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Above is a picture showing 3D cell culturing through magnetic levitation with the Bio-Assembler cell culturing system. The figure's letters refer to the following:
(A) A magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle assembly known as the "Nanoshuttle" is added and dispersed over cells, and the mixture is incubated.
(B) After incubation with Nanoshuttle, cells are detached and transferred to a petri dish.
(C) A magnetic drive is then placed on top of a petri dish top.
(D) The magnetic field causes cells to rise to the air–medium interface.
(E) Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) levitated for 60 minutes (left images) and 4 hours (right images) (Scale bar, 50 μm).
The onset of cell-cell interaction takes place as soon as cells levitate, and 3D structures start to form. At 1 hour, the cells are still relatively dispersed, but they are already showing some signs of stretching. Formation of 3D structures is visible after 4 hours of levitation (arrows). | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
A localized surface plasmon (LSP) is the result of the confinement of a surface plasmon in a nanoparticle of size comparable to or smaller than the wavelength of light used to excite the plasmon. When a small spherical metallic nanoparticle is irradiated by light, the oscillating electric field causes the conduction electrons to oscillate coherently. When the electron cloud is displaced relative to its original position, a restoring force arises from Coulombic attraction between electrons and nuclei. This force causes the electron cloud to oscillate. The oscillation frequency is determined by the density of electrons, the effective electron mass, and the size and shape of the charge distribution. The LSP has two important effects: electric fields near the particles surface are greatly enhanced and the particles optical absorption has a maximum at the plasmon resonant frequency. Surface plasmon resonance can also be tuned based on the shape of the nanoparticle. The plasmon frequency can be related to the metal dielectric constant. The enhancement falls off quickly with distance from the surface and, for noble metal nanoparticles, the resonance occurs at visible wavelengths. Localized surface plasmon resonance creates brilliant colors in metal colloidal solutions.
For metals like silver and gold, the oscillation frequency is also affected by the electrons in d-orbitals. Silver is a popular choice in plasmonics, which studies the effect of coupling light to charges, because it can support a surface plasmon over a wide range of wavelengths (300-1200 nm), and its peak absorption wavelength is easily changed. For instance, the peak absorption wavelength of triangular silver nanoparticles was altered by changing the corner sharpness of the triangles. It underwent a blue-shift as corner sharpness of the triangles decreased. Additionally, peak absorption wavelength underwent a red-shift as a larger amount of HAuCl was added and porosity of the particles increased. For semiconductor nanoparticles, the maximum optical absorption is often in the near-infrared and mid-infrared region. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Copper(I) oxide or cuprous oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula CuO. It is one of the principal oxides of copper, the other being copper(II) oxide or cupric oxide (CuO). Cuprous oxide is a red-coloured solid and is a component of some antifouling paints. The compound can appear either yellow or red, depending on the size of the particles. Copper(I) oxide is found as the reddish mineral cuprite. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H) are classified as acids, and those containing electropositive cations and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH) or oxide (O) are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base, the result is an acidic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a basic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid ion, such as ammonium acetate.
Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a base. This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead(II) oxide. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
This trend can be rationalized with hybridization – moving down a group, the gap between the ns and np orbitals widens and there is an increasing mismatch between valence orbital sizes. The mismatch leads to lower hybridization – that is, increased nonbonding character on each of the heavier group 13 or 14 atoms involved in multiple bonding, which manifests as increased deviation from the typically expected linear and planar geometries. This rationalization is not especially cohesive with the typical approach to multiple bonds in organic chemistry – that is, a single σ-bond and one or two π-bonds. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The colloidal probes are normally fabricated by gluing a colloidal particle to a tip-less cantilever with a micromanipulator in air. The subsequent rewetting of the probe may lead to the formation of nanosized bubbles on the probe surface. This problem can be avoided by attaching the colloidal particles under wet conditions in AFM fluid cell to appropriately functionalized cantilevers. While the colloidal probe technique is mostly used in the sphere-plane geometry, it can be also used in the sphere-sphere geometry. The latter geometry further requires a lateral centering of the two particles, which can be either achieved with an optical microscope or an AFM scan. The results obtained in these two different geometries can be related with the Derjaguin approximation.
The force measurements rely on an accurate value of the spring constant of the cantilever. This spring constant can be measured by different techniques. The thermal noise method is the simplest to use, as it is implemented on most AFMs. This approach relies on the determination of the mean square amplitude of the cantilever displacement due to spontaneous thermal fluctuations. This quantity is related to the spring constant by means of the equipartition theorem. In the added mass method one attaches a series of metal beads to the cantilever and each case one determines the resonance frequency. By exploiting the relation for a harmonic oscillator between the resonance frequency and the mass added one can evaluate the spring constant as well. The frictional force method relies on measurement of the approach and retract curves of the cantilever through a viscous fluid. Since the hydrodynamic drag of a sphere close to a planar substrate is known theoretically, the spring constant of the cantilever can be deduced. The geometrical method exploits relations between the geometry of the cantilever and its elastic properties.
The separation is normally measured from the onset of the constant compliance region. While the relative surface separation can be determined with a resolution of 0.1 nm or better, the absolute surface separation is obtained from the onset of the constant compliance region. While this onset can be determined for solid samples with a precision between 0.5–2 nm, the location of this onset can be problematic for soft repulsive interactions and for deformable surfaces. For this reason, techniques have been developed to measure the surface separation independently (e.g., total internal reflection microscopy, reflection interference contrast microscopy).
By scanning the sample with the colloidal probe laterally permits to exploit friction forces between the probe and the substrate. Since this technique exploits the torsion of the cantilever, to obtain quantitative data the torsional spring constant of the cantilever must be determined.
A related technique involving similar type of force measurements with the AFM is the single molecular force spectroscopy. However, this technique uses a regular AFM tip to which a single polymer molecule is attached. From the retraction part of the force curve, one can obtain information about stretching of the polymer or its peeling from the surface. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
In materials and electric battery research, cobalt oxide nanoparticles usually refers to particles of cobalt(II,III) oxide of nanometer size, with various shapes and crystal structures.
Cobalt oxide nanoparticles have potential applications in lithium-ion batteries and electronic gas sensors. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Venkataraman Thangadurai is a scientist recognized for his work in solid state ionics and chemistry. He is a professor at the University of Calgary, specializing in Chemistry. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Andrew Bruce Bocarsly (born April 23, 1954) is currently a professor at Princeton University, New Jersey. His primary research interests lie in physical inorganic chemistry. He conducts research in electrochemistry, photochemistry, solids state chemistry, and fuel cells, and is known for his work on alternate energy solutions involving processes and materials for photo-reduction and electro-reduction. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Reticulated foam is a very porous, low density solid foam. Reticulated means like a net. Reticulated foams are extremely open foams i.e. there are few, if any, intact bubbles or cell windows. In contrast, the foam formed by soap bubbles is composed solely of intact (fully enclosed) bubbles. In a reticulated foam only the lineal boundaries where the bubbles meet (Plateau borders) remain.
The solid component of a reticulated foam may be an organic polymer like polyurethane, a ceramic or a metal. These materials are used in a wide range of applications where the high porosity and large surface area are needed, including filters, catalyst supports, fuel tank inserts, and loudspeaker covers. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
* 1996-1999 - National Science Foundation Predoctoral Fellow, Harvard University
* 2001 - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Young Chemists award for thesis
* 2001-2002 - National Research Service Award Postdoctoral Fellow, Harvard University
* 2002 - Research Corporation's Research Innovation Award
* 2002 - Dow Teacher-Scholar Award, inaugural recipient
* 2003 - American Chemical Society's Victor K. LaMer Award
* 2003 - David and Lucile Packard Foundation Fellow
* 2004 - National Science Foundation CAREER Award
* 2004 - MIT Technology Review Top 100 Innovators
* 2005 - Cottrell Scholar Award
* 2005 - DuPont Young Investigator Award
* 2005 - Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow
* 2006 - ExxonMobil Solid State Chemistry Faculty Fellow
* 2007 - Rohm and Haas New Faculty Award
* 2008 - Phi Lambda Upsilon's National Fresenius Award
* 2008 - National Institutes of Health Director's Pioneer Award
* 2009 - Materials Research Society Outstanding Young Investigator Award
* 2010 - Institute for Defense Analyses's Defense Sciences Study Group (one year)
* 2011 - Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study Fellow, Harvard University
* 2014 - Royal Society of Chemistry Fellow
* 2014 - Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists Finalist
* 2014 - International Precious Metals Institute's Carol Tyler Award
* 2016 - Materials Research Society Fellow
* 2016 - Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists Finalist
* 2017 - ACS Nano Lectureship Award
* 2017 - United States Department of Defense Vannevar Bush Faculty Fellow
* 2018 - American Physical Society Fellow
* 2018 - Research Corporation Cottrell Scholar TREE Award
* 2018 - Optica Senior Member
* 2020 - Royal Society of Chemistry's Centenary Prize
* 2020 - American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellow
* 2020 - American Chemical Society's Award in Surface Chemistry
* 2022 - American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering Fellow
* 2022 - American Chemical Society's Crano Memorial Lecture (Akron Section) at Malone University
* 2022 - American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellow | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Dispersing is the principal goal in the use of detergents, which the liquid bath is water (detergents also are used as emulsifiers in some applications). Laundry detergents encase dirt and grime in miscelles, which naturally disperse. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Molybdenum bronzes are classified in three major families:
* Red bronzes with limiting composition , that is, :
** Lithium molybdenum red bronze Reau and others.
** Potassium molybdenum red bronze or
** Cesium molybdenum red bronze
** Potassium molybdenum red bronze a semi-conductor.
* Blue bronzes, with limiting composition , that is, . Their electronic properties generally do not depend on the metal A.
