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AUSTRALIAN SOCIAL TRENDS
Across editions, Australian Social Trends addresses a wide range of current and enduring social issues, enabling a better understanding of key social issues in our community while also providing important information for policy development and review.
The articles in the March 2011 edition are:
Life expectancy trends - Australia
Examines the substantial increase in life expectancy in Australia over the past 125 years, some of the reasons for the increase, and some of the challenges posed by living longer.
Life expectancy, a good indicator of population health at the national level, shows that the health of Australians overall continues to improve. Life expectancy at birth has increased by over 30 years for Australian boys and girls over the last 125 years.
For 2007-2009, girls born in the Australian Capital Territory, along with New South Wales, had the highest life expectancy of all the states and territories (both 84.3 years), above the national life expectancy for girls of 83.9 years. The differences for boys was a lot bigger. For the same period, boys born in the ACT had the highest national life expectancy at birth (80.5 years), compared with the national life expectancy (79.3 years).
Health services: Use and patient experience
Considers people's reported use of selected services including GPs, pathology testing, imaging and medication use, and whether they were able to access appropriate services when they were required.
In 2009, people living in outer regional/remote areas of Australia were more likely than those living in major cities to have reported that they had waited longer than they felt was acceptable for a GP appointment (23% compared with 16%) and more likely to have gone to an emergency department because the waiting time for a GP appointment was too long (12% compared with 2%).
Health outside major cities
Compares the health of people living outside Major Cities with that of those living in Major Cities, looking at self-assessed health, chronic diseases, health risk factors and mortality rates.
Health outcomes differ between those living outside major cities and those living within them. In 2008, people who lived outside major cities were three times as likely to die from transport accidents, almost twice as likely to die from high blood pressure, 1.7 times as likely to die from heart failure and 1.6 times as likely to die from diabetes.
Contributing to poorer levels of health, people living outside major cities were more likely to be daily smokers (1.3 times as likely as their major city counterparts) or risky drinkers (1.3 times as likely). On the other side of the coin, they were also more likely than people in major cities to eat their fruit and veggies (1.5 times as likely to have met the national guidelines for fruit and vegetable consumption).
Year 12 attainment
Looks at recent trends in Year 12 attainment for young adults (aged 20-24 years) and the influence of Year 12 on further education, income and employment outcomes across the life course.
Australia's level of educational attainment is improving. Over the past decade, the proportion of young adults (aged 20-24 years) who had attained Year 12 increased from 71% (in 2001) to 78% (in 2010). In 2010, 86% of 20-24 year olds living in the ACT had attained Year 12.
There are some Australians whose level of attainment may not be as high. In 2010, Year 12 attainment rates were lower for young adults living in regional (67%) and remote (64%) areas, for young adults for whom neither parent had attained Year 12 (68%) and for young adults with a disability or restrictive long-term health condition (62%).
Education and Indigenous wellbeing
Examines how educational attainment is associated with health, employment and housing, and explores differences between outcomes for Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians across different levels of attainment.
The educational attainment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults (aged 18 years and over) has improved. In 2008, 71% had at least a Year 10 or basic vocational qualification, up from 48% in 1994; and the proportion of those with at least Year 12 or a skilled vocational qualification had more than doubled, from 16% to 37% over the same period.
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Ah, summer: warm breezes, sunny days … and trips to one of the world's largest X-ray microscopes?
Yes, you could go to the beach or the lake this summer, but why not try something a little more out-of-the-box this year? True nerdiness doesn't take time off just because school is out. We've got a list of summer science destinations all across the United States sure to trigger your curiosity.
All of these spots are places where real science happens, whether that means exploring the stars or delving into the deep past. We've picked spots in areas that offer other, not-so-nerdy attractions, too, in case you need to please non-geeky members of the family. Some may even be in your own backyard.
So if ion colliders and dinosaur footprints sound like more fun than swimming and sun tanning, check out these science-y summer vacation options.
1. Tour giant telescopes in a tropical paradise
Maybe you've already got a trip to Hawaii planned this year. If so, take a break from snorkeling to visit the W.M. Keck Observatory at magnificent Mauna Kea. Rising 13,800 feet (4,200 meters) above sea level, Mauna Kea hosts some of the largest telescopes ever built. [50 Amazing Volcano Facts]
To get a taste of the science, visit the Keck Observatory headquarters in the cowboy town of Waimea, where volunteers can explain what astronomers are learning by viewing the heavens from Hawaii.
The observatory doesn't offer public tours, but guests can drive to the summit of Mauna Kea to see a visitor's gallery and partial views of the Keck I telescope and dome. You'll need a four-wheel drive vehicle for the drive, and anyone headed up the volcano alone should stop at the Visitor Information Station at 9,200 feet to check the weather. Altitude sickness is a real concern, and scuba divers should not summit within 24 hours of a dive. Several tour outfitters offer journeys up to the summit. These trips include dinner, transportation and even warm clothes to protect against the high-altitude chill.
2. See how scientists study the sea in California
The Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute in Moss Landing, California, boasts three research ships and two remotely operated vehicles for studying the marine environment. Scientists at MBARI study everything from bioluminescent beasties to submarine volcanoes to deep-sea ecosystems.
Normally, the workings of this lab are closed to the public. But once a year, MBARI holds an open house. This summer's is on Saturday, July 19, from noon to 5 p.m. During that time, staff and scientists will be on hand to explain their research, show off their robotic submarines and screen videos of the deep oceans.
If you can't pull off a July 19 appearance in Moss Landing, never fear. The Monterey Bay Aquarium in nearby Monterey is another amazing way to explore the planet's marine life.
3. Follow the footprints of dinosaurs in Colorado
When you think "dinosaurs" and "Colorado," the first spot that springs to mind might be Dinosaur National Monument on the Colorado-Utah border. But that remote park isn't the only place to immerse yourself in the past.
Just minutes outside Denver sits Dinosaur Ridge, an unassuming-looking hill topped with scrubby trees. This ridge, along with its neighbors, was the site of the first discoveries of some of the most iconic dinosaurs ever found, including Stegosaurus, Allosaurus andApatosaurus. [5 Fossil Hotspots: National Parks to Visit]
Visitors can hike around the ridge for free on a paved road, or take a shuttle bus tour for $5 (children ages 3 and younger ride for free). The short walk or ride will take you past dino bones eroding out of rock, fossil ripples and worm burrows, and most strikingly, a hillside dotted with more than 300 dinosaur tracks.
Nearby, the tiny but welcoming Morrison Natural History Museum offers visitors the chance to get up close to (and even touch) real dinosaur fossils. Volunteers can often be found preparing fossils in the lab upstairs, and are always happy to take questions from guests.
4. Discover an ancient world in Tennessee
Dinosaurs get all the love, but they aren't the only amazing beasts that once walked North America. At the Gray fossil site in northeast Tennessee, an entirely different ancient landscape comes to life.
Workers accidentally discovered this site near the town of Gray, Tennessee, during road construction in 2000. A sinkhole here became a watery grave for many animals during the Late Miocene epoch, approximately 7 million to 4.5 million years ago. Hundreds of bones from frogs, turtles, tapirs and even an ancient rhinoceros have been found, as has a rare red panda fossil. A museum in front of the dig site recreates the ancient ecosystem and provides a home for more than 14,000 fossils found at the site. A windowed lab allows visitors to watch fossils being prepared. [25 Amazing Ancient Beasts]
The Gray Fossil Site is a bit off the beaten track compared to our other summer vacation options, but it's not far from the Appalachian Trail, Great Smoky Mountain National Park, and other excellent hiking and camping sites.
5. Dream of interstellar travel in Space City
Houston is ground zero for human space travel, and Space Center Houston is the best place to get a taste of what it's like to blast off. This museum offers science shows and exhibits, as well as tours of nearby Johnson Space Center (for an additional fee).
Space enthusiasts will love seeing artifacts like suits actually worn in space and on the moon, a fragment of the orbiter Skylab that survived its fall to Earth and a lunar rock you can touch.
And while Houston may have been snubbed in the parceling out of space shuttles, Space Center Houston does have a full-scale replica shuttle parked outside. A new $12 million complex is currently under construction to house a real Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, the plane upon which the shuttle piggybacked for transport around Earth.
6. Explore the universe's origin in New York
A short drive from Manhattan sits Brookhaven National Laboratory, where scientists delve into some of the tiniest particles ever discovered to find out what makes the universe tick.
Each summer, Brookhaven opens its doors to the public to share its research. Between July 13 and August 3, visitors can come on themed open-house days to tour the facilities, talk to researchers and try hands-on activities.
On July 13, guests can tour the National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) II, an enormous X-ray microscope that will produce X-rays 10,000 times stronger than the current NSLS when completed. On July 20, it's time to go very small with a trip to the Center for Functional Nanomaterials. Weather nuts will enjoy "Storm Trackers" day on July 27. And finally, the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider will be open for tours on Aug 3; this particle accelerator aims to recreate the moments after the Big Bang.
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What Is A Topical Sermon?
A topical sermon is a sermon developed from a bibical principle or truth.
A biblical principle or truth could relate to God's love, God's grace, God's forgiveness or God's salvation.
A topical sermon develops a topic from a biblical truth or principle by looking at it from a perspective or angle.
For example, you may want to look at the Depth of God's Love or you may want to look at How To Receive God's Grace or you may want to look at The Nature of God's Forgiveness or you may want to look at God's Plan For Salvation.
In Philippians 2:1-4, you will find the biblical principle of unity. In this passage of Scripture, the apostle Paul encourages the Christians at Philippi to dwell together in harmony.
You now have a topic you can preach. Dwelling Together In Harmony!
The apostle Paul informs the Christians at Philippi HOW they can dwell together in harmony. The HOW question gives you three sub-points. (1) Having a unity of focus, (2) having a unity of thought, and (3) having a unity of purpose.
You now have a preaching topic with three sub-points. Your sub-points flow from your preaching topic and expand and explain your preaching topic.
Your topical sermon now looks like this. There are three principles to help Christians dwell together in harmony. They are...
Preview 16 Preaching Sermons From Philippians by clicking on Preaching Sermons.
How To Write A Topical Sermon
In the topical sermon above, you have a preaching topic with three sub-points.
You have linked the preaching topic with the three sub-points by using the HINGE word principles. The hinge word must be a plural noun.
Next you draw out any incidental sub-points that flow from, explain or expand the major sub-points.
Your topical sermon may now look like this...
There are three principles to help Christians dwell together in harmony. They are:
Your sermon now has a preaching topic, sub-points, and incidental sub-points.
When it comes to writing topical sermons, you simple need to develop a topic from a biblical principle or truth by looking at it from some perspective or angle. Once you do this, you will be able to write topical sermons with ease.
The Importance For Application
QUOTE by Bryan Chapell: People have the right to ask, "Why did you tell me that? What am I supposed to do with that information? All right, I understand what you think - so what?" The healthiest preaching does not assume listerers will automatically see how to apply God's truths to their lives; it supplies the application people need. If even the preacher cannot tell (or has not bothered to determine) how the sermon's truths relate to life, then people not only are unlikely to make the connection, but also will wonder why they bothered to listen (Christ-Centered Preaching by Bryan Chapell).
The Importance of Structure
QUOTE by Charles W. Koller: Preaching without notes is largely a matter of structure ... without sound structure, a real message may prove obscure and impotent ... sound structure will add immeasurably to the power of a sermon and good homiletical habits are a priceless resource to the pulpiteer ... an outline that stands out clear and sharp is the first long step to freedom in the pulpit (How To Preach Without Notes by Charles W. Koller).
The Importance of the Conclusion
QUOTE by James Braga: The conclusion is undoubtedly the most potent element in the entire sermon. If it is poorly executed, it may weaken or even destroy the effect of the preceding parts of the discource. But some preachers forget the importance of the conclusion with the result that their sermons, which otherwise are carefully and thoroughly prepared, fail at the crucial point. Instead of concentrating their material into a burning and powerful focus, they allow the current of thought to be dissipated by commonplace or feeble remarks at the close (How To Prepare Bible Messages by James Braga).
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MARTEN (ed.): Children and Youth During the Civil War Era (2012)
Children and Youth During the Civil War Era edited by James Marten. New York University Press, 2012. Paper, ISBN: 0814796087. $25.00.
Despite the explosion of social history since the 1970s, few historians of children or the Civil War have addressed the topic of children and childhood during the Civil War. The new book Children and Youth during the Civil War Era is the first anthology to address this dearth, and provides balanced studies of both North and South, free and slave. It effectively broadens analysis beyond the war years to include children during the sectional conflict, the immediate postwar years, and even through the mid-twentieth century. It is supplemented with selected primary documents, discussion questions, and suggested readings.
The editor, James Marten, is the preeminent historian of children in the Civil War era, and thus is eminently qualified to organize this anthology. He acknowledges that, “like most anthologies, this one does not claim to be comprehensive,” but promises the essays provide “several useful contexts and fresh ways of looking at the impact” of the war (4).
The first section, “Children and the Sectional Conflict,” reveals how young people became both symbols and actors in the racial and political issues of the period. Rebecca de Schweinitz’s essay explores the connections between notions of childhood and slavery. While both antislavery and proslavery arguments hinged upon evolving notions of middle-class domesticity, the growing emphasis on sentimental domestic values ultimately undercut slaveholders’ arguments.
Elizabeth Kuebler-Wolf focuses on period imagery featuring children and slavery to discover what they reveal about both sides of the slavery debate, with particular emphasis on “the alleged effects each side in the debate claimed that slavery had upon white children” (30). Her arguments center on one northern printed image and two southern photographs, and thus could have been augmented by a broader sample, or more equivalent comparison.
Kanisorn Wongsrichanalai’s essay reveals the relationship between northern values and New England students’ responses before and during the sectional conflict. He concludes that the ultimate triumph of the Union army vindicated thee students, who felt secession proved slavery was evil, and military intervention was necessary to end it. The essay is an examination not only of the formation of sectional values, but of how one version of a national narrative is elevated to primacy.
The second part, “Children of War,” explores ways in which children were effected by, and sometimes affected, the war. Thomas F. Curran investigates some of the ways that the war divided families by analyzing the case of a Missouri teenager who joined the Confederate army against his parents’ wishes. The essay provides a glimpse into the convoluted world of military courts and prisons, and is one of the few to focus on a border state. According to Curran, cases such as these offer a “dim foreshadowing of the juvenile justice system” in the twentieth century (66).
Paul B. Ringel’s fascinating essay reveals how a popular northern children’s weekly publication, The Youth’s Companion, went from “ignoring the conflict to using it as an instrument to inspire moral introspection, and finally to presenting it as a moralistic drama suitable for both … instruction and entertainment” (78). The rising success of the publication also pointed to eroding barriers to children participating in marketplace consumption.
Sean A. Scott utilizes Northern periodicals, primarily the Cincinnati Western Christian Advocate, in his exploration of articles and obituaries concerning deceased children. At a time when death permeated daily life, these accounts were often meant to encourage the living (particularly children) to make spiritual preparations for death, or to justify such a great sacrifice in the name of patriotism.
Lisa T. Frank examines how Sherman’s march “created and clarified the meaning of war for elite Southern girls” (111). Utilizing these girls’ wartime writings, she reveals how wartime experiences, particularly encounters with Union troops, forced girls to grow up faster and ultimately shaped their postwar beliefs and attitudes.
Victoria E. Ott, in one of the more nuanced essays, explores how young southern women utilized courtship, the primary feature of youth culture, into a political expression of Confederate loyalty. Women supported the Confederacy by giving their attentions to brave soldiers and scorning young men who refused military service.
The third section, “Aftermaths,” delves into the postwar period. Troy L. Kickler explores African American education in Tennessee. His essay provides a general overview of the multiplicity of black education in the immediate postwar period, as well as various challenges to black education. Kickler shows that former slaves were taught not only “how to be free,” but also “to conform their thoughts and actions to northern middle-class standards” (157).
Mary Niall Mitchell’s essay sheds light on the labor of freedchildren in the immediate postwar years. She argues that apprenticeship was used as an extension of unfree labor until it was declared illegal in 1867. Black families generally fought against it, seeing little distinction between freedom and the right to control their children.
Catherine A. Jones also examines children’s labor, although her focus is on white orphans in Richmond. She capably investigates the complex relationship between postwar labor shortages, growing concerns about the racial social order, and debates over public welfare.
Judith Geisberg utilizes Pennsylvania Soldier’s Orphan Schools as a window into “contemporary debates about the assimilation of immigrants and Indians and growing fears of labor radicalism” (189).The essay reveals how poverty came to be seen as intractable as race, and how orphanages were ill-equipped to respond to changes in American society since the end of the war.
The fourth part, “Epilogue,” carries into the twentieth century. J. Vincent Lowery’s essay explores how the Children of the Confederacy was organized by the United Daughters of the Confederacy as a means of preserving southern identity and values. It met with mixed success, particularly during the war’s centennial, as white southern children seemed to embrace “the national present over the sectional past” (220).
By addressing so many fascinating topics in a regional or impressionistic manner, this anthology suggests as many new avenues for research as it satisfies. The authors and editor are to be commended for this valuable contribution to the field.
Catherine M. Wright is the Curator of the Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia.
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Urban Pest Ant Management Research
Dr. Karen Vail applies a low-volume insecticidal spray to a simulated structure, i.e., a dog house. Brad Hinds watches to ensure Vail is accurately applying each product tested.
More than three acres have been set aside at the UT Forest Resources Research and Education Center (FRREC) to evaluate the efficacy of products and strategies used against the odorous house ant and other pest ants. Twenty-eight dog houses, which are placed in plots on the ground near the grass/woods interface or slightly deeper in the woods, simulate urban structures. (An original house plot is pictured at right.) The small plots have been modified over the past four years to more closely simulate a home landscape and to provide more shade and moisture.
The odorous house ant, Tapinoma sessile (Say), is the principal ant invading structures in the mid-south region of the U.S. (Hedges 1998) and is ranked as one of the top five pest ants in the U.S. (Hedges 2000). Odorous house ants and eighteen other ant species naturally occur in these Forest Resources Research and Education Center habitats. In 2012, we evaluated two standard insecticidal low volume sprays and an experimental one to compare their effectiveness against these ants. Using the FRREC location allows experimental insecticides intended for the urban market to be tested in a manner that will limit public exposure to the products.
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|Nativity of Christ Cathedral, Riga, Latvia; Photograph www.globe-walls.com|
When you read about the magnificent Russian Orthodox Cathedral of Riga having been turned into a planetarium by the Soviets it could break your heart but for the meticulous restoration completed since the 1990s. Surely my family members who migrated to Riga worshipped here in the late nineteenth century. The Orthodox church had established its first presence in Riga around 1836, becoming a full diocese in 1850.
I begin with that image because my Jurikas family was among the estimated 100,000 Latvian and Estonian peasants who in the late 1840s abandoned the prevailing Lutheran faith for Russian Orthodoxy. To oversimplify, it was a form of protest against the Germanic landowners who were Lutherans.
"The now standard explanation for this astounding occurrence stems largely from two aspects of the era that have yet to be explored deeply with respect to the conversions. Namely, the conversions took place during a period of agricultural crisis and amid a series of rumors that suggested conversion to “the Tsar’s faith” would yield worldly benefits: freedom from manorial authority, land to be held without obligation, tax relief, and so on.
"While the agricultural situation and rumors are not to be ignored, I suggest that excessive attention to these factors has led scholars to emphasize credulity and desperation at the expense of discussions of peasant behavior amid a period of social contest. Evidence of peasant claims and acts of disobedience – in particular illegal departures from manors and false complaints about religious persecution – need to be integrated into the study of the conversion phenomenon."
Lutheran church, Vecsalaca estate, Salaca parish; from 1833 to 1842 my Jurikas ancestors attended here, in the town of Salacgriva. Photo CDM April 2013.
Therefore the conversion by my great-great-grandparents, Jaan (Jahn, Janis) Jurikas and wife Liso Riis, was not a singular or unusual act. The Baltendeutsche nobility controlled most of the land tilled by Latvians; each estate, also known as a manor, had many farms upon it. Land ownership entailed authorization from their Russian overlords to act as local magistrates, thus dispense justice. For instance, whipping was a common punishment for peasant misdemeanours and there were plenty of both complaints and whippings in the nineteenth century.
Genealogical research in Estonian and Latvian records shows that Jaan and then his son Jürri (Juris) moved family five times from one landlord's estate to another between 1823 and 1857. So it's quite possible an "illegal departure" (maybe more than one!) was involved along the way. According to the family story, Jaan was sentenced by the manor landowner to be whipped; he fled the estate to find refuge in the Orthodox church. The incident probably occurred when the family was living on the Lahze farm, Pāle estate, Limbaži parish.
St Katherine Church, Vilkene, Pāle estate; this is the last Lutheran church in which family baptisms took place (1843); photograph BDM April 2013.
We were able to follow part of the Jurikas trail, at least from the time they entered Latvian "territory" from what is now Estonia. Jürri finally settled at Krūmiņi farm, Lāde estate, Limbaži. More on this, next episode. And so Limbaži became their closest town.
This is the town's lovely little Orthodox church, as pretty as something out of a fairy tale. But ... this is not where Grandma Marija and her siblings were baptized. Not exactly. This church was built on the same spot a few decades later in 1903.
Photograph CDM April 2013.
Thanks to this site ("Lost Latvia") we can see what the original church looked like.
The town of Limbaži was quiet on a Saturday except for the museum volunteers tending a cooking pot over a fire where we were urged to partake of a delicious barley "porridge" topped with a tasty meat stew. It truly hit the spot after miles of navigating back roads. We explored the ruins of the castle built by Albert, Bishop of Riga, at the beginning of the thirteenth century and saw something of the local museum offerings.
|Photograph BDM April 2013|
SO quiet we wondered where all the people were! The few we did meet were ever so friendly.
Photograph BDM April 2013.
But we still had two more quests to undertake before the day was over. Please do come back again for a final post on Latvia.
Back to my original digression. Restoration of important historical buildings in Latvia has proceeded at an amazing pace since independence was again established in 1991. To me it's astonishing that so much has been accomplished out of the Second World War ruins and damages of the Soviet occupation. Documents, plans, and descriptions of destroyed heritage buildings were available to recreate them. In many cases it's not the first time. Some churches and other landmarks dating from the thirteenth century have been reconstructed several times over, after war and fire devastation.
“The Latvian Orthodox Church,” Orthodoxy in America (http://www.pravoslavie.us/LatvianOrthodoxChurch.htm : accessed 2 February 2011).
Bruno Martezans, “Conversion of Latvians to the Orthodox Church,” Roots=Saknes (http://www.roots-saknes.lv/Religions/Conversions.htm : accessed 18 January 2011).
Daniel C. Ryan, “Rumour, Belief and Contestation Amid the Conversion Movement to Orthodoxy in Northern Livonia, 1845-1848,” Folklore: Electronic Journal of Folklore, Vol. 28 (2004 (http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/ : accessed 18 January 2011); published by Folk Belief and Media Group, Estonia Literary Museum.
© 2013 Brenda Dougall Merriman
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LOS ANGELES-More than 200 million years ago, toothy crocodile-like creatures stalked a hot, dry mega-continent while squid-like mollusks with spiral shells drifted in the surrounding ocean. Then, in what passes for an instant in geologic time, they vanished - making way for the age of the dinosaurs.
How 50 percent of terrestrial vertebrates and an even larger share of marine life died off in the late Triassic period has become more clear from new research published in the journal Science.
The work lends greater validity to the theory that a massive volcanic event tore apart that continent and blanketed Earth's atmosphere, turning the ocean acidic and snuffing out animals that could not adapt. That geologic event, which created the Atlantic Ocean, ushered in the biggest biological shift in the planet's history.
"It set the stage for the dinosaurs to take over, biologically," said Paul Olsen, Ph.D., a geologist at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, who did much of the field work on which the study is based.
Pushed by the nascent Atlantic, the ruptured pieces of Pangea drifted off and further split, carrying the evidence of ecological collapse to such distant locales as Morocco, Nova Scotia and New Jersey.
Matching the fossil record in sedimentary rock with the dense basalt formed by the volcanic eruptions proved difficult, even with sophisticated tools of the 21st century. It was difficult to say whether the eruptions happened before the mass extinction.
Dr. Olsen and others, however, hacked rare zircon crystals from the basalt formations and measured traces of lead and uranium for radiometric dating tests. The results narrowed the margin of error in dating the lava to a mere 15,000 to 22,000 years - stunning precision for geochronology.
The crystals were not easy to find, or to process, although Dr. Olsen mined one from a rocky outcrop at a New Jersey highway exit.
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In this lecture you will learn how to Complete the Square. You will begin with an overview of the Square Root Property before diving into techniques of Completing the Square. Then, you will start to Solve Equations and move onto Equations where 'a' is Not Equal to One. Lastly, you will cover Complex Solutions before the four end examples.
You can solve
quadratic equations by taking the square root of both sides of the
equation. To do this, the quadratic expression must be a perfect
square to make the quadratic expression into a perfect square. Take
one half of the coefficient of the linear term, square it, and add
it to both sides of the equation.
If the coefficient
of the quadratic term is not 1, you must first factor this
coefficient out of the quadratic and linear term and then complete
the square for the new quadratic expression which now has a
coefficient of 1.
Completing the Square
Lecture Slides are screen-captured images of important points in the lecture. Students can download and print out these lecture slide images to do practice problems as well as take notes while watching the lecture.
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| 0.916334 | 250 | 4.5 | 4 |
ALEX Lesson Plans
Subject: Science (9 - 12), or Technology Education (9 - 12)
Title: ABC Book of Fauna
Description: This lesson is to provide students the opportunity to explore the various types of fauna (animals) found in the various biomes throughout the world.
Arthropod Brochure in Microsoft Word
This podcast demonstrates how to create a brochure about a specific arthropod. The podcast defines arthropods and their characteristics. The podcast explains how to set up a tri-fold brochure in Microsoft Word 2007 or 2010.
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Here are reviews of four high-quality digital tools that can help teach English language skills, courtesy of Common Sense Media and its new Graphite service–a free database of teacher-written reviews of learning technologies.
1. Oh Noah!
Grade Range: K-3
What is it? Comforting character makes second-language mistakes no big deal
Pros: Videos are very short but still pack in lots of vocabulary and funny story lines.
Cons: Some games take a while to load, and some of the timed games move quite rapidly for young kids.
Bottom Line: Oh Noah! provides a solid start in Spanish while building self-confidence and relaxing kids through humor.
2. Mango Languages
Grade Range: K-12
What is it? Conversational instruction outshines many other language programs
Pros: The language instruction goes above and beyond basic vocabulary memorization; kids get realistic usage help.
Cons: The conversation-based program could benefit from more writing activities.
Bottom Line: Language instruction is presented in a digestible, yet thorough way, and kids are exposed to culture tips and other effective extras.
(Next page: Two more English language learning tools)
3. Phrasal Verbs Machine
Grade Range: 5-8
What is it? Perform grammatical acrobatics with The Amazing Phraso
Pros: Clever animation and thorough definitions make this a great resource for strong ELA students and aspiring ELLs alike.
Cons: Some idioms are more British English than American English, and the busy interface makes it tricky to navigate between sections.
Bottom Line: While the app lends itself to a drill-and-kill style of repetition, its appealing animations and extensive explanatory text make it a solid choice for boosting vocabulary.
4. Simple English Wikipedia
Grade Range: 5-12
What is it? Adapted resource can help some ELLs, with potential for other students
Pros: Topics are more accessible for ELLs and other struggling readers; the chance to create articles provides a novel activity for more advanced students.
Cons: More articles, expanded language support, and more images would make the site more useful for beginning and intermediate level ELLs.
Bottom Line: An empowering research tool for more advanced English learners, with the potential for wider, more creative applications.
(To find free, teacher-written reviews of thousands of apps, games, and websites, organized by subject and Common Core standard, go to www.graphite.org .)
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| 0.897169 | 520 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Cardinal and senator, b. at Paris, 1800; d. 1883. Entering the magistracy, he became attorney-general for the district of Besançon in 1830, but having received sacred orders at Strasburg, under the episcopate of de Trevern, he was made professor of sacred eloquence in the school of higher studies founded at Besançon by Cardinal de Rohan. After the death of de Rohan, he went to Rome to settle the differences between Bishop de Trevern and himself, due to philosophical opinions found in his work, "Philosophy of Christianity", for which Bonnechose had written an introduction. In 1844, he was named by Rome superior of the community of St. Louis; in 1847 he became Bishop of Carcassonne, was transferred, 4 November, 1854, to Evreux, and in 1854 raised to the archiepiscopal See of Rouen . Created cardinal in 1863, he became ex-officio senator of the empire. The cardinal showed himself a warm advocate of the temporal power of the popes, and firmly protested against the withdrawal of the French army from the Pontifical States. In 1870, at the urgent prayers of the citizens of Rouen, notwithstanding his advanced years, he went in the rigor of the season to Versailles, the headquarters of the German armies, to entreat King William of Prussia to reduce the war contribution imposed on the city of Rouen. Under the republican government he uniformly opposed the laws and measures passed against religious congregations and their schools, but endeavored to inspire his clergy with sentiments of deference and conciliation in their relations with the civil authorities. His best known work is "Introduction a la philosophie du Christianisme" (1835), two octavo volumes.
The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny.
Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online
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The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament today (11 March) expressed concern over the state of emergency declared at the Fukushima power plant in central Japan. It noted that the strategy of building nuclear power stations in coastal areas - common to both Japan and the UK - made them particularly vulnerable to sea surges and climate-change related sea level rises.
The site, with six nuclear reactors, is one of the largest concentrations of nuclear plants in the world. All six reactors shut down automatically when the earthquake hit, but the cooling pumps on the oldest reactor, which dates from 1971, failed to activate. This means the reactor core will not be brought down from its normal operating temperature as would normally be the case in a shut-down. Over 2,800 residents have been ordered to evacuate nearby homes.
Kate Hudson, General Secretary of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, said "We are deeply saddened at today's loss of life and hope that the emergency at the Fukushima plant is resolved quickly and without further incident. The policy of building ever more nuclear power stations increases the likelihood that a natural disaster such as today's earthquake could be significantly worsened or even dwarfed by a nuclear emergency. Both Japan and Britain locate all their nuclear plants on the coast to take advantage of unbroken supplies of cooling water. But this also exposes them to the brunt of both tsunamis and the coastal floods which are likely to become ever more frequent due to climate change.
"With the 25th anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster next month, today's incident underlines the constant danger that nuclear power presents due to events totally beyond the control of power station operations. We urge the government to reconsider its support for building new nuclear power stations in Britain."
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| 0.958251 | 345 | 3.3125 | 3 |
JOHANNESBURG, South Africa, Oct. 13 (UPI) -- The difficulty creating a vaccine against the human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV, has been the inability to stimulate the production of "broadly neutralizing" antibodies that can keep up with its mutations.
A new study of a woman whose body makes the antibodies sheds new light on how they develop to mutate with and combat HIV.
"The study also showed how these early antibodies matured to become broadly neutralizing," researchers in the study said in a press release. "As the HIV-swarm struggled to evade these potent early antibodies, it toggled through many mutations in its surface protein. This exposed the maturing antibodies to a diverse range of viruses within this single infected woman. Antibodies exposed to this high level of viral diversity in turn mutated to be able to tolerate variation, thus acquiring the ability to neutralize diverse global viruses."
HIV survives the immune system by going through an endless series of mutations, which allow it to evade the body's defenses. Some people's bodies, however, develop broadly neutralizing antibodies during the infection phase of HIV, so the antibodies develop as the virus goes through mutations -- effectively teaching the antibodies how to fight it.
The researchers observed an HIV-infected woman for three years as her body made the antibodies, allowing them to identify 33 monoclonal antibodies. They identified minority viral variants, before deep-sequencing further variations in the antibodies as they fought the virus.
"These findings provide insights for the design of vaccines that can 'kick-start' and then shape the maturation of broadly neutralizing antibodies in HIV uninfected individuals, to provide protection from HIV exposure," the researchers said.
The study is published in Nature: Medicine.
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Tree Lore: Furze
by Fiona Ware
Furze - Onn
Ulex Europaeus, Ulex Galli, Ulex Minor
I am the blaze on every hill
After the bleakness of winter, furze clothes the hillsides and heaths with a welcome blanket of headily scented yellow flowers. It is one of the first flowering plants of the spring, with most bushes in full bloom by April. With the newly awakened bees busy among the flowers it fills the senses with the promise of honey and other good things to come.
Furze, also known as gorse or whin, is a perennial evergreen shrub belonging to the pea family. It forms a much branched, stunted shrub usually no taller than six feet high. The leaves are very small and in older plants they form into long needle-like thorns. It is found in rough pastures, heaths and rocky places, preferring a dry soil. The word furze is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name ‘fyrs’, and gorse from the Anglo Saxon ‘gorst’, which means ‘a waste’ this being a reference to the open moorlands where it is often found.
The plant’s thorns and its dense habit make furze an excellent hedging plant. It can also be used as a barrier to protect young tree seedlings in coppices and as cover for game birds. Chopped up branches were placed in vegetable beds to keep mice and birds off newly planted crops. Pliny, who first named the plant Ulex, stated that the branches were placed in streams to collect gold dust from the water. When dried and burned, the gold could be collected as tiny nuggets from the ash.
The thorny nature of the plant means that it is often viewed as having protective powers. In Wales it was said to guard against witches.
The flowers are a deep yellow and have a pungent coconut scent. Although the main flowering period is from March to August, flowers can be found on bushes throughout the year. There are three species of furze, which all have slightly different flowering seasons, so that to the casual observer it would appear that the bush is almost always in bloom. This lengthy flowering led to the country saying: when the gorse is out of bloom, kissing is out of fashion.
The habit of adding a sprig of furze bloom in a bridal bouquet is thought to allude to this, the all-year-round blossom being a symbol of continuous fertility.
As well as its use as a hedging material, furze was traditionally gathered into faggots and used as tinder to start fires. In 1864 it was cultivated in Surrey and other English counties especially for this purpose, being popular with bakers to whom it was sold as fuel for their ovens. It has a high concentration of oil in its leaves and branches, and so catches fire easily and burns well, giving off a heat almost equal to that of charcoal. Because older plants can carry a lot of dead wood, furze can be a hazard in hot, dry summers. The ashes have a high alkali content and can be mixed with animal fat to produce soap, or clay, to form a soap substitute. They were also spread onto the fields to improve the soil.
Furze can also be used as fodder for animals. It was said that an acre of furze could provide enough winter feed for six horses. It has half the protein content of oats. Horses and goats can strip the leaves and eat them straight from the plant, but it was usual practice to run the branches through stone mills or hit them with wooden mallets. This crushed the thorns and reduced the wood to a moss like consistency, which made it more palatable, especially to cows and sheep. The bushes were often deliberately burnt down in order to encourage new growth, the fresh sprouts of furze and grass providing easily accessible food for stock.
The bark and flowers produce a fine yellow dye. In Eire the flowers were also used to flavour and add colour to whiskey and the Danes were reputed to use them to make beer. They can also be used to make wine and tea. Flower buds collected and potted with a blade of mace and some peppercorns, in a white wine vinegar and salt solution, make a fine pickle.
Culpepper states in his herbal, that furze was good to open obstructions of the liver and spleen.
A decoction made with the flowers therof hath been found effectual against the jaundice and also to provoke urine, cleanse the kidneys from gravel or stone ingendered in them.
Studies in the nineteenth century confirmed that the high alkaline content of the plant had a purgative effect. An infusion of the blooms, as a drink, was given to children suffering from scarlet fever. It was also used to cleanse the home:
.. against fleas, take this same wort, with its seed sodden; sprinkle it into the house; it killeth the fleas.
In homeopathy furze is used to help people who have given up hope, who have no faith in the future. It puts people in touch with their own inner resources and helps them move forward by releasing courage and determination.
In the Scottish highlands holly and gorse were sacred trees of the Cailleach Bheur, a blue hag, who was associated with winter and the protection of animals during the season. She was reborn every All Hallows Eve and brought back the winter weather with her magical staff, which froze the ground with every tap. On Beltane Eve she returned to the Earth, throwing her staff beneath a gorse bush before turning to stone.
As one of the sacred trees, furze was included in the Celtic Beltane bonfires. The stock would be herded between these for purification and protection before being released onto the summer grazing. When this tradition diminished, torches of furze were still carried around the herds and farm buildings in order to cleanse the air and protect the animals against sterility.
Thy yellow blooms – oh, they to me
Are gold and sunshine blent together
- Moses Teggart 1908
Furze is closely associated with the sun god Lugh, the Celtic god of light and genius and with the Spring Equinox, at which time it’s one of the only plants in full flower. However, folklore attaches it to festivals throughout the spring and summer months as a symbol of the power of the sun. In Brittany the Celtic festival of Lugnasdagh, on August 1st, is known as The Festival of Golden Gorse.
As an evergreen that flowers the whole year round, furze is seen to carry within it a spark of the sun’s life giving energy, a spark that can be seen even through the darker winter months. It is a symbol of encouragement and a promise of good things to come. Furze tells us to remain focused and optimistic, even in the darkest days. To keep hopeful and remain constant throughout the inevitable periods of difficulty we all experience.
As one of the first spring flowering plants, the furze provides a plentiful supply of pollen for bees when they first come out of hibernation. The product of the bees labour, honey, is the Celtic symbol of wisdom, achieved through hard work and dedication. The furze tells us that if we apply ourselves and keep faith in the future, we will be rewarded. However bleak things may appear, there is always the possibility of periods of fertility, creativity and well-being; whilst its thorns remind us that there is protection from unwanted ideas or influences.
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An herb is a plant that has a leaf, seed or flower that can be added to food, medicine or other products. Many herbs have a medicinal capacity when used to treat minor illnesses. Having a healing herb garden on hand may help you to treat burns, colds and more with a small portion of the plant, while it continues to grow for future treatment. Herbs need sunlight, well-drained soil and regular attention to grow in any garden. It is a good idea to learn how herbs are used to treat ailments before you plant them, so you only grow what you will use. Read more to learn how to plant a medicinal herb garden.
Planning your Medicinal Herb Garden
1Decide if you want to have a backyard or windowsill garden. If you choose to plant a windowsill garden, you will have less space and soil to work with because you will need to grow each plant in a pot. If you want a traditional yard garden, you will need to till soil in your lawn in order to plant the herbs directly in the ground.
2Decide how many plants you would like to grow. It is a good idea to start with 4 or 5 and expand after you have used your herbs medicinally and know what you will need. The following are plants that are often found in medicinal herb gardens:
- Grow echinacea. Both the E. purpurea and E. angustifolia types are sold in nurseries and used in tinctures and teas to boost the immune system. Both the root and the flowers are valued for their medicinal properties.
- Grow chamomile. The chamomile plant may be referred to as matricaria recutita, M. chamomilla or chamomilla recutita. The flowers are used in teas to treat muscle spasm, inflammation and tension. You can dry the flowers after they are picked and plant them in enough soil so they will self-sow for the next year.
- Grow Yarrow. Yarrow, or achillea millefolium, is a flower in the aster family. Its leaves and flowers are used to staunch blood flow in cuts and minor bleeding. It can be dried for that purpose or made into tea to treat colds.
- Grow lemon balm. Lemon balm, or melissa officinalis, is used to treat insomnia, anxiety and problems with the digestive tract. Lemon balm leaves can be dried and made into a tasty tea.
- Grow peppermint. Peppermint, or mentha piperita, is a hybrid mint plant. The menthol oil results in the flavor and also makes it a good treatment for nausea, muscle spasms and fever. Peppermint should be grown in pots because it can be invasive. Harvest leaves for tea.
- Other good medicinal options include valerian for nerve relaxation, feverfew for pains and fevers, comfrey for a wound poultice, violets for colds or sore throats, black cohosh for female cramps or asthma, hyssop for congestion, St. John's Wort for depression and gingko biloba for increased brain circulation and memory.
3Consult with local gardeners about what grows well in your region. The warmth and moisture in your area will have a lot to do with what will be successful in your herb garden. If you live in a colder area, you may be able to plant certain herbs on the windowsill and others in an outside garden during the summer.
4Decide if you want to plant from seeds or seedlings (starts). Seeds are a less expensive option, but seedlings are more likely to make it through the fragile first few weeks of being planted. Seasoned gardeners, and especially those with greenhouses, may want to start with seeds.
Planting your Medicinal Herb Garden
1Buy pots for the most invasive species of medicinal herbs. This includes peppermint, comfrey and yarrow. Invasive species can take over your garden in a year or 2, killing other plants as they fight for the same nutrients.
2Create well-drained soil. If you are planting in pots or other containers, make sure to add some gravel on the bottom to be sure the roots of your plants don't rot. If you are planting directly into the ground, most natural soil will drain through, leaving the roots safe from too much water.
3Place most plants in direct sunlight. Most herbs require 6 hours of sunlight per day to grow. Exceptions include violet and lemon balm, but check all plant directions from a gardening book or seed packet before planting, if you are unsure.
4Place high-quality potting soil approximately three-fourths the way into your container before planting seeds. If you are planting starts in a garden, dig holes in the soil with a stick so that you can fully cover the roots, leaving just the stems above the soil. Pack the remaining 1/4th with potting soil after you plant the seeds.
5Water immediately after planting seeds or starts. Keep the soil moist around the plant, but do not over water. You can water delicate seedlings with a spray bottle.
6Harvest the plants according to package directions. Many herbs can be harvested continuously, but some flower plants may be harvested only once or twice per season. Harvesting encourages new growth on many herbs, so water immediately after harvesting.
7Many seasonal herbs require you to dry them before use. Depending upon the climate of your house, you can use a warm, dry and dark room to dry them or use a dehydrator. Store them in tins away from sunlight and air.
- You can make tea from many medicinal herbs, like peppermint, lemon balm, echinacea and chamomile by pouring 1 cup (237 ml) of boiling water over the dried leaves or flowers, allowing it to steep for 10 minutes and then removing the loose herbs. Drink for colds, insomnia, digestion or an immune system boost.
- Visit neuhsa.org/neuhsagardenmedicinalplants.pdf for more information on what medicinal herbs may be useful in your life. This website also contains warnings for possible adverse reactions to the herbs.
- Look for seed companies that sell packages of medicinal herb seeds. Your package will come with 4 or more types of medicinal herbs, including sowing, harvesting and medicinal use instructions. Look on the Internet or in gardening catalogs for this specialty packet.
- Beware that people who are allergic to ragweed pollen may also be allergic to chamomile flowers.
Things You'll Need
- Pots or containers
- Seeds or seedlings
- Potting soil
- Spray bottle
- Kitchen shears
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Along the caldera?s ring fault, Mammoth Knolls is the youngest eruption about 100,000 years ago. In the topographic basin, Cone 2652 in West Moat is about 33,000 years old and dacite change in NW Moat is 40,000-27,000 years old. The mafic chain along the west rim is 16,000 to 17,000 years old. The caldera remains thermally active, with many hot springs and fumaroles, and has had significant deformation, seismicity, and other unrest in recent years. A robust geothermal system inside the caldera fuels the Casa Diablo power plant, which generates enough power for 40,000 homes.
The late-Pleistocene to Holocene Mono-Inyo Craters, which cut the northwest topographic rim of the caldera, along with Mammoth Mountain, on the southwest topographic rim, are west of the structural caldera and are chemically and tectonically distinct from the Long Valley magmatic system. The most recent activity in the area was about 300 years ago in Mono Lake. Both Long Valley Caldera and Mammoth Mountain have experienced episodes of heightened unrest over the last few decades (earthquakes, ground uplift, and/or volcanic gas emissions). As a result, the USGS manages a dense array of field sensors providing the real-time data needed to track unrest and assess hazards.
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| 0.928836 | 298 | 3.625 | 4 |
THE AUGUSTAN AGE
Unit Structure :
4.2. Political and Social Milieu
4.3. Coffee Houses and Literary Activities
4.4. Interest in Reading and Publishing Houses
4.5. Rise of the Middle Class
4.6. Evangelical Movement
4.7. Literary Characteristics of the Age
4.7.1. Age of Prose and Reason
4.7.2. Age of Satire
4.7.3. Age of Neo-classicism
4.7.4. Age of Good Sense
4.7.5. Follow Nature
4.7.6. Town and City Life as a Theme of Literature
4.7.7. Heroic Couplet & Poetic Diction Tools of Writers
4.8. The Age of Transition
4.8.1. Features of Transitional Writing
4.9. Augustan Poetry
4.10. Transitional Poets
4.11. Precursors of Romanticism
4.12. Prose of Augustan Age
4.13. Drama of Augustan Age
4.14. Novel during Augustan Age
4.15. Let‘s Sum up
4.0. OBJECTIVES The prime objectives of this unit are: to make the students aware of socio-political milieu of Augustan Age, of social change, of literary tendencies of the age, and of prose, novel, poetry and drama of the Augustan Age. After studying this unit the students will locate the prescribed text into the literary period and understand the text in the light of the Augustan Period.
4.1 INTRODUCTION. In literature this period is known as the Augustan age. According to Hudson the epithet ―Augustan‖ was applied as a term of high praise, because the Age of Augustus was the golden age of Latin literature, so the Age of Pope was the golden age of English literature. This epithet serves to bring out the analogy between the first half of the eighteenth century and the Latin literature of the days of Virgil and Horace. In both cases writers were largely dependent upon powerful patrons. In both case a critical spirit prevailed. In both cases the literature produced by a thoroughly artificial society was a literature, not of free creative effort and inspiration, but of self-conscious and deliberate art.‖ It is also known as the ―classic age‖. Hudson writes: ―The epithet ―classic‖, we may take to denote, first that the poets and critics of this age believed that the writers of classical antiquity presented the best models and ultimate standards of literary taste, and secondly, in a more general way, that, like these Latin writers, they had little faith in the promptings and guidance of individual genius, and much in laws and rules imposed by the authority of the past. Some remarkable political and social changes began to take place in England during the closing years of William III and the accession of Queen Anne (1702). That had a great impact on the development of literature during this period. The literature of this era was partly new and partly a continuance of that of the Restoration.
This age may be divided into two periods: the first stretching from 1700 to 1750 in the neo-classic Age, and the second, the transitional period which spans from 1750 to 1798. The classical tendencies lost their hold during the second period and there was a transition from classicism to romanticism. The period of transition is also known as the Age of Gray and Collins.
4.2 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL MILIEU Politically, this age witnessed the rise of two political parties: the Whigs and the Tories. Their political opinions and programmes were sharply divided. The Whig party stood for the pre-eminence of personal freedom and the Tory party supported the royal Divine Right. The Tories objected to the foreign wars because they had to pay taxes to prolong them, while the trading class Whigs favoured the continuance of war because it contributed to their prosperity. In order to propagate their ideologies and programmes both the parties utilised the services of literary men. And the politicians bribed the authors to join one or the other political party. The politicians took the authors into their confidence. Thus began the age of literary patronage. Consequently, most of the writers showed a strong political bias. It was, in other words, a party literature. Literature was hounoured not for itself but for the sake of the party. The politics of the period helped to make it an age of political pamphleteering. And the writers were too willing to make the most of it. In order to get prominence in political struggle both parties issued a large number of periodicals. The periodicals were the mouthpieces of their respective political opinions. Thus began the age of journalism and periodical essay. The rise of periodical writing allowed great scope to the development of the literary talent of prose writers of the time. The real prose style— neat, simple, clear and lucid— was evolved during this period. In the words of Albert: ―It was the golden age of political pamphleteering and the writer made the most of it.‖ 4.3 COFFEE HOUSES AND LITERARY ACTIVITIES People were keenly interested in political activity. A number of clubs and coffee houses came into existence. They became the centres of fashionable and public life. The Coffee houses were dominated by either of the parties. A Whig would never go to a Tory Coffee house and Vice Versa. The Coffee houses were the haunts of prominent writers, thinkers, artists, intellectuals and politicians. They figured prominently in the writings of the day. The Coffee houses gave rise to purely literary associations, such as the famous Scribblers and Kit-cat clubs. In the first number of The Tattler, Richard Steele announced that the activities of his new Journal would be based upon the clubs. The discussions in coffee houses took place in polished, refined, elegant, easy and lucid style. Thus coffee houses also contributed to the evolution of prose style during the eighteenth century.
4.4 INTEREST IN READING AND PUBLISHING HOUSES The rising interest in politics witnessed the decline of drama. It resulted in a remarkable increase in the number of reading public. Consequently a large number of men took interest in publishing translations, adaptations and other popular works of the time. They became the forerunners of modern public houses. They employed hack writers (the writers who write for money without worrying about the quality of their writing) of the period. They lived in miserable hovels in the Grub Street.
4.5 THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS This period of literature saw the emergence of a powerful middle class. The supremacy of the middle class made it an age of tolerance, moderation and common sense. It sought to refine manners, and introduce into life the rule of sweet reasonableness. The church also pursued a middle way and the religious life was free form strife and fanaticism. The powerful dominance of the middle classes led to moral regeneration in the eighteenth century. The people were fast growing sick of the outrageousness of the Restoration period. People had begun once more to insist upon those basic decencies of life and moral considerations, which the previous generation had treated with contempt. The middle class writers were greatly influenced by moral considerations. Moreover, William III and Queen Anne were staunch supporters of morality. Addison in an early number of The Spectator puts the new tone in writing in his own admirable way: ―I shall endeavor to enliven morality with wit and wit with morality.‖ It was an era of the assimilation of the aristocracy and the middle class. The middle class appropriated classicism with its moralising needs. The emergence of middle class led to the rise of sentimentalism, feelings and emotions, which influenced the literature of the latter half of the eighteenth century.
4.6 EVANGELICAL MOVEMENT Religion in the age of Pope was deistic, formal, utilitarian and unspiritual. In the great Evangelical Revival, known as Methodism, led by Wesley and Whitefield, the old formalism and utilitarianism was abandoned. A mighty tide of spiritual energy poured into the Church and the common people. From 1739 the Evangelical Movement spread rapidly among the poor all over England, and it became particularly strong in the industrial towns.
4.7 LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AGE
The political and social changes exhibiting the supremacy of good sense, rationality, sanity and balance left an imperishable mark on the literature of the Age of Pope and Dr. Johnson. The literature of the period bore the hallmark of intelligence, of wit and of fancy, not a literature of emotion, passion, or creative energy. The main literary characteristics of the age are given below:
4.7.1 Age of Prose and Reason: It is an age of prose, reason, good sense and not of poetry. A large number of practical interests arising from the new social and political conditions demanded expression not simply in looks, but in pamphlets, magazines and newspapers. Poetry was inadequate for such a task. Hence prose developed rapidly and excellently. Indeed, poetry itself became prosaic, as it was not used for creative works of imagination, but for essays, satires and criticism. The poetry of the first half of the eighteenth century as represented by the works of Pope and Dr. Johnson is polished and witty but lacks fire, fine feeling, enthusiasm and imaginative appeal. In short, it interests us as a study of life but fails to delight or inspire us. Matthew Arnold rightly calls if the eighteenth century ―an age of prose‖. The poetry of this period, according to Hudson, ―lacked inevitably the depth and grasp of essential things which alone assure permanence in literature, and the quest for refinement in style resulted too often in stilted affectations and frigid conventionalism.‖
4.7.2 Age of Satire: The predominance of satire is an important literary characteristic of the age. Nearly every writer of the first half of the eighteenth century was used and rewarded by Whigs or Tories for satirising their enemies and for advancing their special political interests. Pope was an exception but he too was a satirist par excellence. W. J. Long writes: ―Now satire—that is a literary work which searches out the faults of men or institutions in order to hold them up to ridicule—is at best a destructive type of criticism. A satirist is like a labourer who clears away the ruins and rubbish of an old house before the architect and builders begin on a new and beautiful structure. The work may sometime be necessary, but it rarely arouses our enthusiasm. While the satires of Pope, place them with our great literature, which is always constructive in spirit; and we have the feeling that all these men were capable of better things than they ever wrote.‖
4.7.3 Age of Neo-Classicism:
The Age of Pope and Johnson is often called the neo-classic age. We should clearly understand the meaning of the word ―classic‖. The term ―classic‖ refers to writers of highest rank in any nation. It was first applied to the works of Greek and Roman writers like Homer and Virgil. In English literature any writer who followed the simple, noble and inspiring method of these writers was said to have a classic style. Period marked by a number of celebrated writers who produce literature of a very high order, is also called the classic period of a nation‘s literature. The age of Augustus is the classic age of Rome. The age of Dante is the classic age of Italian literature. The age of the classic age is like those of Homer and Virgil. The writers of this period disregarded Elizabethan literary trends. They demanded that their poetry should comply with exact rules. In this respect they were influenced by French writers, especially by Boileau, who insisted on precise rules of writing poetry. They professed to have discovered their rules in the classics of Aristotle and Horace. Dryden, Pope and Johnson pioneered the revival of classicism which conformed to rules established by the great writers of other nations. They preferred only set rules to the depth and seriousness of subject matter. They ignored creativity, depth, vigour and freshness of expression. The true classicist pays equal consideration to the depth and seriousness of subject matter, and the perfect and flawless expression. The neo-classicist disregards the subject matter expresses the hackneyed and commonplace subjects in a polished and finished style modeled on the stylistic patterns of ancient writers. Grierson in his famous book The Background of English Literature asserts that the hallmark of ancient classical literature is a harmonious balance between form and substance. This harmonious balance between form and substance was disturbed in the Age of Pope and Johnson. The writers of this period care for form, not for the weight of matter. They care only for manner, for artistic finish and polish, but not for genuine poetic inspiration. The content thought and feeling are subordinated to form. 4.7.4 Age of Good Sense: Good sense is one of the central characteristics of the literature of this period. In the words of W. H. Hudson: ―Good sense became the ideal of the time, and good sense meant a love of the reasonable and the useful and a hatred of the mystical, the extravagant and the visionary.‖
4.7.5 Follow Nature: Another important characteristic of the age was the belief that literature must follow nature. Pope wrote in The Essay on Criticism: The rules of old discover‘d, not devis‘d,/ Are Nature still, but Nature methodiz‘d;/ Nature like Liberty is but restrained/ By the same laws which first herself ordain‘d/ …/ Learn hence for ancient rules a just esteem/ The follow Nature is to follow them.
By ―nature‖ the Augustans meant to copy man and manners of society. Pope said, ―The proper study of mankind is man.‖ Addison also wrote‖ ―Wit and fine writing‖ consist not so much ―in advancing things that are new, as in things that are known, an agreeable turn.‖
4.7.6 Town and City Life as a Theme of Literature: Another feature of the literature of the age is that it has a limited theme. It is a literature of the town and the fashionable upper circles of the city of London. Pope, Johnson, Addison, Steele etc., though urban in outlook and temperament, show remarkable interest in the middle classes and, thus, broaden the scope of literature. The theme of literature before them was strictly confined to fashionable and aristocratic circles. In the works of middle class writers classicism shows itself slightly coloured by a moralising and secretly sentimental intension.
4.7.7 The Heroic Couplet and the Poetic Diction as Tools of Writers: The use of heroic couplet was predominant during this period. The heroic couplet was recognised as the only medium for poetic expression. In it the poets put all the skill and wrote with an unimaginable correctness and precision. The language of poetry became gaudy and inane. The common words or ordinary language were deliberately kept out from poetic literature. The result was that literature of the Augustan Age became artificial, rational and intellectual.
4.8 THE AGE OF TRANSITION (1850-1898) The second half of the eighteenth century is known as a transitional period. It was an era of change from pseudo-classicism to romanticism. The decline of party spirit and the democratic upsurge exercised great influence both on life and literature.
4.8.1. The main characteristics of this period are given below:
I. Decline of Party Feud: The rivalry between the Whigs and Tories still continued but it had lost its previous bitterness. This naturally led to a considerable decline of the activity in political pamphleteering. The poets and satirists ceased to be statesmen. The institution of literary patronage gradually crumbled during this period. Men of letters learnt to depend entirely on their public.
II. Influence of the French Revolution: During the second half of the eighteenth century new ideas were germinating and new forces were gathering strength. The French Revolution of 1789 was only the climax of a long and deeply diffused unrest. Revolutionary ideas gave birth to democratic and humanitarian feelings. And it influenced literature greatly.
III. The Revival of Learning: This period is characterised by a kind of mild revival of learning. In literature it revealed itself in the study and editing of old authors like Chaucer, Shakespeare and Milton. The writers revived the old form of ballad. The publications of Bishop Percy‘s Reliques (1765), containing the oldest and finest specimens of ballad literature, is a landmark in the history of the Romantic Movement. The latter half of the eighteenth century witnessed the swift rise of historical literature.
IV. The New Realism: The birth of a new spirit of inquiry was at the root of realism which is expressed in the novels of this period and is noticeable in the poetry of this century.
V. The Humanitarian Spirit: This period is characterised by the rapid growth of democracy. Stress was laid on the individual mouth of man. People became familiar with the notions of equality, liberty and brotherhood. The philosophy of Rousseau and the French Revolution popularised the democratic and humanitarian ideals, which immensely influenced the literature of this period.
4.9 THE AUGUSTAN POETRY As we have seen that the Augustan poetry was the product of intelligence, good sense, reason and sanity. Polish and elegance of form were of more importance than subtlety or originality of thought. It plays upon the surface of life and entirely ignores primary human emotions and feelings. It is didactic and satiric. It is realistic and unimaginative. It is town poetry. It ignores the humbler aspects of life and the entire countryside. The poetic style is polished, refined and artificial. It led ―to the establishment of a highly artificial and conventional style which became stereotyped into a traditional poetic diction‖. During this period the satiric and narrative forms of poetry flourished. Heroic couplet dominated in this poetry. This metre produced a close, clear and pointed style. Its epigrammatic terseness provided a suitable medium of expression to the kind of poetry which was then popular. Let‘s see the eminent writers of the period.
4.9.1 Alexander Pope (1688-1744): Pope is the representative poet of the Augustan Age. His famous works include Pastorals, An Essay in Criticism, Windsor Forest, The Rape of the Lock, translations of lliad and Odyssey, Elegy to the memory of an Unfortunate Lady and An Essay on Man.
He was a great poet of his age. His influence dominated the poetry of his age. Many foreign writers and the majority of English poets looked to him as their model. Pope‘s poetry is the real picture of the spirit of the age. The three poems in which he is undisputably the spokesman of his age are The Rape of the Lock, picturing its frivolities; Dunciad unveiling its squalor; The Essay on Man, echoing its philosophy. He is a representative poet of the age of ―prose and reason‖. A hard intellectuality and rationality, qualities proper to prose, distinguish Pope‘s poetry. In The Rape of the Lock he realistically dealt with the life of the fashionable upper strata of London society. He had a meticulous sense of the exact word in the exact sense. His poetic art is the finest specimen of the neo-classic conception of correctness. His admirable craftsmanship is best seen in the excellent use of the heroic couplet. He for the first time imparted immaculate artistic excellence to it.
4.9.2 Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-84): Dr. Johnson, a voluminous writer, was a man of versatile literary genius. He was the acknowledged dictator in contemporary literature. Smollett called him ―the great champ of literature.‖ Johnson‘s two poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes belong to the Augustan school of poetry. Both are written in the heroic couplet and abound in Personifications and other devices that belonged to the poetic diction of the age of neo-classicism. In their didacticism, their formal, rhetorical style, and their adherence to the closed couplet they belong to the neo-classic poetry.
4.9.3 Other Poets: Other poets who deserve mention are Matthew Prior, John Gray, Edward Young and Lady Winchilsea.
4.10 THE TRANSITIONAL POETS
The transitional poetry marks the beginning of a reaction against the rational, intellectual, formal, artificial and unromantic poetry of the age of Pope and Johnson. It was marked by a strong reaction against stereotyped rules. The transitional poets derived inspiration from Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton. Unlike the Augustan poetry, it is poetry of countryside, of common and ordinary people, and not of the fashionable, aristocratic society and town life. Love of nature and human life characterise this poetry. The transitional poets revolted against the conventional poetic style and diction of the Augustan poetry. They aimed at achieving simplicity of expression. This poetry appealed to emotions and imagination. It is marked by the development of naturalism. Crabbe, Burns, Blake and many others are the pioneers of naturalism. The transitional poets are the forerunners of the splendid outburst of the romantic poetry of the nineteenth century. Let‘s study briefly about these poets and their works.
I. James Thomson (1700-48) was the first to bring the new note in poetry both in his Seasons and The Castle of Indolence. The Seasons is a blank verse poem and consists of a long series of descriptive passages dealing with natural scenes. Though its style is clumsy, the treatment is refreshing, full of acute observation and acute joy in nature. The Castle of Indolence is written in Spenserian Stanza and is remarkable for suggestiveness, dreamy melancholy and harmonious versification.
II. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74) represents the poetic tradition of neo-classicism so far as the use of the heroic couplet is concerned. His treatment of nature and rural life, note of human sympathy and simplicity of expression are characteristics of the transitional poetry. His first poem, The Traveller is written in the heroic couplet and deals with his wanderings through Europe. He uses simple and polished language. He reveals human sympathy for the sufferings of the poor. In The Deserted Village Goldsmith described the memories of his youth.
