and putting science forward". This followed a 2018 decision by the main Dutch funding body for research, NWO, to remove all references to journal impact factors and the h-index in all call texts and application forms. Utrecht's decision met with some resistance. An open letter signed by over 150 Dutch academics argued that, while imperfect, the JIF is still useful, and that omitting it "will lead to randomness and a compromising of scientific quality".
Related indices
Some related metrics, also calculated and published by the same organization, include:
Cited half-life: the median age of the articles that were cited in Journal Citation Reports each year. For example, if a journal's half-life in 2005 is 5, that means the citations from 2001 to 2005 are half of all the citations from that journal in 2005, and the other half of the citations precede 2001.
Aggregate impact factor for a subject category: it is calculated taking into account the number of citations to all journals in the subject category and the number of articles from all the journals in the subject category.
Immediacy index: the number of citations the articles in a journal receive in a given year divided by the number of articles published.
Journal citation indicator (JCI): a JIF that adjusts for scientific field; it is similar to Source Normalized Impact per Paper, calculated based on the Scopus database. JCI is available for all journals in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS CC) -- including the AHCI, ESCI, BCI, CPCI—while JIF is only available for the SCIE and SSCI; however, starting in June 2023, JIF will also be issued for all journals in the WoS CC.
JIF quartile ranking: a rank based on the four quartiles within a given subject or topic category.
JIF percentile ranking: a percentile rank computed for a particular subject category.
A given journal may attain a different quartile or percentile in different categories.
As with the impact factor, there are some nuances to this: for example, Clarivate excludes certain article types (such as news items, correspondence, and errata) from the denominator.
Other measures of scientific impact
Main article: Citation metrics
Further information: Scientometrics
Additional journal-level metrics are available from other organizations. For example, CiteScore is a metric for serial titles in Scopus launched in December 2016 by Elsevier. While these metrics apply only to journals, there are also author-level metrics, such as the h-index, that apply to individual researchers. In addition, article-level metrics measure impact at an article level instead of journal level.
Other more general alternative metrics, or "altmetrics", that include article views, downloads, or mentions in social media, offer a different perspective on research impact, concentrating more on immediate social impact in and outside academia.
Counterfeit impact factors
Fake impact factors or bogus impact factors are produced by certain companies or individuals. According to an article published in the Electronic Physician, these include Global Impact Factor, Citefactor, and Universal Impact Factor. Jeffrey Beall maintained a list of such misleading metrics. Another deceitful practice is reporting "alternative impact factors", calculated as the average number of citations per article using citation indices other than JCR such as Google Scholar (e.g., "Google-based Journal Impact Factor") or Microsoft Academic.
False impact factors are often used by predatory publishers. Consulting Journal Citation Reports' master journal list can confirm if a publication is indexed by the Journal Citation Reports. The use of fake impact metrics is considered a red flag.
See also
Science portal
Author impact factor
Citation impact
Goodhart's law
Journalology
Notes on alternatives
^ "'Quality Not Quantity' – DFG Adopts Rules to Counter the Flood of Publications in Research" (Press release). Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation). 2010. DFG Press Release No. 7.
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Further reading
"Does the 'Impact Factor' Impact Decisions on Where to Publish?". APS News. 15 (4). American Physical Society. April 2006. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
Garfield E (October 1999). "Journal impact factor: a brief review". CMAJ. 161 (8): 979–80. PMC 1230709. PMID 10551195.
Gilbert N (November 2010). "UK science will be judged on impact". Nature. 468 (7322): 357. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..357G. doi:10.1038/468357a. PMID 21085146.
Groesser SN (2012). "Dynamics of Journal Impact Factors" (PDF). Systems Research and Behavioral Science. 29 (6): 624–644. doi:10.1002/sres.2142.
Lariviere V, Sugimoto CR (2018). "The Journal Impact Factor: A brief history, critique, and discussion of adverse effects". arXiv:1801.08992 .
Marcus A, Oransky I (22 May 2015). "What's Behind Big Science Frauds?". Opinion. The New York Times.
"Journal & Country Rank: Rankings by Scopus and Scimago Lab". Scopus and Scimago Lab. Scimago. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Citation impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_impact"},{"link_name":"academic journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal"},{"link_name":"scientometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometric"},{"link_name":"Clarivate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarivate"},{"link_name":"citations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation"},{"link_name":"Web of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_of_Science"},{"link_name":"journal-level metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal-level_metrics"},{"link_name":"proxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waltman_366-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Curry_2018-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nih2016-3"}],"text":"This article is about a measure of journal influence. For other similar metrics, see Citation impact.The impact factor (IF) or journal impact factor (JIF) of an academic journal is a scientometric index calculated by Clarivate that reflects the yearly mean number of citations of articles published in the last two years in a given journal, as indexed by Clarivate's Web of Science.As a journal-level metric, it is frequently used as a proxy for the relative importance of a journal within its field; journals with higher impact factor values are given the status of being more important, or carry more prestige in their respective fields, than those with lower values.While frequently used by universities and funding bodies to decide on promotion and research proposals, it has been criticised for distorting good scientific practices.[1][2][3]","title":"Impact factor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eugene Garfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Garfield"},{"link_name":"Institute for Scientific Information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Information"},{"link_name":"Journal Citation Reports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_Citation_Reports"},{"link_name":"Thomson Scientific & Healthcare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Scientific_%26_Healthcare"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Thomson-Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Reuters"},{"link_name":"Onex Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onex_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Baring Private Equity Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baring_Private_Equity_Asia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The impact factor was devised by Eugene Garfield, the founder of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) in Philadelphia. Impact factors began to be calculated yearly starting from 1975 for journals listed in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR). ISI was acquired by Thomson Scientific & Healthcare in 1992,[4] and became known as Thomson ISI. In 2018, Thomson-Reuters spun off and sold ISI to Onex Corporation and Baring Private Equity Asia.[5] They founded a new corporation, Clarivate, which is now the publisher of the JCR.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Web_of_Science_Group_2019-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-garfield-8"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WoS-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McVeighMann2009-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newJCR-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"In any given year, the two-year journal impact factor is the ratio between the number of citations received in that year for publications in that journal that were published in the two preceding years and the total number of \"citable items\" published in that journal during the two preceding years:[7][8]IF\n \n \n y\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n Citations\n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n \n Publications\n \n \n y\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n \n Publications\n \n \n y\n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{IF}}_{y}={\\frac {{\\text{Citations}}_{y}}{{\\text{Publications}}_{y-1}+{\\text{Publications}}_{y-2}}}.}For example, Nature had an impact factor of 41.577 in 2017:[9]IF\n \n \n 2017\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n Citations\n \n \n 2017\n \n \n \n \n \n Publications\n \n \n 2016\n \n \n +\n \n \n Publications\n \n \n 2015\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 74090\n \n 880\n +\n 902\n \n \n \n =\n 41.577.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{IF}}_{2017}={\\frac {{\\text{Citations}}_{2017}}{{\\text{Publications}}_{2016}+{\\text{Publications}}_{2015}}}={\\frac {74090}{880+902}}=41.577.}This means that, on average, its papers published in 2015 and 2016 received roughly 42 citations each in 2017. 2017 impact factors are reported in 2018; they cannot be calculated until all of the 2017 publications have been processed by the indexing agency.The value of impact factor depends on how to define \"citations\" and \"publications\"; the latter are often referred to as \"citable items\". In current practice, both \"citations\" and \"publications\" are defined exclusively by ISI as follows. \"Publications\" are items that are classed as \"article\", \"review\" or \"proceedings paper\"[10] in the Web of Science (WoS) database; other items like editorials, corrections, notes, retractions and discussions are excluded. WoS is accessible to all registered users, who can independently verify the number of citable items for a given journal. In contrast, the number of citations is extracted not from the WoS database, but from a dedicated JCR database, which is not accessible to general readers. Hence, the commonly used \"JCR Impact Factor\" is a proprietary value, which is defined and calculated by ISI and can not be verified by external users.[11]New journals, which are indexed from their first published issue, will receive an impact factor after two years of indexing; in this case, the citations to the year prior to volume 1, and the number of articles published in the year prior to volume 1, are known zero values. Journals that are indexed starting with a volume other than the first volume will not get an impact factor until they have been indexed for three years. Occasionally, Journal Citation Reports assigns an impact factor to new journals with less than two years of indexing, based on partial citation data.[12][13] The calculation always uses two complete and known years of item counts, but for new titles one of the known counts is zero. Annuals and other irregular publications sometimes publish no items in a particular year, affecting the count. The impact factor relates to a specific time period; it is possible to calculate it for any desired period. For example, the JCR also includes a five-year impact factor, which is calculated by dividing the number of citations to the journal in a given year by the number of articles published in that journal in the previous five years.[14][15]","title":"Calculation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-garfield98-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rossner_2007-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"}],"text":"While originally invented as a tool to help university librarians to decide which journals to purchase, the impact factor soon became used as a measure for judging academic success. This use of impact factors was summarised by Hoeffel in 1998:[16]Impact Factor is not a perfect tool to measure the quality of articles but there is nothing better and it has the advantage of already being in existence and is, therefore, a good technique for scientific evaluation. Experience has shown that in each specialty the best journals are those in which it is most difficult to have an article accepted, and these are the journals that have a high impact factor. Most of these journals existed long before the impact factor was devised. The use of impact factor as a measure of quality is widespread because it fits well with the opinion we have in each field of the best journals in our specialty....In conclusion, prestigious journals publish papers of high level. Therefore, their impact factor is high, and not the contrary.As impact factors are a journal-level metric, rather than an article- or individual-level metric, this use is controversial. Eugene Garfield, the inventor of the JIF agreed with Hoeffel,[17] but warned about the \"misuse in evaluating individuals\" because there is \"a wide variation [of citations] from article to article within a single journal\".[18] Despite this warning, the use of the JIF has evolved, playing a key role in the process of assessing individual researchers, their job applications and their funding proposals. In 2005, The Journal of Cell Biology noted that:Impact factor data ... have a strong influence on the scientific community, affecting decisions on where to publish, whom to promote or hire, the success of grant applications, and even salary bonuses.[19]More targeted research has begun to provide firm evidence of how deeply the impact factor is embedded within formal and informal research assessment processes. A review in 2019 studied how often the JIF featured in documents related to the review, promotion, and tenure of scientists in US and Canadian universities. It concluded that 40% of universities focused on academic research specifically mentioned the JIF as part of such review, promotion, and tenure processes.[20] And a 2017 study of how researchers in the life sciences behave concluded that \"everyday decision-making practices as highly governed by pressures to publish in high-impact journals\". The deeply embedded nature of such indicators not only effect research assessment, but the more fundamental issue of what research is actually undertaken: \"Given the current ways of evaluation and valuing research, risky, lengthy, and unorthodox project rarely take center stage.\"[21]","title":"Use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nih2016-3"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EASE-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beat_it,_impact_factor!_Publishing-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brembs_2013-25"},{"link_name":"mean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean"},{"link_name":"normally distributed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution"},{"link_name":"median","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rossner_2007-19"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"neoliberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliberal"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cabello-28"}],"text":"Numerous critiques have been made regarding the use of impact factors, both in terms of its statistical validity and also of its implications for how science is carried out and assessed.[3][22][23][24][25] A 2007 study noted that the most fundamental flaw is that impact factors present the mean of data that are not normally distributed, and suggested that it would be more appropriate to present the median of these data.[19] There is also a more general debate on the validity of the impact factor as a measure of journal importance and the effect of policies that editors may adopt to boost their impact factor (perhaps to the detriment of readers and writers). Other criticism focuses on the effect of the impact factor on behavior of scholars, editors and other stakeholders.[26] Further criticisms argue that emphasis on impact factor results from the negative influence of neoliberal politics on academia. Some of these arguments demand not just replacement of the impact factor with more sophisticated metrics but also discussion on the social value of research assessment and the growing precariousness of scientific careers in higher education.[27][28]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Higher Education Funding Council for England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_Education_Funding_Council_for_England"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Science and Technology Select Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_Select_Committee"},{"link_name":"Research Assessment Exercise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Assessment_Exercise"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seglen-BMJ-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Inapplicability of impact factor to individuals and between-discipline differences","text":"It has been stated that impact factors in particular and citation analysis in general are affected by field-dependent factors[29] which invalidate comparisons not only across disciplines but even within different fields of research of one discipline.[30] The percentage of total citations occurring in the first two years after publication also varies highly among disciplines from 1–3% in the mathematical and physical sciences to 5–8% in the biological sciences.[31] Thus impact factors cannot be used to compare journals across disciplines.Impact factors are sometimes used to evaluate not only the journals but the papers therein, thereby devaluing papers in certain subjects.[32] In 2004, the Higher Education Funding Council for England was urged by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee to remind Research Assessment Exercise panels that they are obliged to assess the quality of the content of individual articles, not the reputation of the journal in which they are published.[33] Other studies have repeatedly stated that impact factor is a metric for journals and should not be used to assess individual researchers or institutions.[34][35][36]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conflicts of interest in academic publishing § COIs of journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing#COIs_of_journals"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"review articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_article"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-garfield-8"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"abstract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_(summary)"},{"link_name":"bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PLoS-editorial-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid12139549-42"},{"link_name":"game the system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_the_system"},{"link_name":"Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folia_Phoniatrica_et_Logopaedica"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Coercive citation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercive_citation"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Questionable editorial policies that affect the impact factor","text":"See also: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing § COIs of journalsBecause impact factor is commonly accepted as a proxy for research quality, some journals adopt editorial policies and practices, some acceptable and some of dubious purpose, to increase its impact factor.[37][38] For example, journals may publish a larger percentage of review articles which generally are cited more than research reports.[8] Research undertaken in 2020 on dentistry journals concluded that the publication of \"systematic reviews have significant effect on the Journal Impact Factor ... while papers publishing clinical trials bear no influence on this factor. Greater yearly average of published papers ... means a higher impact factor.\"[39]Journals may also attempt to limit the number of \"citable items\"—i.e., the denominator of the impact factor equation—either by declining to publish articles that are unlikely to be cited (such as case reports in medical journals) or by altering articles (e.g., by not allowing an abstract or bibliography in hopes that Journal Citation Reports will not deem it a \"citable item\"). As a result of negotiations over whether items are \"citable\", impact factor variations of more than 300% have been observed.[40] Items considered to be uncitable—and thus are not incorporated in impact factor calculations—can, if cited, still enter into the numerator part of the equation despite the ease with which such citations could be excluded. This effect is hard to evaluate, for the distinction between editorial comment and short original articles is not always obvious. For example, letters to the editor may be part of either class.Another less insidious tactic journals employ is to publish a large portion of its papers, or at least the papers expected to be highly cited, early in the calendar year. This gives those papers more time to gather citations. Several methods, not necessarily with nefarious intent, exist for a journal to cite articles in the same journal which will increase the journal's impact factor.[41][42]Beyond editorial policies that may skew the impact factor, journals can take overt steps to game the system. For example, in 2007, the specialist journal Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, with an impact factor of 0.66, published an editorial that cited all its articles from 2005 to 2006 in a protest against the \"absurd scientific situation in some countries\" related to use of the impact factor.[43] The large number of citations meant that the impact factor for that journal increased to 1.44. As a result of the increase, the journal was not included in the 2008 and 2009 Journal Citation Reports.[44]Coercive citation is a practice in which an editor forces an author to add extraneous citations to an article before the journal will agree to publish it, in order to inflate the journal's impact factor.[45] A survey published in 2012 indicates that coercive citation has been experienced by one in five researchers working in economics, sociology, psychology, and multiple business disciplines, and it is more common in business and in journals with a lower impact factor.[46] Editors of leading business journals banded together to disavow the practice.[47] However, cases of coercive citation have occasionally been reported for other disciplines.[48]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lariviere_2018-49"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Curry_2018-2"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Falagas_2008-52"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tort_2012-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fong_2017-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Adler_2008-55"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brembs_2018-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lariviere_2009-57"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brembs_2013-25"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"vernacular languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacular_language"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vessuri_2014-58"},{"link_name":"Leiden Manifesto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Manifesto"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Declaration_on_Research_Assessment"},{"link_name":"Plan S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_S"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore_2017-61"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Owen_2012-62"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hicks_2015-63"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gu%C3%A9don_2008-64"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alperin_2018-65"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rossner_2007-19"}],"sub_title":"Assumed correlation between impact factor and quality","text":"The journal impact factor was originally designed by Eugene Garfield as a metric to help librarians make decisions about which journals were worth indexing, as the JIF aggregates the number of citations to articles published in each journal. Since then, the JIF has become associated as a mark of journal \"quality\", and gained widespread use for evaluation of research and researchers instead, even at the institutional level. It thus has significant impact on steering research practices and behaviours.[49][2][50]By 2010, national and international research funding institutions were already starting to point out that numerical indicators such as the JIF should not be considered as a measure of quality.[note 1] In fact, research was indicating that the JIF is a highly manipulated metric,[51][52][53] and the justification for its continued widespread use beyond its original narrow purpose seems due to its simplicity (easily calculable and comparable number), rather than any actual relationship to research quality.[54][55][56]Empirical evidence shows that the misuse of the JIF—and journal ranking metrics in general—has a number of negative consequences for the scholarly communication system. These include gaps between the reach of a journal and the quality of its individual papers[25] and insufficient coverage of social sciences and humanities as well as research outputs from across Latin America, Africa, and South-East Asia.[citation needed] Additional drawbacks include the marginalization of research in vernacular languages and on locally relevant topics and inducement to unethical authorship and citation practices. More generally, the impact factors fosters a reputation economy, where scientific success is based on publishing in prestigious journals ahead of actual research qualities such as rigorous methods, replicability and social impact. Using journal prestige and the JIF to cultivate a competition regime in academia has been shown to have deleterious effects on research quality.[57]A number of regional and international initiatives are now providing and suggesting alternative research assessment systems, including key documents such as the Leiden Manifesto[note 2] and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA). Plan S calls for a broader adoption and implementation of such initiatives alongside fundamental changes in the scholarly communication system.[note 3] As appropriate measures of quality for authors and research, concepts of research excellence should be remodelled around transparent workflows and accessible research results.[58][59][60]JIFs are still regularly used to evaluate research in many countries, which is a problem since a number of issues remain around the opacity of the metric and the fact that it is often negotiated by publishers.[61][62][19]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PLoS-editorial-40"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brembs_2013-25"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"}],"sub_title":"Negotiated values","text":"Results of an impact factor can change dramatically depending on which items are considered as \"citable\" and therefore included in the denominator.[63] One notorious example of this occurred in 1988 when it was decided that meeting abstracts published in FASEB Journal would no longer be included in the denominator. The journal's impact factor jumped from 0.24 in 1988 to 18.3 in 1989.[64] Publishers routinely discuss with Clarivate how to improve the \"accuracy\" of their journals' impact factor and therefore get higher scores.[40][25]Such discussions routinely produce \"negotiated values\" which result in dramatic changes in the observed scores for dozens of journals, sometimes after unrelated events like the purchase by one of the larger publishers.[65]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Journal_impact_factor_Nature_Plos_One.png"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"PLOS ONE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLOS_One"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Callaway_2016-69"},{"link_name":"skewed distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewed_distribution"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beat_it,_impact_factor!_Publishing-24"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Acta Crystallographica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta_Crystallographica"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"arithmetic mean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lariviere_2016-75"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"who?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waltman_366-1"}],"sub_title":"Distribution skewness","text":"Journal impact factors are influenced heavily by a small number of highly cited papers. Most papers published in 2013–14 received many fewer citations than indicated by the impact factor. Two journals (Nature [blue] and PLOS ONE [orange]) are shown to represent a highly cited and less cited journal, respectively. The high citation impact of Nature is derived from relatively few highly cited papers. Modified after Callaway 2016.[66]Because citation counts have highly skewed distributions,[24] the mean number of citations is potentially misleading if used to gauge the typical impact of articles in the journal rather than the overall impact of the journal itself.[67] For example, about 90% of Nature's 2004 impact factor was based on only a quarter of its publications. Thus the actual number of citations for a single article in the journal is in most cases much lower than the mean number of citations across articles.[68] Furthermore, the strength of the relationship between impact factors of journals and the citation rates of the papers therein has been steadily decreasing since articles began to be available digitally.[69]The effect of outliers can be seen in the case of the article \"A short history of SHELX\", which included this sentence: \"This paper could serve as a general literature citation when one or more of the open-source SHELX programs (and the Bruker AXS version SHELXTL) are employed in the course of a crystal-structure determination\". This article received more than 6,600 citations. As a consequence, the impact factor of the journal Acta Crystallographica Section A rose from 2.051 in 2008 to 49.926 in 2009, more than Nature (at 31.434) and Science (at 28.103).[70] The second-most cited article in Acta Crystallographica Section A in 2008 had only 28 citations.[71]Critics of the JIF state that use of the arithmetic mean in its calculation is problematic because the pattern of citation distribution is skewed[72] and citation distributions metrics have been proposed as an alternative to impact factors.[73][74][75]However, there have also been pleas to take a more nuanced approach to judging the distribution skewness of the impact factor. Waltman and Traag[who?], in their 2021 paper, ran numerous simulations and concluded that \"statistical objections against the use of the IF at the level of individual articles are not convincing\", and that \"the IF may be a more accurate indicator of the value of an article than the number of citations of the article\".[1]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rossner_2007-19"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-79"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"sub_title":"Reproducibility","text":"While the underlying mathematical model is publicly known, the dataset which is used to calculate the JIF is not publicly available. This prompted criticism: \"Just as scientists would not accept the findings in a scientific paper without seeing the primary data, so should they not rely on Thomson Scientific's impact factor, which is based on hidden data\".[19] However, a 2019 article demonstrated that \"with access to the data and careful cleaning, the JIF can be reproduced\", although this required much labour to achieve.[76] A 2020 research paper went further. It indicated that by querying open access or partly open-access databases, like Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Scopus, it is possible to calculate approximate impact factors without the need to purchase Web of Science / JCR.[77]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-21"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-79"}],"sub_title":"Broader negative impact on science","text":"Just as the impact factor has attracted criticism for various immediate problems associated with its application, so has there also been criticism that its application undermines the broader process of science. Research has indicated that bibliometrics figures, particularly the impact factor, decrease the quality of peer review an article receives,[78] cause a reluctance to share data,[21] decrease the quality of articles,[79] and a reduce the scope in of publishable research. \"For many researchers the only research questions and projects that appear viable are those that can meet the demand of scoring well in terms of metric performance indicators – and chiefly the journal impact factor.\".[21] Furthermore, the process of publication and science is slowed down – authors automatically try and publish with the journals with the highest impact factor – \"as editors and reviewers are tasked with reviewing papers that are not submitted to the most appropriate venues\".[76]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Association of Science Editors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Association_of_Science_Editors"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EASE-23"},{"link_name":"International Council for Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_for_Science"},{"link_name":"peer review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-test-83"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Forschungsgemeinschaft"},{"link_name":"h-index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-index"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Research Assessment Exercise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Assessment_Exercise"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"American Society for Cell Biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_society_for_cell_biology"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Declaration_on_Research_Assessment"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cabello-28"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Utrecht University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_University"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"NWO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"}],"text":"Given the growing criticism and its widespread usage as a means of research assessment, organisations and institutions have begun to take steps to move away from the journal impact factor. In November 2007 the European Association of Science Editors (EASE) issued an official statement recommending \"that journal impact factors are used only—and cautiously—for measuring and comparing the influence of entire journals, but not for the assessment of single papers, and certainly not for the assessment of researchers or research programmes\".[23]In July 2008, the International Council for Science Committee on Freedom and Responsibility in the Conduct of Science issued a \"statement on publication practices and indices and the role of peer review in research assessment\", suggesting many possible solutions—e.g., considering a limit number of publications per year to be taken into consideration for each scientist, or even penalising scientists for an excessive number of publications per year—e.g., more than 20.[80]In February 2010, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation) published new guidelines to reduce the number of publications that could be submitted when applying for funding: \"The focus has not been on what research someone has done but rather how many papers have been published and where.\" They noted that for decisions concerning \"performance-based funding allocations, postdoctoral qualifications, appointments, or reviewing funding proposals, [where] increasing importance has been given to numerical indicators such as the h-index and the impact factor\".[81] The UK's Research Assessment Exercise for 2014 also banned the journal impact factor[82] although evidence suggested that this ban was often ignored.[83]In response to growing concerns over the inappropriate use of journal impact factors in evaluating scientific outputs and scientists themselves, the American Society for Cell Biology together with a group of editors and publishers of scholarly journals created the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA). Released in May 2013, DORA has garnered support from thousands of individuals and hundreds of institutions,[28] including in March 2015 the League of European Research Universities (a consortium of 21 of the most renowned research universities in Europe),[84] who have endorsed the document on the DORA website.Publishers, even those with high impact factors, also recognised the flaws.[85] Nature magazine criticised the over-reliance on JIF, pointing not just to its statistical flaws but to negative effects on science: \"The resulting pressures and disappointments are nothing but demoralizing, and in badly run labs can encourage sloppy research that, for example, fails to test assumptions thoroughly or to take all the data into account before submitting big claims.\"[86] Various publishers now use a mixture of metrics on their website; the PLOS series of journals does not display the impact factor.[87] Microsoft Academic took a similar view, stating that h-index, EI/SCI and journal impact factors are not shown because \"the research literature has provided abundant evidence that these metrics are at best a rough approximation of research impact and scholarly influence.\"[88]In 2021, Utrecht University promised to abandon all quantitative bibliometrics, including the impact factor. The university stated that \"it has become a very sick model that goes beyond what is really relevant for science and putting science forward\".[89][90] This followed a 2018 decision by the main Dutch funding body for research, NWO, to remove all references to journal impact factors and the h-index in all call texts and application forms.[91] Utrecht's decision met with some resistance. An open letter signed by over 150 Dutch academics argued that, while imperfect, the JIF is still useful, and that omitting it \"will lead to randomness and a compromising of scientific quality\".[92]","title":"Institutional responses to criticism of the impact factor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Source Normalized Impact per Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_Normalized_Impact_per_Paper"},{"link_name":"Scopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopus"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Science2021-97"},{"link_name":"Web of Science Core Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_of_Science_Core_Collection"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clarivate_2022-98"},{"link_name":"quartiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartile"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"percentile rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentile_rank"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jcr.help.clarivate.com-100"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elsevier-101"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thomson-102"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JCR-ii-103"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McVeighMann2009-10"}],"text":"Some related metrics, also calculated and published by the same organization, include:Cited half-life: the median age of the articles that were cited in Journal Citation Reports each year. For example, if a journal's half-life in 2005 is 5, that means the citations from 2001 to 2005 are half of all the citations from that journal in 2005, and the other half of the citations precede 2001.[93]\nAggregate impact factor for a subject category: it is calculated taking into account the number of citations to all journals in the subject category and the number of articles from all the journals in the subject category.\nImmediacy index: the number of citations the articles in a journal receive in a given year divided by the number of articles published.\n Journal citation indicator (JCI): a JIF that adjusts for scientific field; it is similar to Source Normalized Impact per Paper, calculated based on the Scopus database.[94] JCI is available for all journals in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoS CC) -- including the AHCI, ESCI, BCI, CPCI—while JIF is only available for the SCIE and SSCI; however, starting in June 2023, JIF will also be issued for all journals in the WoS CC.[95]\nJIF quartile ranking: a rank based on the four quartiles within a given subject or topic category.[96]\nJIF percentile ranking: a percentile rank computed for a particular subject category.[97]A given journal may attain a different quartile or percentile in different categories.As with the impact factor, there are some nuances to this: for example, Clarivate excludes certain article types (such as news items, correspondence, and errata) from the denominator.[98][99][100][10]","title":"Related indices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scientometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics"},{"link_name":"journal-level metrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal-level_metrics"},{"link_name":"CiteScore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteScore"},{"link_name":"Scopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopus"},{"link_name":"Elsevier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsevier"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"author-level metrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author-level_metrics"},{"link_name":"h-index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-index"},{"link_name":"article-level metrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article-level_metrics"},{"link_name":"altmetrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altmetrics"},{"link_name":"social media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hicks_2015-63"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Priem_2010-106"}],"sub_title":"Other measures of scientific impact","text":"Further information: ScientometricsAdditional journal-level metrics are available from other organizations. For example, CiteScore is a metric for serial titles in Scopus launched in December 2016 by Elsevier.[101][102] While these metrics apply only to journals, there are also author-level metrics, such as the h-index, that apply to individual researchers. In addition, article-level metrics measure impact at an article level instead of journal level.Other more general alternative metrics, or \"altmetrics\", that include article views, downloads, or mentions in social media, offer a different perspective on research impact, concentrating more on immediate social impact in and outside academia.[60][103]","title":"Related indices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fake-107"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fake-107"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Beall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Beall"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"citation indices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_indices"},{"link_name":"Google Scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Academic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Academic"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-XiaSmith2018-110"},{"link_name":"predatory publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishers"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"indexed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_indexing"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"red flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_flag_(idiom)"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"}],"sub_title":"Counterfeit impact factors","text":"Fake impact factors or bogus impact factors are produced by certain companies or individuals.[104] According to an article published in the Electronic Physician, these include Global Impact Factor, Citefactor, and Universal Impact Factor.[104] Jeffrey Beall maintained a list of such misleading metrics.[105][106] Another deceitful practice is reporting \"alternative impact factors\", calculated as the average number of citations per article using citation indices other than JCR such as Google Scholar (e.g., \"Google-based Journal Impact Factor\") or Microsoft Academic.[107]False impact factors are often used by predatory publishers.[108][109] Consulting Journal Citation Reports' master journal list can confirm if a publication is indexed by the Journal Citation Reports.[110] The use of fake impact metrics is considered a red flag.[111]","title":"Related indices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"\"'Quality Not Quantity' – DFG Adopts Rules to Counter the Flood of Publications in Research\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.dfg.de/en/service/press/press_releases/2010/pressemitteilung_nr_07/"},{"link_name":"German Research Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Research_Foundation"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-59"},{"link_name":"\"The Leiden Manifesto for Research Metrics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.leidenmanifesto.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-60"},{"link_name":"\"Plan S implementation guidelines\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.coalition-s.org/feedback/"}],"text":"^ \"'Quality Not Quantity' – DFG Adopts Rules to Counter the Flood of Publications in Research\" (Press release). Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation). 2010. DFG Press Release No. 7.\n\n^ \"The Leiden Manifesto for Research Metrics\". 2015.\n\n^ \"Plan S implementation guidelines\". February 2019.","title":"Notes on alternatives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Does the 'Impact Factor' Impact Decisions on Where to Publish?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200604/impact.cfm"},{"link_name":"American Physical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Physical_Society"},{"link_name":"\"Journal impact factor: a brief review\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1230709"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1230709","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1230709"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10551195","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10551195"},{"link_name":"\"UK science will be judged on impact\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2F468357a"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2010Natur.468..357G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010Natur.468..357G"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/468357a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2F468357a"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"21085146","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21085146"},{"link_name":"\"Dynamics of Journal Impact Factors\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.alexandria.unisg.ch/211639/1/Groesser_Dynamics%20of%20impact%20factors.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/sres.2142","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2Fsres.2142"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1801.08992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/1801.08992"},{"link_name":"cs.DL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/archive/cs.DL"},{"link_name":"\"What's Behind Big Science Frauds?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nytimes.com/2015/05/23/opinion/whats-behind-big-science-frauds.html"},{"link_name":"\"Journal & Country Rank: Rankings by Scopus and Scimago Lab\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.scimagojr.com/journalrank.php?wos=false"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Academic_publishing"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Academic_publishing"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Academic_publishing"},{"link_name":"Academic publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishing"},{"link_name":"Academic journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal"},{"link_name":"Scientific journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal"},{"link_name":"Public health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health_journal"},{"link_name":"Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_publishing#Scholarly_paper"},{"link_name":"Abstract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_(summary)"},{"link_name":"Review article","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_article"},{"link_name":"Position paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position_paper"},{"link_name":"Literature review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review"},{"link_name":"Grey literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_literature"},{"link_name":"Working paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_paper"},{"link_name":"White paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_paper"},{"link_name":"Technical report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_report"},{"link_name":"Annual report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_report"},{"link_name":"Pamphlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamphlet"},{"link_name":"Essay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essay"},{"link_name":"Lab notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-notebook_science"},{"link_name":"Thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesis"},{"link_name":"Collection of articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collection_of_articles"},{"link_name":"Patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"Biological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent"},{"link_name":"Chemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent"},{"link_name":"Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book"},{"link_name":"Monograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monograph"},{"link_name":"Chapter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_(books)"},{"link_name":"Poster session","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poster_session"},{"link_name":"Proceedings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings"},{"link_name":"Acknowledgment index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acknowledgment_index"},{"link_name":"Altmetrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altmetrics"},{"link_name":"Article-level metrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article-level_metrics"},{"link_name":"Author-level metrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author-level_metrics"},{"link_name":"Bibliometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliometrics"},{"link_name":"Citation impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_impact"},{"link_name":"Citation index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_index"},{"link_name":"Journal ranking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_ranking"},{"link_name":"Eigenfactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenfactor"},{"link_name":"h-index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-index"},{"link_name":"Impact factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"SCImago Journal Rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCImago_Journal_Rank"},{"link_name":"Scientometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics"},{"link_name":"Academic journal publishing reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal_publishing_reform"},{"link_name":"Open access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access"},{"link_name":"Citation advantage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access_citation_advantage"},{"link_name":"Serials crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serials_crisis"},{"link_name":"Sci-Hub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci-Hub"},{"link_name":"#ICanHazPDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICanHazPDF"},{"link_name":"Preprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preprint"},{"link_name":"Postprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postprint"},{"link_name":"Version of record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Version_of_record"},{"link_name":"Erratum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erratum"},{"link_name":"Retraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing"},{"link_name":"Indexes and search engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_databases_and_search_engines"},{"link_name":"Google Scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Scholar"},{"link_name":"AMiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMiner"},{"link_name":"BASE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASE_(search_engine)"},{"link_name":"CORE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORE_(research_service)"},{"link_name":"Semantic Scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Scholar"},{"link_name":"Scopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopus"},{"link_name":"Web of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Paperity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperity"},{"link_name":"OpenAlex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAlex"},{"link_name":"Imprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprint_(trade_name)"},{"link_name":"Scientific writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing"},{"link_name":"Peer review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review"},{"link_name":"Scholarly communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarly_communication"},{"link_name":"Scientific literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature"},{"link_name":"Learned society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society"},{"link_name":"Open research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_research"},{"link_name":"Open scientific data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data"},{"link_name":"ORCID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORCID"},{"link_name":"Electronic publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_publishing"},{"link_name":"Ingelfinger rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingelfinger_rule"},{"link_name":"Least publishable unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_publishable_unit"},{"link_name":"Publish or perish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publish_or_perish"},{"link_name":"Academic journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_academic_journals"},{"link_name":"Scientific journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_journals"},{"link_name":"Open-access journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open-access_journals"},{"link_name":"Academic databases and search engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_databases_and_search_engines"},{"link_name":"University presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_presses"},{"link_name":"Copyright policies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_policies_of_academic_publishers"},{"link_name":"Preprint policies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_publishers_by_preprint_policy"},{"link_name":"Style/formatting guides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_style_guides#Academic"},{"link_name":"Category:Academic publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Academic_publishing"},{"link_name":"Category:Scientific documents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Scientific_documents"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5330#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph262218&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"\"Does the 'Impact Factor' Impact Decisions on Where to Publish?\". APS News. 15 (4). American Physical Society. April 2006. Retrieved 1 July 2010.\nGarfield E (October 1999). \"Journal impact factor: a brief review\". CMAJ. 161 (8): 979–80. PMC 1230709. PMID 10551195.\nGilbert N (November 2010). \"UK science will be judged on impact\". Nature. 468 (7322): 357. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..357G. doi:10.1038/468357a. PMID 21085146.\nGroesser SN (2012). \"Dynamics of Journal Impact Factors\" (PDF). Systems Research and Behavioral Science. 29 (6): 624–644. doi:10.1002/sres.2142.\nLariviere V, Sugimoto CR (2018). \"The Journal Impact Factor: A brief history, critique, and discussion of adverse effects\". arXiv:1801.08992 [cs.DL].\nMarcus A, Oransky I (22 May 2015). \"What's Behind Big Science Frauds?\". Opinion. The New York Times.\n\"Journal & Country Rank: Rankings by Scopus and Scimago Lab\". Scopus and Scimago Lab. Scimago. Retrieved 23 October 2018.vteAcademic publishingJournals\nAcademic journal\nScientific journal\nPublic health\nPapers\nPaper\nAbstract\nReview article\nPosition paper\nLiterature review\nGrey literature\nWorking paper\nWhite paper\nTechnical report\nAnnual report\nPamphlet\nEssay\nLab notes\nOther publication types\nThesis\nCollection of articles\nPatent\nBiological\nChemical\nBook\nMonograph\nChapter\nPoster session\nProceedings\nImpact and ranking\nAcknowledgment index\nAltmetrics\nArticle-level metrics\nAuthor-level metrics\nBibliometrics\nCitation impact\nCitation index\nJournal ranking\nEigenfactor\nh-index\nImpact factor\nSCImago Journal Rank\nScientometrics\nReform and access\nAcademic journal publishing reform\nOpen access\nCitation advantage\nSerials crisis\nSci-Hub\n#ICanHazPDF\nVersioning\nPreprint\nPostprint\nVersion of record\nErratum\nRetraction\nIndexes and search engines\nGoogle Scholar\nAMiner\nBASE\nCORE\nSemantic Scholar\nScopus\nWeb of Science\nPaperity\nOpenAlex\nRelated topics\nImprint\nScientific writing\nPeer review\nScholarly communication\nScientific literature\nLearned society\nOpen research\nOpen scientific data\nORCID\nElectronic publishing\nIngelfinger rule\nLeast publishable unit\n\"Publish or perish\"\nLists\nAcademic journals\nScientific journals\nOpen-access journals\nAcademic databases and search engines\nUniversity presses\nCopyright policies\nPreprint policies\nStyle/formatting guides\nCategory:Academic publishing\nCategory:Scientific documentsAuthority control databases: National \nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Journal impact factors are influenced heavily by a small number of highly cited papers. Most papers published in 2013–14 received many fewer citations than indicated by the impact factor. Two journals (Nature [blue] and PLOS ONE [orange]) are shown to represent a highly cited and less cited journal, respectively. The high citation impact of Nature is derived from relatively few highly cited papers. Modified after Callaway 2016.[66]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Journal_impact_factor_Nature_Plos_One.png/440px-Journal_impact_factor_Nature_Plos_One.png"}] | [{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg"},{"title":"Science portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Science"},{"title":"Author impact factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author-level_metrics#Author_Impact_Factor"},{"title":"Citation impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_impact"},{"title":"Goodhart's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodhart%27s_law"},{"title":"Journalology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalology"}] | [{"reference":"\"'Quality Not Quantity' – DFG Adopts Rules to Counter the Flood of Publications in Research\" (Press release). Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation). 2010. DFG Press Release No. 7.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dfg.de/en/service/press/press_releases/2010/pressemitteilung_nr_07/","url_text":"\"'Quality Not Quantity' – DFG Adopts Rules to Counter the Flood of Publications in Research\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Research_Foundation","url_text":"German Research Foundation"}]},{"reference":"\"The Leiden Manifesto for Research Metrics\". 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leidenmanifesto.org/","url_text":"\"The Leiden Manifesto for Research Metrics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Plan S implementation guidelines\". February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.coalition-s.org/feedback/","url_text":"\"Plan S implementation guidelines\""}]},{"reference":"Waltman L, Traag VA (1 March 2021). \"Use of the journal impact factor for assessing individual articles: Statistically flawed or not?\". F1000Research. 9: 366. doi:10.12688/f1000research.23418.2. PMC 7974631. PMID 33796272.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7974631","url_text":"\"Use of the journal impact factor for assessing individual articles: Statistically flawed or not?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.12688%2Ff1000research.23418.2","url_text":"10.12688/f1000research.23418.2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7974631","url_text":"7974631"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33796272","url_text":"33796272"}]},{"reference":"Curry S (February 2018). \"Let's move beyond the rhetoric: it's time to change how we judge research\". Nature. 554 (7691): 147. Bibcode:2018Natur.554..147C. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-01642-w. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siftables | Siftable | ["1 See also","2 External links","3 References"] | Siftables are small computers that display graphics on their top surface and sense one another and how they are being moved. Siftables were developed as a platform for hands-on interactions with digital information and media and were the prototype for Sifteo cubes.