** Potassium molybdenum blue bronze or
** Rubidium molybdenum blue bronze
** Thallium molybdenum blue bronze
* Purple bronzes, generally with limiting formula . Their electronic properties depend strongly on the metal A.
** Lithium molybdenum purple bronze
** Sodium molybdenum purple bronze
** Potassium molybdenum purple bronze
** Rubidium molybdenum purple bronze
** Thallium molybdenum purple bronze
The hydrogen molybdenum bronzes have similar appearances but different compositions:
* Hydrogen molybdenum orthorhombic blue bronze , 0.23 < x < 0.4
* Hydrogen molybdenum monoclinic blue bronze , 0.85 < x < 1.4
* Hydrogen molybdenum red bronze , 1.55 < x < 1.72
* Hydrogen molybdenum green bronze or .
Other molybdenum bronzes with anomalous electrical properties have been reported, which do not fit in these families. These include
* Tetragonal | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
In February 2017, DuPont and Chemours (a DuPont spin-off) agreed to pay $671 million to settle lawsuits arising from 3,550 personal injury claims related to releasing of PFASs from their Parkersburg, West Virginia, plant into the drinking water of several thousand residents. This was after a court-created independent scientific panel—the C8 Science Panel—found a "probable link" between C8 exposure and six illnesses: kidney and testicular cancer, ulcerative colitis, thyroid disease, pregnancy-induced hypertension and high cholesterol.
In October 2018, a class action suit was filed by an Ohio firefighter against several producers of fluorosurfactants, including the 3M and DuPont corporations, on behalf of all U.S. residents who may have adverse health effects from exposure to PFASs. The story is told in the film Dark Waters. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
In colloidal and surface chemistry, the critical micelle concentration (CMC) is defined as the concentration of surfactants above which micelles form and all additional surfactants added to the system will form micelles.
The CMC is an important characteristic of a surfactant. Before reaching the CMC, the surface tension changes strongly with the concentration of the surfactant. After reaching the CMC, the surface tension remains relatively constant or changes with a lower slope. The value of the CMC for a given dispersant in a given medium depends on temperature, pressure, and (sometimes strongly) on the presence and concentration of other surface active substances and electrolytes. Micelles only form above critical micelle temperature.
For example, the value of CMC for sodium dodecyl sulfate in water (without other additives or salts) at 25 °C, atmospheric pressure, is 8x10 mol/L. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
In the mid-1980s Girolami began research on the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of thin films, especially of phases containing transition metals. Girolami studied the chemical design of new CVD precursors. He investigated copper(I) compounds for copper CVD, an approach that is now a key fabrication step for integrated circuits. His mechanistic studies of CVD processes involved transition metals, and these efforts have recently resulted in the development of low-temperature CVD to achieve the deposition of conformal thin films, in work carried out in collaboration with Professor John Abelson of Illinois' Department of Materials Science and Engineering. Most recently, he discovered a new class of highly volatile CVD precursors containing the aminodiboranate ligand. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Nanodiamonds can self-assemble and a wide range of small molecules, proteins antibodies, therapeutics, and nucleic acids can bind to its surface allowing for drug delivery, protein-mimicking, and surgical implants. Other potential biomedical applications are the use of nanodiamonds as support for solid-phase peptide synthesis and as sorbents for detoxification and separation and fluorescent nanodiamonds for biomedical imaging. Nanodiamonds are capable of biocompatibility, the ability to carry a broad range of therapeutics, dispersibility in water and scalability, and the potential for targeted therapy all properties needed for a drug delivery platform. The small size, stable core, rich surface chemistry, ability to self-assemble, and low cytotoxicity of nanodiamonds have led to suggestions that they could be used to mimic globular proteins. Nanodiamonds have been mostly studied as potential injectable therapeutic agents for generalized drug delivery, but it has also been shown that films of Parylene nanodiamond composites can be used for localized sustained release of drugs over periods ranging from two days to one month. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Born and Lande suggested that a repulsive interaction between the lattice ions would be proportional to so that the repulsive energy term, E, would be expressed:
where
:B = constant scaling the strength of the repulsive interaction
:r = closest distance between two ions of opposite charge
:n = Born exponent, a number between 5 and 12 expressing the steepness of the repulsive barrier | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Crystalline thin-films from non-spherical colloids were produced using convective assembly techniques. Colloid shapes included dumbbell, hemisphere, disc, and sphero-cylinder shapes. Both purely crystalline and plastic crystal phases could be produced, depending on the aspect ratio of the colloidal particle. The low aspect ratio, such as bulge, eye-ball, and snowman-like non-spherical colloids, which spontaneously self-assembled to photonic crystal array with high uniformity. The particles were crystallized both as 2D (i.e., monolayer) and 3D (i.e., multilayer) structures. The observed lattice and particle orientations experimentally confirmed a body of theoretical work on the condensed phases of non-spherical objects. Assembly of crystals from non-spherical colloids can also be directed via the use of electrical fields. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
While a hydrogel's mechanical properties can be tuned and modified through crosslink concentration and additives, these properties can also be enhanced or optimized for various applications through specific processing techniques. These techniques include electro-spinning, 3D/4D printing, self-assembly, and freeze-casting. One unique processing technique is through the formation of multi-layered hydrogels to create a spatially-varying matrix composition and by extension, mechanical properties. This can be done by polymerizing the hydrogel matrixes in a layer by layer fashion via UV polymerization. This technique can be useful in creating hydrogels that mimic articular cartilage, enabling a material with three separate zones of distinct mechanical properties.
Another emerging technique to optimize hydrogel mechanical properties is by taking advantage of the Hofmeister series. Due to this phenomenon, through the addition of salt solution, the polymer chains of a hydrogel aggregate and crystallize, which increases the toughness of the hydrogel. This method, called "salting out", has been applied to poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels by adding a sodium sulfate salt solution. Some of these processing techniques can be used synergistically with each other to yield optimal mechanical properties. Directional freezing or freeze-casting is another method in which a directional temperature gradient is applied to the hydrogel is another way to form materials with anisotropic mechanical properties. Utilizing both the freeze-casting and salting-out processing techniques on poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogels to induce hierarchical morphologies and anisotropic mechanical properties. Directional freezing of the hydrogels helps to align and coalesce the polymer chains, creating anisotropic array honeycomb tube-like structures while salting out the hydrogel yielded out a nano-fibril network on the surface of these honeycomb tube-like structures. While maintaining a water content of over 70%, these hydrogels' toughness values are well above those of water-free polymers such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Kevlar, and synthetic rubber. The values also surpass the toughness of natural tendon and spider silk. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Within any crystal, there will usually be some defects. To maintain electroneutrality of the crystals, defects that involve loss of a cation will be associated with loss of an anion, i.e. these defects come in pairs. Frenkel defects consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions. Schottky defects consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size. If the cations have multiple possible oxidation states, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a non-stoichiometric compound. Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an F-center, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy. When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible. All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an equilibrium concentration. Because they are energetically costly but entropically beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and solid state ionic conductivity. When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the lattice parameters, reducing the overall density of the crystal. Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different crystal-field symmetry, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites. This results in a different splitting of d-electron orbitals, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Girolamis early work focused on the synthesis of transition metal compounds with metal-hydrogen and metal-carbon bonds, especially those possessing unusual electronic structures. In 1989, Girolami and Morse showed that was of trigonal prismatic molecular geometry as indicated by X-ray crystallography. This rare molecular geometry was attributed to second-order Jahn-Teller distortions in this d metal complex. Girolamis group accurately predicted that other d ML species such as , , and W(CH) would also prove to have trigonal prismatic geometry. Girolami also discovered the first titanium alkyl/alkene complex in 1993, which models the key intermediate in Ziegler-Natta catalysis. Later model studies of C-H, B-H, and Si-H activation by transition metal complexes led to his current work on approaches to the isolation of stable alkane complexes. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Density functional theory states that when any fluid is exposed to an external potential, , then all equilibrium quantities become functions of number density profile, . As a result, the total free energy is minimized. The Grand canonical potential, , is then written
where is the chemical potential, is the temperature, and is the helmholtz free energy. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Saiful returned to the UK in 1990 to become a lecturer, then reader, at the University of Surrey. In January 2006 he was appointed professor of Materials Chemistry at the University of Bath. His group applies computational methods combined with structural techniques to study fundamental atomistic properties such as ion conduction, defect chemistry and surface structures. In January 2022, he joined the Department of Materials, University of Oxford as a professor of materials modelling.