III. Thomas Gray (1716-71) epitomises the changes which were coming, over the literature of his age. He was ―a born poet, fell upon an age of prose‖. His early poems Hymn to Adversity and the odes To Spring and On a Distant Prospect of Eton College strike the note of melancholy that characterises the entire poetry of this period. Nature is described as a suitable background for the play of human emotions. His finest poem The Elegy Written in A country Churchyard has many new features in it. It is remarkable for the minute observation in the descriptions of nature, love and sympathy for the humble and the deprived, expression of the primary emotions of human life. His two odes, The Progress of Poesy and The Bard express the new conception of the poet as an inspired singer. The first shows Milton‘s influence as regards melody and variety of expression. The Bard is even more romantic and original. It breaks with the classical school and proclaims a literary declaration of independence. In The Fatal Sisters and The Descent of Odin he reveals interest in noise legends.
IV. William Collins (1721-59) wrote his first work Oriental Eclogues in prevailing mechanical couplets but it is romantic in spirit and feeling. His Ode To Evening is instinct with a sweet tenderness, a subdued pathos, love of nature and a magical enchantment of phrase. His Ode To Popular Superstitions of the Highlands introduced a new world of witches, fairies and medieval kings. So it strikes a new and interesting note in romantic revival.
V. William Cowper (1731-1800) is an immediate forerunner of the romantics. His first volume of poems, containing The Progress of Error, Truth, Table Talk etc. shows the influence of the neo-classical rules. The Tasks is Cowper‘s longest and finest poem. His descriptions of homely scenes of woods and brooks, of plowmen and teamsters and the letter carriers indicate the dawn of a new era in poetry. Cowper was a pioneer who preached the gospel ―return to nature‖. He foreshadowed Wordsworth and Byron. In his love of nature, his emotional response to it and in his sympathetic handling of rural life he certainly anticipates Wordsworth. His minor poems On the Receipt of My Mother’s Picture and Alexander Selkirk show the rise of romanticism in English poetry.
VI. George Crabbe (1754-1832) is a pioneer of the naturalistic reaction against the Augustan tradition. His main poetical works are written in the heroic couplet but thematically they deal with the life of simple country folk and show his sincerity, sympathy and acute observation of human life. His descriptions of nature are neither sentimental nor picturesque nor sentimental. They are characterized by sincerity and minute observation. As a pioneer of the naturalistic reaction against the Augustan tradition, Crabbe‘s place is certainly very high.
VII. Mark Akenside (1721-1770) began is poetic career with Epistle to Curio which is a brilliant satire in the Augustan tradition. His best known poem The Pleasures of Imagination is a long poem in Miltonic blank verse. It contains some fine descriptive passages on a nature.
VIII. Other poets of the transitional period are Christopher Smart, Bishop Percy, Thomas Chatterton and James Macpherson. Percy‘s Reliques revived the romance of the middle Ages. He also revived the ballad which was deftly used by Coleridge and Keats.
4.11. PRECURSORS OF ROMANTICISM
By the end of the nineteenth century the poets had completely abandoned the classical tradition. Robert Burns and William Blake are the early representatives of the new school of poetry known as the romanticism.
I. Robert Burns was influenced by the tradition of Scottish poetry and the life he saw around him. His two poems- The Cotter’s Saturday Night and Tam O’Shanter are the earliest expression of romanticism in the eighteenth century. Burns spoke straight from the heart to the primitive emotions of the race. His poetry shows great interest in the lives of poor peasants of Scotland. He depicts with sincerity and compassion the poverty, sufferings, natural feelings, joys and sorrows of the people he saw around him. His poetry is the expression of the democratic spirit. Burns brilliantly blends man and nature. He carries into his scenic pictures the same tenderness he shows in dealing with the Cottagers. His finest poetry is lyrical. Both humour and pathos are intermixed in his poetry. As a stylist Burns represents the Scottish Vernacular tradition. He had a matchless gift for catching traditional airs and wedding them to words of simple and searching beauty.
II. William Blake‘s first publication Poetical Sketches is a series of imitative poems. In it he experimented with various verse forms in the manner of Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton. His The Songs of Innocence, a collection of short lyrics expressing the poet‘s views of the original state of human society, symbolized in the joy and happiness of children. They have a passionate sincerity and a deep sympathy with the child. And his Songs of Experience is another collection of lyrics in which the mood of spontaneous love and happiness revealed in Songs of Innocence is replaced by a less joyful note. His other writings are The Book of Thel, The French Revolution, The Visions of the Daughters of Albion, The First Book of Brizen, The Book of Ahania, The Book of Los and The Song of Los. Blake is the worthy predecessor of Wordsworth. His poetry deals with simple and ordinary themes— the love of the country, of simple life, of childhood and of home. He became the leader of naturalistic kind of poetry. He poetically deals with childhood, flowers, hills, streams, clouds, birds and animals. He, for the first time, introduced the note of mysticism in poetry. He clarified the common objects if nature and human life, and cast on them a halo of mysticism. In this respect he anticipates the mystical poetry of Wordsworth. Blake was a lyric poet par excellence. As a lyricist he is a visionary like Shelley. He rapturously sings of Nature, Love and Liberty.
4.12 PROSE OF AUGUSTAN AGE
The Augustan Age, as we have already discussed, is the age of prose in the real sense. The prose of Bacon, S.T.Browne, Burton and Milton is prose of an age of poetry; but the prose of the new age is far better adapted to an age richer in philosophic and political speculation than to poetry. The prose is greater in the art of critical exposition and journalistic realism than in work of creative imagination. Dryden is the pioneer of modern prose.
The Periodical Essay was the peculiar product of the eighteenth century. It was called a ―periodical‖ because it was not published in book form like other types of essays, but it was published in magazines and journals which appeared periodically. It had an inherent social purpose. It aimed at improving the manners and morals of the people. Therefore, it is also termed as the ―social essay‖. Defoe, Steele, Addison, Dr. Johnson and Goldsmith enriched the periodical essay during the eighteenth century. We have already discussed that the increasing interest in the political affairs, the establishment of clubs and coffee houses also contributed to the development of prose. Let‘s throw more light on periodical essay.
(i) The Periodical Essay. Periodical essay played the role of mirror to show the society in its entirety. About the periodical essay Hazlitt writes: ―It makes us familiar with the world of men and women, records their actions, assigns their motives, exhibits their whims, characterizes their pursuits in all their singular and endless variety, ridicules their absurdities, exposes their inconsistencies, ―holds the mirror up to nature‖, and shows the very age of body and the time, its form and pressure, takes minutes of our dress, airs, looks, words, thoughts and actions, and shows us what we are and what we are not, plays the whole game of human life over before us, and by making us enlightened spectators of its many coloured scenes, enables us, if possible, to become tolerably reasonable agents in the area in which we have to perform a part.‖ Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) is a pioneer in the periodical essay and in the novel. The germs of the periodical essay are found in Defoe‘s Review, which at first appeared weekly, then twice, and later thrice a week. Its main aim was to acquaint the English people with the thoughts of Defoe on international politics and commerce. The Review comes nearer the periodical essay proper in the section called Advice from the Scandalous Club; which is described as being ―a weekly history of Nonsense, Impertinence, Vice and Debauchery.‖ Before the Review was a year old this section became a monthly supplement. Later, it was separated from the main portion and was distinguished by the title of The little Review. Thus, in the Review the element of news ousts gossip and moral criticism. He contributed to Mist’s Journal and Applebee’s Journal. Defoe was a born journalist and pamphleteer who wrote with remarkable facility, command and effect on an infinite variety of subjects. He had the keenest sense of what the public wanted. He was a moral and social reformer and aimed at correcting and teaching his age. Defoe‘s papers are noticeable for their clear, lucid and vigorous style. He is, indeed, the great pioneer of the periodical essay, and he influenced The Tatler and The Spectator.
Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) was the most original writer of his time. He was the man of genius among many men of talent. But his connection with the periodical essay is very slight. He wrote a few papers for The Tatler and The Spectator. His Journal to Stella is an excellent commentary on contemporary characters and political events. His Drapier’s Letters, a model of political harangue (a lecture) and popular argument roused an unthinking English public and gained him popularity
in England. He also contributed to Sheridan‘s periodical The Intelligencer. Swift was not by nature an essayist. He was not endowed with a genial humour, humane outlook and an impassioned approach to life. Swift‘s intellect was too massive for the essay and we look for the real Swift on the larger canvas of Gulliver’s Travels, A Tale of A Tub. The Battle of Books and A Tale of a Tub rank among the finest prose satires in English literature. The style of A Tale of A Tub is verse and has a sustained vigour, ace and colorfulness. Swift‘s inventive genius, his fierce satire and his cruel indignation at life were well depicted in Gulliver’s Travels. Swift was a great stylist. His prose is convincing and powerful. W.J.Long remarks: ―Directness, simplicity, vigour mark every page.‖ He writes ―in the plainest style.‖ ―He was born to write great prose as Milton was born to write great poetry.‖
Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), an original genius, founded the famous periodical, The Tatler. Expounding the purpose of writing The Tatler he wrote: ―The general purpose of this paper is to express the false arts of life, to pull off the disguises of cunning, vanity and affectations, and to recommend general simplicity in our dress, discourse, and our behavior‖. As a social humorist, Steele paints the whole age of Queen Anne particularly the political and social disputes, the gentlemen and ladies, the characters of men, the humours of society, the new book, the new play. He was the originator of the The Tatler and joined with Joseph Addison (1672-1719) in creating The Spectator in 1711. The new paper appeared daily. In The Tatler Addison had been an occasional and latter a frequent contributor. In The Spectator both Steele and Addison were co adjustors from the start. Steele being an original genius suggested the idea of the Spectator and his club. The Human figure of the Spectator, surrounded by his club consisting of representatives of various grades and classes of society, was an immense improvement of the crude machinery. Herein consists the superiority of The Spectator. Sir Roger is the central character in The Spectator. Other memorable characters in it are Sir Andrew, Will Honeycomb and the Spectator himself. The Tatler is a collection of disconnected essays, but there is a sort of unity in the latter due to the presence of these characters. However they both can‘t be separated from each other while studying and evaluating the periodical essays of the time. In this connection the views of William Long is important: ―It is often impossible,‖ remarks W.J.Long, ―in the Tatler essays to separate the work of two men, but the majority of critics hold that the more original parts, the characters, the thought, the overflowing kindliness, are largely Steele‘s creation; while to Addison fell the work of polishing and perfecting the essays, and of adding that touch of humour which made them the most welcome literary visitors that England had ever received.‖ Commenting on the co-authorship of Steele and Addison, Rickett also writes: ―Steele brought to his work a wide experience of life, generous sympathies and a sunny humour: Addison brought a wide experience of literature, a polished style, and just a pleasant tang of acidity in his humour. Both were moralists at heart, with much the same outlook on the society of their day.‖ In short span of for years in which Addison 72
and Steele worked together the periodical essay was established as one of the most important forms of literature. Addison had a gift for social criticism which Steele did not possess. In The Spectator he appears as a consummate painter of contemporary life and manners. He was an informed observer, a judicious critic of manners and characters. He aimed at social reformation, at establishing social standards of conduct in morals, manners, art and literature. His task was to recover people from that state of vice and folly into which the age had fallen. He had brought philosophy ―out of closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea tables and in coffee houses. It was his task ―to enliven morality with wit and to temper wit with morality.‖ Addison was a genial and soft humorist. He had a keen sense of the ludicrous. He knew how to use ridicule without abusing it. He was the gentle satirist ―who hit no unfair blow, the kind judge who castigated only in smiling.‖ He was also a great master of prose style. ―Addison may be said‖ writes Court hope, ―to have almost created and wholly perfected English prose as an instrument for the expression of social thought‖. His style is noticeable for neatness and lucidity of expression. In this respect he represents ―our indispensable eighteenth century‖.
(ii) Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-84). He was a first-rate prose writer of the eighteenth century. In the beginning he contributed to The Gentleman’s Magazine and to his periodical The Rambler which appeared twice. These papers were full of deep thoughts and observations. They lacked the elegance of The Spectator. The Rambler re-established the periodical essay when it was in danger of being superseded by the newspaper. During 1758-60 he contributed papers to The Idler and to The Universal Chronicle. In 1747 he began working on his monumental work The Dictionary of the English Language. In the Preface he explains that his aim was to ―preserve the purity and ascertain the meaning of our English idiom‖ and prevents the language from being overrun with ―cant‖ and Gallicized words. He also wrote Rasselas and Prince of Abyssinia, a philosophical novel. It is as a literary critic that Dr. Johnson left his imperishable mark on English prose. His two memorable critical works are Shakespeare and The Lives of the poets, a series of introductions to fifty two poets. T.S.Eliot regards him as ―one of the three greatest critics of poetry in English literature: the other two begin. Dryden and Coleridge. As a poet and literary critic he was an ardent exponent of neo-classicism. His Lives of the Poets, remarks T.S.Eliot, ―is the only monumental collection of critical studies of English poets in English language, with a coherence, as well as amplitude, which no other criticism can claim.‖
Johnson‘s prose style has been variously termed as ―manly and straightforward, lucidly distinct, heavy, individual and ponderous, full of mannerisms, vigorous and forceful, wearisome but lucid.‖ The style of The Rambler and The Rasselas is marred by mannerisms, but in The Lives of the Poets he gives up mannerisms and writes as lucidly and easily as he talked. Indeed, his style has the merits and defects of scholarship. He seldom uses language which is either empty or inexact. To him a standard prose style should be ―above grossness and below refinement.‖ The peculiar power of his style consists in ―making the old new, and the commonplace individual.‖
(iii) Oliver Goldsmith (1728-74). Goldsmith enriched the periodical essay. He contributed to The Monthly Review and to several other periodicals. The earliest periodical with which his name is associated was The Bee which was published weekly. It contained papers on a variety of subjects. After the closure of The Bee his papers began to appear under the caption The Citizen of the World in a journal called The Public Ledger. It is one of the finest collections of essays ever written. Goldsmith‘s essays reveal an extraordinary power, boldness, originality of thought and tenderness. His minute observation of man and human nature is remarkable. As an essayist he was inspired by a touch of fellow feeling, personal experience and kindly sympathy. His essays are also conspicuous for their genial humour. His style is clear, limpid and delicate. After Goldsmith the periodical essay began to decline. About his contribution to prose, Rickett writes: ―Indeed, his quaint whimsicality, passing unexpectedly from delicate fancy to elfish merriment, anticipates in many ways the methods of Elia and Leigh Hunt.—He was a poet of a talent, a prose man of genius, a prose man, moreover, of distinctive and original genius.‖
(iv) Other Prose Writers. During this age prose was a common and popular medium of expression and communication. John Arbuthnot is remembered for his political writings which include The History of John Bull and The Art of political Lying. Lord Bolingbroke wrote on politics and philosophy in an agreeable, lucid and vigorous style. His works include Letter to Sir William Wyndham, A Letter on the Spirit of Patriotism and The Idea of A Patriot King.
Edmund Burke was the renowned politician, parliamentarian and orator. He wrote on political and philosophical topics. His philosophical writings are A Vindication of Natural Society and Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful. His politic writings consisting of his speeches and pamphlets have an abiding place in English prose. His speeches collected in American Taxation and On Conciliation with the Colonies are distinguished by a passionate, rhetorical, brilliant and lucid style, fine and artistic arrangement of material and the statesmanlike insight which underlies these arguments. His speeches on the impeachment of Warren Hastings are highly moving. He also wrote a number of pamphlets. Burkes‘ style has assigned him a permanent place in literature. Adam Smith is known worldwide for his The Wealth of Nations. He laid the foundation of modern economic thought. In the history of English prose he is remembered for his plain and businesslike prose. George Berkeley wrote The Principles of Human Knowledge and The Minute Philosopher. His writing revolves around the scientific, philosophical and metaphysical topics in a language of literary distinction. Boswell‘s The Life of Samuel Johnson is the first great biography in English literature. Lord Chesterfield was an eminent letter writer of this period. His Letters to His Son are noticeable for lucidity of expression, intimacy and flawless ease. Thus, the eighteenth century was the golden age of English prose. Varied type of prose was written during this period.
4.13 DRAMA OF AUGUSTAN AGE The first half of the eighteenth century was almost blank in dramatic literature. The days of the brilliant Restoration Comedy of Manners were over. Addison‘s Cato is the only noteworthy work in the field of tragedy. Steele‘s The Constant Lovers does not amuse as a tragedy. It preaches. So he became the founder of that highly genteel, didactic and vapid kind of play which is known as sentimental comedy. George Lillo wrote London Merchant and Fatal Curiosity. They are examples of domestic drama, in these plays, the characters and incidents were taken from common life and not from romance and history. Hugh Kelly‘s False Delicacy and Richard Cumberland‘s The West Indian are regarded the best examples of the sentimental comedy. In sentimental comedy tears took the place of laughter; melodramatic and distressing situations that of intrigue, pathetic heroines and serious lovers and honest servants that of rogues, gallants and witty damsels.
Reaction to the Sentimental Comedy
Goldsmith and Sheridan pioneered the movement against the sentimental comedy. ―Goldsmith endeavors‖ writes Nicoll ―to revive the spirit of As You Like It, where Sheridan strives to create another The Way of the World.‖ Goldsmith attacked the sentimental comedy in his essay The Present State of Polite Learning. In another essay On the Theatre or A Comparison Between Laughing and Sentimental Comedy, he started
with the classical formula that tragedy should represent the misfortunes of the great and comedy the frailties of humbler people. So, according to the classical principle the sentimental comedy had no place in literature. In the Preface to is comedy The Good Natured Man Goldsmith exposes the hollowness of sentimental comedy. She Stoops to Conquer is Goldsmith‘s masterpiece. About Goldsmith‘s dramatic writing, Rickett writes: ―Goldsmith‘s Good Natured Man is excellent in parts; She Stoops to Conquer is excellent throughout, with a bright whimsical humour and a fresh charm of dialogue not attained since the days of Congreve. Less witty than the Restoration dramatists, Goldsmith is greatly superior in his humanity and taste.‖ Sheridan sought to revive the spirit and atmosphere of the comedy of manners, especially those of Congreve in The Rivals and The School for Scandal. His last play The Critic or A Tragedy Rehearsed is very telling on popular sentimental drama. It has been called the best burlesque of the age.
4.14 NOVEL DURING AUGUSTAN
4.14.1. The Forerunners of Novel
The development of English prose contributed to the rise of novel during the eighteenth century. Daniel Defoe‘s Robinson Crusoe, Captain Singleton, Moll Flanders, A Journal of the Plague Year and Roxana are the forerunners of novel. His fictional works are called ―fictional biographies.‖ The entire gamut of his fictional work is biographical and he made no attempt towards the organization of material into a systematic plot. However, his fictional works are distinguished by ―the extraordinary realism which is an important element in the art of novel writing. His stories are told so convincingly as if they were stories of real life. He also knew the art of narrating details effectively. He had a swift and resolute narrative method and a plain and matter-of-fact style. To the development of novel Defoe‘s contribution is remarkable. His fictional works ―form the transition from the slight tale and the romance of the Elizabethan time to the finished novel of Richardson and Fielding.‖ Jonathan Swift‘s Gulliver’s Travels, which satirises the manners and politics of contemporary England and Europe, is written in powerful and convincing prose. It also contributed to the evolution of English novel. The famous periodical The Spectator is a forerunner of English novel. It contains all the elements of social novel, except a harmonious plot. The material for the novels of manners or social comedy is found in The Coverley Papers. It contains vivid and realistic presentation of contemporary society, well delineated characters, rich fund of humour and pathos and a clear, lucid style. Edward Albert remarks: ―if Addison had pinned the Coverley Papers together with a stronger plot, if insisted on only referring to the widow who had stolen the knight‘s affections, he had introduced some important female characters, we should have had the first regular novel in our tongue. As it is, this essay series bring us within measurable distance of the genuine eighteenth century novel.‖
4.14.2. Causes of the Popularity and Rise of Novel in the Augustan Age. The following factors contributed to the development of novel during the eighteenth century.
I. The Spread of Education and the New Reading Public.
In the eighteenth century the spread of education and the appearance of newspapers and magazines led to a remarkable increase in the number of readers. The newspaper and the periodical essay ―encouraged a rapid, inattentive, almost unconscious kind of reading habit‖. It is exactly such a kind of habit that is required for novel reading. The middle-class people, who had a foremost place in English life and society, wanted to read for pleasure and relaxation without caring for any high classical or literary standards, and this change of emphasis favored the growth of the novel. Moreover, the new reading class wanted to read about itself, about its own thoughts, motives and struggles. It did not have leisure enough for reading the lengthy heroic romances. It demanded new type of literature. So the novel was born, which mirrored the tastes and requirements of this new class of readers. Women, who had plenty of leisure, sought pleasure through novel reading.
II. The Democratic Movement.
The rise of the novel is also associated with the democratic movement in the eighteenth century. Hudson remarks: ―The comprehensiveness of the novel, its free treatment of characters and doings of all sorts and conditions of men, and especially its handling of middle class and low life, are unmistakable evidences of its democratic quality.‖ The rise of the middle class is closely related with the democratic movement. With the growth of commerce and industry, the prestige of the old feudal nobility was on the wane. And the middle classes were increasing steadily in social and political power. The middle classes were inclined to morality, sentiment and reality. The novel reflected the temperament of the middle class and, therefore, it became popular.
III. Comprehensiveness of Form.
Novel as a new form of literary art offered a fresh field, in which the writers were to work independently. Hudson writes: ―Finally, as the form of the novel, gives a far wider scope allowed to the corresponding form of drama for the treatment of motives, feelings, and all the phenomena of the
inner life, it tended from the first to take the peculiar place as the typical art form of the introspective and analytical modern world.‖
IV. The Development of the New Prose Style.
One of the important causes of the development of novel is the evolution of a new prose style. As the novel deals with ordinary life, ordinary people, and ordinary events and with all sorts of miscellaneous matters, it requires plain, lucid and straightforward style. During the eighteenth century, writers like Addison, Steele, Goldsmith, Burke etc. evolved a plain style which was capable of expressing the realities of life. It has a close relation with the reflections and expressions the novel expresses.
V. The Decline of Drama.
Drama had grown artificial, unnatural and immoral during the earlier part of the eighteenth century. It was the decline of drama during the first half of the eighteenth century that made way for the novel. The latter part of the eighteenth century was the golden age of the novel. A true novel is simply a work of fiction which relates the story of plain human life, under stress of emotion, which depends for its interest not on incident and adventure, but on its truth to nature. Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne, known as the ―four wheels of novel‖- all seem to have seized upon the idea of reflecting life as it is, in the form of a story, and to have developed it simultaneously.
4.14.3.The Four Wheels of the Novel. Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne are known as the ―four wheels of the novel‖. They brought this new genre to such maturity that it became the glory of England. Let‘s see, in short, these authors and their works as follows:
(i) Samuel Richardson (1689-1761). Richardson‘s first novel Pamela tells the story of the trials, tribulations, and the final happy marriage of the heroine. It is written in the forms of letters. It is also known as an epistolary novel because the novel is developed with the exchange of letters between the characters. It was instantly successful. In it the moral and social purposes are successfully blended. Pamela‘s character is well drawn. The plot, though simple, is well developed. It is considered as the first novel in the modern sense.
His Clarissa or The History of A Lady in eight volumes is a sentimental novel. It gave Richardson European reputation and ―it is still regarded as one of the greatest of the eighteenth century novels‖.
Clarissa‘s character is realistically drawn with psychological insight. It also contains the most remarkable study of the scoundrel, Lovelace. In it the dramatic element is strong. It is characterized by pathos, sincerity and minute realism. Richardson‘s novels are stories of human life, told from within, and depending for their interest not on incident and adventure, but on their truth to human nature. Reading his work is, on the whole, like examining an antiquated work of a stern wheel steamer, it is interesting for its undeveloped possibilities, rather than for its achievement. Richardson‘s place in the history of English novel is very high. ―Richardson‖, writes Rickett, ―introduced sentimentality into English novel and popularized it forever. Without his influence we never have had Tristram Shandy, we certainly should have been without Joseph Andrews, … Then the feminine standpoint taken in his writings stirred many able women to continue and amplify the feminine tradition. Fanny Burney and Jane Austen are indebted to him and a host of lesser names‖. In Clarissa he introduced the epistolary form of novel. He was the first novelist to show the real and vital knowledge of human heart, its perversities and contradictions.
(ii) Henry Fielding (1707-54). Fielding was the greatest of this new group of novelists. He is called ―the father of English novel‖ because he for the first time propounded the technique of writing novel. He had a deeper and wider knowledge of life, which he gained from his own varied and sometimes riotous experiences. As a magistrate he had an intimate knowledge of many types of human criminality which was of much use to him in his novels. His first novel Joseph Andrews (1742) began as a burlesque of the false sentimentality and conventional virtues of Richardson‘s Pamela. In it Fielding humorously narrates the adventures of the hero, Joseph Andrews, and his companion, Parson Adams. From the very beginning we see the stamp of his genius- the complete rejection of the epistolary form and moralizing, the structural development of the story, the broad and vivacious humour which was denied to Richardson, the genial insight into human nature, and the forceful and pithy style. In Joseph Andrews Fielding emerges on a pioneer of the novel of manners. In Jonathan Wild he gives us new and piercing glimpses of the ruffian mentality.
Fielding‘s masterpiece, Tom Jones, takes an enormous canvas and crowds it with numerous characters. It gives us the fullest and richest picture of English life about the middle of the eighteenth century. Although the picaresque element is strongly marked in this novel, it is more than a picaresque novel. Fielding calls it ―the comic epic in prose.‖ Tom Jones stands unrivalled in the history of English novel for its coherent and well-knit structure, richness of characterization, vivid and realistic presentation of contemporary society, sane and wise point of view. Amelia is the story of a good wife who, in spite of temptation,
remains faithful to a good-natured but erring husband, Captain Booth. It is at once a searching criticism of contemporary society and a mature. It soberly conceives story of everyday life, is rich in incident and, like Tom Jones, is remarkable for its insight into human character. Fielding has rightly been called ―the father of English novel‖. He for the first time formulated the theory of novel writing in the prefaces of Joseph Andrews and Tom Jones, and followed his own definition with utmost consistency. Other novelists followed his example. He gave a definite form and shape to the novel. In the words of Richard Church: ―He is the first writer to focus the novel in such a way that he brought the whole world as we see it, within the scope of this new, rapidly maturing literary form.‖ Fielding is the first great realist in the history of English novel. Common life is the material of his novel but it is handled as Raleigh points out, ―with the freedom and imagination of a great artist.‖ He presents a complete and comprehensive picture of contemporary society. His realism is epical in its range, sweep and variety. He is the founder of modern realistic novel and the novel of manners. Fielding‘s realism is connected with his comic point of view, his wise, tolerant acceptance of things as they are. He had nothing to do with the prudish morality of Richardson. He threw it aside and presented man in full length as he found him. Though he portrayed men with no reservations, he never forgot that he was one of them. From this inborn sympathy comes his large, tolerant way of looking at things, a view of life that often finds expression in raillery but never in cynicism. He laughs, but his laughter is always ready to give place to tenderness and pity. For him the tragedy of life lay in the presence of virtue and innocence in a world of evil, cruelty and deception. In the presentation of tragedy, Fielding is always direct, simple and sincere. Fielding was the first to infuse the novel ―with the refreshing and preserving element of humour.‖ He was capable of presenting pure comedy in such characters as Adams and Partridge and lower and more farcical comedy in characters like Mrs. Slipslop and Square Western. He effectively lashes out his satire at affectation, vanity, pedantry, hypocrisy and vice. But he is always human and humane. Irony is a great weapon of his satire. Fielding‘s aim was to replace Richardson‘s morbid morality by a healthy commonsense morality. This commonsense morality gave him a shrewd insight into the weakness of his character. Fielding was a superb craftsman. He changed the concept of plot construction. In his novels we get for the first time a closely-knit organic plot. Other novelists learnt the art of plot construction from him,
He is the creator of the novel of character. He peopled his novels with lively and interesting characters. He endowed his characters with life and vitality. He has vividly portrayed all kinds of characters like Shakespeare. Like Shakespeare he has a sympathetic yet maturely detached view of human comedy. The forces which guide his characters are; for the most part, natural human needs, for it were these that Fielding knew best. Settings in Fielding‘s novels are realistic and recognizable. His narrative is energetic and effective. He initiates the practice of the omniscient narrator, which has been universally followed, by many following writers. As a stylist he broke away from the mannered, artificial style of the earlier novelists. It is fresh, clear, direct, unaffected, vigorous and easy. It gives vitality to his characters.
(iii) Tobias Smollett (1721-71).
Smollett, who wrote The Adventures of Roderick Random, The Adventures of eregrine Pickle, and The Expedition of Humhry Clinker, added new feathers to the cap of the craft called English novel. His novels are simply strings of adventures which are not organized into an artistic whole. He conceived the novel as a ―large diffused picture of life. It is the personality of the hero which has the semblance of unity to various incidents and adventures. His novels are called episodic or panoramic novels. As a panoramic novelist Smollett has never been surpassed. Smollett‘s characters are types and not individuals. He had a genius for depicting oddities and he excels as a caricaturist. He describes his characters in terms of externals. His characters are grossly exaggerated and distorted. Smollett‘s presentation of the harsh and ugly realities of life and society makes him a forerunner of the novel of purpose. Hudson writes: It has, however, to be remembered that Smollett wrote expressly as a satirist and reformer, and that his purpose was to paint the monstrous evils of life in their true proportions and colures that he might thus drive them home upon the attention of the public, and we must certainly set it down to his credit that the sickening realism of the ship scenes in The Roderick Random led directly to drastic changes for the better in the conditions in the naval service. He, thus, anticipates the novel with purpose. Smollett followed the tradition of the picaresque novel, which presents a union of intrigue and adventure. His style is vivid and lively. It is forceful and masculine. His method could be easily imitated. Dickens followed him. There was a spurt of picaresque him.
(iv) Laurence Sterne (1713-1768). Sterne‘s first novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy won him immediate recognition. It records the experiences of the eccentric Shandy family. ―Its chief strength lies in its brilliant style,…and in its odd characters like Uncle Toby and Corporal Trimm, which, with all their eccentricities, are so humanized by the author‘s genius that they belong among the great ―creations‖ of our literature.‖ His second novel A Sentimental Journey combines fiction, sketches of travel, miscellaneous subjects and essays. It is remarkable for its brilliant style. Sterne defined all conventions of novel writing. He contributed to the development of English novel in his own peculiar way. He is a skilled master in creating brilliant effects. Plot is non-existent in his novels. There is neither chronology nor progression. ―His novels are one long parenthesis – a colossal aside to the reader. Yet despite the chaotic incoherence of his method of storytelling, his effects are made with consummate ease.‖ Sterne‘s prose style, which is characterised by brilliance, force, precision, force, melody and sensuousness of the highest order, helped him to create brilliant effects. His technique of creating striking effects influenced the school of the Stream of consciousness. Sterne‘s greatest contribution lies in the field of characterization. Cross writes: ―He enlarged for the novelist the sphere of character building by bringing into English fiction the attitude of the sculptor and the painter, combined with a graceful and harmonious movement, which is justly likened to the transitions o music.‖ His characters are drawn with an economy of strokes, and they are utterly solid, three-dimensional characters. He develops his characters by subtle and minute analysis of gesture, expressions, intonations and a hundred other details. He imparted humanity to his characters. His methods of characterisation is impressionistic, a method which he introduced for the first time. This method of characterisation was followed by the novelists of the Stream of consciousness school. Sterne is the most original of English humorists. He deftly intermingles humour and pathos. He smiles at sorrow and finds matter for pathos in the most comical situation. He was the first to use the word, ―sentimental‖ to indicate ―the soft state of feelings and the imagination.‖ He used this word in the sense now attached to it. He made the word classic and current in the record of his continental travel, The Sentimental Journey. He could tell and distinguish between fine shades of feeling, and could communicate them to his readers in a way that aroused both compassion and mirth. Sterne is the pioneer of modern impressionism. His impressionistic narrative method is very close to that of modern impressionists like Virginia Wolf and James Joyce. He is regarded as the first of the impressionists. ―Richardson had given sentimentality, Fielding humour, Smollet liveliness‖ and Sterne impressionism.
(v) Other Novelists. Oliver Goldsmith‘s The Vicar of Wakefield stands in the first rank of the eighteenth century novels. Its plot is simple, though sometimes inconsistent, the characters are human and attractive and humour and pathos are deftly mingled together. Goldsmith has adopted the direct method of narration through the principal character. Goldsmith for the first time depicts the picture of English domestic life in this novel. It is also unique because it gives delightful and idealistic picture of English village life. The blend of humour and pathos makes it all the more charming. Hency Mackenzie‘s The Man of Feeling is a sentimental novel which shows the influence of Sterne. William Godwin (1745-1831) wrote Caleb Williams or Things As They Are in order to give ―a general review of the modes of domestic and unrecorded despotism by which man becomes the destroyer of man.‖ Miss Fanny Burney (1752-1842), the first of the women novelists, is an important figure in the history of English novel. She wrote four novels: Evelina, Cecilia, Camilla and The Wanderer but her fame rests mainly on the first two. She was endowed with considerable narrative faculty and great zest for life. She has successfully created the novel of domestic life. In Evelina she reverts to the epistolary method of Richardson, and in broad humour it follows the tradition of Fielding and Smollett, but without their coarseness. She for the first time wrote from a woman‘s point of view and, thus, brought feminine sensibility to English novel of the eighteenth century. ―She has presented a large gallery of striking portraits‖, writes Edward Albert, ―the best of which are convincing and amusing caricatures of Dickensian type. Her observation of life was keen and close and her descriptions of society are in a delightfully satirical vein, in many ways like that of Austen.‖
(vi) The Gothic Novel. The eighteenth century novel from Richardson to Miss Burney was, on the whole, conceived on realistic lines. Towards the close of the century the novel, like poetry showed signs of change, as it began to exhibit romantic tendencies. During the transitional period return to nature, absorption in the remote in time and space, especially in the middle Ages, became the marked literary characteristics. The new interest in nature made scenic descriptions or landscape an important element in novel. The interest in the past brought into being a new type of novel, known as the gothic novel, which anticipated the historical novel of the nineteenth century.
The Gothic novel or the novel or terror is the peculiar product of the late eighteenth century. It is a new genre of the romantic fiction which drew its inspiration from the general revival of interest in medieval life and art, in Gothic castles, in churches and Cathedrals and in ruins. The novelists resorted to the use of ghosts, portents and satanic forces in order to arouse emotions of awe, mystery and terror. Horace Walpole (1717-1797) wrote Te Castle of Otranto which proclaimed the entry of romantic revival into English novel. Walpole gave to the Gothic romance the elements on which it was to thrive for a generation to come – a hero sullied by unmentionable crimes, several persecuted heroines, a castle with secret passages and haunted rooms, and a plentiful sprinkling of supernatural terrors. Mrs. Anne Radcliffe (1764-1832) was the most popular of terror novelists. She wrote five elaborate romances of which the most famous are The Mysteries of Udolpho and The Italian. Her stories have well constructed plots which contain medievalism, ―a lively, if undisciplined imagination, and a skilful faculty of depicting wild scenery.‖ She could successfully create an atmosphere of suspense and dread. What distinguishes her as a novelist is the fact that she rationally used the supernatural machinery. William Beckford (1660-1844) wrote The History of the Caliph Vathek, which deals with the mysteries of oriental necromancy. Satire mingles with sensation in his novels. Matthew Lewis (1775-1818) wrote The Monk, which is the crudest terror novel. Miss Clara Reve (1729-1807) is remembered for Old English Baron. It is a Gothic story. Maturina is remembered for The Fatal Revenge and Meimoth the Wanderer. Mary Shelley‘s Frankenstein is the only terror novel which is still famous. It is the story of the ravages of manmade monster equivalent to the modern robot. It may be considered the first work of science fiction and the last one of the terror school. Thus, at the close of the nineteenth century, we find the three types of fiction: first, the realistic novel which deals with social life and manners; secondly, the romance which represented the purely emotional interest in nature and the past; and finally, the humanitarian novel, which seriously undertook to right the wrongs sustained by the individual at the hands of society. ―These three types‖, write Moody and Lovett, ―…have defined three schools – the realists, the romanticists and the social novelists, which have continued, with innumerable cross divisions, until the present time.‖
4.15. LET’S SUM UPIn this unit we have discussed the social change in the eighteenth century called the Augustan Age which includes emergences of coffee houses and literary activities, interest of people in reading and publication houses and consequently the rise of middle class. It is followed by the discussion of the prime features of literary tendencies of Augustan age. On the literary domain, this period is called the age of prose and reason, the age of satire and the age of neo-classicism. It also covers the transitional poetry along with the eminent poets of transitional poetry that breaks its umbilical cord with neoclassicism and paves ways to the forthcoming age. The Augustan prose, poetry, drama and the new emergence of new genre called novel are discussed in detail.
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DAYTON — Lawmakers at the federal level and in at least three states, including Ohio, have begun efforts to ban microplastics, the tiny particles that give toothpastes, body washes and facial scrubs their abrasive qualities but might kill birds and fish.
Microbeads have been found to cause internal blockages in fish and birds and can absorb and transport pollutants up the food chain. Microbeads don’t break down naturally and often are too small to be removed completely by wastewater-treatment plants so they end up in lakes, rivers and oceans, scientists say.
A single 4.2-ounce tube of leading facial cleanser studied at the University of Wisconsin-Superior contained 356,000 microbeads. A 1972 document accepted by the United States patent office described a “novel skin cleaner” that “utilizes plastic synthetic resin scrubber particles therein but which does not clog drains into which it is poured.”
“They’re so small they really look like food to the fish or any organism that lives in the water. They’re small enough to be taken in by planktonical organisms,” said Sherri Mason, professor of chemistry and environmental sciences program coordinator at the State University of New York at Fredonia.
More than 100 products containing microbeads — including face, body and foot scrubs — were on American store shelves in March, the International Campaign Against Microbeads in Cosmetics said.
Most organic materials are broken down with microorganisms, clump together and settle as solids during the treatment plant process, said Ron Volkerding, director of sanitary engineering for Greene County, Ohio. That process doesn’t work as easily on bits of polyethylene. He said particles of microplastics might be too light and remain in suspension rather than settling on screens during the treatment process.
Mason’s 2012 study documenting microplastics in Lake Erie is considered the scientific catalyst for legislative action to remove the small polyethylene and polypropylene particles from products sold in the United States.
Illinois recently became the first state to ban microbeads, requiring companies to phase products out of inventory by the end of 2019.
Ohio state Sen. Michael Skindell, D-Lakewood, said he was moved to act after seeing Mason’s presentation at a conference. Skindell introduced Senate Bill 304 in March. The bill would ban products containing microbeads and calls for misdemeanor fines of up to $1,000 a day for first-time violators. The bill has yet to receive a hearing.
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New Touchscreens Create Virtual Tactile Sensations That Feel Rough [Video]
Using electrovibrator display technology, Disney replicates real-life textures onscreen.
Disney researchers created a touchscreen that lets users virtually feel objects displayed there, lending a lifelike tactile element to computer displays for the first time.
The electrovibration display functions based on an algorithm that maps frictional forces between finger and screen to the slope of any desired virtual surface. Researchers created a model to determine the perceived feeling created by different voltage levels, so that by modifying the voltage emitted from the screen, they can mimic real-life textures to enhance spatial information. A user could experience depth and elevation on a map, for example, or feel a rendering of an object before it’s produced.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.psfk.com/2013/10/virtual-rough-touchscreen.html
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en
| 0.852539 | 161 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Modern science owes much to straightforward understanding of Scripture
Here is a final paradox. Recent work on early modern science has demonstrated a direct (and positive) relationship between the resurgence of the Hebraic, literal exegesis of the Bible in the Protestant Reformation, and the rise of the empirical method in modern science. I’m not referring to wooden literalism, but the sophisticated literal-historical hermeneutics that Martin Luther and others (including Newton) championed. It was, in part, when this method was transferred to science, when students of nature moved on from studying nature as symbols, allegories and metaphors to observing nature directly in an inductive and empirical way, that modern science was born. In this, Newton also played a pivotal role. As strange as it may sound, science will forever be in the debt of millenarians and biblical literalists.
- “The Bible and its literal interpretation have played a vital role in the development of Western science” — Peter Harrison
- The biblical presuppositions required for science
- The biblical origins of science: A review of For The Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-hunts and the End of Slavery by Rodney Stark, 2003
- Christianity as progress: A review of The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success by Rodney Stark, 2005.
- Scientists of the past who believed in a Creator
- Isaac Newton and Apocalypse Now: a response to Tom Harpur’s Newton’s strange bedfellows; A longer version of the letter published in the Toronto Star, 26 February 2004.
It has been said that “Information is power”. When it comes to creation information we’d have to agree. Keep the ‘powerful’ evidence for God being Creator coming. Support this site
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en
| 0.926036 | 386 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Since the beginning of the software industry, nearly every software company in the world has followed the same business model: developed software by the company's own employees, closely held intellectual property, delivered software in binary format to clients, and licensed software to users to run on their own computers. Today, however, that model is being challenged by a new paradigm: open source. Developed and maintained by volunteers, distributed to users at no cost, and available in source code form, it is radically different from proprietary counterpart. Each of the new characteristics of the open source software forces organizations to develop new ways of thinking about how they procure, implement, test, and deploy software.
Accessible without cost, open source software is distributed to users under licensing terms different from commercial software, and created under different conditions from commercial software. Open source software developers take responsibility for the quality of the software towards their user base. This responsibility demands a new model of software procurement, one where the organization is an active participant in creating the complete software, rather than a passive recipient of what the vendor delivers. The new model demands new working methods and practices. In this article, we present on the open source software, the open source community, and the development practices. We explore the various benefits and risks the open source model brings to development practices, and present on possible strategies to support open source in your organization.
Rest of the Story .
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://tuxmachines.org/print/2368?page=223
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en
| 0.930047 | 282 | 2.765625 | 3 |
There is no greater blow to a society than when its children are harmed. Today, we are reeling.
This morning, a man walked into Sandy Hook Elementary School in Connecticut and killed 26 people, most of them children. Now, as school and local leaders gather in the aftermath to comfort the families of those lost and to assure others that the danger has passed, educators are faced with a question that has become far too familiar over the years:
How do we support students affected by violence?
The challenge is not, unfortunately, limited to high-profile tragedies like the one this morning. Children across our nation face violence on a daily basis, and educators are often the only ones in a position to help them.
The task of providing this support becomes an even more difficult one when the violence is directed at the place students should feel safest—school.
Students across the nation will be exposed over the weekend to the tragedy unfolding in Connecticut. Even those whose parents carefully shield them from the media will sense the great sadness in the adults around them. As President Obama noted while fighting back tears, “I know there’s not a parent in America who doesn’t feel the same overwhelming grief that I do.”
On Monday, these children will have questions and worries. The emotional distance between their schools and Sandy Hook Elementary will bear no relation to the distance on a map.
Even children who weren’t witnesses or victims—or even in the family of someone affected—may feel vulnerable.
“After a traumatic event, children’s questions always go back to safety,” says Marlene Husson, a clinical psychotherapist and grief counselor at Aurora Mental Health Center in Colorado. Children may experience both physical and mental reactions ranging from nervousness and grief to changes in appetite and sleeping paterns.
These reactions are natural, and educators can help alleviate them by helping students rebuild supports within their relationships and environment. Give them the opportunity to express feelings and concerns without fear of judgment. Reassure them that there are adults around who care for them and are dedicated to their safety.
The U.S. Department of Education promotes the “Listen, Protect, Connect—Model and Teach” program as an example of how to support students affected by violence (near or distant).
Step 1: Listen
Teachers or staff should facilitate opportunities for students to share their experiences and understanding of what happened, and also express their feelings. Younger children may be encouraged to draw, perhaps with an indirect prompt to avoid introducing unpleasant thoughts that a child may not have, suggests clinical psychologist Marlene Husson.
Step 2: Protect
Adults should work to reestablish students’ feelings of physical and emotional safety. Returning to regular school and classroom schedules and routines can contribute to this. School staff can advise students and families to avoid news coverage, violent films and other stimuli that may keep the trauma churning.
Step 3: Connect
As needed, teachers and staff can encourage students to reestablish normal social connections, both in and outside of school. Self-isolating is one of the common reactions to trauma. If this behavior lasts beyond an expected period it may suggest the need for intervention.
Step 4: Model
At home and school, students look for behavioral cues from the adults they respect and trust. Adults in the school community should model calm and optimistic behavior. This sets an example, and sends the signal that as anxious or sad as students may feel, it is necessary and possible to carry on.
Step 5: Teach
Psychologists, social workers or counselors can present information to students and parents about common stress reactions. These may include changes in appetite and sleep patterns, as well as temporary difficulties with concentration and memory. These professionals can also reinforce that seeking help is admirable, not something to shy away from.
When tragedy strikes, children turn to both teachers and parents for guidance and reassurance. We hope educators across the country will use the tips here to help bring a sense of safety back to their students. But the undertaking is far greater than that.
Until we find effective methods of preventing violence—on the streets, in homes, and in schools—educators will continue to bear the responsibility of supporting students who face an alarmingly violent world.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.tolerance.org/blog/helping-students-navigate-violent-world
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en
| 0.955983 | 873 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Primary exertional headache (PEH) is a headache brought on by exercise, any form of exercise and is experienced by approximately 10% of the population. It is more common among men than women.
PEH is termed "primary" because it's not caused by another condition or disorder.
PEH is more likely to occur in hot weather or at high altitude, but it can occur in any weather and at any altitude. PEH is more likely to occur if alcohol or caffeine have been consumed prior to or during exercise.
The pain of PEH usually (but not always) comes on suddenly, can be unilateral or bilateral (on both sides of the head), and is often pulsatile. PEH generally lasts from five minutes to 48 hours, and the headache may be accompanied by:
PEH is often self-limiting, which means that it occurs for a period of time, then stops occurring. PEH is often self-limiting to a period of three to six months.
When diagnosing PEH, it is essential that imaging studies be performed to rule out subarachnoid hemorrhage and arterial dissection. Lumbar puncture may also be indicated to rule out issues related to the cerebrospinal fluid and / or cerebrospinal fluid pressure.
Prevention and treatment of PEH:
In cases where the headache is mild or builds slowly, warming up before exercising and / or an exercise program that begins slowly and increases in intensity and length over a period of months may prevent PEH.
Naproxen taken before exercise may prevent PEH in some cases. If participating in exercise more frequently than two or three days per week, care should be taken to avoid medication overuse headache.
Beta blockers (propranolol, timolol, etc.), given in doses similar to those for Migraine prevention have been shown to be effective in preventing PEH. Indomethacin at a dosage of 25-250 mg daily has also been effective in some cases. However, with indomethacin, treatment should be monitored to avoid stomach irritation and / or medication overuse headache. Since PEH is self-limiting, it's suggested that beta blockers be discontinued after six months for reevaluation of the need for the treatment.
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.healthcentral.com/migraine/types-of-headaches-438754-5.html
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en
| 0.954444 | 469 | 2.96875 | 3 |
At one time, I didn't think so. Our state (Missouri) required that not only could a ninth grader identify each phase AND tell you why it was called by its name, they ALSO had to know the position of the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon for EACH phase.
Then we hit on a couple of good techniques that could get the point across. Smooth sailing, ever since!
Here is a list of activities, sort of in the correct order, that you could pick and choose from, depending on what your state objectives are:
- Moon Phases Booklets. Introduce the phases and the definitions of waxing and waning, crescent, gibbous, etc. Usually, I would use a transparency of some sort, and the Moon Phases Booklet pages. I would have the students prepare all the pages, leaving blank the explanations. Then they would fill them in as I explained them all in order referring to the transparency. Because they have pages to fill out, they really listen. Make the explanations short and sweet. Use page two of the Flashcards and have the opposing page contain an explanation of each phases, including how they know it's crescent, etc. and how they know it's waxing or waning.
- Moon Phases PowerPoint. Use the Moon Phases PowerPoint immediately after the booklets are made. They go through their Booklets and double-check. I love giving kids many chances to get it totally correct! Boosts confidence before turning them in for points.
- Cut and Paste Moon Phases Activity. This is an active lesson where they are having to THINK about each phase and the position it possesses in the Earth/Sun/Moon system. Good thinking questions, too! Click here.
- Moon Phases Model Activity. Because our state requires them to know the positions during each phase, we added a great Models activity. These are the Models we purchased from Science Kit. They were expensive, but we had the money one year and purchased two kits, which gave us plenty to work with for small groups.
- Moon Phases Animation. Project at least one Internet animation. Click here for one from Harcourt.
- SmartBoard Activities. I haven't previewed this one because my SmartBoard App has expired on my home computer. Looks like it would be a decent one on Moon Phases. Email me if you like it or not!
- Moon Phases Worksheet. Use several over a week's time. Click here for one of mine. Click here for one from Enchanted Learning. Click here for another version.
- Moon Phases Flashcard Games. Can be a good pairs game by using their leftover unlabeled flashcards. (Only the labeled ones are used in the Booklet.) Have pairs mix up both their sets on the table top, pictures up. Call a phase out. They get to "grab" with pointing fingers only. Hold your card up after they "grab" and let them collect each one they get correct. Count cards at the end and shake hands with the winner! Great fun!
- Moon Charting Activity. Parents are especially impressed with this one. It's sometimes hard to get full participation for this one. But worth trying at least once. Click here.
- The US Naval Observatory is a gold mine of great moon data. Click here for the current moon.
- The Moon Connection also has some nice things about the Moon, including good calendars for each month. Click here.
- EarthSky website. Be sure to wander around this great website. They're the ones who do the wonderful one minute capsule on different radio stations. You can hear their podcasts in your classroom!
- YouTube Moon Phases Videos. Of course, you're gonna want to show a good YouTube video, especially when they are making their Moon Phases Booklet. This one is kewl!
NOTE: Main concept to be sure to teach: Moon Phases are NOT caused by the Earth's shadow moving across the face of the Moon! (Common misconception!) They are caused by the changing position of the Moon around the Earth.
THE TRICK: To teach relative positions: The Quarters are at 90 degrees. The crescents are each an acute angle near the new moon. The Gibbouses are each an obtuse angle near the full moon. The new and full moons are lined up on the 180 degree line. Simple for most kids, especially if you do a Models Activity!
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://scienceteachingideas.blogspot.com/2008/11/teaching-moon-phases.html
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en
| 0.950455 | 921 | 3.953125 | 4 |
GLADDEN, L. B., Muscle as a consumer of lactate. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 764–771, 2000. Historically, muscle has been viewed primarily as a producer of lactate but is now considered also to be a primary consumer of lactate. Among the most important factors that regulate net lactate uptake and consumption are metabolic rate, blood flow, lactate concentration ([La]), hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]), fiber type, and exercise training. Muscles probably consume more lactate during steady state exercise or contractions because of increased lactate oxidation since enhancements in lactate transport due to acute activity are small. For optimal lactate consumption, blood flow should be adequate to maintain ideal [La] and [H+] gradients from outside to inside muscles. However, it is not clear that greater than normal blood flow will enhance lactate exchange. A widening of the [La] gradient from outside to inside muscle cells along with an increase in muscle [La] enhances both lactate utilization and sarcolemmal lactate transport. Similarly, a significant outside to inside [H+] gradient will stimulate sarcolemmal lactate influx, whereas an increased intramuscular [H+] may stimulate exogenous lactate utilization by inhibiting endogenous lactate production. Oxidative muscle fibers are metabolically suited for lactate oxidation, and they have a greater capacity for sarcolemmal lactate transport than do glycolytic muscle fibers. Endurance training improves muscle capacity for lactate utilization and increases membrane transport of lactate probably via an increase in Type I monocarboxylate transport protein (MCT1) and perhaps other MCT isoforms as well. The future challenge is to understand the regulatory roles of both lactate metabolism and membrane transport of lactate.
At rest, muscles slowly release lactate into the blood on a net basis, although at times they may show a small net uptake. During exercise, particularly short-term high-intensity exercise, muscles produce lactate rapidly, whereas lactate clearance is slowed. This results in an increased intramuscular lactate concentration ([La]) and an increased net output of lactate from the muscles into the blood. Later, during recovery from short-term exercise, or even during continued, prolonged exercise, there is net lactate uptake from the blood by resting muscles or by other muscles that are doing mild to moderate exercise. During prolonged exercise of low to moderate intensity, the muscles that originally showed net lactate output at the onset of the exercise may actually reverse to net lactate uptake (33). This shuttling of lactate (14–18) between adjacent muscles and between muscles and blood raises intriguing questions concerning how and why lactate is produced or consumed by skeletal muscles. The present paper will discuss factors that might regulate lactate consumption by muscle. A partial list of the most important factors studied to date includes: metabolic rate, blood flow, [La], hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]), fiber type, and exercise training.
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<urn:uuid:c404d6c4-6ff7-4f36-8e58-723a830c5cda>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Abstract/2000/04000/Muscle_as_a_consumer_of_lactate.8.aspx
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en
| 0.940821 | 629 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Wastes, Toxic Releases Declined in 2001
by J.R. Pegg
Washington, DC— U.S. industries released 15 percent
fewer toxic chemicals and generated 22 percent less toxic waste in 2001
than they did a year earlier, according to new data released June 30,
2003 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The agency says
these figures illustrate a continuing decline in the amount of wastes
released into the nation’s air, land and water.
The data was collected under the framework of the federal
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), established by Congress in 1986 as the
nation’s community right to know program. It finds that U.S. industries
released some 6.16 billion pounds of toxic chemicals into the environment
and managed 26.7 billion pounds of toxic waste in 2001.
The TRI includes information on releases and other waste
management methods for 667 toxic chemicals.
Although this total is less than one percent of chemicals
registered for use and represents a limited range of sources, the TRI
is widely considered the most comprehensive source of information on toxic
pollution in the United States.
The TRI program is “one of the most important activities
EPA completes each year,” according to Acting EPA Administrator
The data collected under the TRI program are based on
reports from manufacturing industries, metal mines, certain coal mining
activities, electrical utilities that burn coal or oil, hazardous waste
treatment and disposal facilities, chemical wholesale distributors, pet-roleum
bulk plants and terminals and solvent recovery services.
It does not include releases from pollution sources like
oil wells, airports and waste incinerators, or other sources of exposure
the 6.16 billion pounds of toxic chemicals released into the environment
in 2001, 65 percent were released to land on and off site, 27 percent
were released into the air, four percent to water and four percent to
underground injection on- and off-site.
The metal mining industry reported the largest total
release of toxic chemicals, accounting for 45 percent of the nation’s
total, followed by the electric utilities industries with 17 percent and
the chemical industry with 9.5 percent.
Nevada released some 783 million pounds of toxic chemicals,
more than any other state. Utah was second with 767 million pounds, followed
by Arizona with 607 million pounds and Alaska with 522 million pounds.
Twenty chemicals accounted for 88 percent of the total
release, with copper compounds totaling some one billion pounds and zinc
compounds some 960 million pounds. Some 422 million pounds of lead and
lead compounds were released in 2001 - the first year facilities were
held to a 100-pound threshold for lead.
The standard requirement for industries subject to the
TRI is that any facility manufacturing or processing 25,000 pounds of
a chemical regulated under TRI, or otherwise using 10,000 pounds of such
a chemical, has to report its releases and wastes.
But the standards are stricter for a group of some 20
persistent bio-accumulative toxic (PBT) chemicals, which are considered
more hazardous as they remain in ecosystems for long periods of time,
and accumulate in animal and human tissues.
The threshold for reporting of PCB chemicals, which dioxins,
mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and others, was lowered in 1999
to 10 pounds or 100 pounds.
In 2001, total PBT chemical releases totaled 454.4 million
pounds, with lead and lead compounds comprising 97 percent of the total.
Environmentalists note that with the lower threshold, much of the reported
lead represents previously unreported pollution.
Absent lead, PBT chemicals decreased by some two percent
compared to last year, despite a 50 percent increase in the total releases
of dioxin and dioxin-like compounds.
In EPA’s prepared statement, they wrote that the
overall long-term trend is that levels of dioxin are decreasing and suggests
that the increase in 2001 was in part due to one-time maintenance at several
The reporting industries managed a total of 26.7 billion
pounds of toxic waste, with Texas, Louisiana and Illinois accounting for
30 percent of nation’s total.
The chemical industry was responsible for 40 percent
of the nation’s toxic waste, with the primary metals industry accounting
for 12 percent and the metals mining industry for 11 percent.
—Reprinted with permission from Environment
News Service (ENS-news.com).
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<urn:uuid:a361975e-d8aa-41ed-b662-0d8e4594b011>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.americanrecycler.com/aug03/waste.html
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en
| 0.939399 | 955 | 2.796875 | 3 |
We present one type of analysis of a very short and very interesting program that runs on the Commodore 64, a one-line BASIC program that generates maze patterns by repeatedly randomly outputting a character representing one of two diagonal lines:
10 PRINT CHR$(205.5 + RND(1)); : GOTO 10
This program is a gateway to explaining important concepts in computation, creative and recreational computing, programming languages in general and BASIC particularly, home computing, and the relationship of computing to text, typography, and visual art. It uses randomness and creates a two-dimensional pattern from a repeating, one-dimensional process. It employs character graphics, elements meant to be fitted together like a mosaic which were implemented on top of an essentially typographical system. While the program is compelling, it does not easily fit into any standard category ("video game," "productivity software," "educational exercise") that we know of today.
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<urn:uuid:4bbe92dc-dd0d-4db2-8c08-f81c54a13a7e>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://thoughtmesh.net/publish/382.php
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|
en
| 0.938211 | 192 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Windows Application Programming
This course is designed for students who have a basic understanding of spreadsheets, word processors, and databases as well as introductory programming experience. The course introduces methods to automate repetitive tasks and create user-friendly applications in spreadsheets, word processors, and databases using the powerful macro language, Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). Topics include: a review of programming constructs such as data types,
looping, conditional statements, and arrays; the design of graphical interfaces with the typical "look and feel" of Windows software; the design of dialog boxes with controls and event handling code that responds to user input; automating tasks; consolidating data; providing user-friendly reports.
Additional Course Information
CP102 and previous programming experience, or CP104.
- 3 lecture hours, 1.0 lab hour
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<urn:uuid:fb8c1c65-f453-4c67-a64d-c0df82cf16cb>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.wlu.ca/calendars/course.php?c=25311&cal=1&d=915&s=438&y=49
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en
| 0.866532 | 166 | 2.984375 | 3 |
It is one of America's most popular holidays. It is a day for expressing thanks for the good things in life, especially family and friends. I'm Mary Tillotson. And I'm Steve Ember. The story of Thanksgiving is our report today on the VOA Special English program, THIS IS AMERICA.
This Thursday is Thanksgiving Day. The writer O. Henry called it the one holiday that is purely American. Thanksgiving is not a religious holiday. But it has spiritual meaning. Some Americans attend religious services on the day before Thanksgiving, or on Thanksgiving morning. Others travel long distances to be with their families. They have a large dinner, which is the main part of the celebration. For many Americans, Thanksgiving is the only time when all members of a family gather. The holiday is a time of family reunion.
Thanksgiving is a celebration of home and family. But not everyone can spend Thanksgiving with their family. For example, Joan and Sandy Horwitt moved to the state of Virginia from their home in the Middle West more than twenty-five years ago.
They regretted not being able to celebrate Thanksgiving with all their family members. But soon they met other people who also were separated from their families. So the Horwitts began holding a yearly Thanksgiving dinner for what they called their "extended family." This included people in their community. All the guests bring food to share for Thanksgiving dinner.
The group has grown over the years. Mr. and Mrs. Horwitt now have to add small tables to their large one to make room for all the guests. At first, many of their friends brought their babies and young children. Now some of the first guests soon will be grandparents.
Like many other Americans, Mr. and Mrs. Horwitt and their visitors enjoy a long day of cooking, eating and talking. The traditional meal usually includes a turkey with a bread mixture cooked inside. Other traditional Thanksgiving foods served with turkey are sweet potatoes, cranberries and pumpkin pie. Stores sell more food at Thanksgiving than at any other time of the year. And many people eat more food at Thanksgiving than at any other time of the year.
Not everyone cooks a Thanksgiving turkey, however. Some families like other meats. And in recent years a number of American homes have vegetarian Thanksgiving dinners. This means no meat will be served.
Some people go to public eating places on Thanksgiving. A retired husband and wife in Washington, D.C do this each year. They meet friends at a local restaurant for their holiday dinner. The women say they enjoy the day especially because they do not have to cook.
Thanksgiving also is a time when Americans share what they have with people who do not have as much. All across America, thousands of religious and service organizations provide Thanksgiving meals for old people, the homeless, and the poor. Some people spend part of the day helping to prepare and serve the meals. Everyone expresses thanks for what they have.
Here is some Thanksgiving music by American composer William Schuman.
(MUSIC: "BE GLAD AMERICA")
Thanksgiving is celebrated every year on the fourth Thursday of November. The month of November is autumn in the United States, the season for harvesting crops. When the first European settlers in America gathered their crops, they celebrated and gave thanks for the food.
Tradition says Pilgrim settlers from England celebrated the first Thanksgiving in Sixteen-Twenty-One. There is evidence that settlers in other parts of America held earlier Thanksgiving celebrations. But the Pilgrims' Thanksgiving story is the most popular.
The Pilgrims were religious dissidents who fled oppression in England. They went first to the Netherlands. Then they left that country to establish a colony in North America. The Pilgrims landed in Sixteen-Twenty in what later became known as Plymouth, Massachusetts.
Their voyage across the Atlantic Ocean was difficult. Their first months in America were difficult, too. About one-hundred Pilgrims landed just as autumn was turning to winter. During the cold months that followed, about half of them died.