Siftables were created by David Merrill and Jeevan Kalanithi when they were graduate students at the MIT Media Lab. Merrill and Kalanithi are friends from their undergraduate years at Stanford, where they both majored in symbolic systems, Merrill focusing on human-computer interaction and Kalanithi on artificial intelligence and neuroscience.
Merrill and Kalanithi were surrounded by colleagues at the Media Lab who were working on wireless sensor networks (e.g. the Tribble project,) and tangible user interfaces (e.g. Topobo ). Merrill and Kalanithi wanted to create a general-purpose tangible user interface that leveraged the technologies of wireless sensor networks. From this idea came the idea of interactive tiles that would enable people to interact with collections of virtual objects—digital pictures, document files, etc.—in the same way that people interact with collections of small physical objects like LEGO —another common sight at the Media Lab.
The initial applications envisioned for Siftables were organizing personal media (digital photos, songs, videos) and facilitating business processes, such as coordinating people, distributing tasks, and creating Gantt charts.
Merrill was invited to present Siftables at the 2009 TED Conference, held in Long Beach / Palm Springs February 3–7, 2009. During his talk, he demonstrated several applications on Siftables: portraits that reacted to being placed next to one another, mixing colors from "paint buckets" on adjacent cubes, building the Fibonacci sequence with an arithmetic application, creating words by arranging individual letters, an interactive graphical narrative for children, and constructing a music sequence. The video of Merrill's TED talk quickly went viral once online, attracting over 1 million views. With this indication of widespread interest in the concept of Siftables, Merrill and Kalanithi decided to focus on developing Siftables into a retail product.
The transformation of Siftables into Sifteo cubes (the retail product sold by Sifteo, Inc.) required a complete re-implementation of code and hardware. While the underlying capabilities—the ability to sense tilting, shaking, rotation, and neighboring—of Siftables and Sifteo cubes are the same, the technology behind them is significantly different.
See also
Tangible User Interface
Distributed sensor network
Game console
Perceptual learning
External links
D. Merrill, J. Kalanithi and P. Maes. Siftables: Towards Sensor Network User Interfaces
TED Talks: David Merrill demos Siftables, the smart blocks at TED in 2009
MIT Media Labcast #20: Siftables
'Next gen UI: Learning tools and toys for the digital age.' Smart Planet, October 7, 2009.
The Science Channel Videos: PopSci's Future Of: Siftables October 27, 2009.
References
^ Tribble
^ Topobo
vteComputer sizes and classesMicroStaticAppliances
Arcade cabinet
Diskless node
Video game console
Home console
Microconsole
Internet appliance
Intelligent terminal
Interactive kiosk
Rich client
Simulator
Smart speaker
Smart TV
Thin client
ComputersBy use
Gaming
Home
Industrial
Personal
Personal super
Public
Server
Home server
Workstation
By size
All-in-one
Panel
Tabletop
Surface
Desktop
Deskside
Pizza box
Tower
Portable
Small form factor
Mini PC
Plug
Rack
Blade server
Blade PC
MobileLaptop
2-in-1
Convertible
Detachable
Cloudbook
Mobile workstation
Notebook
Subnotebook
Netbook
Smartbook
Handheld
Electronic organizer
E-reader
Handheld game console
Handheld PC
Mobile data terminal
Mobile phone
Camera
Feature
Smartphone
Palmtop PC
Personal digital assistant
Phablet
Pocket
Portable data terminal
Portable media player
Siftable
Tablet
Ultra-mobile PC
Virtual pet
Calculator
Graphing
Programmable
Scientific
Wearable
Activity tracker
Smart band
Digital wristwatch
Calculator watch
Smartwatch
Sportwatch
Smartglasses
Smart ring
Midrange
Mini
Supermini
Large
Grid
Mainframe
Minisuper
Super
Others
Embedded system
Information appliance
Microcontroller
Nano
Rugged
Rugged smartphone
Single-board
Computer-on-module
Smartdust
Wireless sensor network
Category | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//web.media.mit.edu/~dmerrill"},{"link_name":"Jeevan Kalanithi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090506170933/http://web.media.mit.edu/~jeevan/"},{"link_name":"MIT Media Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Media_Lab"},{"link_name":"symbolic systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_system"},{"link_name":"human-computer interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-computer_interaction"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"neuroscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience"},{"link_name":"wireless sensor networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_sensor_network"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"LEGO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEGO"},{"link_name":"personal media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_media"},{"link_name":"business processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process"},{"link_name":"Gantt charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gantt_chart"},{"link_name":"TED Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TED_(conference)"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number"},{"link_name":"retail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retail"},{"link_name":"Sifteo cubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sifteo_cubes"},{"link_name":"Sifteo, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sifteo.com"}],"text":"Siftables were created by David Merrill and Jeevan Kalanithi when they were graduate students at the MIT Media Lab. Merrill and Kalanithi are friends from their undergraduate years at Stanford, where they both majored in symbolic systems, Merrill focusing on human-computer interaction and Kalanithi on artificial intelligence and neuroscience.Merrill and Kalanithi were surrounded by colleagues at the Media Lab who were working on wireless sensor networks (e.g. the Tribble project,[1]) and tangible user interfaces (e.g. Topobo [2]). Merrill and Kalanithi wanted to create a general-purpose tangible user interface that leveraged the technologies of wireless sensor networks. From this idea came the idea of interactive tiles that would enable people to interact with collections of virtual objects—digital pictures, document files, etc.—in the same way that people interact with collections of small physical objects like LEGO —another common sight at the Media Lab.The initial applications envisioned for Siftables were organizing personal media (digital photos, songs, videos) and facilitating business processes, such as coordinating people, distributing tasks, and creating Gantt charts.Merrill was invited to present Siftables at the 2009 TED Conference, held in Long Beach / Palm Springs February 3–7, 2009. During his talk, he demonstrated several applications on Siftables: portraits that reacted to being placed next to one another, mixing colors from \"paint buckets\" on adjacent cubes, building the Fibonacci sequence with an arithmetic application, creating words by arranging individual letters, an interactive graphical narrative for children, and constructing a music sequence. The video of Merrill's TED talk quickly went viral once online, attracting over 1 million views. With this indication of widespread interest in the concept of Siftables, Merrill and Kalanithi decided to focus on developing Siftables into a retail product.The transformation of Siftables into Sifteo cubes (the retail product sold by Sifteo, Inc.) required a complete re-implementation of code and hardware. While the underlying capabilities—the ability to sense tilting, shaking, rotation, and neighboring—of Siftables and Sifteo cubes are the same, the technology behind them is significantly different.","title":"Siftable"}] | [] | [{"title":"Tangible User Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangible_User_Interface"},{"title":"Distributed sensor network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_sensor_network"},{"title":"Game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_console"},{"title":"Perceptual learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptual_learning"}] | [] | [{"Link":"http://web.media.mit.edu/~dmerrill","external_links_name":"David Merrill"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090506170933/http://web.media.mit.edu/~jeevan/","external_links_name":"Jeevan Kalanithi"},{"Link":"http://www.sifteo.com/","external_links_name":"Sifteo, Inc."},{"Link":"http://web.media.mit.edu/~dmerrill/publications/dmerrill_siftables.pdf","external_links_name":"Siftables: Towards Sensor Network User Interfaces"},{"Link":"http://www.ted.com/talks/view/id/457","external_links_name":"TED Talks: David Merrill demos Siftables, the smart blocks"},{"Link":"http://labcast.media.mit.edu/?p=25","external_links_name":"MIT Media Labcast #20: Siftables"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120128155405/http://www.smartplanet.com/video/next-gen-ui-learning-tools-and-toys-for-the-digital-age/349944","external_links_name":"'Next gen UI: Learning tools and toys for the digital age.'"},{"Link":"http://www.smartplanet.com/","external_links_name":"Smart Planet"},{"Link":"http://science.discovery.com/videos/popscis-future-of-siftables.html","external_links_name":"The Science Channel Videos: PopSci's Future Of: Siftables"},{"Link":"http://resenv.media.mit.edu/tribble/","external_links_name":"Tribble"},{"Link":"http://tangible.media.mit.edu/project/topobo/","external_links_name":"Topobo"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Br%C3%A9laz | Daniel Brélaz | ["1 Biography","2 References","3 Bibliography","4 External links"] | Swiss mathematician and politician
Daniel BrélazMember of the National Council of SwitzerlandIn office26 November 1979 – 15 December 1989ConstituencyCanton of VaudIn office3 December 2007 – 4 December 2011In office30 November 2015 – 17 February 2022
Personal detailsBorn (1950-01-04) 4 January 1950 (age 74)Lausanne, SwitzerlandPolitical partyGreen Party of Switzerland
Daniel Brélaz (born 4 January 1950, in Lausanne) is a Swiss mathematician and politician, member of the Green Party of Switzerland and mayor of Lausanne between 2001 and 2016.
In 1979, Daniel Brélaz became the first green representative elected to sit in a national parliament.
Biography
In 1979, Daniel Brélaz became the world first green member of a national parliament.
Brélaz received a degree in mathematics from École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in 1975, and afterwards taught mathematics. He is responsible for a well-known approximation algorithm for graph colouring.
In 1975, he joined the Group for the Protection of the Environment in Lausanne. In 1978 he was one of the first environmentalists elected to parliament, in the Grand Council of Vaud, and re-elected in 1982–1983.
From 1979 to 1989, Brélaz was the first environmentalist elected to sit in a national parliament, in the National Council of Switzerland.
In 1989, he was elected to the City Council of Lausanne where he was responsible for industrial services. On 25 November 2001, he became the trustee responsible for finance, and was re-elected in the first round of Vaud elections on 12 March 2006.
In 2007, he was elected again to the National Council. He resigned his seat on the Grand Council of Vaud but remained a trustee in Lausanne, and was criticized for maintaining this dual mandate. On 13 March 2011, he was re-elected in the first round of the Lausanne municipal elections with 11,503 votes in his favour.
Brélaz was elected in 2015 Swiss federal election and re-elected in 2019. A month after his election, he announced that he would retire from the National Council in 2022. His term officially ended on 17 February 2022 and was succeeded by Raphaël Mahaim.
Brélaz is vice-president of the Administrative Council for Public Transportation in the Region of Lausanne.
References
^ Brélaz (1979)
^ "Le Vert vaudois Daniel Brélaz quittera le Conseil national en mars 2022". Le Nouvelliste (in French). 30 December 2019.
Bibliography
Brélaz, Daniel (1979). "New methods to color the vertices of a graph". Communications of the ACM. 22 (4): 251–256. doi:10.1145/359094.359101.
Brélaz, Daniel (2019). L'avenir est plus que jamais notre affaire: l'impact des grandes disruptions. Lausanne: Favre. ISBN 978-2-8289-1803-3.
External links
Media related to Daniel Brélaz at Wikimedia Commons
Biography of Daniel Brélaz on the website of the Swiss Parliament.
Authority control databases International
VIAF
Academics
MathSciNet
Scopus
zbMATH
Other
IdRef | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lausanne"},{"link_name":"Swiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Green Party of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"mayor of Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Lausanne"},{"link_name":"green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_politics"}],"text":"Daniel Brélaz (born 4 January 1950, in Lausanne) is a Swiss mathematician and politician, member of the Green Party of Switzerland and mayor of Lausanne between 2001 and 2016.In 1979, Daniel Brélaz became the first green representative elected to sit in a national parliament.","title":"Daniel Brélaz"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Daniel_Br%C3%A9laz_(1982)_by_Erling_Mandelmann.jpg"},{"link_name":"green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_party"},{"link_name":"École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_polytechnique_f%C3%A9d%C3%A9rale_de_Lausanne"},{"link_name":"graph colouring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_colouring"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Vaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaud"},{"link_name":"National Council of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_of_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"2015 Swiss federal election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_Swiss_federal_election"},{"link_name":"2019","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Swiss_federal_election"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Retire-2"}],"text":"In 1979, Daniel Brélaz became the world first green member of a national parliament.Brélaz received a degree in mathematics from École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in 1975, and afterwards taught mathematics. He is responsible for a well-known approximation algorithm for graph colouring.[1]In 1975, he joined the Group for the Protection of the Environment in Lausanne. In 1978 he was one of the first environmentalists elected to parliament, in the Grand Council of Vaud, and re-elected in 1982–1983.\nFrom 1979 to 1989, Brélaz was the first environmentalist elected to sit in a national parliament, in the National Council of Switzerland.In 1989, he was elected to the City Council of Lausanne where he was responsible for industrial services. On 25 November 2001, he became the trustee responsible for finance, and was re-elected in the first round of Vaud elections on 12 March 2006.In 2007, he was elected again to the National Council. He resigned his seat on the Grand Council of Vaud but remained a trustee in Lausanne, and was criticized for maintaining this dual mandate. On 13 March 2011, he was re-elected in the first round of the Lausanne municipal elections with 11,503 votes in his favour.Brélaz was elected in 2015 Swiss federal election and re-elected in 2019. A month after his election, he announced that he would retire from the National Council in 2022.[2] His term officially ended on 17 February 2022 and was succeeded by Raphaël Mahaim.Brélaz is vice-president of the Administrative Council for Public Transportation in the Region of Lausanne.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"New methods to color the vertices of a graph\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F359094.359101"},{"link_name":"Communications of the ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_of_the_ACM"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/359094.359101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F359094.359101"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2-8289-1803-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8289-1803-3"}],"text":"Brélaz, Daniel (1979). \"New methods to color the vertices of a graph\". Communications of the ACM. 22 (4): 251–256. doi:10.1145/359094.359101.\nBrélaz, Daniel (2019). L'avenir est plus que jamais notre affaire: l'impact des grandes disruptions. Lausanne: Favre. ISBN 978-2-8289-1803-3.","title":"Bibliography"}] | [{"image_text":"In 1979, Daniel Brélaz became the world first green member of a national parliament.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Daniel_Br%C3%A9laz_%281982%29_by_Erling_Mandelmann.jpg"}] | null | [{"reference":"\"Le Vert vaudois Daniel Brélaz quittera le Conseil national en mars 2022\". Le Nouvelliste (in French). 30 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lenouvelliste.ch/articles/suisse/le-vert-vaudois-daniel-brelaz-quittera-le-conseil-national-en-mars-2022-891835","url_text":"\"Le Vert vaudois Daniel Brélaz quittera le Conseil national en mars 2022\""}]},{"reference":"Brélaz, Daniel (1979). \"New methods to color the vertices of a graph\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Systems_Biology | Institute for Systems Biology | ["1 Goals","2 Early history","3 Achievements","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"] | Institute for Systems BiologyCompany typeNon-profitIndustryBiologyFounded2000FounderLeroy Hood, Alan Aderem, Ruedi AebersoldHeadquartersSeattle, Washington, United StatesArea servedSystems BiologyKey peopleJames R. Heath, PhD, PresidentLeroy Hood, MD, PhD, Chief Strategy Officer and Co-founderNitin Baliga, PhD, Senior Vice President and DirectorNathan Price, PhD, Associate DirectorNumber of employees230Websitehttp://www.isbscience.org
This is the front entrance of Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle's South Lake Union neighborhood at 401 Terry Ave. N.
Institute for Systems Biology (ISB) is a non-profit research institution located in Seattle, Washington, United States. ISB concentrates on systems biology, the study of relationships and interactions between various parts of biological systems, and advocates an interdisciplinary approach to biological research.
Goals
Systems biology is the study of biological systems in a holistic manner by integrating data at all levels of the biological information hierarchy, from global down to the individual organism, and below down to the molecular level. The vision of ISB is to integrate these concepts using a cross-disciplinary approach combining the efforts of biologists, chemists, computer scientists, engineers, mathematicians, physicists, and physicians.
On its website, ISB has defined four areas of focus:
P4 Medicine - This acronym refers to predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory medicine, which focuses on wellness rather than mere treatment of disease.
Global Health - Use of the systems approach towards the study of infectious diseases, vaccine development, emergence of chronic diseases, and maternal and child health.
Sustainable Environment - Applying systems biology for a better understanding of the role of microbes in the environment and their relation to human health.
Education & Outreach - Knowledge transfer to society through a variety of educational programs and partnerships, including the spin out of new companies.
Early history
Leroy Hood, 2008
Alan Aderem, 2012
Ruedi Aebersold, 2012
Leroy Hood co-founded the Institute with Alan Aderem and Ruedi Aebersold in 2000.
However, the story of how ISB got started actually begins in 1990. Lee Hood was the director of a large molecular biotechnology lab at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, and was a key advisor in the Human Genome Project, having overseen development of machines that were instrumental to its later success. The University of Washington (UW), like many other universities, was eager to recruit Hood, but had neither the space nor the money to accommodate Hood's large laboratory.
Lee Huntsman, director of University of Washington's Center for Bioengineering, was attending a University of Washington football game, sharing a luxury box with Bill Gates, the former CEO and current chairman of Microsoft. Huntsman took the opportunity to tell Gates about Hood. Bill Gates already had a considerable interest in biotechnology, both as a philanthropist and as an investor, and after meeting Hood, donated $12 million to UW to enable him to head a new department of molecular biotechnology, where Hood continues to hold a faculty position as the Gates Professor of Molecular Biotechnology.
ISB represents a spin-off of Hood's labs at UW.
Achievements
ISB is in the top ranks of scientific institutions worldwide. In 2012, the SCImago Research Group, based in Spain, ranked ISB 4th worldwide on its Excellence Rate scale.
ISB currently hosts 12 research groups with expertise ranging across genetics, microbial genetics, complex molecular machines, macromolecular complexes, gene regulatory networks, immunology, molecular and cell biology, cancer biology, genomics, proteomics, protein chemistry, computational biology and biotechnology. The ISB website lists 985 peer-reviewed publications for the years 2000 through early 2012.
In late 2005, ISB began to emphasize the application of systems biology to P4 medicine (predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory), i.e. the development of techniques for predicting and preventing disease, possibly before patients even know they are sick. The P4 Medicine institute was co-founded in 2010 by ISB and Ohio State University.
On December 21, 2012, President Obama awarded 12 scientists, including Dr. Leroy Hood, the National Medal of Science, which the highest honor given by the U.S. government to scientists, engineers and inventors.
The Education and Outreach efforts of ISB include creating the Logan Center for Education whose mission is to enable educators to produce STEM literate students. ISB offers paid research internships for high school and undergraduate students, and offers advanced systems science courses throughout the year.
ISB partnered in several high-profile research projects, the most significant one thus far being with the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg to create the Center for Systems Biology Luxembourg and the Seattle Proteome Center.
ISB faculty members have launched several companies, including: Cytopeia (acquired by BD in 2008), Integrated Diagnostics, Macrogenics, NanoString Technologies, and Accelerator Corporation. Accelerator Corporation, in particular, is an investment company that provides venture capital funding and management for biotech startup companies. Its portfolio companies and graduates have focused on improved biotherapeutics, vaccines, biomarkers and other such products.
See also
List of systems sciences organizations
References
^ a b c "Institute for Systems Biology - Home". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ a b Hood, L.; Rowen, L.; Galas, D. J.; Aitchison, J. D. (2008). "Systems biology at the Institute for Systems Biology". Briefings in Functional Genomics and Proteomics. 7 (4): 239–248. doi:10.1093/bfgp/eln027. PMID 18579616.
^ "Institute for Systems Biology - Research". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ a b c Dietrich, Bill (9 February 1992). "Future Perfect -- Thanks To Bill Gates' $12-Million Endowment, Scientist Leroy Hood Continues His Search For A New Genetic Destiny". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "Department of Molecular Biotechnology". University of Washington. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "Revolutionary New Science". Institute for Science, Engineering and Public Policy. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "SCImago Research Group". SCImago Research Group. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
^ "Institute for Systems Biology - Publications". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "P4 Medicine Institute". Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ The White House. "Press Release: President Obama Honors Nation's Top Scientists and Innovators". obamawhitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-06.
^ "Logan Center for Education". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
^ Tartakoff, Joseph (5 June 2008). "Seattle, Luxembourg research projects set". Seattlepi.com (Seattle Post-Intelligencer). Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "Seattle Proteome Center". Seattle Proteome Center. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "Integrated Diagnostics". Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "Macrogenics". Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "NanoString". Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "Accelerator Corporation". Retrieved 17 March 2012.
External links
ISB website
Seattle Proteome Center
Authority control databases International
ISNI
VIAF
National
United States
Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISB_Headquarters_in_South_Lake_Union.jpg"},{"link_name":"non-profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit"},{"link_name":"Seattle, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISB-1"},{"link_name":"systems biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_biology"},{"link_name":"interdisciplinary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hood2008-2"}],"text":"This is the front entrance of Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle's South Lake Union neighborhood at 401 Terry Ave. N.Institute for Systems Biology (ISB) is a non-profit research institution located in Seattle, Washington, United States.[1] ISB concentrates on systems biology, the study of relationships and interactions between various parts of biological systems, and advocates an interdisciplinary approach to biological research.[2]","title":"Institute for Systems Biology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hood2008-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Systems biology is the study of biological systems in a holistic manner by integrating data at all levels of the biological information hierarchy, from global down to the individual organism, and below down to the molecular level. The vision of ISB is to integrate these concepts using a cross-disciplinary approach combining the efforts of biologists, chemists, computer scientists, engineers, mathematicians, physicists, and physicians.[2]On its website, ISB has defined four areas of focus:[3]P4 Medicine - This acronym refers to predictive, preventive, personalized and participatory medicine, which focuses on wellness rather than mere treatment of disease.\nGlobal Health - Use of the systems approach towards the study of infectious diseases, vaccine development, emergence of chronic diseases, and maternal and child health.\nSustainable Environment - Applying systems biology for a better understanding of the role of microbes in the environment and their relation to human health.\nEducation & Outreach - Knowledge transfer to society through a variety of educational programs and partnerships, including the spin out of new companies.","title":"Goals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leroy_Hood_podium_PITT2008.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aderem_00044.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ruedi_Aebersold_2012.JPG"},{"link_name":"Leroy Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leroy_Hood"},{"link_name":"Alan Aderem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Aderem"},{"link_name":"Ruedi Aebersold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruedi_Aebersold"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISB-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dietrich1992-4"},{"link_name":"California Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Human Genome Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dietrich1992-4"},{"link_name":"Bill Gates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dietrich1992-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UWBiotechnology-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISEPP_Hood-6"}],"text":"Leroy Hood, 2008Alan Aderem, 2012Ruedi Aebersold, 2012Leroy Hood co-founded the Institute with Alan Aderem and Ruedi Aebersold in 2000.[1]However, the story of how ISB got started actually begins in 1990.[4] Lee Hood was the director of a large molecular biotechnology lab at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, and was a key advisor in the Human Genome Project, having overseen development of machines that were instrumental to its later success. The University of Washington (UW), like many other universities, was eager to recruit Hood, but had neither the space nor the money to accommodate Hood's large laboratory.[4]Lee Huntsman, director of University of Washington's Center for Bioengineering, was attending a University of Washington football game, sharing a luxury box with Bill Gates, the former CEO and current chairman of Microsoft. Huntsman took the opportunity to tell Gates about Hood. Bill Gates already had a considerable interest in biotechnology, both as a philanthropist and as an investor, and after meeting Hood, donated $12 million to UW to enable him to head a new department of molecular biotechnology,[4] where Hood continues to hold a faculty position as the Gates Professor of Molecular Biotechnology.[5]ISB represents a spin-off of Hood's labs at UW.[6]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SCImago-7"},{"link_name":"genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"},{"link_name":"microbial genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbial_genetics"},{"link_name":"molecular machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_machine"},{"link_name":"gene regulatory networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_regulatory_networks"},{"link_name":"immunology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology"},{"link_name":"genomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics"},{"link_name":"proteomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomics"},{"link_name":"computational biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology"},{"link_name":"biotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ISB-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Ohio State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_State_University"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-P4-9"},{"link_name":"Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obama"},{"link_name":"Leroy Hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leroy_Hood"},{"link_name":"National Medal of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"STEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Luxembourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Luxembourg"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seattlepi2008-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SPC-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"NanoString Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NanoString_Technologies"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"ISB is in the top ranks of scientific institutions worldwide. In 2012, the SCImago Research Group, based in Spain, ranked ISB 4th worldwide on its Excellence Rate scale.[7]ISB currently hosts 12 research groups with expertise ranging across genetics, microbial genetics, complex molecular machines, macromolecular complexes, gene regulatory networks, immunology, molecular and cell biology, cancer biology, genomics, proteomics, protein chemistry, computational biology and biotechnology.[1] The ISB website lists 985 peer-reviewed publications for the years 2000 through early 2012.[8]In late 2005, ISB began to emphasize the application of systems biology to P4 medicine (predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory), i.e. the development of techniques for predicting and preventing disease, possibly before patients even know they are sick. The P4 Medicine institute was co-founded in 2010 by ISB and Ohio State University.[9]On December 21, 2012, President Obama awarded 12 scientists, including Dr. Leroy Hood, the National Medal of Science, which the highest honor given by the U.S. government to scientists, engineers and inventors. [10]The Education and Outreach efforts of ISB include creating the Logan Center for Education whose mission is to enable educators to produce STEM literate students.[11] ISB offers paid research internships for high school and undergraduate students, and offers advanced systems science courses throughout the year.ISB partnered in several high-profile research projects, the most significant one thus far being with the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg to create the Center for Systems Biology Luxembourg[12] and the Seattle Proteome Center.[13]ISB faculty members have launched several companies, including: Cytopeia (acquired by BD in 2008), Integrated Diagnostics,[14] Macrogenics,[15] NanoString Technologies,[16] and Accelerator Corporation.[17] Accelerator Corporation, in particular, is an investment company that provides venture capital funding and management for biotech startup companies. Its portfolio companies and graduates have focused on improved biotherapeutics, vaccines, biomarkers and other such products.","title":"Achievements"}] | [{"image_text":"This is the front entrance of Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle's South Lake Union neighborhood at 401 Terry Ave. N.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/ISB_Headquarters_in_South_Lake_Union.jpg/220px-ISB_Headquarters_in_South_Lake_Union.jpg"},{"image_text":"Leroy Hood, 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Leroy_Hood_podium_PITT2008.JPG/220px-Leroy_Hood_podium_PITT2008.JPG"},{"image_text":"Alan Aderem, 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aderem_00044.jpg/220px-Aderem_00044.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ruedi Aebersold, 2012","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ruedi_Aebersold_2012.JPG/220px-Ruedi_Aebersold_2012.JPG"}] | [{"title":"List of systems sciences organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_systems_sciences_organizations"}] | [{"reference":"\"Institute for Systems Biology - Home\". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isbscience.org/","url_text":"\"Institute for Systems Biology - Home\""}]},{"reference":"Hood, L.; Rowen, L.; Galas, D. J.; Aitchison, J. D. (2008). \"Systems biology at the Institute for Systems Biology\". Briefings in Functional Genomics and Proteomics. 7 (4): 239–248. doi:10.1093/bfgp/eln027. PMID 18579616.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbfgp%2Feln027","url_text":"\"Systems biology at the Institute for Systems Biology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbfgp%2Feln027","url_text":"10.1093/bfgp/eln027"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18579616","url_text":"18579616"}]},{"reference":"\"Institute for Systems Biology - Research\". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.systemsbiology.org/research","url_text":"\"Institute for Systems Biology - Research\""}]},{"reference":"Dietrich, Bill (9 February 1992). \"Future Perfect -- Thanks To Bill Gates' $12-Million Endowment, Scientist Leroy Hood Continues His Search For A New Genetic Destiny\". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19920209&slug=1474735","url_text":"\"Future Perfect -- Thanks To Bill Gates' $12-Million Endowment, Scientist Leroy Hood Continues His Search For A New Genetic Destiny\""}]},{"reference":"\"Department of Molecular Biotechnology\". University of Washington. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://nick-lab.gs.washington.edu/mbt-web/","url_text":"\"Department of Molecular Biotechnology\""}]},{"reference":"\"Revolutionary New Science\". Institute for Science, Engineering and Public Policy. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.isepp.org/Pages/01-02%20Pages/Hood.html","url_text":"\"Revolutionary New Science\""}]},{"reference":"\"SCImago Research Group\". SCImago Research Group. Retrieved 21 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scimago.es/index.php","url_text":"\"SCImago Research Group\""}]},{"reference":"\"Institute for Systems Biology - Publications\". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.systemsbiology.org/publications","url_text":"\"Institute for Systems Biology - Publications\""}]},{"reference":"\"P4 Medicine Institute\". Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://p4mi.org/","url_text":"\"P4 Medicine Institute\""}]},{"reference":"The White House. \"Press Release: President Obama Honors Nation's Top Scientists and Innovators\". obamawhitehouse.archives.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2012/12/21/president-obama-honors-nation-s-top-scientists-and-innovators","url_text":"\"Press Release: President Obama Honors Nation's Top Scientists and Innovators\""}]},{"reference":"\"Logan Center for Education\". Institute for Systems Biology. Retrieved 8 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://logancenter.systemsbiology.net/","url_text":"\"Logan Center for Education\""}]},{"reference":"Tartakoff, Joseph (5 June 2008). \"Seattle, Luxembourg research projects set\". Seattlepi.com (Seattle Post-Intelligencer). Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seattlepi.com/business/article/Seattle-Luxembourg-research-projects-set-1275714.php","url_text":"\"Seattle, Luxembourg research projects set\""}]},{"reference":"\"Seattle Proteome Center\". Seattle Proteome Center. Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.proteomecenter.org/","url_text":"\"Seattle Proteome Center\""}]},{"reference":"\"Integrated Diagnostics\". Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.integrated-diagnostics.com/","url_text":"\"Integrated Diagnostics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Macrogenics\". Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.macrogenics.com/","url_text":"\"Macrogenics\""}]},{"reference":"\"NanoString\". Retrieved 17 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nanostring.com/","url_text":"\"NanoString\""}]},{"reference":"\"Accelerator Corporation\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan | Puritans | ["1 Terminology","2 History","2.1 Elizabethan Puritanism","2.2 Caroline Puritanism","2.3 Jacobean Puritanism","2.4 Fragmentation and political failure","2.5 Great Ejection and Dissenters","2.6 Puritans in North America","3 Beliefs","3.1 Calvinism","3.2 Conversion","3.3 Worship and sacraments","3.4 Ecclesiology","3.5 Family life","3.6 Demonology and witch hunts","3.7 Millennialism","4 Cultural consequences","4.1 Education","4.2 Puritan scientists","4.3 Behavioral regulations","4.4 Religious toleration","5 Historiography","6 Notable Puritans","7 See also","8 References","8.1 Notes","8.2 Sources","9 Further reading","9.1 Puritan works"] | Subclass of English Reformed Protestants
"Puritan" redirects here. For other uses, see Puritan (disambiguation).
Part of a series onPuritansThe Puritan, an 1887 statue by Augustus Saint-Gaudens, in Springfield, Massachusetts
BackgroundChristianityProtestantismReformationEnglish ReformationCalvinismAnglicanismArminianismArminianism in the Church of EnglandEnglish DissentersIndependentsNonconformismEnglish PresbyterianismEcclesiastical separatism17th-century denominations in England
Crucial themesDefinitions of PuritanismImpropriationPuritan SabbatarianismMillennialismPuritan choirPuritan work ethicMerton thesis
HistoryHistory under Queen Elizabeth IHistory under King James IHistory under King Charles ICromwellian era and afterHistory in North America
ConfessionsWestminster Confession of FaithSavoy DeclarationCambridge Platform
EnglandScrooby CongregationTrial of Archbishop LaudMarian exilesVestments controversyMartin MarprelateMillenary PetitionGrand RemonstranceEnglish Civil WarEnglish RestorationAct of Uniformity 1662Great EjectionElizabethan Religious Settlement
AmericaProvidence Island CompanyMassachusetts Bay ColonySalem witch trialsImmigration to New EnglandCulture in New EnglandChristmas prohibitionPraying townHalf-Way CovenantAmerican exceptionalism
ElsewhereTroubles at Frankfurt
Notable individualsPeter BulkleyJohn BunyanWilliam BradfordAnne BradstreetJohn CottonOliver CromwellJohn EndecottJonathan EdwardsAnne HutchinsonCotton MatherIncrease MatherJames NoyesThomas ParkerRoger WilliamsJohn WinthropRobert Woodford
WorksThe Godly Man's PictureThe Pilgrim's ProgressParadise LostFoxe's Book of Martyrs
Continuing movementsCongregational churches (U.S.)other Reformed churches
vte
The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant. Puritanism played a significant role in English and early American history, especially during the Protectorate.
Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the English Reformation and with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with the Roman Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and corporate piety. Puritans adopted a covenant theology, and in that sense they were Calvinists (as were many of their earlier opponents). In church polity, Puritans were divided between supporters of episcopal, presbyterian, and congregational polities. Some believed a uniform reform of the established church was called for to create a godly nation, while others advocated separation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomous gathered churches, called-out from the world. These Separatist and Independents became more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church.
By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative, and with the Scottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646).
Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the 1662 Uniformity Act. Many continued to practice their faith in nonconformist denominations, especially in Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches. The nature of the Puritan movement in England changed radically. In New England, it retained its character for a longer period.
Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and the term Puritan itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into the doctrines of the Church of England; others were absorbed into the many Protestant denominations that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries in North America and Britain. The Congregational churches, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, are descended from the Puritans. Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in the Savoy Declaration, the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches.
Terminology
Gallery of famous 17th-century Puritan theologians: Thomas Gouge, William Bridge, Thomas Manton, John Flavel, Richard Sibbes, Stephen Charnock, William Bates, John Owen, John Howe and Richard Baxter
Main article: Definitions of Puritanism
In the 17th century, the word Puritan was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism. Originally, Puritan was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist. Thomas Fuller, in his Church History, dates the first use of the word to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and precisian with a sense similar to the modern stickler. Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England". As a term of abuse, Puritan was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to as Puritan called themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children".
"Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with the Reformation of the Church of England but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed "Nonconformists", "Separatists", or "separating Puritans", thought the Church of England was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense, the term Puritan includes both groups.
Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Quakers, Seekers, and Familists, who believed that individuals could be directly guided by the Holy Spirit. They gave precedence to direct revelation over the Bible.
In current English, puritan often means "against pleasure". In such usage, hedonism and puritanism are antonyms. William Shakespeare described the vain, pompous killjoy Malvolio in Twelfth Night as "a kind of Puritan". H. L. Mencken defined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy." Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage. Peter Gay writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed the Catholic veneration of virginity (associated with the Virgin Mary), citing Edward Taylor and John Cotton. One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife.
History
Main article: History of the Puritans
Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time.
Elizabethan Puritanism
Further information: History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I
The Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 established the Church of England as a Protestant church and brought the English Reformation to a close. During the reign of Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), the Church of England was widely considered a Reformed church, and Calvinists held the best bishoprics and deaneries. Nevertheless, it preserved certain characteristics of medieval Catholicism, such as cathedrals, church choirs, a formal liturgy contained in the Book of Common Prayer, traditional clerical vestments, and episcopal polity.
Many English Protestants — especially those former Marian exiles returning to England to work as clergy and bishops — considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church. The years of exile during the Marian Restoration had exposed them to the practices of the Continental Reformed churches. The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and the authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing of metrical psalms. Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make the sign of the cross in baptism, or to use wedding rings or the organ.
Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the white surplice and clerical cap. Puritan clergymen preferred to wear black academic attire. During the vestments controversy, church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy.
In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt presbyterian polity, under which government by bishops would be replaced with government by elders. But all attempts to enact further reforms through Parliament were blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such as John Field and Thomas Cartwright continued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network was discovered and dismantled during the Marprelate controversy of the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform.
Caroline Puritanism
Further information: History of the Puritans under Charles I
Jacobean Puritanism
Further information: History of the Puritans under James I
The accession of James I to the English throne brought the Millenary Petition, a Puritan manifesto of 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called the Hampton Court Conference in 1604, and heard the teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, including Laurence Chaderton, but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing an eirenic religious policy, in which he was arbiter.
Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably James Montague, who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the Book of Common Prayer, but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion. Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of the revised Book of Common Prayer.
The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings of William Bradshaw (who adopted the term "Puritan" for himself), and the beginnings of Congregationalism. Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left the Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer.
Fragmentation and political failure
Further information: History of the Puritans from 1649
The Westminster Assembly, which saw disputes on Church polity in England (Victorian history painting by John Rogers Herbert).
The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time. The Fifth Monarchy Men, a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy like Vavasor Powell, agitated from the right wing of the movement, even as sectarian groups like the Ranters, Levellers, and Quakers pulled from the left. The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity.
The Westminster Assembly was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly was able to agree to the Westminster Confession of Faith doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The Directory of Public Worship was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the Westminster Standards) was adopted by the Church of Scotland. In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660.
The Westminster Divines, on the other hand, were divided over questions of church polity and split into factions supporting a reformed episcopacy, presbyterianism, congregationalism, and Erastianism. The membership of the Assembly was strongly weighted towards the Presbyterians, but Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and an independent Congregationalist Separatist who imposed his doctrines upon them. The Church of England of the Interregnum (1649–60) was run along Presbyterian lines but never became a national Presbyterian church, such as existed in Scotland. England was not the theocratic state which leading Puritans had called for as "godly rule".
Great Ejection and Dissenters
Further information: History of the Puritans from 1649
At the time of the English Restoration in 1660, the Savoy Conference was called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under the Act of Uniformity 1662, the Church of England was restored to its pre-Civil War constitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historian Calamy is that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the "Great Ejection" of 1662. At this point, the term "Dissenter" came to include "Puritan", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who "dissented" from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.
The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according to Richard Baxter. The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using the Clarendon Code. There followed a period in which schemes of "comprehension" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. The Whigs opposed the court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when the Toleration Act was passed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution in 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term "Nonconformist" generally replaced the term "Dissenter" from the middle of the 18th century.
Puritans in North America
Further information: History of the Puritans in North America
Interior of the Old Ship Church, a Puritan meetinghouse in Hingham, Massachusetts. Puritans were Calvinists, so their churches were unadorned and plain.
Some Puritans left for New England, particularly from 1629 to 1640 (the Eleven Years' Tyranny under King Charles I), supporting the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in the United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants. This so-called "Great Migration" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated to Virginia and the Caribbean during this time, many as indentured servants. The rapid growth of the New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies.
Death's head, Granary Burying Ground. A typical example of early Funerary art in Puritan New England
Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation of John Cotton and Richard Mather, 1630–62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development; the generation of Increase Mather, 1662–89 from the Restoration and the Halfway Covenant to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation of Cotton Mather, 1689–1728 from the overthrow of Edmund Andros (in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather. Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be God's agency in social life.
The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation. In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world.
By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them). The Puritans also set up a college (now Harvard University) only six years after arriving in Boston.
Beliefs
Calvinism
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Main article: Calvinism
Puritanism broadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to the Continental Reformed tradition. While Puritans did not agree on all doctrinal points, most shared similar views on the nature of God, human sinfulness, and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based on the Bible, which they considered to be divinely inspired.
The concept of covenant was extremely important to Puritans, and covenant theology was central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologians John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger, covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologians Dudley Fenner, William Perkins, John Preston, Richard Sibbes, William Ames and, most fully by Ames's Dutch student, Johannes Cocceius. Covenant theology asserts that when God created Adam and Eve he promised them eternal life in return for perfect obedience; this promise was termed the covenant of works. After the fall of man, human nature was corrupted by original sin and unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in the Ten Commandments. As sinners, every person deserved damnation.
Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in double predestination, that some people (the elect) were destined by God to receive grace and salvation while others were destined for Hell. No one, however, could merit salvation. According to covenant theology, Christ's sacrifice on the cross made possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace—God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused.
Conversion
Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical" but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into by faith. Therefore, being a Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed "that the effectual call of each elect saint of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises".
The process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life (regeneration) was described as conversion. Early on, Puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election.
The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection, Bible study and listening to preaching. This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness. It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine mercy—that the person would experience justification, when the righteousness of Christ is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again.
Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. Historian Perry Miller wrote that the Puritans "liberated men from the treadmill of indulgences and penances, but cast them on the iron couch of introspection". It was expected that conversion would be followed by sanctification—"the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life". Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith by keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal piety and sanctification. These included Arthur Dent's The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven (1601), Richard Rogers's Seven Treatises (1603), Henry Scudder's Christian's Daily Walk (1627) and Richard Sibbes's The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax (1630).
Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close to Arminianism, and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized as Antinomianism. Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition.
Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by the evangelical Protestants of the 18th century. While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was "rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted.
Worship and sacraments
Further information: Reformed baptismal theology
While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In the 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of the Morning Prayer service in the Book of Common Prayer. This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within the prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear the surplice, and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers.
The sermon was central to Puritan piety. It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion. On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching. Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles. Puritans were distinct for their adherence to Sabbatarianism.
Puritans taught that there were two sacraments: baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice of infant baptism. However, the effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion of baptismal regeneration. In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology—baptism replaced circumcision as a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into the visible church. It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that the grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life. Puritans wanted to do away with godparents, who made baptismal vows on behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making the sign of the cross in baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied the sacrament contributed to salvation.
Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic (transubstantiation) and Lutheran (sacramental union) teachings that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine of real spiritual presence, believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement with Thomas Cranmer, the Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink". They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied adoration of the Eucharist, a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised the Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and better church discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament.
Puritans did not believe confirmation was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have the time to examine them properly. The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride "with my body I thee worship", which Puritans considered blasphemous. In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground "in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as "we commit his body believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment."
Puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the Psalms was considered appropriate (see Exclusive psalmody). Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of Worcester Cathedral in 1642.
Ecclesiology
Polemical popular print with a Catalogue of Sects, 1647.
While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues of ecclesiology and church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether established national churches were scriptural. On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters of episcopal polity, presbyterian polity and congregational polity.
The episcopalians (known as the prelatical party) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches. They also supported the idea of having a Book of Common Prayer, but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching, pastoral care and Christian discipline within the Church of England.
Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of the Church of Scotland. They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and laity (local sessions, presbyteries, synods, and ultimately a national general assembly). During the Interregnum, the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. The Westminster Assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but the Long Parliament left implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy.
Congregationalists or Independents believed in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be a congregation of "visible saints" (meaning those who had experienced conversion). Members would be required to abide by a church covenant, in which they "pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth". Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore, the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant.
Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. The New England Congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it no Christian church at all. These groups, such as the Brownists, would split from the established church and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions on separation of church and state and believer's baptism, becoming early Baptists.
Family life
The Snake in the Grass or Satan Transform'd to an Angel of Light, title page engraved by Richard Gaywood, c. 1660
Based on Biblical portrayals of Adam and Eve, Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation. Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority. Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility.
Thomas Gataker describes Puritan marriage as:
... together for a time as copartners in grace here, they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter.
The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing. With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands. Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality. In her poem titled "In Reference to her Children", poet Anne Bradstreet reflects on her role as a mother:
I had eight birds hatched in one nest; Four cocks there were, and hens the rest. I nursed them up with pain and care, Nor cost nor labour I did spare.
Bradstreet alludes to the temporality of motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home. While Puritans praised the obedience of young children, they also believed that, by separating children from their mothers at adolescence, children could better sustain a superior relationship with God. A child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience. Girls carried the additional burden of Eve's corruption and were catechised separately from boys at adolescence. Boys' education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles, while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes. The pinnacle of achievement for children in Puritan society, however, occurred with the conversion process.
Puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child. Just as parents were expected to uphold Puritan religious values in the home, masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants. Older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury. African-American and Indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits.
Demonology and witch hunts
Further information: Christian demonology
Like most Christians in the early modern period, Puritans believed in the active existence of the devil and demons as evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women. There was also widespread belief in witchcraft and witches—persons in league with the devil. "Unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock, human disease, and hideous fits suffered by young and old" may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch.
Puritan pastors undertook exorcisms for demonic possession in some high-profile cases. Exorcist John Darrell was supported by Arthur Hildersham in the case of Thomas Darling. Samuel Harsnett, a sceptic on witchcraft and possession, attacked Darrell. However, Harsnett was in the minority, and many clergy, not only Puritans, believed in witchcraft and possession.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of people throughout Europe were accused of being witches and executed. In England and Colonial America, Puritans engaged in witch hunts as well. In the 1640s, Matthew Hopkins, the self-proclaimed "Witchfinder General", whose career flourished during Puritan rule, was responsible for accusing over two hundred people of witchcraft, mainly in East Anglia. Between 1644 and 1647, Hopkins and his colleague John Stearne sent more accused people to the gallows than all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years. In New England, few people were accused and convicted of witchcraft before 1692; there were at most sixteen convictions.
The Salem witch trials of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of the Massachusetts colony, Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time Governor William Phips ended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.
Millennialism
Further information: Christian eschatology
Puritan millennialism has been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation of biblical prophecy, for which representative figures of the period were Johannes Piscator, Thomas Brightman, Joseph Mede, Johannes Heinrich Alsted, and John Amos Comenius. Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological views on an historicist interpretation of the Book of Revelation and the Book of Daniel. Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases the world must pass through before the Last Judgment could occur and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase but eventually the church's enemies—the Antichrist (identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and the Ottoman Empire—would be defeated. Based on Revelation 20, it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Christ on earth.
In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for "God's remote plans for the world and man", Puritans understood it to describe "the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin". On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and the Thirty Years' War were interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism; Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before the Second Coming of Christ. Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that the conversion of the Jews to Christianity was an important sign of the apocalypse.
Cultural consequences
Pilgrims Going to Church by George Henry Boughton (1867)
Further information: New England Puritan culture and recreation
Some strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained. Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal. Anne Hutchinson (1591–1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.
Education
Further information: History of education in the United States
Cotton Mather, influential New England Puritan minister, portrait by Peter Pelham
At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 per cent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy. In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire a grammar school instructor to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort's Boston Latin School was the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts". Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such as Harvard (founded in 1636) or Yale (founded in 1707). Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases were sent to England or Scotland.
Puritan scientists
The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. Similar to Max Weber's famous claim on the link between the Protestant work ethic and the capitalist economy, Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism, as well as German Pietism, and early experimental science. As an example, seven of 10 nucleus members of the Royal Society were Puritans. In the year 1663, 62 per cent of the members of the Royal Society were similarly identified. The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.
Behavioral regulations
1659 public notice in Boston deeming Christmas illegal
Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life. Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration of Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide. Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast". They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers). During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place in England, protests occurred over the repressiveness of the Puritan regime. Pro-Christmas rioting broke out across England, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret. Following the restoration in 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England. Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659. The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including the branding iron, the whipping post, the bilboes and the hangman's noose. Swearing and blasphemy were illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy—defined as "a cursing of God by atheism, or the like"—punishable by death.
Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of the Sabbath. In an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans, James I's Book of Sports (1618) permitted Christians to play football every Sunday afternoon after worship. When the Puritans established themselves in power, football was among the sports that were banned: boys caught playing on Sunday could be prosecuted. Football was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. Other forms of leisure and entertainment were completely forbidden on moral grounds. For example, Puritans were universally opposed to blood sports such as bearbaiting and cockfighting because they involved unnecessary injury to God's creatures. For similar reasons, they also opposed boxing. These sports were illegal in England during Puritan rule.
While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing and gambling were banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women—which Mather condemned as "promiscuous dancing"—because it was thought to lead to fornication. Folk dance that did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate. The branle dance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted. In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.
Puritans condemned the sexualization of the theatre and its associations with depravity and prostitution—London's theatres were located on the south side of the Thames, which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre was William Prynne's book Histriomastix which marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the "sin" of dramatic performance. Puritan authorities shut down English theatres in the 1640s and 1650s—Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was demolished—and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies. In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses. With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane in the West End, opened in 1663. The puppet show Punch and Judy, dominated by the anarchic Mr Punch, made its first recorded appearance in England in May 1662, with show historian Glyn Edwards stating the character of Punch "went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years of Puritanism ... he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority".
Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation. However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America. Laws in Massachusetts in 1634 banned the "abominable" practice of individuals toasting each other's health. William Prynne, the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject, Health's Sicknesse (1628), that "this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself."
19th-century portrayal of the burning of William Pynchon's banned book on Boston Common after it was deemed blasphemous by the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
In 1649, English colonist William Pynchon, the founder of Springfield, Massachusetts, wrote a critique of Puritanical Calvinism, entitled The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption. Published in London in 1650, when the book reached Boston it was immediately burned on Boston Common and the colony pressed Pynchon to return to England which he did. The censorious nature of the Puritans and the region they inhabited would lead to the phrase "banned in Boston" being coined in the late 19th century, a phrase which was applied to Boston up to the mid-20th century.
Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God. Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with 1 Corinthians 7 and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities. Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence. Puritans publicly punished drunkenness and sexual relations outside marriage. Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated. Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed. While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin. Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death" and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery. Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality. Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom".
Religious toleration
Puritan rule in England was marked by limited religious toleration. The Toleration Act of 1650 repealed the Act of Supremacy, Act of Uniformity, and all laws making recusancy a crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.
The 1653 Instrument of Government guaranteed that in matters of religion "none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation". Religious freedom was given to "all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ". However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion during the Protectorate. In London, those attending Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet. Quakers were allowed to publish freely and hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organising tithe-strikes against the state church.
Quaker Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660, by an unknown 19th century artist
In New England, where Congregationalism was the official religion, the Puritans exhibited intolerance of other religious views, including Quaker, Anglican and Baptist theologies. The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were the most active of the New England persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was shared by the Plymouth Colony and the colonies along the Connecticut river.
Four Quakers, known as the Boston martyrs, were executed. The first two of the four Boston martyrs were executed by the Puritans on 27 October 1659, and in memory of this, 27 October is now International Religious Freedom Day to recognise the importance of freedom of religion. In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was English Quaker Mary Dyer, who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony. The hanging of Dyer on Boston Common marked the beginning of the end of the Puritan theocracy. In 1661, King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism. In 1684, England revoked the Massachusetts charter, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad Toleration Act.
Anti-Catholic sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers. In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty.
Historiography
Second version of The Puritan, a late 19th-century sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens
Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such as Perry Miller have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation of modernity itself, from England's Scientific Revolution to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century, Max Weber argued in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that Calvinist self-denial resulted in a Protestant work ethic that nurtured the development of capitalism in Europe and North America. Puritan authors such as John Milton, John Bunyan, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.
A debate continues on the definition of "Puritanism". English historian Patrick Collinson argues that "There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship." Puritanism "was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory." Historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.
The analysis of "mainstream Puritanism" in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist and antinomian groups that did not flourish, and others that continue to this day, such as Baptists and Quakers, can suffer in this way. The national context (England and Wales, as well as the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland) frames the definition of Puritans, but was not a self-identification for those Protestants who saw the progress of the Thirty Years' War from 1620 as directly bearing on their denomination, and as a continuation of the religious wars of the previous century, carried on by the English Civil Wars. English historian Christopher Hill writes of the 1630s, old church lands, and the accusations that William Laud was a crypto-Catholic:
To the heightened Puritan imagination it seemed that, all over Europe, the lamps were going out: the Counter-Reformation was winning back property for the church as well as souls: and Charles I and his government, if not allied to the forces of the Counter-Reformation, at least appeared to have set themselves identical economic and political objectives.
Notable Puritans
Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland
Main article: List of Puritans
John Brockett was a founder of New Haven, Connecticut.
Peter Bulkley was an influential Puritan minister and founder of Concord.
John Bunyan was famous for The Pilgrim's Progress.
William Bradford was Plymouth Colony's Governor.
Anne Bradstreet was the first female to have her works published in the British North American colonies.
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and eventually became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was a very religious man and was considered an independent Puritan.
John Endecott was the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and an important military leader.
Jonathan Edwards, evangelical preacher who sparked the First Great Awakening
Thomas Hooker was a Puritan minister and co-founder of the Connecticut Colony.
Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan woman noted for speaking freely about her religious views, which resulted in her banishment from Massachusetts Bay Colony.
John Milton is regarded as among the greatest English poets; author of epics like Paradise Lost, and dramas like Samson Agonistes. He was a staunch supporter of Cromwell.
James Noyes was an influential Puritan minister, teacher and founder of Newbury.
Philip Nye (minister) was the key adviser to Oliver Cromwell on matters of religion and regulation of the Church.
Thomas Parker was an influential Puritan minister, teacher and founder of Newbury.
John Winthrop is noted for his sermon "A Model of Christian Charity" and as a leading figure in founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Robert Woodford was an English lawyer, largely based at Northampton and London. His diary for the period 1637–1641 records in detail the outlook of an educated Puritan.
See also
Christianity in the 16th century
Christianity in the 17th century
Plymouth Rock
Restorationism
Work ethic
References
Notes
^ Spraggon 2003, p. 98.
^ Cliffe 2002, p. 195.
^ Miller 2008, p. 296: "Congregationalists were theologically descended directly from the Puritans of England and consequently enjoyed pride of place as one of the oldest, most numerous, and most significant religious groups in the colonies."
^ Morris, John W. (2011). The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History. Author House. p. 438.
^ Bremer & Webster 2006.
^ Spurr 1998, p. 3.
^ The A to Z of the Puritans. Scarecrow Press. 2008. p. 250.
^ a b Spurr 1998, p. 4.
^ Spurr 1998, p. 18.
^ Trickler, C. Jack (2010). A Layman's Guide To: Why Are There So Many Christian Denominations?. Author House. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-4490-4578-4. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2012 – via Google Books.
^ Nuttall 1992, p. 9.
^ Spurr 1998, p. 7.
^ Mencken, H. L. (1916). A Book of Burlesques. Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy
^ Hagberg, Garry L. (2018). Stanley Cavell on Aesthetic Understanding. Springer. p. 125.
^ Fitzpatrick, Vincent (2004). H. L. Mencken. Mercer University Press. p. 37.
^ Gay 1984, p. 49.
^ Coffin 1987.
^ Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 3–4.
^ Craig 2008, p. 36.
^ a b Craig 2008, p. 37.
^ Craig 2008, pp. 43–44.
^ Craig 2008, pp. 39–40.
^ Craig 2008, p. 42.
^ Neil, Daniel (1844). The History of the Puritans, Or Protestant Noncomformists: From the Reformation in 1517, to the Revolution in 1688; Comprising an Account of Their Principles; Their Attempts for a Farther Reformation in the Church; Their Sufferings; and the Lives and Characters of Their Most Considerable Divines. Vol. 1. p. 246. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016 – via Google Books.
^ Spurr 1998, Chapter 5.
^ Milton 1997.
^ Hill 1972.
^ Kelly 1992.
^ Benedetto & McKim 2010, pp. 521–522.
^ Lamont 1969.
^ a b Lee, Sidney, ed. (1897). "Calamy, Edmund (1671–1732)" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 51. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 63–65.
^ Leighton 2004, p. 196.
^ Fischer 1989.
^ "The Puritans: A Sourcebook of Their Writings Archived 16 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine". Perry Miller and Thomas H. Johnson.
^ "Leaving England: The Social Background of Indentured Servants in the Seventeenth Century Archived 6 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine", The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
^ Bremer, Francis J. (1995). The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards.
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^ Osgood, Herbert L. (7 August 1891). "The Political Ideas of the Puritans". Political Science Quarterly. 6 (1): 1–28. doi:10.2307/2139228. JSTOR 2139228.
^ Axtell, James (1976). The School upon a Hill: Education and Society in Colonial New England.
^ McCullough, David (22 May 2001). John Adams. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 223. ISBN 0-684-81363-7.
^ a b Bremer 2009, pp. 81–82.
^ a b c Fischer 1989, pp. 132–134.
^ Copeland, David A. (2000). Debating the Issues in Colonial Newspapers. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. viii. ISBN 0-313-30982-5.
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^ Rudolph, Frederick (1961). The American College and University. University of Georgia Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-8203-1285-1.
^ Ahlstrom 2004, p. 125.
^ Bremer 2009, p. 35.
^ Ahlstrom 2004, pp. 130–131.
^ Bremer 2009, pp. 37–38.
^ Bremer 2009, p. 40.
^ a b c Bremer 2009, p. 42.
^ Ahlstrom 2004, p. 131.
^ a b c d Ahlstrom 2004, p. 132.
^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 43.
^ a b Ahlstrom 2004, p. 128.
^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 44.
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^ Spurr 1998, pp. 29–30.
^ Spurr 1998, p. 37.
^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 59.
^ Spurr 1998, p. 38.
^ Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 4.
^ Spurr 1998, pp. 31–32.
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^ a b Spurr 1998, p. 32.
^ Beeke & Jones 2012, "The True Meaning of the Lord's Supper", Amazon Kindle location 28097–28107.
^ White 1999, p. 49.
^ a b Spurr 1998, p. 33.
^ Bremer 2009, p. 65.
^ "Worcester Cathedral welcomes you to their Website". Worcestercathedral.co.uk. 20 February 2010. Archived from the original on 23 August 2010. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
^ a b c Bremer 2009, p. 69.
^ Bremer 2009, p. 72.
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^ Johnson 1970, p. 93.
^ Ulrich 1976, p. 37.
^ Demos 1970.
^ a b Saxton 2003, p. 82.
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^ Demos 1970, pp. 107–117.
^ Bremer 2009, p. 30.
^ Bremer & Webster 2006, p. 584.
^ "Scott, Reginald" . Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900.
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^ Bremer 2009, pp. 30–32.
^ Hotson 2000, p. 173.
^ Maclear 1975, pp. 225–226.
^ a b Bremer 2009, p. 76.
^ Maclear 1975, p. 226.
^ Maclear 1975, p. 227.
^ Maclear 1975, p. 229.
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^ Bremer 1981.
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^ Cohen, 1990
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^ a b Gentles, I. J. (2014). The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, 1638-1652. Taylor & Francis. p. 329.
^ a b "When Christmas carols were banned". BBC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
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^ Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2016). The Encyclopedia of World Folk Dance. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 30.
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^ "From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered". The Stage.co.uk. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
^ "Punch and Judy around the world". The Telegraph. 2 June 2024.
^ West 2003, pp. 68ff.
^ a b "Cheers: Celebration Drinking Is an Ancient Tradition". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
^ "Springfield's 375th: From Puritans to presidents". MassLive.com. 9 May 2011. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
^ Miller, Neil (13 October 2010). Banned in Boston: The Watch and Ward Society's Crusade against Books, Burlesque, and the Social Evil. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5113-9. Retrieved 26 January 2023.
^ Lewis (1969, pp. 116–117): "On many questions and specially in view of the marriage bed, the Puritans were the indulgent party, ... they were much more Chestertonian than their adversaries . The idea that a Puritan was a repressed and repressive person would have astonished Sir Thomas More and Luther about equally."
^ Foster 1999, p. 724.
^ Foster 1999, pp. 726–727.
^ a b Crandell 1997, p. 20. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrandell1997 (help)
^ Crompton 1976, p. 281. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrompton1976 (help)
^ Chicago Whispers: A History of LGBT Chicago before Stonewall. University of Wisconsin Press. 2012. p. 248.
^ Mather 1663–1728, p. 70. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMather1663–1728 (help)
^ Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 80.
^ a b Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 81.
^ Coffey & Lim 2008, p. 83.
^ Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 83–84: "But it was not for their heterodox theology or their own open meetings that they were arrested and mistreated. It was for disrupting services in what they insisted on calling ‘steeple-houses’ rather than churches; that, or for organising tithe-strikes aimed directly and specifically to undermine the state church."
^ a b Rogers, Horatio, 2009. Mary Dyer of Rhode Island: The Quaker Martyr That Was Hanged on Boston Archived 15 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine pp. 1–2. BiblioBazaar, LLC
^ Post Abbott, Margery (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers). Scarecrow Press. pp. 102. ISBN 978-0-8108-7088-8. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016 – via Google Books.
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^ Carroll, Rory (25 February 2016). "America's dark and not-very-distant history of hating Catholics". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016.
^ Pat, Perrin (1 January 1970). Crime and Punishment: The Colonial Period to the New Frontier. Discovery Enterprises. p. 24.
^ Mahoney, Kathleen A. (10 September 2003). Catholic Higher Education in Protestant America: The Jesuits and Harvard in the Age of the University. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 47.
^ Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 7–8.
^ Bremer 2009, p. 2.
^ Spurr (1998, p. 4) cites and quotes Collinson (1988, p. 143)
^ Spurr (1998, p. 27) cites and quotes Patrick Collinson, "Fundamental Objections", Times Literary Supplement (17–23 February 1989), p. 156.
^ Hill, Christopher (1971). Economic Problems of the Church. p. 337.
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Demos, John (1970). A Little Commonwealth; Family Life in Plymouth Colony. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-501355-9.
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Further reading
Look up puritans in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Puritans.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Puritanism.
Bremer, Francis J. Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.
Eicholz, Hans (2008). "Puritanism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 407–408. ISBN 978-1412965804. OCLC 750831024.
Giussani, Luigi. American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch. McGill-Queens UP (2013).
Hall, David D. (2019). The Puritans: A Transatlantic History. Princeton University Press. H-Net online review.
Neuman, Meredith Marie (2013). Jeremiah's Scribes: Creating Sermon Literature in Puritan New England. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Winship, Michael P. (2018). Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press.
Puritan works
Dent, Arthur (1601). The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven. Belfast, North of Ireland Bk. Tract Depository.
Rogers, Richard (1610). Seven Treatises.
Scudder, Henry (1627). Christian's Daily Walk (PDF).
Sibbes, Richard (1620). The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax.