Saiful has been a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Materials Chemistry, and sits on the advisory board of the RSC journal Energy and Environmental Science. He is Principal Investigator of the Faraday Institutions CATMAT' project on Next-generation Lithium-Ion Cathode Materials. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
*2023 - Royal Society of Chemistry Centenary Prize
*2023 - Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
*2022 - Global Energy Prize
*2021 - Clarivate Highly Cited Researcher since 2015 (in three different disciplines: chemistry, physics, and materials science)
*2019 - DOE Ten at Ten Scientific Ideas Award for the first demonstration of all-solid-state solar cells using halide perovskite materials.
*2018 - American Institute of Chemistry Chemical Pioneer Award
*2017 - Hershel and Hilda Rich Visiting Professorship, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology
*2017 - University of Crete - Honorary Doctorate Degree
*2016 - Samson Prime Minister's Prize for Innovation in Alternative Fuels for Transportation
*2016 – American Physical Society (APS) Fellow
*2016 - APS James C. McGroddy Prize for New Materials
*2016 – American Chemical Society (ACS) Award in Inorganic Chemistry
*2015 - ENI Award for the "Renewable Energy Prize" category
*2015 - Awarded Wilhelm Manchot Professorship, Technical University of Munich
*2015 - Elected Fellow of the Royal Chemical Society
*2015 - Royal Chemical Society De Gennes Prize
*2014 – Materials Research Society (MRS) Medal
*2014 - International Thermoelectric Society Outstanding Achievement Award
*2014 - Einstein Professor, Chinese Academy of Sciences
*2013 - Cheetham Lecturer Award, University of California Santa Barbara
*2012 - American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Fellow
*2010 - MRS Fellow
*2006 - Charles E. and Emma H. Morrison Professor, Northwestern University
*2003 - Morley Medal, American Chemical Society, Cleveland Section
*2003 - Alexander von Humboldt Prize
*2002 - John Simon Guggenheim Foundation Fellow
*2001 - University Distinguished Professor MSU
*2000 - Sigma Xi Senior Meritorious Faculty Award
*1998 - Michigan State University Distinguished Faculty Award
*1993-1998 - Camille and Henry Dreyfus Teacher Scholar
*1991-1993 - Alfred P. Sloan Fellow (see Sloan Fellows)
*1992-1994 - Beckman Young Investigator
*1990 - ACS Inorganic Chemistry Division Award, EXXON Faculty Fellowship in Solid State Chemistry
*1989-1994 - Presidential Young Investigator Award, National Science Foundation | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
For externally synthesized silver nanoparticles the silver ion solution generally becomes brownish in color, but this browning reaction may be absent. For fungi that synthesize intracellular silver nanoparticles, the hyphae darken to a brownish color while the solution remains clear. In both cases the browning reaction is attributed to the surface plasmon resonance of the metallic nanoparticles. For external gold nanoparticle production, the solution color can vary depending on the size of the gold nanoparticles; smaller particles appear pink while large particles appear purple. Intracellular gold nanoparticle synthesis typically turns the hyphae purple while the solution remains clear. Externally synthesized cadmium sulfide nanoparticles were reported to make the solution color appear bright yellow. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Girolami joined the faculty of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1983. He has served as Head of the Chemistry Department twice, first from 2000 until 2005 and again from 2013 to 2016.
He is the author of several textbooks, including X-ray Crystallography and Synthesis and Technique in Inorganic Chemistry. He was the co-editor of volume 36 of Inorganic Syntheses.
Girolami is also co-founder of a university spin-off company, [http://www.tiptek.com/ Tiptek LLC], which manufactures ultrasharp probe tips for use in scanning tunneling microscopy and for fault diagnosis and testing of integrated circuits. The company has patented its field-directed sputter sharpening (FDSS) technology, which was originally developed in the laboratories of Girolami and fellow UIUC Professor Joseph Lyding. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
When interatom bonding does not have strong directional preferences, it is not unusual for atoms to gravitate toward a kissing number of 12 nearest neighbors. The three most symmetric ways to do this are by icosahedral clustering, by crystalline face-centered-cubic (cuboctahedral) and hexagonal (tri-orthobicupolar) close packing.
Icosahedral arrangements, typically because of their smaller surface energy, may be preferred for small clusters. However, the Achilles' heel for icosahedral clustering is that it cannot fill space over large distances in a way that is translationally ordered, so there is some distortion of the atomic positions, that is elastic strain. De Wit pointed out that these can be thought of in terms of disclinations, an approach later extended to 3D by Yoffe. The shape is also not always that of a simple icosahedron, and there are now several software codes that make it easy to calculate the shape.
At larger sizes the energy to distort becomes larger than the gain in surface energy, and bulk materials (i.e. sufficiently large clusters) generally revert to one of the crystalline close-packing configurations. In principle they will convert to a simple single crystal with a Wulff construction shape. The size when they become less energetically stable is typically in the range of 10-30 nanometers in diameter, but it does not always happen that the shape changes and the particles can grow to millimeter sizes. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Reticulated foams are used where porosity, surface area, low density are important.
* Puppets (such as the bodies/faces/hands of The Muppets)
* Humidifier pads
* Air conditioner filters
* Scrubbers
* Ceramic filters for filtering molten metal
* Vehicle and bacteria filters
* Speaker grills
* Face mask and pads
* Outdoor cushions
* Marine seating
* Shoe polish and cosmetic applicators
* Ink jet cartridges
* Aquaculture (water purification)
* Anti-slosh filling in fuel tanks for aircraft (such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II) and race cars | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
One of the most widely researched properties of Krogmanns salt is its unusual electric conductance. Because of its linear chain structure and overlap of the platinum orbitals, Krogmanns salt is an excellent conductor of electricity. This property makes it an attractive material for nanotechnology. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Further publications: see homepage at the University of Münster: [https://www.uni-muenster.de/Chemie.ac/krebs/akkrebs_publist.htm Publications list] | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Research has shown that polyaniline nanofibers can also be used to create nonvolatile plastic digital memory devices when decorated with various metal, such as gold, nanoparticles. Gold nanoparticles are grown inside dedoped polyaniline nanofibers using a redox reaction. A plastic composite film is placed between two electrodes, and an external bias is used to program ON-OFF states. The switching mechanism is thought to be caused through an interaction between the polyaniline nanofibers and the gold nanoparticles, where charge is transferred to the gold nanoparticles from the polyaniline nanofibers due to an induced electric field. Switching between the ON–OFF states has shown to be rapid, with times of less than 25ns. The retention time of these simple devices are on the order of days after programming, and write–read–erase cycles have been demonstrated. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Alkali salts or base salts are salts that are the product of incomplete neutralization of a strong base and a weak acid.
Rather than being neutral (as some other salts), alkali salts are bases as their name suggests. What makes these compounds basic is that the conjugate base from the weak acid hydrolyzes to form a basic solution. In sodium carbonate, for example, the carbonate from the carbonic acid hydrolyzes to form a basic solution. The chloride from the hydrochloric acid in sodium chloride does not hydrolyze, though, so sodium chloride is not basic.
The difference between a basic salt and an alkali is that an alkali is the soluble hydroxide compound of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. A basic salt is any salt that hydrolyzes to form a basic solution.
Another definition of a basic salt would be a salt that contains amounts of both hydroxide and other anions. White lead is an example. It is basic lead carbonate, or lead carbonate hydroxide.
These materials are known for their high levels of dissolution in polar solvents.
These salts are insoluble and are obtained through precipitation reactions. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Sodium chloride is the most commonly chosen space-holder for titanium foams because it is highly soluble in water and inert with respect to titanium. This inertness prevents contamination and degradation of the mechanical properties of the resulting foam. Moreover, NaCl is non-toxic; any residuals are bioinert.