When spring came, the pilgrims began to plant crops. A native American Indian named Squanto helped them. When summer ended, the Pilgrims had a good harvest of corn and barley. There was enough food to last through the winter.
The Pilgrims decided to hold a celebration to give thanks for their harvest. Writings from that time say Pilgrim leader William Bradford set a date late in the year. He invited members of a nearby Indian tribe to take part.
That Thanksgiving celebration lasted three days. There were many kinds of food to eat. The meal included wild birds such as ducks, geese and turkeys.
The Pilgrims did not celebrate Thanksgiving again until two years later. That celebration marked the end of a period of dry weather that had almost destroyed their crops. Historians believe the Pilgrims held their second Thanksgiving in July.
As the American colonies grew, many towns and settlements held Thanksgiving or harvest celebrations. Yet it was not until about two-hundred-fifty-years later that a national day for Thanksgiving was declared. Here are the Paul Hillier singers with "Thanksgiving Anthem."
The creation of a national Thanksgiving holiday resulted from the efforts of a writer named Sarah Josepha Hale. In the Eighteen-Twenties, she began a campaign to officially establish the holiday.
Support for her idea grew slowly. Finally, in Eighteen Sixty-Three, President Abraham Lincoln declared the last Thursday in November as a national holiday of Thanksgiving. Later, Congress declared that the holiday would be celebrated every year on the fourth Thursday in November.
Over the years, Americans have added new traditions to their Thanksgiving celebration. For example, a number of professional and university football games are played on Thanksgiving Day. Some of the games are broadcast on national television. Many people also like to watch Thanksgiving Day parades on television. Big stores in several cities organize these marches.
But for many Americans, Thanksgiving is a time for memories. Former Special English writer and broadcaster Richard Thorman liked to remember the Thanksgivings when he was a young child. His family always ate a large dinner in the afternoon. Then the men would rest. Later, the family would eat again. Here is one young boy's Thanksgiving memory:
"In the early evening, when the outside light had begun to fade, the men would start to reappear. Then the food began to reappear. And everyone sat at the table and ate again as if no food had been served before. I never knew how the Thanksgiving celebration ended. I usually was asleep and had to be carried to the car for the long ride home."
On Thanksgiving, Americans gather with family and friends. We share what we have. And we give thanks for the good things of the past year. Here is the Boston Pops Orchestra and chorus performing "Prayer of Thanksgiving."
This program was written by Jerilyn Watson. It was produced by Cynthia Kirk. I'm Steve Ember. And I'm Mary Tillotson. Join us again next week for another report about life in the United States on the VOA Special English program, THIS IS AMERICA.
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Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
A health advocate is someone who works with patients to help them navigate the health care system, or someone who provides health education to people such as high school and college students. In either case, there are a number of ways to become a health advocate, ranging from attending certification programs at colleges to simply starting one's own business, relying on experience in the medical community to get the business going.
In the sense of a health care advocate who works with patients, someone can become a health advocate by going to a training program, working for an organization which offers advocacy and completing their certification program, or by turning a career in the medical field into a career in health care advocacy. For example, some health advocates are former nurses who use their experience in the nursing community to provide information and assistance to patients.
In the case of a certification program, several colleges offer advocacy training programs at the bachelor's and master's level. At schools without such programs, students can still opt to take classes which lead to a degree in the health care field, and they may opt to study a field such as social work so that they can learn about ethical issues related to advocacy, and so that they can get field experience with people who need the assistance of an advocate. After graduation, people may want to consider working with an organization which offers advocacy to get work experience, or they can start their own businesses.
One doesn't necessarily need a college degree. People can also choose to work for an organization like a hospital, an insurance company, a disease advocacy group, or a government agency which provides advocacy. In these cases, someone can become a health advocate by completing a training program, and then he or she will be assigned to patients and paid by the organization.
For people with training such as that discussed above, or real life experience in the medical field, it is possible to become a health advocate by starting an advocacy business and working directly with patients. In these cases, experience helps, because it can be used to get a foot in the door at hospitals and clinics. Independent advocates often work with a variety of organizations to establish a referral network, and it helps to have relationships with organizations which help low-income individuals, as these people may need health advocates, but be unable to afford them. By establishing connections with a group which provides assistance to low-income people, a health advocate may be able to access grant funds provided to these organizations, allowing him or her to help patients without needing to bill them directly.
In the case of someone who provides health education and information, a health advocate is often someone who is drawn from the community which he or she works with. For example, a college student might become a health advocate after receiving a short training, to educate students about health issues and deal with minor medical needs so that student health will not be as burdened. People can also receive special training to become health educators, in which case they travel to various communities with information about issues like nutrition, preventing disease, family planning, and so forth.
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And it turns out that cyclists and other endurance athletes are at risk of vitamin D deficiency and should check their blood's D levels regularly. Low D levels can lead to many diseases, including cardiovascular disease, weak bones and possibly cancer. Yes, even cancer. Ironic because we use sunscreen to avoid skin cancer, but in so doing we also deprive ourselves of the natural source of vitamin D we get from sunlight interacting with our skin. (BTW, I also sunbathe a little when I can for that reason.)
Here are a few things you can do to improve your vitamin D levels:
- Sunbathe, sparingly. Per Stanford Wellsphere: "Experts say 10-15 minutes of direct sunlight exposure (i.e. not through a window) a day is enough for most people to prevent a deficiency."
- Make sure to eat some fat with your vitamin D for best absorption. Fish oil, as I use, is great for that.
- Eat nutritious foods. The best natural foods for vitamin D include cod liver oil, fatty fish (e.g. salmon or mackerel), whole eggs.
Best of health,
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Preventing Cluster Suicides
A suburban school systewas saddened when its third student in several months died by suicide. The superintendent shared the most recent tragedy at a meeting with other local superintendents and was startled to learn that across four neighboring districts, nine teenagers had died by suicide in the last 18 months. Were they in the midst of a suicide cluster? If so, how could they stop it? Did these teens all know each other? How will further deaths be prevented? Who is most at risk?
Teenagers are the age group most susceptible to imitating suicidal behavior, and a plethora of significant research has shed light on the very real problem of contagion often not recognized by communities due to lack of awareness or desire to face the problem. How to identify those who may be most vulnerable in the aftermath of a suicide and how to address their needs are key. Postvention, or intervention done after a suicide to provide support to friends and family, when conducted properly leads to prevention. Administrators should review the extensive postvention literature prior to a tragedy and remember that no single entity or agency working alone is likely to stop a suicide cluster.
Suicide clusters account for 100-200 deaths annually, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). A suicide cluster is defined as multiple deaths by suicide that occur within a defined geographical area and fall within an accelerated time. These clusters consist of more than three victims, typically ranging from 13 to 24 years old, and occur within approximately a one-to-two-year period. Contagion is the process in which the death by suicide of an individual influences an increase in the suicides of others. Exposure to another individual’s suicide—assuming temporal, geographic and interpersonal proximity are involved—can precipitate imitative suicidal behavior.
- Develop a comprehensive plan to address suicides, one that involves various sectors of the community, including educational facilities, mental and public health agencies, crisis intervention centers, local government, police, clergy, media, survivor groups and local academic resources.
- Select a crisis team that identifies high-risk individuals, provides specific recommendations for schools, and conducts its work without sensationalism.
- Understand the “circles of vulnerability” in order to identify those most at risk after a suicide has occurred in the community. Circles of vulnerability include individuals who:
- Had a negative interaction with the victim shortly before the suicide occurred and who perhaps even encouraged it
- Were in a suicide pact but backed out at the last minute
- Realize now that they missed obvious warning signs of suicide
- Were suicidal at another time, regardless of whether they had known the victim
- Have mental health problems
Many schools that have experienced a cluster have not only trained all staff to better identify at-risk students but have partnered with local mental health personnel and implemented depression screening programs such as Teen Screen and Signs of Suicide.
Additionally, media coverage is now recognized as a factor in increasing contagion. Districts can influence the media by encouraging the limiting of coverage of the suicide, refraining from specifics on the method, and avoiding simplistic and romantic explanations. The media can be of further assistance by focusing on warning signs of suicide and sources of assistance available in the community.
Scott Poland is the Prevention Division director for the American Association of Suicidology. He has helped many school systems and communities respond to the tragedy of youth suicide. Aaron Hamann, a doctoral candidate at Nova Southeastern University, contributed to this article.
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Smoking May Boost
Nicotine could be the culprit, increasing insulin resistance
By E.J. Mundell
MONDAY, June 7 (HealthDayNews) -- Smokers already worried about their risks for cancer and heart disease now have another reason to quit: Tobacco may raise the risk for type 2 diabetes, say two new studies.
"This increased risk for type 2 diabetes could be due to increased insulin resistance, which has previously been shown to occur after an acute episode of smoking," said Dr. Valdemar Grill, a professor at both the University of Science and Technology in Trondheim, Norway, and the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, Sweden.
He presented the findings of the first study on June 7 at the annual meeting of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) in Orlando, Fla. A second study presented by Johns Hopkins researchers at the meeting came to the same conclusion.
Experts have long understood that smoking does serious damage to arteries while raising risks for lung cancer. But studies are beginning to suggest it may encourage the development of diabetes, too.
In the latest study, Grill and his colleagues analyzed Norwegian government health data on nearly 39,000 adult men and women tracked over a period of 11 years.
They found that, regardless of gender, age, weight, physical activity and use of alcohol, smokers who smoked at least a pack of cigarettes a day faced a 64 percent higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes compared with nonsmokers.
The vast majority of diabetics -- about 95 percent -- are affected by type 2 diabetes, which develops when the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin to meet the body's demand or when body tissues become resistant to the effects of insulin. As insulin fails, blood sugar rises to unhealthy levels, raising the risks for cardiovascular disease and other health problems. Experts estimate that more than 18 million Americans have diabetes.
According to Grill, previous studies have suggested smoking contributes to insulin resistance. And since similar associations were found in people who used smokeless "snuff" tobacco, "it is likely that it is nicotine, the common substance in cigarettes and snuff, that is the culprit," he said.
"It is also possible that nicotine has a negative effect on insulin secretion," Grill added. "We have some data in animals to support this notion."
Curiously, the Norwegian study also found smoking was associated with lowered risks for two more rare forms of diabetes -- autoimmune diabetes (associated with dysfunction in the immune system), and type 1 diabetes. According to Grill, animal studies have suggested nicotine may actually help prevent the triggers behind autoimmune diabetes.
The risks far outweigh this potential minor benefit, however, and Grill strongly advises that all smokers "stop smoking because of the many proven and grave health hazards" associated with the habit.
Another study presented at the meeting seemed to back up the Norwegian findings. Researchers led by Dr. Hsin-Chieh Yeh of the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health examined data on nearly 9,000 older U.S. adults tracked for nine years.
They found that after adjusting for age, sex, race, weight and other factors, long-term smokers faced a 50 percent higher risk of developing diabetes compared with people who never smoked -- with risks rising as the number of years spent smoking increased.
Commenting on the two studies, Dr. Nathaniel Clark, the ADA's national vice president for clinical affairs, admitted he was "a little surprised" by the findings.
"When we usually list the risk factors for diabetes, smoking is never on that list. In that sense, this is new information," he said.
Although the findings are too preliminary to prompt any change in official ADA policy when it comes to preventing diabetes, Clark said quitting smoking should be a no-brainer.
"There are so many reasons not to smoke. I can't imagine that a fear of developing diabetes would trump dying from lung cancer, or any of the other terrible things smoking does," he said.
For more on diabetes, visit the American Diabetes Association.
Copyright © 2004 ScoutNews, LLC. All rights reserved.
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Metin I. Eren is a Ph.D. candidate in Anthropology at Southern Methodist University. His areas of expertise include Stone Age archaeology, human evolution and experimental archaeology. He is an expert flintknapper, which means he can accurately replicate prehistoric stone-tool technology. Through his experimental research and that of his colleagues, researchers have investigated Neanderthal tool efficiency and design; prehistoric bamboo tool production in China; and how animal trampling in India may disturb buried artifacts, potentially biasing subsequent interpretation. His research currently involves how prehistoric humans colonized unfamiliar landscapes. By focusing upon the Pleistocene colonization of the North American Lower Great Lakes region eleven thousand years ago, he is exploring what sort of behaviors and technology people used to successfully adapt to, and eventually settle into, an uncharted Ice Age landscape. Read more about his work here, and his answers to the SceinceLives 10 Questions below.
This ScienceLives article was provided to LiveScience in partnership with the National Science Foundation.
Name: Metin I.
Institution: Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX
Field of Study: Human Evolution and Experimental Archaeology
What inspired you to
choose this field of study?
Human evolution is the study of us – where our species came from, and where we are going. By studying how we evolved, we can better understand how we fit into nature and how we are connected to it, and to each other. Having the chance to contribute pieces to the human story through scientific practice was simply an opportunity I could not pass up.
Though I started working on archaeological excavations when I was 16 years old, I realized in college that to get a more complete picture of the past I should learn how to make prehistoric tools. By knowing how to make replica tools, experimental archaeologists can conduct tests that otherwise would not be possible to conduct on real (and priceless!) artifacts, such as how well they work for hunting or butchery, or how durable they are when we try to break them. So, over many years I learned the very difficult craft of "flintknapping," which is the process of flaking stone to make tools. Since stone tools make up 99.9 percent of the artifacts we find during the Stone Age, which is the longest archaeological period in our evolution (2.6 million years!), experimental archaeology can contribute many pieces to the study of human evolution, behavior, and technology.
What is the best
piece of advice you ever received?
I’ve been really fortunate to always be surrounded by people who look out for my well-being, and so it is really hard to pick just one piece of advice. However, there are two quotes that I keep in the back of my mind when it comes to my life and career in science.
(1) From my parents, quoting John F. Kennedy: "To whom much is given, much is expected."
(2) From my Ph.D. advisor, Professor David Meltzer: "Don’t stop pedaling."
What was your first
scientific experiment as a child?
Though I had been on numerous excavations as a teenager, I did not conduct my first true archaeological "experiment" until my third-year in college. While writing my senior honors thesis it sort of hit me that the method I was using to measure artifacts did not really get at the information I was really interested in. So with the help of my dear friend and colleague Professor Manuel Dominguez-Rodrigo (Complutense University, Spain) I devised an appropriate method which we tested on experimental stone tools. We ended up publishing the new method in a top-tier archaeology journal.
What is your favorite
thing about being a researcher?
The idea of contributing to knowledge has always inspired me. Being a scientific researcher allows me to do that. I also love to travel and explore - archaeology in particular lets me to do that. Between field work and conferences I have traveled around the world, from the most remote locations to the biggest cities.
What is the most
important characteristic a researcher must demonstrate in order to be an
The most important characteristic a researcher can demonstrate is the ability to admit s/he might be wrong. If we compare science to football, each generation of scientists is just a team trying to move the football a few yards further down an endless field of discovery. The last thing a football team needs is a player who refuses to give up the football even though s/he is running the wrong way. If research is done honestly and rigorously, there are no "mistakes" in science because a "wrong answer" eventually leads to the correct one - as long as a researcher is willing to change his or her thinking. In other words, if a player is indeed running the wrong way down the field, s/he shouldn’t be afraid or embarrassed to pass the ball to another teammate who may be in better a position to advance the football. In the end, it is the best thing for the team, and everyone wins.
What are the societal
benefits of your research?
Studying human evolution and prehistoric archaeology allows us to take a "big picture" look at broad and long-term questions, such as how climate change has influenced our evolution, how our species interacts with the environment, or how technology has helped us adapt and survive through time. By looking at the big picture and long-term trends we are better equipped and informed to tackle challenges in modern society.
Researching humanity's past also is important because by studying the countless cultures and behaviors our species adopted through time around the world, one realizes that our species thrives on diversity. Being able to adapt culturally to different circumstances in the natural world (such as the Ice Age) has literally helped us survive to the present day. This highlights the fact that though we all belong to the same species, we are not all meant to share the same beliefs or lifestyles. Thus the study of human evolution is in a very real sense the rejection of prejudiced or racist ideologies and attitudes in the modern world.
Who has had the most
influence on your thinking as a researcher?
I am still relatively young, and so my thinking is still in the process of "being influenced," so to speak. In many respects I hope I can maintain this quality – I never want to be "set in my ways." My dad, quoting Louis Pasteur, always told me that "chance favors the prepared mind." One way of being prepared is by being open to new ideas and unique ways of thinking. I try to do just that.
What about your field
or being a researcher do you think would surprise people the most?
I think people would be surprised at the tremendous amount of work a researcher conducts. If I'm not sleeping or eating, I’m generally working. I think there is a perception out there that academics and scientists teach a few hours a week, and then go home. Nothing could be further from the truth. To be successful, a researcher should possess a formidable capacity for work, everyday, all the time.
If you could only
rescue one thing from your burning office or lab, what would it be?
My colleagues and office mates!
What music do you
play most often in your lab or car?
Everything from Frank Sinatra to Smashing Pumpkins, from Borodin to Jose Gonzalez. The Killers, Green Day, and Weezer are great when doing lab work late at night. I literally have constructed a laboratory space in my apartment, so I can listen to my music as loud as I want while doing experiments - without bothering anyone in SMU’s Anthropology Department!
Editor's Note: This research was supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the federal agency charged with funding basic research and education across all fields of science and engineering. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. See the ScienceLives archive.
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Are you feeling nostalgic for the days when using computers was very much a text-based experience?
Thanks to the resurrection of the world's first cross-platform Web browser, you can experience the modern Web without any images or video, just like it was in 1992.
The World Wide Web was created in 1989 and 1990 by Sir Timothy Berners-Lee at CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research. The first Web browser was aptly named "WorldWideWeb." It only worked on the NeXT operating system, which Berners-Lee had used to create the Web.
It wasn't until 1992 that a cross-platform browser was created. It was called a "line-mode browser." And now it's back—complete with clicky noises each time you make a keystroke. As part of its project to resurrect the early Web, CERN created a simulation of the line-mode browser that can run in your modern browser.
By default, CERN's new simulated version of line-mode will show you the first webpage ever published, also recently resurrected by CERN. The organization offered a bookmarklet that can be used to invoke line-mode on any site. Here's what it looks like on Ars:
Although you won't see any images, modern websites are still readable in the line-mode browser. "That’s because HTML is backwards-compatible by design," CERN wrote. "The vocabulary has grown in scope since Tim Berners-Lee first introduced just a handful of tags, but new browsers still understand all the old tags, and the line-mode browser simply ignores any tags it doesn’t recognize."
The line-mode browser was important because it could work on more than one platform. "WorldWideWeb was a great piece of software, but it was important that the Web should be accessible to many kinds of computers, not just NeXT machines," CERN's line-mode browser project page says. CERN continues:
That’s where the line-mode browser came in. It was the first Web browser with a cross-platform codebase so it could be installed on many different kinds of computers. It was a relatively simple piece of software with a very basic interface, but in the early days of the Web, it was instrumental in demonstrating the power of this new medium.
Web browsers today are quite powerful. They can run on all sorts of devices and display all kinds of content from plain text to images and video—you can even play games in modern Web browsers.
It wasn’t always this way. The line-mode browser could only display text. You couldn’t even use a mouse to click on links—you had to type in everything using a keyboard… even if you just wanted to follow a link!
As for the line-mode browser's cross-platform nature, one of CERN's old project pages notes that it will run on "Almost anything. All unix systems, VMS with any flavor of TCP/IP, VM/CMS, PC (any reasonable socket library), MVS, (even the Mac)."
Using it was a bit more complicated than navigating the Web is today on Internet Explorer, Firefox, or Chrome. Early instructions provided by Berners-Lee note that the browser "allows you to find information by following references and/or by using keywords."
"Some documents are indexes," Berners-Lee continued. "These contain little text, but allow you to search for information with keywords. Type 'find' or 'f' (space) and the keywords. For example, 'f sgml examples' searches the index for items with keywords SGML and EXAMPLE. You can only use the 'find' command when it is present in the prompt. You can omit the 'f' if the first keyword doesn't conflict with existing commands."
But as much fun as it is to experience the Web in a more primitive form, we can all be thankful for the two decades of development that have made it the rich, interactive environment we know today.
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Earth and Environmental Sciences (E&ES)
The Glastonbury meanders of the Connecticut River contain stable bedforms varying from less than 0.5 m to over 1.5 m in height, and 7 to 49 m in wavelength, dominated by medium-size sand. Field measurements, including the flow velocity and water depth were used to calculate stream power (in N/m2), and thus calculate the force needed to initiate sediment movement. Modeling experiments supported the field data.
Our results show that, in these river meanders, bedform formation, morphology and stability are driven by stream power. Low Froude numbers (0.05-0.10) indicate that the river is usually in a state of equilibrium, but that it is punctuated by short intervals of bedform destruction during high discharge. Mean and median grain size were similar throughout the meanders and all parts of the bedforms suggesting the importance of hydraulic sorting.
Field data included imaging the river using sidescan sonar, collecting sediment samples, measuring river discharge using an acoustic Doppler current profiler, and using USGS gage heights at Hartford and Middletown. Modeling was done with CCHE2D, a two-dimensional flow and sediment transport model developed at the National Center for Computational Hydroscience and Engineering.
Ostfeld, Rosemary, "Bedform Formation in the Glastonbury Meanders of the Connecticut River" (2011). Masters Theses. Paper 16.
© Copyright is owned by author of this document
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The longest war in German history became, through the intervention of
external powers, a European war. The cause was mainly the conflict of
religious denominations as a result of the Reformation. Thus in the southwest
of the empire, Catholic and Protestant princes faced one another as enemies,
the Catholics (Emperor, Bavaria) united in the "League," the Protestants
(Electorate Palatine, Baden-Durlach, Württemberg) in the "Union."
Nearly all parts of the southwest experienced troop movements and battles. The map shows the extent to which the population suffered losses due to direct military action or to disease. The Black Forest remained unmolested. The most affected were the Palatinate, the Neckar land, the Alb and the Danube, but also on the Upper Rhine.
The Palatine War (1619 - 1622). In 1619 the Bohemians deposed
their Catholic king from the House of Habsburg, and offered the crown
to a Protestant prince, the Prince Elector Friedrich V of the Palatinate.
Most of his councilors and several friendly princes advised him against
accepting. But Friedrich opted for the Bohemian crown. With Elisabeth,
his young English wife, he got into the coach and drove from Heidelberg
to Prague. In November 1619, he was crowned there. Almost exactly a year
later, in November 1620, he lost the battle of White Mountain by Prague
to Tilly, the commander of the Catholic League. He fled clear through
Germany to the Netherlands. Along with the Bohemian crown, he had also
lost the Palatinate.
The relatively peaceful years. The war shifted to northern Germany. The German southwest remained generally spared for years. It seemed as though the emperor and the Catholic League would finally pull out a victory. The page turned as the Swedish King Gustav Adolf came in on the side of the Protestants (1630). His triumphal procession led him deep into the German south. Even Baden-Durlach and Württemberg welcomed him as a liberator. The fortunes of war, however, were loyal to neither side. Next both sides lost their greatest commanders: Gustav Adolf ell in the battle by Lutzen near Leipzig. Wallenstein, the commander-in-chief of the imperial troops, was murdered in 1634 in Eger.
Fourteen years of terror (1634 - 1648). For the Protestants, the year 1634 brought a turn for the worse. The Swedish lost the decisive battle at Nördlingen. Then the imperial forces flooded into the Duchy of Württemberg. Waiblingen, Herrenberg and Calw were burned down, Stuttgart occupied.
Now the French came into the war. Even though France was purely Catholic, it allied itself with the German Protestants. There was no chance that the emperor would win the war. Thus the southwest again became a theater of war. For the lands on the Upper Rhine and the Neckar, the worst years began. A whole array of battles took place here: Rheinfelden (1638), Tuttlingen (1643), Freiburg (1644), Herbsthausen near Mergentheim (1645). Neither side won a decisive victory. But the population suffered terribly, under both friend and foe. The armies fell on the land, from which they had to sustain themselves, like swarms of locusts. The last battle of the war took place at Zusmarshausen, west of Augsburg.
As the bells of peace rang out in 1648, many villages and cities in the German southwest were impoverished from quartering troops, were partly destroyed, burned out. The Duchy of Württemberg alone had lost almost two thirds of its population from hunger and disease, murder and killing. In 1618 it had 350,000 inhabitants, in 1648 just 120,000. The following examples come from the Münsingen district and show the numbers of married couples and buildings before and after the war:
An important outcome of the Peace of Westphalia was that now, along with Catholics and Lutherans, the Reformed were also tolerated. This was important for the Palatinate.
For one part of the southwest, a peace of 150 years began. On the Middle
Neckar, in the whole Upper Rhine area and especially in the Electorate
Palatine the wars waged by the French King Louis XIV from 1674 to 1714
caused further terrible destruction.
© 10/2000 by Mike Pantel
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Scientific Name: Panthera pardus saxicolor (Panthera pardus ciscaucasica)
IUCN Red List status: Endangered
Protected by the following WLT projects:
Species Range (IUCN)
The Caucasian Leopard, also called the Persian Leopard, is one of the biggest of the eight recognised sub species of leopard (1). All the leopards have stocky bodies with comparatively short legs (1); their total body length (including tail) can be up to 190cm and their weight up to 70kg. Coats have a range of base colours from yellow to golden brown with paler fur under the chin and across the belly. They have black spots on the head, limbs and belly and spots arranged in rosettes across the back and flanks (2), their spots give unique coat patterns which can be used to identify individuals (3).
Diet will vary across their range and leopards can adapt what they eat to the available prey species. Across Armenia, Iran and Turkmenistan typical prey will include species such as Bezoar Goats, Wild Boar and Mouflon (1). Leopards use vantage points such as rocky outcrops to locate their prey and will then stalk them (1), waiting until they are within 3-10m before attacking (3).
Generally leopards are nocturnal although, in the absence of other large predators such as lion and tiger, they are reported to be less nocturnal (1).
Little research has been done in the regions inhabited by the Caucasian Leopard. They are solitary, males and females only come together to mate, and females usually give birth to one or two cubs that stay with her for up to 18 months (2). They communicate by making a rough, rasping sound which they use to advertise their presence and for contact between individuals (2). They also growl, roar and hiss and mark their territory with urine, faeces and claw marks (3).
Leopards inhabit a range of different habitats. The Caucasian Leopard sub species is found across several different countries including Iran, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Georgia. They live mainly in remote, mountainous habitats which can range from dry and arid areas to forested regions and even extend up into snowy mountain ranges (1).
Threats and Conservation
There are thought to be fewer than 1,300 Caucasian Leopard left in the wild. The remote and mountainous habitats they inhabit make them very vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and isolation (4) and they also face a variety of other threats across their range. These include reduction of prey species through poaching, loss of habitat caused by deforestation and over grazing by livestock, conflict with livestock owners, heavy military presence and fortification of borders and being hunted as trophies or for the fur trade (4), (5).
(1) Persian Leopard [Arkive species page]
(2) Macdonald, D. et al (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Mammals, Oxford University Press, UK
(3) Panthera pardus [Animal Diversity Web, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan]
(4) Panthera pardus ssp. saxicolor [IUCN Red List]
(5) Leopards in the Caucasus [WildlifeExtra.com]
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Objective: Many students have not read or understood many plays, therefore, it is important for them to learn about the structure of a play before they can understand The Odd Couple. In this lesson, the students describe and analyze the basic structure of a play.
1) Class Discussion: How does Neil Simon split the play into sections? What is the different between an act and a scene?
2) Writing Assignment: Research why plays are broken up into acts and scenes, and the proper way to cite an act and scene in writing. How many acts and scenes are in The Odd Couple?
3) Pairs Activity: List the acts and scenes in The Odd Couple, and summarize what happens in the first scene. Discuss what this structure tells you about the play.
4) For Homework: Are TV shows broken up into acts and scenes? Find a TV show with a similar act...
This section contains 5,348 words
(approx. 18 pages at 300 words per page)
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Genetic link to diseases in mixed populations decoded
Washington: Understanding the genetic ancestry of mixed populations can not only help to detect their origins but also to understand the genetic basis of complex diseases, says a new study.
It is the first time that the genomes of individuals of admixed ancestry have been sequenced in such detail, says Francisco De La Vega of Life Technologies, Foster City, California, the US.
Working with Carlos Bustamante, professor and his team in the Department of Genetics at Stanford University, the scientists analysed the genomes of two people - one of African-American and one of Hispanic-Latino origin.
The majority of the personal genomes sequenced to date come from individuals of either European, African or Asian descent, because it is in these groups that most genetic disease association studies are being carried out.
However, populations where genetic mixing through migration has taken place relatively recently make up a sizable proportion of the world`s population, and have not been well studied to date because of the complexity of dealing with the contributions of genes from different ancestries in disease.
"We set out to provide a better understanding of the genome structure in admixed populations by sequencing one African-American and one Mexican sample," said De La Vega.
"By analysing genetic variants in mixed people whose frequency differs in the ancestral populations, we can work out the ancestry of different chromosomal segments in an individual," added De La Vega.
"This has already been done in a number of different ways. The difference with our work is that, by using whole genome sequencing using the Solid System, we can greatly increase the resolution of our analyses and achieve a very much clearer picture of the ancestry of genome sequences for the individuals studied," said De La Vega.
"We already know that present-day African-Americans trace their ancestry to a rich mosaic of migrants from the mainly west African and northern European populations who settled in North America and the Caribbean.
Mexicans, on the other hand, are descendants of Meso-American indigenous populations - themselves derived from population migrations from Asia (through the Bering straits) - and largely Southern European (mainly Spanish) settlers", said De La Vega.
"But the added value of our research is that we can show the approximate number of generations at which the genetic mixing occurred, estimate the rate at which admixture occurred, and understand better the genetic diversity in the ancestral populations."
To date there are few comprehensive studies of genetic diversity in native populations in the Americas, and by analysing them scientists can begin to piece together the population history of both the admixed and indigenous populations.
They can also begin to analyse the contribution of native American genetic variants to the disease burden in the Americas of today, something which at present is relatively unknown.
"We believe that our work will help move forward genetic disease association studies in these admixed populations," said De La Vega.
The scientists intend to follow up their work by sequencing many more genomes of different populations in the Americas in order to understand further differentiation within the continent and the frequency of the genetic variants, said a release of Life Technologies.
These findings were presented at the annual conference of the European Society of Human Genetics.
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Large scale human trials of two gels designed to combat the AIDS virus are being planned by British scientists to be carried out in Africa.
Around 40 million worldwide have HIV
Millions of people around the world could soon protect themselves against the HIV virus with the simple dosage.
Experts say around 60 gels, known as microbicides, are now in development with about 14 in clinical trials.
Women could be the main beneficiaries, international development secretary Hilary Benn said on Saturday.
Laboratory trials of the drugs have proved successful, and researchers will tell a conference in London on Sunday that clinical tests will now take place in
five African countries.
A total of 12,000 women are expected to take part in the three-year trials to be held in South Africa, Zambia, Tanzania, Uganda and Cameroon.
If the results are positive, the products could be on the market before the end of the decade.
One expert has estimated that they could save up to two and a half million lives in just three years.
The microbicides were developed through a government-backed study by the Medical Research Council and London's Imperial College and could provide a barrier to the transmission of the HIV virus during sex.
The face of AIDS is a young woman, says International Development Secretary Hilary Benn
Mr Benn said the UK Government had invested £17m in the research.
He told the BBC's Today programme: "This really is potentially very important.
"Women are particularly vulnerable to HIV infection. They are 20% more likely than men to be infected in sub-Saharan Africa.
"The face of HIV is in fact the face of a young woman.
"Women can't always ensure that their partners use condoms.
"What microbicides would do is put the power to protect themselves in the hands of women."
'Obstacles to overcome'
But Mr Benn pointed out that even if the microbicides are shown to work, there would still be a obstacles to
be overcome in making them affordable and getting them to the women who need them most.
The gels or creams are applied internally - before sex - aiming to stop the virus from entering the body.
An estimated 40m people around the world are HIV positive. Many of these may have contracted the virus because they were unable to protect themselves.
For instance, women in developing countries, in particular, are often unable to persuade their partner to wear a condom.
The microbicides work in one of three ways - by killing the virus before it enters the body; by preventing it from taking hold once inside the body; or by creating a barrier to stop it from entering the body in the first place.
The conference on microbicide, which is hosted in London, takes place from 28 to 31 March.
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Water retention does not occur in the stomach itself, which is a sac high up just under your ribs, where food collects and is mixed with acid to begin digestion. However water retention can occur lower down, in the abdomen or belly, where it is sometimes described as ‘bloating’. Mild bloating is very common and usually due to digestive problems or premenstrual syndrome. Severe bloating may be due to water retention or to inflammation in your digestive system. Occasionally it can be caused by liver disease, heart disease, or severe protein deficiency.
1. Liver disease
Liver damage such as caused by alcohol abuse can lead to blood pressure problems in your abdomen, which forces water out of your blood vessels and into your abdominal cavity – the space around your abdominal organs.
2. Heart disease
Heart failure (a chronic condition where the heart gradually loses its pumping force) can also cause abdominal water retention. Because the kidneys are not stimulated to work properly, people with heart failure tend to collect severe water retention all over their body, especially in the legs and ankles.
3. Severe protein deficiency
Children in developing countries who do not get enough to eat often suffer from severe water retention in the abdomen. This is caused by not getting enough protein and is visible as a large swelling – as big as pregnancy. People in the west who eat very low calorie diets for a long time and do not pay proper attention to getting enough protein may suffer from a mild version of this problem.
These three conditions can cause large amounts of water to collect in your abdomen and in severe cases you can actually feel it swishing around. If this is your problem you must get medical treatment immediately. If you have liver damage due to alcohol abuse it is essential that you stop drinking straight away.
If your doctor has given you the all-clear and does not know what is causing the bloating or water retention in your tummy area, then the cause is probably
- Hormonal if you are a woman and if the swelling only occurs before your monthly period, or
- Digestive if the swelling is accompanied by gas. Poor digestion or a bacterial imbalance can make your digestive system swollen and inflamed. Some people get this problem after eating certain foods.
The Waterfall Diet book can be very useful to help you find out why you have this type of problem. If you think it may be water retention you can read more here.
I’m a 15 y/o female and ever since I started on the Ginet 84 birth control pill (for my periods) my stomach started to get very bloated. At first my mother and i suspected it might be that I’m lactose intolerant since every morning after having a big bowl of icecream the day before my stomach would bloat up to the extreme! I would look pregnant! It’s not so bad now but it’s still visible and I feel fat down there Please help. The internet doesn’t help since it comes up with diseases and cancers and my doctor says I should not worry.
Your doctor says you should not worry because s/he knows that the bloating is not caused by a disease. The biggest clue to the cause of a health problem is when the problem started. If it began soon after beginning the contraceptive pill, what does that tell you? Coincidence? Not very likely. The pill is notorious for causing hormonal upsets that can lead to bloating, water retention, weight gain and skin blemishes among other things.
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Asthma is a very old disease described in the ancient literature. The only progress we have made to date with this disease is to give drugs to soothe the symptoms.
Asthma is associated in all (100%) cases with tiny Ascaris larvae. As soon as eggs hatch (in the stomach, immediately after swallowing filth) the microscopic larvae travel to the lungs, not the intestines. Imagine the stress of lungs full of tiny worms! One tries to cough them up, of course, but in our misguided effort to be polite we teach children to swallow anything they cough up! Some swallowing is inevitable and the young worms are back in the stomach, this time to set up their house keeping in the intestine. Some never leave the stomach, causing children stomach aches and, of course, a large entourage of bacteria which, in turn, have their viruses.
Most cases of Ascaris infestation also show Bacteroides fragilis bacteria which, in turn, carry the Coxsackie viruses (brain viruses). Whether or not these bacteria or viruses will thrive in you depends on whether you make a good home for them, namely have low immunity in some organ. The preferred organs for Bacteroides are liver and brain (brain tumors always show Bacteroides). The preferred organs for Coxsackie viruses appear to be tooth abscesses and brain.
Not everybody with Ascaris develops asthma, even though they always go through a lung stage. Does this depend on the age of the person when the infection develops? Or how many Ascaris are present? Or the time of year when lung infection is present?
That innocent cough of early childhood should not be neglected, as simply “croup”. At the first sign of a cough, use a zapper. Pay extra attention to washing hands before meals. Pay extra attention to animals nearby. Kill their Ascaris with a zapper and keep it up daily or put parasite killing herbs in their food.
In the 1998 editions of the Cancer and HIV book, a very effective improved way of getting rid of Ascaris is described. Use CoQ10, Cysteine and ozonated olive oil besides zapping to get rid of Ascaris immediately.
Asthma sufferers become allergic to many air pollutants such as pollen, animal dander, smoke. The production of histamine in the lungs and the vast interconnectedness of histamine to allergies has been well studied scientifically. Although invasion by worms is known to result in both histamine production and high eosinophil counts (over 3), and asthma clients typically have both, they are not routinely checked for worms clinically! They are simply given drugs to enable better breathing. More and better (though toxic) drugs have been developed.
But you can put your asthma by terminating your Ascaris infection. [...] Dogs, cats, pigs and horses all get Ascaris. [...] If there is an asthmatic in your family, the whole family should be treated for Ascaris.
From the book “The Cure for all Diseases” Page 269
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First they came for the communists, and I did not speak out - because I was not a communist;
Then they came for the socialists, and I did not speak out - because I was not a socialist;
Then they came for the trade unionists, and I did not speak out - because I was not a trade unionist;
Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out - because I was not a Jew;
Then they came for me - and there was no one left to speak out for me.
Note by Veni Markovski: This poem is written (?) by Martin Niemoller. Here's what I've found on the Internet about him:
Martin Niemöller, the son of a pastor, was born in Lippstadt, Germany, on 14th January, 1892. At the age of eighteen Niemöller became an officer-cadet in the German Navy. Niemöller was assigned to the training vessel Hertha and eventually graduated to the battleship Thuringen.
By the time the First World War began in 1914, Niemöller had reached the rank of Sub-Lieutenant. It was decided that the Thuringen was too old and was retired from active service. Niemöller was now assigned to a mine-laying submarine (U73). This was followed by spells as an officer on the U39 and the U151. In 1918 Niemöller took command of the UC67. Later that year he was responsible for laying mines off Marseilles. This operation resulted in sinking three enemy ships totalling 17,000 tons. By the end of the war Niemöller was seen as one of Germany's most successful U-boat captains and was awarded the Iron Cross (first class).
After the war Niemöller became active in German politics. Senior officers in the German Army began raising private armies called Freikorps. These were used to defend the German borders against the possibility of invasion from the Red Army. Niemöller joined this group and took part in the attempt to stop a socialist revolution taking place in Germany.
In March, 1919, General Franz Epp led 30,000 soldiers to crush the Bavarian Socialist Republic. It is estimated that Epp's men killed over 600 communists and socialists over the next few weeks. The following year Herman Ehrhardt, a former naval commander and Wolfgang Kapp, a right-wing journalist, led a group of soldiers to take control of Berlin. Niemöller supported this Kapp Putsch and commanded a battalion of Freikorps in Munster. The right-wing coup was eventually defeated by a general strike of trade unionists.
After the establishment of the Weimar Republic Niemöller decided to study theology. He remained interested in politics and became a supporter Adolf Hitler and in the 1924 elections voted for the Nazi Party. Even after he was ordained in 1929 and became pastor of the Church of Jesus Christ at Dahlem he remained an ardent supporter of Hitler. In 1931 Niemöller made speeches where he argued that Germany needed a Führer.
In his sermons he also espoused Hitler's views on race and nationality. In 1933 he described the programme of the Nazi Party as a "renewal movement based on a Christian moral foundation". The following year Niemöller published his autobiography From U-Boat to Pulpit. This right-wing nationalist view of the war and its aftermath made it a popular book with party members and sold 90,000 copies in the first few weeks after it was published.
In 1933 Niemöller complained about the decision by Adolf Hitler to appoint Ludwig Muller, as the country's Reich Bishop of the Protestant Church. With the support of Karl Barth, a professor of theology at Bonn University, in May, 1934, a group of rebel pastors formed what became known as the Confessional Church.
When the Nazi government continued with this policy Niemöller joined with Dietrich Bonhoffer to form the Pastors' Emergency League and published a major document opposing the religious policies of Adolf Hitler. Niemöller was particularly concerned by Hitler's decision that Jews should be expelled from the Church. He argued that once Jews had been converted to Christianity they should be allowed to remain in the Church. As Bonhoffer pointed out at the time, although Niemöller was critical of Hitler he remained a committed supporter of the Nazi Party. Niemöller was later to admit that his group "acted as if we had only to sustain the church" and did not accept that they had a "responsibility for the whole nation".
Niemöller therefore did not criticize the Nazi Party for putting its political opponents into concentration camps. However, he spoke out when members of the Protestant Church were arrested. In his sermon on Sunday 27th June 1937, Niemöller pointed out that on: "On Wednesday the secret police penetrated the closed church of Friedrich Werder and arrested at the altar eight members of the Council of Brethren."
The following month Niemöller was himself arrested. He was held eight months without trial and when his case eventually took place he was found guilty of "abusing the pulpit" and was fined 2,000 marks. As he left the court he was arrested by the Gestapo and sent to Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp to be "re-educated". Niemöller refused to change his views and was later transferred to Dachau.
George Bell, the Bishop of Chichester, took up Niemöller's case. He had a series of letters published in the British press about the arrest and imprisonment of Niemöller. Bell argued that Hitler's treatment of Niemöller illustrated the attitude of the German state to Christianity. Bell's campaign helped to save Niemöller's life. It was later discovered that in 1938 Joseph Goebbels urged Adolf Hitler to have Niemöller executed. Alfred Rosenberg argued against the idea as he believed it would provide an opportunity of people like Bishop Bell to attack the German government. Hitler agreed and Niemöller was allowed to live.
Niemöller remained a German nationalist and on the outbreak of the Second World War he wrote to Admiral Erich Raeder offering to serve in the German Navy. The letter was passed to Joseph Goebbels who dismissed the idea as he believed it was an attempt by Niemöller to save his life. Goebbels now leaked the latter to undermine Niemöller's credibility. Niemöller's supporters retaliated by claiming the letter was a forgery. This version was believed and Niemöller became a symbol in Britain of resistance in Nazi Germany.
While he was in Dachau his youngest daughter Jutta died of diphtheria. On 28th February his eldest son was killed in battle in Pomerania. Another son was captured by the Red Army while fighting on the Eastern Front.
In 1945, with the Allies moving in on Germany, Niemöller, Alexander von Falkenhausen, Kurt von Schuschnigg, Leon Blum, and other political prisoners were transferred to Tirol in Austria by the SS. The original plan was to execute them but they were rescued by the Allies just before the end of the Second World War.
On 5th June 1945 Niemöller gave a press conference in Naples. He admitted that he had offered to join the German Navy in 1939. He also confessed that he had "never quarrelled with Hitler over political matters, but purely on religious grounds". This resulted in a savage attack on Niemöller from those newspapers that had presented him as a symbol of resistance to Hitler's government. It was now pointed out that Niemöller had never opposed the Nazi racial theories, but merely the suppression of the Church in Germany.
When it was suggested that Niemöller wanted to visit Britain there was a campaign to keep him out of the country. Tom O'Brien of the TUC General Council wrote: "I sincerely hope he will not be allowed to come. If he is, it will be the first overt move of the Germans to "organise sympathy", as they did so successfully and so hypocritically after the last war. Niemöller commanded a U-boat in the last war and, with his brother commanders, was responsible for the drowning of many unarmed British merchant seamen. In this war he volunteered to serve under Hitler. He was (and may now be) as nationalistic as any of his congregation at the fashionable Berlin church to which he ministered."
The Archdeacon of Lancaster claimed that "the pastor's visit at this time can do nothing but harm". The Daily Telegraph pointed out that Niemöller should be denied entry as there was "no record that he ever denounced Hitler's crimes against humanity or condemned the war". The Home Secretary agreed and announced that Niemöller would not be allowed to visit Britain.
After the war Niemöller became one of the leaders of the Evangelical Church in Germany. After visiting the Soviet Union Niemöller joined the World Peace Movement. On his return to Germany he pointed out: "I cannot accept communism, but I must admit that its ideals are very different from ours, which are all tangled up with the most sordid materialism." Niemöller wrote to his friend Karl Barth explaining that he was gradually being converted to the idea of socialism: "The corner-stone of my thinking is that the root of every evil development is money." Later he wrote that " the rich must be smashed in order to build human brotherhood."
Niemöller also spoke out against the development of the Cold War. In a speech he made in New York he argued: "I am... against the often-heard statement that a war against bolshevism is necessary to save the Christian churches and Christianity. But it is unchristian to conduct a war for the saving of the Christian church, for the Christian church does not need to be saved. The church is not afraid of bolshevism. It was not afraid of Nazism. The church has to serve the communists as well as all human beings. While the church rejects communism as a creed, just as it rejects all other creeds, communism must and can only be fought and defeated with spiritual weapons. All other powers will fail."
Niemöller was a strong opponent of nuclear weapons. He thought the dropping of the atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was immoral. He upset the American government when he stated that after Adolf Hitler, he thought that Harry S. Truman "was the greatest murderer in the world."
In June 1954 Niemöller met Otto Hahn. The two men discussed the latest nuclear developments. Niemöller was shocked when Hahn told him that it was now possible to produce an atomic device that "would end not only all human life on earth, but also the life of every higher organism." That night he re-read the Sermon on the Mount and decided he could no longer justify the use of military force for political ends and became a pacifist.
Niemöller praised the new Japanese Constitution: "The renunciation of war as expressed in the Japanese Constitution has given a first ray of hope to a world in darkness and despair." In April 1958 he travelled to England and took part in the march to Aldermaston that had been organized by the recently formed Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. He also campaigned against military alliances such as NATO.
Else and Martin Niemöller in 1961.
On 7th August, 1961 Niemöller was involved in a car crash. His wife, Else Niemöller was killed but as soon as he recovered from his injuries he returned to his campaign for world peace. He became an active member of the World Peace Committee and was for seven years president of the World Council of Churches. He also published a book on his political views entitled One World or No World (1964).
In 1965 Niemöller upset the United States by visiting North Vietnam and meeting Ho Chi Minh. Afterwards he commented: "One thing is clear, the president of North Vietnam is not a fanatic. He is a very strong and determined man, but capable of listening, something that is very rare in a person of his position." Niemöller won several awards for his work for world peace including the Lenin Peace Prize (1967) and the Grand Cross of Merit (1971). He married his second wife, Sybil von Sell, in 1971.
On his 90th birthday in 1982 Niemöller stated that he had started his political career as "an ultra-conservative who wanted the Kaiser to come back; and now I am a revolutionary. I really mean that. If I live to be a hundred I shall maybe be an anarchist." Martin Niemöller died in Wiesbaden, Germany, on 6th March, 1984.
Since his death Martin Niemöller has achieved a great deal of fame for a poem entitled First they Came for the Communists. However, there is some dispute about when Niemöller wrote the poem and whether it has been altered by others over the years.
Niemöller's biographers, Dietmar Schmidt (1959) and James Bentley (1984) do not mention the poem. When it appears in books the origins of the poem are rarely given. A couple of sources claim that according to Niemöller’s wife, Sybil Niemöller, the poem dates back to a meeting with a group of students in 1946. One student asked: “How could it happen?” The story claims that Niemöller answered the question with the poem. The fact that Sybil Niemöller is quoted as the source of the story suggests that the poem emerged after the death of Martin Niemöller. This also helps to explain why it is not included in the books by Dietmar Schmidt and James Bentley.
The impression is given that his wife was at the meeting. This may have been true but that would have been Else Niemöller, his first wife. Else was killed in a car crash in 1961. Martin Niemöller did not marry Sybil von Sell until 1971. She was only a child at the time and was obviously not at the meeting she refers to in 1946.
I personally believe that Martin Niemöller never wrote this poem. I suspect it was written by a left-wing peace campaigner after the death of Niemöller in 1984. They were aware that the poem would be ignored if it was published under their name. Therefore, they put the name on the poem of a person who could well have written such a poem – Martin Niemöller.
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- Middle East/North Africa
An exhibition of the work of renowned Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy is currently on display at the Gezira Art Center in Zamalek. Fathy, who died at the age of 89 in 1989, is considered by many to be the most important Egyptian architect since Imhotep of ancient Egypt. In recognition of his work, the Culture Ministry is organizing a number of events under the theme “Hassan Fathy ... An Ambitious Egyptian” until 20 January.
At the exhibition, visitors are invited to browse through a large assortment of Fathy’s architectural sketches and models, as well as watch short films portraying the construction phases of some of his most prominent buildings.
Fathy was not only an architect, but also an extremely talented engineer, musician, dramatist, visual artist, filmmaker and inventor. And it seems as if Fathy was looking to combine all of these talents not only to design structures and buildings, but in a way, human reality itself.
“The human spirit is our most precious resource. Its ecology is our greatest challenge,” reads one of Fathy’s quotes on the wall at the exhibition’s entrance. Many more of Fathy’s quotes are scattered throughout, expressing sentiments concerning art, the human condition, its relation to our structural environment, and how we can progress by carefully designing that environment.
The exhibit displays beautiful drawings and paintings of visionary houses, with accompanying models, all handmade. One can see the development of these visions into extremely detailed architectural drawings and blueprints, accompanied by extensive material science research, implementation instructions for engineers, visions for the communities, as well as philosophical commentaries explaining the human need to live in harmony with nature.
Fathy’s architectural style sought to use “appropriate technology,” which is a widely applied methodology that seeks not to necessarily use state of the art technology for the sake of being new, but instead to seek out the most environmentally, ethically, culturally and socially appropriate technology for each project — often based on extensive research.
This led to Fathy’s projects being built from mudbrick, to limestone, to unique woods and metals. He also sought to use natural wind paths, sunlight and electromagnetic energy, among other things.
In the mid-20th century, a time when few people around the world worried about environmental issues, Fathy was already vehemently expressing our need to observe nature, mimic it, and interfere with it as little as possible as we move to survive and grow as a species. His buildings and designs heavily reflect this philosophy, not only in the framework of building individual houses, but for constructing entire communities.
Fathy furthered the idea that the active use of nature in architecture is not only conducive to the preservation of the planet, but also infuses harmonious energy into cultures. The idea is that individual human experience can be improved by means of the community, instead of the other way around.
“In our quest to survive, we often begin to view nature as an enemy to be blocked out, rather than a complex extension of ourselves. If we continue to do this, we will eventually alienate ourselves to the point that nostalgia will become the primary focus of society, and hence the compass of human development will be lost,” says another quote.
Fathy won several awards for his work during his lifetime, including the Balzan Prize for Architecture and Urban Planning. Some of the finest examples of his local work are located in New Gourna, near Luxor, and Fayoum. Other projects are located in Europe and the US.
The current Zamalek exhibit is a great opportunity to experience the work of this interesting individual, as well as to discover one of the 20th century’s most forward-thinking Egyptians.
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Ever wondered how and when banking started in the Philippines? The oldest bank in the country, Bank of the Philippine Islands (BPI), tells the story through its newly opened museum in Cebu City.
On display at the museum are gold coins that started circulation in 1861, 10 years after the El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel II that we know today as BPI was established.
The museum was launched last September 5 at the BPI Cebu Main building, itself a piece of history, on the occasion of the bank’s 160th anniversary.
BPI president Aurelio Montinola III said the museum symbolizes the partnership between BPI and Cebu, where the bank opened its third branch in 1924 after Iloilo and Zamboanga.
“Cebu has a long history with BPI, and the building is quite historic,” he said, to explain why the picked Cebu as site of the museum. Bank officials said they saw it fit to share with Cebuanos valuable memorabilia that are deemed significant contributions to the country’s banking history.
According to Montinola, it will be up to Cebu bank officials to decide the museum hours.
The museum also carries the first ever Philippine banknotes issued by BPI on May 1, 1852. These were the first banknotes issued not only in the country but even throughout Southeast Asia, and they could be redeemed for gold or silver Mexican coins.
The banknotes are pesos fuertes (Spanish for strong pesos) in denominations of 10, 25, 50, and 200.
Only 1,000 notes were printed for the 10-peso denomination, 600 for the 25-peso, 500 for the 50-peso, and 250 for the 200-peso by Bradbury, Wilkinson and Company, an English engraver and printer. This makes the notes extremely rate today.
Also on exhibit are a collection of coins of varying denominations from the last 50 years of Spanish rule: 10 cents, 20 cents, 25 cents, 50 cents, 5 pesos.
Other museum pieces:
* Coins issued during the reign of King Ferdinand VII counterstamped with “Y II” for Isabel II, his daughter and the only female monarch of Spain in modern times.
* Handwritten and leather-bound bank journal of 1855. The escribientes or writing clerks who wrote on this journal had to be trained to do the task in the accepted script.
* Banknotes of 1904 in six denominations and with the text in Spanish: cinco (5), diez (10), veinte (20), cincuenta (50), cien (100), dos cientos (200).
* Government-issued coins from 1903 to 1908 that were designed by Melecio Figueroa; they were the signature coins of the American colonial period.
Then there’s the book that details the bank’s purchase of the corner lot where the building now stands along Magallanes and P. Burgos streets from the Augustinian friars for only P65,610.
Another part of the collection is the original plans for the building drafted by famous Filipino architect Juan Marcos Arellano, who is known for his work on Manila’s Metropolitan Theater, National Museum of the Philippines, Jones Bridge over the Pasig River, and the Cebu Provincial Capitol.
Cebuano artists also have a gallery space in the museum. Currently on exhibit until October 5 are the works of noted Cebuano painters led by Romulo Galicano. The paintings are available for public viewing.
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This is also known as benign mucous membrane pemphigoid. This latter term should not be used since this disease may have severe blistering changes within the eye and esophagus. This chronic blistering disorder is characterized by tense bullae on an erythematous base which heal with scarring. The blisters characteristically recur in the same area. They occur in the oral cavity, cornea, conjunctiva, and to a lesser extent on the face, neck, scalp, axilla, and distal extremities. About 85% of patients present with oral involvement with a desquamative or erosive gingivitis the most common presentation. These lesions are slow to heal and may become secondarily infected. Lesions occurring in the upper aerodigestive tract may be life threatening, especially occurring in larynx.
It is a disease of older adult although childhood cases have been reported. There are occasional cases associated with carcinoma of the pancreas, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and ingestion of practolol and clonidine.
The pathogenesis reveals two antigenic sites. The first is a 180 kd protein which shows cross-reactivity to the bullous pemphigoid antigen (BPAg2). The second is uncommon and is epiligrin, a protein found at the junction of the lamina lucida and lamina densa and is associated with the anchoring filaments. It is identical to the alpha 3 subunit of laminin 5.
This is a subepidermal blister which begins with dermal papillary microabscesses. and progresses to subepidermal blisters. Scarring occurs early in the disease. Direct immunofluorescence (DIF) shows linear IgG and C3 along the dermoepidermal junction in 80% of cases. In the other 20% of cases, IgA may be the only immunoreactant present. Salt-split skin reveals two variants. In the anti-epiligrin type, the deposits are found on the dermal side while in the BPAg2 type, deposits are found in the epidermal side.
Epidemiology Disease Associations Pathogenesis Laboratory/Radiologic/Other Diagnostic Testing Gross Appearance and Clinical Variants Histopathological Features and Variants Special Stains/Immunohistochemistry/Electron Microscopy Differential Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment Commonly Used Terms Internet Links
EPIDEMIOLOGY CHARACTERIZATION SYNONYMS Benign mucous membrane pemphigoid INCIDENCE 1/12,000-20,000 in general population
1/20,000-40,000 of patients seen by opthalmologists
AGE RANGE-MEDIAN Mean 62-66 years
SEX (M:F) 1.5-2.27:1
DISEASE ASSOCIATIONS CHARACTERIZATION Malignancies Carcinoma of the pancreas Systemic lupus erythematosus Rheumatoid arthritis Drugs Practolol
HLA associations DR4
HLA-DQB1*0301 Presence of this allele appears to be a marker for increased susceptibility to ocular CP and not oral disease Complement types SC32
PATHOGENESIS CHARACTERIZATION Autoimmune disease with an environmental trigger Higher incidence of other autoimmune diseases Drugs as triggers Topical anti-glaucoma medications
Severe mucosal injury as trigger May be precipitating factor in 5 cases following Stevens-Johnson syndrome Role of autoantibodies
Anti-laminin Ab interfere with the adhesion of laminin-5 causing detachment of the keratinocytes from the basement membrane
BP180 also forms a complex with laminin-5 and it spans the lamina lucida and interacts with the lamina densa-thus this may explain the scarring in this disease
GROSS APPEARANCE/CLINICAL VARIANTS CHARACTERIZATION GENERAL
Anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid: clinical findings, immunopathogenesis, and significant associations.
Egan CA, Lazarova Z, Darling TN, Yee C, Yancey KB.
Dermatology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
Medicine (Baltimore). 2003 May;82(3):177-86. Abstract quote
We report the clinical and immunopathologic findings in a cohort of 35 patients with anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid (AECP). These patients have a mucosal predominant subepithelial blistering disease that is clinically indistinguishable from other forms of cicatricial pemphigoid. The mucosal surfaces of the mouth and eye are most commonly involved. The skin is also involved in most patients, but usually this is less severe than mucosal involvement. AECP is characterized by the binding of circulating IgG autoantibodies to the dermal side of 1M NaCl split human skin on indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. These IgG antibasement membrane autoantibodies target laminin 5, a heterotrimeric protein consisting of alpha3, beta3, and gamma2 subunits. IgG autoantibodies predominantly target the G domain within the alpha subunit.
The presence of circulating IgG autoantibodies are specific for the diagnosis of AECP and are not seen in patients with other autoimmune blistering diseases or normal volunteers. Furthermore, we expand on data previously reported on the finding of an increased relative risk for solid cancer in patients with AECP, especially in the first year after blister onset.
The majority of cancers documented in a cohort of 35 patients assembled over 12 years of study were adenocarcinomas that were at an advanced stage at their time of detection. This circumstance is thought to account for a high incidence of mortality among AECP patients who develop an associated cancer. AECP patients also demonstrate a significant risk for mortality as a consequence of treatment with systemic immunosuppressives.
The current longitudinal study suggests that only a minority of AECP patients go into remission.
The First International Consensus on Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid
Definition, Diagnostic Criteria, Pathogenic Factors, Medical Treatment, and Prognostic Indicators
Lawrence S. Chan, MD; A. Razzaque Ahmed, MD; Grant J. Anhalt, MD; Wolfgang Bernauer, MD; Kevin D. Cooper, MD; Mark J. Elder, MD; Jo-David Fine, MD; C. Stephen Foster, MD; Reza Ghohestani, MD, PhD; Takashi Hashimoto, MD; Thanh Hoang-Xuan, MD; Gudula Kirtschig, MD; Neil J. Korman, MD, PhD; Susan Lightman, PhD; Francina Lozada-Nur, DDS, MPH; M. Peter Marinkovich, MD; Bartly J. Mondino, MD; Catherine Prost-Squarcioni, MD, PhD; Roy S. Rogers III, MD; Jane F. Setterfield, MD; Dennis P. West, PhD; Fenella Wojnarowska, MD; David T. Woodley, MD; Kim B. Yancey, MD; Detlef Zillikens, MD; John J. Zone, MD
Arch Dermatol. 2002;138:370-379 Abstract quote
We aimed to develop consensus-based recommendations for streamlining medical communication among various health care professionals, to improve accuracy of diagnosis and treatment, and to facilitate future investigations for mucous membrane pemphigoid.
Because of the highly specific nature of this group of diseases, the 26 invited participants included either international scholars in the field of mucous membrane pemphigoid or experts in cutaneous pharmacology representing the 3 medical disciplines ophthalmology, oral medicine, and dermatology.
The first author (L.S.C.) conducted a literature search. Based on the information obtained, international experts who had contributed to the literature in the clinical care, diagnosis, and laboratory investigation for mucous membrane pemphigoid were invited to participate in a consensus meeting aimed at developing a consensus statement.
A consensus meeting was convened and conducted on May 10, 1999, in Chicago, Ill, to discuss the relevant issues. The first author drafted the statement based on the consensus developed at the meeting and the participants' written comments. The draft was submitted to all participants for 3 separate rounds of review, and disagreements were reconciled based on literature evidence. The third and final statement incorporated all relevant evidence obtained in the literature search and the consensus developed by the participants. The final statement was approved and endorsed by all 26 participants.
Specific consensus-based recommendations were made regarding the definition, diagnostic criteria, pathogenic factors, medical treatment, and prognostic indicators for mucous membrane pemphigoid. A system of standard reporting for these patients was proposed to facilitate a uniform data collection.
Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid
Linear deposition of IgG and IgA along the dermoepidermal junction of the conjunctiva-directed against a 45 kd protein
The Modified Foster Staging System has been used
Stage Characteristics I Subconjunctival scarring and fibrosis II Forniceal shortening (letters a-d indicate degree to which fornix is shortened) IIa 0-25% IIb 25-50% IIc 50-75% IId 75-100% III Presence of symblephara (letters a-d indicate percentage of horizontal involvement by sympblephara) IIIa 0-25% IIIb 25-50% IIIc 50-75% IIId 75-100% IV Presence of ankyloblephara and a frozen globe SKIN DISEASE VARIANTS
Localized cicatricial pemphigoid
Scarring plaque-like lesions on the head and neck, sparing the mucous membranes, and healing with scarring
Generalized bullous eruption may occur called disseminated cicatricial pemphigoid.