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Puritan (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestants"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpraggon200398-1"},{"link_name":"the Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"English Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation"},{"link_name":"doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctrine"},{"link_name":"piety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piety"},{"link_name":"covenant theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_theology"},{"link_name":"Calvinists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinists"},{"link_name":"episcopal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_polity"},{"link_name":"presbyterian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_polity"},{"link_name":"congregational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_polity"},{"link_name":"established church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Established_church"},{"link_name":"gathered churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathered_church"},{"link_name":"Separatist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Dissenters"},{"link_name":"Independents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_(religion)"},{"link_name":"Westminster Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Assembly"},{"link_name":"royal prerogative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_prerogative"},{"link_name":"Scottish Presbyterians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"First English Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_English_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"restoration of the monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Restoration"},{"link_name":"1662 Uniformity Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1662"},{"link_name":"nonconformist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"Congregationalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church"},{"link_name":"Presbyterian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECliffe2002195-2"},{"link_name":"longer period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_in_North_America"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Savoy Declaration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoy_Declaration"},{"link_name":"confession of faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremerWebster2006-5"}],"text":"\"Puritan\" redirects here. For other uses, see Puritan (disambiguation).The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid the Church of England of what they considered to be Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant.[1] Puritanism played a significant role in English and early American history, especially during the Protectorate.Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of the English Reformation and with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with the Roman Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of worship and doctrine, as well as personal and corporate piety. Puritans adopted a covenant theology, and in that sense they were Calvinists (as were many of their earlier opponents). In church polity, Puritans were divided between supporters of episcopal, presbyterian, and congregational polities. Some believed a uniform reform of the established church was called for to create a godly nation, while others advocated separation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomous gathered churches, called-out from the world. These Separatist and Independents became more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in the Westminster Assembly were unable to forge a new English national church.By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative, and with the Scottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646).Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the 1662 Uniformity Act. Many continued to practice their faith in nonconformist denominations, especially in Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches.[2] The nature of the Puritan movement in England changed radically. In New England, it retained its character for a longer period.Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and the term Puritan itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century. Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into the doctrines of the Church of England; others were absorbed into the many Protestant denominations that emerged in the late 17th and early 18th centuries in North America and Britain. The Congregational churches, widely considered to be a part of the Reformed tradition, are descended from the Puritans.[3][4] Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in the Savoy Declaration, the confession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches.[5]","title":"Puritans"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PuritanGallery.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thomas Gouge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Gouge"},{"link_name":"William Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Thomas Manton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Manton"},{"link_name":"John Flavel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flavel"},{"link_name":"Richard Sibbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Sibbes"},{"link_name":"Stephen Charnock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Charnock"},{"link_name":"William Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bates_(minister)"},{"link_name":"John Owen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Owen_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"John Howe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Howe_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"Richard Baxter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Baxter"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr19983-6"},{"link_name":"Thomas Fuller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fuller"},{"link_name":"Matthew Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Parker"},{"link_name":"stickler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stickler"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr19984-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199818-9"},{"link_name":"Reformation of the Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Nonconformists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)"},{"link_name":"Separatists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Dissenters"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENuttall19929-11"},{"link_name":"Quakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers"},{"link_name":"Seekers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seekers"},{"link_name":"Familists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familia_Caritatis"},{"link_name":"Holy Spirit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"direct revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_revelation"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr19987-12"},{"link_name":"hedonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonism"},{"link_name":"antonyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposite_(semantics)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Puritanism_1916-13"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Malvolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvolio"},{"link_name":"Twelfth Night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"H. L. Mencken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._L._Mencken"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-15"},{"link_name":"Peter Gay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gay"},{"link_name":"virginity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginity"},{"link_name":"Edward Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Taylor"},{"link_name":"John Cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cotton_(minister)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGay198449-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffin1987-17"}],"text":"Gallery of famous 17th-century Puritan theologians: Thomas Gouge, William Bridge, Thomas Manton, John Flavel, Richard Sibbes, Stephen Charnock, William Bates, John Owen, John Howe and Richard BaxterIn the 17th century, the word Puritan was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism.[6] Originally, Puritan was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist. Thomas Fuller, in his Church History, dates the first use of the word to 1564. Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and precisian with a sense similar to the modern stickler.[7] Puritans, then, were distinguished for being \"more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England\".[8] As a term of abuse, Puritan was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to as Puritan called themselves terms such as \"the godly\", \"saints\", \"professors\", or \"God's children\".[9]\"Non-separating Puritans\" were dissatisfied with the Reformation of the Church of England but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed \"Nonconformists\", \"Separatists\", or \"separating Puritans\", thought the Church of England was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense, the term Puritan includes both groups.[10][11]Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Quakers, Seekers, and Familists, who believed that individuals could be directly guided by the Holy Spirit. They gave precedence to direct revelation over the Bible.[12]In current English, puritan often means \"against pleasure\". In such usage, hedonism and puritanism are antonyms.[13] William Shakespeare described the vain, pompous killjoy Malvolio in Twelfth Night as \"a kind of Puritan\".[14] H. L. Mencken defined Puritanism as \"the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy.\"[15] Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage. Peter Gay writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for \"dour prudery\" was a \"misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century\". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed the Catholic veneration of virginity (associated with the Virgin Mary), citing Edward Taylor and John Cotton.[16] One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife.[17]","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Puritans under Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_under_Elizabeth_I"},{"link_name":"Elizabethan Religious Settlement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement"},{"link_name":"English Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Reformed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_tradition"},{"link_name":"bishoprics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishopric"},{"link_name":"deaneries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deanery"},{"link_name":"Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism"},{"link_name":"church choirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_choir"},{"link_name":"liturgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgy"},{"link_name":"Book of Common Prayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer"},{"link_name":"vestments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestment"},{"link_name":"episcopal polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_polity"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim20083%E2%80%934-18"},{"link_name":"Marian exiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_exiles"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig200836-19"},{"link_name":"Marian Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Reformation#Marian_Restoration"},{"link_name":"Continental Reformed churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism"},{"link_name":"metrical psalms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrical_psalter"},{"link_name":"sign of the cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross"},{"link_name":"wedding rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_ring"},{"link_name":"surplice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplice"},{"link_name":"clerical cap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury_cap"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig200837-20"},{"link_name":"black academic attire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_gown"},{"link_name":"vestments controversy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestments_controversy"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig200843%E2%80%9344-21"},{"link_name":"presbyterian polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_polity"},{"link_name":"bishops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop"},{"link_name":"elders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_polity#Elder"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig200839%E2%80%9340-22"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_England"},{"link_name":"John Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Field_(Puritan)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cartwright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cartwright_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"Marprelate controversy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marprelate_controversy"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig200842-23"}],"sub_title":"Elizabethan Puritanism","text":"Further information: History of the Puritans under Elizabeth IThe Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 established the Church of England as a Protestant church and brought the English Reformation to a close. During the reign of Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), the Church of England was widely considered a Reformed church, and Calvinists held the best bishoprics and deaneries. Nevertheless, it preserved certain characteristics of medieval Catholicism, such as cathedrals, church choirs, a formal liturgy contained in the Book of Common Prayer, traditional clerical vestments, and episcopal polity.[18]Many English Protestants — especially those former Marian exiles returning to England to work as clergy and bishops — considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church.[19] The years of exile during the Marian Restoration had exposed them to the practices of the Continental Reformed churches. The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and the authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing of metrical psalms. Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make the sign of the cross in baptism, or to use wedding rings or the organ.Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the white surplice and clerical cap.[20] Puritan clergymen preferred to wear black academic attire. During the vestments controversy, church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy.[21]In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adopt presbyterian polity, under which government by bishops would be replaced with government by elders.[22] But all attempts to enact further reforms through Parliament were blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such as John Field and Thomas Cartwright continued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network was discovered and dismantled during the Marprelate controversy of the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Puritans under Charles I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_under_Charles_I"}],"sub_title":"Caroline Puritanism","text":"Further information: History of the Puritans under Charles I","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Puritans under James I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_under_James_I"},{"link_name":"James I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_VI_and_I"},{"link_name":"Millenary Petition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millenary_Petition"},{"link_name":"manifesto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifesto"},{"link_name":"Hampton Court Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampton_Court_Conference"},{"link_name":"Laurence Chaderton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_Chaderton"},{"link_name":"eirenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirenic"},{"link_name":"James Montague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Montague_(bishop)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"revised Book of Common Prayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1604)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"William Bradshaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradshaw_(Puritan)"},{"link_name":"Congregationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalist_polity"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr1998Chapter_5-25"}],"sub_title":"Jacobean Puritanism","text":"Further information: History of the Puritans under James IThe accession of James I to the English throne brought the Millenary Petition, a Puritan manifesto of 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called the Hampton Court Conference in 1604, and heard the teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, including Laurence Chaderton, but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing an eirenic religious policy, in which he was arbiter.Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably James Montague, who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the Book of Common Prayer, but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion.[24] Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of the revised Book of Common Prayer.[citation needed]The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of \"semi-separatism\", \"moderate puritanism\", the writings of William Bradshaw (who adopted the term \"Puritan\" for himself), and the beginnings of Congregationalism.[25] Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left the Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Puritans from 1649","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_from_1649"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Assertion_of_Liberty_of_Conscience_by_the_Independents_of_the_Westminster_Assembly_of_Divines,_1644.jpg"},{"link_name":"Westminster Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Assembly"},{"link_name":"John Rogers Herbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rogers_Herbert"},{"link_name":"The Fifth Monarchy Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Monarchists"},{"link_name":"Vavasor Powell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vavasor_Powell"},{"link_name":"Ranters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranter"},{"link_name":"Levellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levellers"},{"link_name":"Quakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilton1997-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill1972-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly1992-28"},{"link_name":"Westminster Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Westminster Confession of Faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith"},{"link_name":"Directory of Public Worship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory_of_Public_Worship"},{"link_name":"Westminster Standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Standards"},{"link_name":"Church of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenedettoMcKim2010521%E2%80%93522-29"},{"link_name":"Westminster Divines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Westminster_Divines"},{"link_name":"church polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_polity"},{"link_name":"episcopacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_polity"},{"link_name":"presbyterianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_polity"},{"link_name":"congregationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalist_polity"},{"link_name":"Erastianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erastianism"},{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"independent Congregationalist Separatist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_(religion)"},{"link_name":"Interregnum (1649–60)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum_(1649%E2%80%9360)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELamont1969-30"}],"sub_title":"Fragmentation and political failure","text":"Further information: History of the Puritans from 1649The Westminster Assembly, which saw disputes on Church polity in England (Victorian history painting by John Rogers Herbert).The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time. The Fifth Monarchy Men, a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy like Vavasor Powell, agitated from the right wing of the movement, even as sectarian groups like the Ranters, Levellers, and Quakers pulled from the left.[26][27] The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity.[28]The Westminster Assembly was called in 1643, assembling clergy of the Church of England. The Assembly was able to agree to the Westminster Confession of Faith doctrinally, a consistent Reformed theological position. The Directory of Public Worship was made official in 1645, and the larger framework (now called the Westminster Standards) was adopted by the Church of Scotland. In England, the Standards were contested by Independents up to 1660.[29]The Westminster Divines, on the other hand, were divided over questions of church polity and split into factions supporting a reformed episcopacy, presbyterianism, congregationalism, and Erastianism. The membership of the Assembly was strongly weighted towards the Presbyterians, but Oliver Cromwell was a Puritan and an independent Congregationalist Separatist who imposed his doctrines upon them. The Church of England of the Interregnum (1649–60) was run along Presbyterian lines but never became a national Presbyterian church, such as existed in Scotland. England was not the theocratic state which leading Puritans had called for as \"godly rule\".[30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Puritans from 1649","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_from_1649"},{"link_name":"English Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Restoration"},{"link_name":"Savoy Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoy_Conference"},{"link_name":"Act of Uniformity 1662","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1662"},{"link_name":"Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Calamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Calamy_(historian)"},{"link_name":"Great Ejection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Ejection"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Calamy-31"},{"link_name":"Dissenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Dissenters"},{"link_name":"1662 Book of Common Prayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(1662)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeighton2004196-32"},{"link_name":"Richard Baxter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Baxter"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Calamy-31"},{"link_name":"Clarendon Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarendon_Code"},{"link_name":"Whigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_(British_political_faction)"},{"link_name":"Toleration Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Toleration_1689"},{"link_name":"Glorious Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Nonconformist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)"}],"sub_title":"Great Ejection and Dissenters","text":"Further information: History of the Puritans from 1649At the time of the English Restoration in 1660, the Savoy Conference was called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under the Act of Uniformity 1662, the Church of England was restored to its pre-Civil War constitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historian Calamy is that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the \"Great Ejection\" of 1662.[31] At this point, the term \"Dissenter\" came to include \"Puritan\", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who \"dissented\" from the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.[32]The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according to Richard Baxter.[31] The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using the Clarendon Code. There followed a period in which schemes of \"comprehension\" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. The Whigs opposed the court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when the Toleration Act was passed in the wake of the Glorious Revolution in 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term \"Nonconformist\" generally replaced the term \"Dissenter\" from the middle of the 18th century.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of the Puritans in North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Puritans_in_North_America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:InteriorOldShip.jpg"},{"link_name":"Old Ship Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Ship_Church"},{"link_name":"meetinghouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meetinghouse"},{"link_name":"Hingham, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hingham,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Calvinists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinists"},{"link_name":"Puritans left for New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan_migration_to_New_England_(1620%E2%80%9340)"},{"link_name":"Eleven Years' Tyranny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Rule"},{"link_name":"King Charles I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Bay Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1989-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia"},{"link_name":"Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:New_England_death_Head_(c).jpg"},{"link_name":"Granary Burying Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granary_Burying_Ground"},{"link_name":"Funerary art in Puritan New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funerary_art_in_Puritan_New_England"},{"link_name":"John Cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cotton_(minister)"},{"link_name":"Richard Mather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Mather"},{"link_name":"Increase Mather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Increase_Mather"},{"link_name":"Halfway Covenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-Way_Covenant"},{"link_name":"Cotton Mather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Mather"},{"link_name":"Edmund Andros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Andros"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter200341-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200981%E2%80%9382-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1989132%E2%80%93134-42"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1989132%E2%80%93134-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1989132%E2%80%93134-42"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Puritans in North America","text":"Further information: History of the Puritans in North AmericaInterior of the Old Ship Church, a Puritan meetinghouse in Hingham, Massachusetts. Puritans were Calvinists, so their churches were unadorned and plain.Some Puritans left for New England, particularly from 1629 to 1640 (the Eleven Years' Tyranny under King Charles I), supporting the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in the United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants.[33][34] This so-called \"Great Migration\" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated to Virginia and the Caribbean during this time, many as indentured servants.[35] The rapid growth of the New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies.[36]Death's head, Granary Burying Ground. A typical example of early Funerary art in Puritan New EnglandPuritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation of John Cotton and Richard Mather, 1630–62 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development; the generation of Increase Mather, 1662–89 from the Restoration and the Halfway Covenant to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation of Cotton Mather, 1689–1728 from the overthrow of Edmund Andros (in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather. [37] Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be God's agency in social life.[38]The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation.[39][40][41][42] In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world.By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them).[42][43][44][45] The Puritans also set up a college (now Harvard University) only six years after arriving in Boston.[42][46]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Continental Reformed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Reformed"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004125-47"},{"link_name":"God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"sinfulness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"divinely inspired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_inspiration"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200935-48"},{"link_name":"covenant theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covenant_theology"},{"link_name":"John Calvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Calvin"},{"link_name":"Heinrich Bullinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger"},{"link_name":"Dudley Fenner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_Fenner"},{"link_name":"William Perkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Perkins_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"John Preston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Preston_(priest)"},{"link_name":"Richard Sibbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Sibbes"},{"link_name":"William Ames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ames"},{"link_name":"Johannes Cocceius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Cocceius"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004130%E2%80%93131-49"},{"link_name":"Adam and Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_and_Eve"},{"link_name":"eternal life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)"},{"link_name":"works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_works"},{"link_name":"fall of man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_man"},{"link_name":"original sin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_sin"},{"link_name":"Ten Commandments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments"},{"link_name":"damnation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damnation"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200937%E2%80%9338-50"},{"link_name":"double predestination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predestination_in_Calvinism"},{"link_name":"elect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_(Christianity)"},{"link_name":"grace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"salvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200940-51"},{"link_name":"merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_(Christianity)"},{"link_name":"Christ's sacrifice on the cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"unconditional election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_election"},{"link_name":"irresistible grace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irresistible_grace"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200942-52"}],"sub_title":"Calvinism","text":"Puritanism broadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in Britain committed to the Continental Reformed tradition.[47] While Puritans did not agree on all doctrinal points, most shared similar views on the nature of God, human sinfulness, and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based on the Bible, which they considered to be divinely inspired.[48]The concept of covenant was extremely important to Puritans, and covenant theology was central to their beliefs. With roots in the writings of Reformed theologians John Calvin and Heinrich Bullinger, covenant theology was further developed by Puritan theologians Dudley Fenner, William Perkins, John Preston, Richard Sibbes, William Ames and, most fully by Ames's Dutch student, Johannes Cocceius.[49] Covenant theology asserts that when God created Adam and Eve he promised them eternal life in return for perfect obedience; this promise was termed the covenant of works. After the fall of man, human nature was corrupted by original sin and unable to fulfill the covenant of works, since each person inevitably violated God's law as expressed in the Ten Commandments. As sinners, every person deserved damnation.[50]Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in double predestination, that some people (the elect) were destined by God to receive grace and salvation while others were destined for Hell.[51] No one, however, could merit salvation. According to covenant theology, Christ's sacrifice on the cross made possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace—God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused.[52]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"effectual call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effectual_calling"},{"link_name":"saint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint#Other_Protestantism"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004131-53"},{"link_name":"spiritual death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_death_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"regeneration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regeneration_(theology)"},{"link_name":"conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200942-52"},{"link_name":"assurance of salvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assurance_(theology)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004132-54"},{"link_name":"Bible study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_study_(Christian)"},{"link_name":"preaching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preaching"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200942-52"},{"link_name":"mercy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercy"},{"link_name":"justification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sola_fide"},{"link_name":"imputed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imputed_righteousness"},{"link_name":"born again","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_again"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200943-55"},{"link_name":"Perry Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry_Miller"},{"link_name":"indulgences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indulgence"},{"link_name":"penances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penance"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004128-56"},{"link_name":"sanctification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanctification"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200943-55"},{"link_name":"piety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piety"},{"link_name":"Arthur Dent's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Dent_(Puritan)"},{"link_name":"Richard Rogers's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rogers_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"Henry Scudder's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Scudder_(priest)"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200944-57"},{"link_name":"Arminianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminianism"},{"link_name":"Antinomianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinomianism"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200944-57"},{"link_name":"evangelical Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelicalism"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004128-56"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBebbington199343-58"}],"sub_title":"Conversion","text":"Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not \"impersonal and mechanical\" but was a \"covenant of grace\" that one entered into by faith. Therefore, being a Christian could never be reduced to simple \"intellectual acknowledgment\" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed \"that the effectual call of each elect saint of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises\".[53]The process by which the elect are brought from spiritual death to spiritual life (regeneration) was described as conversion.[52] Early on, Puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gained assurance of salvation from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based on their own experiences as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election.[54]The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection, Bible study and listening to preaching. This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness.[52] It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine mercy—that the person would experience justification, when the righteousness of Christ is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again.[55]Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. Historian Perry Miller wrote that the Puritans \"liberated men from the treadmill of indulgences and penances, but cast them on the iron couch of introspection\".[56] It was expected that conversion would be followed by sanctification—\"the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life\".[55] Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith by keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personal piety and sanctification. These included Arthur Dent's The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven (1601), Richard Rogers's Seven Treatises (1603), Henry Scudder's Christian's Daily Walk (1627) and Richard Sibbes's The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax (1630).[57]Too much emphasis on one's good works could be criticized for being too close to Arminianism, and too much emphasis on subjective religious experience could be criticized as Antinomianism. Many Puritans relied on both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition.[57]Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by the evangelical Protestants of the 18th century.[56] While evangelical views on conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was \"rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers\", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all the truly converted.[58]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reformed baptismal theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology"},{"link_name":"Morning Prayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morning_Prayer_(Anglican)"},{"link_name":"surplice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surplice"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199829%E2%80%9330-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199837-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200959-61"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig200837-20"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199838-62"},{"link_name":"Sabbatarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan_Sabbatarianism"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim20084-63"},{"link_name":"sacraments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrament"},{"link_name":"infant baptism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_baptism"},{"link_name":"baptismal regeneration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismal_regeneration"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199831%E2%80%9332-64"},{"link_name":"circumcision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_male_circumcision"},{"link_name":"visible church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_church"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekeJones2012%22Regeneration_and_Baptism%22,_[[Amazon_Kindle]]_location_18043%E2%80%9318056-65"},{"link_name":"godparents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godparents"},{"link_name":"baptismal vows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismal_vows"},{"link_name":"sign of the cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_of_the_cross"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199832-66"},{"link_name":"transubstantiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiation"},{"link_name":"sacramental union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramental_union"},{"link_name":"bread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramental_bread"},{"link_name":"wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramental_wine"},{"link_name":"real spiritual presence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s_Supper_in_Reformed_theology"},{"link_name":"Thomas Cranmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekeJones2012%22The_True_Meaning_of_the_Lord's_Supper%22,_[[Amazon_Kindle]]_location_28097%E2%80%9328107-67"},{"link_name":"adoration of the Eucharist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharistic_adoration"},{"link_name":"church discipline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_discipline"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199832-66"},{"link_name":"confirmation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite199949-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199833-69"},{"link_name":"blasphemous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blasphemous"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr199833-69"},{"link_name":"musical instruments in their religious services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instruments_in_church_services"},{"link_name":"Psalms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalms"},{"link_name":"Exclusive psalmody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_psalmody"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200965-70"},{"link_name":"Worcester Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"}],"sub_title":"Worship and sacraments","text":"Further information: Reformed baptismal theologyWhile most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In the 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of the Morning Prayer service in the Book of Common Prayer. This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within the prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear the surplice, and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers.[59]The sermon was central to Puritan piety.[60] It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion.[61] On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching.[20] Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles.[62] Puritans were distinct for their adherence to Sabbatarianism.[63]Puritans taught that there were two sacraments: baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice of infant baptism. However, the effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion of baptismal regeneration.[64] In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology—baptism replaced circumcision as a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into the visible church. It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that the grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life.[65] Puritans wanted to do away with godparents, who made baptismal vows on behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making the sign of the cross in baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied the sacrament contributed to salvation.[66]Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic (transubstantiation) and Lutheran (sacramental union) teachings that Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine of real spiritual presence, believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement with Thomas Cranmer, the Puritans stressed \"that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink\".[67] They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion implied adoration of the Eucharist, a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised the Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and better church discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament.[66]Puritans did not believe confirmation was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have the time to examine them properly.[68][69] The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride \"with my body I thee worship\", which Puritans considered blasphemous. In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground \"in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ.\" Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as \"we commit his body [etc.] believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment.\"[69]Puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the Psalms was considered appropriate (see Exclusive psalmody).[70] Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of Worcester Cathedral in 1642.[71]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalogue_of_Sects.GIF"},{"link_name":"popular print","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_print"},{"link_name":"ecclesiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiology"},{"link_name":"established national churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_state"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004132-54"},{"link_name":"episcopal polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_polity"},{"link_name":"presbyterian polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_polity"},{"link_name":"congregational polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_polity"},{"link_name":"prelatical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prelate"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200969-72"},{"link_name":"Book of Common Prayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer"},{"link_name":"pastoral care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral_care"},{"link_name":"discipline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_discipline"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004132-54"},{"link_name":"Church of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200969-72"},{"link_name":"laity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laity"},{"link_name":"sessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_(Presbyterianism)"},{"link_name":"presbyteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistory_(Protestantism)#Reformed_usage"},{"link_name":"synods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synod"},{"link_name":"general assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Assembly_(presbyterian_church)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004132-54"},{"link_name":"Interregnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum_(England)"},{"link_name":"Westminster Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Long Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200972-73"},{"link_name":"Congregationalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregational_church"},{"link_name":"Independents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_(religion)"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004132%E2%80%93133-74"},{"link_name":"church covenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_covenant"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200969-72"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004133-75"},{"link_name":"New England Congregationalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Brownists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownist"},{"link_name":"separation of church and state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state"},{"link_name":"believer's baptism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Believer%27s_baptism"},{"link_name":"Baptists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptists"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhlstrom2004133-75"}],"sub_title":"Ecclesiology","text":"Polemical popular print with a Catalogue of Sects, 1647.While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues of ecclesiology and church polity, specifically questions relating to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another and whether established national churches were scriptural.[54] On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters of episcopal polity, presbyterian polity and congregational polity.The episcopalians (known as the prelatical party) were conservatives who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches.[72] They also supported the idea of having a Book of Common Prayer, but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching, pastoral care and Christian discipline within the Church of England.[54]Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church but one structured on the model of the Church of Scotland.[72] They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy and laity (local sessions, presbyteries, synods, and ultimately a national general assembly).[54] During the Interregnum, the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. The Westminster Assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but the Long Parliament left implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy.[73]Congregationalists or Independents believed in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be a congregation of \"visible saints\" (meaning those who had experienced conversion).[74] Members would be required to abide by a church covenant, in which they \"pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth\".[72] Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore, the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant.[75]Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own views. The New England Congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it no Christian church at all. These groups, such as the Brownists, would split from the established church and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions on separation of church and state and believer's baptism, becoming early Baptists.[75]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Snake_in_the_Grass_or_Satan_Transform%27d_to_an_Angel_of_Light.jpg"},{"link_name":"Richard Gaywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Gaywood"},{"link_name":"Adam and Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_and_Eve"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorterfield199282-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton201191-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorterfield199281-78"},{"link_name":"Thomas Gataker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Gataker"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson197093-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUlrich197637-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemos1970-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaxton200382-82"},{"link_name":"Anne Bradstreet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bradstreet"},{"link_name":"temporality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporality"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUlrich197635-83"},{"link_name":"catechised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catechesis"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaxton200382-82"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemos1970107%E2%80%93117-84"}],"sub_title":"Family life","text":"The Snake in the Grass or Satan Transform'd to an Angel of Light, title page engraved by Richard Gaywood, c. 1660Based on Biblical portrayals of Adam and Eve, Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation.[76] Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority.[77] Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility.[78]Thomas Gataker describes Puritan marriage as:... together for a time as copartners in grace here, [that] they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter.[79]The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing.[80] With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands.[81] Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality.[82] In her poem titled \"In Reference to her Children\", poet Anne Bradstreet reflects on her role as a mother:I had eight birds hatched in one nest; Four cocks there were, and hens the rest. I nursed them up with pain and care, Nor cost nor labour I did spare.Bradstreet alludes to the temporality of motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home. While Puritans praised the obedience of young children, they also believed that, by separating children from their mothers at adolescence, children could better sustain a superior relationship with God.[83] A child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience. Girls carried the additional burden of Eve's corruption and were catechised separately from boys at adolescence. Boys' education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles, while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes. The pinnacle of achievement for children in Puritan society, however, occurred with the conversion process.[82]Puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child. Just as parents were expected to uphold Puritan religious values in the home, masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants. Older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury. African-American and Indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits.[84]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christian demonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_demonology"},{"link_name":"early modern period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period"},{"link_name":"devil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"demons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon"},{"link_name":"witchcraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_witchcraft"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200930-85"},{"link_name":"exorcisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exorcism_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"demonic possession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonic_possession"},{"link_name":"John Darrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darrell"},{"link_name":"Arthur Hildersham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hildersham"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremerWebster2006584-86"},{"link_name":"Samuel Harsnett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Harsnett"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"witch hunts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch_hunt"},{"link_name":"Matthew Hopkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Hopkins"},{"link_name":"East Anglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglia"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"John Stearne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stearne_(witch-hunter)"},{"link_name":"gallows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallows"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200931%E2%80%9332-90"},{"link_name":"Salem witch trials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salem_witch_trials"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay"},{"link_name":"William Phips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phips"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200930%E2%80%9332-91"}],"sub_title":"Demonology and witch hunts","text":"Further information: Christian demonologyLike most Christians in the early modern period, Puritans believed in the active existence of the devil and demons as evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women. There was also widespread belief in witchcraft and witches—persons in league with the devil. \"Unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock, human disease, and hideous fits suffered by young and old\" may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch.[85]Puritan pastors undertook exorcisms for demonic possession in some high-profile cases. Exorcist John Darrell was supported by Arthur Hildersham in the case of Thomas Darling.[86] Samuel Harsnett, a sceptic on witchcraft and possession, attacked Darrell. However, Harsnett was in the minority, and many clergy, not only Puritans, believed in witchcraft and possession.[87]In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of people throughout Europe were accused of being witches and executed. In England and Colonial America, Puritans engaged in witch hunts as well. In the 1640s, Matthew Hopkins, the self-proclaimed \"Witchfinder General\", whose career flourished during Puritan rule, was responsible for accusing over two hundred people of witchcraft, mainly in East Anglia.[88] Between 1644 and 1647, Hopkins and his colleague John Stearne sent more accused people to the gallows than all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years.[89] In New England, few people were accused and convicted of witchcraft before 1692; there were at most sixteen convictions.[90]The Salem witch trials of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of the Massachusetts colony, Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time Governor William Phips ended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.[91]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christian eschatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_eschatology"},{"link_name":"millennialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennialism"},{"link_name":"biblical prophecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_prophecy"},{"link_name":"Johannes Piscator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Piscator"},{"link_name":"Thomas Brightman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Brightman"},{"link_name":"Joseph Mede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Mede"},{"link_name":"Johannes Heinrich Alsted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Heinrich_Alsted"},{"link_name":"John Amos Comenius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Amos_Comenius"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHotson2000173-92"},{"link_name":"historicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicism_(Christianity)"},{"link_name":"Book of Revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Revelation"},{"link_name":"Book of Daniel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Daniel"},{"link_name":"Last Judgment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Judgment"},{"link_name":"Antichrist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichrist"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaclear1975225%E2%80%93226-93"},{"link_name":"Revelation 20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revelation_20"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200976-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaclear1975226-95"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Second Coming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Coming"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaclear1975227-96"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200976-94"},{"link_name":"conversion of the Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion_of_the_Jews_(future_event)"},{"link_name":"apocalypse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalypticism"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaclear1975229-97"}],"sub_title":"Millennialism","text":"Further information: Christian eschatologyPuritan millennialism has been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation of biblical prophecy, for which representative figures of the period were Johannes Piscator, Thomas Brightman, Joseph Mede, Johannes Heinrich Alsted, and John Amos Comenius.[92] Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological views on an historicist interpretation of the Book of Revelation and the Book of Daniel. Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases the world must pass through before the Last Judgment could occur and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase but eventually the church's enemies—the Antichrist (identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and the Ottoman Empire—would be defeated.[93] Based on Revelation 20, it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Christ on earth.[94]In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for \"God's remote plans for the world and man\", Puritans understood it to describe \"the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin\".[95] On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and the Thirty Years' War were interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism; Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before the Second Coming of Christ.[96][94] Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that the conversion of the Jews to Christianity was an important sign of the apocalypse.[97]","title":"Beliefs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George-Henry-Boughton-Pilgrims-Going-To-Church.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pilgrims Going to Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilgrims_Going_to_Church"},{"link_name":"George Henry Boughton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Henry_Boughton"},{"link_name":"New England Puritan culture and recreation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_Puritan_culture_and_recreation"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer199591%E2%80%9392-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatras2008-99"},{"link_name":"Anne Hutchinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Hutchinson"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer1981-100"}],"text":"Pilgrims Going to Church by George Henry Boughton (1867)Further information: New England Puritan culture and recreationSome strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained.[98] Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal.[99] Anne Hutchinson (1591–1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.[100]","title":"Cultural consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of education in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_education_in_the_United_States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cotton_Mather.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cotton Mather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton_Mather"},{"link_name":"Peter Pelham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Pelham"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"grammar school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_school"},{"link_name":"Boston Latin School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Latin_School"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Yale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200981%E2%80%9382-41"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"sub_title":"Education","text":"Further information: History of education in the United StatesCotton Mather, influential New England Puritan minister, portrait by Peter PelhamAt a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 per cent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy.[101] In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire a grammar school instructor to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort's Boston Latin School was the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts\".[102] Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such as Harvard (founded in 1636) or Yale (founded in 1707).[41] Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases were sent to England or Scotland.[103]","title":"Cultural consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Merton Thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merton_Thesis"},{"link_name":"experimental science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_science"},{"link_name":"Robert K. Merton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_K._Merton"},{"link_name":"Max Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"},{"link_name":"famous claim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism"},{"link_name":"Protestant work ethic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic"},{"link_name":"capitalist economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalist_economy"},{"link_name":"correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation"},{"link_name":"Pietism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietism"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sztompka2003-104"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison2001-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cohen1990-106"}],"sub_title":"Puritan scientists","text":"The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. Similar to Max Weber's famous claim on the link between the Protestant work ethic and the capitalist economy, Merton argued for a similar positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism, as well as German Pietism, and early experimental science.[104] As an example, seven of 10 nucleus members of the Royal Society were Puritans. In the year 1663, 62 per cent of the members of the Royal Society were similarly identified.[105] The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.[106]","title":"Cultural consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PuritanChristmasBan.jpg"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton200849-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200979-108"},{"link_name":"Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"Whitsuntide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitsuntide"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer1935499-109"},{"link_name":"popery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popery"},{"link_name":"the Beast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beast_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpencer1935498-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gentles-112"},{"link_name":"carols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_carol"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gentles-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carols_banned-113"},{"link_name":"the restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Restoration"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carols_banned-113"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett19843-114"},{"link_name":"Edmund Andros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Andros"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett19843-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"branding iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branding_iron"},{"link_name":"whipping post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipping_post"},{"link_name":"bilboes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilboes"},{"link_name":"hangman's noose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noose"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Sabbath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puritan_Sabbatarianism"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200979-108"},{"link_name":"James I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_VI_and_I"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Football-119"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Football-119"},{"link_name":"blood sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sport"},{"link_name":"bearbaiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearbaiting"},{"link_name":"cockfighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockfighting"},{"link_name":"boxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200959-61"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200980-120"},{"link_name":"gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling"},{"link_name":"fornication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornication"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton200849-107"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillerJohnson2014394-121"},{"link_name":"Folk dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_dance"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200960-122"},{"link_name":"branle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branle"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200979-108"},{"link_name":"sexualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualization"},{"link_name":"theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre"},{"link_name":"Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"William Prynne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Prynne"},{"link_name":"Histriomastix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histriomastix"},{"link_name":"shut down English theatres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_theatre_closure_1642"},{"link_name":"Globe Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeeble1987153-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200958-125"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Drury Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Drury_Lane"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_theatre"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"Punch and Judy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch_and_Judy"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest200368ff-130"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer200979-108"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"toasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toast_(honor)"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cheers-131"},{"link_name":"William Prynne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Prynne"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cheers-131"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PynchonBooksBurned.png"},{"link_name":"banned book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banned_book"},{"link_name":"William Pynchon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pynchon"},{"link_name":"Springfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Boston Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Common"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"banned in Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banned_in_Boston"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"1 Corinthians 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Corinthians#7:1"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoster1999724-135"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFoster1999726%E2%80%93727-136"},{"link_name":"sexual relations outside marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornication"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton200849-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton200849-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorton200849-107"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrandell199720-137"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrompton1976281-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrandell199720-137"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMather1663%E2%80%93172870-140"}],"sub_title":"Behavioral regulations","text":"1659 public notice in Boston deeming Christmas illegalPuritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life.