Bansiddhi & Dunand pioneered the use of NaCl as a permanent space-holder for the fabrication of NiTi foams. The resulting foams consisted of 32-36% porosity with more complete densification than they observed when producing NiTi foams using a sodium fluoride (NaF) space-holder. However, processing parameters resulted in molten NaCl and a metal/salt blend in the cavities of the foam. Certain risks are associated with using a molten space-holder including reaction with the metal, dissolving of the space-holder in the metal and prevention of densification through the creation of a thin layer of liquid between the metal and particles. Near complete densification was achieved when NaCl was used as a permanent space-holder in pure titanium foam. In this case, a temperature below the melting point of NaCl was used; titanium is less creep resistant than NiTi, which allows for densification at lower temperatures. The resulting foams achieved porosity of 50–67% with minimal observable microporosity. Anisotropic pore shape in some areas alluded to NaCl's deformation during HIP, which is desirable for some applications. Additionally, an observed, rough inner surface of the pores holds advantages for biomedical implant applications.
Jha et al. achieved 65-80% porosity through the use of NaCl as a space-holder and a cold compaction process at various pressures with two-stage sintering. In this case, NaCl was removed through dissolution after the second stage of sintering. Resulting Youngs moduli (8–15 GPa) were considerably lower than the Youngs modulus of 29 GPa achieved for 50% porosity foams. This illustrates the known relationship between porosity and Youngs modulus wherein Youngs modulus decreases linearly with increasing porosity. Achievable porosity through the space-holder method is directly related to the type and amount of space-holder utilized (up to a threshold maximum achievable porosity level). | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Her awards and honours include;
* 2007 Award from the European Society for Applied Physical Chemistry
* 2008 Elected to the International Union of Crystallography
* 2012 Academina Women in Science
* 2017 Elected to the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
* 2018 University of Edinburgh Honorary degree of Doctor of Science
* 2018 Elected to the Academia Europaea | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
A streaming current and streaming potential are two interrelated electrokinetic phenomena studied in the areas of surface chemistry and electrochemistry. They are an electric current or potential which originates when an electrolyte is driven by a pressure gradient through a channel or porous plug with charged walls.
The first observation of the streaming potential is generally attributed to the German physicist Georg Hermann Quincke in 1859. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Similarly to CuGaO, α-AgGaO and α-AgAlO have the delafossite crystal structure while the structure of the corresponding β phases is similar to wurtzite (space group Pna2a). β-AgGaO is metastable and can be synthesized by ion exchange with a β-NaGaO precursor. The bandgaps of β-AgGaO and β-AgAlO (2.2 and 2.8 eV respectively) are indirect; they fall into the visible range and can be tuned by alloying with ZnO. For this reason, both materials are hardly suitable for solar cells, but have potential applications in photocatalysis.
Contrary to LiGaO, AgGaO can not be alloyed with ZnO by heating their mixture because of the Ag reduction to metallic silver; therefore, magnetron sputtering of AgGaO and ZnO targets is used instead. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Biosurfactants enhance the emulsification of hydrocarbons, thus they have the potential to solubilise hydrocarbon contaminants and increase their availability for microbial degradation. In addition, biosurfactants can modify the cell surface of bacteria that biodegrade hydrocarbons, which can also increase the biodegradability of these pollutants to cells. These compounds can also be used in enhanced oil recovery and may be considered for other potential applications in environmental protection. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
On 8 July 1977 Wilhelm and Lina Klemm signed a will describing their intention to use the revenue from the eventual sale of their home at Theresiengrund 22 for scholarships for students to travel and present their research internationally.
Lina Klemm died on 4 April 1985.
Wilhelm Klemm died on 24 October 1985 while visiting Gdansk for the first time since the war, to receive commemorative medal no. 467 from the Gdańsk University of Technology. His body was returned to Münster, where he is buried in the Münster Central Cemetery, ID 186397208.
The first scholarships of the Wilhelm-Klemm-Stiftung were awarded in 1987. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Solutions of electride salts are powerful reducing agents, as demonstrated by their use in the Birch reduction. Evaporation of these blue solutions affords a mirror of Na metal. If not evaporated, such solutions slowly lose their colour as the electrons reduce ammonia:
:2[Na(NH)]e → 2NaNH + 10NH + H
This conversion is catalyzed by various metals. An electride, [Na(NH)]e, is formed as a reaction intermediate. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Yaghi pioneered reticular chemistry, a new field of chemistry concerned with stitching molecular building blocks together by strong bonds to make open frameworks. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Rarely used are direct nuclear reactions in which nuclei are converted into PAC probes by bombardment by high-energy elementary particles or protons. This causes major radiation damage, which must be healed. This method is used with PAD, which belongs to the PAC methods. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Copper(I) iodide can be prepared by heating iodine and copper in concentrated hydriodic acid.
In the laboratory however, copper(I) iodide is prepared by simply mixing an aqueous solution of potassium iodide and a soluble copper(II) salt such as copper(II) sulfate.
:Cu + 2I → CuI + 0.5I | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The ceramic method is one of the most common synthesis techniques. The synthesis occurs entirely in the solid state. The reactants are ground together, formed into a pellet using a pellet press and hydraulic press, and heated at high temperatures. When the temperature of the reactants are sufficient, the ions at the grain boundaries react to form desired phases. Generally ceramic methods give polycrystalline powders, but not single crystals.
Using a mortar and pestle or ball mill, the reactants are ground together, which decreases size and increases surface area of the reactants. If the mixing is not sufficient, we can use techniques such as co-precipitation and sol-gel. A chemist forms pellets from the ground reactants and places the pellets into containers for heating. The choice of container depends on the precursors, the reaction temperature and the expected product. For example, metal oxides are typically synthesized in silica or alumina containers. A tube furnace heats the pellet. Tube furnaces are available up to maximum temperatures of 2800C. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
For medical purposes, saline is often used to flush wounds and skin abrasions. However, research indicates that it is no more effective than potable tap water. Normal saline will not burn or sting when applied.
Saline is also used in I.V. therapy, intravenously supplying extra water to rehydrate people or supplying the daily water and salt needs ("maintenance" needs) of a person who is unable to take them by mouth. Because infusing a solution of low osmolality can cause problems such as hemolysis, intravenous solutions with reduced saline concentrations (less than 0.9%) typically have dextrose (glucose) added to maintain a safe osmolality while providing less sodium chloride. The amount of normal saline infused depends largely on the needs of the person (e.g. ongoing diarrhea or heart failure).
Saline is also often used for nasal washes to relieve some of the symptoms of rhinitis and the common cold. The solution exerts a softening and loosening influence on the mucus to make it easier to wash out and clear the nasal passages for both babies and adults. In very rare instances, fatal infection by the amoeba Naegleria fowleri can occur if it enters the body through the nose; therefore tap water must not be used for nasal irrigation. Water is only appropriate for this purpose if it is sterile, distilled, boiled, filtered, or disinfected.
Sterile isotonic saline is also used to fill breast implants for use in breast augmentation surgery, to correct congenital abnormalities such as tuberous breast deformity, and to correct breast asymmetry. Saline breast implants are also used in reconstructive surgery post-mastectomy. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Concentrations lower and higher than normal also exist. High concentrations are used rarely in medicine but frequently in molecular biology. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Thomas was born in New Brunswick. The full tenure of Thomas career was at Columbia University, where he received his bachelors degree in 1912, his A.M. in 1914, and his Ph.D. in 1915. Thomas was an instructor in food chemistry from 1912 to 1917, an assistant professor from 1919 to 1923, and an associate professor from 1923 to 1928. He became full professor of chemistry in 1928. He died in New York, N. Y. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
; Water–rock–bacteria nanoscience
: Although by no means developed, nearly all aspects (both geo- and bioprocesses) of weathering, soil, and water–rock interaction science are inexorably linked to nanoscience. Within the Earth's near-surface, materials that are broken down, as well as materials that are produced, are often in the nanoscale regime. Further, as organic molecules, simple and complex, as well as bacteria and all flora and fauna in soils and rocks interact with the mineral components present, nanodimensions and nanoscale processes are the order of the day.
; Metal transport nanoscience
: On land, researchers study how nanosized minerals capture toxins such as arsenic, copper, and lead from the soil. Facilitating this process, called soil remediation, is a tricky business.
Nanogeoscience is in a relatively early stage of development. The future directions of nanoscience in the geosciences will include a determination of the identity, distribution, and unusual chemical properties of nanosized particles and/or films in the oceans, on the continents, and in the atmosphere, and how they drive Earth processes in unexpected ways. Further, nanotechnology will be the key to developing the next generation of Earth and environmental sensing systems. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Pure single crystals of β-LiGaO with a length of several inches can be grown by the Czochralski method. Their cleaved surfaces have lattice constants that match those of ZnO and GaN and are therefore suitable for epitaxial growth of thin films of those materials. β-LiGaO is a potential nonlinear optics material, but its direct bandgap of 5.6 eV is too wide for visible light applications. It can be reduced down to 3.2 eV by alloying β-LiGaO with ZnO. The bandgap tuning is discontinuous because ZnO and β-LiGaO do not mix but form a ZnLiGaO phase when their ratio is between ca. 0.2 and 1.