HISTOLOGICAL TYPES CHARACTERIZATION General
Non-specific findings with subepidermal bulla with diffuse, perivascular mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate with neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, and histiocytes
Fibrosis and scarring may occur in chronic lesions
Presence of sebaceous glands in the blister may be a clue
SPECIAL STAINS/IMMUNOPEROXIDASE/OTHER CHARACTERIZATION Electron microscopy
Variable with the basement membrane zone (BMZ) present on either the dermal or epidermal side of the blister
Immunoelectron microscopy has localized deposits over the lamina densa and within the lamina lucida
Direct immunofluorescence (DIF)
80-100% of patients have linear continuous band at BMZ usually with IgG, C3, and less commonly IgA-usually in perilesional skin or mucosa
Linear IgA with the other two are more commonly seen in this disease rather than bullous pemphigoid
antiepiligrin CP (anti-laminin type 5) IgG binds to the dermal side of salt-split skin anti-beta4 integrin IgG in predominantly ocular cases INDIRECT IMMUNUFLUORESCENCE Circulating IgG binds to epidermal side of the blister cavity with IgG1 and IgG4 the predominant subclasses
Anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita: Differentiation by use of indirect immunofluorescence microscopy.
Vodegel RM, De Jong MC, Pas HH, Yancey KB, Jonkman MF.
Departments of Dermatology, Groningen University Hospital and Medical College of Wisconsin.
J Am Acad Dermatol 2003 Apr;48(4):542-7 Abstract quote
Binding of autoantibodies to laminin 5 and type VII collagen causes anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita, respectively.
Differentiation between these two dermal-binding autoimmune bullous dermatoses is not yet possible by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy. In this study we tested whether two recently described immunofluorescence techniques, "knockout" skin substrate and fluorescent overlay antigen mapping, can differentiate between anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita. A total of 10 sera were tested: 4 with antilaminin 5, and 6 with antitype VII collagen autoantibodies, as characterized by either immunoblot or immunoprecipitation analysis.
Differentiation between anti-epiligrin cicatricial pemphigoid and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita was possible in all 10 sera by indirect immunofluorescence using either knockout skin substrate or fluorescent overlay antigen mapping technique.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS KEY DIFFERENTIATING FEATURES Bullous pemphigoid Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita Linear IgA disease Bullous SLE Paraneoplastic pemphigus Anti-p105 pemphigoid Pseudo-ocular cicatricial pemphigoid
PROGNOSIS AND TREATMENT CHARACTERIZATION PROGNOSIS
Dependent upon the extent and severity of the disease
In general, this is one of the most difficult blistering diseases to control
Poor prognostic factors for visual prognosis include:
Persistent epithelial defects
Ongoing conjunctival inflammation
Patients with high titers of IgG and IgA have highest likelihood of requiring systemic treatement
Survival Dependent upon the extent and severity of the disease Recurrence 1/3 of patients maintained prolonged remission after treatment with one or more immunosuppressive agents TREATMENT GENERAL
Interventions for Mucous Membrane Pemphigoid/Cicatricial Pemphigoid and Epidermolysis Bullosa Acquisita
A Systematic Literature Review
Gudula Kirtschig, MD; Dédée Murrell, FAAD; Fenella Wojnarowska, DM; Nonhlanhla Khumalo
Arch Dermatol. 2002;138:380-384 Abstract quote
To identify and critically evaluate evidence from randomized controlled trials for the efficacy of treatments for mucous membrane pemphigoid (MMP)/cicatricial pemphigoid (CP) and epidermolysis bullosa acquisita (EBA).
Review of MEDLINE from 1966 through March 2000, EMBASE from 1980 through March 2000, and the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (February 28, 2001) to identify randomized controlled trials for the efficacy of treatments in MMP/CP and EBA.
All randomized controlled trials of therapeutic interventions that included patients with MMP/CP or EBA confirmed by immunofluorescence study findings. All age groups were included.
We found 2 small randomized controlled trials of MMP/CP, both conducted in patients with severe eye involvement. We were not able to identify a randomized controlled trial of therapeutic interventions in EBA.
There is evidence from 2 small trials that severe ocular CP responds best to treatment with cyclophosphamide, and mild to moderate disease seems effectively suppressed by treatment with dapsone. No treatment recommendations can be made for EBA because to our knowledge no randomized controlled trials are published. Even though systemic corticosteroids are regarded as the gold standard in the treatment of MMP/CP and EBA, there is poor evidence from the literature that they are the best treatment for these diseases.
Limited disease may respond to local therapy with debridement of dead mucosal tissue and potent topical corticosteroids-helpful in oral lesions
Topical steroids ineffective in ocular lesions-topical cyclosporine has been beneficial associated with frequent lubrication. However, overal, these patients require systemic therapy
Ocular, laryngeal, esophageal, or oral or cutaneous disease unresponsive to topical measures
Controversial with some ophthalmologists treating with combination prednisone and cyclophosphamide (sometimes administered in pulse)
Azathioprine has also been used
Others have advocated dapsone with or without corticosteroids
Surgical intervention in cases of severe ocular CP, esophageal or laryngeal strictures, should not be performed until the disease is fully controlled by medical therapy-otherwise the trauma will create more scarring
Newer techniques including allograft limbal transplantation, amniotic membrane transplantation, and trasorrhaphy followed by serum-derived tears
Severe tracheal involvement may require elective tracheostomy
Treatment of recalcitrant cicatricial pemphigoid with the tumor necrosis factor antagonist etanercept
Christopher Sacher, MD, etal.
J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:113-5. Abstract quote
The treatment of cicatricial pemphigoid is generally regarded as difficult and usually relies on individual clinical experience. Corticosteroids, as drugs of first choice, often have to be combined with steroid-sparing agents to prevent hazardous, long-term side effects.
We describe a 72-year-old woman with long-standing cicatricial pemphigoid recalcitrant to established treatment regimens who responded rapidly and lastingly to therapy with the tumor necrosis factor antagonist etanercept.
To our knowledge, this is the first report of its use in the treatment of a bullous autoimmune disease.
Cicatricial pemphigoid with circulating IgA and IgG autoantibodies to the central portion of the BP180 ectodomain: Beneficial effect of adjuvant therapy with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin
Martin Leverkusa, etal
Germany, and Kurume, Japan
J Am Acad Dermatol 2002;46:116-22 Abstract quote
Cicatricial pemphigoid (CP) is an autoimmune subepidermal blistering disease characterized by deposits of IgG, IgA, or C3 at the cutaneous basement membrane zone. CP may present with considerable variation regarding age, morphology of lesions, and mucosal involvement, which may heal with or without scarring.
We describe a patient with CP who presented with circulating IgA and IgG autoantibodies to the epidermal side of salt-split human skin. By immunoblot analysis, the patient's IgA reacted with the soluble ectodomain of BP180 (LAD-1). This reactivity was mainly directed to the central portion of the BP180 ectodomain, a site that, to date, has not been described as the target of IgA autoantibodies. Different immunosuppressive treatment regimens including steroids and mycophenolate mofetil did not control this patient's disease, and severe scarring of the conjunctivae occurred with impairment of vision.
Addition of adjuvant intravenous immunoglobulin (1 g/kg body weight on 2 consecutive days) every 4 weeks led to a dramatic improvement of conjunctivitis and gingivitis. Clinical improvement correlated with the serum's IgA immunoblot reactivity against LAD-1. Further studies on a larger number of patients with CP should try to correlate the specificity of autoantibodies in CP with the response to certain therapeutic regimens. \
Treatment of cicatricial pemphigoid with mycophenolate mofetil as a steroid-sparing agent
M. Megahed, MD S. Schmiedeberg, MD J. Becker, MD T. Ruzicka, MD
J Am Acad Dermatol 2001;45:256-9 Abstract quote
Background: Cicatricial pemphigoid (CP) is a rare autoimmune bullous disease that affects the skin and mucous membranes. It commonly ends by serious complications such as blindness, stenosis, and stricture formation and is difficult to treat. Mycophenolate mofetil has been reported to be effective in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris, pemphigus foliaceus, and bullous pemphigoid either as monotherapy or as a steroid-sparing agent.
Objective: Our purpose was to evaluate the effectiveness of mycophenolate mofetil as a steroid-sparing agent in treating patients with CP. Methods: Three patients with CP were treated with mycophenolate mofetil and prednisolone.
Results: All 3 patients responded very well to the therapy. None of them showed relapse of the disease for a follow-up period of 6 to 14 months after complete cessation of mycophenolate mofetil and prednisolone. No side effects were seen.
Conclusion: Mycophenolate mofetil appears to be a safe and effective steroid-sparing agent in the treatment of CP.
Thalidomide therapy for cicatricial pemphigoid.
Duong DJ, Moxley RT 3rd, Kellman RM, Pincus SH, Gaspari AA.
Department of Neurology, State University of New York at Syracuse, USA.
J Am Acad Dermatol 2002 Aug;47(2 Suppl):S193-5 Abstract quote
Cicatricial pemphigoid is a chronic, presumed autoimmune, blistering disease of the mucous membranes and occasionally of the skin. The characteristic feature is scarring at the sites of healing.
We report the use of thalidomide as a therapeutic agent to control previously resistant disease.
J Am Acad Dermatol 2000;43:571-591.
Collagen VII-Collagen variant present in the skin basement membrane within the anchoring fibrils.
Salt split skin assay-Normal skin incubated with 1M NaCl which separates the epidermis from dermis. The epidermal half contains the upper lamina lucida, hemidesmosomes, and BP antigen. The dermal half contains laminin 5, lamina densa, and anchoring fibrils.
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A popular yo-yo trick is to have the yo-yo "climb" the string. A yo-yo with mass .5 kg and moment of inertia of .01 begins by rotating at an angular velocity of 10 rad/s. It then climbs the string until the rotation of the yo-yo stops completely. How high does the yo-yo get?
We solve this problem using conservation of energy. Initially the yo- yo has purely rotational kinetic energy, as it rotates in place at the bottom of the string. As it climbs the string some of this rotational kinetic energy is converted to translational kinetic energy, as well as gravitational potential energy. Finally, when the yo-yo reaches the top of its climb, the rotation and translation stops, and all of the initial energy is converted to gravitational potential energy. We may assume the system conserves energy, and equate initial and final energy, and solve for h:
|E f||=||E o|
A ball with moment of inertia of 1.6, mass of 4 kg, and radius of 1 m rolls without slipping down an incline which is 10 meters high. What is the speed of the ball when it reaches the bottom of the incline?
Again, we use conservation of energy to solve this problem of combined rotational and translational motion. Fortunately, since the ball rolls without slipping, we can express the kinetic energy in terms of only one variable, v , and solve for v . If the ball did not roll without slipping, we would also have to solve for σ , which would imply that the problem would not have a solution. Initially, the ball is at rest and all energy is stored in gravitational potential energy. When the ball reaches the bottom of the incline, all the potential energy is converted to both rotational and translational kinetic energy. Thus, like any conservation problem, we equate initial and final energies:
|E f||=||E o|
|Mv 2 + I||=||mgh|
|(4)v 2 + (1.6)||=||(4g)(10)|
|2v 2 + .8v 2||=||40g|
|v||=||= 11.8 m/s|
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This process-oriented science program is designed to be used by both parents and teachers to encourage children to have fun while developing confidence in their science skills. The companion Basic Kit contains: measuring spoons and cups; two-way microscope; rock specimens; sea shells; pan balance; children's goggles; and magnet board.
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Rent Discovery Science 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by David A. Winnett. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Dale Seymour Pubn.
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Wooster’s Fossil of the Week: A three-branched graptolite (Lower Ordovician of southeastern Australia)
Mark Wilson January 9th, 2011
This week I’m correcting a mistake I’ve been making in my paleontology courses for nearly thirty years. Our subject is a graptolite from the teaching collections — a specimen that has been at least cursorily examined by all of my paleontology students. It is not a particularly pretty fossil, but an important one for biostratigraphy and evolution.
Graptolites were colonial marine organisms which thrived from the Late Cambrian (roughly 510 million years ago) into the Early Carboniferous (about 350 million years ago). Their colonies, termed rhabdosomes, were not mineralized, so they are most commonly preserved as thin carbon films like our featured specimen. The rhabdosome usually began with a single individual, known as a sicula, that budded branches called stipes. Each stipe is lined with cup-like thecae that held what we presume were filter-feeding individuals termed zooids (much like bryozoans). The number of stipes per rhabdosome varies considerably, from one to dozens. Some graptolites were sessile benthic epifaunal (attached to the seafloor on hard surfaces) while others were planktic (suspended or floating).
Our specimen above is the planktic graptolite Pendeograptus fruticosus from the Lower Ordovician (about 477-474 million years old) near Bendigo, Australia. There are actually two specimens overlapping here. I’ve labeled one sicula as “S1” and the other as “S2”.
This is where my mistake began. I identified these graptolites during my first professorial year as Tetragraptus fruticosus, believing that there were two specimens with, as you might guess from the name, four stipes each. When I counted the actual stipes present, though, I found only three each. I believed, though, that graptolites had either one, two, four or many stipes, so specimens with only three had to have one stipe missing or folded over as to be invisible. So for the curious student who counted three where there should have been four, I confidently explained the preservational oddity. That both specimens lacked the fourth stipe did not apparently shake my resolve.
It was only after photographing this specimen that I looked closely enough to see that, indeed, three stipes are present and there is no evidence of a fourth for either rhabdosome. (I added numbers and letters to the above image to delineate the stipes.) Maybe there really are three-stiped graptolites? This was easily enough confirmed by simply Googling “three-stiped graptolite”. Who knew? This version of “Tetragraptus” is actually the genus Pendeograptus. Oops.
Turns out that our Pendeograptus fruticosus is part of an evolutionary series proceeding from four to three to two stipes. The three-stiped version we have is an indicator for the Australian Bendigonian Stage and a global index fossil for this narrow time interval 477 to 474 million years ago.
You can now see this specimen (without the red labels) on the Wikipedia page for graptolites. I’m correcting my mistake and sharing a useful little fossil with the world.
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Astronomy news for the week starting Friday, December 18, 2009.
Busy week. And that is just for the Moon as it plies its crescently path toward first quarter next Friday, December 24,
Christmas Eve, about the time of Moonrise in North America.
We begin the week with the cold Moon invisibly passing north of
Mercury. Far better to watch the Moon be symmetrically split
Jupiter, the crescent down and to the right of the planet the
evening of Saturday the 20th and then up and to the left of it the
following evening (closest passage taken during the day). It does
the same with Neptune, but see below. Then the evening of
Wednesday the 23rd, it's Uranus's turn for a visit, the Moon
passing six degrees north of it. While we are at it, note that the
Moon goes through apogee, where it
is farthest from Earth, on Sunday the 20th, not that that makes
much difference in our companion's appearance.
Planets, planets, planets! You might look for Mercury in
southwestern evening twilight, as this smallest planet (barring
Pluto, but that is another story) goes through its greatest eastern
elongation relative to the Sun on Friday
the 18th. It's at its best a couple nights later, when it sets
just short of the end of twilight. Then its Jupiter's turn as it
glides just 0.6 degrees south of Neptune the night of Saturday the
19th. The Boss of the planetary system is wonderful for early-
evening viewing in the southwest just after sunset. Except for the
Moon, it's the brightest thing out there, and thus easy to find.
But look early, as it's down by 9 PM. Try to note Capricornus's Deneb Algedi just below
Next up? Mars. Rising
around 8:30 PM in far western Leo
just across the border from Cancer,
known as Ares in Greek, the reddish planet hits a milestone by
retrograde (westerly) motion against the stellar background on
Monday the 21st as the Earth prepares to pass (late next month)
between it and the Sun. And don't forget Saturn, which is now
rising in the east shortly after midnight in advance of Spica.
At the very end of this week's tale sits our own Earth. On Monday the
21st, at 11:47 AM CST (12:47 PM EST, 9:47 AM PST, and so on), the
Sun -- as seen from Earth -- passes the Winter Solstice in Sagittarius to mark the beginning of astronomical
winter in the northern hemisphere. On that date, with the Earth's
axis tilted toward the Sun, old Sol is as far south of the celestial equator as possible (23.4
degrees), giving us our shortest day and longest night, and rising
and setting as far south of the east and west points of the horizon
With the Sun at the Winter Solstice, the Summer Solstice in classical Gemini rides high at midnight, with Orion below and to the right of the
celestial Twins. Far below them is the sky's brightest star, Sirius, the luminary of Canis Major, the Larger Dog. The
early evening has its own charms, among them Pegasus, the Flying Horse,
recognizable by the Great
Square. Well down and to the right of it lies the much smaller
and fainter box that represents Equuleus, the Little Horse.
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Gail Beckerman’s interview with Prof. Paul Mullins, president of the Society for Historical Archaeology, on learning about the development of American consumer habits through artifacts:
We actually have a lot of archeological data that speak to food consumption....Fish is actually a good example. It’s one of those things that you find in the Chesapeake, in Baltimore, D.C., and Virginia. We see lots and lots of fish scales early on in the 18th century into mid-century and then the scales kind of disappear and then we only see fish bones, and that’s probably a transition from buying things in the street to going to stores, because when you get into the store you are having the fish already pre-cleaned. . . .At Williamsburg Marketplace, a commercial website of Colonial Williamsburg, product manager and former curator Liza Gusler answers a question about drinking tea from a saucer:
By the 18th century and the Revolution, one of the things that is happening is the development of a marketplace you or I would recognize, with a fair amount of mass-produced goods and class distinctions and patterns. And some things that are in every household begin to appear. Tea consumption is a really good example. And that’s something that’s very easy for us to see archeologically because we see the introduction of teacups and spoons. We also have probate inventories so we can look at what people have at the time of their death. Tea starts as a relatively elite activity but it very rapidly becomes something every American is participating in, but often in idiosyncratic ways. Some people drink out of saucers, some drink out of very fine Chinese porcelain, some folks drink out of fabulous-looking English ceramics with big tea services.
From my research in Virginia documents and British prints and paintings, I suspect that some people of lower social rank drank from saucers, but that an 18th-century “Miss Etiquette” would not consider it “the done thing.” There is a satirical print called “Lady Nightcap at Breakfast” that shows a young woman sipping from a saucer. Her costume hints that “Lady Nightcap” might not be received for tea in the best London drawing rooms. I've never seen someone sipping from a saucer in more formal period “conversation” paintings, which often depict gentry families or parties taking tea.The cup and saucer above, from mid-eighteenth-century France, come courtesy of artist and antiques dealer Andrew Hopkins. The picture shows how many saucers of the time were more like little bowls than like flat little plates—much easier to drink from. As “Lady Nightcap” demonstrates.
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SAN FRANCISCO, Sept. 10 - A chemical compound found in crabs and shrimp that has long been known to have certain medicinal value also can act like a "bed of nails," fending off microbes seeking to colonize wound dressings, catheters and other implantable medical devices, according to Montana State University researchers. Using the compound to coat these medical devices, they say, could help prevent thousands of bacterial and yeast infections annually.
The preliminary finding, by Philip Stewart, Ph.D., director of MSU's Center for Biofilm Engineering, and Ross Carlson, Ph.D., assistant professor of chemical engineering, was described today at the 232nd national meeting of the American Chemical Society, the world's largest scientific society.
In their laboratory studies, chitosan - a sugar in the cells of crabs and shrimp - repelled bacteria and yeast, effectively preventing these microbes from forming slimy, glue-like layers of infectious cells, known as biofilms, Stewart said. These biofilms account for up to 65 percent of the bacterial infections in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The researchers say that while chitosan is well known for its antimicrobial activity, this is the first time its anti-biofilm activity has been described.
"Coating chitosan onto a surface seems to stop bacteria and yeast from colonizing that surface," Stewart said. "Chitosan almost acts like a bed of nails. If a microbe alights on it, the chitosan skewers it or causes it to leak. That might not kill microbes outright, but it certainly discourages them from establishing a foothold."
Biofilms are considered the leading cause of up to 400,000 cases of catheter-related, bloodstream infections each year, Stewart said. In addition, biofilms can arise on virtually any device implanted in the body, including mechanical heart valves, contact lens, artificial hips and knees, and breast implants. Once a biofilm-induced infection takes hold, it can be difficult to treat and often requires the surgical removal of the affected device, he said.
If further testing in animals and humans proves successful, coating these devices with chitosan could become an important first line of defense, according to Stewart. "I don't want to claim we've fully solved the problem here," he said, "but ... I think over the next 10 years we're going to be seeing new technologies in the form of coatings that will prevent or at least reduce the incidence of infection."
Chitosan is derived from chitin, the main component of crustacean shells. It is sold commercially as a nutritional supplement and is an FDA-approved material for staunching blood loss. Chitosan also is used in biomaterials, as a thickener in cosmetics and a flocculating agent in water treatment. As a biomaterial, chitosan has a track record for its non-toxicity, biocompatibility, ability to promote healing and its inherent antimicrobial properties.
The American Chemical Society - the world's largest scientific society - is a nonprofit organization chartered by the U.S. Congress and a global leader in providing access to chemistry-related research through its multiple databases, peer-reviewed journals and scientific conferences. Its main offices are in Washington, D.C., and Columbus, Ohio.
-- Doug Dollemore
The paper on this research, COLL 021, will be presented Sunday, Sept. 10, 8:40 a.m., in the Sir Francis Drake hotel, Windsor Room, during the symposium, "Structure, Interactions and Reactivity at Microbial Surfaces."
Philip S. Stewart, Ph.D., is director of the Center for BioFilm Engineering at Montana State University in Bozeman.
Ross P. Carlson, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of chemical engineering at Montana State University in Bozeman.
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December 21, 2009
Old Iron Bridge Given Modern Tests
An unusual bowstring truss iron bridge that carried traffic across Roaring Run in Bedford County, Va. for almost 100 years is now a picturesque footbridge at the I-81 Ironto, Va. rest stop. Built in 1878, it is the oldest standing metal bridge in Virginia. In early December, a Virginia Tech undergraduate conducted a load-bearing analysis of the structure.
It may have been the first such test on the bridge. "There was no documentation of a structural analysis from when the bridge was designed," said Elaine Huffman of Bowie, Md., a student in civil engineering. As part of her research project, she did a historical survey of the bridge through a literature review, developed a computer-based structural analysis, and recently verified the computer model with an actual load test.The bowstring truss design was patented by Z. King in 1859 under the name "Tubular Arch Bridge," Huffman learned. When the bridge was bypassed by a pipe culvert in the 1970s, it began to fall into disrepair. "The Virginia Transportation Research Council recognized the importance of the bridge as a historical landmark and worked to preserve it by restoring it and putting it into use elsewhere," said Huffman. "Much work was put into determining the original paint scheme and recreating it once the bridge was relocated. The new site was selected to maintain the function of the bridge."
Huffman noted a number of unique features of the wrought iron bridge. For example, "there is a unique bracing system perpendicular to the truss that restrains lateral movement of the arch," she said. "Cross braces prevent longitudinal motion of the bridge deck as it hangs from the vertical cables."
In her computer model stress analysis, Huffman applied three different loads, two of them from the era of iron bridges. One test came from the 1893 Practical Treatise on the Construction of Iron Highway Bridges, which suggested that a uniform distributed load of 75 pounds per square foot (psf) be applied to ordinary country bridges 60 feet and shorter to represent a typical load. For a vehicular point load, the 1898 work, De Prontibus, suggested using a six-foot by eight-foot wagon load of five tons distributed equally between all four wheels. The third load was representative of the three-ton truck that would be used in the load test.
The deflected shape of the truss with the 3.5-ton wagon load was the same as the five-ton wagon load, Huffman determined. The uniform load created the highest stresses and highest deflections. "Generally, stresses are limited in a modern bridge design to 60 percent of the yield stress in service," Huffman said. "But in its current location, the bridge will most likely never see such high stresses because pedestrian traffic over it is neither constant nor high enough."
On December 3, Huffman carried out a load test to verify the accuracy of the computer model. Dial gages, which turn small linear movements into readable increments on a dial, were set up below the center of each truss. Then, a truck weighing three tons was driven across the bridge, pausing every five feet to record the deflection.
"The bridge behaved as expected for the most part. The maximum deflection recorded for one truss was 0.14 inches, 70 percent of the result predicted by the model. However, the second truss deflected a smaller amount," Huffman said. "Preliminary analysis suggests that the diagonal cable members have loosened over time and are supporting the bridge loads unevenly, allowing one truss to deflect more than the other,"
The results from this test will be contributed to the Adaptive Bridge Use Project based at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and supported by the National Science Foundation. The program aims to restore and study historic bridges to enhance structural engineering curriculum and preserve examples of bridge designs from the past, said Huffman's advisor, Cris Moen, assistant professor of civil and environmental engineering.
The Ironto Wayside footbridge, the last remaining bowstring arch-truss in the state, is a significant landmark in Virginia. "It is useful to study historic landmarks, as they can guide us in the design of future structures," said Huffman.
Her computer model can be used as an example for creating structural models to test other bridges, said Moen.
"Perhaps the analysis will aid in the future assessment of the bridge's condition as it continues to be preserved as a historic landmark," said Huffman.
Huffman's research reports can be accessed at www.moen.cee.vt.edu. Her report from the December 3 measurements was posted to the web site on December 20, 2009.
Image 1: This photo shows the condition of the bridge in 1977 with the flooring system removed, before it was moved from Bedford County to the Ironto Wayside and restored by the Virginia Transportation Research Council. Credit: Photo by Wallace T. McKeel Jr., VTRC senior research scientist
Image 2: On a clear, late fall day, Virginia Tech researchers conducted load tests on the restored 1878 iron bridge at the Ironto Wayside -- the only such bridge in Virginia. Credit: Jim Stroup, Virginia Tech Photo
Image 3: Elaine Huffman, Virginia Tech undergraduate, records the deflection of the bridge measured by one of the dial gauges and weights set up below the center of each truss. Credit: Jim Stroup, Virginia Tech Photo
On the Net:
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It took on a special significance owing to the recent crash of an airplane carrying an official Polish delegation in which 96 delegates perished near Smolensk, now Belarus, formerly territory of the Soviet Union. The delegates were there to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the massacre. Among the victims of the crash were the present President of Poland, Lech Kaczynski; former President of the Polish Republic in Exile, Richard Kaczorowski; and Janusz Kurtyka, one of the chief investigators of the Katyn Massacre from the Institute of the National Remembrance, as well as the Speaker of the Polish Congress, the Vice-Speaker, members of Polish Parliament, several generals, leaders of the Katyn Families Association, and a founder of the Solidarity movement, Anna Walentynowicz.
The Washington commemoration was attended by many dignitaries, including two U.S. Senators, House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, a Russian Ambassador, and Allen Paul, the author of Katyn, Stalin’s Massacre and the Triumph of Truth. It was a whole-day conference that was moderated by the president and executive director of the Kosciuszko Foundation, Alex Storozynski.
The conference itself was especially meaningful in view of the recent efforts made by the current government of the Russian Federation to make as much of the evidence of the massacre accessible to the government of Poland. Conference members reviewed the history and facts behind the murders of approximately 22,000 Polish officers, prisoners of war, and members of the Polish leading elite, by a single shot to the back of each of their heads on orders from the Soviet government in the early spring of 1940. The executions were carried out by high officials of the NKVD-KGB, the Soviet secret police.
Several members of the conference, mainly Zbigniew Brzezinski, the former National Security Advisor to President Jimmy Carter, spoke of the obvious: that this massacre was "hidden" by authorities not only of the Soviet Union, but also by the authorities of the United States and the allies during and well after World War II. It was just few days ago that finally Russian President Dmitry Medvedev publicly admitted that the government of the Soviet Union "lied" to Poland and the world about the Katyn Massacre. It was Soviet Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev who originally revealed the facts about the massacre to Poland's President Lech Walesa in 1990. Later it was Gorbachev who admitted the massacre to Father Zdzislaw Peszkowski, chaplain of the Katyn Families Association at the National Cemetary in Warsaw's Powazki. The U.S. government knew early on about the murders, though they were not brought to the public’s attention. In 1951-1952, the 82nd Congress of the United States investigated the circumstances of the massacre, establishing "beyond a reasonable doubt" that it was committed by the NKVD, the secret police of the Soviet Union. As Brzezinski stated, the tragedy suffered from "historical amnesia" that was "intentional," yet it would be hard to imagine the Holocaust of the Jewish people being hidden for almost 60 years.
Sen. Richard Lugar called for "reconciliation" between Russia and Poland, and Sen. Benjamin Cardin asked that the present government of Russia "apologize" to Poland for the massacre.
However, it is already an established fact that the two nations have been reconciled for some time. And most people in Poland do not blame the massacre on the Russian nation. It was Stalin, Beria, Kaganovich, Kalinin, etc. who signed the order of execution, dated March 5, 1940. None of them were Russian. Also it is an established fact that the "executors" of this order were also not Russian, but high officials of the secret police. Yet, many facts remain "hidden." Only recently, the present authorities of the Russian Federation began to make new information accessible to the Polish authorities.
These efforts, however well intentioned by the participants of both countries, should be carefully examined in view of the fact that during 1940 it was the communist regime of Joseph Stalin and his agents of NKVD-KGB that kept the facts about the massacre secret, and the same regime of Stalin, Beria, Kalinin, Kaganovich, etc. murdered hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of Russians, Ukrainians, Belorussians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, Georgians, Chechens, etc. during 1930s and later. Also it should be remembered that the same regime was in power when a similar airplane crash occurred in 1943 killing General Walter Sikorski, when he requested to know the whereabouts of the 15,000 Polish officers known to have "disappeared" in the USSR after it invaded Poland in September 1939 in conjunction with Hitler's Germany. And the present government of the Russian Federation, which is making certain volumes of evidence known about the Katyn Massacre, is under the control of the communist former KGB agent Vladimir Putin.
Also it is at least suspect that the investigation into the airplane crash of Polish dignitaries on April 10, 20l0 is being conducted under the "leadership and authority" of the present government of Vladimir Putin because the present government of Poland is "leaning" to the "Left" and the administration consists of members of the People's Platform (Party) whereas, President Kaczynski and his delegation were members of the opposition party known as Law and Justice (Party).
Krzysztof Nowak, Chairman of the Katyn Massacre Memorial Committee, Inc.
Photo: A Memorial in Jersey City, New Jersey, honoring the victims of the Katyn Massacre
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Pollard, John Henry Mingo
by Lawrence F. London, 1994
10 Feb. 1855–2 Aug. 1908
John Henry Mingo Pollard, Episcopal clergyman, was born in Lunenburg County, Va. He read for orders in Petersburg, Va., under the direction of the Reverend Giles B. Cooke, John D. Keiley, and the Reverend Thomas Spencer. On 28 June 1878 Pollard was ordained deacon by Bishop F. M. Whittle in the chapel of the Theological Seminary of Virginia. Eight years later, on 14 Dec. 1886, Bishop Whittle ordained him priest in St. Paul's Church, Norfolk, Va.
Pollard's first assignment was as deacon in charge of the black congregation attached to Christ Church, Alexandria. In 1880 he became assistant minister at St. Stephen's Church, Petersburg, where he remained for three years. The next four years he spent as deacon in charge of the mission of Holy Innocents, Norfolk. In 1887 Pollard moved to the Diocese of South Carolina to be assistant minister of St. Mark's Church, Charleston; the next year he became rector. Pollard went to South Carolina at the height of a controversy that had divided that diocese since 1875: the right of the black clergy and laity to have a seat and a vote in the diocesan conventions. Pollard maintained that since his parish had fulfilled all of the canonical requirements for full membership in the diocesan convention, he and his parish were entitled to all rights and privileges of the convention. He was supported in his stand by his Bishop, William B. W. Howe, who had held this position from the first. The question was settled in 1889 by a compromise that admitted St. Mark's Church into union with the convention but put all other black churches and missions in a separate convocation under the bishop. In 1890 Bishop Howe placed Pollard in charge of all black missions in the Charleston district.
After eleven years in South Carolina, Pollard was called to the Diocese of North Carolina on 1 Feb. 1898 to be "Archdeacon for Work Among Colored People." One of the significant contributions he made as archdeacon was in the field of education. In his opinion, a most effective means of improving the work among blacks was through parochial schools. Pollard believed that "neither the State nor the Church can be safe in the hands of ignorant people." It was the duty of the church "to remove the cloud of ignorance now hanging over this large class of our population." In addition to promoting existing parochial schools, he established in 1900 a "Farming and Training School" in connection with St. Anna's Mission at Littleton. Pollard's work received recognition outside the Diocese of North Carolina in 1903, when he addressed the Missionary Council of the Episcopal church in Washington on his church's work for southern blacks. In 1907 he was appointed field secretary for a year to the Board of Missions.
Pollard married Julia May Evans, by whom he had two daughters and six sons. One of his sons, George C., distinguished himself as a lay missionary and teacher in Louisburg. He was principal of St. Matthias's parochial school from 1902 until it ceased to operate in the late 1930s. Following the archdeacon's death, Bishop Joseph B. Cheshire characterized him as "a man of real ability, of sound judgment, of tact, of a singularly well-balanced character; a good preacher, and one who commanded the respect of all." Pollard was buried in Mount Hope Cemetery, Raleigh.
Journals of the Annual Councils of the Diocese of Virginia (1878–86)
Journals of the Diocese of North Carolina (1898–1909)
Lloyd's Clerical Directory for 1905 (1905)
Albert Sidney Thomas, A Historical Account of the Protestant Episcopal Church in South Carolina, 1820–1957 (1957)
Journal of the annual convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the State of North Carolina: https://archive.org/details/journalofannualc90epis
1 January 1994 | London, Lawrence F.
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Italian Renaissance painter, Michelangelo, was born on March 6, 1475 in Caprese, Italy. Considered one of the greatest artists of all time and an influential figure in the development of Western art, and he is probably best known for his sculptures Pietà and David and for his remarkable painting of the ceiling and altar of the Sistine Chapel in Rome.
Michelangelo was born Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni to small-scale banker and magistrate Leonardo di Buonarrota Simoni and Francesca Neri. He was the second of five sons born to the couple. As with most prodigy-like artists, Michelangelo took an interest in painting, drawing, and other forms of art at an early age as he watched painters at nearby churches. Early Michelangelo biographers claim that Francesco Granacci, one of Michelangelo’s grammar school friends introduced Michelangelo to painter Domenico Ghirlandaio. Not blind to Michelangelo’s disinterest in regular schooling and the potential takeover of their family’s financial business, Michelangelo’s father sent him to apprentice under Ghirlandaio. He learned fresco painting during his time apprenticing with Ghirlandaio, who was a master of the technique.
In 1489, Ghirlandaio was asked by the de facto ruler of Florence, Lorenzo de’ Medici, to present his two best pupils. At age 14, Michelangelo was sent to study classical sculpting techniques and philosophy at the Humanist academy at the Medici gardens. He gained access to Florence’s social elite and was exposed to some of the greatest artists, writers, and philosophers of the time. He also was granted permission by the Catholic Church to study cadavers and gain insight into human anatomy. These years of study greatly contributed to Michelangelo’s style which combined a precise realism with a lyrical beauty. The only two works that have survived from this time in Michelangelo’s life are Madonna of the Steps and Battle of the Centaurs, which show his exceptional talent even in his teen years.
After moving to Rome in 1498, a still young Michelangelo began to work under the wing of Cardinal Jean Bilhères de Lagraulas. The cardinal commissioned him to do what would become known as one of his greatest pieces, Pietà. Piet means “pity” or “compassion,” and the sculpture was a six-foot wide and six-foot tall piece of marble carved into the shape of Mary cradling a dead Jesus in her lap. Michelangelo finished the piece in less than a year when he was only 25 years old. It was erected in the church which contained the cardinal’s tomb, and has since been moved five times and now rests at St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City. This work is the only of Michelangelo’s that bears his name, as he carved it on the sash Mary wears after hearing spectators attribute the work to another artist.
Michelangelo became well known for Pietà, and was commissioned to finish the work of two other artists who had failed to complete a statue of David. He sculpted a strong, yet vulnerable figure from 17 feet of marble, and the Statue of David became a symbol of Florentine pride and freedom. It is one of the most renowned works of the Renaissance.
Pope Julius II invited Michelangelo back to Rome in 1505 to build a series of sculptures that would be part of the pope’s tomb. This project was interrupted when the pope asked Michelangelo to begin painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Originally commissioned to paint the Twelve Apostles on the ceiling, Michelangelo asked for more freedom in his work and began painting complex scenes representing representing the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the genealogy of Christ. When finished, the ceiling included over 300 figures. After firing all his assistants and finishing the 65-foot ceiling himself, he revealed his work on October 31, 1512. Michelangelo returned to working on the tomb of Pope Julius II over the next few decades, but never completed the project.
Painting the Sistine Chapel took a great physical toll on Michelangelo, and he began to focus on architecture. He was at the head of several projects including the Medici Chapel and the Laurentian Library, though his greatest was probably St. Peter’s Basilica, which he became chief architect for in 1546. He dealt with many conflicts later in life, including backlash after creating the large fresco in the Sistine Chapel, Last Judgement, which included several nude figures thought inappropriate for such a holy place.
Due to his harsh personality and short temper, Michelangelo had rocky relationships with most people he encountered, especially his superiors. He turned to writing as a way to express his melancholy and other feelings about his mostly solitary life. He composed hundreds of poems, sonnets, and other literary works towards the end of his life.
Michelangelo died in 1564 at age 88 in Rome after suffering a short illness. By his request, he was buried in Florence at the Basilica di Santa Croce, and Florentines revered him as the “father and master of all arts” at the time of his death. He is one of the lucky few artists who became wealthy and famous during his lifetime and saw two biographies about him completed. Along with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, his name has become synonymous with the Florentine High Renaissance, and his life’s work remains legendary.
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| 0.984122 | 1,163 | 3.609375 | 4 |
The search for fresh water is on and United Arab Emirates-based Masdar Institute of Science and Technology believes that its new collaboration with the region’s National Research Foundation (NRF) will help detect fog and monitor the precipitation for the expansion of renewable fresh water sources as well as what the company said will improve safety and transportation monitoring when fog events occur.
The idea is simple. By following the fog the company hopes that it can then develop nano-composite material with the goal of harvesting water from the atmosphere, i.e. from the fog.
The location of the UAE on the edge of a very warm sea on the one side and hot and dry desert on the other create the optimal conditions of inland fog forming. The afternoon sea breeze –almost a daily event in the UAE’s coastal areas – transports moisture inland, then at clear sky conditions at night, the large surrounding desert radiates heat very efficiently and temperatures fall quickly. The rapid cooling of accumulated inland moisture during the night facilitates conditions for fog development.
According to the Emirates official news agency WAM and a press release issued by Masdar, the projects are being split into two separate actions to work together on boosting the use of fog, detection and grabbing of fresh water.
To the unsuspecting eye, the Emirates might seem like a country not prime for fog and its tracking and ultimate development of the precipitation, but as a result of the UAE being located between a hot and dry desert to the west and a warm sea to the east, it results in massive fog accumulation inland, which Masdar believes can push the creation of new sources of water development.
Detection is important for safety reasons: Dr. Hosni Ghedira working on the project said: “On an average, there are 20 occurrences of dense fogs each year in the UAE, mainly during the December-January period. Heavy fog events reduce visibility, causing flight delays and fatal highway accidents. An accurate detection of fog will improve the safety and efficiency of transportation systems.”
Masdar Insitute President Fred Moavenzadeh told WAM, “The two groundbreaking research projects will bring sustainable benefits to the UAE and other parts of the world.
“Our projects remain relevant to Abu Dhabi and the UAE while offering benefits to regions with similar climatic conditions. With the support of the UAE leadership, we have sustained the momentum in achieving innovative solutions. We hope the global community will benefit from the outcomes of the two research projects currently being undertaken at Masdar Institute,” he added.
Dr. Raed Hashaikeh says it’s a welcome alternative to collecting fresh water in the water scarce region: “Desalination is the main source of fresh water in the UAE. The ambient atmosphere in the UAE contains a large quantity of water which makes it a potential renewable source of fresh water. Our research work will focus on developing advanced surfaces to enhance the capture and collection of tiny fog droplets. Through materials that can increase water capture efficiency, we aim to exploit fog occurrences as a renewable source of fresh water in the UAE.
National Research Foundation Research Program Manager Ahmed Alosi said: “The collaborative effort with Masdar Institute will bring benefits to the community. As directed by the UAE’s leadership, NRF promotes research activities that survive international peer review and contribute to social and economic benefits in the UAE.
“We hope the research projects on fog by Masdar Institute faculty will result in tangible outcome to support sustainable development in the country and the region.”
Masdar has become the leading renewable energy company in the Gulf region, with massive investment and development of the solar and wind energy sectors in the past 6 years since its founding. Green Prophet’s Tafline Laylin will be heading there in January for a week of sustainable events.
According to Masdar, it “aims to be a global leader in commercially-viable clean energy and sustainable technologies — and to secure the Emirate’s continued leadership in the evolving global energy market.”
With this new ambitious fog effort, it could once again show itself capable of innovation and alternative energy development that leads the global energy push away from traditional sources.
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| 0.935577 | 861 | 2.953125 | 3 |
(1690 - 1764)
Jonathan Eibeschutz was born
at the end of the 17th century in Poland.
He was a child prodigy in Talmud.
He settled in Prague in 1715 and became head of the yeshivah and
a famous preacher. In Prague, Eibeschutzhe
had many contacts with priests and the intelligentsia,
debating religious topics and matters of faith
with them. He became friendly with Cardinal
Hassebauer and also discussed religious questions
with him. Through the help of the cardinal,
Eibeschutz received permission to print the
Talmud with the omission of all passages contradicting
the principles of Christianity. This angered
the rabbis of Prague, and they revoked the printing license.
The people of Prague held
Eybeschuetz in high esteem and he was considered
second only to David Oppenheim. In 1725, he
was among the Prague rabbis who excommunicated
the Shabbatean sect. In 1736, Eibeschutz was appointed dayyan
of Prague. He became rabbi of Metz in 1741.
In 1750, he was elected rabbi of the "Three
Communities:" Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbek
Eibeschutz was considered a great preacher,
and his pilpul approach to Talmud was highly
In 1751, a huge controversy
broke out between Eibeschutz and Jacob Emden,
which affected most of German
Jewry. Like Eibeschutz, Emden was a great
talmudist, He had applied for the rabbinic
post where Eibeschutz served. Eibeschutz had
apparently written some amulets while rabbi
of Metz. Emden analyzed them and declared
that they were Shabbatean. A huge uproar ensued,
and Emden had to flee to Amsterdam for a while.
Eibeschutz denied the accusation, which in
any case could not be proved with certainty.
The majority of the greatest rabbis in Poland, Moravia, and Bohemia,
as well as the leaders of the Three Communities supported him, either
because the accusation was utterly incredible, or because they feared
the repercussions of a scandal if their leading rabbi was found to be
Emden disregarded these considerations vehemently. He fought his opponent
and his numerous supporters by writing numerous books and pamphlets.
The controversy was so divisive that both sides appealed to the authorities
in Hamburg and the government of Denmark for a judicial ruling. The
king favored Eibeschutz and ordered new elections, which resulted in
The controversy just wouldn't go away, however. After
his reelection as rabbi of the Three Communities, some rabbis of Frankfurt,
Amsterdam, and Metz challenged him to appear before them to reply to
the suspicions raised against him. Eibeschutz refused, and when the
matter was brought before the Council of the Four Lands in 1753, the
council issued a ruling in his favor.
In 1760 the quarrel broke out once more when some Shabbatean elements
were discovered among the students of Eibeschutz' yeshivah. At the same
time his younger son, Wolf, presented himself as a Shabbatean prophet,
with the result that the yeshivah was closed.
The great bitterness this controversy stemmed precisely
from his being recognized as a true master of the Torah.
It was hard to believe that a man who had himself signed a cherem against
the Shabbateans could have secretly held their beliefs. Scholars continue
to argue both sides of the question.
Sources: Gates of Jewish
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| 0.972368 | 791 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Figes, Orlando (2010) Crimea: the last crusade. London, UK: Allen Lane. ISBN 9780713997040.Full text not available from this repository.
The terrible conflict that dominated the mid 19th century, the Crimean War killed at least 800,000 men and pitted Russia against a formidable coalition of Britain, France and the Ottoman Empire. It was a war for territory, provoked by fear that if the Ottoman Empire were to collapse then Russia could control a huge swathe of land from the Balkans to the Persian Gulf. But it was also a war of religion, driven by a fervent, populist and ever more ferocious belief by the Tsar and his ministers that it was Russia’s task to rule all Orthodox Christians and control the Holy Land. Orlando Figes’ major new book reimagines this extraordinary war, in which the stakes could not have been higher and which was fought with a terrible mixture of ferocity and incompetence. It was both a recognisably modern conflict - the first to be extensively photographed, the first to employ the telegraph, the first ‘newspaper war’ - and a traditional one, with illiterate soldiers, amateur officers and huge casualties caused by disease. The iconic moments of the war - the Charge of the Light Brigade, the Siege of Sebastopol, the impact of Florence Nightingale - are all here, but there is also a rich sense of the Crimea itself and the culture that was destroyed by the fighting. Drawing on a huge range of fascinating sources, Figes also gives the lived experience of the war, from that of the ordinary British soldier in his snow-filled trench, to the haunted, gloomy, narrow figure of Tsar Nicholas himself as he vows to take on the whole world in his hunt for religious salvation.
|School or Research Centre:||Birkbeck Schools and Research Centres > School of Social Sciences, History and Philosophy > History, Classics and Archaeology|
|Date Deposited:||12 May 2011 08:54|
|Last Modified:||17 Apr 2013 12:17|
Archive Staff Only (login required)
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| 0.939536 | 436 | 2.6875 | 3 |
What is RATE? "Scientists associated with the Institute for Creation Research have finished an eight-year research project known as RATE, or Radioisotopes and the Age of the Earth" and they claim that "the team of seven creation scientists have discovered incredible physical evidence that supports what the Bible says about the young age of the earth." (from ICR's homepage for RATE) / For an overview of RATE you can read descriptions, by young-earth creationists, of Thousands not Billions (conference), Thousands not Billions (Radioisotope Age Dating Set, with popular-level book, study guide, two DVDs), Radioisotopes and the Age of the Earth (technical-level book), and a free presentation (video or powerpoint).
You can explore educational web-resources that explain the principles of radiometric dating in the homepage for AGE OF THE EARTH — SCIENCE where you'll see different perspectives (conventional and young-earth) on the reliability of scientific conclusions about the earth's age.
• In an 8-part series during
May-June 2007, Randy Isaac (executive director of the American Scientific Affiliation)
outlined principles of Integrity
in Science regarding (if you read the blog entries chronologically from bottom to top) Scientific Methodology, Skepticism in Science,
Fraud, Phases of Science, Removing Unconscious Bias, Nine Lives of Offbeat Ideas,
and Age of the Earth; the final part
with the integrity of the reporting of the work [by RATE] rather than
in Assessing the RATE Project where
book, Radioisotopes and the Age of the
Volume 2. His review (June 2007) was followed (in March 2008) by a
from RATE and replies by Randy Isaac & Kirk Bertsche. The 4-part
dialog (essay review, response, and replies) is in Perspectives
Faith, the peer-reviewed journal
Helium Diffusion in Zircons
• To supplement an introductory paragraph and a brief semi-technical overview in the papers above (Assessing the Rate Project and a response from RATE and replies...), Randy Isaac wrote Helium Diffusion and Retention in Zircons to describe a Standard Model (used by scientists to gather clues about the thermal history of a zircon crystal) and two models proposed by RATE: a New Creation Model (used by RATE) and Uniformitarian Model (used by nobody, since "the [uniformitarian] model has no relationship to the standard model... [or] any model used in thermochronology.")
• Helium Diffusion in Zircon: Flaws in a Young-Earth Argument, Part 1 and Part 2 by Gary Loechelt, and his associated technical paper Fenton Hill Revisited: The Retention of Helium in Zircons and the Case for Accelerated Nuclear Decay. And you can read Gary's explanations of Helium in Zircons for Talk Rational's discussion forum about Evolution and Origins in 2010.
• In 2008, a young-earth RATE response to "six years of criticism of one part of RATE" by Russell Humphreys (Helium evidence for a young world continues to confound critics) plus two counter-responses by Gary Loechelt, Helium Diffusion in Zircon: A Response to Questions by the Rate Team and, in more detail, A Response to the RATE Team — Regarding Helium Diffusion in Zircon. / And in Journal of Creation, 2010, a letter by Gary Loechelt and response by Russell Humphreys; both include references to earlier papers.
• RATE-Project Claims [about Helium in Zircons] by Rodney Whitefield
Radiocarbon Decay (trace amounts of C-14 radiation)
• RATE's Radiocarbon: Intrinsic or Contamination? by Kirk Bertsche, is an expansion of his reply in PSCF, which you can read above in a response from RATE and replies...
Polonium Halos in Granites
• Polonium Halos and Myrmekite in Pegmatite & Granite by Lorence Collins, who also has a links-page (halos are examined in 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 14)
Excessive Heat — a Catastrophic Problem for a Catastrophic Flood
What is the problem? RATE acknowledges the occurrence of "more than 500 million years worth (at today’s rates) of nuclear and radioisotope decay.” This decay occurs throughout the geological formations that, according to flood geology, were produced by the flood. Therefore RATE must propose that almost all of this decay occurred during the one-year flood, because for some unknown reason the decay rate for some atoms (but not others) was extremely high (but only for a year, not before or after). This amount of decay would produce an immense amount of heat quickly, in less than a year. The results are described by Larry Vardiman, a member of RATE: "The amount of heat produced by a decay rate of a million times faster than normal during the year of the Flood could potentially vaporize the earth’s oceans, melt the crust, and obliterate the surface of the earth. (Unresolved Problems in RATE)" Wow! This would be a "super-catastrophic flood" producing results far beyond anything we actually observe in the geological record of the earth.
In addition to this heat-producing radioactive decay, young-earth explanations for flood geology require other heat-producing processes — volcanic magma, limestone formation, meteor impacts, biological decay, plus more heat with any of the models (Vapor Canopy, Hydroplate, Comet, Runaway Subduction) proposed to answer the question, "Where did the Flood water come from, and where did it go?" — and these sources of heat by themselves (even if only one or a few of them occurred, even without rapid radioactive decay) would boil away all of the ocean water, and then it would take millions of years for earth to cool.
Is there a young-earth solution? In Assessing the RATE Project, Randy Isaac describes the current situation: "The authors admit that a young-earth position cannot be reconciled with the scientific data without assuming that exotic solutions will be discovered in the future. No known thermodynamic process could account for the required rate of heat removal nor is there any known way to protect organisms from radiation damage. ... Yet they are so confident that these problems will be resolved that they encourage a message that the reliability of [their young-earth interpretation of] the Bible has been confirmed."
Here are two evaluations of proposed young-earth solutions for the problem of overheating:
• Flaws in a Young-Earth Cooling Mechanism by Glenn Morton & George Murphy
• Nonexistence of Humphreys’ “Volume Cooling” for Terrestrial Heat Disposal by Cosmic Expansion by J. Brian Pitts
radiometric dating is not the only type of scientific support for an old earth;
instead, scientists have multiple independent confirmations for their conclusions.
You can examine the evidence-and-logic for yourself in AGE OF THE EARTH — SCIENCE.
I.O.U. — Later, this page will offer more web-resources, from supporters and critics of conventional radiometric dating.
All links were checked and fixed on March 12, 2012.
|Views in the pages listed above are those of the authors,
and don't necessarily represent views of the
American Scientific Affiliation.
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| 0.919821 | 1,593 | 3.0625 | 3 |
The Zika ThreatASM Acts to Counter Zika Virus Outbreak.
The research program in the Frank lab centers on the pathogenesis of two Gram-negative bacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Francisella tularensis. P. aeruginosa is a bacterium that is an inhabitant of soil and water. Normal individuals are generally not susceptible to P. aeruginosa-mediated infections, however, several underlying conditions or traumas increase the risk for an acute episode. These conditions include extensive burns, eye trauma, mechanical ventilation, HIV infection, neutropenia or malignancy. Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients often suffer from life-long chronic colonization by P. aeruginosa. The constant presence of bacterial antigens coupled with intense inflammatory responses contributes to diminution of lung function and quality of life. Regardless of the type of infection, antimicrobial treatment is complicated by a notable intrinsic resistance and emergence of multi-drug resistant strains. Dr. Frank's lab was instrumental in the initial discovery and characterization of the P. aeruginosa type III system. Her laboratory continues the study of this system and the toxins that are injected into eukaryotic cells. Major research goals of the program include the development of specific enzyme inhibitors, antibody reagents or vaccines that neutralize the tissue-damaging toxins that P. aeruginosa synthesize. She has a single chain antibody therapeutic currently in clinical trials and is continuing to study the mechanistic features and biological outcomes of type III-mediated delivery of toxins. Francisella tularensis is the etiologic agent that causes tularemia in humans and animals. The organism poses a serious threat as only a few bacteria (10-50 colony forming units) are necessary to avoid innate immunity and rapidly replicate in the lymphoid tissues of human hosts. As part of the national biodefense program, the Frank lab in collaboration with Dr. Thomas C. Zahrt developed research strategies to understand the pathogenesis of F. tularensis using genetic approaches. The goals of this project are to identify virulence factors as potential targets for therapeutic or vaccine development and to understand how these factors work in concert to overcome the host innate defenses.
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| 0.91173 | 450 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Rocks that are significant to the water supply in Rush County range in age from Permian to Pleistocene. A generalized section of the rocks and their water-bearing characteristics is given in table 2.
The subsurface Permian and Cretaceous rocks are discussed because of their potential future utilization as aquifers or as confining beds below which brine and other liquid wastes might be disposed. When desalinization processes become more economical and more water is needed in central Kansas, the deeper aquifers could be utilized.
Table 2--Generalized section of geologic units and their water-bearing characteristics.
|0-56||Eolian, fluvial, and colluvial deposits; mostly silt that may overlie sand and some gravel.||May yield small to moderate quantities of water to wells.|
|0-120||Fluvial and eolian deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay.||May yield moderate to large quantities of water to wells in Walnut Creek valley and small to moderate quantities of water to wells in other valleys.|
|0-70||Fluvial and eolian deposits comprised of gravel, sand, silt, and clay.||May yield small to moderate quantities of water to wells.|
|Kimball||0-44||Fluvial deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay; occurrences of soil caliche (referred to as "algal limestone") and quartzitic-appearing green conglomerate with an opaline matrix.||Occurs on divide areas and is not known to yield water to wells.|
|0-10||Marine deposits of massive chalky limestone.||Yields no water to wells.|
|0-300||Marine deposits of chalky limestone and chalky shale, overlain by virtually noncalcareous shale containing large concretions, overlain by friable silty sandstone. Contains numerous bentonite beds.||Not known to yield water to wells.|
|Pfeifer Shale||0-100||Marine deposits of alternating chalky limestone and chalky shales; contains bentonite beds.||Not known to yield water to wells.|
|0-40||Marine deposits of gray to black noncalcareous to slightly calcareous silty shale with sandstone lenses and bentonite beds.||Not known to yield water to wells.|
|200-300||Some marine but primarily non-marine deposits of massive white to brown clay, silt, and shale. Contains interbedded lenticular sandstone and lignite.||Yields small to moderate quantities of water to wells.|
|Kiowa Formation||100-125||Marine deposits of thinly laminated gray to black shale with sandstone lenses and thin limestone beds in lower part.||Not known to yield water to wells.|
|25-100||Some marine but primarily non-marine deposits of buff to gray sandstone with some shale.||Not known to yield water to wells.|
|600-700||Marine deposits of red siltstone and sandstone with some shale and gypsum.||Not known to yield water to wells.|
|20-30||Marine deposit of principally anhydrite.||Yields no water to wells.|
|1. In this report, small quantities refers to yields generally less than 10 gpm, moderate quantities to 10 to 500 gpm, and large quantities to greater than 500 gpm.|
Permian System-Lower Permian Series
Stone Corral Formation
The Stone Corral Formation was named from exposures in and near sec. 11, T. 20 S., R. 6 W., Rice County, Kans., by Norton (1939, p. 1775). Many geologists refer to the Stone Corral as the "Cimarron anhydrite." The Stone Corral is the upper formation of the Sumner Group.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--At the type section in Rice County, the Stone Corral is a massive 6-foot ledge of cellular dolomite with some dolomitic shale that forms a prominent scarp (Norton, 1939, p. 1777). The amount of shale increases southward to such an extent that the formation is hardly recognizable in Kingman County (Merriam, 1963). The formation is represented by scattered dolomite rhombs in silty shale in Harper County (Swineford, 1955). The Stone Corral is present in the subsurface westward from Harper County on the south to Jewell County on the north. It is easily discernible with electric logs and is an important marker bed in petroleum exploration. The thickness of the formation in the subsurface is generally between 25 and 45 feet, but in Scott County it is 100 feet thick (Norton, 1939, p. 1781). The Stone Corral in Rush County is between 20 and 30 feet thick. Depth to the Stone Corral in Rush County, as determined from electric and radioactive logs, ranges from about 900 to 1,550 feet. Figure 7 is a map showing the approximate depth to the top of the Stone Corral in Rush County.
Figure 7--Depth to top of Stone Corral Formation.
Water supply--The Stone Corral is not known to contain water in Rush County; rather, it is regarded as a barrier to the movement of water. Below the Stone Corral, brine and other wastes might be disposed with relatively little chance of leakage upward into higher formations.
The Nippewalla Group, which was named by Norton (1939, p. 1782), included several hundred feet of red beds between the Stone Corral and Blaine Formations. The State Geological Survey of Kansas (Zeller, 1968) now includes the following formations, in ascending order, in the Nippewalla Group: Harper Sandstone, Salt Plain Formation, Cedar Hills Sandstone, Flower-pot Shale, Blaine Formation, and Dog Creek Formation.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The Nippewalla Group consists of siltstone and very fine grained sandstone, with minor quantities of silty shale and gypsum (Swineford, 1955). The group crops out in central and south-central Kansas and is in the subsurface in the western half of the State. The thickness of the Nippewalla in Kansas is reported to be approximately 930 feet by Moore and others (1951, p. 38), from 610 to 870 feet with an original thickness possibly greater than 1,000 feet by Lee (1953, p. 5), and through addition of formation thicknesses from 869 to 948 feet by Swineford (1955). In Rush County the thickness of the Nippewalla probably ranges from 600 to 700 feet.
A study of numerous electric and radioactive logs and some sample logs from Rush County and surrounding counties indicates that the Nippewalla is difficult to subdivide into the accepted stratigraphic sequence. The Harper Sandstone and Salt Plain Formation were not differentiated in this study. What is tentatively called Cedar Hills Sandstone in this report coincides with a subdivision picked as Cedar Hills by the Kansas Sample Log Service and described lithologically as "amber and orange-pink, rounded, polished, friable, fine to coarse, free-drilling sandstone, and shaly sandstone." Lee (1953) described the Cedar Hills in the subsurface as ". . . red sand and siltstone interstratified with silty shale. The sandstones, which are medium- to fine-grained, are in the main orange colored and include many polished subrounded grains slightly coarser than the more angular particles in which they are embedded. Because the sandstone crumbles easily, coherent fragments are rare in the cuttings." Figure 8 is a map showing the depth to the top of the Cedar Hills Sandstone in the county.
Figure 8--Depth to top of Cedar Hills Sandstone.
The Flower-pot Shale, Blaine Formation, and Dog Creek Formation, which are difficult to identify in the subsurface, were not differentiated in this study. The part of the Nippewalla Group above the Cedar Hills Sandstone is about 100 feet thick, but may be considerably thicker locally; it is relatively impermeable and retards movement of highly mineralized water from the Cedar Hills Sandstone to the overlying Cretaceous rocks.
Water supply--Sandstone beds in the Nippewalla probably contain water. No data were obtained on the quantity or quality of water available from the Nippewalla in the county. Water from Permian rocks, probably the Nippewalla, was collected from six test holes in Russell County by Swineford and Williams (1945). The concentration of dissolved solids in the samples ranged from 31,000 to 71,000 mg/l (milligrams per liter).
Cretaceous System--Lower Cretaceous Series
The Cheyenne Sandstone was named by Cragin (1889, p. 65) from Cheyenne Rock in sec. 8, T. 30 S., R. 16 W., which is a prominent ledge of sandstone on the north side of Medicine Lodge River valley about three-fourths of a mile west of Belvidere in southeast Kiowa County.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The Cheyenne at the outcrop comprises chiefly light-colored friable cross-bedded fine- to medium-grained sandstone associated with lenses of sandy shale and conglomerate (Latta, 1946, p. 235). Swineford and Williams (1945) described the Cheyenne in the subsurface in Russell County as predominantly buff to light-gray sandstone containing small amounts of shale and siltstone. In the subsurface of Cheyenne County, Merriam and others (1959) describe the Cheyenne Sandstone as light-gray or brown fine- to medium-grained sandstone with some medium- to dark-gray noncalcareous shale. Exposures of Cheyenne Sandstone are confined to Barber, Kiowa, and Comanche Counties in south-central Kansas (Latta, 1946, p. 238), but the unit may be found in the subsurface in most of western Kansas.
The erosional surface on which the Cheyenne was deposited caused considerable range in thickness of the formation. In the type area the thickness of the Cheyenne ranges from 32.5 to 94 feet (Latta, 1946, p. 238), and in the subsurface the maximum thickness is 300 feet (Moore and others, 1951). In Rush County the thickness is estimated to range from 25 to 100 feet.