[107][108] Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration of Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide.[109] Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the \"trappings of popery\" or the \"rags of the Beast\".[110] They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers).[111] During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place in England, protests occurred over the repressiveness of the Puritan regime.[112] Pro-Christmas rioting broke out across England, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.[112][113] Following the restoration in 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England.[113] Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659.[114] The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights.[114] Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[115]Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including the branding iron, the whipping post, the bilboes and the hangman's noose.[116] Swearing and blasphemy were illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy—defined as \"a cursing of God by atheism, or the like\"—punishable by death.[117]Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of the Sabbath.[108] In an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans, James I's Book of Sports (1618) permitted Christians to play football every Sunday afternoon after worship.[118] When the Puritans established themselves in power, football was among the sports that were banned: boys caught playing on Sunday could be prosecuted.[119] Football was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[119] Other forms of leisure and entertainment were completely forbidden on moral grounds. For example, Puritans were universally opposed to blood sports such as bearbaiting and cockfighting because they involved unnecessary injury to God's creatures. For similar reasons, they also opposed boxing.[61] These sports were illegal in England during Puritan rule.[120]While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing and gambling were banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women—which Mather condemned as \"promiscuous dancing\"—because it was thought to lead to fornication.[107][121] Folk dance that did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate.[122] The branle dance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted.[123] In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.[108]Puritans condemned the sexualization of the theatre and its associations with depravity and prostitution—London's theatres were located on the south side of the Thames, which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre was William Prynne's book Histriomastix which marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the \"sin\" of dramatic performance. Puritan authorities shut down English theatres in the 1640s and 1650s—Shakespeare's Globe Theatre was demolished—and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies.[124][125] In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titled The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.[126] With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre, Drury Lane in the West End, opened in 1663.[127][128] The puppet show Punch and Judy, dominated by the anarchic Mr Punch, made its first recorded appearance in England in May 1662, with show historian Glyn Edwards stating the character of Punch \"went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years of Puritanism ... he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority\".[129]Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation.[130] However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America.[108] Laws in Massachusetts in 1634 banned the \"abominable\" practice of individuals toasting each other's health.[131] William Prynne, the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject, Health's Sicknesse (1628), that \"this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself.\"[131]19th-century portrayal of the burning of William Pynchon's banned book on Boston Common after it was deemed blasphemous by the Massachusetts Bay Colony.In 1649, English colonist William Pynchon, the founder of Springfield, Massachusetts, wrote a critique of Puritanical Calvinism, entitled The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption. Published in London in 1650, when the book reached Boston it was immediately burned on Boston Common and the colony pressed Pynchon to return to England which he did.[132] The censorious nature of the Puritans and the region they inhabited would lead to the phrase \"banned in Boston\" being coined in the late 19th century, a phrase which was applied to Boston up to the mid-20th century.[133]Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God.[134] Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with 1 Corinthians 7 and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities.[135] Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence.[136] Puritans publicly punished drunkenness and sexual relations outside marriage.[107] Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated.[107] Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed.[107] While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin.[137] Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated \"If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death\"[138] and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery.[139] Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality.[137] Mather argued that the passage \"Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness\" was referring \"probably to the young men of Sodom\".[140]","title":"Cultural consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Act of Supremacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Supremacy_1558"},{"link_name":"Act of Uniformity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1558"},{"link_name":"recusancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recusancy"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim200880-141"},{"link_name":"Instrument of Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_of_Government"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim200881-142"},{"link_name":"the Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim200881-142"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim200883-143"},{"link_name":"tithe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithe"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim200883%E2%80%9384-144"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mary_dyer_being_led.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mary Dyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Dyer"},{"link_name":"Boston Common","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Common"},{"link_name":"Quaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaker"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Bay Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony"},{"link_name":"Plymouth Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Colony"},{"link_name":"Connecticut river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut_river"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PER-145"},{"link_name":"Boston martyrs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_martyrs"},{"link_name":"International Religious Freedom Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_religion#International_Religious_Freedom_Day"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"Mary Dyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Dyer"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PER-145"},{"link_name":"theocracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracy"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHLS-147"},{"link_name":"King Charles II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHLS-147"},{"link_name":"revoked the Massachusetts charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony#Revocation_of_charter"},{"link_name":"Toleration Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Toleration_1689"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHLS-147"},{"link_name":"Anti-Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Catholic"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"Jesuit Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"}],"sub_title":"Religious toleration","text":"Puritan rule in England was marked by limited religious toleration. The Toleration Act of 1650 repealed the Act of Supremacy, Act of Uniformity, and all laws making recusancy a crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.[141]The 1653 Instrument of Government guaranteed that in matters of religion \"none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation\". Religious freedom was given to \"all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ\".[142] However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion during the Protectorate.[142] In London, those attending Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet.[143] Quakers were allowed to publish freely and hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organising tithe-strikes against the state church.[144]Quaker Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660, by an unknown 19th century artistIn New England, where Congregationalism was the official religion, the Puritans exhibited intolerance of other religious views, including Quaker, Anglican and Baptist theologies. The Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony were the most active of the New England persecutors of Quakers, and the persecuting spirit was shared by the Plymouth Colony and the colonies along the Connecticut river.[145]Four Quakers, known as the Boston martyrs, were executed. The first two of the four Boston martyrs were executed by the Puritans on 27 October 1659, and in memory of this, 27 October is now International Religious Freedom Day to recognise the importance of freedom of religion.[146] In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was English Quaker Mary Dyer, who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony.[145] The hanging of Dyer on Boston Common marked the beginning of the end of the Puritan theocracy.[147] In 1661, King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.[147] In 1684, England revoked the Massachusetts charter, sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws in 1686 and, in 1689, passed a broad Toleration Act.[147]Anti-Catholic sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers.[148] In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction.[149] Any suspected person who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty.[150]","title":"Cultural consequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pilgrim_Fairmount_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Puritan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puritan_(Springfield,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"Augustus Saint-Gaudens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_Saint-Gaudens"},{"link_name":"Perry Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perry_Miller"},{"link_name":"modernity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernity"},{"link_name":"Scientific Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Max Weber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber"},{"link_name":"The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism"},{"link_name":"Protestant work ethic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"John Milton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton"},{"link_name":"John Bunyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bunyan"},{"link_name":"Anne Bradstreet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bradstreet"},{"link_name":"Edward Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Taylor"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffeyLim20087%E2%80%938-151"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer20092-152"},{"link_name":"Patrick Collinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Collinson"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpurr19984-8"},{"link_name":"antinomian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antinomian"},{"link_name":"Baptists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptists"},{"link_name":"Quakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Christopher Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Hill_(historian)"},{"link_name":"William Laud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Laud"},{"link_name":"Counter-Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation"},{"link_name":"church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"}],"text":"Second version of The Puritan, a late 19th-century sculpture by Augustus Saint-GaudensPuritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such as Perry Miller have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation of modernity itself, from England's Scientific Revolution to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century, Max Weber argued in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that Calvinist self-denial resulted in a Protestant work ethic that nurtured the development of capitalism in Europe and North America. Puritan authors such as John Milton, John Bunyan, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.[151]A debate continues on the definition of \"Puritanism\".[152] English historian Patrick Collinson argues that \"There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship.\"[153] Puritanism \"was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory.\"[154] Historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.[8]The analysis of \"mainstream Puritanism\" in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist and antinomian groups that did not flourish, and others that continue to this day, such as Baptists and Quakers, can suffer in this way. The national context (England and Wales, as well as the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland) frames the definition of Puritans, but was not a self-identification for those Protestants who saw the progress of the Thirty Years' War from 1620 as directly bearing on their denomination, and as a continuation of the religious wars of the previous century, carried on by the English Civil Wars. English historian Christopher Hill writes of the 1630s, old church lands, and the accusations that William Laud was a crypto-Catholic:To the heightened Puritan imagination it seemed that, all over Europe, the lamps were going out: the Counter-Reformation was winning back property for the church as well as souls: and Charles I and his government, if not allied to the forces of the Counter-Reformation, at least appeared to have set themselves identical economic and political objectives.[155]","title":"Historiography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"Lord Protector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Protector_(Cromwell)"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"John Brockett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brockett_(American_colonist)"},{"link_name":"New Haven, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Peter Bulkley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Bulkley"},{"link_name":"Concord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"John Bunyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bunyan"},{"link_name":"The Pilgrim's Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pilgrim%27s_Progress"},{"link_name":"William Bradford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_(Plymouth_Colony_governor)"},{"link_name":"Plymouth Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Colony"},{"link_name":"Anne Bradstreet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bradstreet"},{"link_name":"Oliver Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"political","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_England"},{"link_name":"Lord Protector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Protector#Cromwellian_Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"John Endecott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Endecott"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Edwards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"evangelical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical"},{"link_name":"First Great Awakening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Great_Awakening"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hooker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hooker"},{"link_name":"Connecticut Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut_Colony"},{"link_name":"Anne Hutchinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Hutchinson"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Bay Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony"},{"link_name":"John Milton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton"},{"link_name":"Paradise Lost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise_Lost"},{"link_name":"Samson Agonistes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samson_Agonistes"},{"link_name":"James Noyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Noyes"},{"link_name":"Newbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbury,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Philip Nye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Nye"},{"link_name":"Thomas Parker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Parker_(minister)"},{"link_name":"John Winthrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Winthrop"},{"link_name":"A Model of Christian Charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Model_of_Christian_Charity"},{"link_name":"Robert Woodford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Woodford_(17th-century_diarist)"}],"text":"Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and IrelandJohn Brockett was a founder of New Haven, Connecticut.\nPeter Bulkley was an influential Puritan minister and founder of Concord.\nJohn Bunyan was famous for The Pilgrim's Progress.\nWilliam Bradford was Plymouth Colony's Governor.\nAnne Bradstreet was the first female to have her works published in the British North American colonies.\nOliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader and eventually became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was a very religious man and was considered an independent Puritan.\nJohn Endecott was the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and an important military leader.\nJonathan Edwards, evangelical preacher who sparked the First Great Awakening\nThomas Hooker was a Puritan minister and co-founder of the Connecticut Colony.\nAnne Hutchinson was a Puritan woman noted for speaking freely about her religious views, which resulted in her banishment from Massachusetts Bay Colony.\nJohn Milton is regarded as among the greatest English poets; author of epics like Paradise Lost, and dramas like Samson Agonistes. He was a staunch supporter of Cromwell.\nJames Noyes was an influential Puritan minister, teacher and founder of Newbury.\nPhilip Nye (minister) was the key adviser to Oliver Cromwell on matters of religion and regulation of the Church.\nThomas Parker was an influential Puritan minister, teacher and founder of Newbury.\nJohn Winthrop is noted for his sermon \"A Model of Christian Charity\" and as a leading figure in founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony.\nRobert Woodford was an English lawyer, largely based at Northampton and London. His diary for the period 1637–1641 records in detail the outlook of an educated Puritan.","title":"Notable Puritans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"puritans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/puritans"},{"link_name":"Puritans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Puritans"},{"link_name":"Puritanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Puritanism"},{"link_name":"\"Puritanism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n251.xml"},{"link_name":"Hamowy, Ronald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC"},{"link_name":"Sage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publishing"},{"link_name":"Cato Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato_Institute"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1412965804","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412965804"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"750831024","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024"},{"link_name":"American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/American-Protestant-Theology-Historical-Sketch/dp/0773541977"},{"link_name":"H-Net online review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=55135"}],"text":"Look up puritans in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikiquote has quotations related to Puritans.Wikimedia Commons has media related to Puritanism.Bremer, Francis J. Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015.\nEicholz, Hans (2008). \"Puritanism\". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 407–408. ISBN 978-1412965804. OCLC 750831024.\nGiussani, Luigi. American Protestant Theology: A Historical Sketch. McGill-Queens UP (2013).\nHall, David D. (2019). The Puritans: A Transatlantic History. Princeton University Press. H-Net online review.\nNeuman, Meredith Marie (2013). Jeremiah's Scribes: Creating Sermon Literature in Puritan New England. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.\nWinship, Michael P. (2018). Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America. Yale University Press.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dent, Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Dent_(Puritan)"},{"link_name":"The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/plainmanspathway00dentuoft"},{"link_name":"Rogers, Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rogers_(theologian)"},{"link_name":"Seven Treatises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/seven00roge"},{"link_name":"Scudder, Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Scudder_(priest)"},{"link_name":"Christian's Daily Walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.digitalpuritan.net/Digital%20Puritan%20Resources/Scudder,%20Henry/The%20Christian's%20Daily%20Walk.pdf"},{"link_name":"Sibbes, Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Sibbes"},{"link_name":"The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Hzw3AAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity"},{"link_name":"History of Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Early Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Spread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity"},{"link_name":"1st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century"},{"link_name":"2nd and 3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century"},{"link_name":"5th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century"},{"link_name":"7th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century"},{"link_name":"8th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century"},{"link_name":"9th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century"},{"link_name":"10th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century"},{"link_name":"11th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century"},{"link_name":"12th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century"},{"link_name":"13th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century"},{"link_name":"14th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century"},{"link_name":"15th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century"},{"link_name":"16th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century"},{"link_name":"17th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century"},{"link_name":"18th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century"},{"link_name":"19th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century"},{"link_name":"20th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century"},{"link_name":"21st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century"},{"link_name":"Background","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament"},{"link_name":"Life of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Baptism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Crucifixion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Resurrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Great Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Commission"},{"link_name":"Holy Spirit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Apostles in the New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament"},{"link_name":"Jewish Christians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Christian"},{"link_name":"Paul the Apostle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle"},{"link_name":"Council of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Gospels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel"},{"link_name":"Acts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles"},{"link_name":"Pauline epistles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_epistles"},{"link_name":"General epistles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_epistles"},{"link_name":"Revelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Revelation"},{"link_name":"Ante-Niceneperiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period"},{"link_name":"Diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology"},{"link_name":"Adoptionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoptionism"},{"link_name":"Arianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arianism"},{"link_name":"Docetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docetism"},{"link_name":"Donatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donatism"},{"link_name":"Gnosticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism"},{"link_name":"Marcionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcionism"},{"link_name":"Montanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montanism"},{"link_name":"Canon development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon"},{"link_name":"Persecution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Fathers"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Fathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers"},{"link_name":"Clement of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"Polycarp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarp"},{"link_name":"Ignatius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch"},{"link_name":"Irenaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irenaeus"},{"link_name":"Justin Martyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Martyr"},{"link_name":"Tertullian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian"},{"link_name":"Origen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origen"},{"link_name":"Early African","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province"},{"link_name":"Late antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Great Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Church"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Constantinian shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinian_shift"},{"link_name":"Roman state religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion"},{"link_name":"Monasticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_monasticism"},{"link_name":"Councils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils"},{"link_name":"Nicaea I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea"},{"link_name":"Creed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicene_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Athanasius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Jerome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome"},{"link_name":"Augustine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo"},{"link_name":"Constantinople I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Ephesus I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus"},{"link_name":"Chalcedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon"},{"link_name":"Chalcedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Non-Chalcedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Biblical canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon"},{"link_name":"Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Papacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_papacy"},{"link_name":"Development of primacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_development_of_the_doctrine_of_papal_primacy"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy"},{"link_name":"Crusading movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusading_movement"},{"link_name":"Lateran IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran"},{"link_name":"Art patronage of Julius II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II"},{"link_name":"Leo X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Leo_X"},{"link_name":"Counter-Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation"},{"link_name":"Trent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Trent"},{"link_name":"Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation"},{"link_name":"Catholic Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Jesuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Xavier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Xavier"},{"link_name":"Thomas More","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_More"},{"link_name":"Monastery dissolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries"},{"link_name":"Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_wars_of_religion"},{"link_name":"Mass rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_rock"},{"link_name":"priest holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest_hole"},{"link_name":"Guadalupe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe"},{"link_name":"Jansenists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jansenism"},{"link_name":"Molinists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molinism"},{"link_name":"Neo-Scholasticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism"},{"link_name":"Teresa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila"},{"link_name":"Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Independent Catholics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Catholicism"},{"link_name":"Vatican I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Vatican_Council"},{"link_name":"Vatican II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council"},{"link_name":"Ecclesial community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesial_community"},{"link_name":"Timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"EasternChristianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Church of the East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_East"},{"link_name":"Oriental Orthodoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Chrysostom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrysostom"},{"link_name":"Nestorianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestorianism"},{"link_name":"Icons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon#History"},{"link_name":"Iconodulism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconodulism"},{"link_name":"Iconoclasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm"},{"link_name":"Great Schism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism"},{"link_name":"Fall of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia"},{"link_name":"Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_history"},{"link_name":"Syriac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Pelagianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelagianism"},{"link_name":"Gregory I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I"},{"link_name":"Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Saxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England"},{"link_name":"Franks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks"},{"link_name":"Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Scandinavian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland"},{"link_name":"Slavs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs"},{"link_name":"Bohemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Kievan Rus'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27"},{"link_name":"Moravia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Investiture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investiture_Controversy"},{"link_name":"Anselm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury"},{"link_name":"Abelard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Abelard"},{"link_name":"Bernard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux"},{"link_name":"Bogomils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogomilism"},{"link_name":"Bosnian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_Church"},{"link_name":"Cathars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catharism"},{"link_name":"Apostolic Brethren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren"},{"link_name":"Dulcinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulcinian"},{"link_name":"Crusades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades"},{"link_name":"Waldensians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldensians"},{"link_name":"Inquisition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition"},{"link_name":"Early Scholasticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism"},{"link_name":"Christian mysticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_mysticism"},{"link_name":"Dominic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Dominic"},{"link_name":"Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi"},{"link_name":"Bonaventure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonaventure"},{"link_name":"Aquinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas"},{"link_name":"Five 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databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q137073#identifiers"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119474412"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119474412"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550905505171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85109193"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570341"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph164950&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"sub_title":"Puritan works","text":"Dent, Arthur (1601). The Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven. Belfast, North of Ireland Bk. [and] Tract Depository.\nRogers, Richard (1610). Seven Treatises.\nScudder, Henry (1627). Christian's Daily Walk (PDF).\nSibbes, Richard (1620). The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax.vteHistory of Christianity\nEarly Christianity\nSpread\nCenturies\n1st\n2nd and 3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\n15th\n16th\n17th\n18th\n19th\n20th\n21st\nOrigins andApostolic Age\nBackground\nLife of Jesus\nBaptism\nMinistry\nCrucifixion\nResurrection\nGreat Commission\nHoly Spirit\nApostles in the New Testament\nJewish Christians\nPaul the Apostle\nCouncil of Jerusalem\nGospels\nActs\nPauline epistles\nGeneral epistles\nRevelation\nAnte-Niceneperiod\nDiversity\nAdoptionism\nArianism\nDocetism\nDonatism\nGnosticism\nMarcionism\nMontanism\nCanon development\nPersecution\nChurch / Apostolic Fathers\nClement of Rome\nPolycarp\nIgnatius\nIrenaeus\nJustin Martyr\nTertullian\nOrigen\nEarly African\nLate antiquity(Great Church)\nConstantine\nConstantinian shift\nRoman state religion\nMonasticism\nCouncils\nNicaea I\nCreed\nChristianity\nAthanasius\nJerome\nAugustine\nConstantinople I\nEphesus I\nChalcedon\nChalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian\nBiblical canon\nCatholicism\nPapacy\nDevelopment of primacy\nEastern Orthodox opposition\nCrusading movement\nLateran IV\nArt patronage of Julius II\nLeo X\nCounter-Reformation\nTrent\nArt\nCatholic Reformation\nJesuits\nXavier\nThomas More\nMonastery dissolution\nWars\nMass rocks and priest holes\nGuadalupe\nJansenists\nMolinists\nNeo-Scholasticism\nTeresa\nModernism\nIndependent Catholics\nVatican I and Vatican II\nEcclesial community\nTimeline\nEasternChristianity\nEastern Orthodoxy\nChurch of the East\nOriental Orthodoxy\nChrysostom\nNestorianism\nIcons\nIconodulism\nIconoclasm\nGreat Schism\nFall of Constantinople\nArmenia\nGeorgia\nGreece\nEgypt\nSyriac\nSerbian\nEthiopia\nOttoman Empire\nRussia\nAmerica\nMiddle Ages\nPelagianism\nGregory I\nCeltic\nGermanic\nAnglo-Saxon\nFranks\nGothic\nScandinavian\nIceland\nSlavs\nBohemia\nBulgaria\nKievan Rus'\nMoravia\nPoland\nPomerania\nInvestiture\nAnselm\nAbelard\nBernard\nBogomils\nBosnian\nCathars\nApostolic Brethren\nDulcinian\nCrusades\nWaldensians\nInquisition\nEarly Scholasticism\nChristian mysticism\nDominic\nFrancis\nBonaventure\nAquinas\nFive Ways\nWycliffe\nAvignon\nPapal Schism\nBohemian Reformation\nHus\nConciliarism\nSynods\nReformationandProtestantism\nErasmus\nEucharist\nCalvinist–Arminian debate\nArminianism\nWars\nResistance theories\nSeparation of church and state\nNicodemites\nHymnody of continental Europe\nFormal and material principles\nLiterature\nProtestant work ethic\nLutheranism\nLuther\nNinety-five Theses\nDiet of Worms\nTheology\nBible\nMelanchthon\nBook of Concord\nOrthodoxy\nScholasticism\nEucharist\nArt\nCalvinism\nZwingli\nCalvin\nHuguenots\nPresbyterianism\nScotland\nKnox\nTULIP\nBaptism\nLaw and Gospel\nDort\nThree Forms of Unity\nWestminster\nScholasticism\nMetrical psalters\nAnglicanism\nTimeline\nHenry VIII\nCranmer\nElizabethan\n39 Articles\nPuritans\nCivil War\nChurch music\nBook of Common Prayer\nKing James Version\nAnabaptism\nTheology\nRadical Reformation\nGrebel\nSwiss Brethren\nMüntzer\nMartyrs' Synod\nMenno Simons\nSmyth\nMartyrs Mirror\nAusbund\n\n1640–1789\nRevivalism\nMissionaries\nBaptists\nSeparation of church and state\nEdicts of toleration\nCongregationalism\nFirst Great Awakening\nMethodism\nMillerism\nPietism\nFostering of early experimental science\nNeo- and Old Lutherans\n1789–present\nCamp meeting\nHoliness movement\nSecond Great Awakening\nRestorationists\nJehovah's Witnesses\nMormonism\nSeventh-day Adventist\nAdventism\nOxford Movement\nLaestadianism\nFinnish Awakening\nChristian existentialism\nThird Great Awakening\nAzusa Revival\nGospel music\nFundamentalist – Modernist controversy\nPacifism\nEcumenism\nFive solae\nJesus movement\nPentecostalism\nCharismatics\nLiberation theology\nReformed epistemology\nFourth Great Awakening\nEvangelical and Mainline Protestants\nChristian right and left\nPolitical influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America\n\nTimeline\nMissions\nMartyrs\nTheology\nEastern Orthodoxy\nOriental Orthodoxy\nProtestantism\nCatholicismAuthority control databases: National \nFrance\nBnF data\nIsrael\nUnited States\nJapan\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}] | [{"image_text":"Gallery of famous 17th-century Puritan theologians: Thomas Gouge, William Bridge, Thomas Manton, John Flavel, Richard Sibbes, Stephen Charnock, William Bates, John Owen, John Howe and Richard Baxter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/PuritanGallery.jpg/220px-PuritanGallery.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Westminster Assembly, which saw disputes on Church polity in England (Victorian history painting by John Rogers Herbert).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Assertion_of_Liberty_of_Conscience_by_the_Independents_of_the_Westminster_Assembly_of_Divines%2C_1644.jpg/220px-Assertion_of_Liberty_of_Conscience_by_the_Independents_of_the_Westminster_Assembly_of_Divines%2C_1644.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interior of the Old Ship Church, a Puritan meetinghouse in Hingham, Massachusetts. Puritans were Calvinists, so their churches were unadorned and plain.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/InteriorOldShip.jpg/220px-InteriorOldShip.jpg"},{"image_text":"Death's head, Granary Burying Ground. A typical example of early Funerary art in Puritan New England","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/New_England_death_Head_%28c%29.jpg/220px-New_England_death_Head_%28c%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Polemical popular print with a Catalogue of Sects, 1647.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Catalogue_of_Sects.GIF/220px-Catalogue_of_Sects.GIF"},{"image_text":"The Snake in the Grass or Satan Transform'd to an Angel of Light, title page engraved by Richard Gaywood, c. 1660","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/The_Snake_in_the_Grass_or_Satan_Transform%27d_to_an_Angel_of_Light.jpg/240px-The_Snake_in_the_Grass_or_Satan_Transform%27d_to_an_Angel_of_Light.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pilgrims Going to Church by George Henry Boughton (1867)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/George-Henry-Boughton-Pilgrims-Going-To-Church.jpg/300px-George-Henry-Boughton-Pilgrims-Going-To-Church.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cotton Mather, influential New England Puritan minister, portrait by Peter Pelham","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cotton_Mather.jpg/220px-Cotton_Mather.jpg"},{"image_text":"1659 public notice in Boston deeming Christmas illegal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/PuritanChristmasBan.jpg/220px-PuritanChristmasBan.jpg"},{"image_text":"19th-century portrayal of the burning of William Pynchon's banned book on Boston Common after it was deemed blasphemous by the Massachusetts Bay Colony.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/PynchonBooksBurned.png/220px-PynchonBooksBurned.png"},{"image_text":"Quaker Mary Dyer led to execution on Boston Common, 1 June 1660, by an unknown 19th century artist","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Mary_dyer_being_led.jpg/220px-Mary_dyer_being_led.jpg"},{"image_text":"Second version of The Puritan, a late 19th-century sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Pilgrim_Fairmount_1.jpg/220px-Pilgrim_Fairmount_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg/200px-Oliver_Cromwell_by_Samuel_Cooper.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Christianity in the 16th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century"},{"title":"Christianity in the 17th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century"},{"title":"Plymouth Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Rock"},{"title":"Restorationism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restorationism"},{"title":"Work ethic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_ethic"}] | [{"reference":"Morris, John W. (2011). The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History. Author House. p. 438.","urls":[]},{"reference":"The A to Z of the Puritans. Scarecrow Press. 2008. p. 250.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Trickler, C. Jack (2010). A Layman's Guide To: Why Are There So Many Christian Denominations?. Author House. p. 146. ISBN 978-1-4490-4578-4. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2012 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=K4lEy7A8fnYC&pg=PA146","url_text":"A Layman's Guide To: Why Are There So Many Christian Denominations?"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4490-4578-4","url_text":"978-1-4490-4578-4"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130718094750/http://books.google.com/books?id=K4lEy7A8fnYC&pg=PA146","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Books","url_text":"Google Books"}]},{"reference":"Mencken, H. L. (1916). A Book of Burlesques. Puritanism: The haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._L._Mencken","url_text":"Mencken, H. L."}]},{"reference":"Hagberg, Garry L. (2018). Stanley Cavell on Aesthetic Understanding. Springer. p. 125.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fitzpatrick, Vincent (2004). H. L. Mencken. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Hardware_Reference_Platform | Common Hardware Reference Platform | [] | System architecture for PowerPC-based computer systems
POWER, PowerPC, and Power ISA architectures
NXP (formerly Freescale and Motorola)
PowerPC e series (2006)
e200
e300
e500
e600
e5500
e6500
Qor series (2008)
QorIQ
Qorivva
IBM
Power series (1990)
POWER1
POWER2
POWER3
POWER4
POWER5
POWER6
POWER7
POWER8
POWER9
Power10
PowerPC series (1992)
6xx
4xx
7xx
74xx
970
A2 (2010)
A2I
A2O
RAD series (1997)
RAD6000
RAD750
RAD5500
RS64 series (1996)
IBM/Nintendo
Gekko
Broadway
Espresso
Other
Titan
PWRficient
Cell
Xenon
X704
Related links
OpenPOWER Foundation
AIM alliance
RISC
Blue Gene
Power.org
PAPR
PReP
CHRP
AltiVec
Cancelled in gray, historic in italicvte
Common Hardware Reference Platform (CHRP) is a standard system architecture for PowerPC-based computer systems published jointly by IBM and Apple in 1995. Like its predecessor PReP, it was conceptualized as a design to allow various operating systems to run on an industry standard hardware platform, and specified the use of Open Firmware and RTAS for machine abstraction purposes. Unlike PReP, CHRP incorporated elements of the Power Macintosh architecture and was intended to support the classic Mac OS and NetWare, in addition to the four operating systems that had been ported to PReP at the time (Windows NT, OS/2, Solaris, and AIX).
CHRP did not receive industry-wide adoption, however. The only systems to ship with actual CHRP hardware are certain members of IBM's RS/6000 series running AIX, and small amount of Motorola PowerStack workstations. Mac OS 8 contains support for CHRP and New World Power Macintosh computers are partially based on CHRP and PReP.
Power.org has a new Power Architecture Platform Reference (PAPR) that provides the foundation for development of Power ISA-based computers running the Linux operating system. The PAPR was released fourth quarter of 2006.
See also
OpenPIC and IBM MPIC
References
^ "2.1. Supported Hardware". www.debian.org. Archived from the original on 2021-09-30. Retrieved 2021-09-30.
^ "Apple Sells 1.2 Million Copies of Mac OS 8; Best Software Product Sales Ever in First Two Weeks of Availability". Archived from the original on April 23, 2009. Retrieved October 1, 2017.
CHRP Specification Version 1.0 and related documents
The PowerPC (TM) Hardware Reference Platform, an overview of CHRP
"Apple Canada Press Release". Archived from the original on April 23, 2009. Retrieved October 9, 2007.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
PREP / CHRP / ofppc / macppc confusion on NetBSD port-powerpc mailing list.
External links
penguinppc.org description of CHRP
FirmWorks CHRP page
Motorola StarMax 6000 at Low End Mac, A CHRP machine that never shipped. | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"system architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_architecture"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"PReP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_Reference_Platform"},{"link_name":"Open Firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Firmware"},{"link_name":"RTAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-Time_Abstraction_Services"},{"link_name":"PReP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PReP"},{"link_name":"Power Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Macintosh"},{"link_name":"classic Mac OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"NetWare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"AIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIX_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"RS/6000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS/6000"},{"link_name":"AIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIX_operating_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mac_OS_8_Sales-2"},{"link_name":"New World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World_ROM"},{"link_name":"Power.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power.org"},{"link_name":"Power Architecture Platform Reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Architecture_Platform_Reference"},{"link_name":"Power ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_ISA"}],"text":"Common Hardware Reference Platform (CHRP) is a standard system architecture for PowerPC-based computer systems published jointly by IBM and Apple in 1995. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy | Gamma spectroscopy | ["1 Gamma ray characteristics","2 Components of a gamma spectrometer","2.1 Detector","2.2 Data acquisition","3 Detector performance","3.1 Detector energy resolution","3.2 Detector efficiency","4 Scintillation detectors","4.1 Sodium iodide-based detectors","5 Semiconductor-based detectors","6 Interpretation of measurements","6.1 Backscatter peak","6.2 Single escape and double escape peaks","7 Calibration and background radiation","8 See also","9 Works cited","10 References","11 External links"] | Quantitative study of the energy spectra of gamma-ray sources
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The gamma-ray spectrum of natural uranium, showing about a dozen discrete lines superimposed on a smooth continuum, allows one to identify the nuclides 226Ra, 214Pb, and 214Bi of the uranium decay chain. This spectrum was taken from a Uranium ore sample from from Moab, Utah
Gamma-ray spectroscopy is the qualitative study of the energy spectra of gamma-ray sources, such as in the nuclear industry, geochemical investigation, and astrophysics. Gamma-ray spectrometry, on the other hand, is the method used to acquire a quantitative spectrum measurement.
Most radioactive sources produce gamma rays, which are of various energies and intensities. When these emissions are detected and analyzed with a spectroscopy system, a gamma-ray energy spectrum can be produced.
A detailed analysis of this spectrum is typically used to determine the identity and quantity of gamma emitters present in a gamma source, and is a vital tool in radiometric assay. The gamma spectrum is characteristic of the gamma-emitting nuclides contained in the source, just like in an optical spectrometer, the optical spectrum is characteristic of the material contained in a sample.
Gamma ray characteristics
Gamma rays are the highest-energy form of electromagnetic radiation, being physically the same as all other forms (e.g., X-rays, visible light, infrared, radio) but having (in general) higher photon energy due to their shorter wavelength. Because of this, the energy of gamma-ray photons can be resolved individually, and a gamma-ray spectrometer can measure and display the energies of the gamma-ray photons detected.
Radioactive nuclei (radionuclides) commonly emit gamma rays in the energy range from a few keV to ~10 MeV, corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. Such sources typically produce gamma-ray "line spectra" (i.e., many photons emitted at discrete energies), whereas much higher energies (upwards of 1 TeV) may occur in the continuum spectra observed in astrophysics and elementary particle physics. The difference between gamma rays and X-rays is somewhat blurred. Gamma rays arise from transitions between nuclear energy levels and are monoenergetic, whereas X-rays are either related to transitions between atomic energy levels (characteristic X rays, which are monoenergetic), or are electrically generated (X-ray tube, linear accelerator) and have a broad energy range.
Components of a gamma spectrometer
Laboratory equipment for determination of γ-radiation spectrum with a scintillation counter. The output from the scintillation counter goes to a Multichannel Analyzer which processes and formats the data.
The main components of a gamma spectrometer are the energy-sensitive radiation detector and the electronic devices that analyse the detector output signals, such as a pulse sorter (i.e., multichannel analyzer). Additional components may include signal amplifiers, rate meters, peak position stabilizers, and data handling devices.
Detector
Gamma spectroscopy detectors are passive materials that are able to interact with incoming gamma rays. The most important interaction mechanisms are the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and pair production. Through these processes, the energy of the gamma ray is absorbed and converted into a voltage signal by detecting the energy difference before and after the interaction (or, in a scintillation counter, the emitted photons using a photomultiplier). The voltage of the signal produced is proportional to the energy of the detected gamma ray. Common detector materials include sodium iodide (NaI) scintillation counters and high-purity germanium detectors.
To accurately determine the energy of the gamma ray, it is advantageous if the photoelectric effect occurs, as it absorbs all of the energy of the incident ray. Absorbing all the energy is also possible when a series of these interaction mechanisms take place within the detector volume. With Compton interaction or pair production, a portion of the energy may escape from the detector volume, without being absorbed. The absorbed energy thus gives rise to a signal that behaves like a signal from a ray of lower energy. This leads to a spectral feature overlapping the regions of lower energy. Using larger detector volumes reduces this effect. More sophisticated methods of reducing this effect include using Compton-suppression shields and employing segmented detectors with add-back (see: clover (detector)).
Data acquisition
The voltage pulses produced for every gamma ray that interacts within the detector volume are then analyzed by a multichannel analyzer (MCA). In the MCA, a pulse-shaping amplifier takes the transient voltage signal and reshapes it into a Gaussian or trapezoidal shape. From this shape, the signal is then converted into a digital form, using a fast analog-to-digital converter (ADC). In new systems with a very high-sampling-rate ADC, the analog-to-digital conversion can be performed without reshaping.
Pulse-Height Analyzer Principle: Three pulses, 1, 2, and 3 are detected at different times t. Two discriminators emit a counting signal if their set voltage-level is reached by a pulse. Pulse 2 triggers the Lower Level EL but not the Upper Level EU. Pulse 2 is thus counted into the spectral region denoted as P. The anti-coincidence counter prevents a pulse from being sorted into more than one region
Additional logic in the MCA then performs pulse-height analysis, sorting the pulses by their height into specific bins, or channels. Each channel represents a specific range of energy in the spectrum, the number of detected signals for each channel represents the spectral intensity of the radiation in this energy range. By changing the number of channels, it is possible to fine-tune the spectral resolution and sensitivity.
The MCA can send its data to a computer, which stores, displays, and further analyzes the data. A variety of software packages are available from several manufacturers, and generally include spectrum analysis tools such as energy calibration (converting bins to energies), peak area and net area calculation, and resolution calculation.
A USB sound card can serve as a cheap, consumer off-the-shelf ADC, a technique pioneered by Marek Dolleiser. Specialized computer software performs pulse-height analysis on the digitized waveform, forming a complete MCA. Sound cards have high-speed but low-resolution (up to 192 kHz) ADC chips, allowing for reasonable quality for a low-to-medium count rate. The "sound card spectrometer" has been further refined in amateur and professional circles.
Detector performance
Gamma spectroscopy systems are selected to take advantage of several performance characteristics. Two of the most important include detector resolution and detector efficiency.
Detector energy resolution
Gamma rays detected in a spectroscopic system produce peaks in the spectrum. These peaks can also be called lines by analogy to optical spectroscopy. The width of the peaks is determined by the resolution of the detector, a very important characteristic of gamma spectroscopic detectors, and high resolution enables the spectroscopist to separate two gamma lines that are close to each other. Gamma spectroscopy systems are designed and adjusted to produce symmetrical peaks of the best possible resolution. The peak shape is usually a Gaussian distribution. In most spectra the horizontal position of the peak is determined by the gamma ray's energy, and the area of the peak is determined by the intensity of the gamma ray and the efficiency of the detector.
The most common figure used to express detector resolution is full width at half maximum (FWHM). This is the width of the gamma ray peak at half of the highest point on the peak distribution. Energy resolution figures are given with reference to specified gamma ray energies. Resolution can be expressed in absolute (i.e., eV or MeV) or relative terms. For example, a sodium iodide (NaI) detector may have a FWHM of 9.15 keV at 122 keV, and 82.75 keV at 662 keV. These resolution values are expressed in absolute terms. To express the energy resolution in relative terms, the FWHM in eV or MeV is divided by the energy of the gamma ray and usually shown as percentage. Using the preceding example, the resolution of the detector is 7.5% at 122 keV, and 12.5% at 662 keV. A typical resolution of a coaxial germanium detector is about 2 keV at 1332 keV, yielding a relative resolution of 0.15%.
Detector efficiency
Not all gamma rays emitted by the source that pass through the detector will produce a count in the system. The probability that an emitted gamma ray will interact with the detector and produce a count is the efficiency of the detector. High-efficiency detectors produce spectra in less time than low-efficiency detectors. In general, larger detectors have higher efficiency than smaller detectors, although the shielding properties of the detector material are also important factors. Detector efficiency is measured by comparing a spectrum from a source of known activity to the count rates in each peak to the count rates expected from the known intensities of each gamma ray.
Efficiency, like resolution, can be expressed in absolute or relative terms. The same units are used (i.e., percentages); therefore, the spectroscopist must take care to determine which kind of efficiency is being given for the detector. Absolute efficiency values represent the probability that a gamma ray of a specified energy passing through the detector will interact and be detected. Relative efficiency values are often used for germanium detectors, and compare the efficiency of the detector at 1332 keV to that of a 3 in × 3 in NaI detector (i.e., 1.2×10 −3 cps/Bq at 25 cm). Relative efficiency values greater than one hundred percent can therefore be encountered when working with very large germanium detectors.
The energy of the gamma rays being detected is an important factor in the efficiency of the detector. An efficiency curve can be obtained by plotting the efficiency at various energies. This curve can then be used to determine the efficiency of the detector at energies different from those used to obtain the curve. High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors typically have higher sensitivity.
Scintillation detectors
Scintillation detectors use crystals that emit light when gamma rays interact with the atoms in the crystals. The intensity of the light produced is usually proportional to the energy deposited in the crystal by the gamma ray; a well known situation where this relationship fails is the absorption of < 200 keV radiation by intrinsic and doped sodium iodide detectors. The mechanism is similar to that of a thermoluminescent dosimeter. The detectors are joined to photomultipliers; a photocathode converts the light into electrons; and then by using dynodes to generate electron cascades through delta ray production, the signal is amplified. Common scintillators include thallium-doped sodium iodide (NaI(Tl))—often simplified to sodium iodide (NaI) detectors—and bismuth germanate (BGO). Because photomultipliers are also sensitive to ambient light, scintillators are encased in light-tight coverings.
Scintillation detectors can also be used to detect alpha- and beta-radiation.
Sodium iodide-based detectors
Thallium-doped sodium iodide (NaI(Tl)) has two principal advantages:
It can be produced in large crystals, yielding good efficiency, and
it produces intense bursts of light compared to other spectroscopic scintillators.
NaI(Tl) is also convenient to use, making it popular for field applications such as the identification of unknown materials for law enforcement purposes.
Electron hole recombination will emit light that can re-excite pure scintillation crystals; however, the thallium dopant in NaI(Tl) provides energy states within the band gap between the conduction and valence bands. Following excitation in doped scintillation crystals, some electrons in the conduction band will migrate to the activator states; the downward transitions from the activator states will not re-excite the doped crystal, so the crystal is transparent to this radiation.
Figure 1: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of caesium-137 (137Cs)
An example of a NaI spectrum is the gamma spectrum of the caesium isotope 137Cs—see Figure 1. 137Cs emits a single gamma line of 662 keV. The 662 keV line shown is actually produced by 137mBa, the decay product of 137Cs, which is in secular equilibrium with 137Cs.
The spectrum in Figure 1 was measured using a NaI-crystal on a photomultiplier, an amplifier, and a multichannel analyzer. The figure shows the number of counts within the measuring period versus channel number. The spectrum indicates the following peaks (from left to right):
low energy x radiation (due to internal conversion of the gamma ray),
backscatter at the low energy end of the Compton distribution, and
a photopeak (full energy peak) at an energy of 662 keV
The Compton distribution is a continuous distribution that is present up to channel 150 in Figure 1. The distribution arises because of primary gamma rays undergoing Compton scattering within the crystal: Depending on the scattering angle, the Compton electrons have different energies and hence produce pulses in different energy channels.
If many gamma rays are present in a spectrum, Compton distributions can present analysis challenges. To reduce gamma rays, an anticoincidence shield can be used—see Compton suppression. Gamma ray reduction techniques are especially useful for small lithium-doped germanium (Ge(Li)) detectors.
Figure 2: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of cobalt-60 (60Co); see also a different measurement
The gamma spectrum shown in Figure 2 is of the cobalt isotope 60Co, with two gamma rays with 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV respectively. (See the decay scheme article for the decay scheme of cobalt-60.) The two gamma lines can be seen well-separated; the peak to the left of channel 200 most likely indicates a strong background radiation source that has not been subtracted. A backscatter peak can be seen near channel 150, similar to the second peak in Figure 1.
Sodium iodide systems, as with all scintillator systems, are sensitive to changes in temperature. Changes in the operating temperature caused by changes in environmental temperature will shift the spectrum on the horizontal axis. Peak shifts of tens of channels or more are commonly observed. Such shifts can be prevented by using spectrum stabilizers.
Because of the poor resolution of NaI-based detectors, they are not suitable for the identification of complicated mixtures of gamma ray-producing materials. Scenarios requiring such analyses require detectors with higher resolution.
Semiconductor-based detectors
Germanium gamma spectrum of 60Co (Cobalt-60); compare with the NaI spectrum above.
Semiconductor detectors, also called solid-state detectors, are fundamentally different from scintillation detectors: They rely on detection of the charge carriers (electrons and holes) generated in semiconductors by energy deposited by gamma ray photons.
In semiconductor detectors, an electric field is applied to the detector volume. An electron in the semiconductor is fixed in its valence band in the crystal until a gamma ray interaction provides the electron enough energy to move to the conduction band. Electrons in the conduction band can respond to the electric field in the detector, and therefore move to the positive contact that is creating the electrical field. The gap created by the moving electron is called a "hole", and is filled by an adjacent electron. This shuffling of holes effectively moves a positive charge to the negative contact. The arrival of the electron at the positive contact and the hole at the negative contact produces the electrical signal that is sent to the preamplifier, the MCA, and on through the system for analysis. The movement of electrons and holes in a solid-state detector is very similar to the movement of ions within the sensitive volume of gas-filled detectors such as ionization chambers.
Common semiconductor-based detectors include germanium, cadmium telluride, and cadmium zinc telluride.
Germanium detectors provide significantly improved energy resolution in comparison to sodium iodide detectors, as explained in the preceding discussion of resolution. Germanium detectors produce the highest resolution commonly available today. However, a disadvantage is the requirement of cryogenic temperatures for the operation of germanium detectors, typically by cooling with liquid nitrogen.
Interpretation of measurements
Backscatter peak
In a real detector setup, some photons can and will undergo one or potentially more Compton scattering processes (e.g. in the housing material of the radioactive source, in shielding material or material otherwise surrounding the experiment) before entering the detector material. This leads to a peak structure that can be seen in the above shown energy spectrum of 137Cs (Figure 1, the first peak left of the Compton edge), the so-called backscatter peak. The detailed shape of backscatter peak structure is influenced by many factors, such as the geometry of the experiment (source geometry, relative position of source, shielding and detector) or the type of the surrounding material (giving rise to different ratios of the cross sections of Photo- and Compton-effect).