LiGaTe crystals with a size up to 5 mm can be grown in three steps. First, Li, Ga, and Te elements are fused in an evacuated quartz ampoule at 1250 K for 24 hours. At this stage Li reacts with the ampoule walls, releasing heat, and is partly consumed. In the second stage, the melt is homogenized in a sealed quartz ampoule, which is coated inside with pyrolytic carbon to reduce Li reactivity. The homogenization temperature is selected ca. 50 K above the melting point of LiGaTe. The crystals are then grown from the homogenized melt by the Bridgman–Stockbarger technique in a two-zone furnace. The temperature at the start of crystallization is a few degrees below the LiGaTe melting point. The ampoule is moved the cold zone at a rate of 2.5 mm/day for 20 days.
*m stands for metastable, d for direct and i for indirect bandgap | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Synthesis of GaSe nanoparticles is carried out by the reaction of GaMe with trioctylphosphine selenium (TOPSe) in a high temperature solution of trioctylphosphine (TOP) and trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO).
:GaMe + P[(CH)CH]Se → GaSe
A solution of 15 g TOPO and 5 mL TOP is heated to 150 °C overnight under nitrogen, removing any water that may be present in the original TOP solution. This initial TOP solution is vacuum distilled at 0.75 torr, taking the fraction from 204 °C to 235 °C. A TOPSe solution (12.5 mL TOP with 1.579 g TOPSe) is then added and the TOPO/TOP/TOPSe reaction mixture is heated to 278 °C. GaMe (0.8 mL) dissolved in 7.5 mL distilled TOP is then injected. After injection, the temperature drops to 254 °C before stabilizing in the range of 266–268 °C after 10 minutes. GaSe nanoparticles then begin to form, and may be detected by a shoulder in the optical absorption spectrum in the 400–450 nm range. After this shoulder is observed, the reaction mixture is left to cool to room temperature to prevent further reaction. After synthesis and cooling, the reaction vessel is opened and extraction of the GaSe nanoparticle solution is accomplished by addition of methanol. The distribution of nanoparticles between the polar (methanol) and non-polar (TOP) phases depends on experimental conditions. If the mixture is very dry, nanoparticles partition into the methanol phase. If the nanoparticles are exposed to air or water, however, the particles become uncharged and become partitioned into the non-polar TOP phase. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Copper(I) thiocyanate forms from the spontaneous decomposition of black copper(II) thiocyanate, releasing thiocyanogen, especially when heated. It is also formed from copper(II) thiocyanate under water, releasing (among others) thiocyanic acid and the highly poisonous hydrogen cyanide. It is conveniently prepared from relatively dilute solutions of copper(II) in water, such as copper(II) sulphate. To a copper(II) solution sulphurous acid is added and then a soluble thiocyanate is added (preferably slowly, while stirring). Copper(I) thiocyanate is precipitated as a white powder. Alternatively, a thiosulfate solution may be used as a reducing agent. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry is one of the oldest scientific institutes in Siberia. It was founded in 1944 as the Chemical and Metallurgical Institute. Five years later, thanks to the institute, a ceramic pipe plant was launched in Dorogino. Later, the institute became part of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
In 1964, the scientific organization was renamed the Institute of Physicochemical Principles of Mineral Raw Materials Processing, and in 1980, it was renamed the Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mineral Raw Materials Processing. In 1997, the institute was renamed the Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The particle size of a spherical object can be unambiguously and quantitatively defined by its diameter. However, a typical material object is likely to be irregular in shape and non-spherical. The above quantitative definition of particle size cannot be applied to non-spherical particles. There are several ways of extending the above quantitative definition to apply to non-spherical particles. Existing definitions are based on replacing a given particle with an imaginary sphere that has one of the properties identical with the particle.
;Volume-based particle size: Volume-based particle size equals the diameter of the sphere that has the same volume as a given particle. Typically used in sieve analysis, as shape hypothesis (sieve's mesh size as the sphere diameter).
:where
::: diameter of representative sphere
::: volume of particle
;Area-based particle size: Area-based particle size equals the diameter of the sphere that has the same surface area as a given particle. Typically used in optical granulometry techniques.
:where
::: diameter of representative sphere
::: surface area of particle | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
The most frequently reported mechanical property of titanium foams is compressive strength. It was generally accepted that the compressive properties of metal foams depended on the properties of the cell wall rather than on pore size. However, more recent research has indicated that smaller pore sizes equate to higher compressive strength. As pore sizes reach nano-dimensions, the relationship is even more clear due to changes in deformation mechanism.
Tuncer & Arslan fabricated titanium foams via the space-holder method using various shaped space-holders to elucidate the effect of cell morphology on mechanical properties. They found that foams created with needle-like urea space-holders exhibited a decrease in elastic modulus and yield strength when compared to spherical pores. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Common material characterization techniques such as electron microscopy can damage samples of lead (II) iodide. Thin films of lead (II) iodide are unstable in ambient air. Ambient air oxygen oxidizes iodide into elemental iodine: | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Detergents are classified into four broad groupings, depending on the electrical charge of the surfactants. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Cocrystal engineering is relevant to production of energetic materials, pharmaceuticals, and other compounds. Of these, the most widely studied and used application is in drug development and more specifically, the formation, design, and implementation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API). Changing the structure and composition of the API can greatly influence the bioavailability of a drug. The engineering of cocrystals takes advantage of the specific properties of each component to make the most favorable conditions for solubility that could ultimately enhance the bioavailability of the drug. The principal idea is to develop superior physico-chemical properties of the API while holding the properties of the drug molecule itself constant. Cocrystal structures have also become a staple for drug discovery. Structure-based virtual screening methods, such as docking, makes use of cocrystal structures of known proteins or receptors to elucidate new ligand-receptor binding conformations. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
A sponge bomb is a specialized device designed to seal the end of a tunnel. Small enough that it can be set by a single person, it is a non-explosive, chemical bomb that releases a burst of expanding foam that quickly hardens. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
A goal of plasmonics is to understand and manipulate surface plasmons at the nano-scale, so characterization of surface plasmons is important. Some techniques frequently used to characterize surface plasmons are dark-field microscopy, UV-vis-NIR spectroscopy, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS). With dark-field microscopy, it is possible to monitor the spectrum of an individual metal nanostructure as the incident light polarization, wavelength, or variations in the dielectric environment is changed. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Nickel(II) oxide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is the principal oxide of nickel. It is classified as a basic metal oxide. Several million kilograms are produced annually of varying quality, mainly as an intermediate in the production of nickel alloys. The mineralogical form of , bunsenite, is very rare. Other nickel oxides have been claimed, for example: Nickel(III) oxide() and , but they have yet to be proven by X-ray crystallography in bulk. Nickel(III) oxide nanoparticles have recently (2015) been characterized using powder X-ray diffraction and electron microscopy. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Halide compounds such as Potassium chloride|, Potassium bromide| and Potassium iodide| can be tested with silver nitrate solution, . The halogen will react with and form a precipitate, with varying colour depending on the halogen:
* Silver(I) fluoride|: no precipitate
* Silver chloride|: white
* Silver bromide|: creamy (pale yellow)
* Silver iodide|: green (yellow)
For organic compounds containing halides, the Beilstein test is used. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
CuS can be prepared by treating copper with sulfur or HS. The rate depends on the particle size and temperature.