Water supply--The Cheyenne is considered to be an aquifer, but is not known to have been tapped for water supplies in Rush County. To the northeast in Russell County, Swineford and Williams (1945) collected six samples of water from the Cheyenne that contained from 33,000 to 62,000 mg/l dissolved solids.
The Kiowa Formation, which overlies the Cheyenne, was named by Cragin (1894, p. 49) from exposure in Kiowa County, Kans.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The Kiowa Formation in the type area was described by Latta (1946) as consisting primarily of dark-gray to black thinly laminated shale grading upward into gray, tan, and brown clay and clay shale, but containing sandstone lenses throughout and thin beds of shell limestone in the lower part. In the subsurface in Russell County, the Kiowa consists of gray to black thinly laminated shale and interbedded thin white sandstone and siltstone (Swineford and Williams, 1945). In the subsurface in Cheyenne County the formation consists of medium- to dark-gray shale, some gray sandstone and siltstone, and a thin bed of impure limestone (Merriam and others, 1959). The Kiowa is exposed over a wide area in central Kansas (Plummer and Romary, 1942) and is in the subsurface in the western half of the state. Latta (1946) reports a maximum thickness of 293 feet of Kiowa in a test hole in the type area. Plummer and Romary (1942) report 100 to 125 feet over much of central Kansas; the range in thickness is assumed to be the same for Rush County.
Water supply--The Kiowa is considered to be an aquifer but no wells are known to produce water from the formation in Rush County. Eight water samples from the Kiowa in Russell County contained from 33,000 to 59,000 mg/l dissolved solids (Swineford and Williams, 1945).
Cretaceous System--Lower and Upper(?) Cretaceous Series
Meek and Hayden (1862) applied the name "Dakota Group" to the sandstone, various colored clay, and lignite beds that underline the "Benton Group" in eastern Nebraska. The name "Dakota Formation," as applied by the State Geological Survey of Kansas, is used in the sense described by Plummer and Romary (1942) and includes the continental and littoral beds occurring above the Kiowa Formation and below the Graneros Shale. The Dakota was subdivided by Plummer and Romary (1942) into the Terra Cotta Clay Member at the bottom and the Janssen Clay Member at the top.
The State Geological Survey of Kansas classifies the Dakota Formation in the Lower and Upper(?) Cretaceous Series; O'Connor (1968, p. 56) states that the boundary between Lower and Upper Cretaceous rocks "properly should be placed within the Dakota Formation".
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The following description of the lithology of the Dakota is taken from the description by Plummer and Romary (1947). The Terra Cotta Clay Member, which includes massive clay, silt, and sandstone, composes approximately the lower two-thirds of Dakota Formation. The Janssen Member includes beds of lignite, gray to dark-gray massive clay, silt, and some shale. Prominent sandstone layers and lenses are numerous but about three-fourths of the formation is clay, which is quantitatively the most important type of sedimentary material. The clay is dominantly kaolinite.
The Dakota crops out in Kansas from Washington County on the north, southwest to Kiowa County on the south, and in small patches in the southwest part of the State. Except in extreme south and southwest Kansas, it is found in the subsurface west of the outcrop. The Dakota does not crop out in Rush County. In the deep valleys of Walnut Creek and its tributaries in the east half of the county, and the Smoky Hill River and its tributaries in the northeast part of the county, the bedrock underlying the valley-fill deposits is Dakota. Study of electric and radioactive logs did not permit adequate delineation of the top or bottom of the Dakota in Rush County, and test-hole information is sparse. The thickness of Dakota ranges from 100 to 300 feet (Moore and others, 1951), although Merriam and others (1959) report 350 feet in the subsurface in Cheyenne County. In Rush County the thickness is estimated to range from 200 to 300 feet.
Water supply--The Dakota is a principal aquifer, and dependable water supplies generally are available to wells throughout Rush County. Well yields range from a few gallons per minute for domestic supplies to a reported 500 gpm (gallons per minute) from a municipal well at La Crosse. Water from the Dakota is used extensively in the county except in Walnut Creek and Smoky Hill River valleys and their major tributaries. Reports from well drillers and land owners indicate that the depth to sandstone lenses in the Dakota is unpredictable. The quality of water in the Dakota is variable and generally is considered to be marginal for domestic use and irrigation. The dissolved-solids concentration ranged from 309 to 3,660 mg/l for 30 samples analyzed.
Cretaceous System--Upper Cretaceous Series
The Graneros Shale was named by Gilbert (1896) from exposures at Graneros and on Graneros Creek in Pueblo County, Colo. The formation overlies the Dakota and is unconformably overlain by the Greenhorn Limestone in central Kansas (Hattin, 1965).
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The Graneros is composed primarily of gray to black noncalcareous to slightly calcareous silty shale; it contains some sandstone lenses and bentonite. One bentonite layer is an easily identifiable marker bed on electric logs in the western third of Kansas (Merriam, 1957).
Surface exposures of Graneros generally are poor, but it is exposed from Ford County on the southwest to Washington County on the northeast. The formation is in the subsurface west of the outcrop belt. No outcrop of Graneros was located in Rush County. The Graneros is present in the subsurface throughout the county, except beneath Walnut Creek and deep tributary valleys east of R. 19 W.
Reported thicknesses of the Graneros range from 14 feet in Russell County (Swineford and Williams, 1945) to about 100 feet in Cheyenne County (Merriam and others, 1959). Hattin (1965) reports a range in thickness of the Graneros from 23.6 to 40.4 feet in central Kansas; this range in thickness is assumed to apply to Rush County where the Graneros is present.
Water supply--The Graneros is not known to yield water to wells in Rush County.
The Greenhorn Limestone was named by Gilbert (1896) from exposures at Greenhorn Station and on Greenhorn Creek, south of Pueblo, Colo. Four members of the Greenhorn are recognized by the State Geological Survey of Kansas. In ascending order they are: Lincoln Limestone Member, Hartland Shale Member, Jetmore Chalk Member, and Pfeifer Shale Member. Rubey and Bass (1925) named the Lincoln and Jetmore, and Bass (1926) named the Hartland and Pfeifer. The Greenhorn lies unconformably on Graneros Shale and conformably underlies Carlile Shale.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The Greenhorn comprises a sequence of alternating chalky limestone and chalky shale; it contains thin crystalline limestone beds in the basal member. The outcrop of the formation extends from Ford County on the south to Washington County on the north, with less extensive exposures in Hamilton and Kearny Counties in the southwest. In the subsurface the Greenhorn is found west and north of the outcrop and into adjacent states. Thickness of the formation ranges from 65 feet in Jewell County to 132 feet in Hamilton County. The thickness averages 100 feet in Rush County.
The Greenhorn Limestone is the oldest and most prominent rock unit that crops out in Rush County. The Greenhorn is not subdivided on plate 1.
Exposures of the Lincoln Limestone Member were not noted during field work, but some may be present in the northeastern part of the county. The Hartland Shale Member is exposed in stream banks, particularly in the northeastern part of the county.
The Jetmore Chalk Member is the most resistant member of the Greenhorn and the "shell" or "shellrock" bed at the top is diagnostic. The "shellrock" averages about 1 foot in thickness, may be unevenly bedded and appear to have a concretionary upper surface, and is composed chiefly of fossil clam shells. The top bed of the Jetmore has been quarried in the county.
The top bed of the Pfeifer Shale Member, the Fence-post limestone bed, has been extensively quarried. Other limestone beds in the Greenhorn and also in the lower part of the Carlile Shale occasionally have been quarried; thus, reliance on quarries alone to map the top of the Greenhorn is not recommended. Perhaps the best marker for mapping the top of the Greenhorn is the "sugar sand" (Moss, 1932). The "sugar sand" is about 6 feet below the top of the Fence-post Limestone, and about 15 feet above the "shellrock" or top of the Jetmore. White calcite prisms are found at the base of the "sugar sand," which is composed primarily of granular calcite with a silty clay binder. It is crumbly, averages 4 inches in thickness, and resembles white sugar when fresh and brown sugar when weathered. A similar sand about 2 inches thick associated with 2 inches of bentonite, which underlies a 6-inch limestone in the basal Carlile Shale, occurs about 5 feet above the top of the Fence-post bed. The occurrence of these insignificant-appearing sands are quite useful for locating the Greenhorn-Carlile contact.
Water supply--The Greenhorn Limestone is not considered to be an aquifer in Rush County and no wells were inventoried that obtained water from the formation. Several dug wells in the county terminate in the Greenhorn but the water in the wells comes from overlying colluvial and fluvial material.
The Carlile Shale was named by Gilbert (1896) from exposures of gray shale near Carlile Station west of Pueblo, Colo., along the Arkansas River. Three members of the Carlile are recognized by the State Geological Survey of Kansas. In ascending order they are: the Fairport Chalk Member (Rubey and Bass, 1925), Blue Hill Shale Member (Logan, 1897), and Codell Sandstone Member (Bass, 1926).
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The lower 25 feet of Fairport is similar to the underlying Greenhorn and contains primarily chalky limestone beds and chalky limestone concretion zones intercalated with chalky shale. The rest of the Fairport contains chalky shale and some chalky limestone. Bentonite beds in the Fairport are usable markers and are persistent over much of the outcrop area (Hattin, 1962). The Fairport is distributed on the surface from Washington County in the northeast to Finney and Hamilton Counties in the southwest, and in the subsurface west of the outcrop. Thickness of the Fairport ranges from 90 feet along the Saline River in north Ellis County to 120 feet in Finney and Hodgeman Counties (Hattin, 1962).
Outcrops of the Fairport in Rush County, with a few exceptions, are confined to the lower 25 to 30 feet of the member. The exceptions are middle to upper Fairport, which is exposed along Big Timber Creek and along some of the other tributaries of the Smoky Hill River in northwestern Rush County.
The Blue Hill Shale Member is a dark-bluish-gray slightly silty, clayey shale. The member contains numerous large concretions. Hattin (1962, p. 64) states: "Three kinds occur: Calcareous septarian concretions (most abundant), non-calcareous clay-ironstone concretions, and sandstone concretions (least common)." Many of the concretions are found in traceable, widespread zones, but great numbers have no zonal distribution. The distribution of the Blue Hill in Kansas is similar to the Fairport, but offset to the west. Thickness of the member ranges from 72 feet in Hamilton County to 215 feet in Jewell County.
The Blue Hill probably is absent east of R. 19 W. in Rush County because of erosion. It crops out in the northwest and southwest corners of the county. Examples of concretions or their remnants may be found in the SE sec. 19, T. 16 S., R. 20 W., and the SW sec. 20, T. 16 S., R. 20 W.
The Codell Sandstone Member is chiefly fine to very fine grained silty sandstone. It is distributed over the State in a manner similar to the rest of the Carlile, but farther west than the lower members. Thickness of the member ranges from half a foot in Jewell County to 31 feet in Ellis County (Hattin, 1962).
The Codell crops out in the SW sec. 6, T. 16 S., R. 20 W., in Rush County and comprises 4 feet of rusty-orange friable silty sand; it overlies 2 feet of the Blue Hill Shale Member, and is overlain by about 5 feet of the Fort Hays Limestone Member of the Niobrara Chalk. No other Codell was noted in the county.
In Rush County, the maximum thickness of the Carlile Shale is estimated to be 300 feet.
Water supply--No water supplies are known to be obtained from the Carlile in Rush County. In some circumstances the Carlile may serve as the container in a dug well but the water comes from overlying colluvial and fluvial material. The Carlile is not considered to be an aquifer in Rush County.
The Niobrara Chalk was named by Meek and Hayden (1862) from exposures in bluffs along the Missouri River in northern Nebraska. Two members of the Niobrara are recognized by the State Geological Survey of Kansas--the Smoky Hill Chalk Member above and the Fort Hays Limestone Member below. The Smoky Hill is not present in Rush County and only about 10 feet of the basal Fort Hays Member is present in the northwest corner of the county. The Niobrara Chalk is not an aquifer in Rush County.
Tertiary System--Pliocene Series
The Ogallala Formation was named by Darton (1899) from exposures that he later (Darton, 1920) designated as being near Ogallala Station in western Nebraska. Three members of the Ogallala are recognized by the State Geological Survey of Kansas: the Valentine Member at the base, the Ash Hollow Member in the middle, and the Kimball Member at the top (Zeller, 1968). A detailed discussion of the Ogallala is contained in Bulletin 118 of the State Geological Survey of Kansas (Frye, Leonard, and Swineford, 1956). The Ogallala was mapped as a single unit for this report, but in the following discussion the members are designated when applicable.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--The dominant types of lithology of the Ogallala in Rush County are (1) arkosic sand and gravel with associated clay balls that are sometimes poorly cemented with calcium carbonate, clay and silt beds, and some bentonite, (2) a quartzitic-appearing green conglomerate with an opaline cement matrix, and (3) a distinctive, discontinuous, very hard and dense white to pink limestone commonly referred to as "algal limestone." A study by Swineford, Leonard, and Frye (1958) indicates that development of the limestone was by soil-forming processes rather than by algae, and that pisolitic limestone is an accurate descriptive term for the bed. Common conversational usage is "algal limestone," which is used in this report. The "algal limestone" marks the stratigraphic top of the Ogallala Formation and the Kimball Member.
The Ogallala lies unconformably on Greenhorn, Carlile, and Niobrara in Rush County. Its areal distribution, shown on plate 1, generally is confined to the divide areas between Walnut Creek and the Smoky Hill River drainage in the north, and between Walnut Creek and the Pawnee River drainage in the south.
Frye, Leonard, and Swineford (1956, p. 73) describe the following measured section in the SW sec. 1, T. 16 S., R. 21 W., Ness County:
|Ash Hollow Member|
|6.||Silt, densely cemented, pale-gray to pinkish-gray; contains irregular opalized nodules||3|
|5.||Sand and silt, loosely cemented, pinkish-tan, partly covered. At this stratigraphic position in the NW SW sec. 21, T. 15 S., R. 21 W., Trego County, the following fossil seeds were collected: Berrichloa conica, B. tuberculata, Biorbia fossilia, Celtis willistoni||2.5|
|4.||Sand, fine to coarse, some pebbles, cemented; weathers to smooth convex surfaces||7.5|
|Valentine Member (?)|
|2.||Conglomerate, densely cemented with opal; the opaline matrix has distinct green color and and is lenticular in distribution||10|
|1.||Gravel and cobbles of Cretaceous Niobrara Chalk to 1 foot in diameter, in matrix of clay and chalk sand. Base rests on Niobrara Chalk||3|
|Total Ogallala measured||33|
The Ogallala exposed in the northwestern part of Rush County (SW sec. 6, and NW sec. 7, T. 16 S., R. 20 S.) resembles bed 2, and is locally referred to as "green granite." Except for bed 2, the Ogallala north of Walnut Creek probably represents the Ash Hollow Member. About 20 feet of crossbedded, slightly consolidated arkosic sand and gravel, which rests on upper beds of the Fairport Chalk Member of the Carlile Shale in a gravel pit in the SE sec. 16, T. 17 S., R. 19 W., is the most extensive exposure of Ash Hollow north of Walnut Creek. Test hole 17-19W-21aaa in the northeast corner of section 21 in the same township penetrated 28.0 feet of Ogallala. Another exposure of Ogallala in the north half of the county is in a trench silo in the NW sec. 12, T. 17 S., R. 18 W., where about 6 to 8 feet of sand, gravel, and silt rests on the Fairport.
Test-hole logs and samples, shot-hole logs, gravel pits, and natural exposures document the occurrence of considerable Ogallala, predominantly Ash Hollow but with some Kimball, south of Walnut Creek. Gravel pits in the SW sec. 8, T. 19 S., R. 20 W.; the SE sec. 28, T. 19 S., R. 19 W.; and the SE sec. 26 and the SW sec. 25, T. 19 S., R. 18 W., contain slightly consolidated very fine to medium-grained crossbedded sand and some gravel of arkosic composition with associated balls of clay, and some local gravel composed of Cretaceous limestone fragments. The thickest Ogallala found in the county was about 44 feet in test hole 19-18W-33aba. The Kimball is recognized in numerous places south of Walnut Creek on the basis of "algal limestone" that caps topographic highs, including distinctive conical knolls. "Algal limestone" is exposed in the trail between the SE sec. 36, T. 18 S., R. 16 W., and the NE sec. 1, T. 19 S., R. 16 W.; in the south road ditch in the NE NW sec. 16, T. 19 S., R. 16 W.; on top of the hill in the NW sec. 25, T. 19 S., R. 18 W.; on top of the hill in the SE sec. 28, T. 19 S., R. 18 W.; toward the top of two trench silos on the north side of SE the road in the SE SW sec. 29, T. 19 S., R. 19 W.; on a small ridge south of the road in the NW sec. 17, T. 19 S., R. 20 W.; along the road in the NW sec. 26, T. 19 S., R. 20 W.; and in numerous other places in the south tier of townships. The lithology and thickness of the Ogallala are shown by logs at the end of this report.
Water supply--The Ogallala is not an aquifer in Rush County because it is drained by streams that have eroded headward toward the divide areas. The drainage precludes water storage except in the most temporary sense. None of the wells inventoried obtained water from the Ogallala.
Quaternary System--Pleistocene Series
The Pleistocene Series has been divided into four glacial stages (Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoisan, Wisconsinan) and four interglacial stages (Aftonian, Yarmouthian, Sanagmonian, Recent) by the State Geological Survey of Kansas (Bayne and O'Connor, 1968). Most of these stages are thought to be represented in Rush County. Topographic position, fauna, and lithology of deposits in relation to adjoining or very similar deposits in adjacent counties form the basis for this belief. Three categories of Pleistocene deposits were mapped in the county (pl. 1). Two of the three mapped units are unconsolidated, principally fluvial, deposits conveniently separated by their relative topographic position. The deposits in terrace position, herein called terrace deposits, and the deposits in valleys, herein called valley-fill deposits, may be of Kansan, Illinoisan, Wisconsinan, or Recent age. The third mapped unit is primarily an unconsolidated eolian deposit but contains some fluvial and colluvial material. These deposits, herein called undifferentiated deposits, may be as old as Nebraskan but commonly are Wisconsinan and Recent in age.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--Fluvial deposits with some eolian and colluvial components are found in terrace position along the valleys of the major streams and their tributaries. These deposits of clay, silt, sand, and gravel primarily are arkosic, but often include some limestone pebbles. Thickness of the deposits may be as much as 70 feet bordering Walnut Creek valley, 50 feet bordering Big Timber Creek valley, and 40 feet bordering Dry Walnut Creek valley.
Water supply--The terrace deposits yield small to moderate supplies of water to wells. Two irrigation wells in Walnut Creek valley and one in Dry Walnut Creek valley obtain all or part of their water from these deposits; yields range from 290 to a reported 400 gpm. Numerous stock and domestic wells also obtain their water from these deposits. Water from the terrace deposits is hard, but otherwise is of satisfactory chemical quality for the uses mentioned.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--Fluvial clay, silt, sand, and gravel compose the valley-fill deposits. The upper 20 to 40 feet of the fill is predominantly silt with some clay that overlies a thick deposit of sand and gravel in Walnut Creek valley. In Dry Walnut Creek valley, the fill is principally silt with minor amounts of sand and gravel. The fill in Big Timber Creek valley is not as thick as the fill in Walnut Creek valley, but the lithology is similar. Thickness of the fill may be as much as 120 feet in Walnut Creek valley, slightly more than 100 feet in Dry Walnut Creek valley, and more than 40 feet in Big Timber Creek valley. The valley fill is as much as 2 miles wide in Walnut Creek valley and three-fourths of a mile wide in Dry Walnut and Big Timber Creek valleys.
About 30 different forms of snails and several forms of clams were noted in the samples from test holes drilled across Walnut Creek valley. Samples from test hole 18-17W-31bbc were particularly abundant in number of shells and in number of forms. The precise depths from which the different shells came are not known, but, between 30 and 75 feet, shells were so numerous as to appear to be the major part of the return from the drilling operation.
The drill cuttings containing the shells were blue to gray silty clay, fine to coarse arkosic sand, and medium to coarse, predominantly limestone, gravel. Although the volume of material returned in the 30- to 75-foot interval was normal, only 10 small sacks of sample material were collected. Each sack of the material was then split into one small sample-cuttings envelope in the office. In light of the sampling procedure just described, the number of shells and forms recovered is remarkable.
The following fossil mollusks were recovered from the sample cuttings from test hole 18-17W-31bbc, Rush County, Kans. The shells were identified by the author.
|Amnicola limosa parva Lea||44|
|Ferissia parallela (Haldeman)||3|
|Gyraulus labiatus Leonard||112|
|Helisoma antrosa (Conrad)||7|
|Menetus pearlettei Leonard||2|
|Pomatiopsis cincinnatiensis (Lea)||2|
|Valvata tricarinata (Say)||177|
|Carychium perexiguum Baker||6|
|Gastrocopta proarmifera Leonard||5|
|Gastrocopta procera (Gould)||1|
|Gastrocopta tappaniana (C.B. Adams)||2|
|Helicodiscus parallelus (Say)||2|
|Pupilla muscorum sinistra Franzen||1|
|Pupoides albilabris (C. B. Adams)||2|
|Retinella electrina (Gould)||12|
|Vallonia gracilicosta Reinhardt||72|
|Vertigo millium (Gould)||4|
|Vertigo ovata Say||2|
|Zonitoides arboreus (Say)||3|
|At least two forms of clams|
The fauna indicates that the summers were not as hot as they are in Rush County at the present time, but winters may not have been cooler. Precipitation probably was greater and a generally more humid condition prevailed. Permanent bodies of cool water are indicated. In terms of age, the list above appears to fit well in the assemblage of fossils of Kansan age described by Leonard (1950) and Frye and Leonard (1952).
Water supply--Yields ranging from 400 to 1,200 gpm are obtained from the valley-fill deposits by irrigation wells in Walnut Creek valley, and yields as large as 1,500 gpm have been reported. No irrigation wells obtain water from these deposits in Big Timber and Dry Walnut Creek valleys; however, small to moderate supplies are obtained by stock and domestic wells. The water is hard but suitable for most uses. The dissolved-solids concentration for 17 water samples analyzed ranged from 369 to 789 mg/l.
Lithology, distribution, and thickness--Eolian deposits, with some fluvial and colluvial components that are predominantly silt containing some sand and some gravel, compose the undifferentiated deposits. The silt probably is loess of Wisconsinan age; it commonly overlies sand and some gravel. In the northwestern part of the county, the lower part of the undifferentiated deposits may be of Nebraskan age because of their topographic position and relation to similar deposits in Ellis County. The greatest thickness of these deposits, as much as 56 feet, was found in Tps. 17 and 18 S., R. 20 W. Other areas with thick undifferentiated deposits are in T. 16 S., R. 20 W., and T. 17 S., R. 16 W. These thick deposits definitely are fluvial in origin, except for the overlying loess, and may represent buried channels of Nebraskan age.
Water supply--Small to moderate yields are obtained from these deposits by some stock and domestic wells in the county where the deposits are relatively thick. However, such a favorable circumstance is not widespread. The water is very hard, but otherwise is satisfactory for stock and domestic uses.
Kansas Geological Survey, Geology
Placed on web Aug. 22, 2008; originally published July 1973.
Comments to [email protected]
The URL for this page is http://www.kgs.ku.edu/General/Geology/Rush/04_rock.html
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Image courtesy the NCAR and University of Toronto MOPITT Teams
Fires continue to burn throughout southeast Asia. The Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere (MOPITT) instrument
aboard NASA’s Terra satellite has been monitoring the impact of these intense local pollution sources on regional air
quality through measurements of carbon monoxide in the lower atmosphere. Carbon monoxide is a good tracer of
pollution since it is produced as a by-product of the combustion associated with the wildfires and agricultural fires that are
widespread throughout the region at this time of year. This false-color image shows carbon monoxide plumes at an
altitude of roughly 3 km (700 millibars) in the atmosphere over southeast Asia. This image represents a composite of data
collected from February 27-March 4, 2003. The gray areas show where no data were collected, either due to persistent
cloud cover or gaps between viewing swaths.
Note: Often times, due to the size, browsers have a difficult time opening and displaying images. If you experiece an error when clicking on an image link, please try directly downloading the image (using a right click, save as method) to view it locally.
This image originally appeared on the Earth Observatory. Click here to view the full, original record.
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Generally, doctors hospitalize pregnant women with threatened preterm labor (TPTL), a condition where an expectant mother experiences persistent premature contractions. Yet only five percent of women with TPTL actually deliver a premature baby. Now, a new diagnostic tool was found to be 70 percent accurate in predicting whether a woman with TPTL would give birth prematurely. “A lot of TPTL women are unnecessarily hospitalized,” said Dr. Stephen Lye, Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto. “We want to develop a test that can differentiate between true and false labor so that women in true labor can receive the appropriate medical care while women in false labor will receive supportive care and be discharged.”
The Plight of Premature Babies
About eight to 11 percent of all pregnancies worldwide result in a preterm birth, which is a main cause of mortality in the developed world. Although medical advances have increased survival rates for preemies, these tiny babies often suffer cognitive impairments, respiratory disorders, blindness, deafness, and other physical difficulties. Even later in their development, they remain vulnerable to health problems. For the current study, the researchers studied whole blood gene expression as a possible indicator of spontaneous preterm birth.
To begin their study, the researchers collected peripheral blood from 154 women with TPTL during hospital admission (before medical treatment). Then, the researchers analyzed differential whole blood gene expression, comparing the samples from the 48 women who gave birth within 48 hours of admission and the 106 women who did not. Finally, they performed fetal fibronectin (fFN) tests on participants, an existing preterm diagnostic tool, which is known to be prone to false positives.
The researchers found total leukocyte and neutrophil counts to be significantly higher (35 percent and 41 percent, respectively) in the women who gave birth prematurely compared to the women who did not. Yet, within a subset of the women, no differences existed in the urine, vaginal, and placental microbiology and histopathology reports. Finally, when the researchers combined a set of nine genes with clinical blood data, they were able to correctly classify 70 percent of participants as giving birth prematurely within 48 hours of hospital admission.
Why is this important? The new blood analysis test outperformed the fFN test when all results were compared. Plus, the new test could easily be performed as part of routine blood work, suggesting it might easily replace the fFN.
Source: Heng YJ, Pennell CE, Chua HN, Perkins JE, Lye SJ. Whole Blood Gene Expression Profile Associated with Spontaneous Preterm Birth in Women with Threatened Preterm Labor. PLoS ONE. 2014.
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This information is for reference purposes only. It was current when produced and may now be outdated. Archive material is no longer maintained, and some links may not work. Persons with disabilities having difficulty accessing this information should contact us at: https://info.ahrq.gov. Let us know the nature of the problem, the Web address of what you want, and your contact information.
Please go to www.ahrq.gov for current information.
As women age, their risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) increases. Women currently account for half of all CHD deaths in the United States, and many studies have reported an association between CHD and high levels of total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), the so-called bad cholesterol. Questions persist about the best cholesterol screening strategy for women to detect high cholesterol that can lead to CHD.
After reviewing recent studies on the impact of cholesterol screening in women on cholesterol reduction and CHD, David Atkins, M.D., M.P.H., and his colleagues discuss recommendations from national organizations and findings from recent large treatment trials on cholesterol screening in women. Dr. Atkins is Coordinator for Clinical Preventive Services at the Center for Practice and Technology Assessment, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
The researchers note that periodically measuring TC and HDL-C in all middle-aged women and in younger women with diabetes or other major risk factors will detect most women with sufficiently high cholesterol to warrant statin drug therapy or intensive lifestyle interventions. For the remainder of average-risk younger women, more concerted efforts to promote smoking cessation, regular physical activity, healthy weight, and diets low in saturated fat and high in fruits and vegetables are probably more important than lipid screening.
The National Cholesterol Education Program guidelines recommend measuring nonfasting TC and HDL-C every 5 years in women beginning at age 20. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force and American College of Physicians recommend beginning routine cholesterol screening of average-risk women at age 45, and perhaps earlier screening for high-risk women (those with multiple risk factors, diabetes, strong family history). All organizations recommend advising all patients to reduce dietary saturated fat, maintain a healthy weight, and increase physical activity. The benefits of lipid reduction for women who have both high LDL-C and high HDL-C (the so-called good cholesterol) remains an important but unsettled question.
For more details, see "Lipid screening in women," by Dr. Atkins, Judith M. Walsh, M.D., M.P.H., Michael Pignone, M.D., M.P.H., and Christopher J. Phillips, M.D., M.P.H., in the Summer 2000 Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 55(4), pp. 234-240.
Reprints (AHRQ Publication No. 00-R043) are available from the AHRQ Publications Clearinghouse.
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Description from Flora of China
Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, entire or palmately lobed, rarely palmately compound, margin entire or dentate. Inflorescence usually axillary, usually paniculate, rarely racemose. Flowers unisexual. Calyx 5-lobed or 5-partite. Petals absent. Male flowers: anthers clustered at top of androgynophore, enclosing undeveloped carpels. Female flowers: androgynophore very short, staminodes at top of androgynophore in whorl around base of carpels. Carpels 5; ovules 2 to many per carpel; styles connate at base; stigmas as many as carpels, free. Fruit a group of follicles, usually leathery, less often woody, dehiscent when mature. Seeds 1 to many per follicle, usually with endosperm.
The fruits of nine species and male and/or female flowers of a further four species have not been recorded, indicating that the Chinese members of this genus require much more study in the field.
Sterculia bodinieri H. Léveillé is the basionym of Phyllanthus bodinieri (H. Léveillé) Rehder in the Euphorbiaceae s.l. (see Fl. China 11).
Between 100 and 150 species: tropics and subtropics of both hemispheres, most abundant in Asian tropics; 26 species (14 endemic, one introduced) in China.
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There's plenty you can do now to ensure breastfeeding success later. Here's our primer for the pregnant woman—plus info on why mother's milk is the best way to feed your baby.
Now that you've got a few months of pregnancy under your belt, you've no doubt heard about at least some of the benefits of breastfeeding. What you may not know is that not breastfeeding could be harmful to you and your baby. " There are significant risks to mother and child if a woman does not breastfeed," says Nancy Wight, M.D., a board-certified lactation consultant, neonatologist and director of lactation services at Sharp Mary Birch Hospital for Women in San Diego.
We're not talking about short-term, relatively minor risks, such as more infant ear infections or having a harder time fitting back into your jeans (though nursing burns 500 extra calories a day, so there is that). We mean major, long-term effects. "Diabetes, obesity, cancer—studies have found increased risk for all these diseases for you and your child if you don't breastfeed," adds Wight, a past president of the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine.
Breastfeeding also lowers your risk for high blood pressure and heart problems. "A study of nearly 140,000 post-menopausal women [published recently in Obstetrics and Gynecology] found that the longer these women breastfed, the lower the prevalence of hypertension, hyperlipidemia [excess fat in the blood] and cardiovascular disease," Wight explains.
The Benefits For Your Baby
If you think those payoffs are impressive, check out what mother's milk can do for your baby. For starters—and this is a biggie—you'll reduce your child's risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) by about half if you breastfeed. You'll also reduce his risk of juvenile onset diabetes, leukemia and lymphoma, allergies, obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. If he's premature, you'll give him a better shot at good vision—and you may even make him smarter. "Premature babies who are breastfed gain an 8.3-point advantage in IQ over babies who aren't breastfed," Wight explains.
And don't forget the benefits to society—and to the Earth. "Just imagine the reduced burden on our health care system if every woman were to breastfeed," Wight says. "Breastfeeding is also very green—every dairy cow that is raised, in part to make formula, requires 2.5 acres." Convinced? Read on for what you can do now to help you overcome obstacles later. Taking even simple steps while you're pregnant can set the stage for success.
Get Ready For Breastfeeding
1. Go back to school: Chances are you've already signed up for a childbirth education course. But how about a breastfeeding class? "Many moms realize they don't know how to breastfeed but figure the baby will," says pediatrician and breastfeeding expert Marianne Neifert, M.D., author of Great Expectations: The Essential Guide to Breastfeeding (2009). "It's true that nursing is an instinctive act, but it's not always easy." Classes not only teach you the basics, such as different ways to hold the baby when nursing—they can also help you avoid common problems, such as sore nipples.
Taking a class before the baby arrives is also important because he isn't here yet. "Once you're home with your infant, you'll be so tired that any downtime you have, you'll want to spend resting, not reading," Neifert says.
To find a class, check with your OB or the hospital where you'll deliver. Also try to find a teacher who has extensive, quality breastfeeding experience—"preferably a board-certified lactation consultant," Neifert advises. (Check with La Leche League International at llli.org or the International Lactation Consultant Association at ilca.org.) And bring your partner, mom and family members with you—anyone who will be helping with the baby.
2. Get a breast tune-up: If you have any questions about your ability to nurse a baby, get a prenatal breast exam. Your OB may be able to do this; if not, visit a certified lactation consultant. Some conditions such as inverted nipples or previous breast surgeries might affect your ability to nurse successfully. If so, you'll want to know now, rather than later, so you and your lactation consultant can come up with an action plan.
3. Line up the troops: In case you do have problems—or even questions—figure out who to call before you have the baby. Interview a few lactation consultants to find one you're comfortable with, make sure your pediatrician wholeheartedly supports breastfeeding, and find an experienced friend or relative (or several!) who can help at a moment's notice.
4. Be realistic: It's important to realize that you may have some challenges. That doesn't mean you can't breastfeed successfully, and it certainly doesn't mean you're a failure. "So many women have unrealistic expectations that breastfeeding will automatically be easy," Wight says. "In reality, it might hurt a bit, and you might have some problems with your milk supply. It takes a while to get things going smoothly, and you have to realize that's OK."
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Other Names for this Disease
- Acute autoimmune peripheral neuropathy
- Acute immune-mediated polyneuropathy
- Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy
- Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy
See Disclaimer regarding information on this site. Some links on this page may take you to organizations outside of the National Institutes of Health.
peripheral nervous system. Symptoms include muscle weakness, numbness, and tingling sensations, which can increase in intensity until the muscles cannot be used at all. Usually Guillain-Barré syndrome occurs a few days or weeks after symptoms of a viral infection. Occasionally, surgery or vaccinations will trigger the syndrome. It remains unclear why only some people develop Guillain-Barré syndrome but there may be a genetic predisposition in some cases. Diagnosed patients should be admitted to a hospital for early treatment. There is no cure for Guillain-Barré syndrome, but treatments such as plasma exchange (plasmapheresis) and high dose immunoglobulins may reduce the severity and duration of symptoms. Recovery can take as little as a few days to as long as a few years. About 30% of those with Guillain-Barré syndrome have residual weakness. A small number may suffer a relapse many years after the initial attack.Guillain-Barré syndrome is a rare disorder in which the body's immune system attacks part of the
Last updated: 1/16/2016
- Guillain-Barré Syndrome Fact Sheet. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Web site. April 29, 2015; http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/gbs/detail_gbs.htm.
- Guillain-Barre syndrome, familial. OMIM database. April 8, 2009; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=139393.
- Andary M & cols. Guillain-Barre Syndrome. Medscape Reference. July 1, 2015; http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/315632-overview#aw2aab6b2b5.
- Genetics Home Reference (GHR) contains information on Guillain-Barre syndrome. This website is maintained by the National Library of Medicine.
- MedlinePlus was designed by the National Library of Medicine to help you research your health questions, and it provides more information about this topic.
- The Merck Manuals Online Medical Library provides information on this condition for patients and caregivers.
- The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) collects and disseminates research information related to neurological disorders. Click on the link to view information on this topic.
- The National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD) is a federation of more than 130 nonprofit voluntary health organizations serving people with rare disorders. Click on the link to view information on this topic.
- Medscape Reference provides information on this topic. You may need to register to view the medical textbook, but registration is free.
- The Monarch Initiative brings together data about this condition from humans and other species to help physicians and biomedical researchers. Monarch’s tools are designed to make it easier to compare the signs and symptoms (phenotypes) of different diseases and discover common features. This initiative is a collaboration between several academic institutions across the world and is funded by the National Institutes of Health. Visit the website to explore the biology of this condition.
- Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) is a catalog of human genes and genetic disorders. Each entry has a summary of related medical articles. It is meant for health care professionals and researchers. OMIM is maintained by Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.
- Orphanet is a European reference portal for information on rare diseases and orphan drugs. Access to this database is free of charge.
- PubMed is a searchable database of medical literature and lists journal articles that discuss Guillain-Barre syndrome. Click on the link to view a sample search on this topic.
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xvi. INDO-PERSIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY
Historical works in Persian began to appear in India in the era of the Delhi Sultanate (q.v.) during the late 13th to 14th centuries. It was in Delhi itself, the capital of this expanding, if habitually unstable, kingdom, that most of the early Persian–language histories were written. However, it was particularly during the preceding Ghaznavid era (977-1186; q.v.), when Muslim armies penetrated deep into the Indian heartland, that poets and scholars, writing in Persian, began settling in northwestern India in significant numbers, founding the Persian-language tradition of scholarship in the subcontinent. This tradition then took root in India after the Ghurids conquered Ḡazni (qq.v., also Ḡazna) and established their capital at Delhi, to be succeeded by the sultans of Delhi (1206-1398). Persian-language scholarship stagnated after Timur destroyed the Delhi Sultanate in 1398, but revived and expanded exponentially during the years of the Timurid-Mughal dynasty (1526-1739). In this later period Indo-Persian historiography became a vibrant, multi-faceted tradition of scholarship, including autobiography, collections of poetry, ethical treatises, belles-lettres, and manuals of technical prose and administration, conversational discourses, and advice literature (divāns, aḵlāq, enšāʾ, malfuẓāt, and naṣiḥat literature), literary and Sufi biographies and anthologies (taḏkeras), gazetteers, and innumerable political histories. These were produced at the Timurid-Mughal court in Agra and Delhi and at the independent courts of Persian-speaking rulers in Bengal, Gujarat, the Deccan (qq.v.) and elsewhere, including semi-autonomous Timurid-Mughal provinces as far south as Madras. Indo-Persian historical literature continued to be produced throughout the 18th century; but, as Muslim political power declined following the collapse of Timurid-Mughal rule, patronage decayed, and simultaneously Urdu displaced Persian, first in verse and then, by the mid-19th century, in prose as well.
The wealth of the subcontinent, and the proliferation of power centers there, led to the production of a vast corpus of Indo-Persian administrative, historical, religious, and poetical literature that can only be hinted at in this article. Still, it is worth noting that manuscripts written in Persian can be found throughout India in a variety of public and private institutions, including mosques and other religious institutions and private libraries. As an example of the wealth of Persian texts, the Government Oriental Manuscripts Library in Madras, well south of the centers of Indo-Muslim power, currently possesses 1,390 Persian manuscripts. Persian holdings are also especially rich in the libraries of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (see BENGAL ii. ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL) in Calcutta, the Khuda Bakhsh Library in Patna, and the Rampur Reza Library, to name but a few repositories of Indo-Persian texts.
FROM THE GHAZNAVIDS TO THE DELHI SULTANATE AND THE MUGHALS
The Ghaznavid background. The body of work produced at the Ghaznavid court represents the prolego-mena to Persian-language historiography in India. This includes prose works of narrative history such as the famous Tāriḵ-e Bayhaqi by Abu’l-Fażl Bayhaqi (q.v.) and Ādāb al-ḥarb wa’l-šajāʿa by Faḵr-e Modabber Mobārak-šāh (qq.v.), Ferdowsi’s epic poem, the Šāh-nāma, as well as a large body of Persian panegyric and lyrical verse by Farroḵi, Manučehri, Saʿd-e Salmān, and Sanāʾi, and several other court poets of the era. Such works comprised the immediate intellectual inheritance of Persian-speaking Muslims of the subcontinent. The principal exception to the use of Persian in historical or literary works during Ghaznavid times was Abu Rayḥān Biruni’s monumental study of North Indian Brahmanical culture and natural history Taḥqiq mā le’l-Hend men maqula maqbula fi’l-ʿaql aw marḏula, which Biruni conceived of as a philosophical or scientific work and therefore wrote in Arabic. Biruni’s work (see BIRUNI vi. WORKS ON INDOLOGY) was as unprecedented as it was unique. A Greco-Islamic scientific study intellectually akin to Ebn Ḵaldun’s Moqaddema, the work now generally known as Ketāb al-Hend had none of the panegyric or rhetorical characteristics of previous or subsequent Persian historical or literary works, whether written at the Ghaznavid court or at the courts of the Delhi Sultans or Timurid-Mughals. Nonetheless, Biruni’s treatise, which was based on his research in the Ghaznavids’ Indian province, the Punjab, represents the earliest major work produced by a Persian-speaking scholar in the Indian subcontinent. It was particularly in the Punjabi city of Lahore, the provincial Ghaznavid capital, that Persian-speaking Muslims initiated Persian scholarship in South Asia. In that city Hojviri (q.v.) wrote the first Persian-language treatise on Sufism, the Kašf al-maḥjub, and the poet Saʿd(-e) Salmān penned many of his verses. While these works were not histories per se, devotional literature and Persian verse comprise two of the most important historical sources for the study of the Delhi Sultanate and the Timurid-Mughal empire.
The Delhi Sultanate. An important historian of the early Delhi Sultanate is Juzjāni, otherwise known as Menhāj al-Serāj, whose work Ṭabaqāt-e nāṣeri is, unfortunately, confused in its organization and opaque in its style. Juzjāni, a refugee from the Mongols who fled from Ghur in 1227, later became a qāżi of the Delhi Sultans. Understandably anti-Mongol, Juzjāni wrote extensively of the Delhi rulers in the first half of the thirteenth century. While his history was widely used by later Indo-Persian authors, including ʿEṣāmi (q.v.), the Ṭabaqāt-e nāṣeri, like many other works of Sultanate-era historians described by Peter Hardy (see bibliography), may be valuable more for the attitudes it expresses than for the “facts” or interpretations it gives.
The impossibility of narrowly defining Indo-Persian historiography simply as prose narrative is reflected by the fact that two of the three most important writers who produced works with historical content under the Delhi sultans were poets. These three writers were: Żiāʾ-al-Din Barani, Amir Ḵosrow Dehlavi, and ʿAbd-al-Malek ʿEṣāmi (qq.v.). All three were direct heirs of Perso-Islamic religious, historical, and literary traditions; even more particularly, they were legatees of the cultural and political traditions of the Ghaznavid empire. Barani is the only one of the three whom modern scholars would identify as an historian. A member of the Delhi inner court circles, he wrote two important works, the Tāriḵ-e firuzšāhi (1357) and the undated Fatāwāʾ-ye jahāndāri. Barani, who characterized history as the twin brother of Hadith (q.v.) scholarship, explicitly describes the Tāriḵ-e firuzšāhi as an annalistic history, which served a greater moral purpose as a work of political ethics, a particularized, narrative form of a “mirror for princes.” The Fatāwāʾ-ye jahāndāri, on the other hand, is explicitly a book of political counsel (naṣiḥat), an example of a pre-Islamic and Perso-Islamic genre, a treatise on the duties and realities of kingship. It is couched in the form of a series of lessons offered by Sultan Maḥmud of Ḡazna to his sons, and in it Barani observes that religious and political goals are essentially incompatible. Monarchs cannot rule as religious ideologues, which Barani himself preferred, but only according to the practical policies of Ḵosrow Parviz and the pre-Islamic emperors of Iran.
Amir Ḵosrow and ʿEṣāmi were, in contrast, poets who wrote verse with significant historical content. Amir Ḵosrow, known outside India as Amir Ḵosrow Dehlavi, was the most important Persian-language poet of the Sultanate period. A panegyrist by profession, he produced a huge corpus of verse that ranged from panegyric and lyrical poetry (qaṣidas and ḡazals) to historical epics and included one prose work. The important poetical works include the Qerān al-saʿdayn (The conjunction of Jupi-ter and Venus [the two beneficent planets]), the Toḡloq-nāma, and the Noh sepehr (The nine spheres), while the prose work is the Ḵazāʾen al-fotuhá, the only extant history of the Sultan ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Ḵalji. All of these works contain valuable information, but extracting it from Amir Ḵosrow’s dramatic, panegyric tableaus requires great patience and a critical, trained judgement. The second poet who wrote verse with a significant historical content was ʿEṣāmi, whose major work, the Fotuḥ al-salāṭin, was completed in 1349-50. ʿEṣāmi consciously and explicitly modeled this massive work of over 11,000 couplets on Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma, to the extent of adopting its meter. As such, this history of Muslim India from Ghaznavid times to the mid-14th century naturally extolled the heroic deeds of the rulers of India, but as a Muslim writing about Islamic rulers. ʿEṣāmi offers omnipotent and inscrutable divine ordination as an ultimate explanation for events. Like Amir Ḵosrow, ʿEṣāmi was principally concerned with dramatic literary effect rather than historical accuracy, filling his narrative with stereotypical heroes and villains.
In addition to these histories, a number of important Sufi treatises were produced during the Sultanate period, all of which, while not written as histories, have great value for reconstructing the social and religious history of the era. Important examples of malfuẓāt or “discourse” literature from this period are two 14th-century texts, the Fawāʾed al-foʾād by Amir Ḥasan Sejzi Dehlavi and the Nafāʾes al-anfās wa laṭāʾef al-alfāẓ of Rokn-al-Din of Kašān. The first is a report of the teachings of Amir Ḵosrow’s Češti shaikh, Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. ʿAli Badāʾuni (d. 1325) known as Neẓām-al-Din Awliyāʾ (see ČEŠTĪYA), in Delhi, whereas the second is a report of the Češti shaikh, Borhān-al-Din Ḡarib’s teachings in the Deccani city of Dawlatābād. These are but two examples of a proliferation of Sufi literature, which occurred in Indo-Muslim territories in the 13th and 14th centuries. This literature also included many biographical dictionaries, such as another 14th-century Češti work, the Siar al-awliyā, by Sayyed Moḥammad b. Mobārak ʿAlawi Ker-māni, known as Mir Ḵord.
The Timurid-Mughals: 1526-1739. Following Timur’s invasion and the sack of Delhi in 1398, Indo-Persian historical writing continued to be produced, even if patronage drastically declined. Yahyā b. Aḥmad Serhendi wrote his own history of a sultanate ruler during the post-Timur era. His Tāriḵ-e mobārakšāhi (ca. 1428) was written to gain the patronage of the Delhi monarch of his day. It was based on previous works, including Barani’s history of the same name and Amir Ḵosrow’s Qerān al-saʿdayn, and it resembled in tone and content ʿEṣāmi’s Fotuḥ al-salāṭin, in the sense that Serhendi’s work is primarily a rhetorical or literary work designed to entertain rather than to critically investigate the past. As for the histories devoted to the Afghan Lodis (Lōdis), who ruled the Delhi and western Gangetic region between 1451 and 1526, and the Afghan Suris, who ruled north India briefly between 1540 and 1555, a few contemporary works exist, such as the well-known work by Aḥmad Yādgār, the Tāriḵ-e šāhi or salāṭin-e afāḡana, generally known as the Maḵzan-e afḡāna. This work covers the period from 1451 to 1558. Otherwise these years represent something of an interregnum for Indo-Persian historiography and Persian-language scholarship in general, perhaps because the Lodi Afghans in particular were much less closely tied to the Persian cultural world than were the scholars of the Sultanate era. Indeed, some prominent Lodi Afghans did not even know Persian, and Pashto, their native tongue, was not a literary language at this time. Most histories of the Afghans were written during the Timurid-Mughal period, the era in which India became a center of Persianate culture and Persian-language scholarship.
AUTOBIOGRAPHIES AND MEMOIRS
Ironically, the first major historical work associated with the Timurid-Mughal dynasty is not a history in the strict sense of the term, nor was it written in Persian. It is the autobiographical memoir of Ẓahir-al-Din Moḥammad Bābor (q.v.), which he wrote in Chaghatay Turki, the most commonly spoken language in Transoxiana (Mā warāʾ al-nahr) during the Timurid era. This Waqāʾeʿ, better known as the Bābor-nāma, contains more than 600 printed pages in the modern collated text of Eiji Mano and is a major historical source for late-Timurid Transoxiana, Afghanistan, and north India in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. It is a complex text that operates at several different levels. Most obviously it is the political self-statement of an ambitious Timurid. Yet, it also functions as an idiosyncratic “mirror for princes” and as a gazetteer for the three regions it covers. More than all of these things it is a work that humanizes both its author and his civilization. However, it is also a work that shows Bābor to have been, culturally at least, a fully paid subscriber to Perso-Islamic society, something that is especially clear from his knowledge of the works of Persian-language poets, including Saʿdi, Hafez, Jāmi, and Amir Ḵosrow Dehlavi. Indeed, his own Turki poetry is largely a literary echo of these writers.
Apart from its own value, Bābor’s Waqāʾeʿ is also important for Timurid-Mughal historiography for two major reasons. Firstly, it reveals that Bābor personified in most respects the sophisticated culture known from Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqara’s (q.v.) Herat, a variant of Persianate culture that had evolved since the Ghaznavid period. At the opening of the 16th century this culture displayed a well-established classical literary tradition, miniature painting, refined court music, and a sophisticated historiographical tradition represented by Ḥāfeẓ-e Abru, Esfezāri (qq.v), Ḵᵛāndamir, and others. Early Timurid-Mughal court culture was essentially late-Timurid culture; in terms of historiography, its founding member was Ḵᵛāndamir, who arrived in India to serve Bābor and became an historian for Bābor’s son Homā-yun (q.v.). Secondly, the Waqāʾeʿ directly or indirectly influenced the writing of four other autobiographical accounts that provide unique information about the Timurid-Mughal dynasty. All of these were also written in Persian. They are: Ḥaydar Mirzā Doḡlāt’s Tāriḵ-e rašidi, Golbadan (Gulbadan) Begim’s Homāyun-nāma, Bāyazid Bayāt’s, Taḏkera-ye Homāyun va Akbar, and the Jahāngir-nāma of Bābor’s great-grandson.
Ḥaydar Mirzā was a younger maternal cousin of Bābor (i.e., from the Chingizid matrilineal side). He does not indicate that the Tāriḵ-e rašidi was inspired by Bābor’s example, but it is quite likely that his knowledge of the Waqāʾeʿ played some role in his decision to write his semi-autobiographical history of the Mongols. However, this work is very different from Bābor’s text. In it Ḥaydar Mirzā is consciously writing as an historian, albeit at times an unreliable one. Even though he also narrates much of his own personal history, the Tāriḵ-e rašidi has few of the engaging humanistic touches that enliven Bābor’s memoir. In fact, Ḥaydar Mirzā begins his work by quoting Yazdi’s introduction to his history of Timur, the Ẓafar-nāma, adding the touchingly personal note that he did so because he had not mastered the style that such historical writing required. That is, Haydar Mirzā admired the ornate Persian style of Timurid historians. Fortunately for the reader, when he falls back on his own prose he offers crucial information about Bābor’s last campaign in Transoxiana and Homāyun’s disastrous defeat at the hands of resurgent Afghan forces in 1539 and 1540.
The works of Golbadan Begim (see GOLBADAN BEGOM) and Bāyazid Bayāt were written at the behest of Bābor’s grandson, Akbar (q.v.), who wanted to preserve eyewitness accounts of his great ancestor, whose memoirs were translated into Persian at Akbar’s court. Golbadan Begim was a young girl when her father, Bābor, died. Her memoir is not so valuable for his life, most of which she based on the Waqāʾeʿ. Her Homāyun-nāma is instead invaluable for the insight that it offers into the life of Timurid-Mughal women. No other source for the dynasty enables readers to understand that these women led rich and complex lives of their own. This work, like Bābor’s Waqāʾeʿ, is also notable for its compelling emotional content. Bāyazid Bayāt’s own memoir was also written at Akbar’s command, but in contrast to the other first-hand accounts mentioned here, it is a dry, error-prone, political and military narrative by an old man in his declining years.
No such dryness detracts from the second Timurid-Mughal autobiographical memoir, that of Jahāngir (r. 1605-36), Bābor’s great-grandson. Jahāngir is likely to have written this because of his ancestor’s example; at least he mentions reverently reading the Waqāʾeʿ when visiting Bābor’s gravesite in Kabul. While intellectually far less ambitious than his ancestor’s multi-faceted text, the Jahāngir-nāma is still an extraordinary royal memoir, as exceptional in the 17th-century world as Bābor’s is for the 16th. In it Jahāngir plainly states that he is sending the text to other rulers, especially referring to Persia, and he partly sees the work as a “mirror for princes” text. Indeed, he expends an extraordinary amount of effort to demonstrate that he ruled as a prototypical “just sultan,” perhaps responding to aḵlāq (q.v.) literature well known in his father’s court. However, apart from that particular rhetorical purpose, the bulk of the text is a lively day-to-day account of his rule, which for him personally did not include any major battles but innumerable hunting expeditions and lavish entertainment. In describing the women who accompanied him, Jahāngir also contributes to the understanding of Timurid-Mughal women. However, more than anything else, the Jahāngir-nāma is a psychologically complex text that reveals the human frailty, emotional complexity, and engaging cultural preoccupations of its author.
THE TIMURID-MUGHAL EMPERORS
Bābor and Homāyun. In terms of the historiography of the Timurid-Mughal era (ca. 1526-1739), the reigns of Bābor and Homāyun constitute something of a transition period between the Timurid history of Transoxiana and Iran and the truly imperial period of Akbar (r. 1556-1605; q.v.) and his successors. The lives of both men are covered in later general histories of the dynasty, but these have little value beyond the perspective or interpretation they might offer. Bābor’s memoirs and his poetry remain the best sources for his life, as is illustrated by the fact that Ḵᵛāndamir, in his monumental history, based his own account of Bābor’s life on these memoirs. One minor but intriguing source relevant to Bābor’s life—or to his sickness and death—is a poem on hygiene written in 1530, the year of Bābor’s death, by a physician from Herat, Yusof b. Moḥammad Herāti Yusofi, titled Qaṣida dar ḥefẓ-e ṣeḥḥat, and pointedly dedicated to Bābor. In the Qānun-e homāyuni, Ḵᵛāndamir also wrote a brief account of some of Homāyun’s regulations and buildings. Homāyun left no memoirs, but Bābor himself frequently mentions his son, often doing so critically. Homāyun acceded to his father’s throne in 1530, was expelled from India by resurgent Afghan forces in 1540, and regained India only in 1555, a year before his death. Several contemporaries documented Homāyun’s life. Their accounts lack the intimate details found in Bābor’s and Jahāngir’s memoirs, but offer a detailed account of his tumultuous military and political history. The two most important works are the memoirs of his personal attendant, Mehtar Jauhar Āftābči, written or begun in 1586, known variously as the Taḏkerat al-wāqeʿāt or Jawāher-e šāhi, and a second, written by his companion Bāyazid, completed in 1591-92, entitled the Tāriḵ-e Homāyun. Otherwise there are a number of Safavid histories that describe Homāyun’s exile in Persia and his reception by Shah Ṭahmāsp. The earliest of these accounts is Amir Maḥmud’s Tāriḵ-e Amir Maḥmud, compiled in 1550, just five years after Homāyun left Persia to begin the decade-long process of reclaiming his throne. A second major work on Homāyun’s exile is Ḵuršāh b. Qobād al-Ḥosayni’s Tāriḵ-e ilči-e Neẓāmšāh by the Neẓāmšāhi ambassador of Aḥmadnagar (q.v.) in India’s Deccan region, who arrived at Shah Ṭahmāsp’s court in Qazvin in 1545. The ancillary sources for Homāyun’s reign and its court culture include his own Persian poetry, as well as the terse divinatory notes that he, like other Timurid-Mughal emperors, penned in the margins of his copy of Hafiz which he used as an augury (see HAFEZ vi. PRINTED EDITIONS), and the poetry of contemporaries, such as Darviš Bahrām Boḵāri’s Divān-e saqqā and an interesting treatise on music, Ḥaydar Tuniāni’s Davāzdah maqām, which is dedicated to Homāyun.
Akbar. Bābor and Homāyun are scarcely mentioned in the modern Indian and Western historiography of the Timurid-Mughal empire, because Bābor is usually seen as a Central Asian conqueror who died before he was able to firmly establish the Timurid-Mughal state, while Homāyun is regarded by many as a failure who squandered his father’s inheritance and had no meaningful role in constructing the empire. Homāyun’s son, Akbar, on the other hand, is almost universally regarded as the true founder of the empire, qua empire. Due to his pivotal role, the sheer length of his reign, his concern to document the early history of the dynasty, his devotion to Sufism and interest in comparative religions and patronage of literary and artistic culture, he was both the subject and the patron of many Persian-language texts as well as a major concern of modern historiography. First of all it was at Akbar’s instigation that Bābor’s memoirs were translated from Turki into Persian and Golbadan Begim wrote her autobiographical memoir the Homāyun-nāma. Many other works, including those in Sanskrit, were also written at his urging and under his patronage. These include the Persian translation of the Indian epic, the Mahābhārata, prepared by ʿAbd-al-Qāder Badāʾuni (q.v.) with Brahmanical assistance in 1584.
Akbar’s reign is known above all for the two monumental historical and statistical works produced by his amanuensis and boon companion Abu’l-Fażl ʿAllāmi (q.v.). These works, the Akbar-nāma (q.v.) and the Āʾin-e akbari, form the basis for evaluating the person of Akbar and beyond that, for understanding the basic structure of the Timurid-Mughal empire. The Akbar-nāma is very much a traditional, panegyric, narrative history, done on a massive scale, and while it is much less commonly read than the Āʾin-e akbari, it contains a wealth of valuable information on Akbar’s life and the military and political affairs of the Empire. Both it and the Āʾin-e akbari draw on Abu’l-Fażl’s intimate knowledge of Timurid-Mughal affairs and his access to administrative records. The Āʾin-e akbari, an elaborate gazetteer, is fundamental for all studies on the administration of the Timurid-Mughal empire in Akbar’s reign and the basic structure of the empire in subsequent generations. Many of the histories of the formative period of the empire represent what are in essence commentaries on this text. Apart from Abu’l-Fażl’s works, the single most important primary source for this period is ʿAbd-al-Qāder Badāʾuni’s Montaḵab al-tawāriḵ, an Indo-Muslim history from the Ghaznavids to 1596, nine years before Akbar’s death. Badāʾuni, a polymath and a religious scholar and translator of Arabic and Sanskrit works, was a rival of Abu’l-Fażl and a strong critic of Akbar’s religious experiments and his creation of an imperial religious cult. His work therefore supplements and acts a valuable corrective to Abu’l-Fażl’s fulsome praise of his patron. Other important Indo-Persian histories of Akbar’s reign are Neẓām-al-Din Aḥmad of Herat’s Ṭabaqāt-e akbari, the first general history entirely devoted to Indo-Muslim history, and the fragmentary Tāriḵ-e akbari by Moḥammad ʿĀref of Qandahār, a steward to Akbar’s tutor Bayram Khan (q.v.). Two other important works written in the 18th century, but covering the entire Timurid-Mughal era including Akbar’s reign, are the two biographical dictionaries of nobles: Šāhnavāz Awrangābādi’s Maʾāṯer al-omarāʾ and the less complete Taḏkera al-omarāʾ by Rāy Kēwal Rām. As is true for the early Timurid-Mughal rulers and those of the sultanate era, the Persian texts relevant for an understanding of the era also include regional histories, Sufi treatises and biographical accounts of poets, religious scholars, and Sufis.
Jahāngir (r. 1605-36): The historical works devoted to Akbar’s reign also cover the early history of his son, Ja-hāngir, especially Jahāngir’s rebellion against his father’s authority. Such rebellions are a legacy of the Turco-Mongol appanage system and constitute a theme of their succession politics in the 17th and 18th centuries. A near-contemporary work that contains additional valuable information on Jahāngir’s princely years is Ḡayrat Khan Kāmgār Ḥosayni’s Maʾāṯer-e jahāngiri. The principal source for the reign is, however, Jahāngir’s autobiographical memoir, discussed above. Apart from these works that concern Jahāngir’s early years, there is a wealth of contemporary or near-contemporary sources for his reign. Only Persian works will be identified here, but it is important to know that there are numerous other sources in Hindi, Pashto, Sanskrit, and European languages directly or indirectly touching on the history of this period.
Persian sources include many regional histories, which will be discussed separately below, and works which directly concern military and political events, such as the valuable autobiographical memoirs of one of the many imperial officers of Persian descent, ʿAlāʾ-al-Din of Isfahan, usually known as Mirzā Nat’han, titled Bahārestān-e ḡaybi, a work devoted to events in Bengal and Orissa. Another and lesser-known source is the collection of official letters compiled by ʿAbd-al-Laṭif b. ʿAbd-Allāh ʿAbbāsi of Gujarat during the reign of Jahāngir’s son, Shah Jahān, titled Roqaʿāt-e ʿAbd-al-Laṭif. Apart from these works, there is a category of sources dealing with Sufi doctrine or organization and Jahāngir’s religious policies or inclinations. Many of these are typical biographical accounts (taḏkeras) concerned with the Češti order (selsela), revered by both Akbar and Jahāngir. Others concern the Naqšbandi order, which in Timurid-Mughal India began as an aristocratic religious order linked with Central Asian Timurids and then, in the early 16th century, was revived as a dynamic devotional order by Moḥammad Bāqi be-’llāh and his student, Shaikh Aḥmad Fāruqi Serhendi. Moḥammad Bāqi be-’llāh left a Kolliyāt, a collection of his verse; and Serhendi, who is mentioned by Jahāngir, left a collection of letters known as the Maktubāt-e Aḥmad-e Fāruqi. Equally important for the history of Sufism in India is Moḥammad Ḡawṯi’s Golzār-e abrār, a detailed, precisely dated work on non-Češti Sufis in Gujarat, dedicated to Jahāngir. Beyond such material there is another class of religious literature translated at Jahāngir’s request that reflects his own interests and imperial policies. These include, for example, a new Persian translation of the famous heresiographer Abu’l-Fatḥ Moḥammad Šahrestāni’s Ketāb al-melal wa’l-neḥal from Arabic to Persian by Moṣṭafā Ḵaleqdād Hāšemi in 1612.