The basic principle, however, is as follows:
Gamma-ray sources emit photons isotropically
Some photons will undergo a Compton scattering process in e.g. the shielding material or the housing of the source with a scattering angle close to 180° and some of these photons will subsequently be detected by the detector.
The result is a peak structure with approximately the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the Compton edge.
The backscatter peak usually appears wide and occurs at lower than 250 keV.
Single escape and double escape peaks
Scintillation gamma spectrum of a radioactive Am-Be-source. Visible are the main photopeak of 12C neutron excitation and the two escape peaks associated with it.
For incident photon energies E larger than two times the rest mass of the electron (1.022 MeV), pair production can occur. The resulting positron annihilates with one of the surrounding electrons, typically producing two photons with 511 keV. In a real detector (i.e. a detector of finite size) it is possible that after the annihilation:
Both photons deposit their energy in the detector. This results in a peak with E, identical to the energy of the incident photon.
One of the two photons escapes the detector and only one of the photons deposits its energy in the detector, resulting in a peak with E − 511 keV, the single escape peak.
Both photons escape the detector, resulting in a peak with E − 2 × 511 keV, the double escape peak.
The above Am-Be-source spectrum shows an example of single and double escape peak in a real measurement.
Calibration and background radiation
If a gamma spectrometer is used for identifying samples of unknown composition, its energy scale must be calibrated first. Calibration is performed by using the peaks of a known source, such as caesium-137 or cobalt-60. Because the channel number is proportional to energy, the channel scale can then be converted to an energy scale. If the size of the detector crystal is known, one can also perform an intensity calibration, so that not only the energies but also the intensities of an unknown source—or the amount of a certain isotope in the source—can be determined.
Because some radioactivity is present everywhere (i.e., background radiation), the spectrum should be analyzed when no source is present. The background radiation must then be subtracted from the actual measurement. Lead absorbers can be placed around the measurement apparatus to reduce background radiation.
See also
Alpha-particle spectroscopy
Gamma probe
Gamma ray spectrometer
Isomeric shift
Liquid scintillation counting
Mass spectrometry
Mössbauer spectroscopy
Perturbed angular correlation
Pandemonium effect
Total absorption spectroscopy
Scintillation counter
X-ray spectroscopy
Works cited
Gilmore G, Hemingway J. Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester: 1995, ISBN 0-471-95150-1.
Knoll G, Radiation Detection and Measurement. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY:2000, ISBN 0-471-07338-5.
Nucleonica Wiki. Gamma Spectrum Generator. Accessed 8 October 2008.
References
^ "Scintillation Detector - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-11-01.
^ "Gamma Spectroscopy | nuclear-power.com". www.nuclear-power.com. Retrieved 2023-07-29.
^ "X-rays".
^ Lee, I Y; Deleplanque, M A; Vetter, K (2003-07-01). "Developments in large gamma-ray detector arrays". Reports on Progress in Physics. 66 (7): 1095–1144. Bibcode:2003RPPh...66.1095L. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201. ISSN 0034-4885. S2CID 121957980.
^ "THE MULTICHANNEL ANALYZER, PHYSICS 359E" (PDF). Western University. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
^ "MCA box settings". CASSY Lab 2.
^ "Software Downloads". www.gammaspectacular.com. Marek works at The University of Sydney, with third year physics students, and developed PRA as an educational tool for his students.Motisan, Radu (November 29, 2010). "NaI Scintillation Probe and Gamma Spectroscopy – PocketMagic". www.pocketmagic.net. – Cited for early mention of Marek Dolleiser's PRA software.
^ Ibrahim, Maslina Mohd; Yussup, Nolida; Lombigit, Lojius; Rahman, Nur Aira Abdul; Jaafar, Zainudin (2014). Development of multichannel analyzer using sound card ADC for nuclear spectroscopy system. International Nuclear Science, Technology & Engineering Conference 2013 (iNuSTEC2013). pp. 50–53. doi:10.1063/1.4866103.
^ Kasani, H.; Ashrafi, S.; Ghal-Eh, N. (July 2021). "High count-rate digital gamma-ray spectroscopy using a low-cost COTS digitizer system". Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 184: 109438. Bibcode:2021RaPC..18409438K. doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109438. S2CID 233696398.
^ Kim, Sangrok; Kim, Taeyoon; Yang, Hyungjin (1 June 2022). "Design of a Low-Resolution Gamma-ray Spectrometer for Monitoring Radioactive Levels of Wastewater". Applied Sciences. 12 (11): 5613. doi:10.3390/app12115613.
^ Shultis, John K.; Faw, Richard E. (2007). Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-4398-9408-8.
^ "Backscattered peaks". ns.ph.liv.ac.uk.
^ "Compton effect (spectrum)". CASSY Lab 2. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
External links
Amateur gamma spectrometry of a chunk of a black mold picked in Minamisoma, close to the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear plant. Japan. Archived 2013-05-10 at the Wayback Machine
On-line gamma-ray energy spectrum conversion utility
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Czech Republic | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gamma_Spectrum_Uranium_Ore.svg"},{"link_name":"uranium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium"},{"link_name":"nuclides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclide"},{"link_name":"226Ra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium-226"},{"link_name":"214Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-214"},{"link_name":"214Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-214"},{"link_name":"decay chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_chain"},{"link_name":"Moab, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moab,_Utah"},{"link_name":"energy spectra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_spectra"},{"link_name":"gamma-ray sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_source"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"nuclides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclide"},{"link_name":"optical spectrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_spectrometer"}],"text":"The gamma-ray spectrum of natural uranium, showing about a dozen discrete lines superimposed on a smooth continuum, allows one to identify the nuclides 226Ra, 214Pb, and 214Bi of the uranium decay chain. This spectrum was taken from a Uranium ore sample from from Moab, UtahGamma-ray spectroscopy is the qualitative study of the energy spectra of gamma-ray sources, such as in the nuclear industry, geochemical investigation, and astrophysics.[1] Gamma-ray spectrometry, on the other hand, is the method used to acquire a quantitative spectrum measurement.[2]Most radioactive sources produce gamma rays, which are of various energies and intensities. When these emissions are detected and analyzed with a spectroscopy system, a gamma-ray energy spectrum can be produced.A detailed analysis of this spectrum is typically used to determine the identity and quantity of gamma emitters present in a gamma source, and is a vital tool in radiometric assay. 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Because of this, the energy of gamma-ray photons can be resolved individually, and a gamma-ray spectrometer can measure and display the energies of the gamma-ray photons detected.Radioactive nuclei (radionuclides) commonly emit gamma rays in the energy range from a few keV to ~10 MeV, corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. Such sources typically produce gamma-ray \"line spectra\" (i.e., many photons emitted at discrete energies), whereas much higher energies (upwards of 1 TeV) may occur in the continuum spectra observed in astrophysics and elementary particle physics. The difference between gamma rays and X-rays is somewhat blurred. Gamma rays arise from transitions between nuclear energy levels and are monoenergetic, whereas X-rays are either related to transitions between atomic energy levels (characteristic X rays, which are monoenergetic), or are electrically generated (X-ray tube, linear accelerator) and have a broad energy range.[3]","title":"Gamma ray characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scintillation_counter_as_a_spectrometer.jpg"},{"link_name":"gamma spectrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_spectrometer"},{"link_name":"multichannel analyzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multichannel_analyzer"}],"text":"Laboratory equipment for determination of γ-radiation spectrum with a scintillation counter. The output from the scintillation counter goes to a Multichannel Analyzer which processes and formats the data.The main components of a gamma spectrometer are the energy-sensitive radiation detector and the electronic devices that analyse the detector output signals, such as a pulse sorter (i.e., multichannel analyzer). 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The most important interaction mechanisms are the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and pair production. Through these processes, the energy of the gamma ray is absorbed and converted into a voltage signal by detecting the energy difference before and after the interaction [citation needed] (or, in a scintillation counter, the emitted photons using a photomultiplier). The voltage of the signal produced is proportional to the energy of the detected gamma ray. Common detector materials include sodium iodide (NaI) scintillation counters and high-purity germanium detectors.To accurately determine the energy of the gamma ray, it is advantageous if the photoelectric effect occurs, as it absorbs all of the energy of the incident ray. Absorbing all the energy is also possible when a series of these interaction mechanisms take place within the detector volume. With Compton interaction or pair production, a portion of the energy may escape from the detector volume, without being absorbed. The absorbed energy thus gives rise to a signal that behaves like a signal from a ray of lower energy. This leads to a spectral feature overlapping the regions of lower energy. Using larger detector volumes reduces this effect. More sophisticated methods of reducing this effect include using Compton-suppression shields and employing segmented detectors with add-back (see: clover (detector)).[4]","title":"Components of a gamma spectrometer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multichannel analyzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multichannel_analyzer"},{"link_name":"Gaussian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian"},{"link_name":"trapezoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapezoidal"},{"link_name":"analog-to-digital converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gamma_Pulse-Height_Analyzer_Principal.png"},{"link_name":"resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_resolution"},{"link_name":"sensitivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Astro-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"sound card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card"},{"link_name":"consumer off-the-shelf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_off-the-shelf"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Data acquisition","text":"The voltage pulses produced for every gamma ray that interacts within the detector volume are then analyzed by a multichannel analyzer (MCA). In the MCA, a pulse-shaping amplifier takes the transient voltage signal and reshapes it into a Gaussian or trapezoidal shape. From this shape, the signal is then converted into a digital form, using a fast analog-to-digital converter (ADC). In new systems with a very high-sampling-rate ADC, the analog-to-digital conversion can be performed without reshaping.Pulse-Height Analyzer Principle: Three pulses, 1, 2, and 3 are detected at different times t. Two discriminators emit a counting signal if their set voltage-level is reached by a pulse. Pulse 2 triggers the Lower Level EL but not the Upper Level EU. Pulse 2 is thus counted into the spectral region denoted as P. The anti-coincidence counter prevents a pulse from being sorted into more than one regionAdditional logic in the MCA then performs pulse-height analysis, sorting the pulses by their height into specific bins, or channels. Each channel represents a specific range of energy in the spectrum, the number of detected signals for each channel represents the spectral intensity of the radiation in this energy range. By changing the number of channels, it is possible to fine-tune the spectral resolution and sensitivity.[5]The MCA can send its data to a computer, which stores, displays, and further analyzes the data. A variety of software packages are available from several manufacturers, and generally include spectrum analysis tools such as energy calibration (converting bins to energies), peak area and net area calculation, and resolution calculation.[6]A USB sound card can serve as a cheap, consumer off-the-shelf ADC, a technique pioneered by Marek Dolleiser. Specialized computer software performs pulse-height analysis on the digitized waveform, forming a complete MCA.[7] Sound cards have high-speed but low-resolution (up to 192 kHz) ADC chips, allowing for reasonable quality for a low-to-medium count rate.[8] The \"sound card spectrometer\" has been further refined in amateur and professional circles.[9][10]","title":"Components of a gamma spectrometer"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Gamma spectroscopy systems are selected to take advantage of several performance characteristics. Two of the most important include detector resolution and detector efficiency.","title":"Detector performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gaussian distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_distribution"},{"link_name":"full width at half maximum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_width_at_half_maximum"},{"link_name":"eV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_volts"}],"sub_title":"Detector energy resolution","text":"Gamma rays detected in a spectroscopic system produce peaks in the spectrum. These peaks can also be called lines by analogy to optical spectroscopy. The width of the peaks is determined by the resolution of the detector, a very important characteristic of gamma spectroscopic detectors, and high resolution enables the spectroscopist to separate two gamma lines that are close to each other. Gamma spectroscopy systems are designed and adjusted to produce symmetrical peaks of the best possible resolution. The peak shape is usually a Gaussian distribution. In most spectra the horizontal position of the peak is determined by the gamma ray's energy, and the area of the peak is determined by the intensity of the gamma ray and the efficiency of the detector.The most common figure used to express detector resolution is full width at half maximum (FWHM). This is the width of the gamma ray peak at half of the highest point on the peak distribution. Energy resolution figures are given with reference to specified gamma ray energies. Resolution can be expressed in absolute (i.e., eV or MeV) or relative terms. For example, a sodium iodide (NaI) detector may have a FWHM of 9.15 keV at 122 keV, and 82.75 keV at 662 keV. These resolution values are expressed in absolute terms. To express the energy resolution in relative terms, the FWHM in eV or MeV is divided by the energy of the gamma ray and usually shown as percentage. Using the preceding example, the resolution of the detector is 7.5% at 122 keV, and 12.5% at 662 keV. A typical resolution of a coaxial germanium detector is about 2 keV at 1332 keV, yielding a relative resolution of 0.15%.","title":"Detector performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"Bq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becquerel"}],"sub_title":"Detector efficiency","text":"Not all gamma rays emitted by the source that pass through the detector will produce a count in the system. The probability that an emitted gamma ray will interact with the detector and produce a count is the efficiency of the detector. High-efficiency detectors produce spectra in less time than low-efficiency detectors. In general, larger detectors have higher efficiency than smaller detectors, although the shielding properties of the detector material are also important factors. Detector efficiency is measured by comparing a spectrum from a source of known activity to the count rates in each peak to the count rates expected from the known intensities of each gamma ray.Efficiency, like resolution, can be expressed in absolute or relative terms. The same units are used (i.e., percentages); therefore, the spectroscopist must take care to determine which kind of efficiency is being given for the detector. Absolute efficiency values represent the probability that a gamma ray of a specified energy passing through the detector will interact and be detected. Relative efficiency values are often used for germanium detectors, and compare the efficiency of the detector at 1332 keV to that of a 3 in × 3 in NaI detector (i.e., 1.2×10 −3 cps/Bq at 25 cm). Relative efficiency values greater than one hundred percent can therefore be encountered when working with very large germanium detectors.The energy of the gamma rays being detected is an important factor in the efficiency of the detector. An efficiency curve can be obtained by plotting the efficiency at various energies. This curve can then be used to determine the efficiency of the detector at energies different from those used to obtain the curve. High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors typically have higher sensitivity.","title":"Detector performance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scintillation detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillator"},{"link_name":"thermoluminescent dosimeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescent_dosimeter"},{"link_name":"photomultipliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomultiplier"},{"link_name":"thallium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thallium"},{"link_name":"doped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"sodium iodide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_iodide"},{"link_name":"bismuth germanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth_germanate"},{"link_name":"alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_ray"},{"link_name":"beta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_ray"}],"text":"Scintillation detectors use crystals that emit light when gamma rays interact with the atoms in the crystals. The intensity of the light produced is usually proportional to the energy deposited in the crystal by the gamma ray; a well known situation where this relationship fails is the absorption of < 200 keV radiation by intrinsic and doped sodium iodide detectors. The mechanism is similar to that of a thermoluminescent dosimeter. The detectors are joined to photomultipliers; a photocathode converts the light into electrons; and then by using dynodes to generate electron cascades through delta ray production, the signal is amplified. Common scintillators include thallium-doped sodium iodide (NaI(Tl))—often simplified to sodium iodide (NaI) detectors—and bismuth germanate (BGO). Because photomultipliers are also sensitive to ambient light, scintillators are encased in light-tight coverings.Scintillation detectors can also be used to detect alpha- and beta-radiation.","title":"Scintillation detectors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cs137_Spectrum.PNG"},{"link_name":"caesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium"},{"link_name":"137Cs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium-137"},{"link_name":"137mBa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium-137m"},{"link_name":"decay product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_product"},{"link_name":"secular equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"internal conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_conversion"},{"link_name":"backscatter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backscatter"},{"link_name":"Compton distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_effect"},{"link_name":"Compton scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_scattering"},{"link_name":"Compton suppression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_suppression"},{"link_name":"lithium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Co60_Spectrum.JPG"},{"link_name":"a different measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:60Co_gamma_spectrum_scintillator_energy.png"},{"link_name":"cobalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt"},{"link_name":"decay scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decay_scheme"},{"link_name":"background radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiation"},{"link_name":"operating temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_temperature"},{"link_name":"spectrum stabilizers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectrum_stabilizers&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Sodium iodide-based detectors","text":"Thallium-doped sodium iodide (NaI(Tl)) has two principal advantages:It can be produced in large crystals, yielding good efficiency, and\nit produces intense bursts of light compared to other spectroscopic scintillators.NaI(Tl) is also convenient to use, making it popular for field applications such as the identification of unknown materials for law enforcement purposes.Electron hole recombination will emit light that can re-excite pure scintillation crystals; however, the thallium dopant in NaI(Tl) provides energy states within the band gap between the conduction and valence bands. Following excitation in doped scintillation crystals, some electrons in the conduction band will migrate to the activator states; the downward transitions from the activator states will not re-excite the doped crystal, so the crystal is transparent to this radiation.Figure 1: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of caesium-137 (137Cs)An example of a NaI spectrum is the gamma spectrum of the caesium isotope 137Cs—see Figure 1. 137Cs emits a single gamma line of 662 keV. The 662 keV line shown is actually produced by 137mBa, the decay product of 137Cs, which is in secular equilibrium with 137Cs.The spectrum in Figure 1 was measured using a NaI-crystal on a photomultiplier, an amplifier, and a multichannel analyzer. The figure shows the number of counts within the measuring period versus channel number. The spectrum indicates the following peaks (from left to right):low energy x radiation (due to internal conversion of the gamma ray),\nbackscatter at the low energy end of the Compton distribution, and\na photopeak (full energy peak) at an energy of 662 keVThe Compton distribution is a continuous distribution that is present up to channel 150 in Figure 1. The distribution arises because of primary gamma rays undergoing Compton scattering within the crystal: Depending on the scattering angle, the Compton electrons have different energies and hence produce pulses in different energy channels.If many gamma rays are present in a spectrum, Compton distributions can present analysis challenges. To reduce gamma rays, an anticoincidence shield can be used—see Compton suppression. Gamma ray reduction techniques are especially useful for small lithium-doped germanium (Ge(Li)) detectors.Figure 2: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of cobalt-60 (60Co); see also a different measurementThe gamma spectrum shown in Figure 2 is of the cobalt isotope 60Co, with two gamma rays with 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV respectively. (See the decay scheme article for the decay scheme of cobalt-60.) The two gamma lines can be seen well-separated; the peak to the left of channel 200 most likely indicates a strong background radiation source that has not been subtracted. A backscatter peak can be seen near channel 150, similar to the second peak in Figure 1.Sodium iodide systems, as with all scintillator systems, are sensitive to changes in temperature. Changes in the operating temperature caused by changes in environmental temperature will shift the spectrum on the horizontal axis. Peak shifts of tens of channels or more are commonly observed. Such shifts can be prevented by using spectrum stabilizers.Because of the poor resolution of NaI-based detectors, they are not suitable for the identification of complicated mixtures of gamma ray-producing materials. Scenarios requiring such analyses require detectors with higher resolution.","title":"Scintillation detectors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg"},{"link_name":"Semiconductor detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_detector"},{"link_name":"valence band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_band"},{"link_name":"conduction band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduction_band"},{"link_name":"ionization chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_chamber"},{"link_name":"germanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium"},{"link_name":"cadmium telluride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_telluride"},{"link_name":"cadmium zinc telluride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_zinc_telluride"},{"link_name":"cryogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic"},{"link_name":"liquid nitrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_nitrogen"}],"text":"Germanium gamma spectrum of 60Co (Cobalt-60); compare with the NaI spectrum above.Semiconductor detectors, also called solid-state detectors, are fundamentally different from scintillation detectors: They rely on detection of the charge carriers (electrons and holes) generated in semiconductors by energy deposited by gamma ray photons.In semiconductor detectors, an electric field is applied to the detector volume. An electron in the semiconductor is fixed in its valence band in the crystal until a gamma ray interaction provides the electron enough energy to move to the conduction band. Electrons in the conduction band can respond to the electric field in the detector, and therefore move to the positive contact that is creating the electrical field. The gap created by the moving electron is called a \"hole\", and is filled by an adjacent electron. This shuffling of holes effectively moves a positive charge to the negative contact. The arrival of the electron at the positive contact and the hole at the negative contact produces the electrical signal that is sent to the preamplifier, the MCA, and on through the system for analysis. The movement of electrons and holes in a solid-state detector is very similar to the movement of ions within the sensitive volume of gas-filled detectors such as ionization chambers.Common semiconductor-based detectors include germanium, cadmium telluride, and cadmium zinc telluride.Germanium detectors provide significantly improved energy resolution in comparison to sodium iodide detectors, as explained in the preceding discussion of resolution. Germanium detectors produce the highest resolution commonly available today. However, a disadvantage is the requirement of cryogenic temperatures for the operation of germanium detectors, typically by cooling with liquid nitrogen.","title":"Semiconductor-based detectors"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Interpretation of measurements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Compton scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_scattering"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Backscatter peak","text":"In a real detector setup, some photons can and will undergo one or potentially more Compton scattering processes (e.g. in the housing material of the radioactive source, in shielding material or material otherwise surrounding the experiment) before entering the detector material. This leads to a peak structure that can be seen in the above shown energy spectrum of 137Cs (Figure 1, the first peak left of the Compton edge), the so-called backscatter peak. The detailed shape of backscatter peak structure is influenced by many factors, such as the geometry of the experiment (source geometry, relative position of source, shielding and detector) or the type of the surrounding material (giving rise to different ratios of the cross sections of Photo- and Compton-effect).The basic principle, however, is as follows:Gamma-ray sources emit photons isotropically[11]\nSome photons will undergo a Compton scattering process in e.g. the shielding material or the housing of the source with a scattering angle close to 180° and some of these photons will subsequently be detected by the detector.\nThe result is a peak structure with approximately the energy of the incident photon minus the energy of the Compton edge.The backscatter peak usually appears wide and occurs at lower than 250 keV.[12][13]","title":"Interpretation of measurements"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Am-Be-SourceSpectrum.jpg"},{"link_name":"pair production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_production"}],"sub_title":"Single escape and double escape peaks","text":"Scintillation gamma spectrum of a radioactive Am-Be-source. Visible are the main photopeak of 12C neutron excitation and the two escape peaks associated with it.For incident photon energies E larger than two times the rest mass of the electron (1.022 MeV), pair production can occur. The resulting positron annihilates with one of the surrounding electrons, typically producing two photons with 511 keV. In a real detector (i.e. a detector of finite size) it is possible that after the annihilation:Both photons deposit their energy in the detector. This results in a peak with E, identical to the energy of the incident photon.\nOne of the two photons escapes the detector and only one of the photons deposits its energy in the detector, resulting in a peak with E − 511 keV, the single escape peak.\nBoth photons escape the detector, resulting in a peak with E − 2 × 511 keV, the double escape peak.The above Am-Be-source spectrum shows an example of single and double escape peak in a real measurement.","title":"Interpretation of measurements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"background radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiation"},{"link_name":"Lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"}],"text":"If a gamma spectrometer is used for identifying samples of unknown composition, its energy scale must be calibrated first. Calibration is performed by using the peaks of a known source, such as caesium-137 or cobalt-60. Because the channel number is proportional to energy, the channel scale can then be converted to an energy scale. If the size of the detector crystal is known, one can also perform an intensity calibration, so that not only the energies but also the intensities of an unknown source—or the amount of a certain isotope in the source—can be determined.Because some radioactivity is present everywhere (i.e., background radiation), the spectrum should be analyzed when no source is present. The background radiation must then be subtracted from the actual measurement. Lead absorbers can be placed around the measurement apparatus to reduce background radiation.","title":"Calibration and background radiation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-95150-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-95150-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-07338-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-07338-5"},{"link_name":"Gamma Spectrum Generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120226211611/http://www.nucleonica.net/wiki/index.php/Help:Gamma_Spectrum_Generator"}],"text":"Gilmore G, Hemingway J. Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester: 1995, ISBN 0-471-95150-1.\nKnoll G, Radiation Detection and Measurement. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY:2000, ISBN 0-471-07338-5.\nNucleonica Wiki. Gamma Spectrum Generator. Accessed 8 October 2008.","title":"Works cited"}] | [{"image_text":"The gamma-ray spectrum of natural uranium, showing about a dozen discrete lines superimposed on a smooth continuum, allows one to identify the nuclides 226Ra, 214Pb, and 214Bi of the uranium decay chain. This spectrum was taken from a Uranium ore sample from from Moab, Utah","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Gamma_Spectrum_Uranium_Ore.svg/400px-Gamma_Spectrum_Uranium_Ore.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Laboratory equipment for determination of γ-radiation spectrum with a scintillation counter. The output from the scintillation counter goes to a Multichannel Analyzer which processes and formats the data.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Scintillation_counter_as_a_spectrometer.jpg/220px-Scintillation_counter_as_a_spectrometer.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pulse-Height Analyzer Principle: Three pulses, 1, 2, and 3 are detected at different times t. Two discriminators emit a counting signal if their set voltage-level is reached by a pulse. Pulse 2 triggers the Lower Level EL but not the Upper Level EU. Pulse 2 is thus counted into the spectral region denoted as P. The anti-coincidence counter prevents a pulse from being sorted into more than one region","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Gamma_Pulse-Height_Analyzer_Principal.png/400px-Gamma_Pulse-Height_Analyzer_Principal.png"},{"image_text":"Figure 1: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of caesium-137 (137Cs)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cs137_Spectrum.PNG/300px-Cs137_Spectrum.PNG"},{"image_text":"Figure 2: Sodium iodide gamma spectrum of cobalt-60 (60Co); see also a different measurement","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Co60_Spectrum.JPG/300px-Co60_Spectrum.JPG"},{"image_text":"Germanium gamma spectrum of 60Co (Cobalt-60); compare with the NaI spectrum above.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg/220px-60Co_gamma_spectrum_energy-de.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Scintillation gamma spectrum of a radioactive Am-Be-source. Visible are the main photopeak of 12C neutron excitation and the two escape peaks associated with it.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Am-Be-SourceSpectrum.jpg/350px-Am-Be-SourceSpectrum.jpg"}] | [{"title":"Alpha-particle spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-particle_spectroscopy"},{"title":"Gamma probe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_probe"},{"title":"Gamma ray spectrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray_spectrometer"},{"title":"Isomeric shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomeric_shift"},{"title":"Liquid scintillation counting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_scintillation_counting"},{"title":"Mass spectrometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry"},{"title":"Mössbauer spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy"},{"title":"Perturbed angular correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbed_angular_correlation"},{"title":"Pandemonium effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemonium_effect"},{"title":"Total absorption spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_absorption_spectroscopy"},{"title":"Scintillation counter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillation_counter"},{"title":"X-ray spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy"}] | [{"reference":"\"Scintillation Detector - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2022-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/scintillation-detector","url_text":"\"Scintillation Detector - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gamma Spectroscopy | nuclear-power.com\". www.nuclear-power.com. Retrieved 2023-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/radiation-detection/gamma-spectroscopy/","url_text":"\"Gamma Spectroscopy | nuclear-power.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"X-rays\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/x-rays","url_text":"\"X-rays\""}]},{"reference":"Lee, I Y; Deleplanque, M A; Vetter, K (2003-07-01). \"Developments in large gamma-ray detector arrays\". Reports on Progress in Physics. 66 (7): 1095–1144. Bibcode:2003RPPh...66.1095L. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201. ISSN 0034-4885. S2CID 121957980.","urls":[{"url":"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201","url_text":"\"Developments in large gamma-ray detector arrays\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RPPh...66.1095L","url_text":"2003RPPh...66.1095L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0034-4885%2F66%2F7%2F201","url_text":"10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0034-4885","url_text":"0034-4885"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121957980","url_text":"121957980"}]},{"reference":"\"THE MULTICHANNEL ANALYZER, PHYSICS 359E\" (PDF). Western University. Retrieved 27 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.astro.uwo.ca/~jlandstr/p359/writeup/mca.pdf","url_text":"\"THE MULTICHANNEL ANALYZER, PHYSICS 359E\""}]},{"reference":"\"MCA box settings\". CASSY Lab 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ld-didactic.de/software/524221en/index_Left.htm#CSHID=Appendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CStartTopic=Content%2FAppendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CSkinName=Primary","url_text":"\"MCA box settings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Software Downloads\". www.gammaspectacular.com. Marek works at The University of Sydney, with third year physics students, and developed PRA as an educational tool for his students.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gammaspectacular.com/blue/software-downloads","url_text":"\"Software Downloads\""}]},{"reference":"Motisan, Radu (November 29, 2010). \"NaI Scintillation Probe and Gamma Spectroscopy – PocketMagic\". www.pocketmagic.net.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pocketmagic.net/scintillation-probe-with-photomultiplier-and-nai-crystal/","url_text":"\"NaI Scintillation Probe and Gamma Spectroscopy – PocketMagic\""}]},{"reference":"Ibrahim, Maslina Mohd; Yussup, Nolida; Lombigit, Lojius; Rahman, Nur Aira Abdul; Jaafar, Zainudin (2014). Development of multichannel analyzer using sound card ADC for nuclear spectroscopy system. International Nuclear Science, Technology & Engineering Conference 2013 (iNuSTEC2013). pp. 50–53. doi:10.1063/1.4866103.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4866103","url_text":"10.1063/1.4866103"}]},{"reference":"Kasani, H.; Ashrafi, S.; Ghal-Eh, N. (July 2021). \"High count-rate digital gamma-ray spectroscopy using a low-cost COTS digitizer system\". Radiation Physics and Chemistry. 184: 109438. Bibcode:2021RaPC..18409438K. doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109438. S2CID 233696398.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021RaPC..18409438K","url_text":"2021RaPC..18409438K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.radphyschem.2021.109438","url_text":"10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109438"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233696398","url_text":"233696398"}]},{"reference":"Kim, Sangrok; Kim, Taeyoon; Yang, Hyungjin (1 June 2022). \"Design of a Low-Resolution Gamma-ray Spectrometer for Monitoring Radioactive Levels of Wastewater\". Applied Sciences. 12 (11): 5613. doi:10.3390/app12115613.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp12115613","url_text":"\"Design of a Low-Resolution Gamma-ray Spectrometer for Monitoring Radioactive Levels of Wastewater\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp12115613","url_text":"10.3390/app12115613"}]},{"reference":"Shultis, John K.; Faw, Richard E. (2007). Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-4398-9408-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-9408-8","url_text":"978-1-4398-9408-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Backscattered peaks\". ns.ph.liv.ac.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://ns.ph.liv.ac.uk/~ajb/radiometrics/gamma_radiation/interactions_surroundings/backscattered_peaks.html","url_text":"\"Backscattered peaks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Compton effect (spectrum)\". CASSY Lab 2. Retrieved 9 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ld-didactic.de/software/524221en/index_Left.htm#CSHID=Appendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CStartTopic=Content%2FAppendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CSkinName=Primary","url_text":"\"Compton effect (spectrum)\""}]}] | [{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120226211611/http://www.nucleonica.net/wiki/index.php/Help:Gamma_Spectrum_Generator","external_links_name":"Gamma Spectrum Generator"},{"Link":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/scintillation-detector","external_links_name":"\"Scintillation Detector - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\""},{"Link":"https://www.nuclear-power.com/nuclear-engineering/radiation-detection/gamma-spectroscopy/","external_links_name":"\"Gamma Spectroscopy | nuclear-power.com\""},{"Link":"https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/x-rays","external_links_name":"\"X-rays\""},{"Link":"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201","external_links_name":"\"Developments in large gamma-ray detector arrays\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003RPPh...66.1095L","external_links_name":"2003RPPh...66.1095L"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0034-4885%2F66%2F7%2F201","external_links_name":"10.1088/0034-4885/66/7/201"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0034-4885","external_links_name":"0034-4885"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121957980","external_links_name":"121957980"},{"Link":"http://www.astro.uwo.ca/~jlandstr/p359/writeup/mca.pdf","external_links_name":"\"THE MULTICHANNEL ANALYZER, PHYSICS 359E\""},{"Link":"https://www.ld-didactic.de/software/524221en/index_Left.htm#CSHID=Appendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CStartTopic=Content%2FAppendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CSkinName=Primary","external_links_name":"\"MCA box settings\""},{"Link":"https://www.gammaspectacular.com/blue/software-downloads","external_links_name":"\"Software Downloads\""},{"Link":"https://www.pocketmagic.net/scintillation-probe-with-photomultiplier-and-nai-crystal/","external_links_name":"\"NaI Scintillation Probe and Gamma Spectroscopy – PocketMagic\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4866103","external_links_name":"10.1063/1.4866103"},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021RaPC..18409438K","external_links_name":"2021RaPC..18409438K"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.radphyschem.2021.109438","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.radphyschem.2021.109438"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233696398","external_links_name":"233696398"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp12115613","external_links_name":"\"Design of a Low-Resolution Gamma-ray Spectrometer for Monitoring Radioactive Levels of Wastewater\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fapp12115613","external_links_name":"10.3390/app12115613"},{"Link":"https://ns.ph.liv.ac.uk/~ajb/radiometrics/gamma_radiation/interactions_surroundings/backscattered_peaks.html","external_links_name":"\"Backscattered peaks\""},{"Link":"https://www.ld-didactic.de/software/524221en/index_Left.htm#CSHID=Appendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CStartTopic=Content%2FAppendix%2FComptonSpectrum.htm%7CSkinName=Primary","external_links_name":"\"Compton effect (spectrum)\""},{"Link":"http://sccc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Minamisoma-Cesium-290313-TV45-23c-25040-MB.jpg","external_links_name":"Amateur gamma spectrometry of a chunk of a black mold picked in Minamisoma, close to the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear plant. Japan."},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130510053653/http://sccc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Minamisoma-Cesium-290313-TV45-23c-25040-MB.jpg","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.spectcon.com/","external_links_name":"On-line gamma-ray energy spectrum conversion utility"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007557918405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85052988","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120468&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NForce4 | nForce4 | ["1 Models","1.1 nForce4/nForce4-4x","1.2 nForce4 Ultra","1.3 nForce4 SLI","1.4 nForce4 SLI Intel Edition","1.5 nForce4 SLI x16","2 Southbridges","2.1 nForce400/405/410/430","3 Driver Availability","4 Flaws","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"] | Motherboard chipset
Nvidia nForce4CPU supportedAMD64Pentium 4Socket supportedSocket 939Socket AM2Socket 754LGA 775MiscellaneousRelease date(s)October 2004PredecessornForce3SuccessornForce 500
The nForce4 is a motherboard chipset released by Nvidia in October 2004. The chipset supports AMD 64-bit processors (Socket 939, Socket AM2 and Socket 754) and Intel Pentium 4 LGA 775 processors.
Models
nForce4/nForce4-4x
nForce4 is the second evolution of the Media Communications Processor (MCP) and incorporates both Northbridge and Southbridge on a single die (the first was nForce3).
The Socket 754 version of the board has the HyperTransport link clocked to 800 MHz (6.4 GB/s transfer rate).
Motherboards based on early revisions are mostly referred to as "nForce4-4x" (relating with their ability to handle HT speeds of 4x).
Support for up to 20 PCI Express (PCIe) lanes (up to 38-40 lanes for the nForce4 SLI x16). Reference boards are set up with one x16 slot and three x1 slots, leaving 1 lane unused.
Support for up to 10 USB 2.0 ports.
Support for 4 SATA and 4 PATA drives, which can be linked together in any combination of SATA and PATA to form a RAID 0, 1, or 0+1.
Nvidia RAID Morphing, which allows conversion from one RAID type to another on the fly.
Nvidia nTune, a tool for easy overclocking and timing configurations.
Full 1000 MHz speed on HyperTransport (8 GB/s transfer rate).
Eight-channel AC'97 audio.
Onboard Gigabit Ethernet.
Nvidia ActiveArmor, an onboard firewall solution. (Not available on regular nForce 4)
Does not support Windows 98 or Windows Me.
nForce4 Ultra
The Ultra version contains all of the features of the nForce4-4x version with the addition of:
Hardware processing for the ActiveArmor to reduce CPU load.
Serial ATA 3 Gbit/s interface with 300 MB/s transfer speeds for SATA 3 Gbit/s drives.
Enthusiasts discovered early after the release of nForce4 Ultra that the chipset was identical to nForce4 SLI other than a single resistor on the chip package itself. By modifying this resistor as the SLI is configured, an Ultra can be turned into an SLI.
nForce4 SLI
The SLI version has all the features of the Ultra version, in addition to SLI (Scalable Link Interface). This interface allows two video cards to be connected to produce a single output. This can theoretically double framerates by splitting work between the two GPUs.