CuS reacts with oxygen to form SO:
The production of copper from chalcocite is a typical process in extracting the metal from ores. Usually, the conversion involves roasting, to give CuO and sulfur dioxide:
Cuprous oxide readily converts to copper metal upon heating. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Coconut water has been used in place of normal saline in areas without access to normal saline. Its use, however, has not been well studied. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Polyaniline nanofibers are a high aspect form of polyaniline, a polymer consisting of aniline monomers, which appears as discrete long threads with an average diameter between 30 nm and 100 nm. Polyaniline is one of the oldest known conducting polymers, being known for over 150 years. Polyaniline nanofibers are often studied for their potential to enhance the properties of polyaniline or have additional beneficial properties due to the addition of a nanostructure to the polymer. Properties that make polyaniline useful can be seen in the nanofiber form as well, such as facile synthesis, environmental stability, and simple acid/base doping/dedoping chemistry. These and other properties have led to the formation of various applications for polyaniline nanofibers as actuators memory devices, and sensors. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Over 350,000 residents in the Veneto region are estimated to have been exposed to contamination through tap water, and it is thought to be Europes biggest PFAS-related environmental disaster. While Italys National Health Institute (ISS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità) set the threshold limit of PFOA in the bloodstream at 8 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL), some residents had reached 262 and some industrial employees reach 91,900 ng/mL. In 2021 some data was disclosed by Greenpeace and local citizens after a long legal battle against the Veneto Region and ISS, which for years has denied access to data, despite values known since or even before 2017. The Veneto region has not carried out further monitoring or taken resolutive actions to eliminate pollution and reduce, at least gradually, the contamination of non-potable water. Although in 2020 the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) has reduced by more than four times the maximum tolerable limit of PSAS that can be taken through the diet, the region has not carried out new assessments or implemented concrete actions to protect the population and the agri-food and livestock sectors. Some limits were added to monitoring the geographical area, which does not include the orange zone and other areas affected by contamination, as well as the insufficiency of analysis on important productions widespread in the areas concerned: eggs (up to 37,100 ng/kg), fish (18,600 ng/kg) spinach and radicchio (only one sampling carried out), kiwis, melons, watermelons, cereals (only one sample was analyzed), soy, wines and apples. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Active tectonics will increase the likelihood of salt structures developing. In the case of extensional tectonics, faulting will both reduce the strength of the overburden and thin it. In an area affected by thrust tectonics, buckling of the overburden layer will allow the salt to rise into the cores of anticlines, as seen in salt domes in the Zagros Mountains and in El Gordo diapir (Coahuila fold-and-thrust belt, NE Mexico).
If the pressure within the salt body becomes sufficiently high it may be able to push through its overburden, this is known as forceful diapirism. Many salt diapirs may contain elements of both active and passive salt movement. An active salt structure may pierce its overburden and from then on continue to develop as a purely passive salt diapir. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Indium(III) telluride (InTe) is a inorganic compound. A black solid, it is sometimes described as an intermetallic compound, because it has properties that are metal-like and salt like. It is a semiconductor that has attracted occasional interest for its thermoelectric and photovoltaic applications. No applications have been implemented commercially however. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Polyvinylcarbazole is obtained from N-vinylcarbazole by radical polymerization in various ways. It can be produced by suspension polymerization at 180 °C with sodium chloride and potassium chromate as catalyst. Alternatively, AIBN can also be used as a radical starter or a Ziegler-Natta catalyst. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Cobalt oxide/graphene composite are synthesized by first forming cobalt(II) hydroxide on the graphene sheet from a cobalt(II) salt and ammonium hydroxide , which is then heated to 450 °C for two hours to yield the oxide. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The New Zealand Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has banned the use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in cosmetic products starting from 31st December 2026. This will make the country one of the first in the world to take this step on PFAS to protect people and the environment. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
The counterion condensation originally only describes the behaviour of a charged rod. It competes here with Poisson-Boltzmann theory, which was shown to give less artificial results than the counterion condensation theories. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Bocarsly graduated with a B.S., magna cum laude, from the University of California, Los Angeles with a double major in chemistry and physics (June 1976). There he worked with John Gladysz on research involving metal vapor synthesis. In June 1980 he received his PhD from Massachusetts Institute of Technology for research on charge transfer processes on semiconductors. Starting in 1980, he was assistant and associate professor at Princeton University where he is currently full professor. Bocarsly currently teaches the second course of the introductory General Chem sequence at Princeton. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Carbon-fiber reinforced composite materials can improve efficiency in engineered systems (for example, airframes) by reducing structural weight for given strength and stiffness requirements, but present challenges with manufacturing and certification. High-performance composite components employ many continuous fibers that span the shape of a component, and are embedded in a resin matrix. Such parts typically require custom tooling, pressurization for consolidation and heated curing. Joining such parts adds complexity and structural vulnerabilities.
RCCM eliminate the need for custom tooling because parts can be incrementally added/removed. Their construction, modification, repair and re-use can all employ the same reversible linking process. Heterogeneous elements can be incorporated in structures with functions determined by their relative placement. Exact assembly of discrete cellular composites offers new properties and performance not available with the analog alternatives of continuously depositing or removing material. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Nano spray dryers refer to using spray drying to create particles in the nanometer range. Spray drying is a gentle method for producing powders with a defined particle size out of solutions, dispersions, and emulsions which is widely used for pharmaceuticals, food, biotechnology, and other industrial materials synthesis.
In the past, the limitations of spray drying were the particle size (minimum 2 micrometres), the yield (maximum around 70%), and the sample volume (minimum 50 ml for devices in lab scale). Recently, minimum particle sizes have been reduced to 300 nm, yields up to 90% are possible, and the sample amount can be as small as 1 ml. These expanded limits are possible due to new technological developments to the spray head, the heating system, and the electrostatic particle collector.
To emphasize the small particle sizes possible with this new technology, it has been described as "nano" spray drying. However, the smallest particles produced are in the sub-micrometre range common to fine particles rather than the nanometer scale of ultrafine particles. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Roth received the United States Department of Commerce Gold Medal in 1986. He received the Sosman Award in 1991, the John Jeppson Award in 1995, the Spriggs Phase Equilibria Award in 2003, all from the American Ceramic Society. He received the Buessem Award from the Center for Dielectric Studies in 2001. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Harald Schäfer (10 February 1913, Jena – 21 December 1992, Münster) was a professor of inorganic chemistry at the University of Münster in Germany. He is recognized for popularizing the use of chemical vapor transport and the discovery of many new inorganic compounds.
Schäfer began his studies in 1937 and was awarded a doctorate in 1940. His dissertation was on analytical chemistry of boron. He conducted his habilitation at the Technical University of Stuttgart on iron oxychlorides, during which he discovered the phenomenon of chemical vapor transport (migration in the solid state via the gas phase).
In recognition of his research achievements, he was awarded the Alfred Stock Memorial Prize in 1967. He was also elected to the Leopoldina Academy. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
No substitutes exist for potassium as an essential plant nutrient and as an essential nutritional requirement for animals and humans. Manure and glauconite (greensand) are low-potassium-content sources that can be profitably transported only short distances to crop fields. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
After his studies, Goodenough was a research scientist and team leader at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory for 24 years. At MIT, he was part of an interdisciplinary team responsible for developing random access magnetic memory. His research focused on magnetism and on the metal–insulator transition behavior in transition-metal oxides. His research efforts on RAM led him to develop the concepts of cooperative orbital ordering, also known as a cooperative Jahn–Teller distortion, in oxide materials. They subsequently led him to develop (with Junjiro Kanamori) the Goodenough–Kanamori rules, a set of semi-empirical rules to predict the sign of the magnetic superexchange in materials; superexchange is a core property for high-temperature superconductivity. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
is commonly synthesized via a precipitation reaction between potassium iodide and lead(II) nitrate () in water solution:
While the potassium nitrate is soluble, the lead iodide is nearly insoluble at room temperature, and thus precipitates out.
Other soluble compounds containing lead(II) and iodide can be used instead, for example lead(II) acetate and sodium iodide.
The compound can also be synthesized by reacting iodine vapor with molten lead between 500 and 700 °C.
A thin film of can also be prepared by depositing a film of lead sulfide and exposing it to iodine vapor, by the reaction
The sulfur is then washed with dimethyl sulfoxide. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
To produce titanium foams via expansion of pressurized gas, the titanium precursor mixture is placed within a gas-tight metal can, which is evacuated after filling. The metal can is pressurized with inert gas—most commonly argon – and is pressed isostatically. The gas-filled pores are contained within the compacted matrix, and upon exposure to elevated temperatures, these bubbles expand through creep of the surrounding metal matrix. Since processing titanium foams using hot isostatic pressing (HIP) eliminates the need for separate compaction and sintering processes, a wider variety of custom shapes and sizes are possible than via loose powder sintering techniques. Disadvantages of this process include reduced pore connectivity, limited achievable porosity, and a complicated experimental set-up. However, a unique aspect of the HIP process with respect to titanium (and other polymorphic materials) is that transformation superplasticity can be enhanced through the HIP process by way of thermal cycling, or by cycling around the alpha/beta allotropic temperature boundaries of the metal. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
The critical micelle concentration (CMC) is the exact concentration of surfactants at which aggregates become thermodynamically soluble in an aqueous solution. Below the CMC there is not a high enough density of surfactant to spontaneously precipitate into a distinct phase. Above the CMC, the solubility of the surfactant within the aqueous solution has been exceeded. The energy required to keep the surfactant in solution no longer is the lowest energy state. To decrease free energy of the system the surfactant is precipitated out. CMC is determined by establishing inflection points for pre-determined surface tension of surfactants in solution. Plotting the inflection point against the surfactant concentration will provide insight into the critical micelle concentration by showing stabilization of phases. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
The organic ligands of the interfacial layer can influence the photoluminescence (PL) of a nanoparticle via various mechanisms, two of which are surface passivation and carrier trapping.