Shah Jahān (r. 1636-58). As is true of Jahāngir, the history of Shah Jahān’s early political life is partly known from his father’s account of his rebellion, although early in his memoir Jahāngir also includes many proud, caring accounts of his son. Supplementing these references are two works: one that contains Jahāngir’s letters, composed in verse, to the future Shah Jahān when he was in rebellion, the Goldasta-ye farāmin-e jahāngiri, and a second, a collection of letters from the future Shah Jahān to Shah ʿAbbās I (q.v.) requesting aid in his rebellion against Jahāngir, the Monšaʾāt, compiled by one Nāṣer-al-Din Ṭusi. Jahāngir’s frequent comments on his son are also, unfortunately, our only source for specifically personal details and traits about a man who left no autobiography of his own and in the Persian texts of the period is presented largely as an imperial archetype or, as he is sometimes styled, the “Second Timur.” This is true of the major histories of the era, which echo the panegyric tone of Abu’l-Fażl’s earlier encomiums for Akbar. Nonetheless, they contain basic and important information about the conduct of the empire. The most important of the “court” histories is the three-volume work of ʿAbd-al-Ḥamid Lāhuri and Moḥammad Wāreṯ, the Pādšāh-nāma. The other general histories of the reign, such as the Šāh Jahān-nāma by Ḥasan Qazvini and another work of the same title by Moḥammad Ṭāher Āšnā or ʿEnāyat Khan, add little to Lāhuri’s work. Other interesting sources that supplement these histories are: two collections of diplomatic letters. One, the Aḥkām-e Šāh Jahān by Bhagwān-das, contains letters from Shah Jahān; and a second, by Moḥammad Ṭāher Qazvini Waḥid, is the Enšāʾ-e Ṭāher Waḥid, a Safavid source that contains letters of the Safavid shahs to Shah Jahān and his sons. An intriguing description of court festivals and Shah Jahān’s daily routine is entitled the Čahār čaman by Chandarbhan Barahman, a munshi (monši) of Shah Jahān. The Tāriḵ-e rawża-ye Momtāz Maḥal, an account of the death of Momtāz Maḥal, contains verses by Shah Jahān describing her tomb, the Tāj Maḥal. In addition to these sources there are a variety of works, similar to those relating to the court culture of earlier emperors, which reflect Shah Jahān’s interest in Indian music, classical Persian verse, Sufism, and monumental architecture. Regarding architecture in particular there is a matònawi by Hāji Moḥammad Jān Qodsi, originally of Mašhad, titled the Ẓafar-nāma-ye šāh-jahāni, in which Qodsi describes the great Delhi mosque and other buildings ordered built by Shah Jahān.
In addition to works focused on Shah Jahān himself, there is a category of texts and documents connected with his favorite son and presumptive heir, Dārā Šokōh (q.v.) and the civil war for succession that broke out between Dārā Šokōh and his three brothers when Shah Jahān fell ill in 1657. This war resulted in the triumph of Awrangzēb (q.v.) and the death of Dārā Šokōh, his sons and brothers. Dārā Šokōh and the war of succession are major topics in Indian historiography of the nationalist period, because Dārā Šokōh, a Sufi who believed in the essential identity of Islam and Hinduism, is seen by many South Asians as an Akbar-like figure who might have renewed the syncretistic policies of his ancestor and thereby, as historians sometimes argue or imply, eliminated the communal tensions that led to the creation of Pakistan. As Awrangzēb was a relatively austere Sunnite legalist, the succession struggle is sometimes represented as a Manichean conflict between the two brothers in which religion and not simply sibling rivalry typical of the Turco-Mongol appanage system was the defining issue. However one interprets the outcome of this succession struggle, there is no doubt about the contrasting religious outlook of the two men. Dārā Šokōh himself was the author or patron of a number of works that reflect his religious convictions. These include: the Majmaʿ al-baḥrayn, a work on the similarity of Hindu and Sufi doctrine, various texts on Sufism, and Persian translations of Hindu philosophical and religious texts such as the Upaniṣads and the Bhagavadgītā. Other works relevant for a study of Dārā Šokōh and his intriguing religious and cultural outlook include his collected poems (divān), in which he used “Qāderi” as his taḵalloṣ or pen name, a copy of the Qur’ān in his own calligraphy, an art he learned from his Persian teacher, Āqā Rašid Deylāmi, and a series of religious questions addressed to a Hindu ascetic, the Soʾāl o jawāb-e Dārā Šokōh va Bābā Lāl.
Awrangzēb. The long reign of the last great Timurid-Mughal emperor Awrangzēb (ʿĀlamgir; r. 1658-1707) began with a protracted and bloody succession struggle with his three brothers and, following his victory, the imprisonment of his father, who had recovered his health after his sons had begun, prematurely, contesting the throne. There is an extant eyewitness account of the wars, a poetical version by Behešti of Shiraz, a court poet of one of the princes, Morād-baḵš, entitled Āšub-nāma-ye Hendustān. Otherwise the history of these events was written under the patronage of the victor, Awrangzēb. These include a brief history of the wars of succession by Shaikh Abu’l-Fatḥ (Qābel Khan), a munshi of Awrangzēb, titled the Ādāb-e ʿālamgiri, and several court histories: the ʿĀlamgir-nāma by another munshi of the emperor, Moḥammad Kāẓem Amin, a son of Ḥasan Qazvini, cited above; the Merʾāt al-ʿālam by Moḥammad Baḵtāvar Khan, a boon-companion of Awrangzēb; and a monumental history by Awrangzēb’s amir, Kᵛāfi Khan, titled the Montaḵab al-lobāb. The first two histories cover only the first ten years of Awrangzēb’s reign, while the third encompasses the entire half-century period.
Apart from traditional narrative histories, a number of other extant works also shed light on both the man and his reign. These include collections of letters to and from Awrangzēb, such as the collection compiled by Ašraf Khan, Raqāʾem-e karāʾem, containing letters Awrangzēb wrote to one of his amirs, and another set, the Maktu-bāt-e Moḥammad Maʿṣum, letters from his Naqšbandi shaikh, Moḥammad Maʿṣum, the son of Aḥmad Serhendi (q.v.). There are also divāns by Češti and Naqšbandi Sufis dedicated to Awrangzēb that illustrate his own intimate engagement with devotional and mystical Islam that characterized all members of the Timurid-Mughal dynasty. Other works commissioned by Awrangzēb reflect his well-known commitment to the Sunnite faith and practice. The most important of these texts is the monumental compendium of Islamic law and legal practice Fatāwāʾ-eʿ ālamgiri, first written in Arabic by Neẓām Shaikh and a number of other religious scholars and later translated into Persian at the request of Awrangzēb’s well-educated and influential daughter, Zib-al-Nesāʾ. The Persian translation is important for what it suggests of the education, religious interests, and intellectual sophistication of Timurid-Mughal women and in particular Zib-al-Nesāʾ, who also studied Arabic grammar through a personalized Persian translation of Ebn Ḥājeb’s Šāfia by one Ḡolām Moḥammad. Details about the life of Zib-al-Nesāʾs tutor, Ašraf of Māzandarān, the well-educated Persian religious scholar (ʿālem) and poet who had married into the famous Majlesi family of Isfahan, are found in the Divān-e ašʿār-e Ašraf Māzandarāni. Information about his life offers additional insight into the quality of Zib-al-Nesāʾ’s education, the intimate connection between the Iranian and Indian zones of the Perso-Islamic world, and, more generally, evidence of the high cultural standards of the Timurid-Mughal court. More famous but not necessarily the best-educated Timurid-Mughal princess during this period was Awrangzēb’s influential sister, Jahānārā Begam, who, as well as being, like her brother Dārā Šokōh, a member of the Qāderi, was also a devotee of the Češti order. She herself wrote a biography of Moʾin-al-Din Češti, the Munes al-arwāḥ.
Bahādor Shah and the later Timurid-Mughals: 1707-48. Indo-Persian scholarship continues throughout the 18th century and even into the British period. However, the Timurid-Mughal empire began to unravel following Awrangzēb’s death in 1707 and ceased to exist as an empire after Nāder Shah Afšār invaded India and seized the treasury in 1739. One especially important work written in an unusually simple style covers not only these years, but also the reigns of the last seven Timurid-Mughal emperors. This is the Siar al-motaʾaḵḵerin, whose author, Ḡolām Ḥosayn Khan Ṭabāṭabāʾi, personifies the transitional nature of 18th century India, as he served both the emperor Shah ʿĀlam and the British and indeed critically analyzes British policy in Bengal in the late 18th century. Many of the prose and verse works devoted to the emperors are simply continuations of the narrative and panegyric conventions of earlier periods, except that the events they describe reflect the precipitate deterioration of the empire during the first four decades of the 18th century. Typically, many court officers wrote annalistic accounts of this era. A few concern the brief reign of Awrangzēb’s immediate successor, Bahādor Shah (1707-12). Others recount the civil wars among Bahādor Shah’s sons, leading to the one-year enthronement of Jahāndār Shah (1712-13) before he was deposed by his nephew Farroḵsiar (1713-19). As in the case of the histories of the earlier reigns, eyewitnesses wrote many of these later narratives. This is true for example of the Bahādor Šāh-nāma by ʿAli Mirzā Nur-al-Din Moḥammad, which covers the succession struggle that followed Awrangzēb’s death, the Tāriḵ-e šāhanšāhi, by Moḥammad Ḵalil Ḵʷāja, who describes events between 1707 and 1713, and the longer ʿEbrat-nāma of Sayyed Moḥammad-Qāsem Ḥosayni ʿEbrat, who narrates the reigns of both Bahādor Shah and Farroḵsiar.
An interesting development of the period is that some poets in the early 18th century address panegyric poems to the Timurid-Mughals in Urdu, a language that first flowered in the Deccan sultanates of Bijāpur and Golconda (see DECCAN) and was, by the late 17th century, beginning to be adopted by North Indian writers as well. One example is the work of the Urdu poet Shaikh Ebrāhim Khan Ḏawq, a contemporary of Bahādor Shah. The 18th century was a transitional period for both historical and verse composition, as was personified by the career of Mir Moḥammad Taqi Mir (1723-1810), who wrote famous ḡazals in Urdu, and in a 1753 work, the Nekāt al-šoʿarā, defined this language, first described pejoratively as riḵta. However, he still composed his autobiography, Ḏekr-e Mir, in Persian. In fact, Persian remained the preferred language for prose composition; well after many North Indian Muslim literati had begun writing poetry in Urdu.
Moḥammad Shah (1719-48) is the last Timurid-Mughal emperor who can be considered to have been an independent ruler, at least until Nāder Shah’s invasion of 1739. There are noticeably fewer histories and Persian works on poetry and court culture extant from this period, a reign comparable in length to that of Jahāngir. One of the most noticeable lacunae is literature that reflects the dynasty’s longstanding attachment to the Češti and Naqš-bandi orders. General explanations for this decline may be found in the disturbed conditions in both Iran and India, with the Safavid collapse in Persia followed closely by Nāder Shah’s destructive invasion of India. That is, patronage seems to have declined drastically as the empire contracted and provincial governors became local rulers. Historians produced several general histories of the Timurid-Mughals that covered Moḥammad Shah’s reign, but the single most important history specifically dedicated to his rule and containing an account of Nāder Shah’s invasion is Moḥammad Baḵš Āšub’s Tāriḵ-e Mo-ḥammad Šāh Pādešāh (1782), This text also includes a useful list of earlier Persian sources for the Timurid-Mughal dynasty. Nāder Shah’s invasion is also the subject of several eyewitness accounts such as ʿAbd-al-Karim b.ʿĀqebat-Maḥmud Kašmiri’s Nāder-nāma (or Bayān-e wāqeʿ); as well as Badāʾeʿ-e waqāʾeʿ, the valuable account by the historian, poet, and lexicographer, Ānand Rām Moḵles (q.v.), a Hindu of the important Khatri caste and one of the many examples of Hindu participation in Indo-Persian historiography during the Timurid-Mughal period. Apart from other Persian manuscripts dedicated to the typical aspects of court culture, especially poetry and calligraphy, a new genre produced in Persian during Moḥammad Shah’s reign is represented by the astronomical tables prepared at the order of the Rajput officer of Awrangzēb and the later Timurid-Mughals, Jai Singh of Jaipur, known as the Zij-e jadid-e Moḥammad Šāh. These tables were derived from Timurid texts, that is, from Ulugh Beg’s work in Samarqand, and European scientific sources. The builder of the observatories in which they were used, Ḵayr-Allāh b. Loṭf-Allāh Mohandes, also wrote works on astronomy and translated Euclid’s elements and Naṣir-al-Din Ṭusi’s version of Ptolemy’s Almagest from Arabic into Persian.
Many important Persian-language histories and texts on Timurid-Mughal administration were written in the latter half of the 18th century, even as the dynasty itself declined into pathetic impotence. These include some of the works already mentioned, such as the biographical compendiums of nobility, the general history of the 18th century, and even the history of Moḥammad Shah. Biographical anthologies (taḏkeras) of Persian-language poets continued to be written, and Iranian literati continued to emigrate to India, even as patronage for their verse declined. Sometimes, however, they found refuge at provincial courts that arose as the empire disintegrated. Some of these provincial courts had, of course, been important centers of patronage throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The two most important were the independent sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda located in the region of central India known as the Deccan. Bijapur, a small kingdom with a Shiʿite dynasty later conquered by Awrangzēb, was, after the Timurid-Mughal empire itself, the state that was most closely connected with Persia. Even if it did not command the lavish resources available to Shah Jahān, it attracted Persian-speaking émigrés; and its ruling dynasty, the ʿĀdelšāhis (q.v.), had a number of histories in Persian devoted to it. Two examples are the Taḏkerat al-moluk (ca. 1612) by Rafiʿ-al-Din Ebrāhim of Shiraz and Fozuni of Astarābād’s Fotuḥāt-e ʿādelšāhi (ca. 1645). An example of the interesting literature that illustrates the Persian-Bijāpur connection is the collection of stories by Moḥammad Mahdi Wāṣef, titled Maẓhar al-eʿjāz (ca. 1686), that describes everyday life in Persia and India in the late 17th century. The Qoṭbšāhi dynasty of Golconda was also the subject of Persian-language histories such as the anonymous Tāriḵ-e solṭān Moḥammad Qoṭbšāhi (ca. 1616). The rulers of this dynasty were especially known for their literary interests and patronage, and ʿAbd-Allāh Qoṭbšāhi (1625-73) wrote divāns in both Persian and in Deccani Urdu. During his reign Persian remained an important historical and literary language, but he and other Qoṭb-šāhi rulers were, in fact, directly responsible for the development of high literary Urdu during the 17th century, which only later became popular as a court language in Agra and Delhi.
As was indicated in the introduction to this section, Persian-language sources can be found for virtually every region of India to which Persian-speaking Muslims from north India extended their control from the first years of the Ghaznavid era through the 18th century. Two regions of particular importance due to their wealth and strategic location were Bengal and Gujarat. Both were brought under Timurid-Mughal control in the late 16th century, and both had long histories of independent Muslim rule during the Sultanate period and Persianate cultural and historical traditions. During the Sultanate period the independent sultans of Bengal, one of the wealthiest provinces in India, patronized a typical variety of Muslim religious institutions and Persianate literary and historical works, partly to demonstrate their continuing ties to the distant but still prestigious Perso-Islamic world. The same is true of Gujarat, whose coastline, after all, puts it in immediate contact with the Persian Gulf and Iran. Two categories of texts that represent important historical sources for both regions are those of malfuẓāt and taḏkera literature, the records of sayings and admonitions or biographical notices of Sufi masters (moršeds), who played such an important role in the Islamization of both regions. Such sources are particularly plentiful from Bengal for the Češti order, such as ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Češti’s Merāt al-asrār. One such text from Gujarat written during Jahāngir’s reign is cited above. In Gujarat there are many others from members of the Češti, Sohravardi, Qāderi and Šaṭṭāri orders. A useful example of Indo-Persian historiography from Gujarat is the Merāt-e Sekandari by Sekandar b. Moḥammad ʿOrf Manjhu b. Akbar written in 161l. The author, whom Jahāngir praises in his memoirs, usefully cites six earlier Persian works on Gujarat that he studied in writing his history of the Muslim kings of Gujarat from 1411 to 1591/92. An important history written by a Gujarati Sayyed who encouraged Akbar’s conquest of the region is Abu Torāb Wāli’s, Tāriḵ-e Gojarāt. During the Timurid-Mughal period the histories of Bengal and Gujarat and other previously independent regions were usually incorporated into the general histories of the empire, such as those commissioned by Akbar, the Akbar-nāma, Aḥmad Tattawi’s Tāriḵ-e alfi (1591), and Neẓām-al-Din Aḥmad Heravi’s Ṭabaqāt-e akbari (1594). Nonetheless, there are also specialized works relating to these provinces, and they are particularly numerous for Bengal, such as Mirzā Nat’han’s memoir, the Bahārestān-e ḡaybi, cited above, and the biography of a governor of Bengal during Shah Jahān’s time, the Tāriḵ-e aḥwāl-e Eslām Ḵān Mašhadi by Ḥaydar Ḥosayn Khan Šāh-jahānābādi.
Didactic literature and belles-lettres. As has been suggested by the references in this article, Muslim India, and especially Timurid-Mughal India, was a full participant in Persianate culture. Bibliographical resources are, however, far richer for the Timurid-Mughal era than for the Sultanate period. This partly reflects the extraordinary volume of Indo-Persian artistic, historical, literary, and religious texts that were written from the 16th through the 18th centuries, but it has also meant that citations of Persian-language works for the Sultanate period do not give an adequate idea of the works available. There is not, for example, a bibliographical work on the sultanate period equivalent to Dara Nusserwanji Marshall’s Mughals in India, A Bibliographical Survey, without which this article could not have been written. The lack of a comprehensive bibliographic survey for the Sultanate period is felt even more acutely when it comes to identifying and discussing such specialized literary genres as aḵlāq, enšāʾ, and naṣiḥat literature, many specimens of which are known for the Timurid-Mughal period.
In the case of aḵlāq literature, for example, at least three major examples are known, all of which seem to derive from Naṣir-al-Din Ṭusi’s Aḵlāq-e nāṣeri (q.v.). One, the Aḵlāq-e homāyuni, originally compiled in Herat by the chief qāżi of Herat, Eḵtiār Ḥosayni, was eventually dedicated by the author to Bābor in Kabul following the collapse of Timurid rule in Herat. A second was dedicated to Jahāngir in 1622 by Nur-al-Din Moḥammad Qāżi; and a third, the Aḵlāq-e moḥammad-šāhi by Ahmad ʿAli Khan Ajmiri, was written at Moḥammad Shah’s request in 1729.
Enšāʾ literature, that is, collections of sample chancellery or personal correspondence intended as manuals of instruction, was as highly developed a genre in Muslim India as in most other highly literate states of the medieval and early modern Islamic world. Only three examples are known to be extant from the Sultanate period. Two are from the Sultanate itself: the Eʿjāz-e ḵosravi of the poet Amir Ḵosrow, which emphasizes ornate prose composition at the expense of clarity, and the more simply styled Enšāʾ-e māhru of ʿAyn-al-Molk Māhru. The third is from the Deccan, the rhetorically elaborate Riāż al-enšāʾ by Maḥmud Gāvān (Gāwān; see BAHMANID DYNASTY). Literally dozens of enšāʾ collections are extant from the Timurid-Mughal period, ranging from those of Abu’l Fazl, Akbar’s historian and amanuensis, to the political letters of Shah Wali-Allāh, the 18th century ʿālem and intellectual and son of one of the authors of the Fatāwā-ye ʿālamgiri. Among these are collections compiled by Persian-speaking Hindu servants of the empire, such as Māḏurām’s Monšaʿāt-e Māḏurām (1708) giving samples of official correspondence from the end of Awrangzēb’s reign.
Indo-Persian naṣiḥat or advice literature is also extant, although harder to detect without familiarity with each and every historical or literary text, because the word naṣiḥat often does not appear in the titles of such works. Bābor’s autobiography, for example, is, at least in part, a piece of advice literature for his son and heir, Homāyun. The Fatāwā-ye jahāndāri of the Sultanate-era historian, Żiāʾ-al-Din Barani, might be put in the same category, which is sometimes indistinguishable from the “mirror for princes” genre. A particularly interesting example from the late Timurid-Mughal period at its furthermost geographic extent is ʿAbd-al-Hādi Karnātaki’s work, conveniently titled Naṣiḥat-nāma, a text that describes the chaos in the Madras region in the mid-18th century and urges large landholders and officials to take action before foreigners succeed in conquering the area. Few other extant Indo-Persian texts explicitly express this sense of a foreign—that is, European—threat, and also try to rally both Hindus and Muslims in a joint defense of Indian territory.
Conclusion. This article has primarily cited Indo-Persian historical and cultural texts. It has only alluded to Persian-language works on astronomy and calligraphy, while ignoring altogether science, mathematics, and philosophy, all of which are relevant for studying the history of the Sultanate and Timurid-Mughal eras. Calligraphy, for example, deserves a separate discussion, as it was an art that Timurid-Mughals cultivated and taught to their children, often employing well-known Persian calligraphers for the task. Other topics such as astrology and geography have also been omitted here, and only the briefest allusion has been made to the copious literature in Persian on music, another important art at the Timurid-Mughal court. Given the extraordinary number of Indo-Persian sources, it is unfortunately (and ironically) impossible to be encyclopedic. Nonetheless, the references here at least hint at the range and variety of Persian-language materials pertaining to South Asia during the Sultanate and Timurid-Mughal eras, which scholars of Persianate societies have only just begin to exploit.
Many works cited here have not been published or translated. In the case of works from the Mughal or Timurid-Mughal period, citations to unpublished material have been given to D. N. Marshall’s invaluable work, Mughals in India: A Bibliographical Survey. Vol. I—Manuscripts. Many selections from Indo-Persian texts can be found in the monumental collection edited by Elliot and Dowson in the late 19th century, The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians; but they need to be checked for accuracy by consulting S. H. Hodīvālā’s meticulously detailed commentary, Studies in Indo-Muslim History. A Critical Commentary on Elliot and Dowson’s History of India as Told by its Own Historians. For the period of the Delhi sultanate, see especially the discussion of sources in Peter Jackson’s The Delhi Sultanate and, for a seminal study of Persianate historiography in both Muslim India and the broader Persianate world, Peter Hardy’s Historians of Medieval India. A particularly useful bibliography for sources on South Asian Sufism is given in Carl Ernst’s Eternal Garden. A valuable collection of essays that discuss various aspects of Indo-Persian culture and texts for both the Sultanate and Timurid-Mughul periods is that edited by Muzaffar Alam et al., The Making of Indo-Persian Culture. All these primary guides, as well as standard bibliographies by Storey and Aḥmad Monavi, are cited in full in the bibliography below.
ʿAbd-al-Laṭif b. ʿAbd-Allāh ʿAbbāsi Gojarāti, Roqaʿāt-e ʿAbd-al-Laṭif (Marshall, 46, i).
ʿAbd-al-Hādi Karnā-taki, Naṣihat-nāma (Marshall, 16, i).
ʿAbd-al-Karim b. ʿAqebat-Maḥmud b. Kašmiri, Bayān-e wāqeʿ or Nāder-nāma, Condensed tr. F. Gladwin as The Memoirs of Khojeh Abdul-kurreem, Calcutta, 1788 and 1813.
Abu Ṭorāb Wali, Tāriḵ-e Gojarāt, ed. E. Denison Ross as A History of Gujarat, Calcutta, 1909.
Jauhar Āftābchi, Taḏkerat al-wāqeʿāt, ed. Major C. Stewart, London, 1832.
Aḥmad-ʿAli Khan Ajmiri, Aḵlāq-e Moḥammad-šāhi (Marshall, 143).
Mollā Aḥmad Tattawi, Tāriḵ-e alfi (Marshall, 166, i).
Muzaffar Alam and François Delvoye, ‘Nalini’, and Marc Gaborieau, The Making of Indo-Persian Culture. Indian and French Studies, Delhi, 2000.
Abu’l-Fażl ʿAllāmi, Āʾin-e akbari, ed. H. Blochmann, Bibl. Ind., 2 vols., Calcutta, 1867-77; rev. ed. and tr., D. C. Phillott, 3 vols., Calcutta, 1939-49.
Idem, Akbar-nāma, ed. Ḡolām-Reżā Ṭabāṭabāiʾ-Majd, I, Tehran, 1994; tr. H. Beveridge, 3 vols., Bibl. Ind., 1897-1939.
Mirzā Nur-al-Din ʿAli, Bahādor Šāh-nāma (Marshall, 211, i).
Moḥammad Kāẓem Amin, Ālamgir-nāma, 2 vols., Calcutta, 1865-73.
Amir Ḵosrow Dehlavi, Eʿjāz-Ḵosrow; see Hardy, Historians of Medieval India, p. 68, (cited below).
Idem, Ḵazāʾen al-fotuḥ, ed. Sayyed Moʿin-al-Ḥaq, Aligarh, 1927.
Idem, The Nuh sipihr, ed. Muhammad Wahid Mirza, London, 1950.
Idem, Qerān al-saʿdayn, eds., Maulavi Muhammad Ismaʿil and Sayyid Hasan Barani, Aligarh, 1918; ed. Aḥmad Ḥasan Dāni, Islamabad, 1976.
Idem, Toḡloq-nāma, ed. Sayyed Hašemi Faridābādi, Hyderabad, 1933.
Amir Maḥmud b. Amir Ḵᵛāndamir, Tāriḵ Amir Maḥmud (Marshall, 245).
Anand Rām Moḵleṣ, Badāʾeʿ-e waqāʾeʿ; see Storey I, pp. 1319-20.
Mir Moḥammad Ḥosayni Ašraf Khan, Raqāʾem-e karāʾem (Marshall, 274, i).
Idem, (as Moḥammad Saʿid Ašraf Māzandarāni), Divān-e ašʿār-e Ašraf-e Māzandarāni, ed. Moḥammad Ḥosayn Saʿidiān, Tehran, 1994.
Moḥammad Baḵš Āšub, Tāriḵ-e Moḥammad Šāh Pādešāh (Marshall, 1143, i).
Šāh Nawāz Khan Awrangābādi, Maʾāṯer al-omarāʾ, 3 vols., Calcutta, 1891.
Ẓahir-al-Din Moḥammad Bābor, Bābor-nāma (Waqāʾeʿ), 2 vols., ed. Mano Eiji, Kyoto, 1995-96.
ʿAbd-al-Qāder Badāʾuni, Montaḵab al-tawāriḵ, ed. and tr. by George S. A. Rankling as Muntakhabu-T-Tawârîkh of ʿAbdu-L-Qâdir Ibn-I-Mulûk Shâh known as Al-Badâonî, rev. by B. P. Ambashthya, Calcutta, 1898; repr., 3 vols., Patna, 1973.
Moḥammad Baḵtāvar Khan, Merʾāt al-ʿālam (Marshall, 314, ii).
Abu’l-Faż Bayhaqi, Tāriḵ-e Bayhaqi, ed. ʿAli Akbar Fayyāz, Mašhad, 1971.
Moḥammad Bāqi be-’llāh Naqšbandi, Kolliyāt (Marshall, 1147).
Ziāʿ-al-Din Barani, Tāriḵ-e firuzšāhi, ed., Sayyed Ahmad Khan, Calcutta, 1862.
Idem, Fatāwā-ye jahāndāri (tr. with commentary by Mohammad Habib as The Political Theory of the Delhi Sultanate, see under Habib below).
Bāyazid Bayāt, Taḏkera-ye Homāyun o Akbar, ed. M. Hidāyat Husain, Calcutta, 1941.
Idem, Tāriḵ-e Homāyun, ed. S. M. Hidāyat Husain, Calcutta, 1941. Bhagwāndas, Ahkām-e Šāh Jahān (Marshall, 343).
C. E. Bosworth, The Ghaznavids, Their Empire in Afghanistan and Eastern Iran, 994-1040, Edinburgh, 1963.
Idem, The Later Ghaznavids: Splendour and Decay, Edinburgh, 1977.
Barahman Chandarbhān, Čahār čaman, Bombay, 1853.
Mirza Haydar Dughlat, Mirza Haydar Duglat’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi: A History of the Khans of Moghulistan, tr. and annotated W. M. Thackston, Cambridge, Mass., 1996.
Dārā Šokōh, Divān-e Dārā Šokōh, ed. Aḥmad Nabi Khan, Lahore, 1969; ed. M. Ḥaydariān, Mašhad, 1985.
Idem, Majmʿ al-baḥrayn, ed and tr. M. Malfuz al-Haq, Calcutta, 1929; ed. Moḥamma-Reżā Jalāli-Nāʾini, Tehran, 1956.
Idem, Soʾāl o jawāb-e Dārā Šokōh o Bābā Lāl, Delhi, 1885.
Darwiš Bahrām Boḵāri, Divān-e Saqqā (Marshall, 407).
Richard M. Eaton, The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204-1760, Berkeley, 1993.
Henry Miers Elliot and John Dowson, The History of India as Told by its Own Historians, 8 vols., London, 1867-77.
Carl W. Ernst, Eternal Garden. Mysticism, History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center, Albany, 1992.
Faḵr-e Modabber Mobārak-šāh, Ādāb al-harb wa’l-šajāʿa, ed. Aḥmad Sohayli Ḵᵛānsāri, Tehran, 1967.
Fuzuni Astarābādi, Fotuḥāt-e ʿādelšāhi (Marshall,473).
Moḥammad b. Ḥasan b. Musā Šaṭṭāri Ḡawṣi, Golzār-e abrār (Marshall, 1170).
Gulbadan (Golbadān) Begim, The History of Humāyūn (Humāyūn-nāma), ed. and tr. A. S. Beveridge, London, 1902; repr., Delhi, 1972.
Ḡolām Moḥammad b. Allāh-yār al-Moridi, Šarḥ-e šāfiya (Marshall, 522).
Mohammad Habib and Umar Salim Khan Afshar, The Political Theory of the Delhi Sultanate, Allahabad, 1961.
Ḥaydar Ṭuniāni, Dawāzdah maqām (Marshall, 578).
Peter Hardy, Historians of Medieval India, London, 1966.
Neẓām-al-Din Heravi, Ṭabaqāt-e akbari, ed. B. De and M. Hedayat Husayn, Calcutta, 1913-40; tr., B. De and B. Prashad, 3 vols., Calcutta, 1913-40.
Shāhpūrshāh Hormasji Hodīvālā, Studies in Indo-Muslim History. A Critical Commentary on Eliot and Dowson’s History of India as Told by its Own Historians, Bombay, 1939.
Sayyed Moḥammad Qāsem Ḥosayni ʿEbrat, ʿEbrat-nāma (Marshall, 689).
Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAli b. ʿOṯmān Hojviri (Hujwiri), Kašf al-maḥjub, tr. R. A. Nicholson as The Kashf al-Mahjûb, 2nd ed. 1936.
Eḵtiār al-Hosayni, Aḵlāq-e homāyuni, (see Muzaffar Alam, “Akhlaqi Norms and Mughal Governance,” in Alam et al., The Making of Indo-Persian Culture, pp. 67-95.
Riazul Islam, Indo-Persian Relations; A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between the Mughul Empire and Iran, Tehran, 1970.
ʿAbd-al-Malek Eṣāmi, Fotuḥ al-salāṭin, ed. A. S. Usha, Madras, 1948; tr. Agha Mahdi Husain as Futūḥu’s-Salātīn or Shah Namah-i Hind, Aligarh, 1967-77.
ʿAlā-al-Din “Ḡaybi” Eṣfahāni (Mirza Nat’han; Nathan), Bahārestān-e ḡaybi, tr. M. I. Borah Gauhati as Bahāristān-i-Ghaybī. A History of the Mughal Wars in Assam, Cooch Behar … by Mirzā Nathan, Assam, 1936.
Peter Jackson, The Delhi Sultanate, A Political and Military History, Cambridge, 1999.
Jahānārā Begam, Moʾnes al-arwāḥ (Marshall, 770, i).
Nur-al-Din Moḥammad Jahāngir, Jahāngir-nāma/Tuzok-e jahān-giri, ed. Moḥammad Hāšem, Tehran, 1980.
Idem, Jāhāngir-nāma, ed. and tr. by Wheeler M. Thackston as The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India, New York, 1999.
Idem, Goldasta-ye farāmin-e jahāngiri (Marshall, 772, iv).
Jai Singh Sawā’i, Zij-e jadid-e moḥammad-šāhi (Marshall, 779).
Menhāj-al-Din b. Serāj-al-Din Juzjāni, Ṭabaqāt-e nāṣeri, ed. ʿAbd-al-Ḥayy Ḥabibi, 2 vols., Kabul, 1963-64; tr. into Eng. by H. G. Raverty as Tabakât-e Nâserî, repr., London, 1971-72.
Ghairat Khan Kāmgār Husaini, “Maʾāthir-i Jahāngiri,” tr. Thākur Rām Singh, in Journal of Indian History 7/2, August 1928; see also Marshall, 845.
Rokn-al-Din Dabir Kāšāni, Nafāʾes al-anfās wa laṭāʾef al-alfāz, cited in Carl Ernst, Eternal Garden (see above), pp. 71 and 342.
Kēwal Rām (Kē-walrām), Taḏkerat al-omarāʾ (Marshall, 880).
Khāfi Khan (Ḵāfi Ḵān), Muntakhab al-lubāb, ed. Maulaví Kabír al-Dín Aḥmed and Ghulám Qádir as The Muntakhab al-lubáb (vol. II only), 2 vols., Calcutta; ed. Sir Wolseley Haig as Muntakhab-al-lubāb (vol. III only), 1909-25; tr. Elliot and Dowson, VII, pp. 207-533.
Ḵwāja Moḥammad Ḵalil, Tāriḵ-e šāhānšāhi (Marshall, 1196). Ḵayr-Allāh b. Loṭf-Allāh Mohandes, Taqrir al-taḥrir (Marshall, 905).
Ḡiāṯ-al-Din Ḵᵛāndamir, Qānun-e homāyuni, ed. S. M. Hidayat Husain, Calcutta, 1940; see also Monzavi II, p. 1373.
Ḵuršāh b. Qobād al-Ḥosayni, Tāriḵ-e ilči-e Neẓām-šāh (Marshall, 924).
Sayyed Moḥammad Mobārak-al-ʿAlawi al-Kermāni, Siar al-awliāʾ, repr. Islamabad, 1978.
ʿAbd-al-Ḥamid Lāhuri and Moḥammad Wāreṯ, Padšāh-nāma I and II, ed. Kabír Al-Din Ahmad and Abd Al-Rahím, as Bádsháh Námah, Calcutta, 1866-72.
Bruce B. Lawrence, Notes from a Distant Flute: The Extant Literature of pre-Mughal Indian Sufism, Tehran, 1978.
Mādhurām, Monšʿāt-e Mādhurām (Marshall, 604).
D. N. Marshall, Mughals in India, A Bibliographical Survey. I—Manuscripts, Bombay, 1967.
Mir Moḥammad Taqi, Nekāt al-šoʿarāʾ, Aurangabad, 1920.
Idem, Ḏekr-e Mir, tr. and ed. C. M. Naim, Delhi, 1989.
Momin Mohiuddin, The Chancery and Persian Epistolography Under the Mughals, Calcutta, 1971.
Arjamand Banu Begam Momtāz Mahal, Tāriḵ-e rawża-ye Momtāz Mahal (Marshall, 1313).
Aḥmad Monzavi, Fehrestvāra-ye ketābhā-ye fārsi; 8 vols., Tehran, 2003; particularly Vol. II with its valuable section on the histories of the subcontinent, although other sections, on Sufism and didactic literature are also relevant. Neẓām Šayḵ et al., Fatāwā-ye ʿālamgiri (Marshall, 1410).
Abu’l-Fatḥ Qābel Khan, Ādāb-e ʿālamgiri (Marshal, 97).
Moḥammad ʿĀref Qandahāri, Tāriḵ-e akbari (Marshall, 1119).
Ḥasan Qazvini, Šāh-Jahān-nāma (Marshall 240, i).
Hāji Moḥammad Jān Qodsi, Ẓafar-nāma-ye šāh-jahāni (Marshall, 1496).
Sultan Moḥammad Qoṭbšāh [patron], Tāriḵ-e Solṭān Moḥammad Qoṭbšāhi (Marshall, 1498).
Rafiʿ-al-Din Ebrāhim Širāzi, Taḏkerat al-moluk, abridged tr. of an extract by J. S. King as The History of the Bahmanî Dynasty …, London, 1900.
Edward C. Sachau, ed. and tr., Alberuni’s India, London, 1888; repr., Delhi, 1996.
Abu’l-Fatḥ Moḥammad b. ʿAbd-al-Karim Šahrestāni, Ketāb al-melal wa’l-neḥal, Persian tr. by Moṣṭafā Ḵaleqdād Hāšemi as Tawżiḥ al-melal, ed. Moḥammad-Reżā Jalāli Nāʾini, Tehran, 1982.
Sri Ram Sharma, A Bibliography of Mughal India, 1526-1707 A.D., Philadelphia, 1977.
Behešti Širāzi, Āšub-nāma-ye Hendustān (Marshall, 362). Amir Hasan Sijzi, Fawāʾed al-foʾād, tr. Bruce B. Lawrence as Nizam Ad-Din Awliya, Morals for the Heart, New York, 1992.
Sikandar b. Moḥammad Manjuh b. Akbar, Merʾāt-e Sekandari, eds. S. C. Misra and M. L. Rahman, Baroda, 1961.
Shaikh Aḥmad Fāruqi Serhendi, Maktubāt-e Aḥmad Fāruqi, 3 vols., Delhi, 1877, Lucknow, 1877.
Yaḥyā b. Aḥmad Serhendi, Tāriḵ-e mobārakšāhi, ed. S. M. Hidayat Husain, Calcutta, 1941.
Charles A. Storey, Persian Literature: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey, Leiden, 1927- .
Ḡolām Ḥosayn Khan Ṭabāṭabāʾi, Siar al-motaʾaḵḵerin, Calcutta, 1833.
Naṣir-al-Din Ṭusi, Monšaʾāt (Marshall, 1382).
Moḥammad Ṭāher Waḥid Qazvini, Enšāʾ-e Ṭāḥer Waḥid, lithograph, Lucknow, 1844.
Moḥammad Mahdi Wāṣef, Maẓhar al-eʿjāz (Marshall, 1874).
Aḥmad Yādgār, Maḵzan-e afḡāna, ed. S. M. Hidayat Husain, Calcutta, 1939.
Šaraf-al-Din ʿAli Yazdi, Ẓafar-nāma, ed. Moḥammad ʿAbbāsi, Tehran, 1957.
Yusof b. Moḥammad Herāti Yusofi, Qaṣida dar ḥefẓ-e ṣeḥḥat (Marshall, 1912, iii.) Ishtiyaq Ahmad Zilli, “Development of Inshā Literature till the End of Akbar’s Reign,” in Alam et al., The Making of Indo-Persian Culture, pp. 309-49.
(Stephen F. Dale)
Originally Published: December 15, 2004
Last Updated: March 27, 2012
This article is available in print.
Vol. XIII, Fasc. 1, pp. 53-63
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Italian theorist, composer and humanist. His most notable work, Practica musicae (Milan, 1496), contains rules of counterpoint, a theory of mensural proportions, and a statement about the semibreve being equivalent to the 'pulse beat of a quietly breathing man'. He was recognized by contemporaries as one of the foremost musicians of his era. He was active in many Italian cities from 1473, notably Naples and Milan (where he was maestro di capella of the cathedral from 1484, and had an extensive knowledge of the music written in his time, and many composers and theorists, including Tinctoris. He himself composed mainly Masses and motets, and some madrigals. In addition to Practica musicae, his writings include Theorica musicae (Milan, 1492), and De harmonia musicorum instrumentorum (Milan 1518); his treatises together cover all aspects of speculative and practical theory.
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By Dana Gabriel
Over the past several months, the U.S.-Canada Beyond the Border action plan has taken significant steps forward. This includes efforts to modernize and expand infrastructure at key land ports. In a move that went largely unnoticed, both countries also recently agreed on a statement of privacy principles that will guide information sharing across the border. Meanwhile, a separate joint initiative has been announced which addresses energy and environmental issues.
President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Stephen Harper launched the U.S.-Canada Clean Energy Dialogue (CED) in 2009 to promote new ways to reduce greenhouse gases and combat climate change. The CED Action Plan II released last month, outlines the next phase of activities both countries will undertake. This includes continued work on carbon capture and storage, as well as integrating the electricity grid. In a press statement, Canada’s Minister of the Environment Peter Kent explained that the CED, “strengthens our efforts to collaborate on innovative clean energy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions.” He also commented on how "It is our hope that the transformation of our economies and our joint work will identify clean energy solutions that will contribute to making sustainable energy a reality for all." Whether real or exaggerated, environmental issues are also advancing North American integration. If you look at some of the words being used and the goals being pushed, they are tied to Agenda 21. Under the guise of protecting the environment, many solutions being offered are in the form of more taxes and control over our lives.
In June, Canada reached an agreement with the State of Michigan to build a second bridge between Windsor and Detroit which is one of North America’s busiest land crossings. A press release described how, “The new Detroit River International Crossing will facilitate the movement of people and goods between Canada and the U.S. by ensuring that there is sufficient border crossing capacity to handle projected growth in cross-border trade and traffic.” It goes on to say that the, “announcement demonstrates that the Government of Canada is working to advance the goals of the Action Plan on Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness.” During a speech, Prime Minister Stephen Harper called the new bridge, “an investment in the future of the North American economy, of North American trade and of North American manufacturing.” With the existing Ambassador Bridge being privately owned, motivation for the project is largely based on being able to further control border trade and traffic in the region. It is also part of the necessary transportation infrastructure needed for a trade corridor that would span from Windsor, Ontario to southern Mexico.
The U.S. and Canada recently issued a Statement of Privacy Principles that will shape information sharing arrangements under the perimeter security deal. The charter covers areas such as oversight, accountability, redress, retention, data quality and information security. Attorney General Eric Holder acknowledged in a Department of Justice news release that “These privacy principles reflect the shared commitment of the United States and Canada to implement our Beyond the Border Action Plan.” The Freedom of Information and Privacy Association warned that, “What the government just announced will certainly provide more access to Canadians personal information to the U.S. and other governments.” The Canadian Civil Liberties Association have also voiced concerns on privacy safeguard provisions that were not included which, “may permit the lowest standard between the two countries to prevail.” Ever since the perimeter security action plan was first unveiled in December 2011, there have been fears associated with personal data collected and exchanged at the border. This latest announcement has done little to ease these worries with respect to privacy rights and civil liberties.
As part of their commitment under the Beyond the Border agreement, both countries have also announced the establishment of Joint Port Operations Committees at eight Canadian airports that offer U.S. pre-clearance service. The move is designed to, “help facilitate legitimate cross-border trade and travel and promote collaboration on overall port management.” In June, the Beyond the Border Executive Steering Committee met to oversee progress on the implementation of the action plan. They announced that in the interest of transparency and accountability, a joint public report will be issued in December. Public Safety Minister Vic Toews also recently gave an update on other aspects of the perimeter security deal. He stated, “We are making great progress. We have, for example, added NEXUS lanes, made air cargo screening programs mutually recognizable and installed new passenger screening machines to end duplicate screening in Canadian airports.” Toews added, “More work continues every day to fully implement this new shared vision that represents the most significant step forward in Canada-U.S. cooperation since the North American Free Trade Agreement."
Despite some minor setbacks with regards to bilateral relations, Canada has moved closer to its American partner under Prime Minister Harper. The Beyond the Border deal provides the essential framework for U.S.-Canada integration with the action plan being incrementally implemented. This piece by piece approach has allowed many different initiatives to go unnoticed and fly under the radar. Some of these individual steps may seem insignificant, but combined together they are further merging economic and security ties between both countries. This is paving the way for a North American security perimeter which would mean sacrificing what is left of our sovereignty and independence.
Related articles by Dana Gabriel
Using the TPP to Renegotiate and Expand NAFTA
Laying the Foundation for a North American Security Perimeter
Implementing Beyond the Border Perimeter Security Initiatives
The Transformation of the U.S.-Canada Border
Dana Gabriel is an activist and independent researcher. He writes about trade, globalization, sovereignty, security, as well as other issues. Contact: [email protected] Visit his blog at Be Your Own Leader
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Layers of soil underlying the grass.
- A layer of minerals in the soil is an example of underlying minerals.
- A lack of educational opportunity is an example of an underlying cause of poverty.
- lying under; placed beneath
- fundamental; basic: the underlying cause
- really there but not easily seen or noticed: an underlying trend
- Finance having priority, as a claim
- Lying under or beneath something: underlying strata.
- Basic; fundamental: the underlying cause of the problem.
- Present but not readily noticeable: an underlying meaning.
- Taking precedence; prior: an underlying claim to compensation.
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The above photo of Namdaemun was taken from a collection of photos taken by Rev. Corwin Taylor and Nellie Blood-Taylor, who were Methodist missionaries active in Korea between 1908 and 1922. When I saw this photo, I couldn't help but remember this quote from something I posted at the beginning of this year about the opening of the center of Namdaemun gate to the public:
[The] entrance to the national treasure had been forbidden since 1907, when the occupying Japanese government regulated traffic by removing the fortress walls on both sides and putting in a road and streetcar line.In my post, I looked at the photo below, wherein the gate is open to the public, and which is obviously from the 1910s or 1920s, and figured that the line Seoul City was spinning about Namdaemun being closed for 99 years was just a little on the false side of the truth. The photo above (which is likely facing south (whereas the photo below is likely facing north)) was taken at a much earlier time than this photo -
- and is, I think, further proof that the statement printed by the Chosun Ilbo, above, is not historically correct. It should also be mentioned that the Japanese did not build the streetcar line at Namdaemun that was present in 1907; it was built seven years earlier.
For those curious about the tearing down of the fortress walls around Namdaemun (and Dongdaemun) the essay "Colonial City Planning and Its Legacy", by Sohn Jung-Mok (from Seoul, 20th Century: Growth and Change of the Last 100 Years) provides a great deal of information about this project (on pages 438-441):
When the streetcar line from Seodaemun to Dongdaemun and Cheongryangri was built between October 17 and December 25, 1898 (with another line going from Jongno to Namdaemun and Wonhyoro 4-ga (near the river) completed in 1900), the trams were routed through the doors of the city gates, as the Korean government feared the public response to tearing down any part of the walls. By 1905, when the Gyeong-Bu (Seoul-Busan) train line was compete, with its main station south of Namdaemun, the traffic through the narrow gate entrances had become incredibly congested. On June 27 of that year, Japanese diplomatic minister Hayashi suggested in a note to foreign minister Lee Ha-yong that the walls on either side of Namdaemun be torn down to make room for the trams and more traffic, but this suggestion was ignored.
Finally, on March 30, 1907, one year after Japan took complete control over all domestic affairs of Korea, a high state councilor of the State of Council Park Jae-soon, Internal Affairs minister Lee Ji-yong, Defense minister Kwon Jung-hyun drafted an agenda titled Removal of fortress walls adjacent to Dongdaemun and Namdaemun.Of course, the king would soon have little to say about any of this. A month after approving this proposal, on July 20, 1907, King Gojong was forced to abdicate the throne by the Japanese and his son Sunjong was made king. On July 30, the Fortress Wall Removal Committee was established, composed of members of the ministries of Internal Affairs, Defense, and Finance (who by that point were mostly Japanese).
The South and the East are gateways to the royal palace and have long been the busiest where people bump their shoulders against each other and overflow with with cars and horses. A tramway has been built running through the gates and added more traffic to the already bustling area, causing more inconvenience. Due to this situation, it is deemed necessary to take urgent measures to ease transportation in this area. It is now necessary to remove 8 gans (gan is a unit of length equal to 180 cm) from either side of the fortress walls at the gates for streetcars and the gates will be for the exclusive use of pedestrians. This will greatly reduce problems due to the narrow roads and correct traffic flow. We hereby duly present this proposal with attached blueprint for approval by your highness.
The next day, on March 31, King Gojong sanctioned the plan. [...] The government appropriated 135,595 won 93 jeon from the budget for the project using government bonds and began purchasing land, homes and relocating people to other regions. While work was in progress, a new cabinet moved in as of May 22, 1907 and petitioned King Gojong, who gave his royal approval on June 22. The new petition reads as follows.
The removal of the fortress walls on both sides of Namdaemun and Dongdaemun have already been approved. The partial removal of the fortress walls will leave unsightly remains and the residual walls would be of no use in the defense of Seoul. We humbly suggest that the remaining fortress walls be removed under the aegis of the Nambu (Ministry of Internal Affairs) and the Takjibu (Ministry of Finance), thus demonstrating to people that there would be no 'outside' in the king's mind.
At the beginning of September, construction teams filled Namji pond, southeast of Namdaemun, the main body of the gate was left intact, the walls on both sides were removed to build a new 8 gans wide street (inclusive of the old road, the Namdaemun area eventually had three streets). Detailed plans and execution of the plans were carried out by the committee: a stone wall was built around the gate, lawns and trees were planted inside the wall, stone pillars were put up at the four corners on top of which were placed jade electric lights. The Fortress Wall Removal Committee was dissolved on September 5, 1908 when the planned construction was completed. Construction of the two roads on either side of Namdaemun gate was completed on October 3, 1908. Supplementary work continued however until May 30 into the next year.I have no idea where those living and working near the gates would have been moved, but there most certainly would have been a number of people who would have needed to have their dwellings/places of business torn down, as these photos taken in 1904 show:
The continued construction work further expanded these roads toward Namdaemun Station (presently Seoul Station) , a total of 436 meters with 34.54 meter widening. Other roads such as Gurigae road (presently Euljiro), and the road between Gwanghuimun gate - Wangshimni were repaired with a budget of 454,604 won.
One can only wonder how fairly they were treated in being relocated (or whether they would have been considered as squatters on the land outside of the gates).
On a related note, an earlier civic improvement project in Seoul was carried out in 1896, and improved a number of roads and drainage systems in the city, as described by Isabella Bird Bishop in the scanned pages below:
At any rate, this description of the destruction of the walls around the gates questions the idea that it was all the doing of the Japanese, seeing as those who proposed the project were all Korean (that there might have been pressure from the increasingly powerful Japanese authorities isn't impossible, of course). Of course, the description of the areas opened up by the destruction of the walls being used for streetcars and a road, and that the gates will be for the exclusive use of pedestrians corroborates with the photographic evidence above to show that Namdaemun's doors had been open for many years after the walls were removed, contrary to the claims of the Seoul city government's overzealous public relations staff.
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If your ancestors come from Germany, there are many resources available as you gather information from locating your ancestral town to investigating what records are available, including church records, and immigration records as your ancestors moved around.
Recommended guidelines are always to work back from what you know. Utilize information from passenger arrival and citizenship records, among others, to determine your family's original name and towns.
Once you discover the original family name and place, you will be able to discover much more information. And don't forget about the specialized discussion groups where you can post questions and receive help from experts.
Links include maps and geography, dictionaries, online databases, archive information and much more. And don't forget to use MyHeritage's search engine for more information.
I look forward to reading your questions and comments. Let me know if you need more information.
GERMAN RESOURCE GUIDE
GERMANY'S CHANGING BORDERS
An excellent map
DISCUSSION GROUPS AND FORUMS
German genealogy forums and discussion lists
Excellent beginners FAQ
ONLINE GERMAN GENEALOGY HANDBOOK
German genealogy online handbook
Guide for linguistically-challenged researchers who need to write to Germany, Austria, or parts of Switzerland to request records.
GOTHIC HANDWRITING GUIDE
Good guide to Gothic letters and handwriting in early German records.
JEWISH GERMAN GENEALOGY
Many Infofiles, links and the GerSIG discussion group.
YAD VASHEM online databases
Search for your ancestors:
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Index: Conception, Middle Pregnancy, Labor and Delivery, and Early Infancy
Perform the samskar, or scripture-based rite, of Garbhadana, which is a ceremony celebrating conception. This fervent prayer hopes that a child will fulfill the parent's obligation to continue the human race.
Perform the samskar for fetus protection, called Punsavana. This is performed during the third or fourth month of pregnancy and is thought to invoke divine qualities in a child. It is also thought to ensure the birth of a male child.
Middle Pregnancy Back to indexSimantonnayana is the ceremony held between the fourth and seventh months of pregnancy in which the expectant father combs his wife's hair and expresses his love and support for her.
A Seemantham is traditionally held during the seventh month of pregnancy. Similar to a baby shower, it is organized by family members and involves the gift-giving and religious ritual. A prayer to fire is recited to soothe the expectant mother. Light instrumental music is played, and it is believed that this will refine the development of the baby's ears.
Labor and Delivery Back to indexJatakarma is the samskar, or sacrament, performed immediately after birth. A mantra is repeated to the child, often having to do with peace and/or the generation of talent. The new father welcomes and blesses his child, and may feed him or her with a small taste of ghee (clarified butter).
Early Infancy Back to indexPerform the samskar of Namakarana, or naming. Held sometime between the 10th and 41st days of life, this ceremony marks the child's formal entry into his or her sect of Hinduism. Names are chosen according to astrology, and learned persons are consulted in deciding on a name. Names of gods and goddesses are preferable. This tradition is considered a special blessing because you will have the added benefit of remembering the deity each time you say your child's name.
Perform the samskar of Anna-prashana when your baby is ready to start solid food. In this ceremony, the child receives his or her first feeding with food previously consecrated by offering it up to the deities.
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Written by Steve Patterson. In this Photo Effects tutorial, we'll learn how to add a sense of speed to an object using an easy to create motion blur effect! This "speed trail" effect is very popular in sports photography since it's a great way to add motion, direction and excitement to an image, creating the illusion that an athlete, for example, is blazing past the competition at super human speed.
Of course, this effect works just as well with a photo of your kids running in the backyard, or people dancing at a party, or any image where the subject should appear to be moving. I'll be working with Photoshop CS4 for this tutorial, but you can create this effect with any version of Photoshop.
Here's the image I'll be using:
Here's how the image will look after giving the racecar a high speed motion trail:
Let's get started!
Step 1: Select The Object You Want To Apply The Motion Blur To
In many of our photo effects tutorials, the first step is to protect our original image from harm by creating and then working on a duplicate of the Background layer. For our motion blur effect though, there's no need to do that because we're not going to be working on the entire image. Instead, we're going to apply the motion blur only to the main subject in the photo. To do that, we'll need to separate the main subject from the rest of the image and place it on its own layer. In my case, I want to apply the motion blur to the racecar, so the first thing I need to do is draw a selection around the racecar.
Use the selection tool of your choice (Lasso Tool, Pen Tool, etc.) to draw a selection around your main subject. When you're done, you should see a selection outline (sometimes called "marching ants") around the entire object (or person, whatever the case may be). Try to make as accurate a selection as possible. For best results, I highly recommend using the Pen Tool. Check out our Making Selections with the Pen Tool tutorial for full instructions on how to use it. You can also read our Full Power Of Basic Selections In Photoshop tutorial for help with getting the most out of Photoshop's basic selection tools:
Step 2: Copy The Selected Area To A New Layer
With the subject now selected, we need to copy it to its own layer. Copying a selection to a new layer is done exactly the same way as copying an entire layer. The only difference is that only the area inside the selection gets copied. Go up to the Layer menu at the top of the screen, choose New, and then choose Layer via Copy:
For a faster way to copy a layer or selection, simply press the keyboard shortcut Ctrl+J (Win) / Command+J (Mac). Nothing will appear to have happened to the image in the document window, but if we look in the Layers palette, we can see that we now have a new layer, which Photoshop has automatically named "Layer 1", and if we look in the new layer's preview thumbnail to the left of the layer's name, we can see that the layer contains only the part of the image we selected (in my case, it contains the racecar). The rest of the layer is transparent, which is represented in Photoshop by a gray and white grid pattern:
Step 3: Apply The Motion Blur Filter
With our subject now on its own layer and separated from the rest of the image, we can apply our motion blur effect to it. Go up to the Filter menu, choose Blur, and then choose Motion Blur:
This brings up Photoshop's Motion Blur filter dialog box. First, set the Angle of the motion blur streaks so that they match the direction your subject is moving in. In many cases, the direction movement will be horizontal, either left to right or right to left, so an angle of 0° would work perfectly. In my case, the racecar appears to be moving uphill slightly, so I need to set my angle to around 2°. You can use the angle control wheel to the right of the input box to help set the angle by clicking inside of it and dragging your mouse to rotate it, keeping an eye on your image in the document window for a preview of the angle as you're rotating the wheel. You can also simply type a value for the angle directly into the input box and then use the Up and Down arrow keys on your keyboard to increase or decrease the angle. Hold down your Shift key as you press the Up or Down arrows to increase or decrease the angle in 10° increments.
Next, drag the Distance slider at the bottom of the dialog box to set the length of the motion blur streaks. Dragging the slider all the way to the right will give you the longest streaks and is usually what you want for this effect, but again, keep an eye on your image as you drag the slider for a preview of the results:
Click OK when you're done to exit out of the Motion Blur dialog box and apply the blurring to the image. Your photo should now look something like this:
Step 4: Duplicate The Motion Blur Layer Several Times
We now have the beginnings of our motion blur effect, but at the moment, the blur streaks are too faint. We need to intensify them, and an easy way to do that is to simply duplicate the layer that they're on ("Layer 1"). Each time we duplicate the layer, the blur streaks will become stronger and more visible in the image since we're piling copies of the blur streaks on top of each other. We'll probably need to make a few copies of the layer to really bring them out, so press Ctrl+J (Win) / Command+J (Mac) three or four times in a row to quickly create multiple copies of "Layer 1". Each time you duplicate the layer, you'll see the blur streaks intensify in the image. I'm going to create four copies of "Layer 1" by pressing the keyboard shortcut four times. I can see in my Layers palette that I now have four copies of "Layer 1" sitting above the original:
The motion blur streaks are now much more intense, to the point where the racecar is practically hidden behind them:
Step 5: Select All Motion Blur Layers At Once
Let's merge all of our motion blur layers into a single layer so we can work on the blur effect more easily. To do that, click on the top layer in the Layers palette to select it if it isn't selected already (selected layers are highlighted in blue). Then hold down your Shift key and click on "Layer 1" directly above the Background layer to select it. This will select the top layer, the original "Layer 1" and all layers in between. You'll see them all highlighted in blue in the Layers palette, indicating that they're all selected:
Step 6: Merge The Layers
With the layers selected, go up to the Layer menu at the top of the screen and choose Merge Layers:
Everything will still look the same in the image, but we're back to having only two layers in the Layers palette, with all of our motion blur layers now merged into a single layer above the Background layer:
Step 7: Add A Layer Mask
The only remaining problem with our effect is that the motion blur streaks are still covering up the entire subject. We want it to appear as if the streaks are trailing behind the subject, with the subject itself emerging out from them as it blazes forward. We need to hide the part of the streaks that we don't need, and for that, we'll use a layer mask. With the motion blur layer selected, click on the Layer Mask icon at the bottom of the Layers palette. A layer mask thumbnail will appear to the right of the layer's preview thumbnail:
Step 8: Select The Gradient Tool
Grab the Gradient Tool from the Tools palette, or simply press the letter G on your keyboard to select it with the shortcut:
Step 9: Select The Black To White Gradient
With the Gradient Tool selected, you'll see the Options Bar at the top of the screen change to show various options for working with gradients. Click on the small down-pointing arrow to the right of the gradient preview area, which pops open a small gradient selection box, and choose the Black to White gradient, third one from the left, top row. If you have Tool Tips enabled in Photoshop's Preferences (they're enabled by default), you'll see the name of the gradient appear when you hover your mouse cursor over it:
Step 10: Drag Out A Black To White Gradient On The Layer Mask
You should see a white highlight border around the layer mask thumbnail in the Layers palette, which indicates that the layer mask, not the layer itself, is currently selected. If you don't see the highlight border around the thumbnail, click on it to select it. Then, to hide the unwanted areas of the motion blur streaks and create the illusion that the subject is emerging from them, simply click at the point on the subject where you want the blur streaks to begin fading into view, then drag out a short transition area which will become the "fade in" area for the streaks. The point where you release your mouse button will be the area where the blur streaks become 100% visible.
In my case, I'm going to click on the racecar just in front of the driver, then I'll drag towards the back of the car to create a short transition area for the blur streaks to fade in, releasing my mouse button just behind the driver. Make sure you follow the same angle as the blur streaks as you drag out the gradient:
When you release your mouse button, Photoshop draws the gradient. Since we drew the gradient on the layer mask, not on the image itself, you won't see the gradient in the document window but you can see it if you look at the layer mask thumbnail in the Layers palette. The black area on the right represents the area in the image where the blur streaks are hidden, the white area on the left is where they're fully visible, and the actual gradient area between them is where the blur streaks fade into view:
Here's my image after dragging out the gradient on the layer mask. The racecar is now blazing towards the finish line, leaving a motion blur trail behind it:
And there we have it! That's how to create a high speed motion trail effect with Photoshop! Check out our Photo Effects section for more Photoshop effects tutorials!