On a standard (non x16) nForce4 SLI motherboard, the system can be configured to provide an x16 slot for one graphics board or twin x8 slots for the SLI configuration. A jumper bank must be altered to set these options.
nForce4 SLI Intel Edition
Unlike its AMD Athlon 64 sibling, the Intel Edition is an older chipset as it has both a northbridge and southbridge. As with the older nForce2 chipsets, Nvidia calls the northbridge the "System Platform Processor" (SPP) and the southbridge the "Media and Communications Processor" (MCP). This change in design was necessitated because, unlike the Athlon 64/Opteron, the Pentium 4 does not have an on-board memory controller thus requiring Nvidia to include one in the chipset like in older nForce2. In addition to supporting Pentium 4 processors (with up to a 1066 MHz FSB) the chipset includes support for DDR2 SDRAM. Also like Nvidia's older chipsets, the MCP and SPP communicate through a Hypertransport link, in this case only at (1.6 GB/s. transfer rate) Apart from these differences, the nForce4 SLI Intel Edition shares the same features as the regular nForce4 SLI.
An oddity of the Intel Edition is the fact that while it works with the Pentium D 830 (3.0 GHz) and 840 (3.2 GHz), as well as the Extreme Edition of the 840, it does not work with the Pentium D 820 (2.8 GHz) because the 820 has a much lower current draw than the 830 and 840. Attempting to boot an Intel Edition board with an 820 will cause it to shut down so as to avoid damaging the processor. Nvidia have stated that they do not consider the 820 to be an enthusiast (because it is older) processor, and as such will not be enabling support for it. However, the nForce4 SLI X16 supports it.
nForce4 SLI x16
The nForce4 SLI x16 has similar features to the nForce4 SLI, except it now provides 16 PCI-Express lanes to both graphics cards in an SLI configuration (as opposed to only 8 lanes per graphics card with the original SLI chipset).
This is the only version of the nForce4 for AMD processors that has a separate northbridge and southbridge. It comprises the existing nForce4 MCP for the southbridge and a new AMD nForce4 System Platform Processor (SPP). The two chips are connected via the HyperTransport link. This solution provides 38 PCI-Express lanes in total, and can be divided over 7 slots.
It is also available for Intel processors, whereby it provides 40 PCI-Express lanes, which can be divided over 9 slots.
Southbridges
nForce400/405/410/430
The nForce400/405/410/430 refer to nForce4 based southbridges which are used together with GeForce 6100/6150 series northbridges to form a chipset with integrated graphics. The combination is a follow-up to the popular nForce2 IGP chipset.
Driver Availability
Nvidia offers nForce4 chipset driver downloads for NT-based Windows versions from 2000 up to and including Vista in the "Legacy" product type category on their download page. However, there is no official support for Windows 7 or newer, but Windows 7 has a built-in driver for the nForce 6 chipset, which is very similar.
Flaws
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Nvidia's nForce4 chipset suffers from several unresolved issues.
The ActiveArmor hardware firewall is nearly non-functional, with many unsolved bugs and potentially serious instability issues. Installing ActiveArmor can cause BSODs for users of certain software, especially peer-to-peer file sharing applications. Some programs, such as μTorrent, go so far as to have warning messages about using Nvidia's firewall in combination with their software. ActiveArmor also has a high probability of causing corruption of file downloads. Nvidia has been unable to solve these issues and points to hardware bugs within the chipset itself, problems which they are unable to work around.
There have also been data corruption issues associated with certain SATA 3 Gbit/s hard drives. The issues can often be resolved with a firmware update for the hard drive from the manufacturer.
The nForce4 chipset has also been blamed for issues with PCI cards, relating to Nvidia's implementation of the PCI bus. RME Audio, a maker of professional audio equipment, has stated that the latency of the PCI bus is unreliable and that the chipset's PCI Express interface can "hog" system data transfer resources when intense video card usage is occurring. This has the effect of causing audible pops and clicks with PCI sound cards. Gamers have noticed this effect, especially with Creative's Sound Blaster X-Fi and Sound Blaster Audigy 2 sound cards. Compatibility issues between these sound cards and nForce4 motherboards have been ongoing, including reports of serious and irreversible damage to crucial motherboard components. Driver updates were also found to be unsuccessful. Latency issues are more readily apparent with sound cards than other addon cards because of the direct user feedback the audio problems demonstrate.
See also
Comparison of Nvidia chipsets
NForce 500
References
^ Nvidia nForce4, Nvidia, accessed September 4, 2006.
^ Wasson, Scott. Nvidia's nForce4 Ultra chipset Archived 2007-06-29 at the Wayback Machine, Tech Report, November 22, 2004.
^ Fink, Wesley. Morphing nForce4 Ultra into nForce4 SLI, Anandtech, January 18, 2005.
^ Fink, Wesley. DFI nForce4: SLI and Ultra for Mad Overclockers, Anandtech, February 5, 2005.
^ Wasson, Scott. Nvidia's nForce4 SLI Intel Edition chipset Archived 2006-11-19 at the Wayback Machine, Tech Report, April 8, 2005.
^ Shilov, Anton. Intel Pentium D 820 May Be Incompatible with Third Party Chipsets Archived 2006-09-11 at the Wayback Machine, X-bit labs, May 24, 2005.
^ NVIDIA Driver Downloads, August 20, 2009
^ Fahlén, Anders. nForce4 Single CPU Chipset - DAW Stress Test Reports Archived 2010-02-25 at the Wayback Machine, RME Audio, March 9, 2005.
^ Creative Sound Blaster Forum, accessed September 5, 2006.
External links
Nvidia: nForce4
Anandtech: nForce4: PCI Express and SLI for Athlon 64
Techreport: Nvidia's nForce4 SLI Intel Edition chipset
vteNvidia chipsetsComparison of Nvidia chipsetsGeForce Series
ION
8
9
nForce Series
nForce 220/415/420
nForce2
nForce3
nForce4
nForce 500
nForce 600
nForce 700
nForce 900
Technologies
ESA
EPP
LinkBoost
MXM
SoundStorm | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chipset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipset"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"AMD 64-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD64"},{"link_name":"Socket 939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_939"},{"link_name":"Socket AM2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_AM2"},{"link_name":"Socket 754","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socket_754"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Pentium 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_4"},{"link_name":"LGA 775","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGA_775"}],"text":"The nForce4 is a motherboard chipset released by Nvidia in October 2004. 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Reference boards are set up with one x16 slot and three x1 slots, leaving 1 lane unused.\nSupport for up to 10 USB 2.0 ports.\nSupport for 4 SATA and 4 PATA drives, which can be linked together in any combination of SATA and PATA to form a RAID 0, 1, or 0+1.\nNvidia RAID Morphing, which allows conversion from one RAID type to another on the fly.\nNvidia nTune, a tool for easy overclocking and timing configurations.\nFull 1000 MHz speed on HyperTransport (8 GB/s transfer rate).\nEight-channel AC'97 audio.\nOnboard Gigabit Ethernet.\nNvidia ActiveArmor, an onboard firewall solution. 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The combination is a follow-up to the popular nForce2 IGP chipset.","title":"Southbridges"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NT-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Nvidia offers nForce4 chipset driver downloads for NT-based Windows versions from 2000 up to and including Vista in the \"Legacy\" product type category on their download page. However, there is no official support for Windows 7 or newer, but Windows 7 has a built-in driver for the nForce 6 chipset, which is very similar.[7]","title":"Driver Availability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ActiveArmor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActiveArmor"},{"link_name":"ActiveArmor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActiveArmor"},{"link_name":"BSODs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Screen_of_Death"},{"link_name":"peer-to-peer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer-to-peer"},{"link_name":"file sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_sharing"},{"link_name":"μTorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9CTorrent"},{"link_name":"PCI bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"sound cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Creative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Technology"},{"link_name":"Sound Blaster X-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_Blaster_X-Fi"},{"link_name":"Sound Blaster Audigy 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_Blaster_Audigy_2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Nvidia's nForce4 chipset suffers from several unresolved issues.The ActiveArmor hardware firewall is nearly non-functional, with many unsolved bugs and potentially serious instability issues. Installing ActiveArmor can cause BSODs for users of certain software, especially peer-to-peer file sharing applications. Some programs, such as μTorrent, go so far as to have warning messages about using Nvidia's firewall in combination with their software. ActiveArmor also has a high probability of causing corruption of file downloads. Nvidia has been unable to solve these issues and points to hardware bugs within the chipset itself, problems which they are unable to work around.There have also been data corruption issues associated with certain SATA 3 Gbit/s hard drives. The issues can often be resolved with a firmware update for the hard drive from the manufacturer.The nForce4 chipset has also been blamed for issues with PCI cards, relating to Nvidia's implementation of the PCI bus. RME Audio, a maker of professional audio equipment, has stated that the latency of the PCI bus is unreliable and that the chipset's PCI Express interface can \"hog\" system data transfer resources when intense video card usage is occurring. This has the effect of causing audible pops and clicks with PCI sound cards.[8] Gamers have noticed this effect, especially with Creative's Sound Blaster X-Fi and Sound Blaster Audigy 2 sound cards. Compatibility issues between these sound cards and nForce4 motherboards have been ongoing, including reports of serious and irreversible damage to crucial motherboard components. Driver updates were also found to be unsuccessful.[9] Latency issues are more readily apparent with sound cards than other addon cards because of the direct user feedback the audio problems demonstrate.","title":"Flaws"}] | [] | [{"title":"Comparison of Nvidia chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Nvidia_chipsets"},{"title":"NForce 500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NForce_500"}] | [] | [{"Link":"http://www.nvidia.com/page/nforce4_family.html","external_links_name":"Nvidia nForce4"},{"Link":"http://techreport.com/reviews/2004q4/nforce4-ultra/index.x?pg=1","external_links_name":"Nvidia's nForce4 Ultra chipset"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070629205415/http://techreport.com/reviews/2004q4/nforce4-ultra/index.x?pg=1","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.anandtech.com/cpuchipsets/showdoc.aspx?i=2322","external_links_name":"Morphing nForce4 Ultra into nForce4 SLI"},{"Link":"http://www.anandtech.com/mb/showdoc.aspx?i=2337&p=3","external_links_name":"DFI nForce4: SLI and Ultra for Mad Overclockers"},{"Link":"http://techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/nforce4-sli-intel/index.x?pg=1","external_links_name":"Nvidia's nForce4 SLI Intel Edition chipset"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061119073435/http://techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/nforce4-sli-intel/index.x?pg=1","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20050524054105.html","external_links_name":"Intel Pentium D 820 May Be Incompatible with Third Party Chipsets"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060911200513/http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20050524054105.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.nvidia.com/Download/Find.aspx?lang=en-us","external_links_name":"NVIDIA Driver Downloads"},{"Link":"http://www.rme-audio.de/english/techinfo/nforce4_tests.htm","external_links_name":"nForce4 Single CPU Chipset - DAW Stress Test Reports"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100225123632/http://www.rme-audio.de/english/techinfo/nforce4_tests.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://forums.creative.com/creativelabs/board?board.id=soundblaster","external_links_name":"Creative Sound Blaster Forum"},{"Link":"http://www.nvidia.com/page/nforce4_family.html","external_links_name":"Nvidia: nForce4"},{"Link":"http://www.anandtech.com/cpuchipsets/showdoc.aspx?i=2248","external_links_name":"Anandtech: nForce4: PCI Express and SLI for Athlon 64"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061119073435/http://techreport.com/reviews/2005q2/nforce4-sli-intel/index.x?pg=1","external_links_name":"Techreport: Nvidia's nForce4 SLI Intel Edition chipset"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-selective_fading | Fading | ["1 Key concepts","2 Types","2.1 Slow versus fast fading","2.2 Block fading","2.3 Selective fading","2.4 Upfade","3 Models","4 Mitigation","5 See also","6 References","7 Literature","8 External links"] | Term in wireless communications
Frequency-selective time-varying fading causes a cloudy pattern to appear on a spectrogram. Time is shown on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis and signal strength as grey-scale intensity.
In wireless communications, fading is the variation of signal attenuation over variables like time, geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath-induced fading, weather (particularly rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.
A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading.
Key concepts
The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while traveling from the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, which amplifies or attenuates the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.
A common example of deep fade is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades.
Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic communications to model the distortion caused by the water.
Types
Slow versus fast fading
The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the minimum time required for the magnitude change or phase change of the channel to become uncorrelated from its previous value.
Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay requirement of the application. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The received power change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a standard deviation according to the log-distance path loss model.
Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay requirement of the application. In this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the period of use.
In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication to a temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully transmitted bits during other time instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered. In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.
The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals traveling along different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a signal fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such channels have a very short coherence time.
In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed as
T
c
≈
1
D
s
{\displaystyle T_{c}\approx {\frac {1}{D_{s}}}}
where
T
c
{\displaystyle T_{c}}
is the coherence time,
D
s
{\displaystyle D_{s}}
is the Doppler spread. This equation is just an approximation, to be exact, see Coherence time.
Block fading
Block fading is where the fading process is approximately constant for a number of symbol intervals. A channel can be 'doubly block-fading' when it is block fading in both the time and frequency domains. Many wireless communications channels are dynamic by nature, and are commonly modeled as block fading. In these channels each block of symbol goes through a statistically independent transformation. Typically the slowly-varying channels based on jakes model of Rayleigh spectrum is used for block fading in an OFDM system.
Selective fading
Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening or shortening). This typically happens in the early evening or early morning as the various layers in the ionosphere move, separate, and combine. The two paths can both be skywave or one be groundwave.
Selective fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or "null", is deepest at one particular frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received audio.
As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.
In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading.
In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience uncorrelated fading.
Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) and code-division multiple access (CDMA) are well-suited to employing frequency diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by means of error coding, simple equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing a guard interval between the symbols called a cyclic prefix. CDMA uses the rake receiver to deal with each echo separately.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each other. Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference.
The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.
The effect can be counteracted by applying some diversity scheme, for example OFDM (with subcarrier interleaving and forward error correction), or by using two receivers with separate antennas spaced a quarter-wavelength apart, or a specially designed diversity receiver with two antennas. Such a receiver continuously compares the signals arriving at the two antennas and presents the better signal.
Upfade
Upfade is a special case of fading, used to describe constructive interference, in situations where a radio signal gains strength. Some multipath conditions cause a signal's amplitude to be increased in this way because signals travelling by different paths arrive at the receiver in phase and become additive to the main signal. Hence, the total signal that reaches the receiver will be stronger than the signal would otherwise have been without the multipath conditions.
The effect is also noticeable in wireless LAN systems.
Models
Examples of fading models for the distribution of the attenuation are:
Dispersive fading models, with several echoes, each exposed to different delay, gain and phase shift, often constant. This results in frequency selective fading and inter-symbol interference. The gains may be Rayleigh or Rician distributed. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.
Nakagami fading
Log-normal shadow fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading
Weibull fading
Mitigation
Fading can cause poor performance in a communication system because it can result in a loss of signal power without reducing the power of the noise. This signal loss can be over some or all of the signal bandwidth. Fading can also be a problem as it changes over time: communication systems are often designed to adapt to such impairments, but the fading can change faster than the adaptations can be made. In such cases, the probability of experiencing a fade (and associated bit errors as the signal-to-noise ratio drops) on the channel becomes the limiting factor in the link's performance.
The effects of fading can be combated by using diversity to transmit the signal over multiple channels that experience independent fading and coherently combining them at the receiver. The probability of experiencing a fade in this composite channel is then proportional to the probability that all the component channels simultaneously experience a fade, a much more unlikely event.
Diversity can be achieved in time, frequency, or space. Common techniques used to overcome signal fading include:
Diversity reception and transmission
MIMO
OFDM
Rake receivers
Space–time codes
Forward error correction
Interleaving
Besides diversity, techniques such as application of cyclic prefix (e.g. in OFDM) and channel estimation and equalization can also be used to tackle fading.
See also
Attenuation distortion
Backhoe fade
Diversity schemes
Fade margin
Fading distribution
Frequency of optimum transmission
Link budget
Lowest usable high frequency
Maximum usable frequency
Multipath propagation
OFDM
Rain fade
Rayleigh fading
Thermal fade
Two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading
Ultra-wideband
Upfade
References
^ Tse, David; Viswanath, Pramod (2006). Fundamentals of Wireless Communication (4 ed.). Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0521845270.
^ Ahlin, Lars; Zander, Jens; and Slimane, Ben; Principles of Wireless Communications, Professional Publishing Svc., 2006, pp. 126-130.
^ Biglieri, Ezio; Caire, Giuseppe; Taricco, Giorgio (1999). "Coding for the Fading Channel: a Survey". In Byrnes, Jim S. (ed.). Signal Processing for Multimedia. IOS Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-90-5199-460-5.
^ Médard, Muriel; Tse, David N. C. "Spreading in block-fading channels" (PDF). Conference Record of the Thirty-Fourth Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers. 34th Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, Oct 29 – Nov 1, 2000, Pacific Grove, CA, USA. Vol. 2. pp. 1598–1602. doi:10.1109/ACSSC.2000.911259. ISBN 0-7803-6514-3. Retrieved 2014-10-20.
^ Sklar, Bernard (July 1997). "Rayleigh fading channels in mobile digital communication systems .I. Characterization". IEEE Communications Magazine. 35 (7): 90–100. doi:10.1109/35.601747.
^ Lehpamer, Harvey; Microwave transmission networks: planning, design, and deployment, McGraw-Hill, 2010, ISBN 0-07-170122-2, page 100
^ Lewis, Barry D.; Davis, Peter T.; Wireless networks for dummies, For Dummies, 2004, ISBN 0-7645-7525-2, page 234
Literature
T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and practice, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002.
David Tse and Pramod Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless Communication, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
M. Awad, K. T. Wong & Z. Li, An Integrative Overview of the Open Literature's Empirical Data on the Indoor Radiowave Channel's Temporal Properties, IEEE Transactions on Antennas & Propagation, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 1451–1468, May 2008.
P. Barsocchi, Channel models for terrestrial wireless communications: a survey, CNR-ISTI technical report, April 2006.
External links
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Comparison of radio systems | [{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radio_propagation_noise.jpg"},{"link_name":"spectrogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrogram"},{"link_name":"wireless communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_communication"},{"link_name":"attenuation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation"},{"link_name":"random process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_process"},{"link_name":"multipath propagation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipath_propagation"},{"link_name":"wave propagation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_propagation"}],"text":"Frequency-selective time-varying fading causes a cloudy pattern to appear on a spectrogram. Time is shown on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis and signal strength as grey-scale intensity.In wireless communications, fading is the variation of signal attenuation over variables like time, geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath-induced fading, weather (particularly rain), or shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading.","title":"Fading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"superposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superposition_principle"},{"link_name":"attenuation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation"},{"link_name":"delay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_delay"},{"link_name":"phase shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(waves)"},{"link_name":"constructive or destructive interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_interference"},{"link_name":"signal-to-noise ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio"}],"text":"The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while traveling from the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, which amplifies or attenuates the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.A common example of deep fade is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades.Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic communications to model the distortion caused by the water.","title":"Key concepts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coherence time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_time_(communications_systems)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"log-normal distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log-normal_distribution"},{"link_name":"log-distance path loss model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log-distance_path_loss_model"},{"link_name":"time diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_diversity"},{"link_name":"error-correcting code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error-correcting_code"},{"link_name":"interleaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction#Interleaving"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coherence_time.png"},{"link_name":"Doppler shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Coherence time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_time_(communications_systems)"}],"sub_title":"Slow versus fast fading","text":"The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the minimum time required for the magnitude change or phase change of the channel to become uncorrelated from its previous value.Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay requirement of the application.[1] In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The received power change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a standard deviation according to the log-distance path loss model.\nFast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay requirement of the application. In this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the period of use.In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication to a temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully transmitted bits during other time instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered. In a slow-fading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding.The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals traveling along different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a signal fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such channels have a very short coherence time.In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed asT\n \n c\n \n \n ≈\n \n \n 1\n \n D\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{c}\\approx {\\frac {1}{D_{s}}}}where \n \n \n \n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle T_{c}}\n \n is the coherence time, \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle D_{s}}\n \n is the Doppler spread. This equation is just an approximation,[2] to be exact, see Coherence time.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"OFDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing"}],"sub_title":"Block fading","text":"Block fading is where the fading process is approximately constant for a number of symbol intervals.[3] A channel can be 'doubly block-fading' when it is block fading in both the time and frequency domains.[4] Many wireless communications channels are dynamic by nature, and are commonly modeled as block fading. In these channels each block of symbol goes through a statistically independent transformation. Typically the slowly-varying channels based on jakes model of Rayleigh spectrum [5] is used for block fading in an OFDM system.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radio propagation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_propagation"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)"},{"link_name":"two different paths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipath_propagation"},{"link_name":"ionosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere"},{"link_name":"skywave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skywave"},{"link_name":"groundwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundwave"},{"link_name":"audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound"},{"link_name":"carrier frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_frequency"},{"link_name":"coherence bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_bandwidth"},{"link_name":"orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing"},{"link_name":"code-division multiple access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access"},{"link_name":"subcarriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcarrier"},{"link_name":"error coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_coding"},{"link_name":"equalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equalization_(communications)"},{"link_name":"bit loading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bit_loading&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"cyclic prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_prefix"},{"link_name":"rake receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rake_receiver"},{"link_name":"Equalizers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equalization_(communications)"},{"link_name":"intersymbol interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersymbol_interference"},{"link_name":"Doppler shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_shift"},{"link_name":"diversity scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_scheme"},{"link_name":"interleaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction#Interleaving"},{"link_name":"forward error correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction"},{"link_name":"receivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_(radio)"},{"link_name":"antennas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"diversity receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_reception"}],"sub_title":"Selective fading","text":"Selective fading or frequency selective fading is a radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening or shortening). This typically happens in the early evening or early morning as the various layers in the ionosphere move, separate, and combine. The two paths can both be skywave or one be groundwave.Selective fading manifests as a slow, cyclic disturbance; the cancellation effect, or \"null\", is deepest at one particular frequency, which changes constantly, sweeping through the received audio.As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading.\nIn frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience uncorrelated fading.Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) and code-division multiple access (CDMA) are well-suited to employing frequency diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by means of error coding, simple equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing a guard interval between the symbols called a cyclic prefix. CDMA uses the rake receiver to deal with each echo separately.Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each other. Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference.The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.The effect can be counteracted by applying some diversity scheme, for example OFDM (with subcarrier interleaving and forward error correction), or by using two receivers with separate antennas spaced a quarter-wavelength apart, or a specially designed diversity receiver with two antennas. Such a receiver continuously compares the signals arriving at the two antennas and presents the better signal.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"constructive interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_interference"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_(radio)"},{"link_name":"in phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_phase"},{"link_name":"wireless LAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Upfade","text":"Upfade is a special case of fading, used to describe constructive interference, in situations where a radio signal gains strength.[6] Some multipath conditions cause a signal's amplitude to be increased in this way because signals travelling by different paths arrive at the receiver in phase and become additive to the main signal. Hence, the total signal that reaches the receiver will be stronger than the signal would otherwise have been without the multipath conditions. \nThe effect is also noticeable in wireless LAN systems.[7]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nakagami fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakagami_distribution"},{"link_name":"Log-normal shadow fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Log-normal_shadow_fading&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_fading"},{"link_name":"Rician fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rician_fading"},{"link_name":"Two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-wave_with_diffuse_power_fading"},{"link_name":"Weibull fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weibull_fading"}],"text":"Examples of fading models for the distribution of the attenuation are:Dispersive fading models, with several echoes, each exposed to different delay, gain and phase shift, often constant. This results in frequency selective fading and inter-symbol interference. The gains may be Rayleigh or Rician distributed. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.\nNakagami fading\nLog-normal shadow fading\nRayleigh fading\nRician fading\nTwo-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading\nWeibull fading","title":"Models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signal-to-noise ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio"},{"link_name":"diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_scheme"},{"link_name":"Diversity reception and transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_reception"},{"link_name":"MIMO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-input_multiple-output_communications"},{"link_name":"OFDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"},{"link_name":"Rake receivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rake_receiver"},{"link_name":"Space–time codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%E2%80%93time_code"},{"link_name":"Forward error correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction"},{"link_name":"Interleaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction#Interleaving"},{"link_name":"cyclic prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_prefix"},{"link_name":"OFDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"},{"link_name":"channel estimation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_estimation"},{"link_name":"equalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equalization_(communications)"}],"text":"Fading can cause poor performance in a communication system because it can result in a loss of signal power without reducing the power of the noise. This signal loss can be over some or all of the signal bandwidth. Fading can also be a problem as it changes over time: communication systems are often designed to adapt to such impairments, but the fading can change faster than the adaptations can be made. In such cases, the probability of experiencing a fade (and associated bit errors as the signal-to-noise ratio drops) on the channel becomes the limiting factor in the link's performance.The effects of fading can be combated by using diversity to transmit the signal over multiple channels that experience independent fading and coherently combining them at the receiver. The probability of experiencing a fade in this composite channel is then proportional to the probability that all the component channels simultaneously experience a fade, a much more unlikely event.Diversity can be achieved in time, frequency, or space. Common techniques used to overcome signal fading include:Diversity reception and transmission\nMIMO\nOFDM\nRake receivers\nSpace–time codes\nForward error correction\nInterleavingBesides diversity, techniques such as application of cyclic prefix (e.g. in OFDM) and channel estimation and equalization can also be used to tackle fading.","title":"Mitigation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fundamentals of Wireless Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070810052329/http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~dtse/book.html"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/eie.polyu.edu.hk"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110716100356/http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/ktw/AwadAPT0508.pdf"},{"link_name":"Channel models for terrestrial wireless communications: a survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110722030406/http://puma.isti.cnr.it/dfdownload.php?ident=/cnr.isti/2006-TR-16"},{"link_name":"ISTI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISTI"}],"text":"T.S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and practice, Second Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002.\nDavid Tse and Pramod Viswanath, Fundamentals of Wireless Communication, Cambridge University Press, 2005.\nM. Awad, K. T. Wong [1][permanent dead link] & Z. Li, An Integrative Overview of the Open Literature's Empirical Data on the Indoor Radiowave Channel's Temporal Properties,[2] IEEE Transactions on Antennas & Propagation, vol. 56, no. 5, pp. 1451–1468, May 2008.\nP. Barsocchi, Channel models for terrestrial wireless communications: a survey, CNR-ISTI technical report, April 2006.","title":"Literature"}] | [{"image_text":"Frequency-selective time-varying fading causes a cloudy pattern to appear on a spectrogram. Time is shown on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis and signal strength as grey-scale intensity.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Radio_propagation_noise.jpg/300px-Radio_propagation_noise.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Coherence_time.png/440px-Coherence_time.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Coherence_bandwidth.png/440px-Coherence_bandwidth.png"}] | [{"title":"Attenuation distortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attenuation_distortion"},{"title":"Backhoe fade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backhoe_fade"},{"title":"Diversity schemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_scheme"},{"title":"Fade margin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fade_margin"},{"title":"Fading distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fading_distribution"},{"title":"Frequency of optimum transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_of_optimum_transmission"},{"title":"Link budget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_budget"},{"title":"Lowest usable high frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_usable_high_frequency"},{"title":"Maximum usable frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_usable_frequency"},{"title":"Multipath propagation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipath_propagation"},{"title":"OFDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"},{"title":"Rain fade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain_fade"},{"title":"Rayleigh fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_fading"},{"title":"Thermal fade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_fade"},{"title":"Two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-wave_with_diffuse_power_fading"},{"title":"Ultra-wideband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-wideband"},{"title":"Upfade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upfade"}] | [{"reference":"Tse, David; Viswanath, Pramod (2006). Fundamentals of Wireless Communication (4 ed.). Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0521845270.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521845270","url_text":"0521845270"}]},{"reference":"Biglieri, Ezio; Caire, Giuseppe; Taricco, Giorgio (1999). \"Coding for the Fading Channel: a Survey\". In Byrnes, Jim S. (ed.). Signal Processing for Multimedia. IOS Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-90-5199-460-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Caire","url_text":"Caire, Giuseppe"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5199-460-5","url_text":"978-90-5199-460-5"}]},{"reference":"Médard, Muriel; Tse, David N. C. \"Spreading in block-fading channels\" (PDF). Conference Record of the Thirty-Fourth Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers. 34th Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, Oct 29 – Nov 1, 2000, Pacific Grove, CA, USA. Vol. 2. pp. 1598–1602. doi:10.1109/ACSSC.2000.911259. ISBN 0-7803-6514-3. Retrieved 2014-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriel_M%C3%A9dard","url_text":"Médard, Muriel"},{"url":"https://www.mit.edu/~medard/manndd1.pdf","url_text":"\"Spreading in block-fading channels\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FACSSC.2000.911259","url_text":"10.1109/ACSSC.2000.911259"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7803-6514-3","url_text":"0-7803-6514-3"}]},{"reference":"Sklar, Bernard (July 1997). \"Rayleigh fading channels in mobile digital communication systems .I. Characterization\". IEEE Communications Magazine. 35 (7): 90–100. doi:10.1109/35.601747.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/601747","url_text":"\"Rayleigh fading channels in mobile digital communication systems .I. Characterization\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F35.601747","url_text":"10.1109/35.601747"}]}] | [{"Link":"https://www.mit.edu/~medard/manndd1.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Spreading in block-fading channels\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FACSSC.2000.911259","external_links_name":"10.1109/ACSSC.2000.911259"},{"Link":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/601747","external_links_name":"\"Rayleigh fading channels in mobile digital communication systems .I. Characterization\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F35.601747","external_links_name":"10.1109/35.601747"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070810052329/http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~dtse/book.html","external_links_name":"Fundamentals of Wireless Communication"},{"Link":"http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/eie.polyu.edu.hk","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716100356/http://www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/~enktwong/ktw/AwadAPT0508.pdf","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110722030406/http://puma.isti.cnr.it/dfdownload.php?ident=/cnr.isti/2006-TR-16","external_links_name":"Channel models for terrestrial wireless communications: a survey"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061129053026/http://www.ylesstech.com/terminology.php?letter=all&id=15","external_links_name":"Fading due to multipath effect"}] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOS_(8-bit_operating_system) | EOS (8-bit operating system) | ["1 Overview","1.1 Executive calls","1.2 Console Output","1.3 Printer Interface","1.4 Keyboard Interface","1.5 File Operations","1.6 Device Operations","1.7 Video RAM Management","1.8 Game Controllers","1.9 Sound Routines","1.10 Subroutines","2 References","3 External links"] | This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
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This article is about the EOS home computer operating system. For the supercomputer system, see EOS (operating system).
Operating system
Elementary Operating SystemDeveloperColeco Industries, Inc.Written inZ80 Assembly languageWorking stateDiscontinued, historicInitial release1983; 41 years ago (1983)Latest releaseEOS-7Available inEnglishPlatformsColeco AdamDefaultuser interfaceText user interfaceLicenseProprietary software
EOS is the built-in operating system of the Coleco Adam. There are bindings in high-level programming languages like BASIC.
Overview
EOS-API with Doxygen
The functions are grouped into categories as follows.
Executive calls
eos_init
eos_hard_init
eos_hard_reset_net
eos_delay_after_hard_reset
eos_synchronize_clocks
eos_scan_for_devices
eos_relocate_pcb
eos_soft_init
eos_exit_to_smartwriter
eos_switch_memory_banks
Console Output
eos_console_init
eos_console_display_regular
eos_console_display_special
Printer Interface
eos_print_character
eos_print_buffer
eos_printer_status
eos_start_print_character
eos_end_print_character
Keyboard Interface
eos_keyboard_status
eos_read_keyboard
eos_start_read_keyboard
eos_end_read_keyboard
File Operations
eos_file_manager_init
eos_check_directory_for_file
eos_find_file_1
eos_find_file_2
eos_find_file_in_fcb
eos_check_file_mode
eos_make_file
eos_update_file_in_directory
eos_open_file
eos_close_file
eos_read_file
eos_write_file
eos_trim_file
eos_initialize_directory
eos_reset_file
eos_get_date
eos_put_date
eos_delete_file
eos_rename_file
Device Operations
eos_find_pcb
eos_find_dcb
eos_request_device_status
eos_get_device_status
eos_soft_reset_device
eos_soft_reset_keyboard
eos_soft_reset_printer
eos_read_block
eos_read_one_block
eos_start_read_one_block
eos_end_read_one_block
eos_write_block
eos_write_one_block
eos_start_write_one_block
eos_end_write_one_block
eos_start_read_character_device
eos_end_read_character_device
eos_read_character_device
eos_start_write_character_device
eos_end_write_character_device
eos_write_character_device
Video RAM Management
eos_set_vdp_ports
eos_set_vram_table_address
eos_load_ascii_in_vdp
eos_put_ascii_in_vdp
eos_write_vram
eos_read_vram
eos_put_vram
eos_get_vram
eos_write_vdp_register
eos_read_vdp_register
eos_fill_vram
eos_calculate_pattern_position
eos_point_to_pattern_position
eos_write_sprite_table
Game Controllers
eos_read_game_controller
eos_update_spinner
Sound Routines
eos_sound_init
eos_sound_off
eos_start_sound
eos_play_sound
eos_end_sound
Subroutines
eos_decrement_low_nibble
eos_decrement_high_nibble
eos_move_high_nibble_to_low_nibble
eos_add_a_to_hl
References
^ BASIC bindings
^ C bindings
^ EOS Programmer's Manual
^ "Color label printer".
^ https://web.archive.org/web/20170815223823/http://www.theadamresource.com/articles/eos/date_stamping.html
^ https://web.archive.org/web/20170815223017/http://www.theadamresource.com/articles/assembly/game_controller_input.html
External links
Technical Reference Manual chapter 3
EOS-5 source code
Boot code, Forum
vteDisk operating systems (DOS)MS-DOS, IBM PC DOS,compatible systems
API
Timeline
Comparison
Commands
Games
MS-DOS
Multitasking MS-DOS 4.0/4.1
MS-DOS 7
IBM PC DOS
DOS/V
DR-DOS
H-DOS
Novell DOS
ROM-DOS
SISNE plus
PTS-DOS
FreeDOSOther x86
4680 OS
4690 OS
86-DOS
ADOS
Concurrent CP/M-86
Concurrent DOS
CP/M-86
CP/K
Datapac System Manager
DOS Plus
K8918-OS
FlexOS
MP/M-86
Multiuser DOS
NetWare PalmDOS
Novell DOS
OpenDOS
PC-MOS/386
REAL/32
SB-86
SCP1700
Towns OS
TurboDOS
Other platforms
AmigaDOS
AMSDOS
ANDOS
Apple DOS
Apple ProDOS
Apple SOS
Atari DOS
Atari TOS
BW-DOS
Commodore DOS
Concurrent DOS 68K
Concurrent DOS V60
CP/M
Cromemco DOS
CSI-DOS
DEC BATCH-11/DOS-11
DIP DOS
DOS/360
DOS XL
Edos
EOS
FLEX
GEMDOS
IDEDOS
IMDOS
iS-DOS
ISIS
MDOS
MicroDOS
MP/M
MSX-DOS
MyDOS
NewDos/80
OS/M
PTDOS
RealDOS
SB-80
SCP
Sinclair QDOS
RDOS
SmartDOS
SpartaDOS
SpartaDOS X
Technical Support SuperDOS
Top-DOS
TR-DOS
TRSDOS
TurboDOS
UDOS
Z-DOS
Z80-RIO
Category
List
This operating-system-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte | [{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EOS (operating system)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOS_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Coleco Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleco_Adam"},{"link_name":"high-level programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_programming_language"},{"link_name":"BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"This article is about the EOS home computer operating system. For the supercomputer system, see EOS (operating system).Operating systemEOS is the built-in operating system of the Coleco Adam. There are bindings in high-level programming languages like BASIC.[1]","title":"EOS (8-bit operating system)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FileManager.png"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Doxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doxygen"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"EOS-API[2] with DoxygenThe functions are grouped into categories as follows.[3][4]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Executive calls","text":"eos_init\neos_hard_init\neos_hard_reset_net\neos_delay_after_hard_reset\neos_synchronize_clocks\neos_scan_for_devices\neos_relocate_pcb\neos_soft_init\neos_exit_to_smartwriter\neos_switch_memory_banks","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Console Output","text":"eos_console_init\neos_console_display_regular\neos_console_display_special","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Printer Interface","text":"eos_print_character\neos_print_buffer\neos_printer_status\neos_start_print_character\neos_end_print_character","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Keyboard Interface","text":"eos_keyboard_status\neos_read_keyboard\neos_start_read_keyboard\neos_end_read_keyboard","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"File Operations","text":"eos_file_manager_init\neos_check_directory_for_file\neos_find_file_1\neos_find_file_2\neos_find_file_in_fcb\neos_check_file_mode\neos_make_file\neos_update_file_in_directory\neos_open_file\neos_close_file\neos_read_file\neos_write_file\neos_trim_file\neos_initialize_directory\neos_reset_file\neos_get_date[5]\neos_put_date\neos_delete_file\neos_rename_file","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Device Operations","text":"eos_find_pcb\neos_find_dcb\neos_request_device_status\neos_get_device_status\neos_soft_reset_device\neos_soft_reset_keyboard\neos_soft_reset_printer\neos_read_block\neos_read_one_block\neos_start_read_one_block\neos_end_read_one_block\neos_write_block\neos_write_one_block\neos_start_write_one_block\neos_end_write_one_block\neos_start_read_character_device\neos_end_read_character_device\neos_read_character_device\neos_start_write_character_device\neos_end_write_character_device\neos_write_character_device","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Video RAM 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Vince | Samuel Vince | ["1 Life","2 Works","3 References","4 External links"] | English clergyman, mathematician and astronomer (1749–1821)
Samuel Vince
Vince at Cambridge
Samuel Vince FRS (6 April 1749 – 28 November 1821) was an English clergyman, mathematician and astronomer at the University of Cambridge.