Surface passivation: At the surface of an uncovered nanoparticle (without an interfacial layer) dangling atoms are found. These bonds form energy levels between the HOMO-LUMO gap, thereby leading to non-radiative relaxation. Due to the binding of ligand molecules with the dangling orbitals, the energy of these states is shifted away from the HOMO-LUMO gap. This prevents nonradiative relaxation, and thus results in more PL. The strength of this effect strongly depends on the type of ligands. In general, small, linear ligands, do better than bulky ligands, because they lead to a higher surface coverage density, therefore allowing more dangling orbitals to be passivated.
Another surface effect is carrier trapping. Here the ligands can scavenge the electron(holes) in the nanoparticle, thereby precluding radiative recombination and thus leading towards a reduction in PL. A well-known example of such ligands are thiols.
The light conversion efficiency can also be improved using an interfacial layer that exists of compounds that absorb in a wider energy range and emit at the absorption energy of the nanoparticle. According to C. S. Inagaki et al the absorption band of a metallic nanoparticle was shown to drastically increase in width, caused by the overlap of transitions in the interfacial layer and the plasmon resonance band of the nanoparticle. This phenomenon can be used in practical applications like LED's and solar cells. In these technologies either the efficiency of absorption or emission is of critical importance and nanoparticles with an interfacial layer could be used to improve this efficiency by either absorbing or emitting at a wider range of energies. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Regardless of the fact that room-temperature ferromagnetism has not yet been achieved, magnetic semiconductors materials such as , have shown considerable success. Thanks to the rich interplay of physics inherent to magnetic semiconductors a variety of novel phenomena and device structures have been demonstrated. It is therefore instructive to make a critical review of these main developments.
A key result in magnetic semiconductors technology is gateable ferromagnetism, where an electric field is used to control the ferromagnetic properties. This was achieved by Ohno et al.
using an insulating-gate field-effect transistor with as the magnetic channel. The magnetic properties were inferred from magnetization dependent Hall measurements of the channel. Using the gate action to either deplete or accumulate holes in the channel it was possible to change the characteristic of the Hall response to be either that of a paramagnet or of a ferromagnet. When the temperature of the sample was close to its T it was possible to turn the ferromagnetism on or off by applying a gate voltage which could change the T by ±1K.
A similar transistor device was used to provide further examples of gateable ferromagnetism.
In this experiment the electric field was used to modify the coercive field at which magnetization reversal occurs. As a result of the dependence of the magnetic hysteresis on the gate bias the electric field could be used to assist magnetization reversal or even demagnetize the ferromagnetic material.
The combining of magnetic and electronic functionality demonstrated by this experiment is one of the goals of spintronics and may be expected to have a great technological impact.
Another important spintronic functionality that has been demonstrated in magnetic semiconductors is that of spin injection. This is where the high spin polarization inherent to these magnetic materials is used to transfer spin polarized carriers into a non-magnetic material.
In this example, a fully epitaxial heterostructure was used where spin polarized holes were injected from a layer to an (In,Ga)As quantum well where they combine with unpolarized electrons from an n-type substrate. A polarization of 8% was measured in the resulting electroluminescence. This is again of potential technological interest as it shows the possibility that the spin states in non-magnetic semiconductors can be manipulated without the application of a magnetic field.
offers an excellent material to study domain wall mechanics because the domains can have a size of the order of 100 μm.
Several studies have been done in which lithographically defined lateral constrictions
or other pinning points
are used to manipulate domain walls. These experiments are crucial to understanding domain wall nucleation and propagation which would be necessary for the creation of complex logic circuits based on domain wall mechanics.
Many properties of domain walls are still not fully understood and one particularly outstanding issue is of the magnitude and size of the resistance associated with current passing through domain walls. Both positive
and negative
values of domain wall resistance have been reported, leaving this an open area for future research.
An example of a simple device that utilizes pinned domain walls is provided by reference.
This experiment consisted of a lithographically defined narrow island connected to the leads via a pair of nanoconstrictions. While the device operated in a diffusive regime the constrictions would pin domain walls, resulting in a giant magnetoresistance signal. When the device operates in a tunnelling regime another magnetoresistance effect is observed, discussed below.
A furtherproperty of domain walls is that of current induced domain wall motion. This reversal is believed to occur as a result of the spin-transfer torque exerted by a spin polarized current.
It was demonstrated in reference
using a lateral device containing three regions which had been patterned to have different coercive fields, allowing the easy formation of a domain wall. The central region was designed to have the lowest coercivity so that the application of current pulses could cause the orientation of the magnetization to be switched. This experiment showed that the current required to achieve this reversal in was two orders of magnitude lower than that of metal systems. It has also been demonstrated that current-induced magnetization reversal can occur across a vertical tunnel junction.
Another novel spintronic effect, which was first observed in based tunnel devices, is tunnelling anisotropic magnetoresistance. This effect arises from the intricate dependence of the tunnelling density of states on the magnetization, and can result in magnetoresistance of several orders of magnitude. This was demonstrated first in vertical tunnelling structures
and then later in lateral devices.
This has established tunnelling anisotropic magnetoresistance as a generic property of ferromagnetic tunnel structures. Similarly, the dependence of the single electron charging energy on the magnetization has resulted in the observation of another dramatic magnetoresistance effect in a device, the so-called Coulomb blockade anisotropic magnetoresistance. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
During the period of denazification following the war, Nazi party members and others who were more than nominal participants in Nazi activities were barred from public posts. Those applying for academic positions had to certify their acceptability.
Klemm was the lead author for the preparation and publication of the six inorganic chemistry volumes of the FIAT review of German science, 1939-1946 (1948-1949). FIAT volumes were compiled by leading German scientists in cooperation with the Military Government for Germany, involving Field Information Agencies Technical from the British, French, and U.S. zones, to report on the scientific work done in Germany during the war years.
From 23 May 1947 to 1951, Klemm led the Inorganic Chemical Institute at University of Kiel (Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel). The Institute of Inorganic Chemistry at the University of Kiel has a collection of correspondence and other papers dating from 1947 through the 1960s, relating to Wilhelm Klemm and his successor, Robert Juza.
Klemm's first wife, Lisabeth Klemm (née Herrmann, born 9 October 1895, Eberswalde) died of cancer on 15 October 1948 in Kiel.
In 1949, Klemm married Lina Arndt, a dentist who had been a friend of his first wife. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The pseudo Jahn–Teller effect (PJTE), occasionally also known as second-order JTE, is a direct extension of the Jahn–Teller effect (JTE) where spontaneous symmetry breaking in polyatomic systems (molecules and solids) occurs even when the relevant electronic states are not degenerate.
The PJTE can occur under the influence of sufficiently low-lying electronic excited states of appropriate symmetry.
"The pseudo Jahn–Teller effect is the only source of instability and distortions of high-symmetry configurations of polyatomic systems in nondegenerate states, and it contributes significantly to the instability in degenerate states". | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Calfactant, also known as Infasurf, is an intratracheal suspension derived from the natural surfactant in calf lungs. It is used in premature infants with lung surfactant deficiency that causes infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS). | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
PVK can be used at temperatures of up to 160 - 170 °C and is therefore a temperature-resistant thermoplastic. The electrical conductivity changes depending on the illumination. For this reason, PVK is classified as a semiconductor or photoconductor. The polymer is extremely brittle, but the brittleness can be reduced by copolymerization with a little isoprene. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Hypertonic saline—7% NaCl solutions are considered mucoactive agents and thus are used to hydrate thick secretions (mucus) in order to make it easier to cough up and out (expectorate). 3% hypertonic saline solutions are also used in critical care settings, acutely increased intracranial pressure, or severe hyponatremia. Inhalation of hypertonic saline has also been shown to help in other respiratory problems, specifically bronchiolitis. Hypertonic saline is currently recommended by the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation as a primary part of a cystic fibrosis treatment regimen.
An 11% solution of xylitol with 0.65% saline stimulates the washing of the nasopharynx and has an effect on the nasal pathogenic bacteria. This has been used in complementary and alternative medicine.
Hypertonic saline may be used in perioperative fluid management protocols to reduce excessive intravenous fluid infusions and lessen pulmonary complications. Hypertonic saline is used in treating hyponatremia and cerebral edema. Rapid correction of hyponatremia via hypertonic saline, or via any saline infusion > 40 mmol/L (Na+ having a valence of 1, 40 mmol/L = 40 mEq/L) greatly increases risk of central pontine myelinolysis (CPM), and so requires constant monitoring of the persons response. Water privation combined with diuretic block does not produce as much risk of CPM as saline administration does; however, it does not correct hyponatremia as rapidly as administration of hypertonic saline does. Due to hypertonicity, administration may result in phlebitis and tissue necrosis. As such, concentrations greater than 3% NaCl should normally be administered via a central venous catheter, also known as a central line'. Such hypertonic saline is normally available in two strengths, the former of which is more commonly administered:
* 3% NaCl has 513 mEq/L of Na and Cl.