Get all of our Photoshop tutorials as printable PDFs! Download them today!
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Almost all refractory dependent contact electrical
are generated by implies of natural powder metallurgy. Large conductivity materials such since silver or even copper tend to be blended using metals that will illustrate the particular capability for you to withstand critical electrical along with mechanical makes. Depending about the needed composition, 1 of 3 processes is actually typically utilized. It commonly supplies the top denseness substance, while additionally the actual procedure will be necessary regarding certain combinaison. In a few cases, this is certainly the only method is correct for a electrical contacts manufacturer.
No matter of typically the procedure, the actual preliminary generation step consists of the blending together of dusts, along using additives
. Before to mixing up, all fluids are accredited and analyzed for proper particle sizing and syndication, obvious thickness, and movement qualities. After certified as well as released in order to creation, dusts are blended based in engineering features for the given materials composition.
Electrical presses which range from fourteen to 300 tons are usually utilized for you to produce simple contact geometries. sprays are given into the die, then higher and decrease punches mix to produce the speak to face and also back details. The condensed component weight, fullness, and denseness are tightly monitored making use of methods. These types of portion attributes tend to be crucial for you to ultimate structure and dimensional management. Controlled simply by amazing equipment, a repressing procedure will be utilized for you to attain last density regarding additional varieties of supplies such while graphite, tungsten-carbide graphite, or perhaps copper.
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Simple Definition of bagful
: the amount that a bag can hold
: a large number or amount
Full Definition of bagful
1 : as much or as many as a bag will hold
2 : a large number or amount <had a bagful of tricks>
Examples of bagful in a sentence
She always has a bagful of stories.
First Known Use of bagful
Rhymes with bagful
armful, bellpull, brimful, bulbul, cageful, canful, capful, carful, cheekful, chestful, chock-full, cupful, drawerful, earful, eyeful, fistful, forkful, glassful, handful, houseful, in full, jarful, John Bull, jugful, lapful, mouthful, mugful, outpull, pailful, panful, pipeful, pit bull, plateful, potful, push-pull, rackful, roomful, sackful, scoopful, shelfful, skinful, spadeful, spoonful, stageful, steel wool, tankful, tinful, topful, trainful, trayful, truckful, trunkful, tubful
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up bagful? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
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Preparation & Planning
NOTE: the preparedness resources on this website are too numerous to list on one page. For more resources on specific topics, see the list of specific types of emergencies below.
Preparedness for Specific Types of Emergencies
- Bioterrorism Emergencies
- Chemical Emergencies
- Blast Injuries
- Natural Disasters
- Radiation Emergencies
Emergency Preparedness and You
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the American Red Cross have teamed up to answer common questions and provide step by step guidance you can take now to protect you and your loved ones.
- Chemical Emergencies: Facts About Sheltering in Place
How to find temporary shelter in a chemical emergency
- Chemical Emergencies: Facts About Evacuation
Knowing when & how to evacuate an area in a chemical emergency
- Chemical Emergencies: Facts About Personal Cleaning & Disposal of Contaminated Clothing
What to do if you come in physical contact with dangerous chemicals
- Radiation Emergencies: Sheltering in Place
How to find temporary shelter in a radiation emergency
Preparedness for Businesses
- Emergency Preparedness for Business
Instructions to building occupants, actions to be taken by facility management, & first responder notification procedures. From the National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health (NIOSH)
- Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks
May 2002. From the National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health, CDC
Preparedness for Healthcare Facilities
- Adapting Standards of Care under Extreme Conditions: Guidance for Professionals During Disasters, Pandemics, and Other Extreme Emergencies (2 MB/26 pages)
This policy paper can be used a basis for protocol development and refinement, especially in regard to ethics and standards that apply to decisions about care made during unusual or extreme circumstances such as those resulting from emergencies, disasters, or pandemics. Prepared for the American Nurses Association by the Center for Health Policy, Columbia University School of Nursing.
- Bioterrorism Readiness Plan: A Template for Healthcare Facilities (1.5 MB/34 pages)
- OSHA Best Practices for Hospital-Based First Receivers of Victims
Information to assist hospitals in developing & implementing emergency management plans for protecting hospital-based emergency department personnel during the receipt of contaminated victims from mass casualty incidents occurring at locations other than the hospital. Provided by the U.S. Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA).
- MMWR QuickStats: Percentage of Hospitals with Staff Members Trained to Respond to Selected Terrorism-Related Diseases or Exposures
National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, United States, 2003--2004
MMWR 2007 Apr 27;56(16):401.
State & Local Preparedness
- Considerations for Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) Post-Exposure Prioritization (237 KB/19 pages)
- Preparedness Planning Tools: Spreadsheet-based software models designed to assist state, regional, and federal level preparedness planners.
- Public Health Preparedness: Mobilizing State by State
Inaugural CDC report on public health emergency preparedness. Provided by the CDC Coordinating Office for Terrorism Preparedness and Emergency Response (COTPER).
- Public Health Emergency Response Guide for State, Local, & Tribal Public Health Directors
All-hazards reference tool for health professionals who are responsible for initiating the public health response during the first 24 hours (i.e., the acute phase) of an emergency or disaster. Version 2 now available!
- Preparedness and Emergency Response Learning Centers
- Cooperative Agreement Guidance for Public Health Emergency Preparedness
Guidance for CDC emergency preparedness funding for states. CDC has announced the availability of FY 2008 funding for continuation of the cooperative agreements to upgrade state & local public health jurisdictions’ preparedness for & response to bioterrorism, other outbreaks of infectious disease, & other public health threats & emergencies.
- CDC Support for the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC)
Information about EMAC, the interstate mutual aid agreement that provides a mechanism for sharing personnel, resources, equipment & assets among states during emergencies & disasters.
- MMWR: Brief Report: Terrorism & Emergency Preparedness in State & Territorial Public Health Departments — United States, 2004
MMWR 2005 May 13;54(18):459-460.
- MMWR: Assessment of Epidemiologic Capacity in State & Territorial Health Departments — United States, 2004
MMWR 2005 May 13;54(18):457-459.
- MMWR: Improvement in Local Public Health Preparedness & Response Capacity — Kansas, 2002–2003
MMWR 2005 May 13;54(18):461-462.
Guidance on Initial Responses to a Suspicious Letter/Container With a Potential Biological Threat [PDF
- 247 KB]
Guidelines for local responders, based on existing procedures, on the initial response to letters, packages, or containers containing suspicious powders, liquids, or other materials. Developed by HHS/CDC, FBI, & DHS.
- Cities Readiness Initiative (CRI)
Pilot program to aid cities in increasing their capacity to deliver medicines and medical supplies during a large-scale public health emergency
- CDC Resources for Pandemic Flu
- Strategic National Stockpile
National repository of pharmaceuticals & medical supplies.
- Epi-X: The Epidemic Information Exchange
Secure, Web-based communications network connecting CDC with state & local health departments, poison control centers, & other public health professionals.
- MMWR: Biological & Chemical Terrorism: Strategic Plan for Preparedness & Response
Recommendations of the CDC Strategic Planning Workgroup.
MMWR Recommendations & Reports 2000 Apr 21;49(RR-4);1-14.
- Emergency & Environmental Health Services
From the National Center for Environmental Health. Description of NCEH involvement in providing national & international leadership for the coordination, delivery, & evaluation of emergency & environmental health services.
A tool to estimate the pre-event population at risk of medical consequences in a disaster.
Regulations to control communicable diseases [PDF
- 8 KB]
42 U.S.C. 264 (From United States Code Annotated; Title 42; The Public Health & Welfare; Chapter 6a--Public Health Service; Subchapter Ii--General Powers & Duties.; Part G--Quarantine & Inspection).
- EID Journal: Collaboration Between Public Health & Law Enforcement: The Constitutional Challenge
Emerging Infectious Diseases 2002 Oct;8(10):1157-1159.
- Public Health Emergency Preparedness Clearinghouse
The Public Health Emergency Preparedness Clearinghouse is a central repository for emergency preparedness-related statutes, regulations, orders, reports, and legal tools. The Clearinghouse is intended to aid jurisdictions considering updates and clarifications to their public health emergency legal preparedness activities.
- Page last reviewed: November 15, 2013
- Page last updated: June 10, 2016
- Content source:
- Maintained By:
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Leslie Gordon: Progeria learns from aging; aging learns from progeria
Children with progeria have a genetic mutation that makes them physically age very rapidly. They develop atherosclerosis and die of heart attacks or strokes at an average age of 13 years. Leslie Gordon, research associate professor of pediatrics in the Warren Alpert Medical School and on staff at Hasbro Children’s Hospital, has marshaled a research effort that in the span of a decade has advanced the field from a state of virtually no biological knowledge to a potential treatment. Gordon’s passion to defeat progeria is both professional and personal: Her 14-year-old son, Sam, is a happy Boy Scout with a flair for engineering who is living with the disease.
Seven years ago the Progeria Research Foundation that you co-founded helped to discover the mutation. Where did that advance lead?
We started by forming a consortium in 2002, a team of scientists who would lead a search for the gene mutation causing progeria. Within less than a year of forming the PRF Genetics Consortium with some amazing scientists [including Francis Collins], team members discovered the mutation responsible for progeria in a gene called LMNA. It codes for a protein called lamin A. The faulty lamin A produced by the mutation is called progerin. Lamin A is an “inner nuclear membrane” protein that is responsible for normal cell structure and cell function. We knew a lot about lamin A, and we transferred that knowledge to understanding how progerin acts as a lamin A imposter to cause damage to cells.
We went from the gene discovery to enough of an understanding about the pathobiology involved with that mutation to arrive at a potential treatment, test that treatment on cells in the laboratory, and test that treatment on mice. We then moved into human clinical trials that began in May 2007.
What is the status of the clinical trials?
The first trial tested an agent called a farnesyltransferase inhibitor. We used a drug called lonafarnib, which is a made by Merck. Farnesyltransferase inhibitors were created to fight cancer, and now we have repurposed that drug for use in progeria. Our hypothesis was that a farnesylation inhibitor might be useful because a farnesyl group allows the attachment of progerin into the inner nuclear membrane of cells where it is doing a lot of its damage. Patient visits for that trial ended about a year ago, and we are in a process of full data analysis.
Most of those patients plus an additional 19 patients — 45 patients total — then started on another trial. We call it the triple-drug trial, in which we hopefully are embellishing the effects of the farnesyltransferase inhibitor with two additional drugs that address the same pathway. We are in the middle of that trial now at Children’s Hospital in Boston.
This summer you published a study showing a connection between progeria and heart disease in adults. What was that?
We can learn a lot about progeria from aging, and we can learn a lot about aging from children with progeria. Progeria is a pure cause of cardiovascular disease. Children with progeria don’t smoke, family history doesn’t really play a big role, and they don’t have high cholesterol. Therefore, we can ask what effect progerin has on heart disease in children with Progeria, and on heart disease that affects millions of aging people around the world.
We discovered that there is tremendous overlap between the two, including the presence of progerin in cells of adults without progeria. We all make a little bit of progerin. Even more striking was our finding that the amount of progerin in the cells of blood vessel walls increases as we age.
What is life like for a child with progeria?
They are usually born looking normal but soon thereafter there is “failure to thrive,” which is falling off the growth curve. By the age of 2 to 3, they’ve only got this light, downy hair left and they lose body fat. But children with progeria are intellectually right on target. They are funny and smart and wonderful to be around, and usually don’t have any trouble making friends. Many times children with progeria will go to public school with some accommodations, like many children have.
They have all the energy of other kids for the most part, but later [usually in their teens] the children start to run into trouble with things like strokes and heart attacks, cardiovascular disease that eventually leads to their passing away.
How is Sam doing?
Sam’s in eighth grade. He really enjoys school. He goes to public school. We’re blessed and truly fortunate that Sam is a happy, wonderful boy and he’s doing very well. He’s in a Lego robotics club. He does Invention Convention. He was on the math and science team last year. He’s been on student council for a few years. Sam is also involved in the Boy Scouts. He wants to be an Eagle Scout very badly. He’s working very hard on that.
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A little thought put into vegetable garden planning and design saves the new or amateur gardener possible heartache. Finding a good spot, preparing well, and knowing what to plant near each other are steps that take a little time, but help ensure much reward and a healthy harvest.
Location, Location, Location
A sunny spot in the yard is best for a vegetable garden. Regardless of whether you have much land and are planning to grow many plants, or a small yard and would like to grow a few plants, choose a spot with little to no shade to grow vegetables.
If there is grass growing on the selected spot, use a four-tine pitchfork to dig up the grass at the roots. The grass should be thrown in the compost bin or otherwise disposed of, and clean topsoil poured into the garden. This will help prevent grass and weeds growing back quickly, but you will still need to weed the garden.
The other option is to build raised beds. Some gardeners prefer this option because the soil warms up earlier in the Spring and stays warmer through the growing season.
A raised bed can be as simple as a mound of good quality topsoil on the ground, at least 12 inches high. With some effort, a raised bed can be a landscaping delight.
Before heaping topsoil on the ground, it is advisable to dig up the grass underneath. Weed block is a type of black fabric that will prevent grass and weeds from growing up through the raised bed. Line the bottom of the raised bed with weed block.
The edge of the raised bed can be built up with stones, untreated wood, or plastic lumber. Build the raised bed at least a foot off of the ground, but as high as you like. Fill with topsoil. (The lid in the illustration is only necessary if you are building a cold frame, which is like a very small greenhouse.) Seeds can be planted in a raised bed as soon as the soil reaches 65 degrees F.
Gardeners who use raised beds plant one crop per bed, for example, one raised bed for tomatoes, another raised bed for peas.
Definition of Companion Planting
Companion planting is simply planting crops that keep each other healthy together. Whether the garden is a small hobby patch or a large family operation, utilizing the companion planting well helps ensure a healthy harvest. This is one hallmark of organic gardening.
Companion planting takes various plant qualities into account: what type of soil they like, what nutrients they take from the soil and what nutrients they put back in, and which bugs like one plant and dislike another.
Carrots and tomatoes love being planted next to each other. Tomatoes and parsley do well next to each other, and tomatoes and asparagus are great neighbors.
If you have a strawberry patch, plant spinach or lettuce next to it. Spinach and cabbage like each other, but be careful! Strawberries and cabbage do not like each other, so do not plant all three in the same garden patch.
Cucumber makes a good neighbor for strawberries, tomatoes, beans, peas, and sunflowers.
Cabbage, broccoli, onions and potatoes love being near each other. Spinach is versatile and will make a good neighbor among this crowd.
Companion Planting as Pest Control
Nasturtium deters squash beetles, so plant nasturtium flowers between rows of any summer or winter squashes such as zucchini, yellow crook neck, pumpkins and butternut squashes. Nasturtium are edible flowers that come in bright shades of yellow, orange and red. They add a spicy flavor and pleasing contrast when added to green salad.
Nasturtium also deters aphids and it is good to plant them next to tomatoes.
Rosemary deters both bean beetles and mosquitoes. Plant rosemary next to green beans and peas. Rosemary deters carrot fly and is a good companion for tomatoes, so plant these three together.
Thyme repels many of the pests that attack cabbages.
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Police Detective Job Description
Police detectives, unlike police officers, don't wear a uniform, drive patrol cars, or patrol; instead, they spend much of their time compiling information and evidence for the cases they are assigned. They wear plain clothes, usually a suit and tie, and drive unmarked cars. Because police detective is a higher ranking and higher paid position than police officer, it requires more experience and knowledge.
Time spent as a patrol officer is usually mandatory before becoming eligible to pursue the position of detective. While a great deal of knowledge is learned on the job, further training and education in investigative techniques are required to make detective. This training and education are specified by the department that employs the aspiring detective. Much of a detective's time is spent on investigation and paperwork, but they are expected to maintain a certain level of physical fitness.
What does a Police Detective do on a typical day?
- Police detectives interview suspects, witnesses, and victims as they try to piece together the story of how the crime that they are investigating occurred.
- Detectives work closely with their jurisdiction's Crime Scene Investigation Unit (CSI), which gathers the forensic evidence police detectives need to work their cases. They will continue to work diligently on a case until it is solved or until they can go no further with the evidence and other information they have gathered.
- They may be called to testify in court using the evidence and information that has been thoroughly and meticulously collected and analyzed by the detective, the forensics unit, and its crime lab.
- Police detectives are like victim advocates, doing everything they can to get justice for them while keeping them appraised of the progress of their case.
- General Detective
- Homicide Detective
- Sex Crimes Detective (See Interview with Detective Suzie Ivy)
- Financial & White Collar Crimes Detective
- Drug Enforcement Detective ( DEA )
General detectives do just as the name implies, general investigation, whereas the others specialize in certain types of crime. Homicide detectives focus on cases involving suspicious deaths. Once they rule a death is not by accident or suicide, but in fact a murder, they then proceed to delve further into the case and work until they either solve it or can go no further. They work closely with their CSI unit, which collects, analyzes, and reports the physical evidence, freeing up the detective's time to focus on suspects and witnesses.
Financial crimes detectives focus on the growing problem of white collar crime. While no one is physically harmed in the commission of a financial crime, victims are damaged or devastated financially. Financial and white collar crimes include fraud such as check or mortgage fraud, money laundering, embezzlement, identity theft, and bribery. Drug enforcement detectives handle illegal drug related cases involving drug trafficking, sales, and possession. They work primarily with their local department but team up with members of state and federal drug enforcement when necessary. The Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) is a federal agency that enforces the laws and regulations of the United States concerning controlled substances. The DEA employs Agents, which is what usually comes to mind when thinking of the DEA, as well as Diversion Investigators, Chemists, Fingerprint Specialists, and Intelligence Research Specialists. Having detectives that focus on specific crimes helps cut down on having them spread thin, while allowing them to hone their skills in their specialty; thus, they are more effective in their jobs and have the ability to solve and prevent crime. To learn more about crimes and criminal intent, check out our criminal minds article series. Regardless of the type of detective, thorough documentation is imperative and require in all aspects of any detectives case file.
Recommended Degree for Police Detective
- Criminal Justice Bachelor's Degree (concentration in law enforcement, criminal investigations, or general criminal justice)
- Criminal Justice Masters Degree will make you a more competitive candidate for the position.
One common way to become a more competitive candidate for Detective is to start by completing a criminal justice bachelor's degree, then while gaining valuable on-the-job experience, continue working on your education via an online criminal justice degree at the masters level.
Police Detective Job Description FAQ'sWhat are the requirements to make detective?
In order to make detective, you must first serve as a police officer for a certain period of time, (depending on the precinct in which you are employed, generally 1 to 5 years), and complete further training, including physical, tactical, and general education preferably at the masters degree level. Take a look at our recent interview with retired FBI Agent and true crime writer, Jim Fisher.How does a police detective interact with other divisions such as forensics?
Police detectives interact with police officers, who are usually first on the scene of a crime, the forensics unit, which will gather the physical evidence at the crime scene, then the forensic laboratory, which will analyze the evidence. They may meet personally or receive written reports.
The next promotion after a detective is sergeant, then lieutenant. Oftentimes in law enforcement you can move laterally as well as up in the ranks. The possibilities for promotion are plentiful, as long as you are willing to put forth the effort.
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Dean Kamen, the engineer who invented the Segway, has invented two new devices, each about the size of a washing machine, that can provide much-needed power and clean water in rural villages.
The water purifier makes 1,000 liters of clean water a day from any water source, even sewage. The power generator makes a kilowatt off of anything that burns.
The prototypes cost about $100,000 but eventually he hopes to mass produce them for about $1000 to $2000 which he will lease to local entrepreneurs, who will resell the power and water to local rural villagers in third world countries. The market potential is huge – about 1.1 billion people in the world don't have access to clean drinking water, and another 1.6 billion don't have electricity.
Last year, prototypes of Kamen's power machines were installed in two villages in Bangladesh for a six-month field trial Using cow dung as the power source, each machine can continuously output a kilowatt of electricity- enough to light 70 energy-efficient bulbs.
The business model is interesting too-- village entrepreneurs (mostly women) will be given micro-loans to purchase the power generator and water filter systems. The women, in turn, charge other villagers for power and water. During the field trial, Kamen's power machines created three entrepreneurs in each village: one to run the machine and sell the electricity, one to collect dung from local farmers and sell it to the first entrepreneur, and a third to lease out light bulbs (and presumably, in the future, other appliances) to the villagers.
According to CNN:
Kamen thinks the same approach can work with his water-cleaning machine, which he calls the Slingshot. The Slingshot works by taking in contaminated water – even raw sewage -- and separating out the clean water by vaporizing it. It then shoots the remaining sludge back out a plastic tube. Kamen thinks it could be paired with the power machine and run off the other machine's waste heat.
Compared to building big power and water plants, Kamen's approach has the virtue of simplicity. He even created an instruction sheet to go with each Slingshot. It contains one step: Just add water, any water. Step two might be: add an entrepreneur.
"Not required are engineers, pipelines, epidemiologists, or microbiologists," says Kamen. "You don't need any -ologists. You don't need any building permits, bribery, or bureaucracies.
Sounds like a good plan for community self sufficiency in the first world too.
Expert, Consultant and Guest Speaker on emerging Smart Technologies, Strategic Planning, Business Development, Lateral Creative Thinking and author of an upcoming book on the Smart Economy "
To explore the opportunities and threats of any new smart technology in your industry - Contact Me
.....Strategy without action is a day-dream; action without strategy is a nightmare"
- old Japanese proverb
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National Briefing | Rockies: Colorado: Dispute Over a Word Lands In Park
Published: December 21, 2004
A group of archaeologists is accusing officials at Mesa Verde National Park of censoring books that use the word ''Anasazi,'' a term widely used for the ancestral Indians of the Four Corners region, rather than ''ancestral Puebloans,'' which regional tribes prefer. ''The objection is not specific to any particular term, but that books are being censored on the basis of titles rather than content,'' said David Breternitz, a retired archaeologist in Dove Creek. A spokeswoman at the park, Tessy Shirakawa, told The Durango Herald, ''Out of respect to tribal members, we honor their requests about what's appropriate and inappropriate to present to the public.'' The word Anasazi is usually thought to have Navajo origins. There never was an Anasazi tribe, and many modern Pueblo Indians dislike the term.
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Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning "separation" or literally "apartness". In English, it has come to mean any legally sanctioned system of racial segregation, such as existed in The Republic of South Africa between 1948 and 1990. The first recorded use of the word is in 1917, during a speech by Jan Smuts, then Prime Minister of South Africa.
South Africa was colonised by the Dutch and English from the 17th Century onwards. As was typically the case in the African colonies, the European settlers dominated the indigenous population through political control and the control of land and wealth. In the years following the victory of the South African National Party in the general election of 1948, a flood of laws were enacted, formally instituting the dominance of white people over other races.
The principal apartheid laws were as follows:
On 21 March 1960, 20,000 people congregated in Sharpeville[?] to demonstrate against the requirement to carry identity cards[?]. Police opened fire on the demonstrators, killing 69 and injuring 180. All the victims were black. Most of them had been shot in the back. Colonel J. Pienaar[?], the senior police officer in charge on the day, was quoted as saying
In 1974 the government issued the Afrikaans Medium Decree which forced all schools to use the Afrikaans language when teaching Mathematics, Social Studies, Geography and History at secondary school level. Punt Janson[?], The Deputy Minister of Bantu Education was quoted as saying
The policy was deeply unpopular. On 30 April 1976, Children at Orlando West Junior School in Soweto went on strike, refusing to go to school. Their rebellion spread to other schools in Soweto. The students organised a mass rally for 16 June 1976, which turned violent - police responding with bullets to stones thrown by children. The incident triggered widespread violence throughout South Africa, which claimed many hundreds of lives.
Internationally, South Africa became isolated. Numerous conferences were held and United Nations resolutions passed condemning South Africa, including the World Conference Against Racism in 1978 and 1983. An immense divestment movement started, pressuring investors to refuse to invest in South African companies or companies that do business with South Africa. South African sports teams were barred from participation in international events, and South African culture and tourism were boycotted.
These international movements, combined with internal troubles, persuaded the South African government that its hard-line policies were untenable, and in 1984 some reforms were introduced. Many of the apartheid laws were repealed, and a new constitution was introduced which gave limited representation to certain non-whites, although not to the black majority. The violence continued throughout the 1980s.
In 1989, F. W. de Klerk succeeded P. W. Botha[?] as president. On 2 February 1990, at the opening of Parliament, he declared that apartheid had failed and that the bans on political parties, including the ANC, were to be lifted. Nelson Mandela was released from prison. De Klerk went on to abolish all the remaining apartheid laws.
On April 15, 2003, President Thabo Mbeki announced that the South African government will pay 660 million rand (85 million US dollars) to about 22,000 people who were tortured, detained, or lost family members under apartheid rule. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, set up to investigate abuses from the apartheid era, had recommended the government to pay 3 billion rand in compensation, over the next five years.
South African apartheid was condemned internationally as unjust and racist. In 1973 the General Assembly of the United Nations agreed the text of the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. The immediate intention of the Convention was to provide a formal legal framework within which member states could apply sanctions to press the South African government to change its policies. However, the Convention was phrased in general terms, with the express intention of prohibiting any other state from adopting analogous policies. The Convention came into force in 1976.
Article II of the Convention defines apartheid as follows:
For the purpose of the present Convention, the term "the crime of apartheid", which shall include similar policies and practices of racial segregation and discrimination as practised in southern Africa, shall apply to the following inhuman acts committed for the purpose of establishing and maintaining domination by one racial group of persons over any other racial group of persons and systematically oppressing them:
The crime was also defined in the formation of the International Criminal Court:
The Kingdom of Jordan forbids Jews from becoming citizens, although peoples of any other group are allowed to do so. (Law No. 6, sect. 3, of April 3, 1954; restated in law no. 7, sect. 2, of April 1, 1963)
Saudi Arabia forbids non-Muslims from practising their religion in public. Christians who ask Muslims to convert to Christianity have been persecuted and arrested; Muslims who have converted to Christianity have been executed. Jews are forbidden from practising their faith.
Non-Wahhabi Muslims report apartheid-like discrimination in Saudi Arabia.
A number of organisations, including the Palestinian Society for the Protection of Human Rights (LAW) and the Islamic Human Rights Commission[?], allege that Israel is an apartheid state under the UN definition. This view has been put forward, for example, by many Arab states at the World Conference against Racism in 1978, 1983, and 2001. This led to a boycott of the conference by the United States and Israel in all three cases, and by many European countries in the first two. (In each case, the United States also had other reasons for boycotting. In the first two, they objected to language critical of apartheid in South Africa. In 2001, they objected to language calling the transatlantic slave trade a crime against humanity, which would prepare the way for reparations.) The resolutions were not adopted at any of the conferences, although in 1975, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 3379, condemning Zionism as a form of racism and condemning Israel for supporting the South African apartheid regime. The resolution was repealed in 1991.
One official Israeli position against the allegation of apartheid is that the disputed policies against Palestinians are in place because of security-related reasons, and will be removed when circumstances change. The use of harsh techniques, and even torture, which constitutes a crime against humanity, against Palestinians are supported in order to minimise the risks of terrorist attacks, and crimes against humanity against Israelis.
Several other features of life in Israel are construed by some as showing that Israel does not give full citizen rights to Arabs living within its borders, to a degree that is tantamount to apartheid. They include:
Archbishop Desmond Tutu, a leading anti-apartheid campaigner in South Africa, stated, in a speech about Israel, "I've been very deeply distressed in my visit to the Holy Land; it reminded me so much of what happened to us blacks in South Africa. I have seen the humiliation of the Palestinians at checkpoints and roadblocks, suffering like us when young white police officers prevented us from moving about." (speech in Cape Town, April 2002 (http://www.iap.org/tutu.htm))
See also: History of South Africa, racism, discrimination, Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, Stephen Biko, Jim Crow laws, White Australia policy, Afrikaner Calvinism, Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Israeli settlements
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Setting Up Speech Recognition in Word 2002
Word is fully speech-capable software, but you need to set it up first; speech recognition isn't installed until you activate it. So keep the Word (or Microsoft Office) CD handy.
On the hardware side, your computer needs a microphone, such as one of those headset microphones, which you can find at most office supply stores. That way, you can squeeze it onto your skull and talk without having to hold the microphone.
Do not use a microphone you have to hold in your hand. That picks up too much "hand noise" and end up frustrating you more than helping.
Configuring Word to listen to you
To direct Word to add its Speech module, choose Tools-->Speech from the menu. (This command also installs the Speech module for all of Microsoft Office, should you be so lucky.)
Word may beg for its CD-ROM. The CD is necessary to install the speech files that weren't originally installed with Word. Heed the instructions on the screen.
The final step is . . . training.
Oh, no — training!
Training is the process of teaching Word to understand your voice. You read sample text and Word listens. The more you do it, the better Word gets at understanding you. It takes a while, and it dries out your mouth, so keep a glass of water handy. But if you want this speech thing to work, you have to train.
- Please use your regular voice when training Word. If you use your Donald Duck or Popeye voices, you have to sound like Donald Duck or Popeye when you do your word processing. This may not have the amusing effect you desire.
- Supposedly, the more you train Word, the easier it can understand you. Supposedly.
- Expect training to take about an hour or so.
- To continue training Word after the initial go-round, you need to use the Control Panel's Speech icon. Open that icon and, in the Speech Properties/Speech Recognition dialog box, click the Train Profile button, and work through the wizard.
Getting ready for dictation
With speech recognition all set up and ready to go, strap on your microphone and choose Tools-->Speech from the menu. The Speech (really called Language) toolbar appears. This is your main clue that Word is listening to your every utterance. (Some people find that their breathing produces the word and and that laughing makes Word write the word up.)
The most important button on the Speech toolbar is the Microphone button. That's what turns the microphone on and off. After all, there are times when you want to just sit and not have your comments (or breathing) appear in your document. (Up! Up! Up!) When the microphone is turned off, the toolbar shortens.
To turn the microphone back on, click the Microphone button again, and the toolbar lengthens to normal size.
Next to the Microphone button, you most likely use these items on the toolbar:
The Correction button is used when you're reviewing text. It allows you to hear which word you spoke and, optionally, correct it to something else.
The Dictation button directs Word to listen to you and type the words you say.
The Voice Command button directs Word to listen to your commands for editing or generally working in Word. In this mode, Word is obeying orders and not taking dictation.
The cartoon bubble displays the words or commands you're speaking. Or, if Word is having trouble understanding you, the cartoon bubble offers suggestions, such as Too soft or What was that? or Take the marbles out of your mouth and try again.
Dictating 101: "It was a dark and stormy night. . . ."
To actually dictate to Word — yes, to become a dictator — follow these steps:
1. Click the Microphone button on the Speech toolbar.
When the Microphone button is on, it has a black border around it.
2. Click the Dictation button.
Now you're talking!
3. Position the toothpick cursor where you want the new words to appear.
Yes, this works just as though you were typing. The exception here is that input comes from the microphone and not from the keyboard. (Even so, the keyboard is still active and you can still type text or commands.)
4. Start blabbing away.
If you've trained Word to understand your voice, text starts appearing on the screen.
As you speak, you notice a gray box around some periods as Word figures out what you said. Eventually, that box fills in with the text.
Yes, you'll probably make some mistakes. The way to fix them? More training!
Dictation works best when you speak in complete sentences. Try not to say the words individually.
Talking punctuation and special keys
Most punctuation marks and special keys can be spoken. For example, you can say "period" to put a period at the end of a sentence. Saying "enter" starts a new line. Table 1 lists a bunch of punctuation marks you can pronounce and have Word interpret them as punctuation marks and not as the words themselves.
Table 1 Pronounceable Punctuation
Gives You This
New line (like pressing the Enter key)
New line (like pressing the Enter key)
Tab (like pressing the Tab key)
Try keeping one hand on the keyboard and the other on the mouse. That way, you can use the mouse to fix things or choose options as you speak. You can use your hand on the keyboard to type characters rather than pronounce them.
Reviewing your text
If you're reviewing your text and need confirmation of a word you spoke, put the toothpick cursor on that word and click the Correction button. Word plays back the word you spoke, which you hear over the computer's speakers. A pop-up menu then appears, from which you can choose another word or phrase to correct.
You can also correct words by right-clicking on them with the mouse. When you do, a list of similar-sounding words appears at the top of the shortcut menu. To replace the word, choose a new one from the list.
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personality disorder (BPD) affects as many as
six million Americans. It accounts for about 25%
of all psychiatric hospitalizations. As many as
thirteen percent of males and seven percent of
females commit suicide (Stone, 1990). Approximately,
69% of people with BPD are also substance abusers
(Miller et al., 1993). The causes of BPD are not
well understood. Therapist folklore often labels
people with BPD as difficult and treatment-resistant
This article outlines
a clinical model of BPD. The model is based upon
the clinical practice of the authors and the research
literature concerning the correlates of BPD. The
model identifies the roles played by traumatic
environmental conditioning, its effect on neurobiological
processes, and biological vulnerabilities in the
development of BPD. In this regard, the model
postulates two factors which can lead, singly
or in combination with equifinality, to BPD: early
childhood Psychotraumatic Stress (PTS) exposure
(Factor I) and Biologic Vulnerability (BV) (Factor
a systems theory concept (Miller, 1978) which
means "that a final state of any living system
[borderline personality disorder] may be reached
from different initial conditions [Factor I, Factor
II or both] and in different ways [antecedent
or consequent biological and family system dysfunction]."
The bracketed illustrations were added by us.
of this model is to serve as a heuristic
guide to clinical intervention, treatment, and
research as well as to stimulate creative thinking
about borderline personality disorders.
We first review
the evidence that supports Factor I initiation
of BPD followed by a review of Factor II evidence.
These two sections are followed by a description
of the Equifinality Model of BPD. The article
closes with a brief discussion of research questions
generated by the model and clinical implications
of the model.
FACTOR I SPD:
Psychotraumatic Stress (PTS) Exposure in Childhood
A number of authors
have suggested a role for environmentally mediated
aversive events in the development of BPD. Kroll
(1988) suggested that BPD symptoms rather than
being psychotic come closer in appearance to those
of post-traumatic stress disorder. He wrote, "I
am suggesting that many borderline symptoms, especially
the ones that have the appearances of ‘brief psychotic
episodes’ and which I have included under the
heading of cognitive disturbances, are no different
from the symptoms seen in post-traumatic stress
disorder." Kernberg (1975) observed that
"A frequent finding in patients with borderline
personality organization is the history of extreme
frustrations and intense aggression (secondary
or primary) during the first few years of life."
Linehan (1993) postulated that in addition to
being biologically vulnerable people with BPD
are exposed to invalidating environments "in
which communication of private experiences is
met by erratic, inappropriate. and extreme responses
In other words, the expression of private experiences
is not validated; instead, it is often punished,
Perry et. al's
Neurobiological Analysis of Early Trauma
Perry et al. (1996)
have presented a neurobiological analysis of childhood
trauma exposure. In it they outline the effect
trauma has on the human "fight or flight"
and "freeze or surrender" systems, and
the implications that repeated psychotraumatization
has for a developing child's brain systems. Perry
et. al describes the effects psychotrauma can
have on a child's brain as follows:
- The brain regions involved
in the threat-induced hyper-arousal response
play a critical role in regulating arousal,
vigilance, affect, behavioral irritability,
locomotion, attention, the response to stress,
sleep, and the startle response . . . Initially
following the acute fear response, these systems
in the brain will be reactivated when the
child is exposed to a specific reminder of
the traumatic event (e.g., gunshots, the presence
of a past perpetrator). Furthermore, these
parts of the brain my be reactivated when
the child simply thinks about or dreams about
the event. Over time, these specific reminders
may generalize (e.g., gunshots to loud noises,
a specific perpetrator to any strange male).
In other words, despite being distanced from
threat and the original trauma, the stress-response
apparatus of the child's brain is activated
again and again.
The pattern described
above reflects both stimulus and response generalization
processes which have been exhaustively studied
by behavioral researchers for some time (Mackintosh,
1974; Nevin, 1973). This body of research has
established that a primary generalization effect
is an increasing function of the number of shared
elements between the original stimulus and the
test stimulus (Nevin, 1973). This research provides
support for Perry et al.'s analysis of childhood
trauma by identifying the empirically validated
operant and respondent processes that are responsible
for conditioning all types of behavior including
Perry goes on
to explain that the neurobiological effect of
traumatic experiences delivered by environmental
contingencies is governed by two principles of
neurodevelopment: the use-dependent development/organization
of the brain and critical and sensitive periods.
They point out that during the early childhood
years the brain requires (critical periods) or
is more sensitive (sensitive periods) to certain
types of organizing experiences. These experiences
literally format some of the child's developing
brain structures and functions: "Experience
can change the mature brain-but experience during
the critical periods of early childhood organizes
brain systems . . . [it] can result in mal-organization
and compromised function in brain mediated functions
such as humor, empathy, attachment and affect
regulation." Trauma, occurring during critical/sensitive
periods, is an experience that is capable of affecting
the organizational development of the brain.
for the traumatized child is that the more frequent,
intense and persistent the traumatization, the
more the brain systems associated with fear are
activated. Such-frequent activation "builds
in" a chronic state of fear in the child.
This state of fear can trigger hyperarousal (fight
or flight) and/or dissociative (freeze or surrender)
behavior in the child With repeated exposure,
elicitation, and generalization this behavior
pattern takes on "trait" characteristics.
five factors which determine a person's specific
response to PTS:
- history of previous stressors
- age at onset of PTS
- specific cognitive meaning
attached to the event
- the specific type of trauma
- presence of exacerbating
and/or mitigating factors
To this list we
would add (6) intensity of the PTS and (7) the
duration of the PTS exposure.
identifies the neurobiological processes that
translate environmentally delivered psychotraumatic
contingency effects into altered neuro-behavioral
A number of researchers
have found an association between the diagnosis
of BPD and psychotraumatization during childhood.
Herman et al. (1989) found the following rates
of psychotraumatization for BPD patients: 71%
had been physically abused, 67% sexually abused,
and 62% had witnessed domestic violence. Histories
of early childhood psychotrauma (under age six)
were almost always only found in BPD patients
versus other personality disorder patients. Famularo
et. al. (1991) reported that 79% of nineteen children
ages seven to fourteen who had been recently diagnosed
as having BPD by DSM III-R criteria reported significant
traumatic experiences. Goldman et al. (1992) found
in a sample of 44 children diagnosed with BPD
versus 100 comparison children that BPD children
had significantly higher rates of physical and
physical/sexual abuse rates than the comparison
group. They concluded that the hypothesis that
a history of trauma is associated with the disorder
is supported. Goldman et al. (1993) found higher
rates of psychopathology among family members
of people with BPD. Weaver et al. (1993) found
that rate of childhood trauma (sexual abuse, physical
abuse, witnessing violence) was significantly
higher in 17 BPD females versus 19 non-BPD females.
Salzman et al. (1993), however, found lower than
expected rates of physical, sexual, or combined
trauma in a sample of 31 patients. They found
that only 19% reported such a history.
Stone (1990) in
his landmark outcomes study of BPD found that
the factor (in a factor analysis of 14 outcome
moderating factors) which accounted for the largest
amount of variance in outcomes for his combined
sample of male and female BPD patients was what
he termed parental brutality (physical abuse).
This factor accounted for 7% of the variance with
six additional factors accounting for an additional
5% of the variance. For females this factor accounted
for 6% of the variance and for males it accounted
for 15% of the variance. He also found the following
percentages of psychotraumatization in his sample
(broad definition of borderline): 38% had early
loss; 19% of females had parental incest; 8% of
males had parental incest; 13% of all borderlines
had experienced or witnessed parental brutality.
In a study of
61 male subjects with BPD versus 60 non-BPD subjects,
Paris et al. (1994) found that the BPD group had
significantly higher rate of childhood sexual
abuse, more severe sexual abuse, a longer duration
of physical abuse, increased rates of early separation
or loss, and higher paternal control score on
the Parental Bonding Index. Childhood sexual abuse
and loss/separation were significant in the muitivariate
analysis. They concluded that trauma and problems
with fathers are important factors in the development
of BPD in males. Waller (1994) found that childhood
sexual abuse prior to age fourteen rather than
later in life was associated with a diagnosis
of BPD in 115 eating-disordered females. Silk
et al. (1995) reported a 76% rate of sexual abuse
in a sample of 37 BPD inpatients
Runeson et al.
(1991) reported that BPD patients who committed
suicide showed more early parental absence, substance
abuse in the home, and lack of permanent residence
than other patient groups who committed suicide
in a sample of 58 consecutive suicides of people
ages 15 to 29 in an urban community
al. (1993) found in a prospective study of 776
adolescents that maternal inconsistency coupled
with maternal over-involvement predicted the emergence
of BPD. Weaver and Clum (1993) reported that significantly
more BPD patients reported sexual abuse than did
non-BPD patients in a sample of 17 and 19 patients
respectively. They also found that BPD families
were significantly more controlling than were
non-BPD families and that this factor significantly
predicted dimensional borderline score even after
controlling for sexual abuse.
(1997) reported that the Trauma Symptom Inventory,
a 100-item test designed to measure both acute
and chronic PTSD symptoms, correctly identified,
in a psychiatric inpatient sample. 89% of those
patients independently diagnosed with BPD.
and EEG Findings in BPD
have reported neurological and neurotransmitter
differences in people with BPD and people with
psychotraumatic exposures. Bower (1995) reported
that researchers found in MRI scans of 20 females
with histories of prolonged sexual abuse before
age 15 that, in comparison to 18 non-abused woman,
the abused woman had markedly smaller hippocampal
volume (the hippocampus is implicated in short
term memory). A second study by Yale researchers
confirmed this result in seventeen women who suffered
severe childhood sexual abuse. Yale researchers
also found that these abused woman scored significantly
lower on a test of verbal short-term memory. Bower
reports that similar MRI results (decreased hippocampal
volume) have been obtained with male Vietnam veterans
suffering from PTSD.
Hollander et al.
(1994) reported results which suggest that males
with BPD have serotonergic dysfunction as compared
to non-BPD males based upon a challenge with a
single dose of m-chlorophenylpiperazine (5-HT
serotonin postsynaptic agonist). De Vegvar et
al. (1994) summarized a series of studies linking
serotonin functioning and impulsive aggression.
In general the findings support a hypothesis linking
serotonergic dysfunction to impulsive aggression
toward others or self. Yehuda et al. (1994) reported
a series of studies on peripheral catecholamine
(epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine) functioning.
They concluded, "The fact that catecholamine
metabolism in BPD is similar to that in PTSD in
preliminary studies may reflect the role that
chronic stress and trauma appear to play in the
etiology of many symptoms found in these disorders."
Perry et al.'s (1996) analysis implicates the
catecholamine system as one of the systems effected
by traumatic exposure
In a very interesting
study, Teicher et al. (1994) argued that the limbic
system, in particular the hippocampus and amygdala,
may be affected by experiences which create posttraumatic
stress disorder. They reported on the results
of a study which compared a history of early abuse
to symptoms of limbic system dysfunction. They
devised a 33 item Limbic System Checklist (LSC-33)
questionnaire to assess this latter effect. They
evaluated 253 outpatients with the Life Experiences
Questionnaire to assess abuse history. Their results
showed that as compared to patients who reported
no history of abuse, patients with physical but
not sexual abuse scored 38% higher on the LSC-33;
patients who were sexually but not physically
abused scored 49% higher, and patients who were
both sexually and physically abused scored 113%
higher. The effect was the same regardless of
sex. All differences between the abused patients
and non-abused patients were significant. Abuse
prior to age 18 had greater impact than abuse
after age 18. Patients who were physically or
sexually abused after the age of 18 had LSC-33
scores that were not significantly different from
those of the non-abused patients. They concluded,
"Our specific hypothesis is that early abuse
can lead to a variety of neurodevelopmentai abnormalities
with different behavioral sequelae."
Based on the findings
reviewed above and our clinical experience we
offer the following Factor I BPD postulate:
Factor I BPD
reflects the neuro-behavioral effects of psychotraumatic
stress (PTS) exposures mediated by dysfunctional
family interactions (DFI). The PTS exposures occur
prior to the age of 18 and have the following
characteristics: (1) they are of sufficient aversive
intensity, duration, and frequency to provoke
fear (2) they occur during critical or sensitive
developmental periods, and (3) they are psychologically
salient, personal and meaningful. Consequent to
these exposures, the child experiences neurological,
cognitive, and behavioral dysfunctions which,
if unmitigated or untreated (or inadequately
treated), progress to borderline personality disorder
The presence of a pre-existing biological
vulnerability is not required for the occurrence
of these effects.
FACTOR II BPD:
The other factor
which may initiate the development of BPD
is a pre-existing biological vulnerability (BV).
To qualify, a BV must biographically pre-date
the occurrence of any psychotraumatic stress and
may be expected to affect limbic system functioning
and/or attention control. A BV that is caused
by the effect psychotraumatic stress has on the
developing brain would not qualify in our model
as an independent biological cause of BPD. Potential
independent BV's might include a genetic defect,
an intrauterine neuro-toxin, or another psychiatric
disorder of early childhood.
reviewed published and unpublished studies of
the genetic transmission of BPO. Torgerson
concluded that there is little current evidence
to support a genetic transmission model of BPD.
at. (1991) concluded that a diagnosis of BPD predicts
a higher rate of mood disorders in family members
of people with BPD even in the absence of a mood
disorder in the BPD person. Silverman et al. (1991)
found greater independent risk of affective and
impulsive personality disorder traits in 129 relatives
of people with BPD than in people with other personality
disorders or with schizophrenia. Korzekwa et al.
(1993) concluded that dexamethasone suppression
test, thyrotropin-releasing hormone test, and
sleep studies indicate that BPD is not related
to depression but that serotonin studies point
to links with suicidal, aggressive and impulsive
suggested that a disruption of interhemispheric
communication within the brain from 18 to 36
months of age may create a neural template for
the borderline symptom of splitting. Towbin et
al. (1993) defined a complex developmental syndrome
which they hypothesize may be involved in the
development of BPD and childhood schizophrenia.
The criteria of this syndrome include disturbance
of affect modulation, social relatedness, and
thinking. Ogiso et al. (1993) compared EEG findings
of 19 females diagnosed with BPD to 21 females
without a BPD diagnosis. They failed to find EEG
results that were characteristic of the BPD group.
However, they did find that patients who scored
high on the Impulsive Action Pattern of the DIB
(Diagnostic Interview for Borderlines) did show
EEG abnormalities. This effect cut across the
two groups and was not solely characteristic of
the BPD group. Zanarini et al. (1994) found that
EEG abnormalities, while nonspecific to people
with BPD, did affect 46% of the BPD subjects in
the sample. They reported that these findings
were not correlated with a childhood history of
abuse. However, 40% of their BPD subjects had
a confounding history of head trauma (62%
of subjects who were physically abused also reported
head trauma) and 12% had a confirmed history of
grand mal seizures.
In our clinical
practice we have seen a high rate of comorbid
ADHD in males with BPD. In a sample of 26 males
diagnosed as having BPD according to DSM-IIIR
or DSM-IV criteria and treated by us from 1994
to 1996, 54% of them had a childhood diagnosis
of ADHD in their records. Many ADHD symptoms such
as impulsivity, affective lability, and anger
outbursts are similar to BPD symptoms.
disorder (Biederman, 1997) is an under
recognized disorder whose symptoms include unstable
moods, distractibility, impulsiveness, severe
aggressiveness, and hyperactivity. Unlike adult
bipolar disorder, childhood bipolar disorder symptoms
are chronic and continuous, This disorder is also
correlated with ADHD. The two disorders may be
genetically linked. All of its symptoms, especially
impulsiveness and aggression, overlap with those
of BPD. It is possible that untreated or ineffectively
treated childhood bipolar disorder and/or ADHD
could predispose the child to later develop BPD.
Based on the results
reported above our Factor II BPD postulate states:
Factor II BPD
is a set of biological vulnerabilities (BV) which
either alone or in combination can cause early
childhood neurobehavioral dysfunction. This results
in hyperreactivity to stressors which conditions
affective instability, impulsive actions,
aggressive tantrums, and impaired interpersonal
relationships. If unmitigated and untreated, the
S V induced neuro-behavioral dysfunctions progress
to BPD. This result does not require the prior
occurrence of DFI mediated psychotraumatic
Model of Borderline Behavior
The diagram on
page ten models the flow of events hypothesized
to initiate and condition borderline behavior.
The two factors are depicted along with their
influence pathways. The model's equifinality assumption
states that either factor can produce BPD despite
starting at different points and following different
paths to that end. The model has organized borderline
symptoms into five groups: relationship control
phobia (DSM-IV BPD criteria 1 and 2 are included
here), self-image dysfunction (criteria 3 and
7), stress hypersensitivity (criteria 6, 5, 9),
dependency on immediate gratification (criteria
4 and 5), and lifestyle mismanagement.
The Factor I Pathway
The Factor I pathway
maps the effects of multiple stress/alarm reactions
elicited by DFI mediated psychotraumatic stress
exposures. The model defines DFI (dysfunctional
family interaction) as the exchange of aversive
communication behaviors and consequences (often
unpredictable) among members of a family at a
rate that is in excess of norms for that family's
society and culture. PTS is defined
as an aversive event which triggers a fear response
capable of causing a person to become concerned
about his or her psychological or physical safety
while effectively inhibiting the person's ability
to protect him or herself by terminating or escaping
the aversive event.
As PTS exposure
is repeated and generalized, neurobiological changes
(as specified in Perry's 1996 analysis) begin
to take place. According to some of the findings
reviewed earlier, changes in catelcolamine functioning
and serotonin functioning may occur. At the same
time a relationship control phobia develops in
response to the PTS emitted by members of the
child's family. Basic trust, thought to form within
the first years of life (Erikson, 1950), is compromised.
As relationships, through generalization (the
generalization dimensions appear to be intimacy
and authority), become viewed as threatening,
the child also develops a negative image of him
or herself. Chronic aversive treatment, especially
at the hands of loved ones, condition a negative
self-image that leaves the child feeling that
he or she is "bad." The core self-image
of "badness" progresses to one of self-hatred.
These core beliefs condition the development of
other distorted cognitive beliefs and errors in
thinking (e.g., black and white thinking).
The emergent neurobiological
dysfunction further sensitizes the child to similar,
stressful experiences (stress hypersensitivity)
which trigger hyperarousal and/or dissociative
behavior. Withdrawal, aggressiveness, and mood
instability are postulated to be a product of
this sensitization process.
(and dysfunctional neurotransmitter mediation),
relationship problems, and a negative self-image
combine to create dysphoric and labile emotional
states which arrange negative reinforcement contingencies
that shape and reinforce a variety of impulsive
gratification (or escape) seeking behaviors. Addictive
activities (such as drug and alcohol abuse, eating
problems, or self-injury) develop that reduce
the dysphoric states and negatively reinforce
their continuing--and often escalating--use. Suicidal
behaviors emerge as an albeit extreme form of
negatively reinforced escape behavior. The repetitive
and manipulative nature of BPD suicidal actions
take on an addictive quality because of this negative
As the child grows
through adolescence into adulthood, lifestyle
functioning is impaired in work, relationships,
play, and education. Lifestyle failures further
intensify the person's self-hatred and add to
his or her dysphoria, which motivates further
escape and avoidance behaviors of the impulsive
and addictive type. This process creates the hallmarks
of borderline living: self-inflicted crisis and
and later-life effects of PTS can be mitigated
by several factors: strong, positive social support,
personal skills and attractiveness (Stone 1990),
low levels of ambient psychosocial stress, and
reinforcement contingencies (structure) for healthy
behavior. For example, if a child is exposed to
PTS by one caregiver but another is able to maintain
a warm and loving relationship with the child,
the effect of the PTS will be reduced. A borderline
adult living in a very supportive setting will
function better than one living without any close
support or structure.
The Factor I pathway
of the model postulates that any child exposed
to sufficient and critically timed PTS will develop
chronically dysfunctional behavior patterns and
will, in the absence of timely and sufficient
treatment and/or mitigation, develop borderline
behavior patterns and/or BPD. A second postulate
states that the stress hypersensitivity a person
experiences will be under discrete stimulus control
defined by the stimulus parameters of their early
The Factor II
The Factor II
pathway to BPD involves the presence of a BV that
at the neurobiological level impairs the child's
ability to develop age appropriate behavioral
self-control in the areas of impulse control,
mood stability, and aggression modulation. At
present there does not appear to be a consensus
BV candidate, The possibilities we reviewed included
untreated attention deficit disorder, untreated
childhood bipolar disorder, EEG abnormalities,
genetic transmission, familial affective/impulse
control dysfunction, or a complex developmental
The BV is hypothesized
to work by impairing the child's neurobiological
functioning by presumably disrupting limbic system
development and/or functioning. This then predisposes
the child to becoming hypersensitive to his environment
and its stressors. The child's moody, impulsive,
aggressive. irritable, distractible, oppositional,
and/or withdrawn behaviors initiate the model's
stress hypersensitivity pathway. The model postulates
that this behavior becomes aversive to the caregivers
and other members of the child's family and creates
dysfunctional interaction patterns within a previously
functional family. In the absence of timely and
sufficient mitigating or treatment factors, the
DFI worsens the child's behavior and creates significant
distress for caregivers and other family members.
The child's self-image is impaired by the conflict
their behavior causes at home and/or in school.
Impulsive gratification emerges for the same reasons
as it does in Factor I BPD.
The model postulates
DFI as a consequence of BV in Factor II BPD. It
also postulates the existence of a historical
period, framed by a functional family environment,
during which the child's behavior was observably
and significantly dysfunctional.
Mixed Factor BPD
In mixed factor
BPD both BV and PTS are independently present.
The model postulates that for a given degree of
PTS a more severe form of BPD develops when BV
is also present. We speculate that Factor I type
of BPD is the most common form, followed by mixed
type BPD, and then Factor II BPD. Based on the
childhood trauma prevalence studies reviewed earlier,
about 70 to 75% of BPD is either Factor I or Mixed
type BPD and about 25 to 30% is Factor II BPD.
Making a Diagnosis of BPD
As discussed earlier
the symptomatic behavior of BPD overlaps with
other disorders. In particular it is important
to rule out adult bipolar disorder. In addition
to bipolar disorder, attention deficit disorder
and atypical depression should also be assessed.
A rule of thumb that we have found helpful given
the apparently high incidence of psychotraumatic
childhood events in the histories of people with
BPD is to tentatively assume that, in the absence
of a credible history of childhood psychotrauma,
the patient is not borderline and then to assess
him or her for the above-mentioned disorders.
When bipolar disorder has been ruled out, and
if ADHD and atypical depression cannot completely
account for the presenting symptoms, then a diagnosis
of BPD can be applied.
A bipolar disorder
differential should consider the following: (1)
A history of bipolar disorder in the family; (2)
It may begin in childhood as major depression;
(3) In early adolescence look for irritability,
explosive anger, sustained hating, hostility and
hypersexuality; and (4) BPD patient usually does
not have family history of bipolar disorder; decreased
need for sleep is not seen in BPD; flight of ideas
is not seen, borderline does not follow the four
phases of bipolar disorder (depressed, manic-irritability,
mixed depression and mania; hypomania).
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can be distinguished
from BPD by taking a careful developmental history.
Of particular interest is early hyperactivity
especially at birth and even prenatally. Such
infants are often hard to satisfy despite consistent
effort to do so. Such children often have difficulty
playing with other children and making friends.
Often they will change the rules so they can win.
In school they cannot achieve because they cannot
sit and attend. They may have poor fine motor
coordination. They can be very bright and hyper-curious
but often have poor immediate recall. In BPD symptoms
become apparent in late teen years, not at birth.
BPD relationships are unstable. BPD has poor self-image
due to rejection, but ADHD has poor self-image
due to failure to achieve. BPD people hate themselves;
this is not the case in uncomplicated ADHD. In
BPD neurological soft signs are not necessarily
present but are often seen in ADHD.
Research Implications of the Model
for Factor I BPD:
exposed1 during critical sensitive periods, to
a certain intensity, duration and repetition of
psychotrauma develop BPD? If not, then do they
develop some borderline behaviors? If not, then
what inoculates them from doing so? Could the
inoculation come from a biological advantage of
some kind? Would early intervention and treatment
of DFI prevent the development of BPD?
for Factor II BPD:
What is the biological
vulnerability? Is it a single condition or many
conditions? If it is ADHD or child bipolar, then
does it progress to BPD because of a failure to
effectively treat these disorders? Does the BV
progress to BPD in the absence of DFI or is DFI
crucial to the development of BV initiated BPD?
If it is crucial, must DFI be effectively treated
to prevent progression to BPD?
needs suggested by the model include the following:
- Studies that can define critical
exposure parameters (the type, severity, duration,
age at onset) of PTS that lead to enduring
behavioral and neurological changes.
- A comprehensive assessment
protocol needs to be developed and studies
conducted of people with BPD to confirm or
disconfirm the model's classification of BPD
into PTS-only induced, BV-only induced, and
- Studies that assess whether
the hippocampus of people with BPD are reduced
- Studies which measure neurotransmitter
(serotonin and NE) levels of people with BPD
prior to and after imaginary and role play
exposure to their childhood PTS events to
determine whether neurotransmitter levels
are response to simulated exposure.
- Primate studies to asses
the effects of PTS exposure on their behavioral
and neurological development.
- Development of definitions
and reliable measures of dysfunctional family
interaction patterns that produce psychotraumatic
- In-depth prospective studies
of abused and neglected children to evaluate
the behavioral, neurological, and learning
effects of PTS.
- Development of a database
register of psychotraumatic events complete
with operational definitions, specific examples,
relative severity, cultural modifiers, and
- Studies that determine the
effects of critical period exposure to PTS
versus non-critical period exposure on the
progression to BPD.
- DFI is a potential common
link between the two types of BPD: in Factor
I it is the antecedent of psychotrauma and
in Factor II it is a familial behavioral consequence
of biological vulnerability. Studies to confirm
this are needed.
The model's implications
for the clinical treatment of BPD include the
- Reliable and valid clinical
measures of psychotraumatic events and the
symptomatic impact of those events are needed.
There are many psychometric instruments for
the measurement of trauma symptoms and events
(Briere 1997). A consensus diagnostic battery
that meets the needs of clinical settings
is needed to measure the PTS exposure of patients.
- Treatment of BPD depends
upon the accurate assessment of PTS exposure.
The presence of significant PTS history has
major implications for the treatment protocol
in theses areas:
- trust issues, need for
desensitization/exposure therapy of PTS
effects, PTS motivators of
- addictive activities,
the use of medications, and the role of
the family in treatment.
- If the role of PTS, as suggested
by this model, is confirmed, the diagnostic
criteria for borderline personality disorder
may require modification.
The paper presented
a heuristic model of the etiology of borderline
personality disorder. Borrowing the concept of
equifinality from systems theory, it postulated
that BPD can develop if one of two factors is
present during childhood. The data upon which
the model is based were reviewed and the research
and clinical implications of the model were discussed.
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by The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic
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Society for Philosophy and Technology
Guest Editor: Evandro Agazzi
Guest Editor: Hans Lenk
THE MATERIAL AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF TECHNOLOGY
Friedrich Rapp, University of Dortmund
In what follows, I rely on the presupposition that it is the task of philosophy to deal with the most general and the most fundamental traits of reality. If this is taken for granted, it has consequences for the philosophy of technology. When dealing with the field of technology in philosophical terms one cannot confine the discussion to a mere analogue of the epistemology, methodology, or the philosophy of science. Dealing with technology only in these terms would amount to cutting off an inherent, essential part of the phenomenon. I want here to defend five theses.
1. Both areas, the physical world and the sphere of culture, are involved .
As I want to show, the cultural aspect of technology is the most important one. Since modern technology has created a Second Nature, as it were, it is inevitably also shaping our view of the world, our style of living; in short, it is shaping our culture. In fact it is impossible to reasonably speak about technology without at least tacitly taking into account the natural as well as the cultural aspect. Consider the famous saying that technology is the art of guiding the forces of nature according to human purposes. This is to say that technology means to deliberately reshape the physical world in order to attain certain desired results or to fulfill specific functions. In this saying, the ”physical world” refers to the natural aspect and the ”functions to be fulfilled” refer to the cultural aspect. Here it becomes evident that technology by its very nature involves the material as well as the cultural aspect, and these two aspects are woven together inseparably.
2. Technology fulfills basic needs and is an inherent element of culture.
Let us start with a few basic questions. What is the purpose of technology? Why is it brought about? What is the reason for putting it to use? Which function does it fulfill?
The answer usually given to these questions is that technology fulfills basic human needs. This understanding is along the lines of Benjamin Franklin s saying that man is the tool-making animal; it corresponds to Marx’s insistence on work, production, and the economy as the decisive factors in history; and it is in accord with Henri Bergson s (1907) formula of man as Homo faber —an expression deliberately conceived in opposition to the traditional understanding of man as Homo sapiens . The common feature of all of these approaches is that technology is considered as belonging to the very nature of what is human; it provides the indispensable means for subsistence. The underlying idea is, that as part of nature, as living beings, humans must—just like the other animals—find a way to cope with a hostile environment and to provide for basic needs such as food and shelter.