Life
He was born in Fressingfield. The son of a plasterer, he had laboured with his father up to the age of 12, but came to the attention of a clergyman who saw to it that he entered higher education. Vince was admitted as a sizar to Caius College, Cambridge in 1771. In 1775 he was Senior Wrangler, and Winner of the Smith Prize at Cambridge. Migrating to Sidney Sussex College in 1777, he gained his M.A. in 1778 and was ordained a clergyman in 1779. He was among seven men of that college who subscribed to the Abolition Society in 1787.
He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1780 and was Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at Cambridge from 1796 until his death. He became Archdeacon of Bedford in 1809, and died in Ramsgate.
Works
As a mathematician, Vince wrote on many aspects of his expertise, including logarithms and imaginary numbers. His Observations on the Theory of the Motion and Resistance of Fluids and Experiments upon the Resistance of Bodies Moving in Fluids had later importance to aviation history. He was also author of the influential A Complete System of Astronomy (3 vols. 1797–1808).
Vince also published the pamphlet The Credibility of Christianity Vindicated, In Answer to Mr. Hume's Objections; In Two Discourses Preached Before the University of Cambridge by the Rev. S. Vince. In this work, Vince made an apology of the Christian religion and, like Charles Babbage, sought to present rational arguments in favor of the belief in miracles, against David Hume's criticism. A review of this work with direct quotations can be found in The British Critic, Volume 12, 1798.
References
^ "Vince, Samuel: certificate of election to the Royal Society". catalogues.royalsociety.org. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
^ a b Basker, James (1997), "Sidney Sussex and the Origins of the Abolition Society in 1787", Sidney Sussex College Annual: 37–38
^ a b c "Samuel Vince (VN771S)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
^ Vince, Samuel (1795). "The Bakerian Lecture. Observations on the Theory of the Motion and Resistance of Fluids; With a Description of the Construction of Experiments, in Order to Obtain Some Fundamental Principles. By the Rev. Samuel Vince, A. M. F. R. S." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 85: 24–45. doi:10.1098/rstl.1795.0004. JSTOR 106943.
^ Vince, Samuel (1798). "The Bakerian Lecture. Experiments upon the Resistance of Bodies Moving in Fluids. By the Rev. Samuel Vince, A. M. F. R. S. Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 88: 1–14. doi:10.1098/rstl.1798.0002. JSTOR 106967.
^ The British Critic, Volume 12 (1798). F. and C. Rivington. pp. 258-263.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to Samuel Vince.
On the divisions among Christians: A charge, delivered to the clergy of the archdeaconry of Bedford (1810)
"The Wright Brothers: Designing the 1900 Wright Glider". National Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011.
Royal Society
Janus (Cambridge library)
Lee, Sidney, ed. (1899). "Vince, Samuel" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 58. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
vteCopley Medallists (1751–1800)
John Canton (1751)
John Pringle (1752)
Benjamin Franklin (1753)
William Lewis (1754)
John Huxham (1755)
Charles Cavendish (1757)
John Dollond (1758)
John Smeaton (1759)
Benjamin Wilson (1760)
John Canton (1764)
William Brownrigg / Edward Delaval / Henry Cavendish (1766)
John Ellis (1767)
Peter Woulfe (1768)
William Hewson (1769)
William Hamilton (1770)
Matthew Raper (1771)
Joseph Priestley (1772)
John Walsh (1773)
Nevil Maskelyne (1775)
James Cook (1776)
John Mudge (1777)
Charles Hutton (1778)
Samuel Vince (1780)
William Herschel (1781)
Richard Kirwan (1782)
John Goodricke / Thomas Hutchins (1783)
Edward Waring (1784)
William Roy (1785)
John Hunter (1787)
Charles Blagden (1788)
William Morgan (1789)
James Rennell / Jean-André Deluc (1791)
Benjamin Thompson (1792)
Alessandro Volta (1794)
Jesse Ramsden (1795)
George Atwood (1796)
George Shuckburgh-Evelyn / Charles Hatchett (1798)
John Hellins (1799)
Edward Charles Howard (1800)
Authority control databases International
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Shutterstock, Inc.Company typePublicTraded asNYSE: SSTKS&P 600 componentIndustryStock photography, stock footage, stock musicFounded2003; 21 years ago (2003)FounderJon OringerHeadquartersEmpire State Building, New York City, U.S.Area servedWorldwideKey peopleJon Oringer (chairman)Paul Hennessy (CEO)ProductsShutterstock Editor, Shutterstock Tab, Shutterstock Image SubscriptionServicesLicensing of stock mediaRevenue US$875 million (2023)Operating income US$68.4 million (2023)Net income US$110 million (2023)Total assets US$1.04 billion (2023)Total equity US$527 million (2023)OwnerJon Oringer (33.3%)Number of employees1,274 (2023)SubsidiariesGiphyTurboSquidBigstockPond5Splash NewsOffsetRex FeaturesBEImagesPremiumBeatRocketstockWebsiteshutterstock.comFootnotes / references
Shutterstock, Inc. is an American provider of stock photography, stock footage, stock music, and editing tools; it is headquartered in New York. Founded in 2003 by programmer and photographer Jon Oringer, Shutterstock maintains a library of around 200 million royalty-free stock photos, vector graphics, and illustrations, with around 10 million video clips and music tracks available for licensing. Originally a subscription site only, Shutterstock expanded beyond subscriptions into a la carte pricing in 2008. It has been publicly traded on the New York Stock Exchange since 2012.
History
Founding and early years (2003–2011)
Shutterstock was founded in 2003 by American entrepreneur and computer programmer Jon Oringer. Creating his own online marketplace, Oringer initially uploaded 30,000 of his own stock photos and made them available via subscription, with unlimited downloads and a monthly starting fee of US$49. When demand exceeded his photo supply, he began hiring additional contributors. In 2006, the firm claimed that it was the "largest subscription-based stock photo agency in the world" with 570,000 images in its collection. The firm branched into film in 2006 with the launch of Shutterstock Footage. By 2007, the company had 1.8 million photos. Insight Venture Partners invested in the company that year. Shutterstock expanded beyond subscriptions into à la carte pricing in August 2008, with its "On Demand" service removing daily download limits.
On September 23, 2009, Shutterstock announced that it had purchased Bigstock, a rival credit-based microstock photography agency. Fast Company argued the deal put "Shutterstock on a competitive playing field with Getty, whose iStock Photo is also credit-based." Shutterstock had 11 million royalty-free stock images by early 2010. In February 2011, it announced a two-year partnership with the American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA).
Acquisitions and IPO (2012–2013)
By April 2012 the company had 18 million royalty-free stock images. The firm announced the Shutterstock Instant tool in May 2012, which displayed images in an interlocking mosaic to increase viewing speed. The product was launched by the newly formed Shutterstock Labs, which develops tools and interfaces for Shutterstock, among other projects. In May 2012, Shutterstock filed for an initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange, which it completed on October 17, 2012, under the ticker SSTK.
Shutterstock, Inc. announced Spectrum, a new "image discovery tool," in March 2013. At the time, the firm had 24 million licensable photos, vectors and illustrations in its portfolio. In August 2013, Shutterstock and Facebook announced a partnership to integrate Shutterstock's library within Facebook's Ad Creator, allowing advertisers to select from Shutterstock's images when creating ads. At the time, Shutterstock was available in 20 languages including Thai, Korean, French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, German, Russian, Chinese, and Japanese.
Offset and new partnerships (2013–2014)
In September 2013, Shutterstock launched Offset, marketplace prioritizing high end curated photos from established artists. In October 2013, the firm stated it served 750,000 customers, with 30 percent of those customers in Europe. Shutterstock's shares had reached a $2.5 billion market value by the fall of 2013, while revenue for 2013 was US$235 million.
In March 2014, Shutterstock acquired Webdam, a provider of online digital asset management software. In May 2014, the firm partnered with Salesforce to integrate Shutterstock's image library into Salesforce's Social Studio. Shutterstock debuted its Palette tool in July 2014, a "multi-color image discovery tool." The firm announced it had surpassed 2 million video clips on September 2, 2014. Shortly afterwards it revealed a new app meant to help contributors with uploading and categorizing photos. Shutterstock's revenue was $328 million in 2014, an increase of 39 percent from 2013. In 2014, Shutterstock paid "over $83 million to its roughly 80,000 contributors."
Recent developments (2015–present)
In January 2015, Shutterstock acquired both Rex Features, Europe's largest independent photo press agency for $33 million, and PremiumBeat, a stock music and sound effects service, for $32 million. Penske Media Corporation formed a partnership with Shutterstock in June 2015 to create and license entertainment and fashion images. According to the terms of the deal, by 2016 Shutterstock would have an exclusive right and license to PMC's archive, which included magazines such as Variety, Women's Wear Daily, and Deadline. Crain's wrote that with the partnership, "Shutterstock, a provider of stock imagery and music tracks, is stepping into the world of red carpets and fashion runways—and taking a key provider of fashion and entertainment photos and video away from archrival Getty Images.".
The company also acquired BEImages, another largest independent photo press agency.
By March 2016, the company had "over 100,000 contributors," with around 70 million images and 4 million video clips available for licensing and sale. That month Shutterstock announced it would be distributing material from the Associated Press in the United States, with the deal to last 3 years and cover 30 million photos and around 2 million videos. The photos were expected to go live in April. According to Entrepreneur, Shutterstock also had an "active customer base of 1.4 million people in 150 countries."
In July 2016, Shutterstock revealed a partnership with Google advertising products including AdSense, AdWords, and AdMob. The integration allows marketers creating Google ads to directly access Shutterstock images and track ad performance via the Shutterstock API. In October 2016, the firm announced a distribution deal with the European Pressphoto Agency.
In February 2018, Shutterstock invested $15 million into China based ZCool, building on the operational relationship the two firms have had since 2014 when ZCool first became the exclusive distributor of Shutterstock creative content in China. Webdam, which Shutterstock itself acquired back in 2014, was sold to Amsterdam-based Bynder for $49.1 million to move Shutterstock's strategy away from digital asset management. Shutterstock later entered into a partnership with Tencent Social Ads, the online advertising subsidiary of Tencent.
In May 2018, IBM's Watson Content Hub, a content management system (CMS) for marketers to create content using the IBM Watson AI search tool, announced its partnership with Shutterstock, beginning July 2018.
In May 2020, the company announced that it will update its contributor earnings structure as of June 1, from a minimum flat-rate to a percentage-based model. Contributor income may be reduced from the previous minimum payment per downloaded image of 25 cents to 10 cents, or 15 percent of sales, at the entry level, with author ratings reset to zero at the beginning of each year. Many photographers voiced their opposition to the new changes.
In May 2022, the company acquired Pond5, an online marketplace for royalty-free and editorial video, consisting of over 30 million video clips, 1.6 million music tracks, and 1.7 million sound effect assets at the time for $210M. Also in May 2022, the company acquired Splash News, an entertainment news network for newsrooms and media companies.
Shutterstock announced it would buy Giphy from Meta Platforms for $53 million in cash in May 2023, after Meta was ordered by UK's Competition and Markets Authority to divest it.
In July 2023, Shutterstock announced a six-year partnership with OpenAI in which it would provide access to its audio, video and image libraries as training data for DALL-E. In turn, OpenAI would provide generative AI capabilities to Shutterstock's mobile users through Giphy database.
Corporate governance
Facilities and staff
Shutterstock is headquartered in New York. In October 2013 Shutterstock opened its new European headquarters in Berlin, Germany and by March 2014, Shutterstock had additional offices in Amsterdam, Chicago, Denver, London, Montréal, Paris and San Francisco. After maintaining its New York headquarters for years in a Wall Street office, in March 2014 Shutterstock relocated into the Empire State Building. According to Inc., the office was selected with the goal of decreasing commute times for New York employees. The new location was built with no private offices, instead with 23 "pop-in rooms" for private meetings and conferences when needed.
After its founding in 2003 with CEO Jon Oringer as the sole employee, by 2007 Shutterstock had grown to 30 people. In 2010 Oringer hired Thilo Semmelbauer as COO, who had previously worked with TheLadders.com and Weight Watchers. With 295 employees as of October 2013, the firm had grown to 700 employees as of 2016. In 2014, Fast Company published an article featuring Shutterstock as an example of a successful "intrapreneur"-reliant company, touting the company's "hackathons" for fostering staff creativity.
In an attempt to penetrate the Chinese market, Shutterstock implemented compliance with Chinese law by censoring results for Chinese users. Over 180 Shutterstock employees signed a petition against the decision.
Business model
Shutterstock licenses media for online download on behalf of photographers, designers, illustrators, videographers and musicians, maintaining a library of almost 200 million royalty-free stock photos, vector graphics, and illustrations. Shutterstock also has 10 million video clips and music clips in its portfolio. While Shutterstock currently has several payment models, The Atlantic wrote in 2012 that Shutterstock "pioneered the subscription approach to stock photo sales, allowing customers to download images in bulk rather than à la carte." The Atlantic further wrote that Shutterstock is "a web community in the manner of a Facebook or a Twitter or a Pinterest, with its value relying almost entirely on the enthusiasms of its contributors."
With potential contributors able to apply to the site for free, Shutterstock has a team of reviewers "charged with ensuring editorial consistency and quality." As of 2016, if one of ten of a photographer's pictures are accepted, then they become a Shutterstock contributor. As of 2011, only around 20 percent of applicants were approved, and "less than 60 percent of all the images uploaded by those approved contributors were ultimately put up on the site." Once approved, contributors can begin uploading their work through the website. They supply keywords, categorize the images, and submit them to the "inspection queue", where images are examined for quality, usefulness and copyright and trademark laws. Each time an image is downloaded, the photographer receives a flat rate. Explains Vice, "photographers retain copyright over their images, but Shutterstock is given full permission to market, display, and license the image to the customers on their site without final approval from the photographer." As of March 2015, contributors added around 50,000 new images daily, and Shutterstock had paid around $250 million to contributors since its founding. In 2014, it paid $80 million to contributors.
Products
Shutterstock film and music
Shutterstock began licensing stock video in February 2006. Shutterstock Footage operates similarly to their image library, offering video clips by subscription or on a per-clip basis. As of 2014, Shutterstock Footage contained around 2 million royalty-free video clips. Shutterstock Music debuted later, with new content submittable by contributors.
Shutterstock apps
Shutterstock for iPad was launched in November 2011, and in May 2012 the app received a Webby Award for People's Voice in the tablet app category for utilities and services. Shutterstock for iPad was followed in 2012 by a universal iOS app, which by 2013 had been downloaded 650,000 times. The iOS app originally lacked the ability to download images, with that functionality added later. The universal iOS app also included new features for Shutterstock, including the ability to filter image searches by color. Shutterstock debuted an Android App in 2013, and in September 2014, Shutterstock launched an app dedicated to its contributors, both available for iOS and Android. The app allows contributors to upload, keyword and categorize new images.
Shutterstock Labs
In 2012, Shutterstock launched Shutterstock Labs, a lab for "exploratory tools and products." In May 2012, Shutterstock Images LLC announced the Shutterstock Instant tool, which according to the company was inspired by Shutterstock for iPad. The interface displays images in an interlocking mosaic view, allowing users to view more photos in less time. Shutterstock Instant was made available on the Shutterstock Labs website. The prototype for the search tool Spectrum was launched on March 21, 2013. With development in-house by Shutterstock Labs, the tool "indexes hexagram data to yield search results by color." In July 2014, Shutterstock launched Palette, which allows users to add colors to the terms of the search, in addition to keywords.
Computer vision
Shutterstock has developed a number of tools utilizing a "convolutional neural network" that it created to help with reverse image search technology. The network is "essentially a computer system that is trained to recognize images—there are millions of specific items such as cats, bicycles, the night sky—and pull up the most relevant photos." It "breaks down the key components of a photo numerically, drawing from its pixel data instead of metadata that is pulled from those tags and keywords."
In March 2016, Shutterstock debuted its Reverse Image Search tool. According to Entrepreneur, with the tool "users can upload an image, either from Shutterstock or another source, and the tool will call up images that look like and have a similar feel to the original photo." The reverse image search allows users to not just search by keywords, but to also find images based on "color schemes, mood, or shapes." Later that month, the firm debuted its Similar Search and Discovery tools, with the "similar search" option provided beneath photos on its website.
AI Image Generator
Shutterstock also offers an online service for generating images, based on DALL-E 2.
Criticism
Censorship of results in China
See also: Chinese censorship abroad
In September 2019, at the request of the Chinese government, engineers at Shutterstock began designing a regional application to comply with government censorship in China, and implemented it in October 2019. The system is designed to return no results to users with IP addresses in China in response to six queries for forbidden keywords or phrases: "Xi Jinping", "Mao Zedong", "Taiwan flag", "dictator", "Chinese flag", "yellow umbrella", or variations.
Copyright theft
This section relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
In July 2020, Users at Wikimedia Commons reported widespread copyright theft at Shutterstock. Images from many Wikimedia contributors were hosted on the site. Shutterstock were first made aware of the problem in April 2020, but no action has been taken to remove the images nor any compensation offered. The copyright theft has continued into 2022.
See also
New York City portal
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange (S)
List of companies based in New York City
List of stock footage libraries
List of online image archives
Silicon Alley
Stock photography – stock images licensed for specified usages
Microstock photography – stock images offered using micropayments
References
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External links
Media related to Shutterstock at Wikimedia Commons
Official website
vteShutterstockPeople
Jon Oringer (founder, CEO)
Thilo Semmelbauer (former COO)
Brands
BEImages
Bigstock
Giphy
Offset
Pond5
PremiumBeat
Rex Features
Rocketstock
Splash News
Alliances
Associated Press
Penske Media Corporation
See alsoShutterstock for iPad
Authority control databases International
VIAF
National
Israel
United States
Czech Republic
Artists
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years (2003–2011)","text":"Shutterstock was founded in 2003 by American entrepreneur and computer programmer Jon Oringer.[13] Creating his own online marketplace,[5] Oringer initially uploaded 30,000 of his own stock photos and made them available via subscription,[5] with unlimited downloads and a monthly starting fee of US$49.[5] When demand exceeded his photo supply,[5] he began hiring additional contributors.[14][5] In 2006, the firm claimed that it was the \"largest subscription-based stock photo agency in the world\" with 570,000 images in its collection.[15] The firm branched into film in 2006 with the launch of Shutterstock Footage.[15] By 2007, the company had 1.8 million photos.[9] Insight Venture Partners invested in the company that year.[5] Shutterstock expanded beyond subscriptions into à la carte pricing in August 2008, with its \"On Demand\" service removing daily download limits.[10]On September 23, 2009, Shutterstock announced that it had purchased Bigstock, a rival credit-based microstock photography agency.[16] Fast Company argued the deal put \"Shutterstock on a competitive playing field with Getty, whose iStock Photo is also credit-based.\"[17] Shutterstock had 11 million royalty-free stock images by early 2010.[18] In February 2011, it announced a two-year partnership with the American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA).[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-statswebsitea-18"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lstockphoto-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-instant-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-instant-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-spectrum-22"},{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyse-release-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-s-1-report-12"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-spectrum-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-spectrum-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-constineteccrunch-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-languages-24"}],"sub_title":"Acquisitions and IPO (2012–2013)","text":"By April 2012 the company had 18 million royalty-free stock images.[18][20] The firm announced the Shutterstock Instant tool in May 2012, which displayed images in an interlocking mosaic to increase viewing speed.[21] The product was launched by the newly formed Shutterstock Labs, which develops tools and interfaces for Shutterstock, among other projects.[21][22] In May 2012, Shutterstock filed for an initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange, which it completed on October 17, 2012, under the ticker SSTK.[11][12]Shutterstock, Inc. announced Spectrum, a new \"image discovery tool,\" in March 2013.[22] At the time, the firm had 24 million licensable photos, vectors and illustrations in its portfolio.[22] In August 2013, Shutterstock and Facebook announced a partnership to integrate Shutterstock's library within Facebook's Ad Creator, allowing advertisers to select from Shutterstock's images when creating ads.[23] At the time, Shutterstock was available in 20 languages including Thai, Korean, French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, German, Russian, Chinese, and Japanese.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tomchereder-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oprnrutoprsn-26"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-10-28-2013-5"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-motleyfoo-27"},{"link_name":"digital asset management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_asset_management"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lardinois-28"},{"link_name":"Salesforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salesforce"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-syonyha-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creativebloqa-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-video-count-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-samosstruck-32"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hSchwartz-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hSchwartz-13"}],"sub_title":"Offset and new partnerships (2013–2014)","text":"In September 2013, Shutterstock launched Offset, marketplace prioritizing high end curated photos from established artists.[25] In October 2013, the firm stated it served 750,000 customers, with 30 percent of those customers in Europe.[26] Shutterstock's shares had reached a $2.5 billion market value by the fall of 2013,[5] while revenue for 2013 was US$235 million.[27]In March 2014, Shutterstock acquired Webdam, a provider of online digital asset management software.[28] In May 2014, the firm partnered with Salesforce to integrate Shutterstock's image library into Salesforce's Social Studio.[29] Shutterstock debuted its Palette tool in July 2014, a \"multi-color image discovery tool.\"[30] The firm announced it had surpassed 2 million video clips on September 2, 2014.[31] Shortly afterwards it revealed a new app meant to help contributors with uploading and categorizing photos.[32] Shutterstock's revenue was $328 million in 2014, an increase of 39 percent from 2013.[13] In 2014, Shutterstock paid \"over $83 million to its roughly 80,000 contributors.\"[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nCRAINS-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-acquiresrex-34"},{"link_name":"Penske Media Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penske_Media_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tochallenggetty-35"},{"link_name":"Variety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Women's Wear Daily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Wear_Daily"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nCRAINS-33"},{"link_name":"Deadline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hSchwartz-13"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nCRAINS-33"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fapa-8"},{"link_name":"Associated Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fapa-8"},{"link_name":"Entrepreneur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneur_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bestentrej-36"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"AdSense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdSense"},{"link_name":"AdWords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Ads"},{"link_name":"AdMob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdMob"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-annefreier-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rachelpower-38"},{"link_name":"European Pressphoto Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Pressphoto_Agency"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AIT-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AIT-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intercept-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Tencent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tencent"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intercept-41"},{"link_name":"IBM Watson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_(computer)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ibmwatson-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kylewiggers-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Pond5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond5"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Splash News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splash_News"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Giphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giphy"},{"link_name":"Meta Platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta_Platforms"},{"link_name":"Competition and Markets Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_and_Markets_Authority"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shutterstock-51"},{"link_name":"OpenAI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAI"},{"link_name":"DALL-E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALL-E"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Recent developments (2015–present)","text":"In January 2015, Shutterstock acquired both Rex Features, Europe's largest independent photo press agency for $33 million,[33] and PremiumBeat, a stock music and sound effects service, for $32 million.[34] Penske Media Corporation formed a partnership with Shutterstock in June 2015 to create and license entertainment and fashion images. According to the terms of the deal, by 2016 Shutterstock would have an exclusive right and license to PMC's archive,[35] which included magazines such as Variety, Women's Wear Daily,[33] and Deadline.[13] Crain's wrote that with the partnership, \"Shutterstock, a provider of stock imagery and music tracks, is stepping into the world of red carpets and fashion runways—and taking a key provider of fashion and entertainment photos and video away from archrival Getty Images.\".[33]\nThe company also acquired BEImages, another largest independent photo press agency.By March 2016, the company had \"over 100,000 contributors,\" with around 70 million images and 4 million video clips available for licensing and sale.[8] That month Shutterstock announced it would be distributing material from the Associated Press in the United States, with the deal to last 3 years and cover 30 million photos and around 2 million videos. The photos were expected to go live in April.[8] According to Entrepreneur, Shutterstock also had an \"active customer base of 1.4 million people in 150 countries.\"[36]In July 2016, Shutterstock revealed a partnership with Google advertising products including AdSense, AdWords, and AdMob.[37] The integration allows marketers creating Google ads to directly access Shutterstock images and track ad performance via the Shutterstock API.[38] In October 2016, the firm announced a distribution deal with the European Pressphoto Agency.[39]In February 2018, Shutterstock invested $15 million into China based ZCool,[40] building on the operational relationship the two firms have had since 2014 when ZCool first became the exclusive distributor of Shutterstock creative content in China.[40][41] Webdam, which Shutterstock itself acquired back in 2014, was sold to Amsterdam-based Bynder for $49.1 million to move Shutterstock's strategy away from digital asset management.[42] Shutterstock later entered into a partnership with Tencent Social Ads, the online advertising subsidiary of Tencent.[41]In May 2018, IBM's Watson Content Hub, a content management system (CMS) for marketers to create content using the IBM Watson AI search tool,[43] announced its partnership with Shutterstock, beginning July 2018.[44]In May 2020, the company announced that it will update its contributor earnings structure as of June 1, from a minimum flat-rate to a percentage-based model. Contributor income may be reduced from the previous minimum payment per downloaded image of 25 cents to 10 cents, or 15 percent of sales, at the entry level, with author ratings reset to zero at the beginning of each year.[45] Many photographers voiced their opposition to the new changes.[46]In May 2022, the company acquired Pond5, an online marketplace for royalty-free and editorial video, consisting of over 30 million video clips, 1.6 million music tracks, and 1.7 million sound effect assets at the time for $210M.[47][48] Also in May 2022, the company acquired Splash News, an entertainment news network for newsrooms and media companies.[49]Shutterstock announced it would buy Giphy from Meta Platforms for $53 million in cash in May 2023, after Meta was ordered by UK's Competition and Markets Authority to divest it.[50][51]In July 2023, Shutterstock announced a six-year partnership with OpenAI in which it would provide access to its audio, video and image libraries as training data for DALL-E. In turn, OpenAI would provide generative AI capabilities to Shutterstock's mobile users through Giphy database.[52][53]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Corporate governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Berlin, Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin,_Germany"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oprnrutoprsn-26"},{"link_name":"Montréal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montr%C3%A9al"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oprnrutoprsn-26"},{"link_name":"Wall Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-10-28-2013-5"},{"link_name":"Empire State Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_State_Building"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yakwicza-54"},{"link_name":"Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inc._(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yakwicza-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yakwicza-54"},{"link_name":"Jon Oringer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Oringer"},{"link_name":"COO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_operating_officer"},{"link_name":"TheLadders.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheLadders.com"},{"link_name":"Weight Watchers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WW_International"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-10-28-2013-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-10-28-2013-5"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-builtiny-55"},{"link_name":"Fast Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Company"},{"link_name":"intrapreneur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapreneur"},{"link_name":"hackathons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackathons"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pencouraged-56"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intercept-41"}],"sub_title":"Facilities and staff","text":"Shutterstock is headquartered in New York. In October 2013 Shutterstock opened its new European headquarters in Berlin, Germany[26] and by March 2014, Shutterstock had additional offices in Amsterdam, Chicago, Denver, London, Montréal, Paris and San Francisco.[26] After maintaining its New York headquarters for years in a Wall Street office,[5] in March 2014 Shutterstock relocated into the Empire State Building.[54] According to Inc., the office was selected with the goal of decreasing commute times for New York employees.[54] The new location was built with no private offices, instead with 23 \"pop-in rooms\" for private meetings and conferences when needed.[54]After its founding in 2003 with CEO Jon Oringer as the sole employee, by 2007 Shutterstock had grown to 30 people. In 2010 Oringer hired Thilo Semmelbauer as COO, who had previously worked with TheLadders.com and Weight Watchers.[5] With 295 employees as of October 2013,[5] the firm had grown to 700 employees as of 2016.[55] In 2014, Fast Company published an article featuring Shutterstock as an example of a successful \"intrapreneur\"-reliant company, touting the company's \"hackathons\" for fostering staff creativity.[56]In an attempt to penetrate the Chinese market, Shutterstock implemented compliance with Chinese law by censoring results for Chinese users. Over 180 Shutterstock employees signed a petition against the decision.[41]","title":"Corporate governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"videographers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videographers"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-10-28-2013-5"},{"link_name":"royalty-free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royalty-free"},{"link_name":"stock photos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_photos"},{"link_name":"vector graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics"},{"link_name":"illustrations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illustrations"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-image-count-57"},{"link_name":"video clips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_clips"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-video-count-31"},{"link_name":"The Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lstockphoto-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lstockphoto-20"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hSchwartz-13"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lstockphoto-20"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oenappaorved-58"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lstockphoto-20"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-06-05-07-9"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes-09-02-2008-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Time_Out_NY_1-22-09-60"},{"link_name":"Vice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hSchwartz-13"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-image-count-57"}],"sub_title":"Business model","text":"Shutterstock licenses media for online download on behalf of photographers, designers, illustrators, videographers and musicians,[5] maintaining a library of almost 200 million royalty-free stock photos, vector graphics, and illustrations.[57] Shutterstock also has 10 million video clips and music clips in its portfolio.[31] While Shutterstock currently has several payment models, The Atlantic wrote in 2012 that Shutterstock \"pioneered the subscription approach to stock photo sales, allowing customers to download images in bulk rather than à la carte.\"[20] The Atlantic further wrote that Shutterstock is \"a web community in the manner of a Facebook or a Twitter or a Pinterest, with its value relying almost entirely on the enthusiasms of its contributors.\"[20]With potential contributors able to apply to the site for free,[13] Shutterstock has a team of reviewers \"charged with ensuring editorial consistency and quality.\"[20] As of 2016, if one of ten of a photographer's pictures are accepted, then they become a Shutterstock contributor.[58] As of 2011, only around 20 percent of applicants were approved, and \"less than 60 percent of all the images uploaded by those approved contributors were ultimately put up on the site.\"[20] Once approved, contributors can begin uploading their work through the website. They supply keywords, categorize the images, and submit them to the \"inspection queue\", where images are examined for quality, usefulness and copyright and trademark laws. Each time an image is downloaded, the photographer receives a flat rate.[9][59][60] Explains Vice, \"photographers retain copyright over their images, but Shutterstock is given full permission to market, display, and license the image to the customers on their site without final approval from the photographer.\"[13] As of March 2015, contributors added around 50,000 new images daily, and Shutterstock had paid around $250 million to contributors since its founding. In 2014, it paid $80 million to contributors.[57]","title":"Corporate governance"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stock video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_footage"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-footage-announced-15"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-video-count-31"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SMUSIC-61"}],"sub_title":"Shutterstock film and music","text":"Shutterstock began licensing stock video in February 2006. Shutterstock Footage operates similarly to their image library, offering video clips by subscription or on a per-clip basis.[15] As of 2014, Shutterstock Footage contained around 2 million royalty-free video clips.[31] Shutterstock Music debuted later, with new content submittable by contributors.[61]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-the-next-web-11-03-11-62"},{"link_name":"Webby Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webby_Award"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-webby-2012-63"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-ios-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-the-next-web-12-10-13-65"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-ios-64"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-the-next-web-12-10-13-65"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-samosstruck-32"}],"sub_title":"Shutterstock apps","text":"Shutterstock for iPad was launched in November 2011,[62] and in May 2012 the app received a Webby Award for People's Voice in the tablet app category for utilities and services.[63] Shutterstock for iPad was followed in 2012 by a universal iOS app,[64] which by 2013 had been downloaded 650,000 times. The iOS app originally lacked the ability to download images, with that functionality added later.[65] The universal iOS app also included new features for Shutterstock, including the ability to filter image searches by color.[64] Shutterstock debuted an Android App in 2013,[65] and in September 2014, Shutterstock launched an app dedicated to its contributors, both available for iOS and Android. The app allows contributors to upload, keyword and categorize new images.[32]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-spectrum-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-instant-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-instant-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-spectrum-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-press-release-spectrum-22"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-creativebloqa-30"}],"sub_title":"Shutterstock Labs","text":"In 2012, Shutterstock launched Shutterstock Labs, a lab for \"exploratory tools and products.\"[22] In May 2012, Shutterstock Images LLC announced the Shutterstock Instant tool, which according to the company was inspired by Shutterstock for iPad. The interface displays images in an interlocking mosaic view, allowing users to view more photos in less time.[21] Shutterstock Instant was made available on the Shutterstock Labs website.[21][22] The prototype for the search tool Spectrum was launched on March 21, 2013. With development in-house by Shutterstock Labs, the tool \"indexes hexagram data to yield search results by color.\"[22] In July 2014, Shutterstock launched Palette, which allows users to add colors to the terms of the search, in addition to keywords.[30]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"convolutional neural network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolutional_neural_network"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bestentrej-36"},{"link_name":"reverse image search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_image_search"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-esayerss-66"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bestentrej-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bestentrej-36"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-esayerss-66"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bestentrej-36"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-esayerss-66"}],"sub_title":"Computer vision","text":"Shutterstock has developed a number of tools utilizing a \"convolutional neural network\" that it created[36] to help with reverse image search technology.[66] The network is \"essentially a computer system that is trained to recognize images—there are millions of specific items such as cats, bicycles, the night sky—and pull up the most relevant photos.\" It \"breaks down the key components of a photo numerically, drawing from its pixel data instead of metadata that is pulled from those tags and keywords.\"[36]In March 2016, Shutterstock debuted its Reverse Image Search tool. According to Entrepreneur, with the tool \"users can upload an image, either from Shutterstock or another source, and the tool will call up images that look like and have a similar feel to the original photo.\"[36] The reverse image search allows users to not just search by keywords, but to also find images based on \"color schemes, mood, or shapes.\"[66] Later that month, the firm debuted its Similar Search and Discovery tools,[36] with the \"similar search\" option provided beneath photos on its website.[66]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DALL-E 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DALL-E_2"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"sub_title":"AI Image Generator","text":"Shutterstock also offers an online service for generating images, based on DALL-E 2.[67]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chinese censorship abroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_censorship_abroad"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intercept-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-intercept-41"}],"sub_title":"Censorship of results in China","text":"See also: Chinese censorship abroadIn September 2019, at the request of the Chinese government,[68] engineers at Shutterstock began designing a regional application to comply with government censorship in China, and implemented it in October 2019.[41] The system is designed to return no results to users with IP addresses in China in response to six queries for forbidden keywords or phrases: \"Xi Jinping\", \"Mao Zedong\", \"Taiwan flag\", \"dictator\", \"Chinese flag\", \"yellow umbrella\", or variations.[41]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikimedia Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Copyright theft","text":"In July 2020, Users at Wikimedia Commons reported widespread copyright theft at Shutterstock. Images from many Wikimedia contributors were hosted on the site. Shutterstock were first made aware of the problem in April 2020, but no action has been taken to remove the images nor any compensation offered.[69] The copyright theft has continued into 2022.[70]","title":"Criticism"}] | [] | [{"title":"New York City portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:New_York_City"},{"title":"Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange (S)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companies_listed_on_the_New_York_Stock_Exchange_(S)"},{"title":"List of companies based in New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_companies_based_in_New_York_City"},{"title":"List of stock footage libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_footage#Libraries"},{"title":"List of online image archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_online_image_archives"},{"title":"Silicon Alley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Alley"},{"title":"Stock photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_photography"},{"title":"Microstock photography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microstock_photography"}] | [{"reference":"\"Shutterstock, Inc. 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)\". 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Subsets and Splits