* 5% NaCl has 856 mEq/L of Na and Cl.
Hypertonic NaCl solutions that are less commonly used are 7% (1200 mEq/L) and 23.4% (approx 4000 mEq/L), both of which are used (also via central line), often in conjunction with supplementary diuretics, in the treatment of traumatic brain injury. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Electrophoretic light scattering (ELS) is primarily used for characterizing the surface charges of colloidal particles like macromolecules or synthetic polymers (ex. polystyrene) in liquid media in an electric field. In addition to information about surface charges, ELS can also measure the particle size of proteins and determine the zeta potential distribution. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
The pyramidalization and energies of inversion of group 15 :MR (M = N, P, As, Sb, Bi) and group 14 •MR molecules can also be predicted and rationalized using a second-order Jahn-Teller distortion treatment. The “parent” planar molecule possessing D symmetry has frontier orbitals of a” (HOMO) and a’ (LUMO) symmetries. The pyramidalizing vibration mode has symmetry a”. The triple product yields the totally symmetric representation a’, indicating that the molecule will indeed pyramidalize into C symmetry.
The energies of inversion can also be predicted and compared. Due to lower energy overlap between the 3p and 1s orbitals in PH (versus between 2p and 1s in NH), the HOMO-LUMO energy gap in PH will be smaller than that of NH. This allows for a stronger interaction between the HOMO and LUMO in second-order Jahn-Teller fashion. The distortion stabilizes the HOMO and destabilizes the LUMO, resulting in a larger barrier to inversion in PH. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
* Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie . Vieweg, Braunschweig 2nd ed. 1919 [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-21423 Digital edition] by the University and State Library Düsseldorf | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
*Czarnik; A.W. Alcoholic compositions having a lowered risk of acetaldehydemia. U.S. Patent 9,044,423, June 2, 2015.
*Jacques, V.; Czarnik, A.W.; Judge, T.M.; Van der Ploeg, L.H.T.; DeWitt, S.H. “Differentiation of antiinflammatory and antitumorigenic properties of stabilized enantiomers of thalidomide analogs” PNAS 2015, 112, E1471-E1479
*Chee, M.S.; Stuelpnagel, J.R.; Czarnik, A.W. Method of making and decoding of array sensors with microspheres. U.S. Patent 7,060,431, June 13, 2006.
*Mei, H.-Y.; Cui, M.; Heldsinger, A.; Lemrow, S. M.; Loo, J. A.; Sannes-Lowery, K. A.; Sharmeen, L.; Czarnik, A. W. "Inhibitors of Protein-RNA Complexation That Target the RNA: Specific Recognition of HIV-1 TAR RNA by Small Organic Molecules", Biochemistry 1998, 37, 14204-14212
*Czarnik, A. W. “Guest Editorial on Combinatorial Chemistry”, Acc. Chem. Res., 1996, 29, 112
*Czarnik, A. W. “Desperately Seeking Sensors”, Chemistry & Biology 1995, 2, 423
*Czarnik, A. W. "Chemical Communication in Water Using Fluorescent Chemosensors", Accts. Chem. Res. 1994, 27, 302 | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Electrophoretic mobility is proportional to electrophoretic velocity, which is the measurable parameter. There are several theories that link electrophoretic mobility with zeta potential. They are briefly described in the article on electrophoresis and in details in many books on colloid and interface science.
There is an IUPAC Technical Report prepared by a group of world experts on the electrokinetic phenomena.
From the instrumental viewpoint, there are three different experimental techniques: microelectrophoresis, electrophoretic light scattering, and tunable resistive pulse sensing. Microelectrophoresis has the advantage of yielding an image of the moving particles. On the other hand, it is complicated by electro-osmosis at the walls of the sample cell. Electrophoretic light scattering is based on dynamic light scattering. It allows measurement in an open cell which eliminates the problem of electro-osmotic flow except for the case of a capillary cell. And, it can be used to characterize very small particles, but at the price of the lost ability to display images of moving particles. Tunable resistive pulse sensing (TRPS) is an impedance-based measurement technique that measures the zeta potential of individual particles based on the duration of the resistive pulse signal. The translocation duration of nanoparticles is measured as a function of voltage and applied pressure. From the inverse translocation time versus voltage-dependent electrophoretic mobility, and thus zeta potentials are calculated. The main advantage of the TRPS method is that it allows for simultaneous size and surface charge measurements on a particle-by-particle basis, enabling the analysis of a wide spectrum of synthetic and biological nano/microparticles and their mixtures.
All these measuring techniques may require dilution of the sample. Sometimes this dilution might affect properties of the sample and change zeta potential. There is only one justified way to perform this dilution – by using equilibrium supernatant. In this case, the interfacial equilibrium between the surface and the bulk liquid would be maintained and zeta potential would be the same for all volume fractions of particles in the suspension. When the diluent is known (as is the case for a chemical formulation), additional diluent can be prepared. If the diluent is unknown, equilibrium supernatant is readily obtained by centrifugation. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Walter Rüdorff (October 3, 1909 – April 1, 1989) was a German chemist known for his research on clathrates of graphite and ternary oxides. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Donald Robert Sadoway (born 7 March 1950) is professor emeritus of materials chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is a noted expert on batteries and has done significant research on how to improve the performance and longevity of portable power sources. In parallel, he is an expert on the extraction of metals from their ores and the inventor of molten oxide electrolysis, which has the potential to produce crude steel without the use of carbon reductant thereby totally eliminating greenhouse gas emissions. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Choy was a professor in the department of chemistry at Seoul National University (1981–2004). He is currently a distinguished professor and director of the Center for Intelligent Nano-Bio Materials (CINBM) at Ewha Womans University. He held multiple visiting professorships:
* Laboratoire de Chimie du Solide du CNRS, Universite de Bordeaux I, France (1985-1986),
* Department of materials engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, United States (2003),
* Kumamoto University, Japan (2008)
* Honorary professor of Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology at The University of Queensland, Australia.
He was a member of the international editorial board (IEB) or an associate editor of the Journal of Material Chemistry, Materials Research Bulletin, and Chemistry of Materials, and is currently involved in various journals including Journal of Solid State Chemistry, Solid State Sciences, Chemistry – An Asian Journal as an IEB member. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The dominant material for contact lenses are acrylate-siloxane hydrogels. They have replaced hard contact lenses. One of their most attractive properties is oxygen permeability, which is required since the cornea lacks vasculature. | 0 | Colloidal Chemistry |
Cores that transmute beforehand of the --cascade usually cause a charge change in ionic crystals (In) to Cd). As a result, the lattice must respond to these changes. Defects or neighboring ions can also migrate. Likewise, the high-energy transition process may cause the Auger effect, that can bring the core into higher ionization states. The normalization of the state of charge then depends on the conductivity of the material. In metals, the process takes place very quickly. This takes considerably longer in semiconductors and insulators. In all these processes, the hyperfine field changes. If this change falls within the --cascade, it may be observed as an after effect.
The number of nuclei in state (a) in the image on the right is depopulated both by the decay after state (b) and after state (c):
mit:
From this one obtains the exponential case:
For the total number of nuclei in the static state (c) follows:
The initial occupation probabilities are for static and dynamic environments: | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
Molybdenum disulfide (or moly) is an inorganic compound composed of molybdenum and sulfur. Its chemical formula is .
The compound is classified as a transition metal dichalcogenide. It is a silvery black solid that occurs as the mineral molybdenite, the principal ore for molybdenum. is relatively unreactive. It is unaffected by dilute acids and oxygen. In appearance and feel, molybdenum disulfide is similar to graphite. It is widely used as a dry lubricant because of its low friction and robustness. Bulk is a diamagnetic, indirect bandgap semiconductor similar to silicon, with a bandgap of 1.23 eV. | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
The Born–Mayer equation is an equation that is used to calculate the lattice energy of a crystalline ionic compound. It is a refinement of the Born–Landé equation by using an improved repulsion term.
where:
*N = Avogadro constant;
*M = Madelung constant, relating to the geometry of the crystal;
*z = charge number of cation
*z = charge number of anion
*e = elementary charge, 1.6022 C
*ε = permittivity of free space
*:4ε = 1.112 C/(J·m)
*r = distance to closest ion
*ρ = a constant dependent on the compressibility of the crystal; 30 pm works well for all alkali metal halides | 1 | Solid-state chemistry |
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