Let us consider this materialistic or rather naturalistic understanding of technology in more detail. Speaking of basic needs implies that there are specific, clear-cut needs shared by all humans, and that it is the task of technology to fulfill these needs. As we all know there are indeed such basic needs as nutrition, fresh air, and sleep. They are a biological necessity, that is to say, we cannot survive if they are not fulfilled. Here the casual remark of Bertolt Brecht applies: Erst kommt das Fressen, und dann kommt die Moral . In other words, the normative, cultural impulses come into play only after the basic biological needs have been fulfilled.
Yet, this is not the whole story. After all a person has a body and a mind. We are, along with other living beings, part of the natural world. But we are not just there, like molecules or stones. We have an understanding of ourselves, we strive for meaning, we are always members of a society and share the values of the culture we live in. Ortega y Gasset (1936) has put this into the provocative sentence: "Man, in a word, has no nature; what he has is history." Expressed differently: what nature is to things, history, res gestae , is to man. This amounts to the claim that humans have no needs that are fixed once and forever. What Ortega has in mind is the panorama of the historical development that leads to specific ways of living, to certain cultural styles, which then, in their turn, determine what one may call, along the lines of Hegel, the objectivized spirit, i.e., language, religion, art, science, the legal system, etc. It goes without saying that Ortega y Gasset (1939) does not ignore the basic, biological needs. He takes it for granted that such needs do exist, but he does not deem it worthwhile to refer to them, because he considers them inferior to the higher cultural values. (It may be worth mentioning that current discussions about the problems of euthanasia pertain to the very same issue of the higher cultural values as opposed to basic biological needs, the question being, whether life is still worth living when only biological survival, but no longer a really human existence, is possible.)
In this context one has to remember that technological artifacts are designed to extend in one way or another the natural capacities of humans: the car and the airplane multiply the efficiency and the range of locomotion; television extends the capacities of sight; and the telephone extends the reach of hearing. Taken in this sense technology does indeed relate to basic needs, since a certain minimum of locomotion, sight, and hearing is indispensable for survival. This is even more obvious with respect to the use of simple tools which are in an almost literal sense extensions of the human body. It is not by chance that the author of the first German monograph on the philosophy of technology chose the following sentence of Edmund Reitlinger as the motto of his book (Kapp, 1877): ”Die ganze Menschheitsgeschichte, genau geprüft, löst sich zuletzt in die Geschichte der Erfindung besserer Werkzeuge auf.” [All of human history, adequately examined, in the end is the history of better tools.] In a pointed formula one could say that we depend on technology and that we use technology just because we have a body, because we are part of the physical world.
Here belongs Arnold Gehlen’s (1957) thesis, that by developing ever more sophisticated tools humans have transcended the sphere of innate behavioral patterns. By means of our intellect and by producing technology and putting it to use we have in the process of cultural evolution attained—albeit in too effective a manner—the domination over nature. Furthermore it must be kept in mind that whatever the output of a certain technological system may be, in order to be useful for us, its outcome or function must finally be reduced to bodily experience and to the level of the senses; a plane is only useful for me if I actually use it, and a television transmission that is never brought to the senses by means of a screen is only potentially useful. In a similar vein even the most sophisticated technology-mediated experimental data gained in scientific research must ultimately be brought to the mind by means of concrete sense-experience; otherwise we would not have any knowledge whatsoever about the data (see Rapp, 1974). This once again underlines the inherent relationship between technology and the human body.
3. Technology has turned from a servant of culture to its master.
On closer inspection it turns out that technology is by no means culturally neutral. Only when abstracting from the concrete phenomenon can the basic biological features and the higher, more elaborate cultural features of technology be separated from each other. As is well known from the findings of cultural anthropology even the allegedly purely natural functions of eating, mating, and communication are actually styled differently in each culture. Metaphorically speaking, it is culture that gives these features, which in their general function are indeed common to all mankind, a certain form, a specific shape, and a concrete Gestalt. In this context technology provides a certain content, i.e., the means for fulfilling certain functions, whereas it is culture that gives this content a specific form; at this point technology interlaces with culture. It cannot be otherwise. Because the way in which people live their lives is determined by the prevailing cultural patterns, everything people do is an expression of the priorities taken for granted and of the values observed in a given society. After all, to put it in philosophical terms, each culture is a realized value-system. Without such a normative frame of reference, i.e., without being a member of a cultural system, a human is less than an animal (see Bidney, 1953, p. 429).
The upshot of what has been said so far is that there is no way of separating technology and culture. Still, for the purpose of a specific investigation within the framework of a scholarly discipline it makes sense and it is even necessary to separate both areas in analytical terms. But it must always be kept in mind that when dealing with the one of these two dimensions, at least implicitly one is necessarily also dealing with the other. With respect to the interrelation and balance between culture and technology, clearly a shift has occurred with respect to modern technology. Modern technology has brought about a complete change of the environment in which we live as well as of the internal frame of mind, i.e., of our style of life. This being the case, a paradoxical—perhaps even a dialectical—shift in relevance has taken place. Whereas in former times, before the Industrial Revolution, technology was integrated into culture as a matter of course, it has in our times taken command. Today technology is dominating culture and not the other way round. As Cassirer (1930) puts it, not only does technology create its own norm, there is a tendency for this norm to be taken as the only legitimate yardstick and that it be imposed on all other fields of life. The all-pervading character of modern technology is also stressed by R. M. Adams (1996, p. 7), who points out that the loosely linked systems into which the various elements of technology are grouped ”can neither function nor be understood except as parts of an embracing social organism.”
Technology is thus no longer the servant of culture. It is rather, in an ever-increasing way, becoming its master. Of course there is no denying the fact that during the history of mankind technology has always been an important factor. Not by chance are pre-historic periods named in terms of the materials used (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age). And at least as far as warfare is concerned, other things being equal, the side which uses the more effective type of technology will win. Furthermore specific areas like transport, communication, the economy, etc., are clearly dependent on the technology used. This notwithstanding, until modern times technology was not the decisive element that determined the style of a given culture.
In this context the literature on the subject is revealing. Neither in the writings of the French structuralists about universal patterns of culture nor in the established panoramas of universal history—to mention just two examples—is technology given a decisive part. Before the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution there is virtually no work of historical or philosophical writing in which technology appears as a crucial factor. This holds good even for most of the authors of the 19th century (Hegel, Ranke, Droysen, Nietzsche, Jacob Burckhardt, Dilthey) who give various explanations of historical change, but never put the stress on technology. It is by no means surprising that the Marxist, materialistic interpretation of history is due to the experience of the Industrial Revolution. The explanation of historical change as caused by technical innovations is actually a retrospective scheme applied to history in view of mankind s experience with modern technology. But this picture does not correspond to the self-image of the eras considered, nor does it correspond to the general understanding of history that prevailed before the arrival of modern technology. (For a different ”mechanism of progress” point, see Rapp, 1992, pp. 181-198.)
To point out the dominance of technology in our culture would be like carrying coals to Newcastle. Especially in the industrial nations this feature cannot be overlooked. High Tech determines politics (after all, the breakdown of the Eastern bloc is to a high degree due to the failure to cope with the arms race); characteristic of the global market place is the competition of technological innovations, and wherever one goes on the globe, one will encounter Coca Cola, supermarkets, highways, airports, videoclips, and the Internet. More and more the notion of the global village is turning into reality. Marshall McLuhan s phrase, "the medium is the message," and the slogan of the Technokratiediskussion, ”the means determine the ends" (Lenk, 1973) are just different versions of one and the same phenomenon—namely, that today it is technology that determines culture and not culture that determines technology.
This becomes even clearer when we turn to an overall analysis of the basic ideas that dominated the epochs of Western history. Greek antiquity was dominated by the idea of polis, the Roman empire by the idea of ordo, the Middle Ages by theology (i.e., by reference to God), the Enlightenment by the notions of reason and of the increase of scientific knowledge. Our time is dominated by the idea of technological progress. It is technological progress, or in a more neutral and more realistic wording, technological change that pervades and dominates every sphere of life.
4. Three factors account for the dominance of technology.
What are the causes that bring about the virtually unlimited technological change we are witnessing, a change in quality as well as in quantity? Since this change does exist it must in one way or another be possible to explain it. There are several different ways for handling this task, but for sake of brevity, let us turn to an explanation that relies on three basic elements: (a) the invention of invention, (b) unlimited needs, and (c) adjustment to the world of artifacts. These three elements combine to make up the historical process of technological change. As far as we can see, there are no obstacles that could prevent this process from continuing in the future.
(a) From the point of view of knowledge, of science, of method, and of theory, the invention of invention (Whitehead, 1930, p. 120) is the decisive factor. This principle, i.e., the deliberate search for new inventions, is the methodological systematization of the modern idea of domination over nature. Such an attitude towards the physical world is by no means obvious. It is rather the outcome of the development of the Western history of ideas that led, roughly speaking, from Aristotle to Newton. The relevant metaphysical presuppositions include the change from the ancient distinction between terrestrial and celestial movements to a unified understanding that englobes the whole universe without making a distinction between the life-world of humans and the celestial vault. Most revealing in this respect is Descartes s understanding of matter as the geometrically conceived res extensa that is governed by the laws of mechanics, an understanding in which living beings are considered as mere automata. This worldview stands in stark contrast to the Greek understanding of a living cosmos, of a greater whole into which man is integrated, and in which the movement or activity of every being is guided by inherent goals. Bacon s and Descartes s idea of mastering nature by investigating her laws and putting them to use is at the same time more modest and more presumptuous than the dream of omnipotence by magic practices. Eliade (1980, p. 101) stresses that in virtually all archaic cultures we find an ambivalent, inherently conflicting attitude towards metals and towards the knowledge and the activity of the smith; i.e., the very beginning of technology was regarded as a favorable and at the same time as a dangerous step. According to this modern, mechanistic understanding, one has to precisely investigate Nature s laws and to obey them in order to obtain the desired results. But once this principle is observed, no obstacles stand in the way of putting to use the physical world for human purposes. (The metaphysical presuppositions and the dynamics of modern science and technology are discussed in Rapp, 1994.) Yet, as becomes evident from the current discussion about medical technology and genetic engineering, this attitude does not only offer opportunities, it also raises serious questions about normative, juridical limitations mankind has to impose on itself in order to respect the dignity of the human individual.
As a matter of fact, the organizational, epistemological, and methodological structure of modern science and engineering is of such a type that, to use a paradox, modern science and technology are doomed to progress. There is no way of preventing them from being successful. The epistemological presuppositions, the methodological ways of procedure, as well as the organizational structure (division of labor, international exchange of information, scholarly criticism, mutual control of the experiments made), all combine to foster further progress in science and technology. The mathematical formula used for describing processes of nature and the empirical data gained by means of technology-based experiments are designed in such a way as to ensure intersubjectivity, reproducibility, empirical content, and technical applicability. Whatever the new findings may be, in any case the metaparadigm of modern science and technology (mechanistic view of nature, mathematical description, experimental analysis) is maintained. The result is that at any given historical stage one can rely on the highest level obtained by accumulation of the previous development as a basis for further investigation. Accordingly, the theoretical framework will be adjusted to the new findings, whatever they may be. The result is a sort of guarantee and promise for future scientific findings and for new technological applications. The internal structure of science and technology guarantees their further success. All this is contained in what Whitehead has called the invention of invention .
It is worthwhile to keep in mind that the indispensable intermediate element between science and technology is the economy. Scientific knowledge and technological know-how are only put to use to the degree in which they are profitable—or at least in which they are expected to bring profit in the near future. The economist Schumpeter (1942) has coined the phrase that capitalism is based on the "principle of creative destruction." It is the combination of the principle of invention of invention with the likewise innovative principle of the ever-expansive, market-based, and profit-oriented capitalist economy that feeds the virtually unlimited process of technological change.
(b) Yet, in the final analysis all this would not happen if it were not brought about by certain individual actors. Since they are in principle free human beings, these actors are not forced by some external power to participate in this game. As can be observed all over the world, the majority of people actually want or at least accept the game of technological change. Why? The answer is that, ultimately, people like technology and they want ever more of it. Now as was pointed out above, human nature has not been defined once and forever, unlike that of our fellow creatures. The needs we aim to fulfill are, as far as they go beyond the indispensable means for biological subsistence, shaped by the culture we live in. The problem is that these needs are potentially unlimited .
(c) This brings me back to the problem of the distinction between basic biological needs and more sophisticated higher, cultural needs (see Maslow, 1968). As we have seen, in its simple, elementary form, technology does indeed fulfill basic needs. In more general terms, technology ensures survival, it provides efficient solutions, it makes life easier, it creates wealth and civilizational comfort. For this reason, it is accepted virtually by everybody. On a world-wide level we can observe a desire for the sophisticated systems and gadgets modern technology provides. The point is that once they are available, people develop the need for television sets, airplanes, and Internet transmissions. But it must be kept in mind that, say, a hundred years ago, when these innovations were not known at all or only dealt with in the virtual form of science fiction, people were able to live without these facilities.
Now it is time to reconsider Ortega y Gasset s saying that man has no nature, only history. In other words, the things we strive for, the values we aim to realize by our actions are not given once and for ever. The result is that in the life of an individual as well as in history there is always some margin for the modification of the hitherto prevailing trend. After all, history is a creative process in which new ways of living, new styles of culture, new values are brought to bear. In our times there is no inherent evolution of cultural patterns inspired by some internal idea; rather the culturally external element of technology takes over, and has acquired the leading role that sets the pace. Let me repeat, all this is possible because the needs to be fulfilled by the present and future types of technology are by no means clearly and once and forever defined. Because man has no fixed nature, his needs are defined by the culture in which he lives. Since we live today in a culture shaped by technology, it is technology that determines our needs. To use a pointed formulation, modern technology fulfills precisely the needs which it has created by providing the means for their potential fulfillment. In other words, not only factually but also in the normative sphere humans adjust to the world of the artifact .
5. Cultural alienation or creative impulse?
The question now arises about how to deal with this situation in philosophical terms. How are we to judge the technological progress that dominates cultural change? Do we appreciate this process or do we reject it? And if so, for what reasons?
Christianity and all other religions tell us that God created man. Now by means of modern technology man as it were, creates himself. He aims at creating his body by cloning and by organ transplantation; and he creates his way of life by producing technological artifacts. This is to say that in a certain way a human is like God. But the problem is that we are still undefined, vulnerable, and mortal beings; we are still far from being self-sufficient. In short, today by means of technology humanity has not only released itself from the material burdens of life, it has by the very same activity also overcharged itself with the problems modern technology is bringing about. This is the sometimes admitted, sometimes only tacit self-understanding of our time. As with all other problems of cultural criticism there is no simple, straightforward solution to this predicament. But one can at least mention three points of reference that offer themselves for an attempt at an answer. Let us consider them in sequence.
(a) One can deal with the issue in terms of the philosophy of history . This approach by no means results in an unambiguous answer. But it places the problem in the right setting. As Ferguson ( 1966, p. 122) has aptly put it, history is the result of human actions, but not of human design. This applies also to the realm of technology. Technology is brought about by humans, but it has consequences that were not foreseen and that go far beyond what was originally intended. In a secular society, history is no longer considered the result of God s will. It is rather taken as the contingent outcome of events that might well have been different; and it is not clear what the future course of events will be. Yet, as far as we can see, technization is taking command. In this context the statement of the French historian Braudel (1989, p. 93) is pertinent when he says that "Marx is very much mistaken, when he claims that men make history; it is rather history that makes men. They suffer it. . . . A voluntaristic history is an illusion, a drop of water in the ocean."
If this view is taken seriously and it is combined with the modern, secularized understanding of history, a strange situation arises. Mankind has brought about modern technology without really knowing what this means. Yet, even in a secularized society there is still a longing for ideals and for meaning that transcends the mere individual concern. Since the highest power governing the fate of mankind by inscrutable decree is adored as Deity, it is only too natural that in our times technology is worshiped as the new God. This is precisely what Barthes (1964, p. 76) argues. (See also Rapp, 1979.) Barthes compares the unveiling of the new Citroen model DS (sounding like déesse = deity) with a religious act, with a celebration in which, by means of television, the whole nation participates. His claim is that today the car is the equivalent of the cathedral of the Middle Ages: a great creation of the epoch, a magical object, adored by the whole community. But the modern technology thus adored is human-made, so that in the final analysis man adores himself, his own power and creativity; the cathedral celebrates the power of God, the flight to the moon celebrates the power of humans. Yet, man is still frail and mortal. Modern man strives to be Nietzsche s Übermensch—not in the aesthetic and normative sense of control over one s own mind, as Nietzsche had it, but rather in terms of power over nature, wealth, and comfort, i.e., external facilities. This stands in clear contrast to Hegel s idea that everything the human mind creates will pass through a stage of alienation, but finally return to and enrich the realm of the collective mind, the sphere of the objective spirit. The hedonism fostered by modern technology is the exact opposite of what Hegel put forward in his philosophy of idealism.
(b) Another way of explaining the dominance of technology in modern culture would consist in a straightforward discussion of the relative merit of a certain culture , i.e., of a specific style of life or a certain Lebensform. In the 18th and 19th centuries the explanation seemed simple. During the era of colonialism and in the time of the Enlightenment, the Europe-centered and progress-oriented view of historical change and of different types of civilizations was taken for granted. By now, this attitude is a matter of the past. The Western intellectual tradition and its notion of progress are no longer accepted as the relevant points of reference. Today the all-tolerant, postmodern, multicultural approach is inclined to accept and to approve everything whatsoever, for the simple reason that it exists. Adhering to this understanding would amount to accepting the technology-shaped culture in whatever form it may appear. Indeed, refraining from a normative attitude, failing to make value judgments results in taking for granted the existing state of affairs. There is even some sense in doing this, insofar as every style of culture, every Lebensform is comparable to an individual that stands on its own, that has its own intrinsic value and hence resists an evaluation from the outside; this is the meaning of the Scholastic dictum, individuum est ineffabile .
(c) But accepting whatever a culture may produce and what tends to happen in it does not solve the problem. After all, each culture and mankind as a whole must find a way to deal with the innovations offered by quasi-institutionalized technological change, and this way is by no means prescribed in a definite manner by human nature, by some hidden teleology of history, or by technological change itself (which, after all, is human made). Since we have freedom, we cannot avoid making a choice either explicitly by deliberate reasoning or implicitly just by doing, by following one way of action rather than another. There is no way of escaping our freedom. In the traditional societies the problem was solved by accepting the way of life and the value patterns inherited from the past. And, contrary to the modern ideology of free rational choice, this is to a large degree still true today. What appears to be a free choice, starting allegedly from a tabula rasa is, in actuality, only a modification of the past.
In this situation the more modest and hence more feasible approach of reference to the tradition and of immanent critique seems appropriate. Nobody will expect that in an open, pluralistic society it will be possible to arrive at unanimous solutions that can easily be put into practice. Existing trends, diverging interests, conflicting value patterns, and the unforeseeable future outcome of a certain way of action preclude such a straightforward approach. What can be done and what must be entertained is public discussion, putting forward conflicting scenarios, and exchange of arguments. In doing this the basic issue is whether the inherent cultural tradition or the external technology-shaped style of life is to be given priority.
By somewhat modifying Ortega y Gasset s dictum we can say that man s nature is what history has made of it. From this one can conclude that technological innovations must be integrated into the existing cultural tradition and not forced upon it. Only in this way will they have a productive and not a destructive outcome. This is all the more appropriate in developing countries, since their historical and cultural tradition is even less in accord with modern technology than that of the Western nations. On a more general level, the Western style of arguing and of free discussion is indispensable for the approach suggested here because open discourse is the best means for arriving at positive, fruitful results. It is the task of philosophy to foster this discussion by revealing the basic implications and the ultimate foundations of different approaches, putting forward creative ideas to foster the discussion, arguing about conflicting notions, and pointing out their relative merits. The underlying idea is that listening to the voice of reason will lead to the right answer. As Paton (1948, p. 36) has aptly put it in commenting on Kant s Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten , the "disinterested pursuit of the moral ideal is at once the source of man s dignity and the standard by which he must be judged."
Adams, R. M. 1996. Paths of Fire: An Anthropologist's Inquiry into Western Technology . Princeton.
Barthes, R. 1964. Mythen des Alltags . Frankfurt.
Bergson, H. 1907. L'Evolution créatrice . Reprinted in Oeuvres: Edition du centenaire , Paris, 1970.
Bidney, D. 1953. Theoretical Anthropology . New York.
Cassirer, E. 1930. Form and Technik . Reprinted in Symbol, Technik, Sprache . Hamburg, 1985.
Eliade, M. 1980. Schmiede und Alchemisten . Stuttgart.
Ferguson, A. 1767. An Essay on the History of Civil Society . Reprinted, Edinburgh, 1966.
Gehlen, A. 1957. Die Seele im technischen Zeitalter . Hamburg.
Kapp, E. 1877. Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Technik . Reprinted, Düsseldorf, 1978.
Lenk, H. 1973. Technokratie als Ideologie . Stuttgart.
Maslow, A. A. 1968. Toward a Psychology of Being . New York.
Ortega y Gasset, J. 1936. "History as a System." In Philosophy and History: Essays Presented to Ernst Cassirer . Gloucester, MA, 1975. Pp. 313ff.
_______. 1939, 1942. Betrachtigen über die Technik and Der Intellektuelle und der andere . Reprinted, Stuttgart, 1949.
Paton, H. J. 1948. The Moral Law . London.
Rapp, F., ed. 1974. Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology . Dordrecht.
_______. 1979. "Technik als Mythos." In H. Poser, ed., Philosophie und Mythos . Berlin. Pp. 110-129.
_______. 1992. Fortschritt: Entwicklung und Sinngehalt einer philosophischen Idee . Darmstadt.
_______. 1994. Die Dynamik der modernen Welt: Eine Einführung in die Technikphilosophie . Hamburg.
Schumpeter, J. A. 1942. Kapitalismus, Sozialismus und Demokratie . Reprinted, Tubingen, 1993.
Whitehead, A. N. 1930. Science and the Modern World . Cambridge, MA.
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This site has a copyright all rights are reserved. You may link to this site.Welcome to our Knoles Cemetery Restoration Project site!
These orange stakes are unmarked graves. 239 of them! Two more were found after brush was cleared. Please help me find names for them, since the tombstones are gone. The latest burial makes 242.
In this website you will find links to other pages. If you find one that does not work please email me at [email protected] so I can fix it.
History of the Cleveland County, Pottawatomie County area:
After the Shawnee and Pottawatomie Indians chose their allotments the land was prepared for land opening. On 2 May 1890 the first census had only two townships in County 3, Norman and Noble. Then on 24 May 1890 the Cleveland County area was called Little River County, then temporarily it was called "Third County" or County 3. On 25 Aug 1890 the voters elected the county name as "Cleveland County". On 22 Sep 1891 Shawnee-Pottawatomie Land Run extended the eastern boundary of Cleveland County 6 1/2 miles. The northern boundary was moved south from the present day 59th street to 89th street of Oklahoma County. The results increased the size of the county by about 1/3. The Land Run of 1891 brought a flood of hopeful residents into the county. The signs for the original boundary for the Pottawatomie Reservation can still be seen when driving down Highway 9 and I-40.
The Historically significant Knoles Cemetery (formerly Pleasant Ridge Cemetery) is a one-acre cemetery, located on a small hill one tenth of a mile west of Harrah Newalla Road, and on the north side of Franklin Road, slightly west of the intersection at 19135 E. Franklin Road. The legal land description describes it in the southwest corner of the southeast corner of four acres prior to the current use of metes and bounds that describes land in the number of feet. The Knoles School/Church/Cemetery’s four acres is in the southeast corner of the 160 acres in southeast quarter in Section 2 Township 9 Range 1 East. Then the cemetery is in the southwest corner of these four acres.
Lillie Frazey, a baby of George W. Frazey is buried next to him and would have been buried in the cemetery on 25 Feb 1893. George and his family had been in the territory since 1887. His children may have been the first to be buried there though Mr. Knoles said that an old indian that lived at the river bottom, Pecan Creek and was the first to be buried there. This Indian might have been Chief Ellis. He died in 1883. Yet the Knoles family said that this Chief was a friend to Martin Knoles and Martin did not arrive in the area until 1893. Another person said that they remembered a tombstone dating back to the 1870's. This would have been the time that the land was being surveyed in preparation for the allotments and land opening so perhaps a surveyor died and was buried there. This tombstone is missing.
The Flint and Farnsworth families came to this area as missionaries and were teachers there. This information is found in the Advent Newspapers. Martin Knoles is first listed on the 1893 Tax Rolls for Little River but didn't file a land patent on his land until 1903. The Advent Review and Sabbath Herald had an article in 1894 stating that 5 people (Horace, Mary and Luther Flint, Ermina and Irvin Farnsworth) had started a Seventh Day Adventist School in Linden at 149th and Harrah Newalla Road , the other was Pleasant Ridge (Knoles) at Franklin and Harrah Newalla Road. This family had been Seventh Day Baptist and converted to Seventh Day Adventist. Ermina (Flint) Farnsworth was a school teacher and had taught Seventh Day Adventist School in Kansas in the 1880's. Her husband, Irvin E. Farnsworth, was the Pastor for the church when it began. In 1894, that same year, the Advent Review and Sabbath Herald wrote another article about a Seventh Day Adventist Church being started in the area. The church and school was called Pleasant Ridge and must have been started about the same time. Lena Knoles had a Methodist prayer book that was inscribed "Riverdale Sunday School, Linden 1894. It is possible that the schoolhouse was a school building Monday-Friday, Pleasant Ridge Church on Saturday and Riverdale on Sunday.
Martin Van Buren Knoles patented his 160 acres for $14.73, which somehow contained the school, church and cemetery, also some of the town of Linden in 1903. This was less than 10 cents and acre. He sold these four acres of land, after he gained it in his land patent, to the Pleasant Ridge School District # 65, on April 19, 1906 for $60.00. At this rate his $14 investment would have been worth $2,400.
The school was still called Pleasant Ridge in 1910 and remained so until about 1914. During the early 1900-1917 the school name could be found listed in various places as both Knoles and Pleasant Ridge.
Knoles Cemetery and School land is just south of the ghost town of Linden Township, which was located on the northeastern edge within Martin Van Buren Knoles' 160 acres of land. Linden’s town center was at SE 164th and Harrah Newalla Road. Another reference puts it at SE 134th and Harrah Newalla Road. Reading old newspapers Linden, and Pleasant Ridge sometimes are the same and other times the towns are listed separately. A few times the newspaper even listed the town as Knoles but this town name never caught on.
Knoles Cemetery is in the vicinity of the current towns of Newalla, and the community of Little Axe of Cleveland County, Oklahoma and Pink of Pottawatomie County. The Pottawatomie County line is one mile east, with the old Pottawatomie County line (Reservartion boundary) six miles west. Knoles Cemetery is eleven miles south of Newalla, eight miles northeast of Little Axe, and three miles northwest of Pink and 18 miles from Norman. It lies four miles east of Lake Thunderbird which was put in in the 1960-1970's. In the 1890's the cemetery was within the Pottawatomie County area. One of the Indian burial grounds for the Shawnee Indians was where Lake Thunderbird is today. It has been moved to a newly created burial ground (in 1970's) AST Cemetery though many of the Indians are buried on their allotments all over this area. Some are said to have been buried at Knoles. Before restoration began there were piles of logs about 3-4 feet long laid widthwise and 6-8 feet long laid lenghtwise. In between there was soil. This is the way the Shawnee Indians buried their dead. When the members of the tribe were asked they denied that any of their tribe could be buried at Knoles even before the creation of the AST Cemetery even though Martin Knoles stated his Indian friend was buried there. At the time it was not known that this was the way that the Shawnee Indians buried their dead so the rotted wood logs were cleaned up for easier mowing.
The Linden community was established shortly after the land run of 1889 and the post office of Linden was established on October 17, 1893. The Linden Post Office was annexed into the Newalla Post Office and discontinued January 24, 1906 effective February 14, 1906. The first Post Master was James L. Swailes. Mr. Swailes also owned the Merchantile where Fred Knoles was a clerk. Fred was the son of Martin Knoles. If Pleasant Ridge had a Post Office the information has not been discovered.
The name Pleasant Ridge cemetery is found in government documents titled “Headstones provided for Union Civil War Veterans 1879-1903”, attached to George W. Frazey’s name, which is a Civil War Veteran that was interred in the Knoles Cemetery on 26 Jun 1896. An unknown researcher also has ancestors of his family listed as buried in Linden. The 1890 Veteran’s Census and several of the censuses in the 1900’s list the area as Little River, not Linden or Pleasant Ridge. One map shows the area of Little River to contain all of 9-1E, but some of the early tax rolls list it as Norman.
Knoles Cemetery (aka Pleasant Ridge Cemetery) is the only cemetery within at least eight miles in Cleveland County and within four miles crossing into Pottawatomie County. The Advent Review and Sabbath Herald stated that the area was full of Germans, Absentee Shawnee Indians and Pottawatomie Indians. One portion of this Little River area on the 1892 Tax Rolls was nearly exclusively Indians. The Little Jim's, Pecan's, Hale's, Wall's and many others. The Indians were encouraged to give up their Indian ways and "take up the white man ways."
Two people of the Linden Community were inventors. Lucinda Wilson was a woman inventor from Linden. In 1903 Lucinda and Charles Wilson patented the “Cotton Picking Bag. Charles Wilson patented the envelope in 1904.
Martin Van Buren Knoles was a Representative of the Shawnee or Pottawatomie Nation appointed by the Oklahoma Governor and accompanied the Shawnee or Pottawatomie Chief to Washington D.C. for Indian Bureau business. His granddaughter said he was an interpreter for them. It is said that the Pottawatomie Chief met one of his wive in Washinton D.C. Martin Knoles was also a delegate for 9NR1E to the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention and voted whether Oklahoma became a state in 1907. Martin Knoles participated in the elections with colorful Oklahomans like Peter Hanraty, Charles N. Haskell and William “Alfalfa Bill” Murray, the Convention President. Martin Knoles and his family are buried at Knoles Cemetery. He was frequently call upon to serve as a juror
In 1910, a 15-year-old boy, Luscian King Truscott Jr, was a student at Stella School, who lived in the Little River Community . His father was a physician in the area. In 1912, he wrote a letter to Fred Knoles asking to teach at Knoles School. He was given the job to teach under another teacher and roomed with the Fred and Sarah Knoles family. Later, in 1917 he joined the Army and was accepted at West Point. He became a Four Star General, who successfully commanded the Third Infantry Division, VI Corps, U.S. Fifteenth Army during World War II, succeeding General Patton.
The Knoles School (District # 65) functioned from 1893 until its annexation on June 3, 1947. The schoolhouse was built several times over the years. Clifford Moody wrote in his biography of the first schoolhouse being a log structure with one window and a dirt floor that was latter connected to the new schoolhouse and a family with the last name of Rogers lived in it. He mentions several of the dying. The community and school consisted of Whites, Shawnee and Pottawatomie Indians and “colored” people as stated on the school censuses. Knoles School together was not yet segregated.
Knoles school along with Red Hill was annexed into the Stella School District 19-20, and then on June 17, 1962 all of these schools were annexed into Little Axe School District 70 giving any attached land (and cemeteries) to Little Axe. The Knoles School building was sold in 1952 when the three acres of school land was sold to the C.O. Wilson's Family which was approved by his relative W.A. Wilson who sat on the C-I School Board, but a map shortly after that shows the land belonging to W.M. Wilson. It is said that the school building is in one of several places, either in Norman or sold it to a black man for a home that lived up Harrah Newalla Road, or to a man that lived south on Harrah Newalla Road that used it as a barn and painted it pink. A transaction for the sale of school land/building has not been found nor has the notice announcing the sale as required by law that the school system was selling any school property. The building from 1952 has not been found. Mr. Floyd Wilson built his house near this building site to use the school well. A 1970's map shows the school land as 3 acres. All county schools had cellars but even in this area of tornado alley, Wilson filled in a not leaking cellar. He stated he filled it in with rocks and junk he didn't need. I bet when the large tornado came through in 2013 he wished he hadn't done that. Why would you fill in a good, dry, nonleaking celler in an area prone to tornados.
The Knoles Cemetery deed consists of one acre. The School was on three acres. In 2009 the one-acre cemetery had portions of rows of graves visible. There are many more no longer seen and some extend under Wilson's drive and in his yard and horse pasture. Ground Penetrating Radar was able to show the locations of the 239 graves no longer marked. Hope still exist that someday these graves will be marked with names of the dead. Cement blocks were donated by an anonymous donor to remark these graves and tombstones are being remade to replace the missing ones.
In 2013 Wilson's daughter, Terri said that when she would visit her father in the summer as a young girl, the children were often sent out to clean up the cemetery to occupy their time. She said there were many more tombstones. One summer when she arrived the tombstones were knocked over and broken. She asked what had happened to them and Wilson told her that a tornado destroyed them. (though not their home or the trees in the cemetery.) The children were sent to put them back together and set them back up. The following summer she returned and most of them were gone. Again he told Terri that a tornado again destroyed the cemetery and the tombstones were all gone, taken away by the tornado. The website by NOAA lists every tornado that has hit Oklahoma since statehood down to the nearest intersection and no tornado is listed as damaging Knoles Cemetery or Pleasant Ridge Cemetery. Terri was taken back by this information, understanding that her father had not been telling her the truth and that he in fact had caused the destruction.
Knoles Cemetery’s legend is that there are a lot of Shawnee and Pottawatomie Indians of the community buried scattered throughout the Knoles Cemetery, including an Indian Chief. This Chief is said to have been a friend to Martin Knoles, so if this is true he had to have died between 1893-1917. It is said that some of the Indian graves were marked with fieldstones of various repeating shapes. The fieldstones were removed by the Wilson's and piled up on the side of the cemetery or buried along with some traditional tombstones. The Knoles family saw this destruction in the 1980's. When returned after running home to get a camera the tombstones were gone. Floyd and Sharon Wilson stated the tombstones were removed so that they could mow easier, though they were not asked or hired to mow. Some of these fieldstones were found off the side of the cemetery. One of the footstones found was covered in asphalt.
The legend of the Indian Chief was passed down to the Knoles descendants that, in the northwest corner of the east half of the cemetery was a burial mound of the Indian Chief. Logs were then seen stacked in a pyramidal shape encompassed this mound. The logs are now gone. This is similar to the way the Shawnee Indians graves are. The bordering neighbor, Mr. Wilson, has since leveled this mound and dug into it. Dirt has since been brought in by the caretaker in an attempt to fill this grave back in. The Wilson's dump truck was parked in this area for years and he frequently graded the cemetery to remove soil and sell it. The graves to Wilson were only worth the dirt they were buried in. Mr. Wilson stated he filled in the school cellar. Community legend is that when the neighbor filled in the cellar of the Knoles School, they filled it with tombstones from the cemetery. Several Knoles family members remember seeing them stacked up inside the Wilson's fence. Floyd stated that the 1 foot thick walls of the cellar did not leak, he just had junk to get rid of. Why would you fill in a dry cellar in Oklahoma. In 2013 a tornado came very close to his house. I am sure he was wishing he could use the cellar.
A metal detector was used in the cemetery and three very torn up, rusted, metal grave markers were found buried an inch or two under the dirt. One is thought to be the marker for Floyd Dickinson who died between 1960-1968. The I.O.O.F Cemetery verified the manufactured time frame of the marker as the correct time frame. Another has been found and it is much older. The two of the temporary markers documented by the WPA in 1936 were not found. It is not known if Mr. Dickinson is a WWI, WWII or Korean War Veteran. There is a WWII Veteran with his name and living in the general area of Pottawatomie County listed on Ancestry.com. The Dickinson's were friends with the actor James Garner, and were related to the Davis family who married the Knoles and are linked to my family. One of the Dickenson's was a Justice of the Peace, another served on the school board at District 66. A few of these metal markers are seen on a video made by the Knoles family in the 1980's.
The Doolin Family that was related to the outlaw Bill Doolin, lived in Little River at Section 21-R9N1E and in 10-1E, and is documented in the Norman Transcript as harboring Bill Doolin while he was sick in the 1890's. The neighboring Pottawatomie County was well known at that time for some of the most violent saloons of the era. The outlaws would use Pottawatomie County as a hiding spot because lawmen were not allowed to chase them into Indian Territory. John Womack wrote that Violet Springs had had so many gunshots fired that the shells covered the ground outside the saloon like gravel.
There are at least three Civil War Veterans buried at Knoles Cemetery: George W. Frazey, Company B 14th Iowa Infantry, died 23 July 1896, Horace Flint, Company K 13th Wisconsin Infantry, died January 30, 1907 and Martin Van Buren Knoles, Company A 152nd Regiment Illinois Infantry, died January 1, 1917. These men and their families evidentially migrated to the Oklahoma Territory. There may be many more veterans buried at Knoles. There are forty-nine veterans listed on the 1890 Veteran’s Census. Of these only half of their graves have been located in other cemeteries or documentation that state their location have been found. The other approximately 25 grave locations have not been located at all, nor has documentation stating the graves location. They could possibly be in this cemetery since they lived in the area. Several books about the veterans grave locations have been written but it is based on information given to the author by families so if the family did not submit information then the veterans grave information did not make it into the book. It is suspected that the records for this cemetery were destroyed when the Knoles School/Church was sold. Although Wilson liked to tease that he had them and would not give them to me, or he would tell of various different fates. The Oklahoma Conference for the Seventh Day Adventist are looking through their archives. The local newspaper for this era might lend clues to their locations.
After the Knoles Schoolhouse was sold with three acres of its land by the School Board (upon which Wilson's family member served), the cemetery was retained by the Cleveland County School System and cared for by Sarah (Alls) Knoles, the daughter-in-law of Martin Van Buren Knoles and Melena "Lena" (Davis) Knoles. Sarah formed an association for the cemetery and would insist that people come out once a month and clean up the cemetery then the clean up crew would have picnic on the cemetery grounds afterward. Sarah and Fred’s baby daughter, Jennie Vietta Knoles was buried there in 1898 and another that died without being named, its birth and death date is unknown. Sarah's daughter walked through the cemetery and wrote down a few names, also some of the information was taken from Sarah's bible. Other canvassings (WPA, Spaulding, Pickard, etc ) were done at various times but none of them contain all of the names buried at Knoles Cemetery.
After Sarah’s death in 1968, the cemetery fell into disrepair. The school did not maintain it. A member of the Cleveland County School Board was also a family member of the neighbor bordering the cemetery. The School Board Member/family member sold three of the four acres to Mr. Wilson, excluding the cemetery from the sale. Little Axe School retained the cemetery and leased the oil and gas rights to Henry Brendle for a number of years. Little Axe School had forgotten they owned it over time due to staffing changes, retirements and records being sent to storage. The Cleveland County Court Clerks Office, under Helen Jansing, had purged the court files, discarding the school records that showed the school land annexations. These records were tossed from the second story window of the Cleveland County Courthouse. An employee of another department found piled on the sidewalk and took them to John Womack who combed through them and wrote four books. Some of these records were turned over to the Cleveland County Genealogical Society.
Overtime, no one knew who owned the cemetery and no one maintained it. The bordering neighbor, Mr. Floyd Wilson, took advantage of this, running off anyone who came to the cemetery, stating he owned it, it was his front yard or it was his family cemetery. He soon started removing tombstones, and encroaching his fence. There was once wrought iron fencing with a large arched gate that had the cemetery and schools name on it that stood at the northeast corner of the cemetery. This fence and arch are gone. A new one was commission in 2013 by Lisa Westbrook. It was built by Donnie Bowman and his nephew Dalton.
Wilson's horses and farm equipment were on the west half of the cemetery where his fence encroached the cemetery toward the east. This neighbor used the east half of the cemetery as a location to discard his trash, wood, old fence panels and burned electric poles and storage of more farm equipment. This led people of the community to think he owned this land, making them less willing to dispute the destruction. He also admitted to cutting into the cemetery to change the location of the school drive and installing a new drive for his home he built in the 1976. Note that at this eastern edge where the cemetery drops off are graves that are the width of adult graves but only a half as long as they should be. There are six graves under his drive at the top of the drive which is at the top of the hill. They were marked with red x's, orange paint or concrete blocks. The graves that were on the hill at what is the bottom of his drive are now gone. The original school drive started on Harrah Newalla about 175 feet north of Franklin and went west across 200 feet and then turned north. This bypassed the graves. The widened area of his current drive is where the old drive turned to go north. By moving the drive he removed many graves. Portions of the original drive can be seen on google earths history. Mr. Wilson states there can't be graves under his drive, he removed too much of the dirt. He also removed the dirt that was in the one acre east of the cemetery. A man that use to walk to Knoles School when he was a student there stated that there was a trail that ran from the corner of Franklin and Harrah Newalla catty corner up to the school. On both side of this trail were graves. This area has been graded down six feet by Mr. Wilson and the dirt (which contained graves) sold.
Mr. Durkee, who was hired by the county to survey the area for the purpose of widening Franklin Road, performed a survey in 1964. He had also surveyed this area in 1929. This area hadn't been surveyed since the establishment of the metes and bounds before 1889, but Mr. Durkee's family had been the neighbor to George W. Frazey in 1890. He mistakenly read the school deed, which stated there were four acres of school land with one of these four acres being used as a cemetery. He measured it as five acres total, four as school land and one acre being used as a cemetery. This mistake allowed a larger measurement for the three acres then it should have, shifting the cemetery to the west, running the eastern property line down the middle of the each of third row of at least sixty-seven graves, dividing each grave in half, giving the adjoining neighbor the bottom half of each of these graves in one row and all of two other rows. This miss measurement also pushed the cemetery south. The Durkee survey gave thirty-three feet of easement on the south end that contained graves to the county for the widening of Franklin Road. His survey showed that Knoles Cemetery was there and that the easement would take up some of the graves in the cemetery. These graves were pre 1937 and possibly as early as the 1887, when Franklin Road was just a wagon trail and before easements existed. The road widening should have shifted to the south or the graves should have been relocated with the supervision of the Oklahoma State Department of Health. The Oklahoma Department of Health was never contacted by the County to get permission to move these graves, nor was the school and no notice was filed at the county level.
In the late 1970’s Franklin Road was widened according to the easements established by the Durkee survey and at least 8 graves of each of the 30 rows of graves were graded away. One known grave that was graded away was, Luther A. Flint, my 2nd great grandfather, the son of the Civil War Veteran, Horace R. Flint. Luther was a carpenter and helped to build Highgate College that become Griffin Sanitorium and other Norman structures. These graves where scattered down Franklin Road. Several pieces of tombstones have been found but they are not the pieces with names. The south end of the cemetery was slowly eroding and in need of stabilization so that the graves that were dangerously perched on the edge didn't become exposed or fall off the edge. The County Commissioner George Skinner was contacted and asked to build a retention wall. This request was denied. One of the graves in danger belonged to the Civil War Veteran, George Frazey who was a body guard for the body of the assassinated President Lincoln. A request to bring dirt into the easement to shore up the wash area was also denied.
Wilson and his daughter both said that Donald Gilson, his step son would take bones that would wash up after a rain in the area graded by the county to school for show and tell. When asked if the bones were returned to the cemetery, Wilson said he threw them away. In 2013 the endangered graves were disinterred, moved and re-inturred after a court order was obtained. After the relocation the wash area was leveled into a gentle slope and sodded.
In February of 2011, the property lines of the cemetery were repined according to the Durkee survey showing the atrocity of the misplaced boundary line, further showing endangerment of the cemetery that borders land with the destructive neighbor. A request was made to survey all the way back to the original 1873 survey and the 1893 land deed. The surveyor was only willing to go back to the 1964 survey.
Of those documented buried there, only eight original tombstones still exist. Harry C. Stallings in 1968 and James and Naomi Pickard in 1992 along with the many times the Knoles Family documented the tombstones visually surveyed the cemetery. Over time the names on their list of those tombstones still in existence decreased as tombstones disappeared. Lisa Westbrook is in the process of replacing the missing tombstones, trimming trees, cleaning up the cemetery and replacing the fencing.
Research is still being done to find names of people who might be buried at Knoles Cemetery (Pleasant Ridge). While work is being done, longstanding residents of the community would stop by to see what was going on. Many state that they never knew a cemetery was there since nearly all signs of it were gone, trees had grown up shielding the few remaining tombstones and the Wilson's would run people off the cemetery telling them it was his front yard. The Wilson's would call the sheriff several times over this. People were surprised to see the cemetery being cleaned up. Compliments and encouragement comes along weekly.
When street signs directing to the cemetery were replaced, Wilson would call the county and complain, demanding that the signs be removed. The county refused his request. He did not want visitors and it was his attempt to prevent them.
A string grid was laid in attempt to plot the rows and graves that the Pickards had plotted and filed at the Cleveland County Genealogical Society and the Oklahoma Historical Center. Little yellow daffodils and purple irises began to peek up, giving a hint of where some people are buried, falling perfectly within the grid. Purple violets spring up where the makeshift tombstones are announcing that the location of the marker is correct. The ground radar was able to identify one metal casket, two vaults and one large buried structure like a vault or tombstone that was about the size of three graves. There are several babies graves and one of interest that has two adults buried close together and one infant in the middle and on top of the two adults. One grave is a very large grave that the ground radar company said is a very, very large persons grave near Wilson's drive. The graves from the 1930's collapsed in 2011 announcing the date of their creation. This can be verified by graves in the county that have dated tombstones from the early 1930's. Those graves collapsed in 2011 year also.
The graves in the east half of the cemetery are very close together, indicating very early burials without a casket or very thin caskets. The graves in the west half are spread further apart, yet still in rows. Wilson once said the graves are that of animals and painted this on the side of his barn. When told that an archeology/anthropology would excavate them and if the graves were of animals (cows, horses etc. ) then burying them in the cemetery was illegal and Wilson could be prosecuted. Then if they were found to be human than he could be prosecuted for desecrating a human cemetery. Either way, he could be in trouble. If the over 25 graves in the west side were indeed animal then he was a bad farmer to loose so many all at once so that they could be buried in groups. These graves are not the size of horses or cows, they are the size of humans. When he was told he could be prosecuted either way he appeared to look panicked.
After the tornado of the last week of May 2013, a small tree fell in the storm. Two foot stones were found buried under the tree. They belonged to Jennie Vietta Knoles and Arminitia Asher Crouch.
A water well was drilled and electricity for a light was put in. This allowed a columbarium to be built. It is 6 feet tall and about 170 feet long. It has 84 niches for crematory remains and has room for nearly 500.
The Knoles Cemetery is all that is left of the school, the community of Linden and Pleasant Ridge and most of Little River. It is the final resting place for people of the community, Veterans, Native Americans, Pioneers, Boomers and Sooners of the Land Run of 1889.
In April of 2013 Knoles Cemetery became active again with the burial of Christopher Stout.
I am adding links to photos for my Picasa site. Click here for photos The column to the left is a link to more information. If you have anything to add, or corrections, please email me at [email protected]
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When Flu Pandemics Hit, Closing Schools Can Slow Spread
Everyone knows that when your kids get the flu, they stay home from school.
But what does it take to justify closing the school down entirely? That's a question we should probably answer before the next big pandemic hits.
At one point during the swine flu outbreak in 2009, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said, "The potential benefits of preemptively dismissing students from school are often outweighed by negative consequences," such as disruption of classes and hassles for parents.
But a study of swine flu transmission in Alberta, Canada, published this week in Annals of Internal Medicine, lends weight to the benefits of school closure. Researchers compared rates of new diagnoses of swine flu from the beginning of the pandemic, in April 2009, through summer vacation and into the following school year.
"When schools closed [for summer], there was a huge reduction in the amount of transmission among school-age children," David Earn, professor of mathematics at McMaster University and lead author of the study, tells Shots.
But that's not all. The end of the school year caused a big drop in transmission among other age groups, too. Earn says rates for all ages dropped by at least 50 percent, and "probably a lot more than that." School children, in other words, were a major driver of flu transmission to the entire population.
Earn says summer vacation kept the pandemic manageable until a vaccine was produced, which took until October 2009. There was still a spike in flu cases that fall, but having kids out of school for two months "bought enough time that the vaccine was ready before a lot of people became infected," he says.
His team also used a computer simulation to model what would have happened if schools had remained in session all summer. It predicted a slight drop in transmission due to seasonal effects of temperature and humidity, but would have left a lot more people infected — essentially giving the virus a running start into the autumn flu season.
In the U.S., the CDC took a cautious approach at the start of the outbreak, recommending that any school with a confirmed case of swine flu close for up to 14 days. Within a week it relaxed that guidance, saying local authorities should weigh the benefits of preventing new illnesses against the costs of school closures.
The CDC's guidelines for the current flu season don't say much about closures, instead saying schools should "focus on early identification of ill students and staff, staying home when ill, and good cough and hand hygiene etiquette."
Earn says that makes sense. "Nobody's thinking about closing schools during a normal flu season," he says. But "if you're faced with a pandemic in the future...then closing schools for a long period may be worth it."
In an email, a CDC representative said the agency is studying the impact flu-related closures had on families, and is working on updated guidance for schools.
But in the event of another pandemic, she wrote, "Any decisions would be based on the individual characteristics of the pandemic (severity, how it's dispersed, etc) and the latest scientific evidence of the time regarding benefits of school closure."
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Henry Gray (18251861). Anatomy of the Human Body. 1918.
has a vertical diameter of about 5 mm. The free or ciliary margins of these plates are thick and straight. The attached or orbital margins are connected to the circumference of the orbit by the orbital septum. The lateral angles are attached to the zygomatic bone by the lateral palpebral raphé. The medial angles of the two plates end at the lacus lacrimalis, and are attached to the frontal process of the maxilla by the medial palpebral ligament (page 381).
The orbital septum (septum orbitale; palpebral ligament) is a membranous sheet, attached to the edge of the orbit, where it is continuous with the periosteum. In the upper eyelid it blends by its peripheral circumference with the tendon of the Levator palpebræ superioris and the superior tarsus, in the lower eyelid with the inferior tarsus. Medially it is thin, and, becoming separated from the medial palpebral ligament, is fixed to the lacrimal bone immediately behind the lacrimal sac. The septum is perforated by the vessels and nerves which pass from the orbital cavity to the face and scalp. The eyelids are richly supplied with blood.
FIG. 892 Front of left eye with eyelids separated to show medial canthus. (See enlarged image)
The Tarsal Glands (glandulæ tarsales [Meibomi]; Meibomian glands) (Fig. 895).The tarsal glands are situated upon the inner surfaces of the eyelids, between the tarsi and conjunctiva, and may be distinctly seen through the latter on everting the eyelids, presenting an appearance like parallel strings of pearls. There are about thirty in the upper eyelid, and somewhat fewer in the lower. They are imbedded in grooves in the inner surfaces of the tarsi, and correspond in length with the breadth of these plates; they are, consequently, longer in the upper than in the lower eyelid. Their ducts open on the free magins of the lids by minute foramina.
FIG. 893 Sagittal section through the upper eyelid. (After Waldeyer.) a. Skin. b. Orbicularis oculi. b. Marginal fasciculus of Orbicularis (ciliary bundle). c. Levator palpebræ. d. Conjunctiva. e. Tarsus. f. Tarsal gland. g. Sebaceous gland. h. Eyelashes. i. Small hairs of skin. Sweat glands. k. Posterior tarsal glands. (See enlarged image)
Structure.The tarsal glands are modified sebaceous glands, each consisting of a single straight tube or follicle, with numerous small lateral diverticula. The tubes are supported by a basement membrane, and are lined at their mouths by stratified epithelium; the deeper parts of the tubes and the lateral offshoots are lined by a layer of polyhedral cells.
The conjunctiva is the mucous membrane of the eye. It lines the inner surfaces of the eyelids or palpebræ, and is reflected over the forepart of the sclera and cornea.
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About This Course
Learn the key concepts of Structured Query Language (SQL), and gain a solid working knowledge of this powerful and universal database programming language.
In this course, you'll learn about the basic structure of relational databases and how to read and write simple and complex SQL statements and advanced data manipulation techniques. First, you'll learn about the traditional database structure, the structure and history of the relational database, and what structured query language (SQL) is and how it relates to the relational-database structure.
Next, you'll discover how to use SQL to filter retrieved data and how to use SQL to sort and retrieve data from tables. You'll learn how to reformat retrieved data with calculated fields and how to merge columns and create alternate names for columns. You'll also learn how to gather significant statistics from data using aggregate functions, and you'll see how to extract data from multiple tables simultaneously using joins and subqueries. In addition, you'll learn how to manipulate data using the INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements.
We'll also cover how to use SQL to create and maintain tables, and you'll learn how to create and use views to simplify complex queries, summarize data, and manipulate data stored in tables. You'll discover how transaction processing, constraints, and indexes are implemented in SQL. And finally, you'll discover how stored procedures, triggers, and cursors are implemented in SQL.
By the end of this course, you'll have a solid working knowledge of structured query language. You'll feel confident in your ability to write SQL queries to create tables; retrieve data from single or multiple tables; delete, insert, and update data in a database; and gather significant statistics from data stored in a database.
Course Revised February 2016
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Several high school students have been awarded top honors from the Siemens Foundation's annual high school science competition for their science projects. Topics ranged in everything from Alzheimer’s to cancer to motion technology.
The competition comes down to six individual projects and six team projects. The top team prize went to two students, Cassee Cain and Ziyuan Liu, from Oak Ridge, Tennessee for their research in which they used gaming technology to analyze the motion in walking. The 17-year-olds will share the $100,000 scholarship prize.
The top individual prize went to Angela Zhang, 17, for research she called the "Swiss army knife of cancer treatments" because of the accuracy in which it targets cancer tumors.
According to AP, Zhang designed a particle that improves on current cancer treatments because it delivers a drug directly to tumor cells without affecting non-cancerous cells around it.
She will receive a $100,000 scholarship for herself. AP reports that Zhang, a senior of Monta Vista High School in California was inspired to pursue the project by her great grandfather’s struggle with liver cancer and her grandfather’s death from lung cancer.
She has said, "I asked, 'Why does this happen. Why does cancer cause death? What are we doing to fix this and what can I do to help?'"
The team scholarship winners got their inspiration from motion detecting video game technology used in dance and fitness games. The seniors from Oak Ridge High hope their software, which analyzes the way a person walks, can ultimately be used to help those who wear prosthetic limbs improve their walk. Many who wear prosthetic limbs have to go to labs for that kind of technology, but this project aims to bring medical help into living rooms.
This is the thirteenth year for The Siemens Foundation’s annual science competition. The advancements are years from being tried on actual patients.
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Mathematician: If you have a function f(x) and a function k(x,s) then you can (as long as the product of f(x) times k(x,s) is integrable on the set X) always form another function of a new variable s as follows:
We have just “transformed” the function f(x) into the function F(s) via an “integral transform.” Why the hell would anyone want to do this? Well, the function F(s) is sometimes easier to work with than f(x) itself, or tells us interesting information about f(x) that it would be hard to figure out in other ways.
Of course, the interpretation of this new function F(s) will depend on what the function k(x,s) is. Choosing k(x,s) = 0, for example, will mean that F(s) will always be zero. This is pretty boring and tells us nothing about f(x). Whereas choosing will give us the sth moment of f(x) whenever f(x) is a probability density function. For s=1 this is just the mean of the distribution f(x). Moments can be really handy.
A particularly interesting class of functions k(x,s) are ones that produce invertible transformations (which implies that the transform destroys no information contained in the original function). This will occur when there exists a function K(x,s) (the inverse of k(x,s)) and a set S such that
that undoes the original transformation (or, at least, undoes it for some large class of functions f(x)).
Whenever this is the case, we can view our operation as changing the domain from x space to s space. Each function f of x becomes a function F of s that we can convert back to f later if we so choose to. Hence, we’re getting a new way of looking at our original function!
It turns out that the Fourier transform, which is one of the most useful and magical of all integral transforms, is invertible for a large class of functions. We can construct this transformation by setting:
which leads to a very nice interpretation for the variable s. We call F(s) in this case the “Fourier transform of f”, and we call s the “frequency”. Why is s frequency? Well, we have Euler’s famous formula:
so modifying s modifies the oscillatory frequency of cos(xs) and sin(xs) and therefore of k(x,s). There is another reason to call s frequency though. If x is time, then f(x) can be thought of as a waveform in time, and in this case |F(s)| happens to represent the strength of the frequency s in the original signal. You know those bars that bounce up and down on stereo systems? They take the waveforms of your music, which we call f(x), then apply (a discrete version of) the Fourier transform to produce F(s). They then display for you (what amounts to) the strength of these frequencies in the original sound, which is |F(s)|. This is essentially like telling you how strong different notes are in the music sound wave.
Below are a few other neat examples of integral transform.
The Laplace transform:
This is handy for making certain differential equations easy to solve (just apply this transformation to both sides of your equation!)
The Hilbert transform:
This has the property that (under certain conditions) it transforms a harmonic function into its harmonic conjugate, elucidating the relationship between harmonic functions and holomorphic functions, and therefore connecting problems in the plane with problems in complex analysis.
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1. Describe Brian's attitude when leaving for Canada.
2. What makes Brian hook the hatchet to his belt?
3. How does Brian feel when he flies the plane for the first time?
4. How does Brian know what is happening to the pilot?
5. What are Brian's choices after the pilot dies?
6. Why does the plan to reach help through the radio fail?
7. Explain why Brian compares flying the plane to his home life.
8. Why is flying the plane the only option in the first few hours?
This section contains 1,246 words
(approx. 5 pages at 300 words per page)
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A Triall Of Subscription By Way Of A Preface Vnto Certaine Subscribers; And, Reasons For Lesse Rigour Against Non-Subscribers. Both Modestly Written; That Neither Should Offend. (1599)by William Bradshaw
EARLY HISTORY OF RELIGION. Imagine holding history in your hands. Now you can. Digitally preserved and previously accessible only through libraries as Early English Books Online, this rare material is now available in single print editions. Thousands of books written between 1475 and 1700 can be delivered to your doorstep in individual volumes of high quality historical reproductions. From the beginning of recorded history we have looked to the heavens for inspiration and guidance. In these early religious documents, sermons, and pamphlets, we see the spiritual impact on the lives of both royalty and the commoner. We also get insights into a clergy that was growing ever more powerful as a political force. This is one of the world's largest collections of religious works of this type, revealing much about our interpretation of the modern church and spirituality.
The below data was compiled from various identification fields in the bibliographic record of this title. This data is provided as an additional tool in helping to insure edition identification:
A triall of subscription by way of a preface vnto certaine subscribers; and, reasons for lesse rigour against non-subscribers. Both modestly written; that neither should offend.
Thirty-nine Articles Bradshaw, William, 1571-1618.
By William Bradshaw.
Place of publication and printer's name from STC.
Some print show-through; some leaves stained and closely cropped.
, 28 p.
[Middelburg : R. Schilders], 1599.
STC (2nd ed.) / 24273
English Reproduction of the original in the Union Theological Seminary (New York, N. Y.) Library
This book represents an authentic reproduction of the text as printed by the original publisher. While we have attempted to accurately maintain the integrity of the original work, there are sometimes problems with the original work or the micro-film from which the books were digitized. This can result in errors in reproduction. Possible imperfections include missing and blurred pages, poor pictures, markings and other reproduction issues beyond our control. Because this work is culturally important, we have made it available as part of our commitment to protecting, preserving and promoting the world's literature.
- EEBO Editions, ProQuest
- Publication date:
- Product dimensions:
- 0.10(w) x 9.69(h) x 7.44(d)
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| 0.903359 | 571 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Bobbi Abate is an Infectious Disease Practitioner and has been observing infectious diseases for years. Tonight, talk of a dangerous virus has caught her attention.
On Thuirsday the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention alerted the public about "Adenovirus 14." But Bobbi says the virus is nothing new.
"Adenovirus was first identified in the 1950s," she says. "It's been around for a while."
The CDC describes it as a mutated version of the common cold. It's reportedly killed 10 people and hospitalized at least 53 in the last 18 months.
Health officials say there is simply no reason to panic if you do become ill during this time of year. The Winnebago County Health Department tells us that over 200 thousand Americans are hospitalized due to pnemonia and flu symptoms every year.
No serious cases have been reported since spring, but fears of the killer cold are arriving just as those of the MRSA "superbug" fade away.
However, the tools of prevention are the same...it's all about washing our hands.
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| 0.976071 | 225 | 2.640625 | 3 |
, Ptol 2.6.45), a fort or castle of the Gruii or Gravii, in Hispania Tarraconensis, E. of Limia, and on the road from Bracara to Asturica. (Itin. Ant.
It is called Tyde by Pliny (4.20. s. 34
), and according to an ancient tradition it was the seat of an Aetolian colony under Diomed; a tale probably occasioned by the similarity of its name to that of Tydeus. (Sil. Ital. 3.367
; Plin. l.c.;
Avien. Descr. Orb.
It is the modern Tuy.
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| 0.851739 | 147 | 2.859375 | 3 |
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This is an activity associated with activities during Solar Week, a twice-yearly event in March and October during which classrooms are able to interact with scientists studying the Sun. Outside of Solar Week, information, activities, and resources are archived and available online at any time. Learners will use SOHO spacecraft images of a coronal mass ejection and tracing paper to measure and then calculate the speed of the coronal mass ejection. This activity is scheduled to occur during Wednesday of Solar Week.
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| 0.976397 | 106 | 3.171875 | 3 |
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